H SM ,v *ii
THE
ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
ELEVENTH EDITION
FIRST edition, published in three volumes, 1768 — 1771.
SECOND ten 1777—1784.
THIRD eighteen 1788—1797.
FOURTH twenty 1801 — 1810.
FIFTH twenty 1815—1817.
SIXTH twenty 1823 — 1824.
SEVENTH twenty-one 1830—1842.
EIGHTH twenty-two 1853—1860.
NINTH twenty-five 1875—1889.
TENTH ninth edition and eleven
supplementary volumes, 1902 — 1903.
ELEVENTH „ published in twenty-nine volumes, 1910 — 1911.
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in all countries subscribing to the
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THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS
of the
UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE
All rights reserved
THE
ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
DICTIONARY
OF
ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL
INFORMATION
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLUME XIV
HUSBAND to ITALIC
Cambridge, England:
at the University Press
New York, 35 West 3 and Street
1910
Copyright, in the United States of America, 1910,
by
The Encyclopaedia Britannica Company
INITIALS USED IN VOLUME XIV. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL
CONTRIBUTORS,! WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE
ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED.
A. Bo.* AUGUSTE BOUDINHON, D.D., D.C.L. f Index Librorum Pro-
Professor of Canon Law at the Catholic University of Paris. Honorary Canon of H hibitorum
Paris. Editor of the Canonists contemporain.
A. Cy. ARTHUR ERNEST COWLEY, M.A., LiTT.D. / Ibn Gabirol;
Sub-Librarian of the Bodleian Library, Oxford. Fellow of Magdalen College. I Inscriptions: Semitic.
A. C. G. ALBERT CHARLES LEWIS GOTTHILF GUNTHER, M. A., M.D., PH.D., F.R.S.
Keeper of Zoological Department, British Museum, 1875-1895. Gold Medallist,
Royal Society, 1878. Author of Catalogues of Colubrine Snakes, Batrachia Salientia, -I Ichthyology (in part).
and Fishes in the British Museum; Reptiles of British India; Fishes of Zanzibar;
Reports on the " Challenger " Fishes; &c.
A. E. G.* REV. ALFRED ERNEST GARVIE, M.A., D.D. f
Principal of New College, Hampstead. Member of the Board of Theology and the I Immortality;
Board of Philosophy, London University. Author of Studies in the inner Life\ Inspiration.
of Jesus; &c. I
A. E. H. L. AUGUSTUS EDWARD HOUGH LOVE, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. I"
Sedleian Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of Oxford. Hon. I r»ifini*«cim»i r«i»ninc.
Fellow of Queen's College, Oxford ; formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge. 1 nal ^aloulus-
Secretary to the London Mathematical Society. I
A. F. C. ALEXANDER FRANCIS CHAMBERLAIN, A.M., PH.D. I"
Assistant Professor of Anthropology, Clark University, Worcester, Massachusetts. I Indians North American.
Member of American Antiquarian Society; Hon. Member of American Folk-lore 1
Society. Author of The Child and Childhood in Folk Thought.
A. G. MAJOR ARTHUR GEORGE FREDERICK GRIFFITHS (d. 1908). I"
H.M. Inspector of Prisons, 1878-1896. Author of The Chronicles of Newgate;] Identification.
Secrets of the Prison House ; &c. L
A. Ge. SIR ARCHIBALD GEIKIE, LL.D. / ummn
See the biographical article, GEIKIE, SIR A. \ "
A. Go.* REV. ALEXANDER GORDON, M.A. f ...
Lecturer on Church History in the University of Manchester. \ luuminatl-
A. G. G. SIR ALFRED GEORGE GREENHILL, M.A., F.R.S. r
Formerly Professor of Mathematics in the Ordnance College, Woolwich. Author I
of Differential and Integral Calculus with Applications; Hydrostatics; Notes on]
Dynamics; &c. [_
A. H.-S. SIR A. HOUTUM-SCHINDLER, C.I.E. J i « v-
General in the Persian Army. Author of Eastern Persian Irak. \ «ran»n («» part).
A. M. C. AGNES MARY CLERKE. r „
See the biographical article, CLERKE, A. M. | Huygens, Cnnstiaan.
A. N. ALFRED NEWTON, F.R.S. f
See the biographical article, NEWTON, ALFRED. "5 ""s>
A. So. ALBRECHT SOCIN, PH.D. (1844-1899). f
Formerly Professor of Semitic Philology in the Universities of Leipzig and Tubingen. -| Irak-Arabi (in part).
Author of Arabische Grammatik; &c.
A. S. Wo. ARTHUR SMITH WOODWARD, LL.D., F.R.S. f Ichthyosaurus*
Keeper of Geology, Natural History Museum, South Kensington. Secretary oH To-nannrtr
the Geological Society, London. I Iguanoaon.
A. W. H.* ARTHUR WILLIAM HOLLAND. (" , . , _.,.
Formerly Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. Bacon Scholar of Gray's Inn, 4 J rlal ' .„
1900. [Instrument of Government.
A. W. Po. ALFRED WILLIAM POLLARD, M.A.
Assistant Keeper of Printed Books, British Museum. Fellow of King's College,
London. Hon. Secretary Bibliographical Society. Editor of Books about Books] Incunabula.
and Bibliographica. Joint-editor of The Library. Chief Editor of the " Globe "
Chaucer.
1 A complete list, showing all individual contributors, with the articles so signed, appears in the final volume.
V
1933
vi INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
A. W. R. ALEXANDER WOOD RENTON, M.A., LL.B. f Inebriety, Law of;
Puisne Judge of the Supreme Court of Ceylon. Editor of Encyclopaedia of the -\ insanity; Law.
Laws of England.
C. F. A. CHARLES FRANCIS ATKINSON. J Infantry;
Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Captain, 1st City of London (Royal 1 Italian Wars.
Fusiliers). Author of The Wilderness and Cold Harbour. «•
C. G. COLONEL CHARLES GRANT. -I India: Costume.
Formerly Inspector of Military Education in India.
C. H. Ha. CARLTON HUNTLEY HAYES, A.M., PH.D. f
Assistant Professor of History at Columbia University, New York City. Member ~\ innocent V., Vlll.
of the American Historical Association.
C. LI. M. CONWAY LLOYD MORGAN, LL.D., F.R.S. f Instinct;
Professor of Psychology at the University of Bristol. Principal of University College, 1 intelligence in Animals.
Bristol, 1887-1909. Author of Animal Life and Intelligence; Habit and. Instinct.
C. R. B. CHARLES RAYMOND BEAZLEY, M.A., D.Lrrr., F.R.G.S., F.R.HisT.S.
Professor of Modern History in the University of Birmingham. Formerly Fellow |u Ratuta (in -hart} •
of Merton College, Oxford ; and University Lecturer in the History of Geography. 4 .
Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1889. Lowell Lecturer, Boston, 1908. Author of «•
Henry the Navigator; The Dawn of Modern Geography; &c.
C. T. L. CHARLTON THOMAS LEWIS, PH.D. (1834-1904).
Formerly Lecturer on Life Insurance, Harvard and Columbia Universities, and on J Insurance (in part).
Principles of Insurance, Cornell University. Author of History of Germany; Essays;
Addresses; &c.
C. We. CECIL WEATHERLY. J Infant <!phoni«
Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. \ "
D. B. Ma. DUNCAN BLACK MACDONALD, M.A., D.D.
Professor of Semitic Languages, Hartford Theological Seminary, U.S.A. Author J Tmam
of Development of Muslim Theology, Jurisprudence and Constitutional Theory ; 1
Selection from Ibn Khaldum; Religious Attitude and Life in Islam; &c.
D. G. H. DAVID GEORGE HOGARTH, M.A.
Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Ionia (in part)'
Fellow of the British Academy. Excavated at Paphos, 1888; Naucratis, 1899 and S ¥saurja
1903; Ephesus, 1904-1905; Assiut, 1906-1907; Director, British School at Athens,
1897-1900; Director, Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899.
D. H. DAVID HANNAY.
Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona. Author of Short History of Royal i Impressment.
Navy, 1217-1688; Life of Emilia Castelar; &c.
D. F. T. DONALD FRANCIS TOVEY.
Author of Essays in Musical Analysis; comprising The Classical Concerto, The'} Instrumentation.
Goldberg Variations, and analyses of many other classical works. I
D. S. M. DUGALD SUTHERLAND MACCOLL, M.A., LL.D.
Keeper of the National Gallery of British Art (Tate Gallery). Lecturer on the History J im nrp«inn km
of Art, University College, London; Fellow of University College, London.]
Author of Nineteenth Century Art; &c.
E. A. M. EDWARD ALFRED MINCHIN, M.A., F.Z.S. [
Professor of Protozoology in the University of London. Formerly Fellow of Merton J HydTOmedUSae;
College, Oxford ; and Lecturer on Comparative Anatomy in the University of Oxford. 1 Hydrozoa.
Author of " Sponges and Sporozoa " in Lankester's Treatise on Zoology; &c.
E. Br. ERNEST BARKER, M.A. f
Fellow and Lecturer in Modern History, St John's College, Oxford. Formerly •{ Imperial Chamber.
Fellow and Tutor of Merton College. Craven Scholar, 1895.
E. Bra. EDWIN BRAMWELL, M.B., F.R.C.P., F.R.S. (Edin.). f
Assistant Physician, Royal Infirmary, Edinburgh. -I Hysteria (in part).
E. C. B. RIGHT REV. EDWARD CUTHBERT BUTLER, O.S.B., D.Lirr. ("
Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath. Author of " The Lausiac History of Palladius " -j Imitation of Christ,
in Cambridge Texts and Studies.
E. C. Q. EDMUND CROSBY QUIGGIN, M.A. , ("
Fellow, Lecturer in Modern History, and Monro Lecturer in Celtic, Gonville and 4 Ireland: Early History.
Caius College, Cambridge.
E. F. S. EDWARD FAIRBROTHER STRANGE. I"
Assistant Keeper, Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington. Member" of J Illustration: Technical
Council, Japan Society. Author of numerous works on art subjects. Joint-editor | Developments
of Bell's " Cathedral " Series.
E. F. S. D. LADY DILKE. J .
See the biographical article: DILKE, SIR C. W., BART. \ Ingres.
E. G. EDMUND GOSSE, LL.D. f Huygens, Sir Constantijn;
See the biographical article, GOSSE, EDMUND. \ Ibsen; Idyl.
E. Hu. EMIL HUBNER. r
See the biographical article, HOBNER, EMIL. j Inscriptions: Latin (in part).
E. H. B. SIR EDWARD HERBERT BUNBURY, BART., M.A., F.R.G.S. (d. 1895).. f
M.P. for Bury St Edmunds, 1847-1852. Author of a History of Ancient Geography; J Ionia (in part),
&c.
F. H. M. ELLIS HOVELL MINNS, M.A. r
Lecturer and Assistant Librarian, and formerly Fellow, Pembroke College, Cambridge \ lazyges; Issedones.
University Lecturer in Palaeography.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES vii
E. H. P. ^ PALMER, E. H. ""I Khaldun (in
Illuminated MSS.
E. K. EDMUND KNECHT, PH.D., M.Sc.TECH.(Manchester), F.I.C.
Professor of Technological Chemistry, Manchester University. Head of Chemical ,
Department, Municipal School of Technology, Manchester. Examiner in Dyeing, "j Indigo.
City and Guilds of London Institute. Author of A Manual of Dyeing; &c. Editor
of Journal of the Society of Dyers and Colourists.
E. L. H. THE RIGHT REV. THE BISHOP OF LINCOLN (EDWARD LEE HICKS). . r ,
Honorary Fellow of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Formerly Canon Residentiary I l
of Manchester. Fellow and Tutor of Corpus Christi College. Author of Manual 1 (in part),
of Greek Historical Inscriptions ; &c. L
Ed. M. EDUARD MEYER, PH.D., D.LiTT.(Oxon.), LL.D. f
Professor of Ancient History in the University of Berlin. Author of Geschichte des -j Hystaspes; Iran.
Alterthums; Geschichte des alien Aegyptens; Die Israeliten und ihre Nachbarstamme. I
E. M. T. SIR EDWARD MAUNDE THOMPSON, G.C.B., I.S.O., D.C.L., Lrn.D., LL.D.
Director and Principal Librarian, British Museum, 1898-1909. Sandars Reader
in Bibliography, Cambridge, 1895-1896. Hon. Fellow of University College,
Oxford. Correspondent of the Institute of France and of the Royal Prussian ,
Academy of Sciences. Author of Handbook of Greek and Latin Palaeography.
Editor of Chronicon Angliae. Joint-editor of publications of the Palaeographical
Society, the New Palaeographical Society, and of the Facsimile of the Laurentian
Sophocles.
E. 0.* EDMUND OWEN, M.B., F.R.C.S., LL.D., D.Sc.
Consulting Surgeon to St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the Children's Hospital, J JJvdroeeDhalus
Great Ormond Street; late Examiner in Surgery at the Universities of Cambridge, 1 *
Durham and London. Author of A Manual of Anatomy for Senior Students.
F. A. F. FRANK ALBERT FETTER, PH.D.
Professor of Political Economy and Finance, Cornell University. Member of the 1 Interstate Commerce.
State Board of Charities. Author of The Principles of Economics; &c.
F. C. C. FREDERICK CORNWALLIS CONYBEARE, M.A., D.TH.(Giessen). [iconoclasts'
Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Fellow of University College, Oxford. ~] ?„,„„.- Wnrchin
Author of The Ancient Armenian Texts of Aristotle; Myth, Magic and Morals; &c. L ""
F. G. M. B. FREDERICK GEORGE MEESON BECK, M.A. f TTW-P.
Fellow and Lecturer in Classics, Clare College, Cambridge. \ tiwicce.
P. J. H. FRANCIS JOHN HAVERFIELD, M.A., LL.D., F.S.A.
Camden Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford. Fellow of
Brasenose College. Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Censor, Student, 1 Icknield Street.
Tutor and Librarian of Christ Church, Oxford. Ford's Lecturer, 1906-1907.
Author of Monographs on Roman History, especially Roman Britain; &c.
P. LI. G. FRANCIS LLEWELLYN GRIFFITH, M.A., PH.D., F.S.A. I"
Reader in Egyptology, Oxford University. Editor of the Archaeological Survey J Hvksos* Isis
and Archaeological Reports of the Egypt Exploration Fund. Fellow of Imperial 1
German Archaeological Institute. I
P.P.* FREDERICK PETERSON, M.D., PH.D. flnsanitv
Professor of Psychiatry, Columbia University. President of New York State \ T
Commission in Lunacy, 1902-1906. Author of Mental Diseases ; &c. [ -treatment.
F. S. P. FRANCIS SAMUEL PHILBRICK, A.M., Ph.D. f TndpDpnl1pnpp
Formerly Fellow of Nebraska State University, and Scholar and Resident Fellow of 4 " P '
Harvard University. Member of American Historical Association. [ Declaration 01.
F. Wa. FRANCIS WATT, M.A. [ ¥ H t__.
Barrister-at-Law, Middle Temple. Author of Law's Lumber Room. \ I]
F. W. R.* FREDERICK WILLIAM RUDLER, I.S.O., F.G.S.
Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London, 1879-1902. \ Hyacinth' lolite
President of the Geologists' Association, 1887-1889.
P. Y. P. FREDERICK YORK POWELL, D.C.L., LL.D. f Iceiand: History, and
See the biographical article, POWELL, FREDERICK YORK. \ Ancie t
G. A. B. GEORGE A. BOULENGER, F.R.S., D.Sc., Pn.D. r
In charge of the collections of Reptiles and Fishes, Department of Zoology, British -j Ichthyology (in part)
Museum. Vice-President of the Zoological Society of London.
G. A. Gr. GEORGE ABRAHAM GRIERSON, C.I.E., PH.D., D.Lrrr.(Dublin).
Member of the Indian Civil Service, 1873-1903. In charge of Linguistic Survey
of India, 1898-1902. Gold Medallist, Royal Asiatic Society, 1909. Vice-President -j Indo-Aryan Languages
of the Royal Asiatic Society. Formerly Fellow of Calcutta University. Author
of The Languages of India ; _&c.
G. A. J. C. GRENVILLE ARTHUR JAMES COLE.
Director of the Geological Survey of Ireland Professor of Geology, Royal College-) Ireland: Geology.
of Science for Ireland, Dublin. Author of Aids in Practical Geology; &c.
G. B. SIR GEORGE CHRISTOPHER MOLESWORTH BIRDWOOD, K.C.I. E. J"T
See the biographical article, BIRDWOOD, SIR G. C. M. |_ *' lse>
G. F. H.* GEORGE FRANCIS HILL, M.A. r . „
Assistant in Department of Coins and Medals, British Museum. Author of J )DS: "****
Sources for Greek History 478-431 B.C. ; Handbook of Greek and Roman Coins; &c. 1 ^n PVT£)-
G. G. Co. GEORGE GORDON COULTON, M.A. r
Birkbeck Lecturer in Ecclesiastical History, Trinity College, Cambridge. Author •{ Indulgence.
of Medieval Studies ; Chaucer and his England ; &c.
viii INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
R w C GEORGE HERBERT CARPENTER, B.Sc. (Lond.).
Professor of Zoology in the Royal College of Science, Dublin. Author of Insects: 1
their Structure and Life. I Insect.
G' J' GE°Form^CSo°nsulCGe11eGal a¥ Shanghai, and Consul and Judge of the Supreme Court, { Hwang Ho.
Shanghai.
G. K. GuSTpArofe]s^?ofEChurchDHistory in the University of Giessen. Author of Da* Papstthum ; \ Irenaeus.
&c. L
G. P. M. GEORGE PERCIVAL MUDGE, A.R.C.S., F.Z.S J Incubati0n and Incubators.
Lecturer on Biology, London Hospital Medical College, and London bctiool ot 1
Medicine for Women, University of London. Author of A Text Book of Zoology ; &c. L
G. W. K. VERY REV. GEORGE WILLIAM KITCHIN, M.A., D.D., F.S.A
Dean of Durham, and Warden of the University of Durham. Hon. Student of J Hutten, Ulrich von.
Christ Church, Oxford. Fellow of King's College, London. Dean of Winchester, I
1883-1894- Author of A History of France; &c. *•
Ibn Abd Rabbihi;
Ibn 'Arabi; Ibn AthTr;
Ibn Duraid; Ibn Faradi;
Ibn Farid; Ibn Hazm;
Ibn Hisham; Ibn Ishaq;
Ibn Jubair; Ibn Khaldun
(in part);
Ibn Khallikan;
Ibn Qutaiba; Ibn Sa'd;
Ibn Tut'ail; Ibn Usaibi'a;
Ibrahim Al-MausilT.
H. Ch. HUGH CHISHOLM, M.A.
Formerly Scholar of Corpus Christ! College, Oxford. Editor the llth edition-! Iron Mask; Ismail,
of the Encyclopaedia Britannica; Co-editor of the loth edition.
H. C. R. SIR HENRY CRESWICKE RAWLINSON, BART., K.C.B. J Isfahan: History.
See the biographical article, RAWLINSON, SIR HENRY CRESWICKE. I
G. W. T. REV. GRIFFITHES WHEELER THATCHER, M.A., B.D.
Warden of Camden College, Sydney, N.S.W. Formerly Tutor in Hebrew and Old .
Testament History at Mansfield College, Oxford. Author of a Commentary on
Judges; An Arabic Grammar; &c.
H. L. H. HARRIET L. HENNESSEY, M.D., (Brux.) L.R.C.P.I., L.R.C.S.I. { Obstruction.
H. M. H. HENRY MARION HOWE, A.M., LL.D. J ¥ rt <sf ,
Professor of Metallurgy, Columbia University. Author of Metallurgy of Steel; &c. L J
H. N. D. HENRY NEWTON DICKSON, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.G.S. J
Professor of Geography, University College, Reading. Author of Elementary | Indian Ocean.
Meteorology; Papers on Oceanography; &c.
H. St. HENRY STURT, M.A. - Induction.
Author of Idola Theatri; The Idea of a Free Church; and Personal Idealism.
H. T. A. REV. HERBERT THOMAS ANDREWS.
Professor of New Testament Exegesis, New College, London. Author of the J Ignatius.
" Commentary on Acts " in the Westminster New Testament; Handbook on the
Apocryphal Books in the " Century Bible."
H. Y. SIR HENRY YULE, K.C.S.I., C.B. (. _ . ,.
See the biographical article, YULE, SIR HENRY. Ibn Batuta (m Part>-
I. A. ISRAEL ABRAHAMS, M.A.
Reader in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature in the University of Cambridge. J Ibn Tibbon;
Formerly President, Jewish Historical Society in England. Author of A Short Immanuel Ben Solomon.
History of Jewish Literature; Jewish Life in the Middle Ages; &c.
J. A. P. JOHN AMBROSE FLEMING, M.A., F.R.S., D.Sc.
Fender Professor of Electrical Engineering in the University of London. Fellow
of University College, London. Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge, •{ Induction Coil.
and Lecturer on Applied Mechanics in the University. Author of Magnets and
r->i j * /-•
hlectnc Currents.
3. Bs. JAMES BURGESS, C.I.E LL.D., F.R.S.(Edin.), F.R.G.S., HoN.A.R.I.B.A.
Formerly Director General of Archaeological Survey of India. Author of Archaeo- I - .. . ...
logical Survey of Western India. Editor of Fergusson's History of Indian Archi- | Indian Architecture.
lecture. L
J. B. T. SIR JOHN BATTY TUKE, KT., M.D., F.R.S.(Edin.), D.Sc., LL.D. f ,.
President of the Neurological Society of the United Kingdom. Medical Director J Hysteria ( t part) ;
of New Saughton Hall Asylum, Edinburgh. M.P. for the Universities of Edinburgh 1 Insanity: Medical.
and St Andrews, 1900-1910.
. C. H. RIGHT REV. JOHN CUTHBERT HEDLEY, O.S.B., D.D. J" immacuiate Concention
R.C. Bishop of Newport. Author of The Holy Eucharist ; &c. I "
J. C. Van D. JOHN CHARLES VAN DYKE. f
Professor of the History of Art, Rutgers College, New Brunswick, N.J. Formerly J innp«
Editor of The Studio and Art Rev— *••••*— -< *-• *— -*-•'- «•-'•-• "•''"— -r 1
Painting; Old English Masters; &c.
Editor of The_Studio and Art Review. Author of Art for Art's Sake; History of j
J. C. W. JAMES CLAUDE WEBSTER. J inn. nf r-....t
Barrister-at-Law, Middle Temple. I InnS °f C°Urt'
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES ix
J. D. B. JAMES DAVID BOURCHIER, M.A., F.R.G.S.
King's College, Cambridge. Correspondent of The Times in South-Eastern Europe. J ionj«n islands
Commander of the Orders of Prince Danilo of Montenegro and of the Saviour of
Greece, and Officer of the Order of St Alexander of Bulgaria.
J. P. P. JOHN FAITHFULL FLEET, C.I.E. PH.D. [
Commissioner of Central and Southern Divisions of Bombay, 1891-1897. Authors Inscriptions: Indian.
of Inscriptions of the Early Gupta Kings ; &c. (.
J. F.-K. JAMES FITZMAURICE-KELLY, Lirr.D., F.R.HiST.S.
Gilmour Professor of Spanish Language and Literature, Liverpool University. .
Norman McColl Lecturer, Cambridge University. Fellow of the British Academy, "j ""j »• F. de.
Member of the Royal Spanish Academy. Knight Commander of the Order of
Alphonso XII. Author of A History of Spanish Literature; &c.
J. G. K. JOHN GRAHAM KERR, M.A., F.R.S.
Regius Professor of Zoology in the University of Glasgow. Formerly Demonstrator I
in Animal Morphology in the University of Cambridge. Fellow of Christ's College, ~{ Ichthyology (in part).
Cambridge, 1898-1904. Walsingham Medallist, 1898. Neill Prizeman, Royal
Society of Edinburgh, 1904.
J. G. Sc. SIR JAMES GEORGE SCOTT, K. C.I.E.
Superintendent and Political Officer, Southern Shan States. Author of Burma, ~{ Irrawaddy.
a Handbook ; The Upper Burma Gazetteer ; &c. I
J. H. A. H. JOHN HENRY ARTHUR HART, M.A. J" Hyrcanus.
Fellow, Theological Lecturer and Librarian, St John's College, Cambridge. I
J. H. Mu. JOHN HENRY MUIRHEAD, M..A., LL.D. f
Professor of Philosophy in the University of Birmingham. Author of Elements •{ Idealism.
of Ethics ; Philosophy and Life ; &c. Editor of Library of Philosophy. I
J. H. Be. VERY REV. JOHN HENRY BERNARD, M.A., D.D., D.C.L. [
Dean of St Patrick's Cathedral, Dublin. Archbishop King's Professor of Divinity J
and formerly Fellow of Trinity College,. Dublin. Joint-editor of the Irish Liber] Ireland, Church of.
Hymnorum ; &c. I.
J. H. van't H. JACOBUS HENRICUS VAN'T HOFF, LL.D., D.Sc., D.M. / T
See the biographical article VAN'T HOFF, JACOBUS HENRICUS. \ u
J. L. M. JOHN LYNTON MYRES, M.A., F.S.A., F.R.G.S. f
Wykeham Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford. Formerly) n-a-ianc- Innianc
Gladstone Professor of Greek and Lecturer in Ancient Geography, University of | '
Liverpool. Lecturer in Classical Archaeology in University of Oxford. L
J. Mn. JOHN MACPHERSON M.D. /Insanity: Medical (in part}.
Formerly Inspector-General of Hospitals, Bengal. l_
J. M. A. de L. JEAN MARIE ANTOINE DE LANESSAN. J"
See the biographical article, Lanessan, J. M. A. de. \ Indo-China, French (in part).
3. M. M. JOHN MALCOLM MITCHELL. r
Sometime Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Lecturer in Classics, East London •{ Hvaeinthus
College (University of London). Joint-editor of Grote's History of Greece.
J. P. E. JEAN PAUL HIPPOLYTE EMMANUEL ADHEMAR ESMEIN. (
Professor of Law in the University of Paris. Officer of the Legion of Honour. I T f H f
Member of the Institute of France. Author of Cours elementaire d'histoire du droil 1 mlenoam.
franc.ais ; &c. L
J. P. Pe. REV. JOHN PUNNETT PETERS, PH.D., D.D. r
Canon Residentiary, Cathedral of New York. Formerly Professor of Hebrew in
the University of Pennsylvania. Director of the University Expedition to Baby-J Irak-Arab! (in part).
Ionia, 1888-1895. Author of Nippur, or Explorations and Adventures on the
Euphrates. I
J. S. Bl. JOHN SUTHERLAND BLACK, M.A., LL.D. r
Assistant Editor of the 9th edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica. Joint-editor-! Huss John.
of the Encyclopaedia Biblica.
J. S. Co. JAMES SUTHERLAND COTTON, M.A. f India : Geography and
Editor of the Imperial Gazetteer of India. Hon. Secretary of the Egyptian Explora- J Statistics (in part) •
tion Fund. Formerly Fellow and Lecturer of Queen's College, Oxford. Author 1 History (in part)-'
I Indore.
J. S. F. JOHN SMITH FLETT, D.Sc., F.G.S. r
Petrographer to the Geological Survey. Formerly Lecturer on Petrology in Edin- J
burgh University. Neill Medallist of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. Bigsby 1 "aeolumite.
Medallist of the Geological Society of London.
J. T. Be. JOHN THOMAS BEALBY. r
Joint-author of Stanford's Europe. Formerly Editor of the Scottish Geographical -| Irkutsk (in part)
Magazine. Translator of Sven Hedin's Through Asia, Central Asia and Tibet; &c. [
J. V.* JULES VIARD. r
Archivist at the National Archives, Paris. Officer of Public Instruction. Author J Isabella Of Bavaria
of La France sous Philippe VI. de Valois; &c.
Jno. W. JOHN WESTLAKE, K.C., LL.D.
Professor of International Law, Cambridge. 1888-1908. One of the Members for the I"
United Kingdom of International Court of Arbitration under the Hague Convention, International Law
1900-1906. Bencher of Lincoln's Inn. Author of A Treatise on Private International \ p •
Law, or the Conflict of Laws ; Chapters on the Principles of International Law, pt. i. mvate.
" Peace," pt. ii. " War."
x INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
L. COUNT Lurzow, Lrrx.D. (Oxon.), PH.D. (Prague), F.R.G.S.
Chamberlain of H.M. the Emperor of Austria, King of Bohemia. Hon. Member
of the Royal Society of Literature. Member of the Bohemian Academy; &c. -i. Hussites.
Author of Bohemia, a Historical Sketch; The Historians of Bohemia (Ilchester
Lecture, Oxford, 1904) ; The Life and Times of John Hus; &c.
L. C. B. LEWIS CAMPBELL BRUCE, M.D., F.R.C.P. J Insanity: Medical (in part).
Author of Studies in Clinical Psychiatry.
L. Ho. LAURENCE HOUSMAN. 4 Illustration (in part).
See the biographical article, HOUSMAN, L.
L. J. S. LEONARD JAMES SPENCER, M.A.
Assistant in Department of Mineralogy, British Museum. Formerly Scholar ot J Hypersthene; Ilmenite.
Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, and Harkness Scholar. Editor of the Mmera- |
logical Magazine.
L. T. D. 'SiR LEWIS TONNA DIBDIN, M.A., D.C.L., F.S.A. [
Dean of the Arches ; Master of the Faculties ; and First Church Estates Commissioner. 1 incense. Kitual Use.
Bencher of Lincoln's Inn. Author of Monasticism in England; &c.
M. Ha. MARCUS HARTOG, M.A., D.Sc., F.L.S. (
Professor of Zoology, University College, Cork. Author of Protozoa in Cam- « UUUSOna.
bridge Natural History; and papers for various scientific journals.
M. Ja. MORRIS JASTROW, JUN., PH.D.
Professor of Semitic Languages, University of Pennsylvania, U.S.A. Author of •< isntar.
Religion of the Babylonians and Assyrians; &c. L
M. 0. B. C. MAXIMILIAN OTTO BISMARCK CASPARI, M.A. f
Reader in Ancient History at London University. Lecturer in Greek at Birmingham J Irene (752-803).
University, 1905-1908. L
N. M. NOR&AN McLEAN, M.A. f
Fellow, Lecturer and Librarian of Christ's College, Cambridge. University Lecturer J , * Antioch
in Aramaic. Examiner for the Oriental Languages Tripos and the Theological j
Tripos at Cambridge.
0. J. R. H. OSBERT JOHN RADCLIFFE HOWARTH, M.A. ("
Christ Church, Oxford. Geographical Scholar, 1901. Assistant Secretary of theJ Ireland: Geography.
British Association. L
P. A. PAUL DANIEL ALPHANDERY.
Professor of th
Paris. Author
Professor of the History of Dogma, Ecole pratique des hautes Etudes, Sorbonne, I i__n|.i«-.,
jthor of Les Idees morales chez les heterodoxes latines au debut du XIII'. 1 on'
siecle.
P. A. K. PRINCE PETER ALEXEIVITCH KROPOTKIN. f ,,,,„*.,,, , • . .»
See the biographical article, KROPOTKIN, PRINCE P. A. \ UKUBK ^tn Pan>-
P. C. M. PETER CHALMERS MITCHELL, M.A., F.R.S., F.Z.S., D.Sc., LL.D.
Secretary to the Zoological Society of London. University Demonstrator in
Comparative Anatomy and Assistant to Linacre Professor at Oxford, 1888-1891. J Hybridism.
Examiner in Zoology to the University of London, 1903. Author of Outlines
of Biology; &c. I
P. Gi. PETER GILES, M.A., LL.D., LITT.D. [ i;
Fellow and Classical Lecturer of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and University J Indo-European
Reader in Comparative Philology. Formerly Secretary of the Cambridge Philo- j
logical Society. Author of Manual of Comparative Philology; &c. L languages.
P. Sin. HENRY PRESERVED SMITH, D.D., PH.D. f Innocent L, II.
See the biographical article, SMITH, HENRY PRESERVED. \
R. THE RIGHT HON. LORD RAYLEIGH. /Interference of Lieht
See the biographical article, RAYLEIGH, 3rd BARON. \ "
R. A. S. M. ROBERT ALEXANDER STEWART MACALISTER, M.A., F.S.A. r
St John's College, Cambridge. Director of Excavations for the Palestine Explora- J Idumaea.
tion Fund.
R. Ba. RICHARD BAGWELL, M.A., LL.D. [~
Commissioner of National Education for Ireland. Author of Ireland tinder the •< Ireland: Modern History.
Tudor s ; Ireland under the Stuarts.
R. C. J. SIR RICHARD CLAVERHOUSE JEBB, D.C.L., LL.D. J i--...,. |,ni,PatM
See the biographical article, JEBB, SIR RICHARD CLAVERHOUSE. 1
R. G. RICHARD GARNETT, LL.D.
See the biographical article, GARNETT, RICHARD. j Irving, Washington.
R. H. C. REV. ROBERT HENRY CHARLES, M.A., D.D., D.Lrrr.
Grinfield Lecturer, and Lecturer in Biblical Studies, Oxford. Fellow of the British
Acndemy. Formerly Professor of Biblical Greek, Trinity College, Dublin. Author 1 Isaiah, Ascension of.
of Critical History of the Doctrine of a Future Life ; Book of Jubilees ; &c.
R. L.* RICHARD LYDEKKER, F.R.S., F.Z.S., F.G.S. r „
Member of the Staff of the Geological Survey of India 1874-1882. Author of Cala- Hyraco Iea5
logues of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in the British Museum; The Deer of-\ Ibex (in part);
all Lands; &c. [ Indri; Insectivora.
R. P. S. R. PHENE SPIERS, F.S.A., F.R.I.B.A.
Formerly Master of the Architectural School, Royal Academy, London. Past
President of Architectural Association. Associate and Fellow of King's College, J
London. Corresponding Member of the Institute of France. Editor of Fergusson's 1
History of Architecture. Author of Architecture; East and West; &c.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES xi
R. S. C. ROBERT SEYMOUR CONWAY, M.A., D.LiTT.(Cantab.).
Professor of Latin and Indo-European Philology in t
Formerly Professor of Latin in University College, C
and Caius College, Cambridge. Author of The Italic Dialects.
Professor of Latin and Indo-European Philology in the University of Manchester. J tmivinm* Tnvilaa
Formerly Professor of Latin in University College, Cardiff; and Fellow of Gonville IB"V
S. THE RIGHT HON. THE EARL OF SELBORNE. -Tnvmns
See the biographical article, SELBORNE, 1st EARL OF. \ *
R. Tr. ROLAND TRUSLOVE, M.A. [ Indo-China, French
Formerly Scholar of Christ Ch •
at Worcester College, Oxford.
no-
Formerly Scholar of Christ Church, Oxford. Dean, Fellow and Lecturer in Classics •( .
L "*
S. A. C. STANLEY ARTHUR Cook, M.A.
Lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac, and formerly Fellow, Gonville and Caius College,
Cambridge. Editor for Palestine Exploration Fund. Author of Glossary of A ramaic -\ Ishniael.
Inscriptions; The Laws of Moses and the Code of Hammurabi; Critical Notes on Old
Testament Histoty; Religion of Ancient Palestine; &c.
S. Bl. SIGFUS BLONDAL. Ji»«i«^j. n , r •,
Librarian of the University of Copenhagen. \ Ic<>land. Recent Literature.
T. As. THOMAS ASHBY, M.A., D.Lrrr. (Oxon.). C
Director of British School of Archaeology at Rome. Formerly Scholar of Christ J T-i... „ T ,-_., ,. T...I,.-.
Church, Oxford. Craven Fellow, 1897. Conington Prizeman, 1906. Member I "*«•"»• Lirenas, Ischia.
of the Imperial German Archaeological Institute.
T. A. I. THOMAS ALLAN INGRAM, M.A., LL.D. J lUegitimacy;
Trinity College, Dublin. [Insurance (in part).
T. Ba. SIR THOMAS BARCLAY, M.P. f
Member of the Institute of International Law. Member of the Supreme Council I Immunity.
of the Congo Free State. Officer of the Legion of Honour. Author of Problems 1 International Law.
of International Practice and Diplomacy; &c. M.P. for Blackburn, 1910.
T. F. REV. THOMAS FOWLER, M.A., D.D., LL.D. (1832-1004).
President of Corpus Christi College, Oxford, 1881-1904. Honorary Fellow of
Lincoln College. Professor of Logic, 1873-1888. Vice-Chancellor of the University J Hutcheson, Francis
of Oxford, 1899-1901. Author of Elements of Deductive Logic; Elements of Inductive | (in part).
Logic; Locke ("English Men of Letters "); Shaftesbury and Hutcheson (" English
Philosophers ") ; &c. L
T. P. C. THEODORE FREYLINGHUYSEN COLLIER, PH.D. f ¥ , _.. VTTT
Assistant Professor of History, Williams College, Williamstown, Mass., U.S.A. \ innocent 1X.-XIII.
T. H. H.* COLONEL SIR THOMAS HUNGERFORD HOLDICH, K.C.M.G., K.C.I.E., Hon.D.Sc. f
Superintendent, Frontier Surveys, India, 1892-1898. Gold Medallist, R.G.S J T j
London, 1887. Author of The Indian Borderland; The Countries of the King's 1 lnaus<
Award; India; Tibet; &c. (_
T. K. C. REV. THOMAS KELLY CHEYNE, D.D. f
See the biographical article, CHEYNE, T. K. \
Th. T. THORVALDUR THORODDSEN. r jceianj. Geoerabhv and
Icelandic Expert and Explorer. Honorary Professor in the University of Copenhagen \ cv /•'/•
Author of History of Icelandic Geography; Geological Map of Iceland; &c. L Statistics.
W. A. B. C. REV. WILLIAM AUGUSTUS BREVOORT COOLIDGE, M.A., F.R.G.S., PH.D.(Bern). f Hveres- Innsbruck-
Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Professor of English History, St David's T' ,,„ „«,
College, Lampeter, 1880-1881. Author of Guide du Haul Dauphine; The Range\ ln,tenaKen> lseo> LaKe <»>
of the Todi; Guide to Grindelwald; Guide to Switzerland; The Alps in Nature and in Isere (River);
History; &c. Editor of The Alpine Journal, 1880-1881; &c. [ Isere (Department).
W. A. P. WALTER ALISON PHILLIPS, M.A.
Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St John's College, J Innocent HI. IV.
Oxford. Author of Modern Europe ; &c.
W. C. U. WILLIAM CAWTHORNE UNWIN, LL.D., F.R.S., M.lNST.C.E., M.lNST.M.E., r
A.R.I.B.A.
Emeritus Professor, Central Technical College, City and Guilds of London Institute.
Author of Wrought Iron Bridges and Roofs; Treatise on Hydraulics; &c.
W. F. C. WILLIAM FEILDEN CRAIES, M.A. r
Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Lecturer on Criminal Law, King's College, \ Indictment.
London. Editor of Archbold's Criminal Pleading (23rd edition).
W. F. Sh. WILLIAM FLEETWOOD SHEPPARD, M.A. r
Senior Examiner in the Board of Education, London. Formerly Fellow of Trinity \ Interpolation.
College, Cambridge. Senior Wrangler, 1884.
W. G. WILLIAM GARNETT, M.A., D.C.L. r
Educational Adviser to the London County Council. Formerly Fellow and Lecturer I
of St John's College, Cambridge. Principal and Professor of Mathematics, Durham 1
College of Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne. Author of Elementary Dynamics; &c.
W. Go. WILLIAM Gow, M:A., PH.D. r
Secretary of the British and Foreign Marine Insurance Co. Ltd., Liverpool. Lecturer J Insuranrp-
on Marine Insurance at University College, Liverpool. Author of Marine Insurance • \
&c. ' L
W. H F. SIR WILLIAM HENRY FLOWER, F.R.S. /„,.., /.
See the biographical article, FLOWER, SIR W. H. \ 1D 5 UM
W. H. Po. W. HALDANE PORTER. f Ireland: Statistics and
Barrister-at-Law, Middle Temple. \ Administration.
Xll
W. Ma.
W. McD.
W. M. L.
W. M. Ra.
W. R. So.
W. T. T.-D.
W. Wn.
W. W. H.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
SIR WILLIAM MARKBY, K.C.I.E.
See the biographical article, MARKBY, SIR WILLIAM.
Indian Law.
WILLIAM McDouGALL, M.A.
Wilde Reader in Mental Philosophy in the University of Oxford. Formerly Fellow -s Hypnotism,
of St John's College, Cambridge.
WALLACE MARTIN LINDSAY, M.A., LITT.D., LL.D. f
Professor of Humanity, University of St Andrews. Fellow of the British Academy. J TJ^, r *ts~ (•„ A w\
Formerly Fellow of Jesus College, Oxford. Author of Handbook of Latin Inscrip- ] Qscnpuons, LOttlt (tn part),
lions • The Latin Lanfuave : &c. L
•{ Iconium.
lions; The Latin Language; &c.
SIR WILLIAM MITCHELL RAMSAY, Litt.D., D.C.L.
See the biographical article, RAMSAY, SIR W. MITCHELL.
WILLIAM RITCHIE SORLEY, M.A., LriT.D., LL.D.
Professor of Moral Philosophy in the University of Cambridge. Fellow of King's
College, Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Fellow of Trinity
College. Author of The Ethics of Naturalism; The Interpretation of Evolution; &c. i.
SIR WILLIAM TURNER THISELTON-DYER, F.R.S., K.C.M.G., C.I.E., D.Sc., LL.D., ["
PH.D., F.L.S.
Hon. Student of Christ Church, Oxford. Director, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, J jjuxiev
1885-1905. Botanical Adviser to Secretary of State for Colonies, 1902-1906. 1 **
Joint-author of Flora of Middlesex. Editor of Flora Capenses and Flora of Tropical
Africa. I
WILLIAM WATSON, D.Sc., F.R.S., A.R.C.S. f
Assistant Professor of Physics, Royal College of Science, London. Vice-President ] Inclinometer,
of the Physical Society. Author of A Text Book of Practical Physics ; &c.
SIR, WILLIAM WILSON HUNTER. J India: History (in part);
See the biographical article, HUNTER, SIR WILLIAM WILSON. Geography and Statistics
[ (in part).
PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES
Husband and Wife.
Hyacinth.
Hyderabad.
Hydrogen.
Hydropathy.
Hydrophobia.
Ice.
Ice-Yachting.
Idaho.
Iguana.
Illinois.
Illumination.
Illyria.
Image.
Impeachment.
Income Tax.
Indiana.
Indian Mutiny.
Indicator.
Infant.
Infanticide.
Infinite.
Influenza.
Inheritance.
Injunction.
Ink.
Inkerman.
International, The.
Intestacy.
Inverness-shire.
Investiture.
Iodine.
Iowa.
Ipecacuanha.
Iris.
Iron.
Irrigation.
ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLUME XIV
HUSBAND, properly the " head of a household," but now
chiefly used in the sense of a man legally joined by marriage to
a woman, his " wife "; the legal relations between them are
treated below under HUSBAND AND WIFE. The word appears
in O. Eng. as h&sbonda, answering to the Old Norwegian
husbdndi, and means the owner or freeholder of a hus, or house.
The last part of the word still survives in " bondage " and " bond-
man," and is derived from bua, to dwell, which, like Lat. colere,
means also to till or cultivate, and to have a household. " Wife,"
in O. Eng. uiif, appears in all Teutonic languages except Gothic;
cf. Ger. Weib, Dutch wijf, &c., and meant originally simply
a female, " woman " itself being derived from wiftnan, the
pronunciation of the plural ivimmen still preserving the original i.
Many derivations of " wife " have been given; thus it has been
connected with the root of " weave," with the Gothic tvaibjan,
to fold or wrap up, referring to the entangling clothes worn
by a woman, and also with the root of vibrare, to tremble.
These are all merely guesses, and the ultimate history of the
word is lost. It does not appear outside Teutonic languages.
Parallel to " husband " is " housewife," the woman managing
a household. The earlier husurif was pronounced hussif, and
this pronunciation survives in the application of the word to
a small case containing scissors, needles and pins, cottons, &c.
From this form also derives " hussy," now only used in a de-
preciatory sense of a light, impertinent girl. Beyond the meaning
of a husband as a married man, the word appears in connexion
with agriculture, in " husbandry " and " husbandman." Accord-
ing to some authorities " husbandman " meant originally in
the north of England a holder of a " husbandland," a manorial
tenant who held two ox-gangs or virgates, and ranked next
below the yeoman (see J. C. Atkinson in Notes and Queries,
6th series, vol. xii., and E. Bateson, History of Northumberland,
ii., 1893). From the idea of the manager of a household,
" husband " was in use transferred to the manager of an estate,
and the title was held by certain officials, especially in the great
trading companies. Thus the " husband " of the East India
Company looked after the interests of the company at the
custom-house. The word in this sense is practically obsolete,
but it still appears in " ship's husband," an agent of the owners
of a ship who looks to the proper equipping of the vessel, and her
repairs, procures and adjusts freights, keeps the accounts, makes
xiv. i
charter-parties and acts generally as manager of the ship's
employment. Where such an agent is himself one of the owners
of the vessel, the name of " managing owner " is used. The
" ship's husband " or " managing owner " must register his
name and address at the port of registry (Merchant Shipping
Act 1894, § 59). From the use of " husband " for a good and
thrifty manager of a household, the verb " to husband " means
to economize, to lay up a store, to save.
HUSBAND AND WIFE, LAW RELATING TO. For the modes
in which the relation of husband and wife may be constituted
and dissolved, see MARRIAGE and DIVORCE. The present article
will deal only with the effect of marriage on the legal position
of the spouses. The person chiefly affected is the wife, who
probably in all political systems becomes subject, in consequence
of marriage, to some kind of disability. The most favourable
system scarcely leaves her as free as an unmarried woman; and
the most unfavourable subjects her absolutely to the authority
of her husband. In modern times the effect of marriage on
property is perhaps the most important of its consequences,
and on this point the laws of different states show wide diversity
of principles.
The history of Roman law exhibits a transition from an
extreme theory to its opposite. The position of the wife in the
earliest Roman household wds regulated by the law of Manns.
She fell under the " hand " of her husband, — became one of his
family, along with his sons and daughters, natural or adopted,
and his slaves. The dominion which, so far as the children
was concerned, was known as the patria potestas, was, with
reference to the wife, called the manus. The subject members
of the family, whether wife or children, had, broadly speaking,
no rights of their own. If this institution implied the complete
subjection of the wife to the husband, it also implied a much
closer bond of union between them than we find in the later
Roman law. The wife on her husband's death succeeded, like
the children, to freedom and a share of the inheritance. Manus,
however, was not essential to a legal marriage; its restraints
were irksome and unpopular, and in course of time it ceased
to exist, leaving no equivalent protection of the stability of
family life. The later Roman marriage left the spouses com-
paratively independent of each other. The distance between
the two modes of marriage may be estimated by the fact that,
HUSBAND AND WIFE
while under the former the wife was one of the husband's immediate
heirs, under the latter she was called to the inheritance only
after his kith and kin had been exhausted, and only in preference
to the treasury. It seems doubtful how far she had, during
the continuance of marriage, a legal right to enforce aliment
from her husband, although if he neglected her she had the
unsatisfactory remedy of an easy divorce. The law, in fact, pre-
ferred to leave the parties to arrange their mutual rights and
obligations by private contracts. Hence the importance of the law
of settlements (Doles). The Dos and the Donatio ante nuptias were
settlements by or on behalf of the husband or wife, during the
continuance of the marriage, and the law seems to have looked
with some jealousy on gifts made by one to the other in any
less formal way, as possibly tainted with undue influence. During
the marriage the husband had the administration of the property.
The manus of the Roman law appears to be only one instance
of an institution common to all primitive societies. On the
continent of Europe after many centuries, during which local
usages were brought under the influence of principles derived
from the Roman law, a theory of marriage became established,
the leading feature of which is the community of goods between
husband and wife. Describing the principle as it prevails in
France, Story (Conflict of Laws, § 130) says: " This community
or nuptial partnership (in the absence of any special contract)
generally extends to all the movable property of the husband
and wife, and to the fruits, income and revenue thereof. . . .
It extends also to all immovable property of the husband and
wife acquired during the marriage, but not to such immovable
property as either possessed at the time of the marriage, or
which came to them afterwards by title of succession or by gift.
The property thus acquired by this nuptial partnership is liable
to the debts of the parties existing at the time of the marriage;
to the debts contracted by the husband during the community,
or by the wife during the community with the consent of the
husband; and to debts contracted for the maintenance of the
family. . . . The husband alone is entitled to administer the
property of the community, and he may alien, sell or mortgage
it without the concurrence of the wife." But he cannot dispose
by will of more than his share of the common property, nor can
he part with it gratuitously inter vivas. The community is
dissolved by death (natural or civil), divorce, separation of
body or separation of property. On separation of body or of
property the wife is entitled to the full control of her movable
property, but cannot alien her immovable property, without
her husband's consent or legal authority. On the death of
either party the property is divided in equal moieties between
the survivor and the heirs of the deceased.
Law of England. — The English common law as usual followed
its own course in dealing with this subject, and in no department
were its rules more entirely insular and independent. The
text writers all assumed two fundamental principles, which
between them established a system of rights totally unlike that
just described. Husband and wife were said to be one person in
the eye of the law — unica persona, quia caro una et sanguis units.
Hence a man could not grant or give anything to his wife,
because she was himself, and if there were any compacts between
them before marriage they were dissolved by the union of persons.
Hence, too, the old rule of law, now greatly modified, that husband
and wife could not be allowed to give evidence against each
other, in any trial, civil or criminal. The unity, however, was
one-sided only; it was the wife who was merged in the husband,
not the husband in the wife. And when the theory did not
apply, the disabilities of " coverture " suspended the active
exercise of the wife's legal faculties. The old technical phraseology
described husband and wife as baron and feme ; the rights of
the husband were baronial rights. From one point of view the
wife was merged in the husband, from another she was as one of
his vassals. A curious example is the immunity of the wife in
certain cases from punishment for crime committed in the
presence and on the presumed coercion of the husband. " So
great a favourite," says Blackstone, " is the female sex of the
laws of England."
The application of these principles with reference to the
property of the wife, and her capacity to contract, may now be
briefly traced.
The freehold property of the wife became vested in the husband
and herself during the coverture, and he had the management
and the profits. If the wife had been in actual possession at
any time during the marriage of an estate of inheritance, and if
there had been a child of the marriage capable of inheriting,
then the husband became entitled on his wife's death to hold
the estate for his own life as tenant by the curtesy of England
(curialitas) -1 Beyond this, however, the husband's rights did
not extend, and the wife's heir at last succeeded to the inheritance.
The wife could not part with her real estate without the concur-
rence of the husband; and even so she must be examined
apart from her husband, to ascertain whether she freely and
voluntarily consented to the deed.
With regard to personal property, it passed absolutely at
common law to the husband. Specific things in the possession
of the wife (chases in possession) became the property of the
husband at once; things not in possession, but due and re-
coverable from others (chases in action), might be recovered
by the husband. A chose in action not reduced into actual
possession, when the marriage was dissolved by death, reverted
to the wife if she was the survivor; if the husband survived
he could obtain possession by taking out letters of administra-
tion. A chose in action was to be distinguished from a specific
thing which, although the property of the wife, was for the
time being in the hands of another. In the latter case the
property was in the wife, and passed at once to the husband;
in the former the wife had a mere jus in personam, which the
husband might enforce if he chose, but which was still cap-
able of reverting to the wife if the husband died without
enforcing it.
The chattels real of the wife (i.e., personal property, dependent
on, and partaking of, the nature of realty, such as leaseholds)
passed to the husband, subject to the wife's right of survivorship,
unless barred by the husband by some act done during his life.
A disposition by will did not bar the wife's interest; but any
disposition inter vivos by the husband was valid and effective.
The courts of equity, however, greatly modified the rules of
the common law by the introduction of the wife's separate
estate, i.e. property settled to the wife for her separate use,
independently of her husband. The principle seems to have
been originally admitted in a case of actual separation, when
a fund was given for the maintenance of the wife while living
apart from her husband. And the conditions under which
separate estate might be enjoyed had taken the Court of Chancery
many generations to develop. No particular form of words was
necessary to create a separate estate, and the intervention of
trustees, though common, was not necessary. A clear intention
to deprive the husband of his common law rights was sufficient
to do so. In such a case a married woman was entitled to deal
with her property as if she was unmarried, although the earlier
decisions were in favour of requiring her binding engagements
to be in writing or under seal. But it was afterwards held that
any engagements, clearly made with reference to the separate
estate, would bind that estate, exactly as if the woman had been
a feme sole. Connected with the doctrine of separate use was
the equitable contrivance of restraint on anticipation with which
later legislation has not interfered, whereby property might be
so settled to the separate use of a married woman that she could
not, during coverture, alienate it or anticipate the income.
No such restraint is recognized in the case of a man or of a feme
sole, and it depends entirely on the separate estate; and the
separate estate has its existence only during coverture, so that
a woman to whom such an estate is given may dispose of it so
long as she is unmarried, but becomes bound by the restraint as
soon as she is married. In yet another way the court of Chancery
interfered to protect the interests of married women. When a
1 Curtesy or courtesy has been explained by legal writers as
" arising by favour of the law of England." The word has nothing
to do with courtesy in the sense of complaisance.
HUSBAND AND WIFE
husband sought the aid of that court to get possession of his
wife's chases in action, he was required to make a provision
for her and her children out of the fund sought to be recovered.
This is called the wife's equity to a settlement, and is said to be
based on the original maxim of Chancery jurisprudence, that
" he who seeks equity must do equity." Two other property
interests of minor importance are recognised. The wife's pin-
money is a provision for the purchase of clothes and ornaments
suitable to her husband's station, but it is not an absolute
gift to the separate use of the wife; and a wife surviving her
husband cannot claim for more than one year's arrears of pin-
money. Paraphernalia are jewels and other ornaments given
to the wife by her husband for the purpose of being worn by her,
but not as her separate property. The husband may dispose
of them by act inter vivos but not by will, unless the will confers
other benefits on the wife, in which case she must elect between
the will and the paraphernalia. She may also on the death
of the husband claim paraphernalia, provided all creditors
have been satisfied, her right being superior to that of any
legatee.
The corresponding interest of the wife in the property of the
husband is much more meagre and illusory. Besides a general
right to maintenance at her husband's expense, she has at common
law a right to dower (q.v.) in her husband's lands, and to a pars
rationabilis (third) of his personal estate, if he dies intestate.
The former, which originally was a solid provision for widows,
has by the ingenuity of conveyancers, as well as by positive
enactment, been reduced to very slender dimensions. It may
be destroyed by a mere declaration to that effect on the part
of the husband, as well as by his conveyance of the land or by
his will.
The common practice of regulating the rights of husband,
wife and children by marriage settlements obviates the hardships
of the common law — at least for the women of the wealthier
classes. The legislature by the Married Women's Property
Acts of 1870, 1874, 1882 (which repealed and consolidated the acts
of 1870 and 1874), 1893 and 1907 introduced very considerable
changes. The chief provisions of the Married Women's Property
Act 1882, which enormously improved the position of women
unprotected by marriage settlement, are, shortly, that a married
woman is capable of acquiring, holding and disposing of by will
or otherwise, any real and personal property, in the same manner
as if she were a, feme sole, without the intervention of any trustee.
The property of a woman married after the beginning of the
act, whether belonging to her at the time of marriage or acquired
after marriage, is held by her as a. feme sole. The same is the case
with property acquired after the beginning of the act by a woman
married before the act. After marriage a woman remains liable
for antenuptial debts and liabilities, and as between her and her
husband, in the absence of contract to the contrary, her separate
property is deemed primarily liable. The husband is only
liable to the extent of property acquired from or through his
wife. The act also contained provisions as to stock, investment,
insurance, evidence and other matters. The effect of the act
was to render obsolete the law as to what created a separate
use or a reduction into possession of choses in action, as to equity
to a settlement, as to fraud on the husband's marital rights,
and as to the inability of one of two married persons to give
a gift to the other. Also, in the case of a gift to a husband and
wife in terms which would make them joint tenants if unmarried,
they no longer take as one person but as two.- The act contained
a special saving of existing and future settlements; a settlement
being still necessary where it is desired to secure only the enjoy-
ment of the income to the wife and to provide for children.
The act by itself would enable the wife, without regard to family
claims, instantly to part with the whole of any property which
might come to her. Restraint on anticipation was preserved
by the act, subject to the liability of such property for antenuptial
debts, and to the power given by the Conveyancing Act 1881
to bind a married woman's interest notwithstanding a clause
of restraint. The Married Women's Property Act of 1893
repealed two clauses in the act of 1882, the exact bearing of
which had been a matter of controversy. It provided specifically
that every contract thereinafter entered into by a married
woman, otherwise than as an agent, should be deemed to be a
contract entered into by her with respect to and be binding
upon her separate property, whether she was or was not in fact
possessed of or entitled to any separate property at the time
when she entered into such contract, that it should bind all
separate property which she might at any time or thereafter
be possessed of or entitled to, and that it should be enforceable
by process of law against all property which she might thereafter,
while discovert, be possessed of or entitled to. The act of 1907
enabled a married woman, without her husband, to dispose of
or join in disposing of, real or personal property held by her
solely or jointly as trustee or personal representative, in like
manner as if she were a. feme sole. It also provided that a settle-
ment or agreement for settlement whether before or after
marriage, respecting the property of the woman, should not
be valid unless executed by her if she was of full age or confirmed
by her after she attained full age. The Married Women's
Property Act 1908 removed a curious anomaly by enacting
that a married woman having separate property should be
equally liable with single women and widows for the maintenance
of parents who are in receipt of poor relief.
The British colonies generally have adopted the principles of
the English acts of 1882 and 1893.
Law of Scotland. — The law of Scotland differs less from English
law than the use of a very different terminology would lead us to
suppose. The phrase communio bonorum has been employed to
express the interest which the spouses have in the movable property
of both, but its use has been severely censured as essentially in-
accurate and misleading. It has been contended that there was no
real community of goods, and no partnership or societas between
the spouses. The wife's movable property, with certain exceptions,
and subject to special agreements, became as absolutely the property
of the husband as it did in English law. The notion of a communio
was, however, favoured by the peculiar rights of the wife and children
on the dissolution of the marriage. Previous to the Intestate
Movable Succession (Scotland) Act 1855 the law stood as follows.
The fund formed by the movable property of both spouses may be
dealt with by the husband as he pleases during life; it is increased
by his acquisitions and diminished by his debts. The respective
shares contributed by husband and wife return on the dissolution of
the marriage to them or their representatives if the marriage be
dissolved within a year and a day, and without a living child. Other-
wise the division is into two or three shares, according as children are
existing or not at the dissolution of the marriage. On the death of
the husband, his children take one-third (called legilim), the widow
takes one-third (jits relictae), and the remaining one-third (the dead
part) goes according to his will or to his next of kin. If there be no
children, the jus relictae and the dead's part are each one-half. If
the wife die before the husband, her representatives, whether children
or not, are creditors for the value of her share. The statute above-
mentioned, however, enacts that " where a wife shall predecease her
husband, the next of kin, executors or other representatives of such
wife, whether testate or intestate, shall have no right to any share of
the goods in communion; nor shall any legacy or bequest or testa-
mentary disposition thereof by such wife, affect or attach to the said
goods or any portion thereof." It also abolishes the rule by which
the shares revert if the marriage does not subsist for a year and a day.
Several later acts apply to Scotland some of the principles of the
English Married Women's Property Acts. These are the Married
Women's Property (Scotland) Act 1877, which protects the earnings,
&c., of wives, and limits the husband's liability for antenuptial debts
of the wife, the Married Women's Policies of Assurance (Scotland)
Act 1880, which enables a woman to contract for a policy of assurance
for her separate use, and the Married Women's Property (Scotland)
Act 1 88 1, which abolished the jus mariti.
A wife's heritable property does not pass to the husband on
marriage, but he acquires a right to the administration and profits.
His courtesy, as in English law, is also recognized. On the other
hand, a widow has a terce or life-rent of a third part of the husband's
heritable estate, unless she has accepted a conventional provision.
Continental Europe. — Since 1882 English legislation in the matter
of married women's property has progressed from perhaps the most
backward to the foremost place in Europe. By a curious contrast,
the only two European countries where, in the absence of a settle-
ment to the contrary, independence of the wife's property was recog-
nized, were Russia and Italy. But there is now a marked tendency
towards contractual emancipation. Sweden adopted a law on this
subject in 1874, Denmark in 1880, Norway in 1888. Germany
followed, the Civil Code which came into operation in 1900 (Art.
1367) providing that the wife's wages or earnings shall form part of
her Vorbehaltsgut or separate property, which a previous article
HUSHI— HUSS
(1365) placed beyond the husband's control. As regards property
accruing to the wife in Germany by succession, will or gift inter
vivos, it is only separate property where the donor has deliberately
stipulated exclusion of the husband's right.
In France it seemed as if the system of community of property
was ingrained in the institutions of the country. But a law of 1907
has brought France into line with other countries. This law gives a
married woman sole control over earnings from her personal work
and savings therefrom. She can with such money acquire personalty
or realty, over the former of which she has absolute control. But
if she abuses her rights by squandering her money or administering
her property badly or imprudently the husband may apply to the
court to have her freedom restricted.
American Law.— In the United States, the revolt against the
common law theory of husband and wife was carried farther than in
England, and legislation early tended in the direction of absolute
equality between the sexes. Each state has, however, taken its
own way and selected its own time for introducing modifications of
the existing law, so that the legislation on this subject is now
exceedingly complicated and difficult. James Schoufer (Law of
Domestic Relations) gives an account of the general result in the
different states to which reference may be made. The peculiar
system of Homestead Laws in many of the states (see HOMESTEAD
and EXEMPTION LAWS) constitutes an inalienable provision for the
wife and family of the householder.
HUSHI (Rumanian Hu$i), the capital of the department
of Falciu, Rumania; on a branch of the Jassy-Galatz railway,
9 m. W. of the river Pruth and the Russian frontier. Pop.
(1900) 15,404, about one-fourth being Jews. Hushi is an episcopal
see. The cathedral was built in 1491 by Stephen the Great of
Moldavia. There are no important manufactures, but a large
fair is held annually in September for the sale of live-stock,
and wine is produced in considerable quantities. Hushi is said
to have been founded in the isth century by a colony of Hussites,
from whom its name is derived. The treaty of the Pruth between
Russia and Turkey was signed here in 1711.
HUSKISSON, WILLIAM (1770-1830), English statesman and
financier, was descended from an old Staffordshire family of
moderate fortune, and was born at Birch Moreton, Worcester-
shire, on the nth of March 1770. Having been placed in his
fourteenth year under the charge of his maternal great-uncle
Dr Gem, physician to the English embassy at Paris, in 1783
he passed his early years amidst a political fermentation which
led him to take a deep interest in politics. Though he approved
of the French Revolution, his sympathies were with the more
moderate party, and he became a member of the " club of 1789,"
instituted to support the new form of constitutional monarchy
in opposition to the anarchical attempts of the Jacobins. He
early displayed his mastery of the principles of finance by a
Discours delivered in August 1790 before this society, in regard
to the issue of assignats by the government. The Discours
gained him considerable reputation, but as it failed in its purpose
he withdrew from the society. In January 1 793 he was appointed
by Dundas to an office created to direct the execution of the
Aliens Act; and in the discharge of his delicate duties he mani-
fested such ability that in 1795 he was appointed under-secretary
at war. In the following year he entered parliament as member for
Morpeth, but for a considerable period he took scarcely any part
in the debates. In 1800 he inherited a fortune from Dr Gem.
On the retirement of Pitt in 1801 he resigned office, and after
contesting Dover unsuccessfully he withdrew for a time into
private life. Having in 1804 been chosen to represent Liskeard,
he was on the restoration of the Pitt ministry appointed secretary
of the treasury, holding office till the dissolution of the ministry
after the death of Pitt in January 1806. After being elected
for Harwich in 1807, he accepted the same office under the duke
of Portland, but he withdrew from the ministry along with
Canning in 1809. In the following year he published a pamphlet
on the currency system, which confirmed his reputation as the
ablest financier of his time; but his free-trade principles did not
accord with those of his party. In 1812 he was returned for
Chichester. When in 1814 he re-entered the public service, it
was only as chief commissioner of woods and forests, but his
influence was from this time very great in the commercial and
financial legislation of the country. He took a prominent part
in the corn-law debates of 1814 and 1815; and in 1819 he
presented a memorandum to Lord Liverpool advocating a large
reduction in the unfunded debt, and explaining a method for
the resumption of cash payments, which was embodied in the
act passed the same year. In 1821 he was a member of the
committee appointed to inquire into the causes of the agricultural
distress then prevailing, and the proposed relaxation of the corn
laws embodied in the report was understood to have been chiefly
due to his strenuous advocacy. In 1823 he was appointed
president of the board of trade and treasurer of the navy, and
shortly afterwards he received a seat in the cabinet. In the
same year he was returned for Liverpool as successor to Canning,
and as the only man who could reconcile the Tory merchants
to a free trade policy. Among the more important legislative
changes with which he was principally connected were a reform
of the Navigation Acts, admitting other nations to a full equality
and reciprocity of shipping duties; the repeal of the labour laws;
the introduction of a new sinking fund; the reduction of the
duties on manufactures and on the importation of foreign goods,
and the repeal of the quarantine duties. In accordance with
his suggestion Canning in 1827 introduced a measure on the
corn laws proposing the adoption of a sliding scale to regulate
the amount of duty. A misapprehension between Huskisson
and the duke of Wellington led to the duke proposing an amend-
ment, the success of which caused the abandonment of the
measure by the government. After the death of Canning in the
same year Huskisson accepted the secretaryship of the colonies
under Lord Goderich, an office which he continued to hold in
the new cabinet formed by the duke of Wellington in the following
year. After succeeding with great difficulty in inducing the
cabinet to agree to a compromise on the corn laws, Huskisson
finally resigned office in May 1829 on account of a difference
with his colleagues in regard to the disfranchisement of East
Retford. On the isth of September of the following year he was
accidentally killed by a locomotive engine while present at the
opening of the Liverpool and Manchester railway.
See the Life of Huskisson, by J. Wright (London, 1831).
HUSS (or Hus), JOHN (c. 1373-1415), Bohemian reformer and
martyr, was born at Hussinecz,1 a market village at the foot of
the Bohmerwald, and not far from the Bavarian frontier, between
1373 and 1375, the exact date being uncertain. His parents
appear to have been well-to-do Czechs of the peasant class.
Of his early life nothing is recorded except that, notwithstanding
the early loss of his father, he obtained a good elementary
education, first at Hussinecz, and afterwards at the neighbouring
town of Prachaticz. At, or only a very little beyond, the
usual age he entered the recently (1348) founded university of
Prague, where he became bachelor of arts in 1393, bachelor
of theology in 1394, and master of arts in 1396. In 1398
he was chosen by the Bohemian " nation " of the university
to an examinership for the bachelor's degree; in the
same year he began to lecture also, and there is reason to
believe that the philosophical writings of Wycliffe, with which
he had been for some years acquainted, were his text-books.
In October 1401 he was made dean of the philosophical faculty,
and for the half-yearly period from October 1402 to April 1403
he held the office of rector of the university. In 1402 also he
was made rector or curate (capellarius) of the Bethlehem chapel,
which had in 1391 been erected and endowed by some zealous
citizens of Prague for the purpose of providing good popular
preaching in the Bohemian tongue. This appoinment had
a deep influence on the already vigorous religious life of Huss
himself; and one of the effects of the earnest and independent
study of Scripture into which it led him was a profound conviction
of the great value not only of the philosophical but also of the
theological writings of Wycliffe.
This newly-formed sympathy with the English reformer did
not, in the first instance at least, involve Huss in any conscious
opposition to the established doctrines of Catholicism, or in
any direct conflict with the authorities of the church; and for
1 From which the name Huss, or more properly Hus, an abbrevia-
tion adopted by himself about 1396, is derived. Prior to that date
he was invariably known as Johann Hussynecz, Hussinecz, Hussenicz
or de Hussynecz.
HUSS
several years he continued to act in full accord with his archbishop
(Sbynjek, or Sbynko, of Hasenburg). Thus in 1405 he, with
other two masters, was commissioned to examine into certain
reputed miracles at Wilsnack, near Wittenberg, which had
caused that church to be made a resort of pilgrims from all parts
of Europe. The result of their report was that all pilgrimage
thither from the province of Bohemia was prohibited by the
archbishop on pain of excommunication, while Huss, with the
full sanction of his superior, gave to the world his first published
writing, entitled De Omni Sanguine Christi Glorificato, in which
he declaimed in no measured terms against forged miracles and
ecclesiastical greed, urging Christians at the same time to desist
from looking for sensible signs of Christ's presence, but rather
to seek Him in His enduring word. More than once also Huss,
together with his friend Stanislaus of Znaim, was appointed
to be synod preacher, and in this capacity he delivered at the
provincial councils of Bohemia many faithful admonitions.
As early as the 28th of May 1403, it is true, there had been held
a university disputation about the new doctrines of Wycliffe,
which had resulted in the condemnation of certain propositions
presumed to be his; five years later (May 20, 1408) this decision
had been refined into a declaration that these, forty-five in
number, were not to be taught in any heretical, erroneous
or offensive sense. But it was only slowly that the growing
sympathy of Huss with Wycliffe unfavourably affected his
relations with his colleagues in the priesthood. In 1408, however,
the clergy of the city and archiepiscopal diocese of Prague laid
before the archbishop a formal complaint against Huss, arising
out of strong expressions with regard to clerical abuses of which
he had made use in his public discourses; and the result was
that, having been first deprived of his appointment as synodal
preacher, he was, after a vain attempt to defend himself in
writing, publicly forbidden the exercise of any priestly function
throughout the diocese. Simultaneously with these proceedings
in Bohemia, negotiations had been going on for the removal of
the long-continued papal schism, and it had become apparent
that a satisfactory solution could only be secured if, as seemed
not impossible, the supporters of the rival popes, Benedict XIII.
and Gregory XII., could be induced, in view of the approaching
council of Pisa, to pledge themselves to a strict neutrality.
With this end King Wenceslaus of Bohemia had requested the
co-operation of the archbishop and his clergy, and also the
support of the university, in both instances unsuccessfully,
although in the case of the latter the Bohemian " nation," with
Huss at its head, had only been overborne by the votes of the
Bavarians, Saxons and Poles. There followed an expression
of nationalist and particularistic as opposed to ultramontane
and also to German feeling, which undoubtedly was of supreme
importance for the whole of the subsequent career of Huss. In
compliance with this feeling a royal edict (January 18, 1409)
was issued, by which, in alleged conformity with Paris usage,
and with the original charter of the university, the Bohemian
" nation " received three votes, while only one was allotted to
the other three "nations" combined; whereupon all the
foreigners, to the number of several thousands, almost im-
mediately withdrew from Prague, an occurrence which led to
the formation shortly afterwards of the university of Leipzig.
It was a dangerous triumph for Huss; for his popularity
at court and in the general community had been secured only
at the price of clerical antipathy everywhere and of much German
ill-will. Among the first results of the changed order of things
were on the one hand the election of Huss (October 1409} to be
again rector of the university, but on the other hand the appoint-
ment by the archbishop of an inquisitor to inquire into charges
of heretical teaching and inflammatory preaching brought
against him. He had spoken disrespectfully of the church, it
was said, had even hinted that Antichrist might be found to
be in Rome, had fomented in his preaching the quarrel between
Bohemians and Germans, and had, notwithstanding all that
had passed, continued to speak of Wycliffe as both a pious man
and an orthodox teacher. The direct result of this investigation
is not known, but it is impossible to disconnect from it the
promulgation by Pope Alexander V., on the 2oth of December
1409, of a bull which ordered the abjuration of all Wycliffite
heresies and the surrender of all his books, while at the same
time — a measure specially levelled at the pulpit of Bethlehem
chapel — all preaching was prohibited except in localities which
had been by long usage set apart for that use. This decree, as
soon as it was published in Prague (March 9, 1410), led to much
popular agitation, and provoked an appeal by Huss to the
pope's better informed judgment; the archbishop, however,
resolutely insisted on carrying out his instructions, and in the
following July caused to be publicly burned, in the courtyard
of his own palace, upwards of 200 volumes of the writings of
Wycliffe, while he pronounced solemn sentence of excommunica-
tion against Huss and certain of his friends, who had in the
meantime again protested and appealed to the new pope
(John XXIII.). Again the populace rose on behalf of their hero,
who, in his turn, strong in the conscientious conviction that " in
the things which pertain to salvation God is to be obeyed rather
than man," continued uninterruptedly to preach in the Bethlehem
chapel, and in the university began publicly to defend the so-
called heretical treatises of Wycliffe, while from king and queen,
nobles and burghers, a petition was sent to Rome praying that
the condemnation and prohibition in the bull of Alexander V.
might be quashed. Negotiations were carried on for some months,
but in vain; in March 1411 the ban was anew pronounced upon
Huss as a disobedient son of the church, while the magistrates
and councillors of Prague who had favoured him were threatened
with a similar penalty in case of their giving him a contumacious
support. Ultimately the whole city, which continued to harbour
him, was laid under interdict; yet he went on preaching, and
masses were celebrated as usual, so that at the date of Archbishop
Sbynko's death in September 1411, it seemed as if the efforts of
ecclesiastical authority had resulted in absolute failure.
The struggle, however, entered on a new phase with the
appearance at Prague in May 1412 of the papal emissary charged
with the proclamation of the papal bulls by which a religious
war was decreed against the excommunicated King Ladislaus
of Naples, and indulgence was promised to all who should take
part in it, on terms similar to those which had been enjoyed
by the earlier crusaders to the Holy Land. By his bold and
thorough-going opposition to this mode of procedure against
Ladislaus, and still more by his doctrine that indulgence could
never be sold without simony, and could not be lawfully granted
by the church except on condition of genuine contrition and
repentance, Huss at last isolated himself, not only from the
archiepiscopal party under Albik of Unitschow, but also from
the theological faculty of the university, and especially from
such men as Stanislaus of Znaim and Stephen Paletz, who until
then had been his chief supporters. A popular demonstration,
in which the papal bulls had been paraded through the streets
with circumstances of peculiar ignominy and finally burnt, led
to intervention by Wenceslaus on behalf of public order; three
young men, for having openly asserted the unlawfulness of the
papal indulgence after silence had been enjoined, were sentenced
to death (June 1412); the excommunication against Huss was
renewed, and the interdict again laid on all places which should
give him shelter — a measure which now began to be more strictly
regarded by the clergy, so that in the following December
Huss had no alternative but to yield to the express wish of the
king by temporarily withdrawing from Prague. A provincial
synod, held at the instance of Wenceslaus in February 1413,
broke up without having reached any practical result; and
a commission appointed shortly afterwards also failed to bring
about a reconciliation between Huss and his adversaries. The
so-called heretic meanwhile spent his time partly at Kozihradek,
some 45 m. south of Prague, and partly at Krakowitz in
the immediate neighbourhood of the capital, occasionally
giving a course of open-air preaching, but finding his chief
employment in maintaining that copious correspondence of
which some precious fragments still are extant, and in the
composition of the treatise, De Ecclesia, which subsequently
furnished most of the material for the capital charges brought
HUSS
against him, and was formerly considered the most important of
his works, though it is mainly a transcript of Wycliffe's work
of the same name.
During the year 1413 the arrangements for the meeting of
a general council at Constance were agreed upon between
Sigismund and Pope John XXIII. The objects originally
contemplated had been the restoration of the unity of the church
and its reform in head and members; but so great had become
the prominence of Bohemian affairs that to these also a first
place in the programme of the approaching oecumenical assembly
required to be assigned, and for their satisfactory settlement
the presence of Huss was necessary. His attendance was ac-
cordingly requested, and the invitation was willingly accepted
as giving him a long-wished-for opportunity both of publicly
vindicating himself from charges which he felt to be grievous,
and of loyally making confession for Christ. He set out from
Bohemia on the I4th of October 1414, not, however, until he
had carefully ordered all his private affairs, with a presentiment,
which he did not conceal, that in all probability he was going
to his death. The journey, which appears to have been under-
taken with the usual passport, and under the protection of
several powerful Bohemian friends (John of Chlum, Wenceslaus
of Duba, Henry of Chlum) who accompanied him, was a very
prosperous one; and at almost all the halting-places he was
received with a consideration and enthusiastic sympathy which
he had hardly expected to meet with anywhere in Germany.
On the 3rd of November he arrived at Constance; shortly after-
wards there was put into his hands the famous imperial " safe
conduct," the promise of which had been one of his inducements
to quit the comparative security he had enjoyed in Bohemia.
This safe conduct, which had been frequently printed, stated
that Huss should, whatever judgment might be passed on him,
be allowed to return freely to Bohemia. This by no means
provided for his immunity from punishment. If faith to him
had not been broken he would have been sent back to Bohemia
to be punished by his sovereign, the king of Bohemia. The
treachery of King Sigismund is undeniable, and was indeed
admitted by the king himself. The safe conduct was probably
indeed given by him to entice Huss to Constance. On the 4th
of December the pope appointed a commission of three bishops to
investigate the case against the heretic, and to procure witnesses;
to the demand of Huss that he might be permitted to employ
an agent in his defence a favourable answer was at first given,
but afterwards even this concession to the forms of justice was
denied. While the commission was engaged in the prosecution
of its enquiries, the flight of Pope John XXIII. took place on
the 20th of March, an event which furnished a pretext for the
removal of Huss from the Dominican convent to a more secure
and more severe place of confinement under the charge of the
bishop of Constance at Gottlieben on the Rhine. On the 4th
of May the temper of the council on the doctrinal questions in
dispute was fully revealed in its unanimous condemnation of
Wycliffe, especially of the so-called " forty-five articles " as
erroneous, heretical, revolutionary. It was not, however, until
the 5th of June that the case of Huss came up for hearing; the
meeting, which was an exceptionally full one, took place in the
refectory of the Franciscan cloister. Autograph copies of his
work De Ecclesia and of the controversial tracts which he had
written against Paletz and Stanislaus of Znaim having been
acknowledged by him, the extracted propositions on which the
prosecution based their charge of heresy were read; but as
soon as the accused began to enter upon his defence, he was
assailed by violent outcries, amidst which it was impossible
for him to be heard, so that he was compelled to bring his speech
to an abrupt close, which he did with the calm remark: " In
such a council as this I had expected to find more propriety,
piety and order." It was found necessary to adjourn the
sitting until the 7th of June, on which occasion the outward
decencies were better observed, partly no doubt from the circum-
stance that Sigismund was present in person. The propositions
which had been extracted from the De Ecclesia were again brought
up, and the relations between Wycliffe and Huss were discussed,
the object of the prosecution being to fasten upon the latter the
charge of having entirely adopted the doctrinal system of the
former, including especially a denial of the doctrine of transub-
stantiation. The accused repudiated the charge of having
abandoned the Catholic doctrine, while expressing hearty
admiration and respect for the memory of Wycliffe. Being
next asked to make an unqualified submission to the council,
he expressed himself as unable to do so, while stating his willing-
ness to amend his teaching wherever it had been shown to be
false. With this the proceedings of the day were brought to
a close. On the 8th of June the propositions extracted from
the De Ecclesia were again taken up with some fulness of detail;
some of these he repudiated as incorrectly given, others tie
defended; but when asked to make a general recantation he
steadfastly declined, on the ground that to do so would be a
dishonest admission of previous guilt. Among the propositions
he could heartily abjure was that relating to transubstantiation;
among those he felt constrained unflinchingly to maintain
was one which had given great offence, to the effect that Christ,
not Peter, is the head of the church to whom ultimate appeal
must be made. The council, however, showed itself inaccessible
to all his arguments and explanations, and its final resolution,
as announced by Pierre d'Ailly, was threefold: first, that
Huss should humbly declare that he had erred in all the articles
cited against him; secondly, that he should promise on oath
neither to hold nor teach them in the future; thirdly, that
he should publicly recant them. On his declining to make
this submission he was removed from the bar. Sigismund
himself gave it as his opinion that it had been clearly proved
by many witnesses that the accused had taught many pernicious
heresies, and that even should he recant he ought never to be
allowed to preach or teach again or to return to Bohemia, but
that should he refuse recantation there was no remedy but the
stake. During the next four weeks no effort was spared to
shake the determination of Huss; but he steadfastly refused
to swerve from the path which conscience had once made clear.
" I write this," says he, in a letter to his friends at Prague, " in
prison and in chains, expecting to-morrow to receive sentence
of death, full of hope in God that I shall not swerve from the
truth, nor abjure errors imputed to me by false witnesses."
The sentence he expected was pronounced on the 6th of July
in the presence of Sigismund and a full sitting of the council;
once and again he attempted to remonstrate, but in vain, and
finally he betook himself to silent prayer. After he had under-
gone the ceremony of degradation with all the childish formalities
usual on such occasions, his soul was formally consigned by all
those present to the devil, while he himself with clasped hands
and uplifted eyes reverently committed it to Christ. He was
then handed over to the secular arm, and immediately led to the
place of execution, the council meanwhile proceeding uncon-
cernedly with the rest of its business for the day. Many
incidents recorded in the histories make manifest the meek-
ness, fortitude and even cheerfulness with which he went to
his death. After he had been tied to the stake and the faggots
had been piled, he was for the last time urged to recant, but
his only reply was: " God is my witness that I have never
taught or preached that which false witnesses have testified
against me. He knows that the great object of all my preaching
and writing was to convert men from sin. In the truth of that
gospel which hitherto I have written, taught and preached,
I now joyfully die." The fire was then kindled, and his voice
as it audibly prayed in the words of the " Kyrie Eleison " was
soon stifled in the smoke. When the flames had done their
office, the ashes that were left and even the soil on which they
lay were carefully removed and thrown into the Rhine.
Not many words are needed to convey a tolerably adequate
estimate of the character and work of the " pale thin man in
mean attire," who in sickness and poverty thus completed the
forty-sixth year of a busy life at the stake. The value of Huss
as a scholar was formerly underrated. The publication of his
Super I V. Senlentiarum has proved that he was a man of profound
learning. Yet his principal glory will always be founded on his
HUSSAR— HUSSITES
spiritual teaching. It might not be easy to formulate precisely
the doctrines for which he died, and certainly some of them,
as, for example, that regarding the church, were such as many
Protestants even would regard as unguarded and difficult to
harmonize with the maintenance of external church order;
but his is undoubtedly the honour of having been the chief inter-
mediary in handing on from Wycliffe to Luther the torch which
kindled the Reformation, and of having been one of the bravest of
the martyrs who have died in the cause of honesty and freedom,
of progress and of growth towards the light. (J. S. BL.)
The works of Huss are usually classed under four heads: the
dogmatical and polemical, the homiletical, the exegetical and the
epistolary. In the earlier editions of his works sufficient care was
not taken to distinguish between his own writings and those of
Wycliffe and others who were associated with him. In connexion
with his sermons it is worthy of note that by means of them and by
his public teaching generally Huss exercised a considerable influence
not only on the religious life of his time, but on the literary develop-
ment of his native tongue. The earliest collected edition of his
works, Historic, et monumenta Joannis Hus et Hieronymi Pragensis,
was published at Nuremberg in 1558 and was reprinted with a con-
siderable quantity of new matter at Frankfort in 1715. A Bohemian
edition of the works has been edited by K. J. Erben (Prague, 1865-
1868), and the Documenta J. Hus mtam, doctrinam, causam in
Constantiensi concilia (1869), edited by F. Palacky, is very valuable.
More recently Joannis Hus. Opera omnia have been edited by W.
Floishaus (Prague, 1904 fol.). The De Ecclesia was published by
Ulnch von Hutten in 1520; other controversial writings by Otto
Brumfels in 1524; and Luther wrote an interesting pretace to
Epistolae Quaedam, which were published in 1537. These Epistolae
have been translated into French by E. de Bonnechose (1846), and
the letters written during his imprisonment have been edited by
C. von Kugelgen (Leipzig, 1902).
The best and most easily accessible information for the English
reader on Huss is found in J. A. W. Neander's Allgemeine Geschichte
der christlichen Religion und Kirche, translated by J. Torrey (1850-
1858); in G. von Lechler's Wiclif und die Vorgeschichte der Reforma-
tion, translated by P. Lorimer (1878); in H. H. Milman's History of
Latin Christianity, vol. viii. (1867); and in M. Creighton's History of
the Papacy (1897). Among the earlier authorities is the Historia
Bohemica of Aeneas Sylvius (1475). The Acta of the council of
Constance (published by P. Labbe in his Concilia, vol. xvi., 1731 ; by
H. von der Haardt in his Magnum Constantiense concilium, vol. vi.,
1700; and by H. Finke in his Acta concilii Constantiensis, 1896);
and J . Lenfant's Histoire de la guerre des Hussites ( 1 73 1 ) and the same
writer's Histoire du candle de Constance (1714) should be consulted.
F. Palacky's Geschichte Bohmens (1864-1867) is also very useful.
Monographs on Huss are very numerous. Among them may be
mentioned J. A. von Helfert, Studien uber Hus und Hieronymus
(1853; this work is ultramontane in its sympathies); C. von Hofler,
Hus und der A bzug der deutschen Professoren und Studenten aus Prag
(1864); W. Berger, Johannes Hus und Konig Sigmund (1871);
E. Denis, Huss et la guerre des Hussites (1878); P. Uhlmann, Konig
Sigmunds Geleit fur Hus (1894); J. Loserth, Hus und Wiclif (1884),
translated into English by M. J. Evans (1884); A. Jeep, Gerson,
Wiclefus, Hussus, inter se comparati (1857) ; and G. von Lechler,
Johannes Hus (1889). See also Count Liitzow, The Life and Times of
John Hus (London, 1909).
HUSSAR, originally the name of a soldier belonging to a
corps of light horse raised by. Matthias Corvinus, king of Hungary,
in 1458, to fight against the-Turks. The Magyar huszar, from
which the word is derived, was formerly connected with the
Magyar husz, twenty, and was explained by a supposed raising
of the troops by the taking of each twentieth man. According
to the New English Dictionary the word is an adaptation of
the Italian corsaro, corsair, a robber, and is found in 15th-century
documents coupled with praedones. The hussar was the typical
Hungarian cavalry soldier, and, in the absence of good light
cavalry in the regular armies of central and western Europe,
the name and character of the hussars gradually spread into
Prussia, France, &c. Frederick the Great sent Major H. J. von
Zieten to study the work of this type of cavalry in the Austrian
service, and Zieten so far improved on the Austrian model that
he defeated his old teacher, General Baranyai, in an encounter
between the Prussian and Austrian hussars at Rothschloss in
1 741. The typical uniform of the Hungarian hussar was followed
with modifications in other European armies. It consisted of
a busby or a high cylindrical cloth cap, jacket with heavy
braiding, and a dolman or pelisse, a loose coat worn hanging
from the left shoulder. The hussar regiments of the British
army were converted from light dragoons at the following dates:
7th (1805), loth and i5th (1806), i8th (1807, and again on
revival after disbandment, 1858), 8th (1822), nth (1840), 2oth
(late 2nd Bengal European Cavalry) (1860), I3th, I4th, and igth
(late ist Bengal European Cavalry) (1861). The 2ist Lancers
were hussars from 1862 to 1897. •
HUSSITES, the name given to the followers of John Huss
(1369-1415), the Bohemian reformer. They were at first often
called Wycliffites, as the theological theories of Huss were largely
founded on the teachings of Wycliffe. Huss indeed laid more
stress on church reform than on theological controversy. On
such matters he always writes as a disciple of Wycliffe. The
Hussite movement may be said to have sprung from three
sources, which are however closely connected. Bohemia, which
had first received Christianity from the East, was from geo-
graphical and other causes long but very loosely connected
with the Church of Rome. The connexion became closer at the
time when the schism with its violent controversies between
the rival pontiffs, waged with the coarse invective customary
to medieval theologians, had brought great discredit on the
papacy. The terrible rapacity of its representatives in Bohemia,
which increased in proportion as it became more difficult to
obtain money from western countries such as England and France,
caused general indignation; and this was still further intensified
by the gross immorality of the Roman priests. The Hussite
movement was also a democratic one, an uprising of the peasantry
against the landowners at a period when a third of the soil
belonged to the clergy. Finally national enthusiasm for the
Slavic race contributed largely to its importance. The towns,
in most cases creations of the rulers of Bohemia who had called
in German immigrants, were, with the exception of the " new
town " of Prague, mainly German; and in consequence of the
regulations of the university, Germans also held almost all the
more important ecclesiastical offices — a condition of things
greatly resented by the natives of Bohemia, which at this period
had reached a high degree of intellectual development.
The Hussite movement assumed a revolutionary character
as soon as the news of the death of Huss reached Prague. The
knights and nobles of Bohemia and Moravia, who were in favour
of church reform, sent to the council at Constance (September
2nd, 1415) a protest, known as the " protestalio Bohemorum "
which condemned the execution of Huss in the strongest language.
The attitude of Sigismund, king of the Romans, who sent
threatening letters to Bohemia declaring that he would shortly
" drown all Wycliffites and Hussites," greatly incensed the
people. Troubles broke out in various parts of Bohemia, and
many Romanist priests were driven from their parishes. Almost
from the first the Hussites were divided into two sections, though
many minor divisions also arose among them. Shortly before
his death Huss had accepted a doctrine preached during his
absence by his adherents at Prague, namely that of " utraquism,"
i.e. the obligation of the faithful to receive communion in both
kinds (sub utraque specie). This doctrine became the watchword
of the moderate Hussites who were known as the Utraquists
or Calixtines (calix, the chalice), in Bohemian, podoboji ; while
the more advanced Hussites were soon known as the Taborites,
from the city of Tabor that became their centre.
Under the influence of his brother Sigismund, king of the
Romans, King Wenceslaus endeavoured to stem the Hussite
movement. A certain number of Hussites lead by Nicolas of
Hus — no relation of John Huss — left Prague. They held meetings
in various parts of Bohemia, particularly at Usti, near the spot
where the town of Tabor was founded soon afterwards. At
these meetings. Sigismund was violently denounced, and the people
everywhere prepared for war. In spite of the departure of many
prominent Hussites the troubles at Prague continued. On
the 30th of July 1419, when a Hussite procession headed by the
priest John of Zelivo (in Ger. Selau) marched through the streets
of Prague, stones were thrown at the Hussites from the windows
of the town-hall of the " new town." The people, headed by
John 2izka (1376-1424), threw the burgomaster and several
town-councillors, who were the instigators of this outrage,
from the windows and they were immediately killed by the
8
HUSSITES
crowd. On hearing this news King Wenceslaus was seized with
an apoplectic fit, and died a few days afterwards. The death of
the king resulted in renewed troubles in Prague and in almost
all parts of Bohemia. Many Romanists, mostly Germans — for
they had almost all remained faithful to the papal cause — were
expelled from the Bohemian cities. In Prague, in November
1419, severe fighting took place between the Hussites and the
mercenaries whom Queen Sophia (widow of Wenceslaus and
regent after the death of her husband) had hurriedly collected.
After a considerable part of the city had been destroyed a truce
was concluded on the i3th of November. The nobles, who
though favourable to the Hussite cause yet supported the
regent, promised to act as mediators with Sigismund; while
the citizens of Prague consented to restore to the royal forces
the castle of Vysehrad, which had fallen into their hands. Zizka,
who disapproved of this compromise, left Prague and retired
to Plzefi (Pilsen). Unable to maintain himself there he marched
to southern Bohemia, and after defeating the Romanists at
Sudomef — the first pitched battle of the Hussite wars — he
arrived at Usti, one of the earliest meeting-places of the Hussites.
Not considering its situation sufficiently strong, he moved to
the neighbouring new settlement of the Hussites, to which the
biblical name of Tabor was given. Tabor soon became the
centre of the advanced Hussites, who differed from the Utraquists
by recognizing only two sacraments — Baptism and Communion —
and by rejecting most of the ceremonial of the Roman Church.
The ecclesiastical organization of Tabor had a somewhat puritanic
character, and the government was established on a thoroughly
democratic basis. Four captains of the people (hejtmane) were
elected, one of whom was Zizka; and a very strictly military
discipline was instituted.
Sigismund, king of the Romans, had, by the death of his
brother Wenceslaus without issue, acquired a claim on the
Bohemian crown; though it was then, and remained till much
later, doubtful whether Bohemia was an hereditary or an elective
monarchy. A firm adherent of the Church of Rome, Sigismund
was successful in obtaining aid from the pope. Martin V.
issued a bull on the iyth of March 1420 which proclaimed a
crusade " for the destruction of the Wyclimtes, Hussites and all
other heretics in Bohemia." The vast army of crusaders, with
which were Sigismund and many German princes, and which
consisted of adventurers attracted by the hope of pillage from
all parts of Europe, arrived before Prague on the 3Oth of June
and immediately began the siege of the city, which had, however,
soon to be abandoned (see ZIZKA, JOHN). Negotiations took
place for a settlement of the religious differences. The united
Hussites formulated their demands in a statement known as
the " articles of Prague." This document, the most important
of the Hussite period, runs thus in the wording of the con-
temporary chronicler, Laurence of Brezova: —
I. The word of God shall be preached and made known in the
kingdom of Bohemia freely and in an orderly manner by the priests
of the Lord. . . .
II. The sacrament of the most Holy Eucharist shall be freely
administered in the two kinds, that is bread and wine, to all the
faithful in Christ who are not precluded by mortal sin — according
to the word and disposition of Our Saviour.
III. The secular power over riches and worldly goods which the
clergy possesses in contradiction to Christ's precept, to the prejudice
of its office and to the detriment of the secular arm, shall be taken
and withdrawn from it, and the clergy itself shall be brought back to
the evangelical rule and an apostolic life such as that which Christ
and his apostles led. . . .
IV. All mortal sins, and in particular all public and other dis-
orders, which are contrary to God's law, shall in every rank of life
be duly and judiciously prohibited and destroyed by those whose
office it is.
These articles, which contain the essenceof the Hussite doctrine,
were rejected by Sigismund, mainly through the influence
of the papal legates, who considered them prejudicial to the
authority of the Roman see. Hostilities therefore continued.
Though Sigismund had retired from Prague, the castles of
Vysehrad and Hradfany remained in possession of his troops.
The citizens of Prague laid siege to the VySehrad, and towards
the end of October (1420) the garrison was on the point of
capitulating through famine. Sigismund attempted to relieve
the fortress, but was decisively defeated by the Hussites on
the ist of November near the village of Pankrac. The castles
of Vysehrad and Hradcany now capitulated, and shortly after-
wards almost all Bohemia fell into the hands of the Hussites.
Internal troubles prevented them from availing themselves
completely of their victory. At Prague a demagogue, the
priest John of Zelivo, for a time obtained almost unlimited
authority over the lower classes of the townsmen; and at
Tabor a communistic movement (that of the so-called Adamites)
was sternly suppressed by Zizka. Shortly afterwards a new
crusade against the Hussites was undertaken. A large German
army entered Bohemia, and in August 1421 laid siege to the
town of Zatec (Saaz). The crusaders hoped to be joined in
Bohemia by King Sigismund, but that prince was detained
in Hungary. After an unsuccessful attempt to storm Zatec
the crusaders retreated somewhat ingloriously, on hearing
that the Hussite troops were approaching. Sigismund only
arrived in Bohemia at the end of the year 1421. He took
possession of the town of Kutna Hora (Kuttenberg), but was
decisively defeated by Zizka at Nemecky Brod (Deutschbrod)
on the 6th of January 1422. Bohemia was now again for a
time free from foreign intervention, but internal discord again
broke out caused partly by theological strife, partly by the
ambition of agitators. John of Zelivo was on the oth of March
1422 arrested by the town council of Prague and decapitated.
There were troubles at Tabor also, where a more advanced
party opposed Zizka's authority. Bohemia obtained a temporary
respite when, in 1422, Prince Sigismund Korybutovic of Poland
became for a short time ruler of the country. His authority
was recognized by the Utraquist nobles, the citizens of Prague,
and the more moderate Taborites, including Zizka. KorybutoviC,
however, remained but a short time in Bohemia; after his
departure civil war broke out, the Taborites opposing in arms
the more moderate Utraquists, who at this period are also
called by the chroniclers the " Praguers," as Prague was their
principal stronghold. On the 27th of April 1423, Zizka now
again leading, the Taborites defeated at Horic the Utraquist
army under Cenek of Wartemberg; shortly afterwards an
armistice was concluded at Konopist.
Papal influence had meanwhile succeeded in calling forth
a new crusade against Bohemia, but it resulted in complete failure.
In spite of the endeavours of their rulers, the Slavs of Poland
and Lithuania did not wish to attack the kindred Bohemians;
the Germans were prevented by internal discord from taking
joint action against the Hussites; and the king of Denmark,
who had landed in Germany with a large force intending to
take part in the crusade, soon returned to his own country.
Free for a time from foreign aggression, the Hussites invaded
Moravia, where a large part of the population favoured their
creed; but, again paralysed by dissensions, soon returned
to Bohemia. The city of Koniggratz (Kralove Hradec), which
had been under Utraquist rule, espoused the doctrine of Tabor,
and called Zizka to its aid. After several military successes
gained by Zizka (q.v.) in 1423 and the following year, a treaty
of peace between the Hussites was concluded on the I3th of
September 1424 at Liben, a village near Prague, now part of
that city.
In 1426 the Hussites were again attacked by foreign enemies.
In June of that year their forces, led by Prokop the Great —
who took the command of the Taborites shortly after Zizka's
death in October 1424 — and Sigismund KorybutoviC, who had
returned to Bohemia, signally defeated the Germans at Aussig
(Usti nad Labem). After this great victory, and another at
Tachau in 1427, the Hussites repeatedly invaded Germany,
though they made no attempt to occupy permanently any part
of the country.
The almost uninterrupted series of victories of the Hussites
now rendered vain all hope of subduing them by force of arms.
Moreover, the conspicuously democratic character of the Hussite
movement caused the German princes, who were afraid that
HUSTING— HUTCHESON
such views might extend to their own countries, to desire peace.
Many Hussites, particularly the Utraquist clergy, were also in
favour of peace. Negotiations for this purpose were to take
place at the oecumenical council which had been summoned to
meet at Basel on the 3rd of March 1431. The Roman see re-
luctantly consented to the presence of heretics at this council,
but indignantly rejected the suggestion of the Hussites that
members of the Greek Church, and representatives of all Christian
creeds, should also be present. Before definitely giving its consent
to peace negotiations, the Roman Church determined on making
a last effort to reduce the Hussites to subjection. On the ist
of August 1431 a large army of crusaders, under Frederick,
margrave of Brandenburg, whom Cardinal Cesarini accompanied
as papal legate, crossed the Bohemian frontier; on the i4th
of August it reached the town of Domazlice (Tauss); but on
the arrival of the Hussite army under Prokop the crusaders
immediately took to flight, almost without offering resistance.
On the isth of October the members of the council, who had
already assembled at Basel, issued a formal invitation to the
Hussites to take part in its deliberations. Prolonged negotiations
ensued; but finally a Hussite embassy, led Dy Prokop and
including John of Rokycan, the Taborite bishop Nicolas of
Pelhfimov, the " English Hussite," Peter Payne and many
others, arrived at Basel on the 4th of January 1433. It was
found impossible to arrive at an agreement. Negotiations
were not, however, broken off; and a change in the political
situation of Bohemia finally resulted in a settlement. In 1434
war again broke out between the Utraquists and the Taborites.
On the 30th of May of that year the Taborite army, led by Prokop
the Great and Prokop the Less, who 'both fell in the battle,
was totally defeated and almost annihilated at Lipan. The
moderate party thus obtained the upper hand; and it formulated
its demands in a document which was finally accepted by the
Church of Rome in a slightly modified form, and which is known
as " the compacts." The compacts, mainly founded on the
articles of Prague, declare that: —
1. The Holy Sacrament is to be given freely in both kinds to all
Christians in Bohemia and Moravia, and to those elsewhere who
adhere to the faith of these two countries.
2. All mortal sins shall be punished and extirpated by those whose
office it is so to do.
3. The word of God is to be freely and truthfully preached by the
priests of the Lord, and by worthy deacons.
4. The priests in the time of the law of grace shall claim no owner-
ship of worldly possessions.
On the sth of July 1436 the compacts were formally accepted
and signed at Iglau, in Moravia, by King Sigismund, by the
Hussite delegates, and by the representatives of the Roman
Church. The last-named, however, refused to recognize as
archbishop of Prague, John of Rokycan, who had been elected
to that dignity by the estates of Bohemia. The Utraquist
creed, frequently varying in its details, continued to be that
of the established church of Bohemia till all non-Roman religious
services were prohibited shortly after the battle of the White
Mountain in 1620. The Taborite party never recovered from
its defeat at Lipan, and after the town of Tabor had been captured
by George of Podebrad in 1452 Utraquist religious worship was
established there. The Bohemian brethren, whose intellectual
originator was Peter Chelcicky, but whose actual founders
were Brother Gregory, a nephew of Archbishop Rokycan,
and Michael, curate of Zamberk, to a certain extent continued
the Taborite traditions, and in the isth and i6th centuries
included most of the strongest opponents of Rome in Bohemia.
J. A. Komensky (Comenius), a member of the brotherhood,
claimed for the members of his church that they were the genuine
inheritors of the doctrines of Hus. After the beginning of the
German Reformation many Utraquists adopted to a large
extent the doctrines of Luther and Calvin; and in 1567 obtained
the repeal of the compacts, which no longer seemed sufficiently
far-reaching. From the end of the i6th century the inheritors
of the Hussite tradition in Bohemia were included in the more
general name of " Protestants " borne by the adherents of the
Reformation.
All histories of Bohemia devote a large amount of space to the
Hussite movement. See Count Lutzow, Bohemia; an Historical
Sketch (London, 1896); Palacky, Geschichte von Bohmen] Bach-
mann, Geschichte Bohmens; L. Krummel, Geschichle der bohmischen
Reformation (Gotha, 1866) and Utraquisten und Tabonten (Gotha,
1871)- Ernest Denis, Huss et la guerre des Hussites (Pans, 1878);
H. Toman, Husitske Vdlecnictvi (Prague, 1898).
HUSTING (O. Eng. htisting, from Old Norwegian husthing),
the " thing " or " ting," i.e. assembly, of the household of
personal followers or retainers of a king, earl or chief, contrasted
with the " folkmoot," the assembly of the whole people. "Thing"
meant an inanimate object, the ordinary meaning at the present
day, also a cause or suit, and an assembly; a similar develop-
ment of meaning is found in the Latin res. The word still
appears in the names of the legislative assemblies of Norway,
the Storthing and of Iceland, the Althing. " Husting," or
more usually in the plural " hustings," was the name of a court
of the city of London. This court was formerly the county
court for the city and was held before the lord mayor, the
sheriffs and aldermen, for pleas of land, common pleas and
appeals from the sheriffs. It had probate jurisdiction and wills
were registered. All this jurisdiction has long been obsolete,
but the court still sits occasionally for registering gifts made to
the city. The charter of Canute (1032) contains a reference
to " hustings " weights, which points to the early establishment
of the court. It is doubtful whether courts of this name were
held in other towns, but John Cowell (1554-1611) in his Inter-
preter (1601) s.v., "Hustings," says that according to Fleta there
were such courts at Winchester, York, Lincoln, Sheppey and
elsewhere, but the passage from Fleta, as the New English
Dictionary points out, does not necessarily imply this (11. Iv.
Habet etiam Rex curiam in civitatibus . . . et in locis . . .
sicut in Hustingis London, Winton, &c.). The ordinary use
of " hustings " at the present day for the platform from which
a candidate sneaks at a parliamentary or other election, or
more widely for a political candidate's election campaign, is
derived from the application of the word, first to the platform
in the Guildhall on which the London court was held, and next
to that from which the public nomination of candidates for a
parliamentary election was formerly made, and from which
the candidate addressed the electors. The Ballot Act of 1872
did away with this public declaration of the nomination.
HUSUM, a town in the Prussian province of Schleswig-Holstein,
in a fertile district 2^ m. inland from the North Sea, on the
canalized Husumer Au, which forms its harbour and roadstead,
99 m. N.W. from Hamburg on a branch line from Tonning.
Pop. (1900) 8268. It has steam communication with the
North Frisian Islands (Nordstrand, Fohr and Sylt), and is a
port for the cattle trade with England. Besides a ducal palace
and park, it possesses an Evangelical church and a gymnasium.
Cattle markets are held weekly, and in them, as also in cereals,
a lively export trade is done. There are also extensive oyster
fisheries, the property of the state, the yield during the season
being very considerable. Husum is the birthplace of Johann
Georg Forchhammer (1794-1865), the mineralogist, Peter
Wilhelm Forchhammer (1801-1894), the archaeologist, and
Theodore Storm (1817-1888), the poet, to the last of whom a
monument has been erected here.
Husum is first mentioned in 1252, and its first church was
built in 1431. Wisby rights were granted it in 1582, and in
1603 it received municipal privileges from the duke of Holstein.
It suffered greatly from inundations in 1634 and 1717.
See Christiansen, Die Geschichte Husums (Husum, 1903); and
Henningsen, Das Stiftungsbuch der Stadt Husum (Husum, 1904).
HUTCHESON, FRANCIS (1694-1746), English philosopher,
was born on the Sth of August 1694. His birthplace was probably
the townland of Drumalig, in the parish of Saintfield and county
of Down, Ireland.1 Though the family had sprung from Ayrshire,
in Scotland, both his father and grandfather were ministers
of dissenting congregations in the north of Ireland. Hutcheson
was educated partly by his grandfather, partly at an academy,
where according to his biographer, Dr Leechman, he was taught
1 See Belfast Magazine for August 1813.
IO
HUTCHESON
" the ordinary scholastic philosophy which was in vogue in
those days." In 1710 he entered the university of Glasgow,
where he spent six years, at first in the study of philosophy,
classics and general literature, and afterwards in the study
of theology. On quitting the university, he returned to the
north of Ireland, and received a licence to preach. When,
however, he was about to enter upon the pastorate of a small
dissenting congregation he changed his plans on the advice
of a friend and opened a private academy in Dublin. In Dublin
his literary attainments gained him the friendship of many
prominent inhabitants. Among these was Archbishop King
(author of the De origine mall), who resisted all attempts to
prosecute Hutcheson in the archbishop's court for keeping a
school without the episcopal licence. Hutcheson's relations
with the clergy of the Established Church, especially with the
archbishops of Armagh and Dublin, Hugh Boulter (1672-1742)
and William King (1650-1729), seem to have been most cordial,
and his biographer, in speaking of " the inclination of his friends
to serve him, the schemes proposed to him for obtaining pro-
motion," &c., probably refers to some offers of preferment, on
condition of his accepting episcopal ordination. These offers,
'however, were unavailing.
While residing in Dublin, Hutcheson published anonymously
the four essays by which he is best known, namely, the Inquiry
concerning Beauty, Order, Harmony and Design, the Inquiry con-
cerning Moral Good and Evil, in 1725, the Essay on the Nature
and Conduct of the Passions and Affections and Illustrations
upon the Moral Sense, in 1728. The alterations and additions
made in the second edition of these Essays were published in a
separate form in 1726. To the period of his Dublin residence
are also to be referred the Thoughts on Laughter (a criticism of
Hobbes) and the Observations on the Fable of the Bees, being
in all six letters contributed to Hibernicus' Letters, a periodical
which appeared in Dublin (1725-1727, 2nd ed. 1734). At the end
of the same period occurred the controversy in the London
Journal with Gilbert Burnet (probably the second son of Dr
Gilbert Burnet, bishop of Salisbury), on the " True Foundation
of Virtue or Moral Goodness." All these letters were collected
in one volume (Glasgow, 1772).
In 1729 Hutcheson succeeded his old master, Gershom
Carmichael, in the chair of moral philosophy in the university
of Glasgow. It is curious that up to this time all his essays
and letters had been published anonymously, though their
authorship appears to have been well known. In 1730 he
entered on the duties of his office, delivering an inaugural lecture
(afterwards published), De naturali homintim socialitate.
It was a great relief to him after the drudgery of school work
to secure leisure for his favourite studies; " non levi igitur
laetitia commovebar cum almam matrem Academiam me,
suum olim alumnum, in libertatem asseruisse audiveram."
Yet the works on which Hutcheson's reputation rests had
already been' published.
The remainder of his life he devoted to his professorial
duties. His reputation as a teacher attracted many young
men, belonging to dissenting families, from England and Ireland,
and he enjoyed a well-deserved popularity among both his
pupils and his colleagues. Though somewhat quick-tempered,
he was remarkable for his warm feelings and generous impulses.
He was accused in 1738 before the Glasgow .presbytery for
" following two false and dangerous doctrines: first, that the
standard of moral goodness was the promotion of the happiness
of others; and second, that we could have a knowledge of good
and evil without and prior to a knowledge of God" (Rae, Life
of Adam Smith, 1895). The accusation seems to have had no
result.
In addition to the works named, the following were published
during Hutcheson's lifetime: a pamphlet entitled Considerations
on Patronage (1735); Philosophiae moralis inslitutio com-
pendiaria, elhices et jurisprudence naturalis elementa continens,
lib. Hi. (Glasgow, 1742); Metaphysicae synopsis ontologiam
et pneumatologiam complectens (Glasgow, 1742). The last
work was published anonymously. After his death, his son,
Francis Hutcheson (c. 1722-1773), author of a number of
popular songs (e.g. " As Colin one evening," " Jolly Bacchus,"
" Where Weeping Yews "), published much the longest, though
by no means the most interesting, of his works, A System of
Moral Philosophy, in Three Books (2 vols., London, 1755). To this
is prefixed a life of the author, by Dr William Leechman (1706-
!785), professor of divinity in the university of Glasgow. The
only remaining work assigned to Hutcheson is a small treatise on
Logic ( Glasgow, 1 7 64) . This compendium, together with the Com-
pendium of Metaphysics, was republished at Strassburg in 1722.
Thus Hutcheson dealt with metaphysics, logic and ethics.
His importance is, however, due almost entirely to his ethical
writings, and among these primarily to the four essays and the
letters published during his residence in Dublin. His standpoint
has a negative and a positive aspect; he is in strong opposition
to Thomas Hobbes and Bernard de Mandeville, and in funda-
mental agreement with Shaftesbury (Anthony Ashley Cooper,
3rd earl of Shaftesbury), whose name he very properly coupled
with his own on the title-page of the first two essays. There
are no two names, perhaps, in the history of English moral
philosophy, which stand in a closer connexion. The analogy
drawn between beauty and virtue, the functions assigned to
the moral sense, the position that the benevolent feelings form
an original and irreducible part of our nature, and the unhesitating
adoption of the principle that the test of virtuous action is its
tendency to promote the general welfare are obvious and funda-
mental points of agreement between the two authors.
I. Ethics. — According to Hutcheson, man has a variety of senses,
internal as well as external, reflex as well as direct, the general
definition of a sense being " any determination of our minds to receive
ideas independently on our will, and to have perceptions of pleasure
and pain " (Essay on the Nature and Conduct of the Passions, sect. l).
He does not attempt to give an exhaustive enumeration of these
" senses," but, in various parts of his works, he specifies, besides the
five external senses commonly recognized (which, he rightly hints,
might be added to), — (l) consciousness, by which each man has a
perception of himself and of all that is going on in his own mind
(Metaph. Syn. pars i. cap. 2); (2) the sense of beauty (sometimes
called specifically " an internal sense ") ; (3) a public sense, or sensus
communis, " a determination to be pleased with the happiness of
others and to be uneasy at their misery " ; (4) the moral sense, or
" moral sense of beauty in actions and affections, by which we
perceive virtue or vice, in ourselves or others " ; (5) a sense of honour,
or praise and blame, " which makes the approbation or gratitude of
others the necessary occasion of pleasure, and their dislike, con-
demnation or resentment of injuries done by us the occasion of that
uneasy sensation called shame"; (6) a sense of the ridiculous. It
is plain, as the author confesses, that there may be " other percep-
tions, distinct from all these classes," and, in fact, there seems to be
no limit to the number of " senses " in which a psychological division
of this kind might result. .
Of these " senses " that which plays the most important part in
Hutcheson's ethical system is the " moral sense." It is this which
pronounces immediately on the character of actions and affections,
approving those which are virtuous, and disapproving those which
arc vicious. " His principal design," he says in the preface to the
two first treatises, " is to show that human nature was not left quite
indifferent in the affair of virtue, to form to itself observations con-
cerning the advantage or disadvantage of actions, and accordingly to
regulate its conduct. The weakness of our reason, and the avocations
arising from the infirmity and necessities of our nature, are so great
that very few men could ever have formed those long deductions of
reasons which show some actions to be in the whole advantageous
to the agent, and their contraries pernicious. The Author of nature
has much better furnished us for a virtuous conduct than our
moralists seem to imagine, by almost as quick and powerful instruc-
tions as we have for the preservation of our bodies. He has made
virtue a lovely form, to excite our pursuit of it, and has given us
strong affections to be the springs of each virtuous action." Passing
over the appeal to final causes involved in this and similar passages,
as well as the assumption that the " moral sense " has had no growth
or history, but was implanted " in man exactly in the condition in
which it is now to be found among the more civilized races, an
assumption common to the systems of both Hutcheson and Butler,
it may be remarked that this use of the term " sense " has a tendency
to obscure the real nature of the process which goes on in an act of
moral judgment. For, as is so clearly established by Hume, this act
really consists of two parts: one an act of deliberation, more or less
prolonged, resulting in an intellectual judgment; the other a reflex
feeling, probably instantaneous, of satisfaction at actions which we
denominate good, of dissatisfaction at those which we denominate bad.
By the intellectual part of this process we refer the action or habit
to a certain class; but no sooner is the intellectual process completed
HUTCHESON
ii
than there is excited in us a feeling similar to that which myriads of
actions and habits of the same class, or deemed to be of the same
class, have excited in us on former occasions. Now, supposing the
latter part of this process to be instantaneous, uniform and exempt
from error, the former certainly is not. All mankind may, apart from
their selfish interests, approve that which is virtuous or makes for
the general good, but surely they entertain the most widely divergent
opinions, and, in fact, freq jently arrive at directly opposite con-
clusions as to particular actions and habits. This obvious distinction
is undoubtedly recognized by Hutcheson in his analysis of the mental
process preceding moral action, nor does he invariably ignore it,
even when treating of the moral approbation or disapprobation which
is subsequent on action. None the less, it remains true that
Hutcheson, both by his phraseology, and by the language in which he
describes the process of moral approbation, has done much to favour
that loose, popular view of morality which, ignoring the necessity of
deliberation and reflection, encourages hasty resolves and unpre-
meditated judgments. The term " moral sense " (which, it may be
noticed, had already been employed by Shaftesbury, not only, as Dr
Whewell appears to intimate, in the margin, but also in the text of his
Inquiry), if invariably coupled with the term " moral judgment,"
would be open to little objection; but, taken alone, as designating
the complex process of moral approbation, it is liable to lead not
only to serious misapprehension but to grave practical errors. For,
if each man's decisions are solely the result of an immediate intuition
of the moral sense, why be at any pains to test, correct or review
them? Or why educate a faculty whose decisions are infallible?
And how do we account for differences in the moral decisions of
different societies, and the observable changes in a man's own
views? The expression has, in fact, the fault of most metaphorical
terms : it leads to an exaggeration of the truth which it is intended
to suggest.
But though Hutcheson usually describes the moral faculty as
acting instinctively and immediately, he does not, like Butler, con-
found the moral faculty with the moral standard. The test or
criterion of right action is with Hutcheson, as with Shaftesbury, its
tendency to promote the general welfare of mankind. . He thus
anticipates the utilitarianism of Bentham — and not only in principle,
but even in the use of the phrase " the greatest happiness for the
greatest number " (Inquiry concerning M 'oral Good and Evil, sect. 3).
It is curious that Hutcheson did not realize the inconsistency of
this external criterion with his fundamental ethical principle. In-
tuition has no possible connexion with an empirical calculation of
results, and Hutcheson in adopting such a criterion practically
denies his fundamental assumption.
As connected with Hutcheson's virtual adoption of the utilitarian
standard may be noticed a kind of moral algebra, proposed for the
purpose of " computing the morality of actions. This calculus
occurs in the Inquiry concerning Moral Good and Evil, sect. 3.
The most distinctive of Hutcheson's ethical doctrines still remaining
to be noticed is what has been called the " benevolent theory " of
Beaevo- m°rals. Hobbes had maintained that all our actions, how-
ever disguised under apparent sympathy, have their roots in
self-love. Hutcheson not only maintains that benevolence
is the sole and direct source of many of our actions, but, by a not un-
natural recoil, that it is the only source of those actions of which, on
reflection, we approve. Consistently with this position, actions which
flow from self-love only are pronounced to be morally indifferent.
But surely, by the common consent of civilized men, prudence,
temperance, cleanliness, industry, self-respect and, in general, the
" personal virtues," are regarded, and rightly regarded, as fitting
objects of moral approbation. This consideration could hardly escape
any author, however wedded to his own system, and Hutcheson
attempts to extricate himself from the difficulty by. laying down the
position that a man may justly regard himself as a part of the rational
system, and may thus " be, in part, an object of his own benevo-
lence " (Ibid.), — a curious abuse of terms, which really concedes the
question at issue. Moreover, he acknowledges that, though self-love
does not merit approbation, neither, except in its extreme forms, does
it merit condemnation, indeed the satisfaction of the dictates of self-
love is one.of the very conditions of the preservation of society. To
press home the inconsistencies involved in these various statements
would be a superfluous task.
The vexed question of liberty and necessity appears to be carefully
avoided in Hutcheson's professedly ethical works. But, in the
Synopsis metaphysicae, he touches on it in three places, briefly
stating both sides of the question, but evidently inclining to that
which he designates as the opinion of the Stoics in opposition to
what he designates as the opinion of the Peripatetics. This is
substantially the same as the doctrine propounded by Hobbes and
Locke (to the latter of whom Hutcheson refers in a note), namely,
that our will is determined by motives in conjunction with our
general character and habit of mind, and that the only true liberty
is the liberty of acting as we will, not the liberty of willing as we will.
Though, however, his leaning is clear, he carefully avoids dogmatiz-
ing, and deprecates the angry controversies to which the speculations
on this subject had given rise.
It is easy to trace the influence of Hutcheson's ethical theories on
the systems of Hume and Adam Smith. The prominence given by
these writers to the analysis of moral action and moral approbation,
with the attempt to discriminate the respective provinces of the
reason and the emotions in these processes, is undoubtedly due to the
influence of Hutcheson. To a study of the writings of Shaftesbury
and Hutcheson we might, probably, in large measure, attribute the
unequivocal adoption of the utilitarian standard by Hume, and, if
this be the case, the name of Hutcheson connects itself, through
Hume, with the names of Priestley, Paley and Bentham. Butler's
Sermons appeared in 1726, the year after the publication of
Hutcheson s two first essays, and the parallelism between the
" conscience " of the one writer and the " moral sense " of the other
is, at least, worthy of remark.
II. Mental Philosophy. — In the sphere of mental philosophy and
logic Hutcheson's contributions are by no means so important or
original as in that of moral philosophy. They are interesting mainly
as a link between Locke and the Scottish school. In the former
subject the influence of Locke is apparent throughout. All the main
outlines of Locke's philosophy seem, at first sight, to be accepted as a
matter of course. Thus, in stating his theory of the moral sense,
Hutcheson is peculiarly careful to repudiate the doctrine of innate
ideas (see, for instance, Inquiry concerning Moral Good and Evil, sect.
I ad fin., and sect. 4; and compare Synopsis Metaphysicae, pars i.
cap. 2). At the same time he shows more discrimination than does
Locke in distinguishing between the two uses of this expression, and
between the legitimate and illegitimate form of the doctrine (Syn.
Metaph. pars i. cap. 2). All our ideas are, as by Locke, referred to
external or internal sense, or, in other words, to sensation and re-
flection (see, for instance, Syn. Metaph. pars i. cap. i ; Logicae
Compend. pars i. cap. I; System of Moral Philosophy, bk. i. ch. i).
It is, however, a most important modification of Locke's doctrine,
and one which connects Hutcheson's mental philosophy with that of
Reid, when he states that the ideas of extension, figure, motion and
rest "are more properly ideas accompanying the sensations of sight
and touch than the sensations of either of these senses "; that the
idea of self accompanies every thought, and that the ideas of
number, duration and existence accompany every other idea what-
soever (see Essay on the Nature and Conduct of the Passions, sect. i.
art. i; Syn. Metaph. pars i. cap. i, pars ii. cap. i; Hamilton on
Reid, p. 124, note). Other important points in which Hutcheson
follows the lead of Locke are his depreciation of the importance of
the so-called laws of thought, his distinction between the primary and
secondary qualities of bodies, the position that we cannot know the
inmost essences of things (" intimae rerum naturae sive essentiae "),
though they excite various ideas in us, and the assumption that ex-
ternal things are known only through the medium of ideas (Syn.
Melaph. pars i. cap. i), though, at the same time, we are assured
of the existence of an external world corresponding to these ideas.
Hutcheson attempts to account for our assurance of the reality of
an external world by referring it to a natural instinct (Syn. Metaph.
pars i. cap. i). Of the correspondence or similitude between our ideas
of the primary qualities of things and the things themselves God
alone can be assigned as the cause. This similitude has been effected
by Him through a law of nature. " Haec prima qualitatum prima-
riarum perceptio, sive mentis actio quaedam sive passio dicatur, non
alia similitudinis aut cpnvenientiae inter ejusmodi ideas et res ipsas
causa assignari posse videtur, quam ipse Deus, qui certa naturae lege
hoc efficit, ut notiones, quae rebus praesentibus excitantur, sint ipsis
similes, aut saltern earum habitudines, si non veras quantitates,
depingant " (pars ii. cap. i). Locke does speak of God " annexing "
certain ideas to certain motions of bodies; but nowhere does he
propound a theory so definite as that here propounded by Hutcheson,
which reminds us at least as much of the speculations of Malebranche
as of those of Locke.
Amongst the more important points in which Hutcheson diverges
from Locke is his account of the idea of personal identity, which he
appears to have regarded as made known to us directly by conscious-
ness. The distinction between body and mind, corpus or materia and
res cogitans, is more emphatically accentuated by Hutcheson than
by Locke. Generally, he speaks as if we had a direct consciousness
of mind as distinct from body (see, for instance, Syn. Metaph. pars ii.
cap. 3), though, in the posthumous work on Moral Philosophy, he
expressly states that we know mind as we know body " by qualities
immediately perceived though the substance of both be unknown "
(bk. i. ch. i). The distinction between perception proper and sensa-
tion proper, which occurs by implication though it is not explicitly
worked out (see Hamilton's Lectures on Metaphysics, Lect. 24;
Hamilton's edition of Dugald Stewart's Works, v. 420), the
imperfection of the ordinary division of the external senses into five*
classes, the limitation of consciousness to a special mental faculty
(severely criticized in Sir W. Hamilton's Lectures on Metaphysics,,
Lect. xii.) and the disposition to refer on disputed questions of philo-
sophy not so much to formal arguments as to the testimony of con-
sciousness and our natural instincts are also amongst the points in
which Hutcheson supplemented or departed from the philosophy of,
Locke. The last point can hardly fail to suggest the " common-
sense philosophy " of Reid.
Thus, in estimating Hutcheson's position, we find that in particular
questions he stands nearer to Locke, but in the general spirit of his
philosophy he seems to approach more closely to his Scottish suc-r
cessors.
The short Compendium of Logic, which is more original than such
HUTCHINSON, ANNE— HUTCHINSON, JOHN
12
works usually are, is remarkable chiefly for the large proportion of
psychological matter which it contains. In these parts of the book
Hutcheson mainly follows Locke. The technicalities of the subject
are passed lightly over, and the book is readable. It may be specially
noticed that he distinguishes between the mental result and its verbal
expression [idea — term ; judgment — proposition], that he constantly
employs the word " idea," and that he defines logical truth as con-
venientia signorum cum rebus significatis " (or ' propositioms cpn-
venientia cum rebus ipsis," Syn. Melaph. pars i. cap 3), thus im-
plicitly repudiating a merely formal view of logic.
III. Aesthetics. — Hutcheson may further be regarded as one of
the earliest modern writers on aesthetics. His speculations on this
subject are contained in the Inquiry concerning Beauty, Order,
Harmony and Design, the first of the two treatises published in 1725.
He maintains that we are endowed with a special sense by which we
perceive beauty, harmony and proportion. This is a reflex sense,
because it presupposes the action of the external senses of sight and
hearing. It may be called an internal sense, both in order to dis-
tinguish its perceptions from the mere perceptions of sight and
hearing, and because " in some other affairs, where our external senses
are not much concerned, we discern a sort of beauty, very like in
many respects to that observed in sensible objects, and accompanied
with like pleasure " (Inquiry, &c., sect. i). The latter reason leads
him to calf attention to the beauty perceived in universal truths, in the
operations of general causes and in moral principles and actions.
Thus, the analogy between beauty and virtue, which was so favourite
a topic with Shaftesbury, is prominent in the writings of Hutcheson
also. Scattered up and down the treatise there are many important
and interesting observations which our limits prevent us from
noticing. But to the student of mental philosophy it may be
specially interesting to remark that Hutcheson both applies the
principle of association to explain our ideas of beauty and also sets
limits to its application, insisting on there being " a natural power
of perception or sense of beauty in objects, antecedent to all custom,
education or example" (see Inquiry, &c., sects. 6, 7; Hamilton's
Lectures on Metaphysics, Lect. 44 ad fin.).
Hutcheson's writings naturally gave rise to much controversy.
To say nothing of minor opponents, such as " Philaretus " (Gilbert
Burnet, already alluded to), Dr John Balguy (1686-1748), pre-
bendary of Salisbury, the author of two tracts on " The Foundation
of Moral Goodness, and Dr John Taylor (1694-1761) of Norwich, a
minister of considerable reputation in his time (author of An Examina-
tion of the Scheme of Morality advanced by Dr Hutcheson), the essays
appear to have suggested, by antagonism, at least two works which
hold a permanent place in the literature of English ethics — Butler's
Dissertation on the Nature of Virtue, and Richard Price's Treatise of
Moral Good and Evil (1757). In this latter work the author main-
tains, in opposition to Hutcheson, that actions are in themselves right
or wrong, that right and wrong are simple ideas incapable of analysis,
and that these ideas are perceived immediately by the understand-
ing. We thus see that, not only directly but also through the replies
which it called forth, the system of Hutcheson, or at least the system
of Hutcheson combined with that of Shaftesbury, contributed, in
large measure, to the formation and development of some of the most
important of the modern schools of ethics (see especially art. ETHICS).
AUTHORITIES. — Notices of Hutcheson occur in most histories, both
of general philosophy and of moral philosophy, as, for instance, in
pt. vii. of Adam Smith's Theory of Moral Sentiments; Mackintosh's
Progress of Ethical Philosophy; Cousin, Cours d'histoire de la
philosophic morale du XVIII" siecle; Whewell's Lectures on the
History of Moral Philosophy in England; A. Bain's Mental and Moral
Science; Noah Porter's Appendix to the English translation of
Ueberweg's History of Philosophy; Sir Leslie Stephen's History of
English Thought in the Eighteenth Century, &c. See also Martineau,
Types of Ethical Theory (London, 1902); W. R. Scott, Francis
Hutcheson (Cambridge, 1900); Albee, History of English Utilitarian-
ism (London, 1902) ; T. Fowler, Shaftesbury and Hutcheson (London,
1882); J. McCosh, Scottish Philosophy (New York, 1874). Of Dr
Leechman's Biography of Hutcheson we have already spoken.
J. Veitch gives an interesting account of his professorial work in
Glasgow, Mind, ii. 209-212. (T. F. ; X.)
HUTCHINSON, ANNE (c. 1600-1643), American religious
enthusiast, leader of the " Antinomians " in New England,
was born in Lincolnshire, England, about 1600. She was the
daughter of a clergyman named Francis Marbury, and, according
to tradition, was a cousin of John Dryden. She married William
Hutchinson, and in 1634 emigrated to Boston, Massachusetts,
as a follower and admirer of the Rev. John Cotton. Her orthodoxy
was suspected and for a time she was not admitted to the church,
but soon she organized meetings among the Boston women,
among whom her exceptional ability and her services as a nurse
had given her great influence; and at these meetings she dis-
cussed and commented upon recent sermons and gave expression
to her own theological views. The meetings became increasingly
popular, and were soon attended not only by the women but
even by some of the ministers and magistrates, including Governor
Henry Vane. At these meetings she asserted that she, Cotton
and her brother-in-law, the Rev. John Wheelwright — whom
she was trying to make second " teacher " in the Boston church —
were under a " covenant of grace," that they had a special
inspiration, a " peculiar indwelling of the Holy Ghost," whereas
the Rev. John Wilson, the pastor of the Boston church, and
the other ministers of the colony were under a " covenant of
works." Anne Hutchinson was, in fact, voicing a protest against
the legalism of the Massachusetts Puritans, and was also striking
at the authority of the clergy in an intensely theocratic community.
In such a community a theological controversy inevitably
was carried into secular politics, and the entire colony was
divided into factions. Mrs Hutchinson was supported by
Governor Vane, Cotton, Wheelwright and the great majority of
the Boston church; opposed to her were Deputy-Governor John
Winthrop, Wilson and all of the country magistrates and
churches. At a general fast, held late in January 1637, Wheel-
wright preached a sermon which was taken as a criticism of
Wilson and his friends. The strength of the parties was tested
at the General Court of Election of May 1637, when Winthrop
defeated Vane for the governorship. Cotton recanted, Vane re-
turned to England in disgust, Wheelwright was tried and banished
and the rank and file either followed Cotton in making sub-
mission or suffered various minor punishments. Mrs Hutchinson
was tried (November 1637) by the General Court chiefly for
" traducing the ministers," and was sentenced to banishment;
later, in March 1638, she was tried before the Boston church
and was formally excommunicated. With William Coddington
(d. 1678), John Clarke and others, she established a settlement
on the island of Aquidneck (now Rhode Island) in 1638. Four
years later, after the death of her husband, she settled on Long
Island Sound near what is now New Rochelle, Westchester
county, New York, and was killed in an Indian rising in August
1643, an event regarded in Massachusetts as a manifestation
of Divine Providence. Anne Hutchinson and her followers
were called " Antinomians," probably more as a term of reproach
than with any special reference to her doctrinal theories; and
the controversy in which she was involved is known as the
" Antinomian Controversy."
See C. F. Adams, Antinomianism in the Colony of Massachusetts
Bay, vol. xiv. of the Prince Society Publications (Boston, 1894);
and Three Episodes of Massachusetts History (Boston and New York,
1896).
HUTCHINSON, JOHN (1615-1664), Puritan soldier, son of
Sir Thomas Hutchinson of Owthorpe, Nottinghamshire, and
of Margaret, daughter of Sir John Byron of Newstead, was
baptized on the i8th of September 1615. He was educated at
Nottingham and Lincoln schools and at Peterhouse, Cambridge,
and in 1637 he entered Lincoln's Inn. On the outbreak of the
great Rebellion he took the side of the Parliament, and was
made in 1643 governor of Nottingham Castle, which he defended
against external attacks and internal divisions, till the triumph
of the parliamentary cause. He was chosen member for
Nottinghamshire in March 1646, took the side of the Independents,
opposed the offers of the king at Newport, and signed the death-
warrant. Though a member at first of the council of state, he
disapproved of the subsequent political conduct of Cromwell
and took no further part in politics during the lifetime of the
protector. He resumed his seat in the recalled Long Parliament
in May 1659, and followed Monk in opposing Lambert, believing
that the former intended to maintain the commonwealth.
He was returned to the Convention Parliament for Nottingham
but expelled on the pth of June 1660, and while not excepted
from the Act of Indemnity was declared incapable of holding
public office. In October 1663, however, he was arrested upon
suspicion of being concerned in the Yorkshire plot, and after
a rigorous confinement in the Tower of London, of which he
published an account (reprinted in the Harleian Miscellany,
vol. iii.), and in Sandown Castle, Kent, he died on the nth of
September 1664. His career draws its chief interest from the
Life by his wife, Lucy, daughter of Sir Allen Apsley, written
HUTCHINSON, JOHN— HUTCHINSON
after the death of her husband but not published till 1806 (since
often reprinted), a work not only valuable for the picture which
it gives of the man and of the time in which he lived, but for
the simple beauty of its style, and the naivete with which the
writer records her sentiments and opinions, and details the
incidents of her private life.
See the edition of Lucy Hutchinson's Memoirs of the Life of Colonel
Hutchinson by C. H. Firth (1885); Brit. Mus. Add. MSS. 25,901 (a
fragment of the Life), also Add. MSS. 19, 333, 36,247 f. 51; Notes
and Queries, 7, sen iii. 25, viii. 422 ; Monk's Contemporaries, by
Guizot.
HUTCHINSON, JOHN (1674-1737), English theological writer,
was born at Spennithorne, Yorkshire, in 1674. He served as
steward in several families of position, latterly in that of the
duke of Somerset, who ultimately obtained for him the post
of riding purveyor to the master of the horse, a sinecure worth
about £200 a year. In 1700 he became acquainted with Dr
John Woodward (1665-1728) physician to the duke and author
of a work entitled The Natural History of the Earth, to whom he
entrusted a large number of fossils of his own collecting, along
with a mass of manuscript notes, for arrangement and publication.
A misunderstanding as to the manner in which these should
be dealt with was the immediate occasion of the publication
by Hutchinson in 1724 of Moses's Principia, part i., in which
Woodward's Natural History was bitterly ridiculed, his conduct
with regard to the mineralogical specimens not obscurely
characterized, and a refutation of the Newtonian doctrine of
gravitation seriously attempted. It was followed by part ii.
in 1727, and by various other works, including Moses's Sine
Principio, 1730; The Confusion of Tongues and Trinity of the
Gentiles, 1731; Power Essential and Mechanical, or what power
belongs to God and what to his creatures, in which the design of
Sir I. Newton and Dr Samuel Clarke is laid open, 1732; Glory or
Gravity, 1733; The Religion of Satan, or Antichrist Delineated,
1736. He taught that the Bible contained the elements not only
of true religion but also of all rational philosophy. He held
that the Hebrew must be read without points, and his interpreta-
tion rested largely on fanciful symbolism. Bishop George Home
of Norwich was during some of his earlier years an avowed
Hutchinsonian; and William Jones of Nay land continued to
be so to the end of his life.
A complete edition of his publications, edited by Robetf Spearman
and Julius Bate, appeared in 1748 (12 yols.); an Abstract of these
followed in 1753; and a Supplement, with Life by Spearman pre-
fixed, in 1765.
HUTCHINSON, SIR JONATHAN (1828- ), English surgeon
and pathologist, was born on the 23rd of July 1828 at Selby,
Yorkshire, his parents belonging to the Society of Friends.
He entered St Bartholomew's Hospital, became a member of the
Royal College of Surgeons in 1850 (F.R.C.S. 1862), and rapidly
gained reputation as a skilful operator and a scientific inquirer.
He was president of the Hunterian Society in 1869 and 1870,
professor of surgery and pathology at the College of Surgeons
from 1877 to 1882, president of the Pathological Society, 1879-
1880, of the Ophthalmological Society, 1883, of the Neurological
Society, 1887, of the Medical Society, 1890, and of the Royal
Medical and Chirurgical in 1894-1896. In 1889 he was president
of the Royal College of Surgeons. He was a member of two
Royal Commissions, that of 1881 to inquire into the provision
for smallpox and fever cases in the London hospitals, and that
of 1889-1896 on vaccination and leprosy. He also acted as
honorary secretary to the Sydenham Society. His activity
in the cause of scientific surgery and in advancing the study
of the natural sciences was unwearying. His lectures on neuro-
pathogenesis, gout, leprosy, diseases of the tongue, &c., were full
of original observation; but his principal work was connected
with the study of syphilis, on which he became the first living
authority. He was the founder of the London Polyclinic or
Postgraduate School of Medicine; and both in his native town
of Selby and at Haslemere, Surrey, he started (about 1890)
educational museums for popular instruction in natural history.
He published several volumes on his own subjects, was editor of
the quarterly Archives of Surgery, and was given the Hon. LL.D.
degree by both Glasgow and Cambridge. After his retirement
from active consultative work he continued to take great interest
in the question of leprosy, asserting the existence of a definite
connexion between this disease and the eating of salted fish.
He received a knighthood in 1908.
HUTCHINSON, THOMAS (1711-1780), the kst royal governor
of the province of Massachusetts, son of a wealthy merchant
of Boston, Mass., was born there on the gth of September 1711.
He graduated at Harvard in 1727, then became an apprentice
in his father's counting-room, and for several years devoted
himself to business. In 1737 he began his public career as a
member of the Boston Board of Selectmen, and a few weeks
later he was elected to the General Court of Massachusetts Bay,
of which he was a member until 1740 and again from 1742 to
1749, serving as speaker in 1747, 1748 and 1749. He con-
sistently contended for a sound financial system, and vigorously
opposed the operations of the " Land Bank " and the issue of
pernicious bills of credit. In 1748 he carried \ through the
General Court a bill providing for the cancellation and redemption
of the outstanding paper currency. Hutchinson went to England
in 1740 as the representative of Massachusetts in a boundary
dispute with New Hampshire. He was a member of the Massa-
chusetts Council from 1749 to 1756, was appointed judge of
probate in 1752 and was chief justice of the superior court of
the province from 1761 to 1769, was lieutenant-governor from
1758 to 1771, acting as governor in the latter two years, and
from 1771 to 1774 was governor. In 1754 he was a delegate
from Massachusetts to the Albany Convention,and, with Franklin,
was a member of the committee appointed to draw up a plan of
union. Though he recognized the legality of the Stamp Act
of 1765, he considered the measure inexpedient and impolitic
and urged its repeal, but his attitude was misunderstood; he
was considered by many to have instigated the passage of the
Act, and in August 1765 a mob sacked his Boston residence
and destroyed many valuable manuscripts and documents.
He was acting governor at the time of the " Boston Massacre "
in 1770, and was virtually forced by the citizens of Boston,
under the leadership of Samuel Adams, to order the removal
of the British troops from the town. Throughout the pre-
Revolutionary disturbances in Massachusetts he was the re-
presentative of the British ministry, and though he disapproved
of some of the ministerial measures he felt impelled to enforce
them and necessarily incurred the hostility of the Whig or
Patriot element. In 1774, upon the appointment of General
Thomas Gage as military governor he went to England, and
acted as an adviser to George III. and the British ministry
on American affairs, uniformly counselling moderation. He
died at Brompton, now part of London, on the 3rd of June
1780.
He wrote A Brief Statement of the Claim of the Colonies (1764) ; a
Collection of Original Papers relative to the History of Massachusetts
Bay (1769), reprinted as The Hutchinson Papers by the Prince
Society in 1865 ; and a judicious, accurate and very valuable History
of the Province of Massachusetts Bay (vol. i., 1764, vol. ii., 1767, and
vol. iii., 1828). His Diary and Letters, with an Account of his Ad-
ministration, was published at Boston in 1884-1886.
See James K. Hosmer's Life of Thomas Hutchinson (Boston, 1896),
and a biographical chapter in John Fiske's Essays Historical and
Literary (New York, 1902). For an estimate of Hutchinson as an
historian, see M. C. Tyler's Literary History of the American Revolu-
tion (New York, 1897).
HUTCHINSON, a city and the county-seat of Reno county,
Kansas, U.S.A., in the broad bottom-land on the N. side of
the Arkansas river. Pop. (1900) 9379, of whom 414 were
foreign-born and 442 negroes; (1910 census) 16,364. It
is served by the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe, the Missouri
Pacific and the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific railways. The
principal public buildings are the Federal building and the county
court house. The city has a public library, and an industrial
reformatory is maintained here by the state. Hutchinson is
situated in a stock-raising, fruit-growing and farming region
(the principal products of which are wheat, Indian corn and
fodder), with which it has a considerable wholesale trade. An
enormous deposit of rock salt underlies the city and its vicinity,
HUTTEN, P. VON— HUTTEN, U. VON
14
and Hutchinson's principal industry is the manufacture (by
the open-pan and grainer processes) and the shipping of salt;
the city has one of the largest salt plants in the world. Among
the other manufactures are flour, creamery products, soda-
ash, straw-board, planing-mill products and packed meats.
Natural gas is largely used as a factory fuel. The city's factory
product was valued at $2,031,048 in 1905, an increase of 31-8%
since 1900. Hutchinson was chartered as a city in 1871.
HUTTEN, PHILIPP VON (c. 1511-1546), German knight,
was a relative of Ulrich von Hutten and passed some of his
early years at the court of the emperor Charles V. Later he
joined the band of adventurers which under Georg Hohermuth,
or George of Spires, -sailed to Venezuela, or Venosala as Hutten
calls it, with the object of conquering and exploiting this land in
the interests of the Augsburg family of Welser. The party
landed at Coro in February 1535 and Hutten accompanied
Hohermuth on his long and toilsome expedition into the interior
in search of treasure. After the death of Hohermuth in December
1540 he became captain-general of Venezuela. Soon after this
event he vanished into the interior, returning after five years
of wandering to find that a Spaniard, Juan de Caravazil, or
Caravajil, had been appointed governor in his absence. With
his travelling companion, Bartholomew Welser the younger,
he was seized by Caravazil in April 1546 and the two were
afterwards put to death.
, Hutten left some letters, and also a narrative of the earlier part of
his adventures, this Zeitung aus India Junkher PhUipps von Hutten
being published in 1785.
HUTTEN, ULRICH VON (1488-1523), was born on the 2ist of
April 1488, at the castle of Steckelberg, near Fulda, in Hesse.
Like Erasmus or Pirckheimer, he was one of those men who
form the bridge between Humanists and Reformers. He lived
with both, sympathized with both, though he died before the
Reformation had time fully to develop. His life may be divided
into four parts: — his youth and cloister-life (1488-1504); his
wanderings in pursuit of knowledge (1504-1515); his strife
with Ulrich of Wiirttemberg (1515-1519); and his connexion
with the Reformation (1510-1523). Each of these periods
had its own special antagonism, which coloured Hutten 's career:
in the first, his horror of dull monastic routine; in the second,
the ill-treatment he met with at Greifswald; in the third, the
crime of Duke Ulrich; in the fourth, his disgust with Rome
and with Erasmus. He was the eldest son of a poor and not
undistinguished knightly family. As he was mean of stature
and sickly his father destined him for the cloister, and he was
sent to the Benedictine house at Fulda; the thirst for learning
there seized on him, and in 1505 he fled from the monastic life,
and won his freedom with the sacrifice of his worldly prospects,
and at the cost of incurring his father's undying anger. From
the Fulda cloister he went first to Cologne, next to Erfurt, and then
to Frankfort-on-Oder on the opening in 1 506 of the new university
of that town. For a time he was in Leipzig, and in 1 508 we find
him a shipwrecked beggar on the Pomeranian coast. In 1509
the university of Greifswald welcomed him, but here too those
who at first received him kindly became his foes; the sensitive
ill-regulated youth, who took the liberties of genius, wearied
his burgher patrons; they could not brook the poet's airs and
vanity, and ill-timed assertions of his higher rank. Wherefore
he left Greifswald, and as he went was robbed of clothes and
books, his only baggage, by the servants of his late friends;
in the dead of winter, half starved, frozen, penniless, he reached
Rostock. Here again the Humanists received him gladly,
and under their protection he wrote against his Greifswald
patrons, thus beginning the long list of his satires and fierce
attacks on personal or public foes. Rostock could not hold
him long; he wandered on to Wittenberg and Leipzig, and
thence to Vienna, where he hoped to win the emperor Maximilian's
favour by an elaborate national poem on the war with Venice.
But neither Maximilian nor the university of Vienna would
lift a hand for him, and he passed into Italy, where, at Pavia,
he sojourned throughout 1511 and part of 1512. In the latter
year his studies were interrupted by war; in the siege of Pavia
by papal troops and Swiss, he was plundered by both sides,
and escaped, sick and penniless, to Bologna; on his recovery
he even took service as a private soldier in the emperor's army.
This dark period lasted no long time; in 1514 he was again
in Germany, where, thanks to his poetic gifts and the friendship
of Eitelwolf von Stein (d. 1515), he won the favour of the elector
of Mainz, Archbishop Albert of Brandenburg. Here high
dreams of a learned career rose on him; Mainz should be made
the metropolis of a grand Humanist movement, the centre of
good style and literary form. But the murder in 1515 of his
relative Hans von Hutten by Ulrich, duke of Wiirttemberg,
changed the whole course of his life; satire, chief refuge of the
weak, became Hutten 's weapon; with one hand he took his
part in the famous Epistolae obscurorum virorum, and with
the other launched scathing letters, eloquent Ciceronian orations,
or biting satires against the duke. Though the emperor was
too lazy and indifferent to smite a great prince, he took Hutten
under his protection and bestowed on him the honour of a
laureate crown in 1517. Hutten, who had meanwhile revisited
Italy, again attached himself to the electoral court at Mainz;
and he was there when in 1518 his friend Pirckheimer wrote,
urging him to abandon the court and dedicate himself to letters.
We have the poet's long reply, in an epistle on his " way of life,"
an amusing mixture of earnestness and vanity, self-satisfaction
and satire; he tells his friend that his career is just begun,
that he has had twelve years of wandering, and will now enjoy
himself a while in patriotic literary work; that he has by na
means deserted the humaner studies, but carries with him
a little library of standard books. Pirckheimer in his burgher
life may have ease and even luxury; he, a knight of the empire,
how can he condescend to obscurity? He must abide where
he can shine.
In 1519 he issued in one volume his attacks on Duke Ulrich,
and then, drawing sword, took part in the private war which
overthrew that prince; in this affair he became intimate with
Franz von Sickingen, the champion of the knightly order
(Ritterstand). Hutten now warmly and openly espoused the
Lutheran cause, but he was at the same time mixed up in the
attempt of the " Ritterstand " to assert itself as the militia
of the empire against the independence of the German princes.
Soon after this time he discovered at Fulda a copy of the mani-
festo of the emperor Henry IV. against Hildebrand, and published
it with comments as an attack on the papal claims over Germany.
He hoped thereby to interest the new emperor Charles V., and
the higher orders in the empire, in behalf of German liberties;
but the appeal failed. What Luther had achieved by speaking
to cities and common folk in homely phrase, because he touched
heart and conscience, that the far finer weapons of Hutten failed
to effect, because he tried to touch the more cultivated sympathies
and dormant patriotism of princes and bishops, nobles and
knights. And so he at once gained an undying name in the
republic of letters and ruined his own career. He showed that
the artificial verse-making of the Humanists could be connected
with the new outburst of genuine German poetry. The Minne-
singer was gone; the new national singer, a Luther or a Hans
Sachs, was heralded by the stirring lines of Hutten's pen. These
have in them a splendid natural swing and ring, strong and
patriotic, though unfortunately addressed to knight and lands-
knecht rather than to the German people.
The poet's high dream of a knightly national regeneration
had a rude awakening. The attack on the papacy, and Luther's,
vast and sudden popularity, frightened Elector Albert, who
dismissed Hutten from his court. Hoping for imperial favour,
he betook himself to Charles V.; but that young prince would
have none of him. So he returned to his friends, and they
rejoiced greatly to see him still alive; for Pope Leo X. had
ordered him to be arrested and sent to Rome, and assassins
dogged his steps. He now attached himself more closely to
Franz von Sickingen and the knightly movement. This also
came to a disastrous end in the capture of the Ebernberg, and
Sickingen's death; the higher nobles had triumphed; the
archbishops avenged themselves on Lutheranism as interpreted
HUTTER— HUTTON, C.
by the knightly order. With Sickingen Hutten also finally fell.
He fled to Basel, where Erasmus refused to see him, both for
fear of his loathsome diseases, and also because the beggared
knight was sure to borrow money from him. A paper war
consequently broke out between the two Humanists, which
embittered Hutten's last days, and stained the memory of
Erasmus. From Basel Ulrich dragged himself to Miilhausen;
and when the vengeance of Erasmus drove him thence, he went
to Zurich. There the large heart of Zwingli welcomed him;
he helped him with money, and found him a quiet refuge with
the pastor of the little isle of Ufnau on the Zurich lake. There
the frail and worn-out poet, writing swift satire to the end, died
at the end of August or beginning of September 1523 at the
age of thirty-five. He left behind him some debts due to com-
passionate friends; he did not even own a single book, and
all his goods amounted to the clothes on his back, a bundle
of letters, and that valiant pen which had fought so many
a sharp battle, and had won for the poor knight-errant a sure
place in the annals of literature.
Ulrich von Hutten is one of those men of genius at whom
propriety is shocked, and whom the mean-spirited avoid. Yet
through his short and buffeted life he was befriended, with
wonderful charity and patience, by the chief leaders of the
Humanist movement. For, in spite of his irritable vanity,
his immoral life and habits, his odious diseases, his painful
restlessness, Hutten had much in him that strong men could
love. He passionately loved the truth, and was ever open
to all good influences. He was a patriot, whose soul soared
to ideal schemes and a grand Utopian restoration of his country.
In spite of all, his was a frank and noble nature; his faults chiefly
the faults of genius ill-controlled, and of a life cast in the eventful
changes of an age of novelty. A swarm of writings issued from
his pen; at first the smooth elegance of his Latin prose and verse
seemed strangely to miss his real character; he was the Cicero
and Ovid of Germany before he became its Lucian.
His chief works were his Ars versificandi (1511) ; the Nemo (1518) ;
a work on the Morbus Gallicus (1519); the volume of Steckelberg
complaints against Duke Ulrich (including his four Ciceronian
Orations, his Letters and the Phalarismus) also in 1519; the Vadismus
(1520); and the controversy with Erasmus at the end of his life.
Besides these were many admirable poems in Latin and German.
It is not known with certainty how far Hutten was the parent of the
celebrated Epistolae obscurorum virorum, that famous satire on
monastic ignorance as represented by the theologians of Cologne
with which the friends of Reuchlin defended him. At first the
cloister-world, not discerning its irony, welcomed the work as a
defence of their position; though their eyes were soon opened by
the favour with which the learned world received it. The Epistolae
were eagerly bought up; the first part (41 letters) appeared at the
end of 1515; early in 1516 there was a second edition; later in 1516
a third, with an appendix of seven letters; in 1517 appeared the
second part (62 letters), to which a fresh appendix of eight letters
was subjoined soon after. In 1909 the Latin text of the Epistolae
with an English translation was published by F. G. Stokes. Hutten,
in a letter addressed to Robert Crocus, denied that he was the author
of the book, but there is no doubt as to his connexion with it.
Erasmus was of opinion that there were three authors, of whom
Crotus Rubianus was the originator of the idea, and Hutten a chief
contributor. D. F. Strauss, who dedicates to the subject a chapter
of his admirable work on Hutten, concludes that he had no share in
the first part, but that his hand is clearly visible in the second part,
which he attributes in the main to him. To him is due the more
serious and severe tone of that bitter portion of the satire. See
W. Brecht, Die Verfasser der Epistolae obscurorum virorum (1904).
For a complete catalogue of the writings of Hutten, see E. Booking's
Index Bibliographicus Huttenianus (1858). Bocking is also the editor
of the complete edition of Hutten's works (7 vols., 1859-1862). A
selection of Hutten's German writings, edited by G. Balke, appeared
in 1891. Cp. S. Szamatolski, Hultens deutsche Schriften (1891).
The best biography (though it is also somewhat of a political
pamphlet) is that of D. F. Strauss (Ulrich von Hutten, 1857;
4th ed., 1878; English translation by G. Sturge, 1874), with
which may be compared the older monographs by A. Wagenseil
(1823), A. Biirck (1846) and J. Zeller (Paris, 1849). See also
J. Deckert, Ulrich von Huttens Leben und Wirken. Eine historische
Skizze (1901). (G. W. K.)
HUTTER, LEONHARD (1563-1616), German Lutheran
theologian, was born at Nellingen near Ulm in January 1563.
From 1581 he studied at the universities of Strassburg, Leipzig,
Heidelberg and Jena. In 1594 he began to give theological
lectures at Jena, and in 1596 accepted a call as professor of
theology at Wittenberg, where he died on the 23rd of October
1616. Hutter was a stern champion of Lutheran orthodoxy,
as set down in the confessions and embodied in his own
Compendium locorum theologicorum (1610; reprinted 1863),
being so faithful to his master as to win the title of " Luther
redonatus."
In reply to Rudolf Hospinian's Concordia discors (1607), he wrote
a work, rich in historical material but one-sided in its apologetics,
Concordia concors (1614), defending the formula of Concord, which
he regarded as inspired. His Irenicum vere christianum is directed
against David Pareus (1548-1622), professor primarius at Heidelberg,
who in Irenicum sive de unione et synodo Evangelicorum (1614) had
pleaded for a reconciliation of Lutheranism and Calvinism; his
Calvinista aulopoliticus (1610) was written against the " damnable
Calvinism " which was becoming prevalent in Holstein and Branden-
burg. Another work, based on the formula of Concord, was entitled
Loci communes theologici.
HUTTON, CHARLES (1737-1823), English mathematician,
was born at Newcastle-on-Tyne on the I4th of August 1737.
He was educated in a school at Jesmond, kept by Mr Ivison,
a clergyman of the church of England. There is reason to believe,
on the evidence of two pay-bills, that for a short time in 1755
and 1756 Hutton worked in Old Long Benton colliery; at any
rate, on Ivison's promotion to a living, Hutton succeeded to
the Jesmond school, whence, in consequence of increasing pupils,
he removed to Stote's Hall. While he taught during the day
at Stote's Hall, he studied mathematics in the evening at a
school in Newcastle. In 1760 he married, and began tuition
on a larger scale in Newcastle, where he had among his pupils
John Scott, afterwards Lord Eldon, chancellor of England.
In 1764 he published his first work, The Schoolmaster's Guide,
or a Complete System of Practical Arithmetic, which in 1770
was followed by his Treatise on Mensuration both in Theory and
Practice. In 1772 appeared a tract on The Principles of Bridges,
suggested by the destruction of Newcastle bridge by a high
flood on the i7th of November 1771. In 1773 he was appointed
professor of mathematics at the Royal Military Academy,
Woolwich, and in the following year he was elected F.R.S. and
reported on Nevil Maskelyne's determination of the mean density
and mass of the earth from measurements taken in 1774-1776 at
Mount Schiehallion in Perthshire. This account appeared in the
Philosophical Transactions for 1778, was afterwards reprinted
in the second volume of his Tracts on Mathematical and Philo-
sophical Subjects, and procured for Hutton the degree of LL.D.
from the university of Edinburgh. He was elected foreign
secretary to the Royal Society in 1779, but his resignation in
1783 was brought about by the president Sir Joseph Banks,
whose behaviour to the mathematical section of the society
was somewhat high-handed (see Kippis's Observations on the
late Contests in the Royal Society, London, 1784). After his
Tables of the Products and Powers of Numbers, 1781, and his
Mathematical Tables, 1785, he issued, for the use of the Royal
Military Academy, in 1787 Elements of Conic Sections, and in 1798
his Course of Mathematics. His Mathematical and Philosophical
Dictionary, a valuable contribution to scientific biography,
was published in 1795 (2nd ed., 1815), and the four volumes of
Recreations in Mathematics and Natural Philosophy, mostly a
translation from the French, in 1803. One of the most laborious
of his works was the abridgment, in conjunction with G. Shaw
and R. Pearson, of the Philosophical Transactions. This under-
taking, the mathematical and scientific parts of which fell to
Hut ton's share, was completed in 1809, and filled eighteen
volumes quarto. His name first appears in the Ladies' Diary
(a poetical and mathematical almanac which was begun in
1704, and lasted till 1871) in 1764; ten years later he was
appointed editor of the almanac, a post which he retained till
1817. Previously he had begun a small periodical, Miscellanea
Mathematica, which extended only to thirteen numbers; subse-
quently he published in five volumes The Diarian Miscellany,
which contained large extracts from the Diary. He resigned
his professorship in 1807, and died on the 27th of January 1823.
See John Bruce, Charles Hutton (Newcastle, 1823).
i6
HUTTON, J.— HUTTON, R. H.
BUTTON, JAMES (1726-1797), Scottish geologist, was bora
in Edinburgh on the 3rd of June 1726. Educated at the high
school and university of his native city, he acquired while a
student a passionate love of scientific inquiry. He was ap-
prenticed to a lawyer, but his employer advised that a more
congenial profession should be chosen for him. The young
apprentice chose medicine as being nearest akin to his favourite
pursuit of chemistry. He studied for three years at Edinburgh,
and completed his medical education in Paris, returning by
the Low Countries, and taking his degree of doctor of medicine
at Leiden in 1749. Finding, however, that there seemed hardly
any opening for him, he abandoned the medical profession,
and, having inherited a small property in Berwickshire from
his father, resolved to devote himself to agriculture. He then
went to Norfolk to learn the practical work of farming, and
subsequently travelled in Holland, Belgium and the north
of France. During these years he began to study the surface
of the earth, gradually shaping in his mind the problem
to which he afterwards devoted his energies. In the summer
of 1754 he established himself on his own farm in Berwickshire,
where he resided for fourteen years, and where he introduced
the most improved forms of husbandry. As the farm was
brought into excellent order, and as its management, becoming
more easy, grew less interesting, he was induced to let it, and
establish himself for the rest of his life in Edinburgh. This took
place about the year 1768. He was unmarried, and from this
period until his death in 1797 he lived with his three sisters.
Surrounded by congenial literary and scientific friends he
devoted himself to research.
At that time geology in any proper sense of the term did
not exist. Mineralogy, however, had made considerable progress.
But Hutton had conceived larger ideas than were entertained
by the mineralogists of his day. He desired to trace back the
origin of the various minerals and rocks, and thus to arrive
at some clear understanding of the history of the earth. For
many years he continued to study the subject. At last, in the
spring of the year 1785, he communicated his views to the
recently established Royal Society of Edinburgh in a paper
entitled Theory of the Earth, or an Investigation of the Laws
Observable in the Composition, Dissolution and Restoration of
Land upon the Globe. In this remarkable work the doctrine
is expounded that geology is not cosmogony, but must confine
itself to the study of the materials of the earth; that everywhere
evidence may be seen that the present rocks of the earth's
surface have been in great part formed out of the waste of older
rocks; that these materials having been laid down under the
sea were there consolidated under great pressure, and were
subsequently disrupted and upheaved by the expansive power
of subterranean heat; that during these convulsions veins
and masses of molten rock were injected into the rents of the
dislocated strata; that every portion of the upraised land,
as soon as exposed to the atmosphere, is subject to decay; and
that this decay must tend to advance until the whole of the
land has been worn away and laid down on the sea-floor, whence
future upheavals will once more raise the consolidated sediments
into new land. In some of these broad and bold generalizations
Hutton was anticipated by the Italian geologists; but to him
belongs the credit of having first perceived their mutual relations,
and combined them in a luminous coherent theory based upon
observation.
It was not merely the earth to which Hutton directed his
attention. He had long studied the changes of the atmosphere.
The same volume in which his Theory of the Earth appeared
contained also a Theory of Rain, which was read to the Royal
Society of Edinburgh in 1784. He contended that the amount
of moisture which the air can retain in solution increases with
augmentation of temperature, and, therefore, that on the
mixture of two masses of air of different temperatures a portion
of the moisture must be condensed and appear in visible form,
He investigated the available data regarding rainfall and climate
in different regions of the globe, and came to the conclusion
that the rainfall is everywhere regulated by the humidity of the
air on the one hand, and the causes which promote mixtures
of different aerial currents in the higher atmosphere on
the other.
The vigour and versatility of his genius may be understood
from the variety of works which, during his thirty years' residence
in Edinburgh, he gave to the world. In 1792 he published a
quarto volume entitled Dissertations on different Subjects in
Natural Philosophy, in which he discussed the nature of matter,
fluidity, cohesion, light, heat and electricity. Some of these
subjects were further illustrated by him in papers read before
the Royal Society of Edinburgh. He did not restrain himself
within the domain of physics, but boldly marched into that of
metaphysics, publishing three quarto volumes with the title
An Investigation of the Principles of Knowledge, and of the Progress
of Reason — from Sense to Science and Philosophy. In this work
he developed the idea that the external world, as conceived
by us, is the creation of our own minds influenced by impressions
from without, that there is no resemblance between our picture
of the outer world and the reality, yet that the impressions
produced upon our minds, being constant and consistent, become
as much realities to us as if they precisely resembled things
actually existing, and, therefore, that our moral conduct must
remain the same as if our ideas perfectly corresponded to the
causes producing them. His closing years were devoted to the
extension and republication of his Theory of the Earth, of which
two volumes appeared in 1795. A third volume, necessary
to complete the work, was left by him in manuscript, and is
referred to by his biographer John Playfair. A portion of the
MS. of this volume, which had been given to the Geological
Society of London by Leonard Horner, was published by the
Society in 1899, under the editorship of Sir A. Geikie. The
rest of the manuscript appears to be lost. Soon afterwards
Hutton set to work to collect and systematize his numerous
writings on husbandry, which he proposed to publish under
the title of Elements of Agriculture. He had nearly completed
this labour when an incurable disease brought his active career
to a close on the 26th of March 1797.
It is by his Theory of the Earth that Hutton will be remembered
with reverence while geology continues to be cultivated. The
author's style, however, being somewhat heavy and obscure, the
book did not attract during his lifetime so much attention as it de-
served. Happily for science Hutton numbered among his friends
John Playfair (q.v.), professor of mathematics in the university of
Edinburgh, whose enthusiasm for the spread of Hutton's doctrine
was combined with a rare gift of graceful and luminous exposition.
Five years after Hutton's death he published a volume, Illustrations
of the Huttonian Theory of the Earth, in which he gave an admirable
summary of that theory, with numerous additional illustrations and
arguments. This work is justly regarded as one of the classical con-
tributions to geological literature. To its influence much of the
sound progress of British geology must be ascribed. In the year
1805 a biographical account of Hutton, written by Playfair, was
published in vol. v. of the Transactions of the Royal Society of Edin-
burgh. (A. GE.)
HUTTON, RICHARD HOLT (1826-1897), English writer
and theologian, son of Joseph Hutton, Unitarian minister at
Leeds, was born at Leeds on the 2nd of June 1826. His family
removed to London in 1835, and he was educated at University
College School and University College, where he began a lifelong
friendship with Walter Bagehot, of whose works he afterwards
was the editor; he took the degree in 1845, being awarded the
gold medal for philosophy. Meanwhile he had also studied
for short periods at Heidelberg and Berlin, and in 1847 he entered
Manchester New College with the idea of becoming a minister
like his father, and studied there under James Martineau.
He did not, however, succeed in obtaining a call to any church,
and for some little time his future was unsettled. He married
in 1851 his cousin, Anne Roscoe, and became joint-editor with
J. L. Sanford of the Inquirer, the principal Unitarian organ.
But his innovations and his unconventional views about stereo-
typed Unitarian doctrines caused alarm, and in 1853 he resigned.
His health had broken down, and he visited' the West Indies,
where his wife died of yellow fever. In 1855 Hutton and Bagehot
became joint-editors of the National Review, a new monthly,
and conducted it for ten years. During this time Hutton's
theological views, influenced largely by Coleridge, and more
HUXLEY
directly by F. W. Robertson and F. D. Maurice, gradually
approached more and more to those of the Church of England,
which he ultimately joined. His interest in theology was
profound, and he brought to it a spirituality of outlook and
an aptitude for metaphysical inquiry and exposition which
added a singular attraction to his writings. In 1861 he joined
Meredith Townsend as joint-editor and part proprietor of the
Spectator, then a well-known liberal weekly, which, however,
was not remunerative from the business point of view. Hutton
took charge of the literary side of the paper, and by degrees
his own articles became and remained up to the last one of the
best-known features of serious and thoughtful English journalism.
The Spectator, which gradually became a prosperous property,
was his pulpit, in which unwearyingly he gave expression to
his views, particularly on literary, religious and philosophical
subjects, in opposition to the agnostic and rationalistic opinions
then current in intellectual circles, as popularized by Huxley.
A man of fearless honesty, quick and catholic sympathies, broad
culture, and many friends in intellectual and religious circles,
he became one of the most influential journalists of the day,
his fine character and conscience earning universal respect and
confidence. He was an original member of the Metaphysical
Society (1869). He was an anti-vivisectionist, and a member
of the royal commission (1875) on that subject. In 1858 he
had married Eliza Roscoe, a cousin of his first wife; she died
early in 1897, and Hutton's own death followed on the gth of
September of the same year.
Among his other publications may be mentioned Essays, Theo-
logical and Literary (1871; revised 1888), and Criticisms on Con-
temporary Thought and Thinkers (1894); and his opinions may be
studied compendiously in the selections from his Spectator articles
published in 1899 under the title of Aspects of Religious and Scientific
Thought,
HUXLEY, THOMAS HENRY (1825-1895), English biologist,
was born on the 4th of May 1825 at Ealing, where his father,
George Huxley, was senior assistant-master in the school of
Dr Nicholas. This was an establishment of repute, and is at
any rate remarkable for having produced two men with so
little in common in after life as Huxley and Cardinal Newman.
The cardinal's brother, Francis William, had been " captain "
of the school in 1821. Huxley was a seventh child (as his father
had also been), and the youngest who survived infancy. Of
Huxley's ancestry no more is ascertainable than in the case
of most middle-class families. He himself thought it sprang
from the Cheshire Huxleys of Huxley Hall. Different branches
migrated south, one, now extinct, reaching London, where its
members were apparently engaged in commerce. They estab-
lished themselves for four generations at Wyre Hall, near
Edmonton, and one was knighted by Charles II. Huxley describes
his paternal race as " mainly Iberian mongrels, with a good
dash of Norman and a little Saxon." x From his father he thought
he derived little except a quick temper and the artistic faculty
which proved of great service to him and reappeared in an even
more striking degree in his daughter, the Hon. Mrs Collier.
" Mentally and physically," he wrote, " I am a piece of my
mother." Her maiden name was Rachel Withers. " She came
of Wiltshire people," he adds, and describes her as " a typical
example of the Iberian variety." He tells us that " her most
distinguishing characteristic was rapidity of thought. . . That
peculiarity has been passed on to me in full strength " (Essays, i.
4). One of the not least striking facts in Huxley's life is that
of education in the formal sense he received none. " I had
two years of a pandemonium of a school (between eight and
ten), and after that neither help nor sympathy in any intellectual
direction till I reached manhood " (Life, ii. 145). After the
death of Dr Nicholas the Ealing school broke up, and Huxley's
father returned about 1835 to his native town, Coventry, where
he had obtained a small appointment. Huxley was left to
his own devices; few histories of boyhood could offer any
parallel. At twelve he was sitting up in bed to read Hutton's
Geology. His great desire was to be a mechanical engineer;
it ended in his devotion to " the mechanical engineering of living
1 Nature, Ixiii. 127.
machines." His curiosity in this direction was nearly fatal;
a post-mortem he was taken to between thirteen and fourteen
was followed by an illness which seems to have been the starting-
point of the ill-health which pursued him all through life. At
fifteen he devoured Sir William Hamilton's Logic, and thus
acquired the taste for metaphysics, which he cultivated to the
end. At seventeen he came under the influence of Thomas
Carlyle's writings. Fifty years later he wrote: " To make
things clear and get rid of cant and shows of all sorts. This
was the lesson I learnt from Carlyle's books when I was a boy,
and it has stuck by me all my life " (Life, ii. 268). Incidentally
they led him to begin to learn German; he had already acquired
French. At seventeen Huxley, with his elder brother James,
commenced regular medical studies at Charing Cross Hospital,
where they had both obtained scholarships. He studied under
Wharton Jones, a physiologist who never seems to have attained
the reputation he deserved. Huxley said of him: " I do not
know that I ever felt so much respect for a teacher before or
since " (Life, i. 20). At twenty he passed his first M.B. examina-
tion at the University of London, winning the gold medal for
anatomy and physiology; W. H. Ransom, the well-known
Nottingham physician, obtaining the exhibition. In 1845
he published, at the suggestion of Wharton Jones, his first
scientific paper, demonstrating the existence of a hitherto
unrecognized layer in the inner sheath of hairs, a layer that
has been known since as " Huxley's layer."
Something had to be done for a livelihood, and at the sugges-
tion of a fellow-student, Mr (afterwards Sir Joseph) Fayrer, he
applied for an appointment in the navy. He passed the necessary
examination, and at the same time obtained the qualification of
the Royal College of Surgeons. He was " entered on the books
of Nelson's old ship, the ' Victory,' for duty at Haslar Hospital."
Its chief, Sir John Richardson, who was a well-known Arctic
explorer and naturalist, recognized Huxley's ability, and pro-
cured for him the post of surgeon to H.M.S. " Rattlesnake,"
about to start for surveying work in Torres Strait. The com-
mander, Captain Owen Stanley, was a son of the bishop of
Norwich and brother of Dean Stanley, and wished for an officer
with some scientific knowledge. Besides Huxley the " Rattle-
snake " also carried a naturalist by profession, John Macgillivray,
who, however, beyond a dull narrative of the expedition, ac-
complished nothing. The " Rattlesnake " left England on the
3rd of December 1846, and was ordered home after the lamented
death of Captain Stanley at Sydney, to be paid off at Chatham
on the gth of November 1850. The tropical seas teem with
delicate surface-life, and to the study of this Huxley devoted
himself with unremitting devotion. At that time no known
methods existed by which it could be preserved for study in
museums at home. He gathered a magnificent harvest in
the almost unreaped field, and the conclusions he drew from
it were the beginning of the revolution in zoological science
which he lived to see accomplished.
Baron Cuvier (1769-1832), whose classification still held
its ground, had divided the animal kingdom into four great
embranchements. Each of these corresponded to an independent
archetype, of which the " idea " had existed in the mind of
the Creator. There was no other connexion between these
classes, and the " ideas " which animated them were, as far
as one can see, arbitrary. Cuvier's groups, without their
theoretical basis, were accepted by K. E. von Baer (1792-1876).
The " idea " of the group, or archetype, admitted of endless
variation within it; but this was subordinate to essential
conformity with the archetype, and hence Cuvier deduced the
important principle of the " correlation of parts," of which
he made such conspicuous use in palaeontological reconstruction.
Meanwhile the " Naturphilosophen," with J. W. Goethe (i749~
1832) and L. Oken (1779-1851), had in effect grasped the under-
lying principle of correlation, and so far anticipated evolution
by asserting the possibility of deriving specialized from simpler
structures. Though they were still hampered by idealistic
conceptions, they established morphology. Cuvier's four great
groups were Vertebrata, Mollusca, Articulata and Radiata.
i8
HUXLEY
It was amongst the members of the last class that Huxley found
most material ready to his hand in the seas of the tropics. It
included organisms of the most varied kind, with nothing more
in common than that their parts were more or less distributed
round a centre. Huxley sent home " communication after
communication to the Linnean Society," then a somewhat
somnolent body, " with the same result as that obtained by
Noah when he sent the raven out of the ark " (Essays, i. 13).
His important paper, On the Anatomy and the Affinities of the
Family of Medusae, met with a better fate. It was communicated
by the bishop of Norwich to the Royal Society, and printed
by it in the Philosophical Transactions in 1849. Huxley
united, with the Medusae, the Hydroid and Sertularian polyps,
to form a class to which he subsequently gave the name of
Hydrozoa. This alone was no inconsiderable feat for a young
surgeon who had only had the training of the medical school.
But the ground on which it was done has led to far-reaching
theoretical developments. Huxley realized that something
more than superficial characters were necessary in determining
the a Sanities of animal organisms. He found that all the members
of the class consisted of two membranes enclosing a central
cavity or stomach. This is characteristic of what are now
called the Coelenterata. All animals higher than these have
been termed Coelomata; they possess a distinct body-cavity
in addition to the stomach. Huxley went further than this,
and the most profound suggestion in his paper is the comparison
of the two layers with those which appea'r in the germ of the
higher animals. The consequences which have flowed from
this prophetic generalization of the ectoderm and endoderm are
familiar to every student of evolution. The conclusion was
the more remarkable as at the time he was not merely free
from any evolutionary belief, but actually rejected it. The
value of Huxley's work was immediately recognized. On
returning to England in 1850 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal
Society. In the following year, at the age of twenty-six, he not
merely received the Royal medal, but was elected on the council.
With absolutely no aid from any one he had placed himself
in the front rank of English scientific men. He secured the
friendship of Sir J. D. Hooker and John Tyndall, who remained
his lifelong friends. The Admiralty retained him as a nominal
assistant-surgeon, in order that he might work up the observations
he had made during the voyage of the " Rattlesnake." He was
thus enabled to produce various important memoirs, especially
those on certain Ascidians, in which he solved the problem
of Appendicularia — an organism whose place in the animal
kingdom Johannes Miiller had found himself wholly unable
to assign — and on the morphology of the Cephalous Mollusca.
Richard Owen, then the leading comparative anatomist in
Great Britain, was a disciple of Cuvier, and adopted largely from
him the deductive explanation of anatomical fact from idealistic
conceptions. He superadded the evolutionary theories of
Oken, which were equally idealistic, but were altogether re-
pugnant to Cuvier. Huxley would have none of either. Imbued
with the methods of von Baer and Johannes Miiller, his methods
were purely inductive. He would not hazard any statement
beyond what the facts revealed. He retained, however, as has
been done by his successors, the use of archetypes, though they
no longer represented fundamental " ideas " but generalizations
of the essential points of structure common to the individuals
of each class. He had not wholly freed himself, however, from
archetypal trammels. " The doctrine," he says, " that every
natural group is organized after a definite archetype . . . seems
to me as important for zoology as the doctrine of definite pro-
portions for chemistry." This was in 1853. He further stated:
" There is no progression from a lower to a higher type, but
merely a more or less complete evolution of one type " (Phil.
Trans., 1853, p. 63). As Chalmers Mitchell points out, this state-
ment is of great historical interest. Huxley definitely uses the word
" evolution," and admits its existence within the great groups.
He had not, however, rid himself of the notion that the archetype
was a property inherent in the group. Herbert Spencer, whose
acquaintance he made in 1852, was unable to convert him to
evolution in its widest sense (Life, i. 168). He could not bring
himself to acceptance of the theory — owing, no doubt, to his
rooted aversion from a priori reasoning — without a mechanical
conception of its mode of operation. In his first interview
with Darwin, which seems to have been about the same time,
he expressed his belief " in the sharpness of the lines of demarca-
tion between natural groups," and was received with a humorous
smile (Life, i. 169).
The naval medical service exists for practical purposes. It
is not surprising, therefore, that after his three years' nominal
employment Huxley was ordered on active service. Though
without private means of any kind, he resigned. The navy,
however, retains the credit of having started his scientific career
as well as that of Hooker and Darwin. Huxley was now thrown
on his own resources, the immediate prospects of which were
slender enough. As a matter of fact, he had not to wait many
months. His friend, Edward Forbes, was appointed to the chair
of natural history in Edinburgh, and in July 1854 he succeeded
him as lecturer at the School of Mines and as naturalist to the
Geological Survey in the following year. The latter post he
hesitated at first to accept, as he " did not care for fossils "
(Essays, i. 15). In 1855 he married Miss H. A. Heathorn, whose
acquaintance he had made in Sydney. They were engaged
when Huxley could offer nothing but the future promise of his
ability. The confidence of his devoted helpmate was not mis-
placed, and her affection sustained him to the end, after she
had seen him the recipient of every honour which English science
could bestow. His most important research belonging to this
period was the Croonian Lecture delivered before the Royal
Society in 1858 on "The Theory of the Vertebrate Skull."
In this he completely and finally demolished, by applying as
before the inductive method, the idealistic, if in some degree
evolutionary, views of its origin which Owen had derived from
Goethe and Oken. This finally disposed of the " archetype,"
and may be said once for all to have liberated the English
anatomical school from the deductive method.
In 1859 The Origin of Species was published. This was a
momentous event' in the history of science, and not least for
Huxley. Hitherto he had turned a deaf ear to evolution. " I
took my stand," he says, " upon two grounds: firstly, that . . .
the evidence in favour of transmutation was wholly insufficient;
and secondly, that no suggestion respecting the causes of the
transmutation assumed, which had been made, was in any
way adequate to explain the phenomena " (Life, i. 168). Huxley
had studied Lamarck " attentively," but to no purpose. Sir
Charles Lyell " was the chief agent in smoothing the road for
Darwin. For consistent uniformitarianism postulates evolution'
as much in the organic as in the inorganic world" (I.e.); and
Huxley found in Darwin what he had failed to find in Lamarck,
an intelligible hypothesis good enough as a working basis. Yet
with the transparent candour which was characteristic of him,
he never to the end of his life concealed the fact that he thought
it wanting in rigorous proof. Darwin, however, was a naturalist;
Huxley was not. He says: " I am afraid there is very little
of the genuine naturalist in me. I never collected anything,
and species- work was always a burden to me; what I cared
for was the architectural and engineering part of the business "
(Essays, i. 7). But the solution of the problem of organic evolu-
tion must work upwards from the initial stages, and it is precisely
for the study of these that " species-work " is necessary. Darwin,
by observing the peculiarities in the distribution of the plants
which he had collected in the Galapagos, was started on the
path that led to his theory. Anatomical research had only
so far led to transcendental hypothesis, though in Huxley's
hands it had cleared the decks of that lumber. He quotes with
approval Darwin's remark that " no one has a right to examine
the question of species who has not minutely described many "
(Essays, ii. 283). The rigorous proof which Huxley demanded
was the production of species sterile to one another by selective
breeding (Life, i. 193). But this was a misconception of the
question. Sterility is a physiological character, and the specific
differences which the theory undertook to account for are
HUXLEY
19
morphological; there is no necessary nexus between the two.
Huxley, however, felt that he had at last a secure grip of evolution.
He warned Darwin: " I will stop at no point as long as clear
reasoning will carry me further" (Life, i. 172). Owen, who
had some evolutionary tendencies, was at first favourably
disposed to Darwin's theory, and even claimed that he had to
some extent anticipated it in his own writings. But Darwin,
though he did not thrust it into the foreground, never flinched
from recognizing that man could not be excluded from his theory.
" Light will be thrown on the origin of man and his history "
(Origin, ed. i. 488). Owen could not face the wrath of fashionable
orthodoxy. In his Rede Lecture he endeavoured to save the
position by asserting that man was clearly marked off from all
other animals by the anatomical structure of his brain. This
was actually inconsistent with known facts, and was effectually
refuted by Huxley in various papers and lectures, summed up in
1863 in Man's Place in Nature. This " monkey damnification " of
mankind was too much even for the " veracity " of Carlyle, who
is said to have never forgiven it. Huxley had not the smallest
respect for authority as a basis for belief, scientific or other-
wise. He held that scientific men were morally bound " to try all
things and hold fast to that which is good " (Life, ii. 161). Called
upon in 1862, in the absence of the president, to deliver the presi-
dential address to the Geological Society, he disposed once for all
of one of the principles accepted by geologists, that similar fossils
in distinct regions indicated that the strata containing them
were contemporary. All that could be concluded, he pointed
out, was that the general order of succession was the same.
In 1854 Huxley had refused the post of palaeontologist to the
Geological Survey; but the fossils for which he then said that
he " did not care " soon acquired importance in his eyes, as
supplying evidence for the support of the evolutionary theory.
The thirty-one years during which he occupied the chair of
natural history at the School of Mines were largely occupied
with palaeontological research. Numerous memoirs on fossil
fishes established many far-reaching morphological facts. The
study of fossil reptiles led to his demonstrating, in the course
of lectures on birds, delivered at the College of Surgeons in 1867,
the fundamental affinity of the two groups which he united
under the title of Sauropsida. An incidental result of the same
course was his proposed rearrangement of the zoological regions
into which P. L. Sclater had divided the world in 1857. Huxley
anticipated, to a large extent, the results at which botanists have
since arrived: he proposed as primary divisions, Arctogaea —
to include the land areas of the northern hemisphere — and
Notogaea for the remainder. Successive waves of life originated
in and spread from the northern area, the survivors of the more
ancient types finding successively a refuge in the south. Though
Huxley had accepted the Darwinian theory as a working
hypothesis, he never succeeded in firmly grasping it in detail.
He thought " evolution might conceivably have taken place
without the development of groups possessing the characters
of species " (Essays, v. 41). His palaeontological researches
ultimately led him to dispense with Darwin. In 1892 he wrote:
" The doctrine of evolution is no speculation, but a generalization
of certain facts . . . classed by biologists under the heads
of Embryology and of Palaeontology " (Essays, v. 42). Earlier
in 1 88 1 he had asserted even more emphatically that if the
hypothesis of evolution " had not existed, the palaeontologist
would have had to invent it " (Essays, iv. 44).
From 1870 onwards he was more and more drawn away from
scientific research by the claims of public duty. Some men
yield the more readily to such demands, as their fulfilment
is not unaccompanied by public esteem. But he felt, as he
himself said of Joseph Priestley, " that he was a man and a
citizen before he was a philosopher, and that the duties of the
two former positions are at least as imperative as those of the
latter" (Essays, iii. 13). From 1862 to 1884 he served on no
less than ten Royal Commissions, dealing in every case with
subjects of great importance, and in many with matters of the
gravest moment to the community. He held and filled with
invariable dignity and distinction more public positions than
have perhaps ever fallen to the lot of a scientific man in England.
From 1871 to 1880 he was a secretary of the Royal Society.
From 1881 to 1885 he was president. For honours he cared
little, though they were within . his reach; it is said that he
might have received a peerage. He accepted, however, in 1892,
a Privy Councillorship, at once the most democratic and the
most aristocratic honour accessible to an English citizen. In
1870 he was president of the British Association at Liverpool, and
in the same year was elected a member of the newly constituted
London School Board. He resigned the latter position in
1872, but in the brief period during which he acted, probably
more than any man, he left his mark on the foundations of
national elementary education. He made war on the scholastic
methods which wearied the mind in merely taxing the memory;
the children were to be prepared to take their place worthily
in the community. Physical training was the basis; domestic
economy, at any rate for girls, was insisted upon, and for all
some development of the aesthetic sense by means of drawing
and singing. Reading, writing and arithmetic were the in-
dispensable tools for acquiring knowledge, and intellectual
discipline was to be gained through the rudiments of physical
science. He insisted on the teaching of the Bible partly as a great
literary heritage, partly because he was " seriously perplexed
to know by what practical measures the religious feeling, which
is the essential basis of conduct, was to be kept up, in the present
utterly chaotic state of opinion in these matters, without its
use " (Essays, iii. 397). In 1872 the School of Mines was moved
to South Kensington, and Huxley had, for the first time after
eighteen years, those appliances, for teaching beyond the
lecture room, which to the lasting injury of the interests of
biological science in Great Britain had been withheld from
him by the short-sightedness of government. Huxley had
only been able to bring his influence to bear upon his pupils
by oral teaching, and had had no opportunity by personal
intercourse in the laboratory of forming a school. He was now
able to organize a system of instruction for classes of elementary
teachers in the general principles of biology, which indirectly
affected the teaching of the subject throughout the country.
The first symptoms of physical failure to meet the strain of
the scientific and public duties demanded of him made some
rest imperative, and he took a long holiday in Egypt. He still
continued for some years to occupy himself mainly with verte-
brate morphology. But he seemed to find more interest and the
necessary mental stimulus to exertion in lectures, public addresses
and more or less controversial writings. His health, which
had for a time been fairly restored, completely broke down
again in 1885. In 1890 he removed from London to East-
bourne, where after a painful illness he died on the 29th of
June 1895.
The latter years of Huxley's life were mainly occupied with con-
tributions to periodical literature on subjects connected with philo-
sophy and theology. The effect produced by these on popular
opinion was profound. This was partly due to his position as a
man of science, partly to his obvious earnestness and sincerity, but
in the main to his strenuous and attractive method of exposition.
Such studies were not wholly new to him, as they had more or less
engaged his thoughts from his earliest days. That his views exhibit
some process of development and are not wholly consistent was,
therefore, to be expected, and for this reason it is not easy to
summarize them as a connected body of teaching. They may be
found perhaps in their most systematic form in the volume on Hume
published in 1879.
Huxley's general attitude to the problems of theology and
philosophy was technically that of scepticism. " I am," he wrote,
' too much of a sceptic to deny the possibility of anything " (Life, ii.
127). " Doubt is a beneficent demon " (Essays, ix. 56). He was
anxious, nevertheless, to avoid the accusation of Pyrrhonism (Life, ii.
280), but the Agnosticism which he defined to express his position
in 1869 suggests the Pyrrhonist Aphasia. The only approach to
certainty which he admitted lay in the order of nature. "The
conception of the constancy of the order of nature has become the
dominant idea of modern thought. . . . Whatever may be man's
speculative doctrines, it is quite certain that every intelligent person
guides his life and risks his fortune upon the belief that the order of
nature is constant, and that the chain of natural causation is never
broken." He adds, however, that " it by no means necessarily
follows that we are justified in expanding this generalization into the
infinite past " (Essays, iv. 47, 48). This was little more than a pious
20
HUY
reservation, as evolution implies the principle of continuity (I.e. p. 55).
Later he stated his belief even more absolutely: " If there is any-
thing in the world which I do firmly believe in, it is the universal
validity of the law of causation, but that universality cannot be
proved by any amount of experience " (Essays, ix. 121). The
assertion that " There is only one method by which intellectual truth
can be reached, whether the subject-matter of investigation belongs
to the world of physics or to the world of consciousness " (Essays, ix.
126) laid him open to the charge of materialism, which he vigorously
repelled. His defence, when he rested it on the imperfection of the
physical analysis of matter and force (l.c. p. 131), was irrelevant; he
was on sounder ground when he contended with Berkeley " that our
certain knowledge does not extend beyond our states of conscious-
ness " (l.c. p. 130). " Legitimate materialism, that is, the extension
of the conceptions and of the methods of physical science to the
highest as well as to the lowest phenomena of vitality, is neither
more nor less than a sort of shorthand idealism " (Essays, i. 194).
While " the substance of matter is a metaphysical unknown quality
of the existence of which there is no proof . . . the non-existence of
a substance of mind is equally arguable ; . . . the result ... is the
reduction of the All to co-existences and sequences of phenomena
beneath and beyond which there is nothing cognoscible " (Essays, ix.
66). Hume had denned a miracle as a " violation of the laws of
nature." Huxley refused to accept this. While, on the one hand, he
insists that " the whole fabric of practical life is built upon our
faith in its continuity " (Hume, p. 129), on the other " nobody
can presume to say what the order of nature must be " ; this " knocks
the bottom out of all a priori objections either to ordinary 'miracles'
or to the efficacy of prayer " (Essays, v. 133). " If by the term
miracles we mean only extremely wonderful events, there can be no
just ground for denying the possibility of their occurrence " (Hume,
p. 134). Assuming the chemical elements to be aggregates of uniform
primitive matter, he saw no more theoretical difficulty in water
being turned into alcohol in the miracle at Cana, than in sugar
undergoing a similar conversion (Essays, v. 81). The credibility of
miracles with Huxley is a question of evidence. It may be remarked
that a scientific explanation is destructive of the supernatural
character of a miracle, and that the demand for evidence may be
so framed as to preclude the credibility of any historical event.
Throughout his life theology had a strong attraction, not without
elements of repulsion, for Huxley. The circumstances of his early
training, when Paley was the " most interesting Sunday reading
allawed him when a boy " (Life, ii. 57), probably had something to
do with both. In 1860 his beliefs were apparently theistic : " Science
seems to me to teach in the highest and strongest manner the
great truth which is embodied in the Christian conception of entire
surrender to the will of God " (Life, i. 219). In 1885 he formulates
" the perfect ideal of religion " in a passage which has become
almost famous: " In the 8th century B.C. in the heart of a world of
idolatrous polytheists, the Hebrew prophets put forth a conception
of religion which appears to be as wonderful an inspiration of genius
as the art of Pheidias or the science of Aristotle. ' And what doth
the Lord require of thee, but to do justly, and to love mercy, and to
walk humbly with thy God ' " (Essays, iv. 161). Two years later he
was writing: " That there is no evidence of the existence of such a
being as the God of the theologians is true enough " (Life, ii. 162).
He insisted, however, that " atheism is on purely philosophical
grounds untenable " (l.c.). His theism never really advanced
beyond the recognition of " the passionless impersonality of the
unknown and unknowable, which science shows everywhere under-
lying the thin veil of phenomena " (Life, i. 239). In other respects
his personal creed was a kind of scientific Calvinism. There is an
interesting passage in an essay written in 1892, " An Apologetic
Eirenicon," which has not been republished, which illustrates this:
" It is the secret of the superiority of the best theological teachers to
the majority of their opponents that they substantially recognize
these realities of things, however strange the forms in which they
clothe their conceptions. The doctrines of predestination, of original
sin, of the innate depravity of man and the evil fate of the greater
part of the race, of the primacy of Satan in this world, of the essential
vileness of matter, of a malevolent Demiurgus subordinate to a
benevolent Almighty, who has only lately revealed himself, faulty
as they are, appear to me to be vastly nearer the truth than the
' liberal ' popular illusions that babies are all born good, and that the
example of a corrupt society is responsible for their failure to remain
so; that it is given to everybody to reach the ethical ideal if he will
only try; that all partial evil is universal good, and other optimistic
figments, such as that which represents ' Providence ' under the
guise of a paternal philanthropist, and bids us believe that everything
will come right (according to our notions) at last." But his " slender
definite creed," R. H. Hutton, who was associated with him in
the Metaphysical Society, thought — and no doubt rightly — in no
respect " represented the cravings of his larger nature.
From 1880 onwards till the very end of his life, Huxley was
continuously occupied in a controversial campaign against orthodox
beliefs. As Professor W. F. R. Weldon justly said of his earlier
polemics: "They were certainly among the principal agents in
winning a larger measure of toleration for the critical examination of
fundamental beliefs, and for the free expression of honest reverent
doubt." He threw Christianity overboard bodily and with little
appreciation of its historic effect as a civilizing agency. He thought
that " the exact nature of the teachings and the convictions of
Jesus is extremely uncertain " (Essays, v. 348). " What we are
usually pleased to call religion nowadays is, for the most part,
Hellenized Judaism " (Essays, iv. 162). His final analysis of what
" since the second century, has assumed to itself the title of Orthodox
Christianity " is a " varying compound of some of the best and
some of the worst elements of Paganism and Judaism, moulded in
practice by the innate character of certain people of the Western
world " (Essays, v. 142). He concludes " That this Christianity is
doomed to fall is, to my mind, beyond a doubt; but its fall will
neither be sudden nor speedy " (I.e.). He did not omit, however,
to do justice to " the bright side of Christianity," and was deeply
impressed with the life of Catherine of Siena. Failing Christianity,
he thought that some other " hypostasis of men's hopes " will arise
(Essays, v. 254). His latest speculations on ethical problems are
perhaps the least satisfactory of his writings. In 1892 he wrote:
" The moral sense is a very complex affair — Dependent in part upon
associations of pleasure and pain, approbation and disapprobation,
formed by education in early youth, but in part also on an innate
sense of moral beauty and ugliness (how originated need not be dis-
cussed), which is possessed by some people in great strength, while
some are totally devoid of it (Life, ii. 305). This is an intuitional
theory, and he compares the moral with the aesthetic sense, which he
repeatedly declares to be intuitive; thus: "All the understanding
in the world will neither increase nor diminish the force of the
intuition that this is beautiful and this is ugly " (Essays, ix. 80). In
the Romanes Lecture delivered in 1894., in which this passage occurs,
he defines " law and morals " to be restraints upon the struggle
for existence between men in society." It follows that " the ethical
process is in opposition to the cosmic process," to which the struggle
for existence belongs (Essays, ix. 31). Apparently he thought that
the moral sense in its origin was intuitional and in its development
utilitarian. " Morality commenced with society " (Essays, v. 52).
The '^ethical process ' is the " gradual strengthening of the social
bond " (Essays, i\. 35). " The cosmic process has no sort of relation
to moral ends" (l.c. p. 83); "of moral purpose I see no trace in
nature. That is an article of exclusive human manufacture " (Life,
ii. 268). The cosmic process Huxley identified with evil, and the
ethical process with good; the two are in necessary conflict. " The
reality at the bottom of the doctrine of original sin " is the " innate
tendency to self-assertion " inherited by man from the cosmic order
(Essays, ix. 27). " The actions we call sinful are part and parcel of
the struggle for existence^" (Life, ii. 282). " The prospect of attaining
untroubled happiness " is " an illusion " (Essays, ix. 44), and the
cosmic process in the long run will get the best of the contest, and
" resume its sway " when evolution enters on its downward course
(l.c. p. 45). This approaches pure pessimism, and though in Huxley's
view the " pessimism of Schopenhauer is a nightmare " (Essays, ix.
200), his own philosophy of life is not distinguishable, and is often
expressed in the same language. The cosmic order is obviously
non-moral (Essays, ix. 197)- That it is, as has been said, immoral
js really meaningless. Pain and suffering are affections which
imply a complex nervous organization, and we are not justified in
projecting them into nature external to ourselves. Darwin and A. R.
Wallace disagreed with Huxley in seeing rather the joyous than the
suffering side of nature. Nor can it be assumed that the descending
scale of evolution will reproduce the ascent, or that man will ever be
conscious of his doom.
As has been said, Huxley never thoroughly grasped the Darwinian
principle. He thought transmutation may take place without
transition " (Life, i. 173). In other words, that evolution is ac-
complished by leaps and not by the accumulation of small variations.
He recognized the " struggle for existence " but not the gradual
adjustment of the organism to its environment which is implied in
" natural selection." In highly civilized societies he thought that the
former was at an end (Essays, ix. 36) and had been replaced by the
11 struggle for enjoyment " (l.c. p. 40). But a consideration of the
stationary population of France might have shown him that the
effect in the one case may be as restrictive as in the other. So far
from natural selection being in abeyance under modern social
conditions, " it is," as Professor Karl Pearson points out, " some-
thing we run up against at once, almost as soon as we examine a
mortality table " (Biometrika, i. 76). The inevitable conclusion,
whether we like it or not, is that the future evolution of humanity is
as much a part of the cosmic process as its past history, and Huxley's
attempt to shut the door on it cannot be maintained scientifically.
AUTHORITIES. — Life and Letters of Thomas Kenry Huxley, by his
son Leonard Huxley (2 vols., 1900); Scientific Memoirs of T. H.
Huxley (4 vols., 1898-1901); Collected Essays by T. H. Huxley
(9 vols., 1898); Thomas Henry Huxley, a\Sketch of his Life and Work,
by P. Chalmers Mitchell, M.A. (Oxon., 1900); a critical study
founded on careful research and of great value. (W. T. T.-D.)
HUY (Lat. Hoium, and Flem. Hoey), a town of Belgium,
on the right bank of the Meuse, at the point where it is joined
by the Hoyoux. Pop. (1904), 14,164. It is ig m. E. of Namur
and a trifle less west of Liege. Huy certainly dates from the
yth century, and, according to some, was founded by the emperor
HUYGENS, C.
21
Antoninus in A.D. 148. Its situation is striking, with its grey
citadel crowning a grey rock, and the fine collegiate church
(with a 13th-century gateway) of Notre Dame built against it.
The citadel is now used partly as a depot of military equipment
and partly as a prison. The ruins are still shown of the abbey
of Neumoustier founded by Peter the Hermit on his return
from the first crusade. He was buried there in 1115, and a
statue was erected to his memory in the abbey grounds in
1858. Neumoustier was one of seventeen abbeys in this town
alone dependent on the bishopric of Liege. Huy is surrounded
by vineyards, and the bridge which crosses the Meuse at this
point connects the fertile Hesbaye north of the river with the
rocky and barren Condroz south of it.
HUYGENS, CHRISTIAAN (1620-1695), Dutch mathematician,
mechanician, astronomer and physicist, was born at the Hague
on the i4th of April 1629. He was the second son of Sir
Constantijn Huygens. From his father he received the rudiments
of his education, which was continued at Leiden under A. Vinnius
and F. van Schooten, and completed in the juridical school
of Breda. His mathematical bent, however, soon diverted
him from legal studies, and the perusal of some of his earliest
theorems enabled Descartes to predict his future greatness. In
1649 he accompanied the mission of Henry, count of Nassau,
to Denmark, and in 1651 entered the lists of science as an assailant
of the unsound system of quadratures adopted by Gregory of
St Vincent. This first essay (Exetasis quadraturae circuit,
Leiden, 1651) was quickly succeeded by his Theoremata de
quadrature, hyperboles, ellipsis, et circuli; while, in a treatise
entitled De circuli magnitudine invenla, he made, three years
later, the closest approximation so far obtained to the ratio
of the circumference to the diameter of a circle.
Another class of subjects was now to engage his attention.
The improvement of the telescope was justly regarded as a
sine qua non for the advancement of astronomical knowledge.'
But the difficulties interposed by spherical and chromatic
aberration had arrested progress in that direction until, in 1655,
Huygens, working with his brother Constantijn, hit upon a
new method of grinding and polishing lenses. The immediate
results of the clearer definition obtained were the detection
of a satellite to Saturn (the sixth in order of distance from its
primary), and the resolution into their true form of the abnormal
appendages to that planet. Each discovery in turn was, according
to the prevailing custom, announced to the learned world under
the veil of an anagram — removed, in the case of the first, by the
publication, early in 1656, of the little tract De Saturni luna
observalio nova; but retained, as regards the second, until
1659, when in the Sy sterna Saturnium the varying appearances
of the so-called " triple planet " were clearly explained as the
phases of a ring inclined at an angle of 28° to the ecliptic. Huygens
was also in 1656 the first effective observer of the Orion nebula;
he delineated the bright region still known by his name, and
detected the multiple character of its nuclear star. His applica-
tion of the pendulum to regulate the movement of clocks sprang
from his experience of the need for an exact measure of time
in observing the heavens. The invention dates from 1656;
on the i6th of June 1657 Huygens presented his first " pendulum-
clock " to the states-general; and the Horologium, containing
a description of the requisite mechanism, was published in
1658.
His reputation now became cosmopolitan. As early as 1655
the university of Angers had distinguished him with an honorary
degree of doctor of laws. In 1663, on the occasion of his second
visit to England, he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society,
and imparted to that body in January 1669 a clear and concise
statement of the laws governing the collision of elastic bodies.
Although these conclusions were arrived at independently, and,
as it would seem, several years previous to their publication,
they were in great measure anticipated by the communications
on the same subject of John Wallis and Christopher Wren,
made respectively in November and December 1668.
Huygens had before this time fixed his abode in France.
In 1665 Colbert made to him on behalf of Louis XIV. an offer
too tempting to be refused, and between the following year and
1681 his residence in the philosophic seclusion of the Bibliotheque
du Roi was only interrupted by two short visits to his native
country. His magnum opus dates from this period. The
Horologium oscillatorium, published with a dedication to his
royal patron in 1673, contained original discoveries sufficient
to have furnished materials for half a dozen striking disquisitions.
His solution of the celebrated problem of the "centre of oscilla-
tion " formed in itself an important event in the history of
mechanics. Assuming as an axiom that the centre of gravity
of any number of interdependent bodies cannot rise higher
than the point from which it fell, he arrived, by anticipating
in the particular case the general principle of the conservation
of vis viva, at correct although not strictly demonstrated con-
clusions. His treatment of the subject was the first successful
attempt to deal with the dynamics of a system. The determina-
tion of the true relation between the length of a pendulum
and the time of its oscillation; the invention of the theory of
evolutes; the discovery, hence ensuing, that the cycloid is
its own evolute, and is strictly isochronous; the ingenious
although practically inoperative idea of correcting the " circular
error " of the pendulum by applying cycloidal cheeks to clocks —
were all contained in this remarkable treatise. The theorems
on the composition of forces in circular motion with which it
concluded formed the true prelude to Newton's Principia, and
would alone suffice to establish the claim of Huygens to the
highest rank among mechanical inventors.
In 1 68 1 he finally severed his French connexions, and returned
to Holland. The harsher measures which about that time
began to be adopted towards his co-religionists in France are
usually assigned as the motive of this step. He now devoted
himself during six years to the production of lenses of enormous
focal distance, which, mounted on high poles, and connected with
the eye-piece by means of a cord, formed what were called " aerial
telescopes." Three of his object-glasses, of respectively 123,
1 80 and 210 ft. focal length, are in the possession of the Royal
Society. He also succeeded in constructing an almost perfectly
achromatic eye-piece, still known by his name. But his re-
searches in physical optics constitute his chief title-deed to
immortality. Although Robert Hooke in 1668 and Ignace
Pardies in 1672 had adopted a vibratory hypothesis of light,
the conception was a mere floating possibility until Huygens
provided it with a sure foundation. His powerful scientific
imagination enabled him to realize that all the points of a wave-
front originate partial waves, the aggregate effect of which is
to reconstitute the primary disturbance at the subsequent stages
of its advance, thus accomplishing its propagation; so that
each primary undulation is the envelope of an indefinite number
of secondary undulations. This resolution of the original wave
is the well-known " Principle of Huygens," and by its means
he was enabled to prove the fundamental laws of optics, and
to assign the correct construction for the direction of the extra-
ordinary ray in uniaxial crystals. These investigations, together
with his discovery of the " wonderful phenomenon " of polariza-
tion, are recorded in his Traite de la lumiere, published at
Leiden in 1690, but composed in 1678. In the appended
treatise Sur la Cause de la pesanteur, he rejected gravitation as
a universal quality of matter, although admitting the Newtonian
theory of the planetary revolutions. From his views on centri-
fugal force he deduced the oblate figure of the earth, estimating
its compression, however, at little more than one-half its actual
amount.
Huygens never married. He died at the Hague on the 8th
of June 1695, bequeathing his manuscripts to the university
of Leiden, and his considerable property to the sons of his
younger brother. In character he was as estimable as he was
brilliant in intellect. Although, like most men of strong originative
power, he assimilated with difficulty the ideas of others, his
tardiness sprang rather from inability to depart from the track
of his own methods than from reluctance to acknowledge the
merits of his competitors.
In addition to the works already mentioned, his Cosmotheoros —
22
HUYGENS, SIR C.— HUYSMANS
a speculation concerning the inhabitants of the planets — was printed
posthumously at the Hague in 1698, and appeared almost simultane-
ously in an English translation. A volume entitled Opera, posthuma
(Leiden, 1703) contained his " Dioptrica," in which the ratio between
the respective focal lengths of object-glass and eye-glass is given as
the measure of magnifying power, together with the shorter essays
De vitris figurandis, De corona et parheliis, &c. An early tract De
ratiociniis in ludo aleae, printed in 1657 with Schooten's Exercita-
tiones mathematicae, is notable as one of the first formal treatises on
the theory of probabilities; nor should his investigations of the
properties of the cissoid, logarithmic and catenary curves be left
unnoticed. His invention of the spiral watch-spring was explained
in the Journal des savants (Feb. 25, 1675). An edition of his
works was published by G. J. "s Gravesande, in four quarto volumes
entitled Opera varia (Leiden, 1724) and Opera reliqua (Amsterdam,
1728). His scientific correspondence was edited by P. J. Uylenbrpek
from manuscripts preserved at Leiden, with the title Christiani
Hugenii aliorumque seculi X VII. virorum celebrium exercitationes
mathematicae et philosophical (the Hague, 1833).
The publication of a monumental edition of the letters and works
of Huygens was undertaken at the Hague by the Societe Hollandaise
des Sciences, with the heading CEumes de Christian Huygens (1888),
&c. Ten quarto volumes, comprising the whole of his correspondence,
had already been issued in 1905. A biography of Huygens was
prefixed to his Opera varia (1724); his Eloge in the character of a
French academician was printed by J. A. N. Condorcet in 1773.
Consult further: P. J. Uylenbroek, Oratio de fratribus Christiana
atque Constantino Hugenio (Groningen, 1838) ; P. Harting, Christiaan
Huygens in zijn Leven en Wvrken geschetzt (Groningen, 1868) ; J. B. J.
Delambre, Hist, de I'astronomie moderne (ii. 549) ; J. E. Montucla,
Hist, des mathematiques (ii. 84, 412, 549); M. Chasles, Aperc.u histor-
ique sur I'origine des methodes en geometric, pp. 101-109; E. Duhring,
Kritische Geschichte der allgemeinen Principien der Mechanik,
Abschnitt (ii. 120, 163, iii. 227); A. Berry, A Short History oj
Astronomy, p. 200; R. Wolf, Geschichte der Astronomie, passim;
Houzeau, Bibliographie astronomique (ii. 169) ; F. Kaiser, Astr. Nach.
(xxv. 245, 1847); Tijdschrift voor de Wetenschappen (i. 7, 1848);
Allgemeine deutsche Biographie (M. B. Cantor) ; J. C. Poggendorff,
Biog. lit. Handworterbuch. (A. M. C.)
HUYGENS, SIR CONSTANTIJN (1596-1687), Dutch poet
and diplomatist, was born at the Hague on the 4th of September
1596. His father, Christiaan Huygens, was secretary to the
state council, and a man of great political importance. At the
baptism of the child, the city of Breda was one of his sponsors,
and the admiral Justinus van Nassau the other. He was trained
in every polite accomplishment, and before he was seven could
speak French with fluency. He was taught Latin by Johannes
Dedelus, and soon became a master of classic versification.
He developed not only extraordinary intellectual gifts but
great physical beauty and strength, and was one of the most
accomplished athletes and gymnasts of his age; his skill in
playing the lute and in the arts of painting and engraving
attracted general attention before he began to develop his
genius as a writer. In 1616 he proceeded, with his elder brother,
to the university of Leiden. He stayed there only one year,
and in 1618 went to London with the English ambassador
Dudley Carleton; he remained in London for some months,
and then went to Oxford, where he studied for some time in the
Bodleian Library, and to Woodstock, Windsor and Cambridge;
he was introduced at the English court, and played the lute
before James I. The most interesting feature of this visit was
the intimacy which sprang up between the young Dutch poet
and Dr Donne, for whose genius Huygens preserved through
life an unbounded admiration. He returned to Holland in
company with the English contingent of the synod of Dort,
and in 1619 he proceeded to Venice in the diplomatic service
of his country; on his return he nearly lost his life by a foolhardy
exploit, namely, the scaling of the topmost spire of Strassburg
cathedral. In 1621 he published one of his most weighty and
popular poems, his Balava Tempe, and in the same year he
proceeded again to London, as secretary to the ambassador,
Wijngaerdan, but returned in three months. His third diplo-
matic visit to England lasted longer, from the 5th of December
1621 to the ist of March 1623. During his absence, his volume
of satires, 't Costelick Mai, dedicated to Jacob Cats, appeared
at the Hague. In the autumn of 1622 he was knighted by
James I. He published a large volume of miscellaneous poems
in 1625 under the title of Otiorum libri sex; and in the same
year he was appointed private secretary to the stadholder.
In 1627 Huygens married Susanna van Baerle, and settled at
the Hague; four sons and a daughter were born to them. In
1630 Huygens was called to a seat in the privy council, and he
continued to exercise political power with wisdom and vigour
for many years, under the title of the lord of Zuylichem. In
1634 he is supposed to have completed his long-talked-of version
of the poems of Donne, fragments of which exist. In 1637 his
wife died, and he immediately began to celebrate the virtues
and pleasures of their married life in the remarkable didactic
poem called Dagwerck, which was not published till long after-
wards. From 1639 to 1641 he occupied himself by building
a magnificent house and garden outside the Hague, and by
celebrating their beauties in a poem entitled Hofwijck, which
was published in 1653. In 1647 he wrote his beautiful poem
of Oogentroost or " Eye Consolation," to gratify his blind friend
Lucretia van Trollo. He made his solitary effort in the dramatic
line in 1657, when he brought out his comedy of Trijntje Cornells
Klacht, which deals, in rather broad humour, with the adventures
of the wife of a ship's captain at Zaandam. In 1658 he rearranged
his poems, and issued them with many additions, under the
title of Corn Flowers. He proposed to the government that
the present highway from the Hague to the sea at Scheveningen
should be constructed, and during his absence on a diplomatic
mission to the French court in 1666 the road was made as a
compliment to the venerable statesman, who expressed his
gratitude in a descriptive poem entitled Zeestraet. Huygens
edited his poems for the last time in 1672, and died in his ninety-
first year, on the z8th of March 1687. He was buried, with the
pomp of a national funeral, in the church of St Jacob, on the
4th of April. His second son, Christiaan, the eminent astronomer,
is noticed separately.
Constantijn Huygens is the most brilliant figure in Dutch literary
history. Other statesmen surpassed him in political influence, and
at least two other poets surpassed him in the value and originality of
their writings. But his figure was more dignified and splendid, his
talents were more varied, and his general accomplishments more
remarkable than those of any other person of his age, the greatest
age in the history of the Netherlands. Huygens is the grand seigneur
of the republic, the type of aristocratic oligarchy, the jewel and
ornament of Dutch liberty. When we consider his imposing character
and the positive value of his writings, we may well be surprised that
he has not found a modern editor. It is a disgrace to Dutch scholar-
ship that no complete collection of the writings of Huygens exists.
His autobiography, De w'to propria sermonum libri duo, did not see
the light until 1817, and his remarkable poem, Cluyswerck, was not
printed until 1841. As a poet Huygens shows a finer sense of form
than any other early Dutch writer; the language, in his hands,
becomes as flexible as Italian. His epistles and lighter pieces, in par-
ticular, display his metrical ease and facility to perfection. (E. G.)
HUYSMANS, the name of four Flemish painters who matricu-
lated in the Antwerp gild in the I7th century. Cornelis the
elder, apprenticed in 1633, passed for a mastership in 1636,
and remained obscure. Jacob, apprenticed to Frans Wouters
in 1650, wandered to England towards the close of the reign
of Charles II., and competed with Lely as a fashionable portrait
painter. He executed a portrait of the queen, Catherine of
Braganza, now in the national portrait gallery, and Horace
Walpole assigns to him the likeness of Lady Bellasys, catalogued
at Hampton Court as a work of Lely. His portrait of Izaak
Walton in the National Gallery shows a disposition to imitate
the styles of Rubens and Van Dyke. According to most accounts
he died in London in 1696. Jan Baptist Huysmans, born at
Antwerp in 1654, matriculated in 1676-1677, and died there in
1715-1716. He was younger brother to Cornelis Huysmans
the second, who was born at Antwerp in 1648, and educated
by Caspar de Wit and Jacob van Artois. Of Jan Baptist little
or nothing has been preserved, except that he registered numerous
apprentices at Antwerp, and painted a landscape dated 1697
now in the Brussels museum. Cornelis the second is the only
master of the name of Huysmans whose talent was largely
acknowledged. He received lessons from two artists, one of
whom was familiar with the Roman art of the Poussins, whilst
the other inherited the scenic style of the school of Rubens.
He combined the two in a rich, highly coloured, and usually
effective style, which, however, was not free from monotony.
HUYSMANS, J. K.— HWANG HO
Seldom attempting anything but woodside views with fancy
backgrounds, half Italian, half Flemish, he painted with great
facility, and left numerous examples behind. At the outset
of his career he practised at Malines, where he married in 1682,
and there too he entered into some business connexion with
van der Meulen, for whom he painted some backgrounds.
In 1706 he withdrew to Antwerp, where he resided till 1717,
returning then to Malines, where he died on the ist of June
1727.
Though most of his pictures were composed for cabinets rather than
churches, he sometimes emulated van Artois in the production of
large sacred pieces, and for many years his " Christ on the Road to
Emmaus " adorned the choir of Notre Dame of Malines. In the
gallery of Nantes, where three of his small landscapes are preserved,
there hangs an " Investment of Luxembourg," by van der Meulen, of
which he is known to have laid in the background. The national
galleries of London and Edinburgh contain each one example of his
skill. Blenheim, too, and other private galleries in England, possess
one or more of his pictures. But most of his works are on the
European continent.
HUYSMANS, JORIS KARL (1848-1907), French novelist,
was born at Paris on the 5th of February 1848. He belonged
to a family of artists of Dutch extraction; he entered the
ministry of the interior, and was pensioned after thirty years'
service. His earliest venture in literature, Le Drageoir a tpices
(1874), contained stories and short prose poems showing the
influence of Baudelaire. Marthe (1876), the life of a courtesan,
was published in Brussels, and Huysmans contributed a story,
" Sac au dos," to Les Soirees de Medan, the collection of stories
of the Franco-German war published by Zola. He then pro-
duced a series of novels of everyday life, including Les Soeurs
Vatard (1879), En Menage (i88i),a.nd A vau-l'eau (1882), in which
he outdid Zola in minute and uncompromising realism. He
was influenced, however, more directly by Flaubert and the
brothers de Goncourt than by Zola. In U Art moderne (1883)
he gave a careful study of impressionism and in Certains (1889)
a series of studies of contemporary artists. A Rebours (1884),
the history of the morbid tastes of a decadent aristocrat, des
Esseintes, created a literary sensation, its caricature of literary
and artistic symbolism covering much of the real beliefs of the
leaders of the aesthetic revolt. In Ld-Bas Huysmans's most
characteristic hero, Durtal, makes his appearance. Durtal
is occupied in writing the life of Gilles de Rais; the insight
he gains into Satanism is supplemented by modern Parisian
students of the black art; but already there are signs of a
leaning to religion in the sympathetic figures of the religious
bell-ringer of Saint Sulpice and his wife. En Route (1895) relates
the strange conversion of Durtal to mysticism and Catholicism
in his retreat to La Trappe. In La Cathedrale (1898), Huysmans's
symbolistic interpretation of the cathedral of Chartres, he
develops his enthusiasm for the purity of Catholic ritual. The
life of Sainle Lydwine de Schiedam (1901), an exposition of
the value of suffering, gives further proof of his conversion;
and L'Oblat (1903) describes Durtal's retreat to the Val des
Saints, where he is attached as an oblate to a Benedictine
monastery. Huysmans was nominated by Edmond de Gon-
court as a member of the Academic des Goncourt. He died
as a devout Catholic, after a long illness of cancer in the palate
on the i3th of May 1907. Before his death he destroyed his
unpublished MSS. His last book was Les Foules de Lourdes
(1906).
See Arthur Symons, Studies in two Literatures (1897) and The
Symbolist Movement in Literature (1899); Jean Lionnet in L'&iolu-
tion des idces (1903) ; Eugene Gilbert in France et Belgigue (1905) ;
J. Sargeret in Les Grands convertis (1906).
HUYSUM, JAN VAN (1682-1749), Dutch painter, was born
at Amsterdam in 1682, and died in his native city on the 8th
of February 1749. He was the son of Justus van Huysum,
who is said to have been expeditious in decorating doorways,
screens and vases. A picture by this artist is preserved in
the gallery of Brunswick, representing Orpheus and the Beasts
in a wooded landscape, and here we have some explanation
of his son's fondness for landscapes of a conventional and Arcadian
kind; for Jan van Huysum, though skilled as a painter of still
life, believed himself to possess the genius of a landscape painter.
23
Half his pictures in public galleries are landscapes, views of
imaginary lakes and harbours with impossible ruins and classic
edifices, and woods of tall and motionless trees — the whole
very glossy and smooth, and entirely lifeless. The earliest dated
work of this kind is that of 1717, in the Louvre, a grove with
maidens culling flowers near a tomb, ruins of a portico, and a
distant palace on the shores of a lake bounded by mountains.
It is doubtful whether any artist ever surpassed van Huysum
in representing fruit and flowers. It has been said that his
fruit has no savour and his flowers have no perfume — in other
words, that they are hard and artificial — but this is scarcely
true. In substance fruit and flower are delicate and finished
imitations of nature in its more subtle varieties of matter.
The fruit has an incomparable blush of down, the flowers have
a perfect delicacy of tissue. Van Huysum, too, shows supreme
art in relieving flowers of various colours against each other,
and often against a light and transparent background. He
is always bright, sometimes even gaudy. Great taste and
much grace and elegance are apparent in the arrangement of
bouquets and fruit in vases adorned with bas reliefs or in baskets
on marble tables. There is exquisite and faultless finish every-
where. But what van Huysum has not is the breadth, the
bold effectiveness, and the depth of thought of de Heem, from
whom he descends through Abraham Mignon.
Some of the finest of van Huysum's fruit and flower pieces have
been in English private collections: those of 1723 in the earl of
Ellesmere's gallery, others of 1730-1732 in the collections of Hope
and Ashburton. One of the best examples is now in the National
Gallery (1736-1737). No public museum has finer and more numer-
ous specimens than the Louvre, which boasts of four landscapes and
six panels with still life; then come Berlin and Amsterdam with four
fruit and flower pieces; then St Petersburg, Munich, Hanover,
Dresden, the Hague, Brunswick, Vienna, Carlsruheand Copenhagen.
HWANG HO [HOANG Ho], the second largest river in China.
It is known to foreigners as the Yellow river — a name which
is a literal translation of the Chinese. It rises among the Kuen-
lun mountains in central Asia, its head-waters being in close
proximity to those of the Yangtsze-Kiang. It has a total
length of about 2400 m. and drains an area of approximately
400,000 sq. m. The main stream has its source in two lakes
named Tsaring-nor and Oring-nor, lying about 35° N., 97° E.,
and after flowing with a south-easterly course it bends sharply
to the north-west and north, entering China in the province
of Kansuh in lat. 36°. After passing Lanchow-fu, the capital
of this province, the river takes an immense sweep to the north
and north-east, until it encounters the rugged barrier ranges
that here run north and south through the provinces of Shansi
and Chihli. By these ranges it is forced due south for 500 m.,
forming the boundary between the provinces of Shansi and
Shensi, until it finds an outlet eastwards at Tung Kwan — a
pass which for centuries has been renowned as the gate of Asia,
being indeed the sole commercial passage between central
China and the West. At Tung Kwan the river is joined by its
only considerable affluent in China proper, the Wei (Wei-ho),
which drains the large province of Shensi, and the combined
volume of water continues its way at first east and then north-
east across the great plain to the sea. At low water in the winter
season the discharge is only about 36,000 cub. ft. per second,
whereas during the summer flood it reaches 116,000 ft. or more.
The amount of sediment carried down is very large, though
no accurate observations have been made. In the account
of Lord Macartney's embassy, which crossed the Yellow river
in 1792, it was calculated to be 17,520 million cub. ft. a year,
but this is consid3red very much over the mark. Two reasons,
however, combine to render it probable that the sedimentary
matter is very large in proportion to the volume of water:
the first being the great fall, and the consequently rapid current
over two-thirds of the river's course; the second that the
drainage area is nearly all covered with deposits of loess, which,
being very friable, readily gives way before the rainfall and
is washed down in large quantity. The ubiquity of this loess
or yellow earth, as the Chinese call it, has in fact given its
name both to the river which carries it in solution and to the
sea (the Yellow Sea) into which it is discharged. It is calculated
HWICCE— HYACINTH
by Dr Guppy (Journal of China Branch of Royal Asiatic Society,
vol. xvi.) that the sediment brought down by the three northern
rivers of China, viz., the Yangtsze, the Hwang-ho and the
Peiho, is 24,000 million cub. ft. per annum, and is sufficient
to fill up the whole of the Yellow Sea and the Gulf of Pechili
in the space of about 36,000 years.
Unlike the Yangtsze, the Hwang-ho is of no practical value for
navigation. The silt and sand form banks and bars at the mouth,
the water is too shallow in winter and the current is too strong in
summer, and, further, the bed of the river is continually^shifting.
It is this last feature which has earned for the river the name " China s
sorrow." As the silt-laden waters debouch from the rocky bed of the
upper reaches on to the plains, the current slackens, and the coarser
detritus settles on th'e bottom. By degrees the bed rises, and the
people build embankments to prevent the river from overflowing.
As the bed rises the embankments must be raised too, until the stream
is flowing many feet above the level of the surrounding country.
As time goes on the situation becomes more and more dangerous;
finally, a breach occurs, and the whole river pours over the country,
carrying destruction and ruin with it. If the breach cannot be re-
paired the river leaves its old channel entirely, and finds a new exit
to the sea along the line of least resistance. Such in brief has been
the story of the river since the dawn of Chinese history. At various
times it has discharged its waters alternately on one side or the other
of the great mass of mountains forming the promontory of Shantung,
and by mouths as far apart from each other as 500 m. At each
change it has worked havoc and disaster by covering the cultivated
fields with 2 or 3 ft. of sand and mud.
A great change in the river's course occurred in 1851, when a
breach was made in the north embankment near Kaifengfu in Honan.
At this point the river bed was some 25 ft. above the plain; the
water consequently forsook the old channel entirely and poured over
the level country, finally seizing on the bed of a small river called
the Tsing, and thereby finding an exit to the sea. Since that time
the new channel thus carved out has remained the proper course of
the river, the old or southerly channel being left quite dry. It re-
quired some fifteen or more years to repair damages from this out-
break, and to confine the stream by new embankments. After that
there was for a time comparative immunity from inundations, but
in 1882 fresh outbursts again began. The most serious of all took
place in 1887, when it appeared probable that there would be again a
permanent change in the river's course. By dint of great exertions,
however, the government succeeded in closing the breach, though
not till January 1889, and not until there had been immense destruc-
tion of life and property. The outbreak on this occasion occurred, as
all the more serious outbreaks have done, in Honan, a few miles west
of the city of Kaifengfu. The stream poured itself over the level and
fertile country to the southwards, sweeping whole villages before
it, and converting the plain into one vast lake. The area affected
was not less than 50,000 sq. m. and the loss of life was computed at
over one million. Since 1887 there have been a series of smaller
outbreaks, mostly at points lower down and in the neighbourhood of
Chinanfu, the capital of Shantung. These perpetually occurring
disasters entail a heavy expense on the government; and from the
mere pecuniary point of view it would well repay them to call in the
best foreign engineering skill available, an expedient, however, which
has not commended itself to the Chinese authorities. (G. J.)
HWICCE, one of the kingdoms of Anglo-Saxon Britain. Its
exact dimensions are unknown; they probably coincided with
those of the old diocese of Worcester, the early bishops of
which bore the title " Episcopus Hwicciorum." It would there-
fore include Worcestershire, Gloucestershire except the Forest
of Dean, the southern half of Warwickshire, and the neighbour-
hood of Bath. The name Hwicce survives in Wychwood in
Oxfordshire and Whichford in Warwickshire. These districts,
or at all events the southern portion of them, were according
to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, s.a. 577, originally conquered
by the West Saxons under Ceawlin. In later times, however,
the kingdom of the Hwicce appears to have been always subject
to Mercian supremacy, and possibly it was separated from
Wessex in the time of Edwin. The first kings of whom we read
were two brothers, Eanhere and Eanfrith, probably contempor-
aries of Wulfhere. They were followed by a king named Osric,
a contemporary of jEthelred, and he by a king Oshere. Oshere
had three sons who reigned after him, jEthelheard, ^thelweard
and jEthelric. The two last named appear to have been reigning
in the year 706. At the beginning of Offa's reign we again find
the kingdom ruled by three brothers, named Eanberht, Uhtred
and Aldred, the two latter of whom lived until about 780. After
them the title of king seems to have been given up. Their
successor ..Ethelmund, who was killed in a campaign against
Wessex in 802, is described only as an earl. The district re-
mained in possession of the rulers of Mercia until the fall of that
kingdom. Together with the rest of English Mercia it submitted
to King Alfred about 877-883 under Earl yEthelred, who possibly
himself belonged to the Hwicce. No genealogy or list of kings
has been preserved, and we do not know whether the dynasty
was connected with that of Wessex or Mercia.
See Bede, Historia eccles. (edited by C. Plummer) iv. 13 (Oxford,
.,, „, , „ „._». „_..,..,_... 76,85,116,11;
(F. G. M. B.)
1896); W. deG. Birch, CartulariumSaxonicum,^, 51, 76,85, 116, 117,
122, 163, 187, 232, 233, 238 (Oxford, 1885-1889).
HYACINTH (Gr. UaafOot), also called JACINTH (through ItaL
giacinto), one of the most popular of spring garden flowers. It
was in cultivation prior to 1597, at which date it is mentioned
by Gerard. Rea in 1665 mentions several single and double
varieties as being then in English gardens, and Justice in 1754
describes upwards of fifty single-flowered varieties, and nearly
one hundred double-flowered ones, as a selection of the best from
the catalogues of two then celebrated Dutch growers. One of
the Dutch sorts, called La Reine de Femmes, a single white,
is said to have produced from thirty-four to thirty-eight flowers
in a spike, and on its first appearance to have sold for 50 guilders
a bulb; while one called Overwinnaar, or Conqueror, a double
blue, sold at first for 100 guilders, Gloria Mundi for 500 guilders,
and Koning Saloman for 600 guilders. Several sorts are at
that date mentioned as blooming well in water-glasses. Justice
relates that he himself raised several very valuable double-
flowered kinds from seeds, which many of the sorts he describes
are noted for producing freely.
The original of the cultivated hyacinth, Hyacinlhus orientalis,
a native of Greece and Asia Minor, is by comparison an insignifi-
cant plant, bearing on a spike only a few small, narrow-lobed,
washy blue flowers, resembling in form those of our common
bluebell. So great has been the improvement effected by the
florists, and chiefly by the Dutch, that the modern hyacinth
would scarcely be recognized as the descendant of the type above
referred to, the spikes being long and dense, composed of a large
number of flowers; the spikes produced by strong bulbs not
unfrequently measure 6 to 9 in. in length and from 7 to 9 in.
in circumference, with the flowers closely set on from bottom to
top. Of late years much improvement has been effected in the
size of the individual flowers and the breadth of their recurving
lobes, as well as in securing increased brilliancy and depth of
colour.
The peculiarities of the soil and climate of Holland are so very
favourable to their production that Dutch florists have made a
specialty of the growth of those and other bulbous-rooted flowers.
Hundreds of acres are devoted to the growth of hyacinths in the
vicinity of Haarlem, and bring in a revenue of several hundreds
of thousands of pounds. Some notion of the vast number
imported into England annually may be formed from the fact
that, for the supply of flowering plants to Covent Garden, one
market grower alone produces from 60,000 to 70,000 in pots
under glass, their blooming period being accelerated by artificial
heat, and extending from Christmas onwards until they bloom
naturally in the open ground.
In the spring flower garden few plants make a more effective
display than the hyacinth. Dotted in clumps in the flower
borders, and arranged in masses of well-contrasted colours in
beds in the flower garden, there are no flowers which impart
during their season — March and April — a gayer tone to the par-
terre. The bulbs are rarely grown a second time, either for
indoor or outdoor culture, though with care they might be
utilized for the latter purpose; and hence the enormous numbers
which are procured each recurring year from Holland.
The first hyacinths were single-flowered, but towards the close
of the 1 7th century double-flowered ones began to appear, and
till a recent period these bulbs were the most esteemed. At
the present time, however, the single-flowered sorts are in the
ascendant, as they produce more regular and symmetrical spikes
of blossom, the flowers being closely set and more or less horizontal
in direction, while most of the double sorts have the bells distant
and dependent, so that the spike is loose and by comparison
HYACINTH— HYACINTHUS
ineffective. For pot culture, and for growth in water-glasses
especially, the single-flowered sorts are greatly to be preferred.
Few if any of the original kinds are now in cultivation, a succes-
sion of new and improved varieties having been raised, the
demand for which is regulated in some respects by fashion.
The hyacinth delights in a rich light sandy soil. The Dutch in-
corporate freely with their naturally light soil a compost consisting
of one-third coarse sea or river sand, one-third rotten cow dung
without litter and one-third leaf-mould. The soil thus renovated
retains its qualities for six or seven years, but hyacinths are not
planted upon the same place for two years successively, intermediary
crops of narcissus, crocus or tulips being taken. A good compost for
hyacinths is sandy loam, decayed leaf-mould, rotten cow dung and
sharp sand in equal parts, the whole being collected and laid up in a
heap and turned over occasionally. Well-drained beds made up of
this soil, and refreshed with a portion of new compost annually,
would grow the hyacinth to perfection. The best time to plant the
bulbs is towards the end of September and during October; they
should be arranged in rows, 6 to 8 in. asunder, there being four rows
in each bed. The bulbs should be sunk about 4 to 6 in. deep, with a
small quantity of clean sand placed below and around each of them.
The beds should be covered with decayed tan-bark, coco-nut fibre or
half-rotten dung litter. As the flower-stems appear, they are tied to
rigid but slender stakes to preserve them from accident. If the bulbs
are at all prized, the stems should be broken off as soon as the flower-
ing is over, so as not to exhaust the bulbs; the leaves, however, must
be allowed to grow on till matured, but as soon as they assume a
yellow colour, the bulbs are taken up, the leaves cut off near their
base, and the bulbs laid out in a dry, airy, shady place to ripen, after
which they are cleaned of loose earth and skin, ready for storing.
It is the practice in Holland, about a month after the bloom, or when
the tips of the leaves assume a withered appearance, to take up the
bulbs, and to lay them sideways on the ground, covering them with
an inch or two of earth. About three weeks later they are again
taken up and cleaned. In the store-room they should be kept dry,
well-aired and apart from each other.
Few plants are better adapted than the hyacinth for pot culture
as greenhouse decorative plants; and by the aid of forcing they may
be had in bloom as early as Christmas. They flower fairly well in
5-in. pots, the stronger bulbs in 6-in. pots. To bloom at Christmas,
they should be potted early in September, in a compost resembling
that already recommended for the open-air beds; and, to keep up a
succession of bloom, others should be potted at intervals of a few
weeks till the middle or end of November. The tops of the bulbs
should be about level with the soil, and if a little sand is put im-
mediately around them so much the better. The pots should be set
in an open place on a dry hard bed of ashes, and be covered over to a
depth of 6 or 8 in. with the same material or with fibre or soil ; and
when the roots are well developed, which will take from six to eight
weeks, they may be removed to a frame, and gradually exposed to
light, and then placed in a forcing pit in a heat of from 60 to 70°.
When the flowers are fairly open, they may be removed to the green-
house or conservatory.
The hyacinth may be very successfully grown in glasses for orna-
ment in dwelling-houses. The glasses are filled to the neck with rain
or even tap water, a few lumps of charcoal being dropped into them.
The bulbs are placed in the hollow provided for them, so that their
base just touches the water. This may be done in September or
October. They are then set in a dark cupboard for a few weeks till
roots are freely produced, and then gradually exposed to light. The
early-flowering single white Roman hyacinth, a small-growing pure
white variety, remarkable for its fragrance, is well adapted for
forcing, as it can be had in bloom if required by November. For
windows it grows well in the small glasses commonly used for
crocuses; and for decorative purposes should be planted about five
bulbs in a 5-in. pot, or in pans holding a dozen each. If grown for
cut flowers it can be planted thickly in boxes of any convenient size.
It is highly esteemed during the winter months by florists.
The Spanish hyacinth (H. amethystinus) and H. azureus are
charming little bulbs for growing in masses in the rock garden or front
of the flower border. The older botanists included in the genus
Hyacinthus species of Muscari, Scilla and other genera of bulbous
Liliaceae, and the name of hyacinth is still popularly applied to
several other bulbous plants. Thus Muscari botryoides is the grape
hyacinth, 6 in., blue or white, the handsomest; M. moschatum, the
musk hyacinth, 10 in., has peculiar livid greenish-yellow flowers and
a strong musky odour; M. comosum var. monstrosum, the feather
hyacinth, bears sterile flowers broken up into a featherlike mass;
M. racemosum, the starch hyacinth, is a native with deep blue plum-
scented flowers. The Cape hyacinth is Galtonia candicans, a magnifi-
cent border plant, 3-4 ft. high, with large drooping white bell-shaped
flowers; the star hyacinth, Scilla amoena; the Peruvian hyacinth
or Cuban lily, 5. peruviana, a native of the Mediterranean region, to
which Linnaeus gave the species name peruviana on a mistaken
assumption of its origin; the wild hyacinth or blue-bell, known
variously as Endymion nonscriptum, Hyacinthus nonscriptus or
Scilla nutans; the wild hyacinth of western North Amercia, Camassia
esculenta. They all flourish in good garden soil of a gritty nature.
HYACINTH, or JACINTH, in mineralogy, a variety of zircon
(q.v.) of yellowish red colour, used as a gem-stone. The hyacinthus
of ancient writers must have been our sapphire, or blue corundum,
while the hyacinth of modern mineralogists may have been
the stone known as lyncurium (\vjKoiipiov). The Hebrew
word leshem, translated ligure in the Authorized Version (Ex.
xxviii. 19), from the \ijvpiov of the Septuagint, appears in
the Revised Version as jacinth, but with a marginal alternative
of amber. Both jacinth and amber may be reddish yellow,
but their identification is doubtful. As our jacinth (zircon)
is not known in ancient Egyptian work, Professor Flinders
Petrie has suggested that the leshem may have been a yellow
quartz, or perhaps agate. Some old English writers describe
the jacinth as yellow, whilst others refer to it as a blue stone,
and the hyacinthus of some authorities seems undoubtedly to
have been our sapphire. In Rev. xx. 20 the Revised Version
retains the word jacinth, but gives sapphire as an alternative.
Most of the gems known in trade as hyacinth are only garnets —
generally the deep orange-brown hessonite or cinnamon-stone —
and many of the antique engraved stones reputed to be hyacinth
are probably garnets. The difference may be detected optically,
since the garnet is singly and the hyacinth doubly refracting;
moreover the specific gravity affords a simple means of diagnosis,
that of garnet being only about 3-7, whilst hyacinth may have
a density as high as 4-7. Again, it was shown many years ago
by Sir A. H. Church that most hyacinths, when examined by
the spectroscope, show a series of dark absorption bands, due
perhaps to the presence of some rare element such as uranium
or erbium.
Hyacinth is not a common mineral. It occurs, with other
zircons, in the gem-gravels of Ceylon, and very fine stones have
been found as pebbles at Mudgee in New South Wales. Crystals
of zircon, with all the typical characters of hyacinth, occur at
Expailly, Le Puy-en-Velay, in Central France, but they are not
large enough for cutting. The stones which have been called
Compostella hyacinths are simply ferruginous quartz from
Santiago de Compostella in Spain. (F. W. R.*)
HYACINTHUS,1 in Greek mythology, the youngest son of the
Spartan king Amyclas, who reigned at Amyclae (so Pausanias
iii. i. 3, iii. 19. 5; and Apollodorus i. 3. 3, iii. 10. 3). Other
stories make him son of Oebalus, of Eurotas, or of Pierus
and the nymph Clio (see Hyginus, Fabulae, 271; Lucian, De
saltatione, 45, and Dial. dear. 14). According to the general
story, which is probably late and composite, his great beauty
attracted the love of Apollo, who killed him accidentally when
teaching- him to throw the discus (quoit); others say that
Zephyrus (or Boreas) out of jealousy deflected the quoit so that
it hit Hyacinthus on the head and killed him. According to the
representation on the tomb at Amyclae (Pausanias, loc. cit.)
Hyacinthus was translated into heaven with his virgin sister
Polyboea. Out of his blood there grew the flower known as
the hyacinth, the petals of which were marked with the mournful
exclamation AI, AI, " alas " (cf. " that sanguine flower inscribed
with woe ")• This Greek hyacinth cannot have been the flower
which now bears the name; it has been identified with a species
of iris and with the larkspur (delphinium Aiacis), which appear
to have the markings described. The Greek hyacinth was also
said to have sprung from the blood of Ajax. Evidently the
Greek authorities confused both the flowers and the traditions.
The death of Hyacinthus was celebrated at Amyclae by the
second most important of Spartan festivals, the Hyacinthia,
which took place in the Spartan month Hecatombeus. What
month this was is not certain. Arguing from Xenophon (Hell.
iv. 5) we get May; assuming that the Spartan Hecatombeus
is the Attic Hecatombaion, we get July; or again it may be the
Attic Scirophorion, June. At all events the Hyacinthia was an
early summer festival. It lasted three days, and the rites
gradually passed from mourning for Hyacinthus to rejoicings
1 The word is probably derived from an Indo-European root,
meaning " youthful," found in Latin, Greek, English and Sanskrit.
Some have suggested that the first two letters are from iJeiv. to rain,
(cf. Hyades).
HYADES— HYBRIDISM
in the majesty of Apollo, the god of light and warmth, and giver
of the ripe fruits of the earth (see a passage from Polycrates,
Laconica, quoted by Athenaeus 139 D; criticized by L. R.
Farnell, Cults of the Greek States, iv. 266 foil.). This festival is
dearly connected with vegetation, and marks the passage from
the youthful verdure of spring to the dry heat of summer and
the ripening of the corn.
The precise relation which Apollo bears to Hyacinthus is
obscure. The fact that at Tarentum a Hyacinthus tomb is
ascribed by Polybius to Apollo Hyacinthus (not Hyacinthius)
has led some to think that the personalities are one, and that
the hero is merely an emanation from the god; confirmation
is sought in the Apolline appellation Tfrpa.-x.dp, alleged by
Hesychius to have been used in Laconia, and assumed to describe
a composite figure of Apollo-Hyacinthus. Against this theory
is the essential difference between the two figures. Hyacinthus
is a chthonian vegetation god whose worshippers are afflicted
and sorrowful; Apollo, though interested in vegetation, is never
regarded as inhabiting the lower world, his death is not celebrated
in any ritual, his worship is joyous and triumphant, and finally
the Amyclean Apollo is specifically the god of war and s6ng.
Moreover, Pausanias describes the monument at Amyclae as
consisting of a rude figure of Apollo standing on an altar-shaped
base which formed the tomb of Hyacinthus. Into the latter
offerings were put for the hero before gifts were made to the god.
On the whole it is probable that Hyacinthus belongs originally
to the pre-Dorian period, and that his story was appropriated
and woven into their own Apollo myth by the conquering
Dorians. Possibly he may be the apotheosis of a pre-Dorian
king of Amyclae. J. G. Frazer further suggests that he may
have been regarded as spending the winter months in the under-
world and returning to earth in the spring when the " hyacinth "
blooms. In this case his festival represents perhaps both the
Dorian conquest of Amyclae and the death of spring before the
ardent heat of the summer sun, typified as usual by the discus
(quoit) with which Apollo is said to have slain him. With the
growth of the hyacinth from his blood should be compared the
oriental stories of violets springing from the blood of Attis, and
roses and anemones from that of Adonis. As a youthful vegeta-
tion god, Hyacinthus may be compared with Linus and Scephrus,
both of whom are connected with Apollo Agyieus.
See L. R. Farnell, Cults of the Greek States, vol. iy. (1907), pp. 125
foil., 264 foil.; J. G. Frazer, Adonis, Attis, Osiris (1906), bk. ii.
ch. 7; S. Wide, Lakonische Kulte, p. 290; E. Rhode, Psyche,
3rd ed. L 137 foil.; Roscher, Lexikon d. griech. u. rdm. Myth., s.v.
' Hyakinthos " (Greve); L. Preller, Griechische Mythol. 4th ed.
i. 248 foil. (J. M. M.)
HYADES ("the rainy ones"), in Greek mythology, the
daughters of Atlas and Aethra; their number varies between
two and seven. As a reward for having brought up Zeus at
Dodona and taken care of the infant Dionysus Hyes, whom they
conveyed to Ino (sister of his mother Semele) at Thebes when his
life was threatened by Lycurgus, they were translated to heaven
and placed among the stars (Hyginus, Poet, astron. ii. 21).
Another form of the story combines them with the Pleiades.
According to this they were twelve (or fifteen) sisters, whose
brother Hyas was killed by a snake while hunting in Libya
(Ovid, Fasti, v. 165; Hyginus, Fab. 192). They lamented him
so bitterly that Zeus, out of compassion, changed them into
stars — five into the Hyades, at the head of the constellation
of the Bull, the remainder into the Pleiades. Their name is
derived from the fact that the rainy season commenced when
they rose at the same time as the sun (May 7-21); the original
conception of them is that of the fertilizing principle of moisture.
The Romans derived the name from 5$ (pig), and translated it
by Suculae (Cicero, De nat. deorum, ii. 43).
HYATT, ALPHEUS (1838-1902), American naturalist, was
born at Washington, D.C., on the sth of April 1838. From
1858 to 1862 he studied at Harvard, where he had Louis Agassiz
for his master, and in 1863 he served as a volunteer in the Civil
War, attaining the rank of captain. In 1867 he was appointed
curator of the Essex Institute at Salem, and in 1870 became
professor of zoology and palaeontology at the Massachusetts
Institute of Technology (resigned 1888), and custodian of the
Boston Society of Natural History (curator in 1881). In 1886
he was appointed assistant for palaeontology in the Cambridge
museum of comparative anatomy, and in 1889 was attached
to the United States Geological Survey as palaeontologist for
the Trias and Jura. He was the chief founder of the American
Society of Naturalists, of which he acted as first president in
1883, and he also took a leading part in establishing the marine
biological laboratories at Annisquam and Woods Hole, Mass.
He died at Cambridge on the isth of January 1902.
His works include Observations on Fresh-water Polyzoa (1866);
Fossil Cephalopods of the Museum of Comparative Zoology (1872);
Revision of North American Porifera (1875—1877); Genera of Fossil
Cephalopoda (1883); Larval Theory of the Origin of Cellular Tissue
(1884); Genesis of the Arietidae (1889); and Phytogeny of an ac-
quired characteristic (1894). He wrote the section on Cephalopoda in
Karl von Zittel's Paldontologie (1900), and his well-known study on
the fossil pond snails of Steinheim (" The Genesis of the Tertiary
Species of Planorbis at Steinheim ") appeared in the Memoirs of the
Boston Natural History Society in 1880. He was one of the founders
and editors of the American Naturalist.
HYBLA, the name of several cities in Sicily. The best known
historically, though its exact site is uncertain, is Hybla Major,
near (or by some supposed to be identical with) Megara Hyblaea
(q.v.): another Hybla, known as Hybla Minor or Galeatis, is
represented by the modern Paterno; while the site of Hybla
Heraea is to be sought near Ragusa.
HYBRIDISM. The Latin word hybrida, hibrida or ibrida
has been assumed to be derived from the Greek u/3p«, an insult
or outrage, and a hybrid or mongrel has been supposed to be
an outrage on nature, an unnatural product. As a general rule
animals and plants belonging to distinct species do not produce
offspring when crossed with each other, and the term hybrid
has been employed for the result of a fertile cross between
individuals of different species, the word mongrel for the more
common result of the crossing of distinct varieties. A closer
scrutiny of the facts, however, makes the term hybridism less
isolated and more vague. The words species and genus, and
still more subspecies and variety, do not correspond with clearly
marked and sharply defined zoological categories, and no exact
line can be drawn between the various kinds of crossings from
those between individuals apparently identical to those belonging
to genera universally recognized as distinct. Hybridism therefore
grades into mongrelism, mongrelism into cross-breeding, and cross-
breeding into normal pairing, and we can say little more than
that the success of the union is the more unlikely or more un-
natural the further apart the parents are in natural affinity.
The interest in hybridism was for a long time chiefly of a
practical nature, and was due to the fact that hybrids are often
found to present characters somewhat different from those of
either parent. The leading facts have been known in the case
of the horse and ass from time immemorial. The earliest recorded
observation of a hybrid plant is by J. G. Gmelin towards the end
of the 1 7th century; the next is that of Thomas Fairchild, who
in the second decade of the i8th century, produced the cross
which is still grown in gardens under the name of " Fairchild's
Sweet William." Linnaeus made many experiments in the
cross-fertilization of plants and produced several hybrids, but
Joseph Gottlieb Kolreuter (1733-1806) laid the first real founda-
tion of our scientific knowledge of the subject. Later on Thomas
Andrew Knight, a celebrated English horticulturist, devoted
much successful labour to the improvement of fruit trees and
vegetables by crossing. In the second quarter of the igth
century C. F. Gartner made and published the results of a number
of experiments that had not been equalled by any earlier worker.
Next came Charles Darwin, who first in the Origin of Species,
and later in Cross and Self-Fertilizalion of Plants, subjected the
whole question to a critical examination, reviewed the known
facts and added many to them.
Darwin's conclusions were summed up by G. J. Romanes in the
9th edition of this Encyclopaedia as follows : — •
1. The laws governing the production of hybrids are identical, or
nearly identical, in the animal and vegetable kingdoms.
2. The sterility which so generally attends the crossing of two
specific forms is to be distinguished as of two kinds, which, although
HYBRIDISM
often confounded by naturalists, are in reality quite distinct. For
the sterility may obtain between the two parent species when first
crossed, or it may first assert itself in their hybrid progeny. In the
latter case the hybrids, although possibly produced without any
appearance of infertility on the part of their parent species, neverthe-
less prove more or less infertile among themselves, and also with
members of either parent species.
3. The degree of both kinds of infertility varies in the case of
different species, and in that of their hybrid progeny, from absolute
sterility up to complete fertility. Thus, to take the case of plants,
" when pollen from a plant of one family is placed on the stigma of a
plant of a distinct family, it exerts no more influence than so much
inorganic dust. From this absolute zero of fertility, the pollen of
different species, applied to the stigma of some one species of the same
genus, yields a perfect gradation in the number of seeds produced, up
to nearly complete, or even quite complete, fertility ; so, in hybrids
themselves, there are some which never have produced, and probably
never would produce, even with the pollen of the pure parents, a
single fertile seed ; but in some of these cases a first trace of fertility
may be detected, by the pollen of one of the pure parent species
causing the flower of the hybrid to wither earlier than it otherwise
would have done; and the early withering of the flower is well
known to be a sign of incipient fertilization. From this extreme
degree of sterility we have self-fertilized hybrids producing a greater
and greater number of seeds up to perfect fertility."
4. Although there is, as a rule, a certain parallelism, there is no
fixed relation between the degree of sterility manifested by the
parent species when crossed and that which is manifested by their
hybrid progeny. There are many cases in which two pure species
can be crossed with unusual facility, while the resulting hybrids are
remarkably sterile; and, contrariwise, there are species which can
only be crossed with extreme difficulty, though the hybrids, when
produced, are very fertile. Even within the limits of the same genus,
these two opposite cases may occur.
5. When two species are reciprocally crossed, i.e. male A with
female B, and male B with female A, the degree of sterility often
differs greatly in the two cases. The sterility of the resulting hybrids
may differ likewise.
6. The degree of sterility of first crosses and of hybrids runs, to a
certain extent, parallel with the systematic affinity of the forms
which are united. " For species belonging to distinct genera can
rarely, and those belonging to distinct families can never, be crossed.
The parallelism, however, is far from complete; for a multitude of
closely allied species will not unite, or unite with extreme difficulty,
whilst other species, widely different from each other, can be crossed
with perfect facility. Nor does the difficulty depend on ordinary
constitutional differences; for annual and perennial plants, decidu-
ous and evergreen trees, plants flowering at different seasons, in-
habiting different stations, and naturally living under the most
opposite climates, can often be crossed with ease. The difficulty or
facility apparently depends exclusively on the sexual constitution of
the species which are crossed, or on their sexual elective affinity."
There are many new records as to the production of hybrids.
Horticulturists have been extremely active and successful in
their attempts to produce new flowers or new varieties of vege-
tables by seminal or graft-hybrids, and any florist's catalogue or
the account of any special plant, such as is to be found in Foster-
Melliar's Book of the Rose, is in great part a history of successful
hybridization. Much special experimental work has been done
by botanists, notably by de Vries, to the results of whose experi-
ments we shall recur. Experiments show clearly that the
obtaining of hybrids is in many cases merely a matter of taking
sufficient trouble, and the successful crossing of genera is not
infrequent.
Focke, for instance, cites cases where hybrids were obtained
between Brassica and Raphanus, Galium and Asperula, Campanula
and Phyteuma, Verbascum and Celsia. Among animals, new records
and new experiments are almost equally numerous. Boveri has
crossed Echinus microtuberculatus_ with Sphaerechinus granularis.
Thomas Hunt Morgan even obtained hybrids between Asterias, a
starfish, and Arbacia, a sea-urchin, a cross as remote as would be
that between a fish and a mammal. Vernon got many hybrids by
fertilizing the eggs of Strongylocentrotus lividus with the sperm of
Sphaerechinus granularis. Standfuss has carried on an enormous
series of experiments with Lepidopterous insects, and has obtained a
very large series of hybrids, of which he has kept careful record.
Lepidopterists generally begin to suspect that many curious forms
offered by dealers as new species are products got by crossing known
species. Apello has succeeded with Teleostean fish; Gebhardt and
others with Amphibia. Elliot and Suchetet have studied carefully
the question of hybridization occurring normally among birds, and
have got together a very large body of evidence. Among the cases
cited by Elliot the most striking are that of the hybrid between
Colaptes cafer and C. auratus, which occurs over a very wide area of
North America and is known as C. hybridus, and the hybrid between
Euplocamus lineatus and E. horsfieldi, which appears to be common in
Assam. St M. Podmore has produced successful crosses between the
wood-pigeon (Columba palumbus) and a domesticated variety of the
rock pigeon (C. livia). Among mammals noteworthy results have
been obtained by Professor Cossar Ewart, who has bred nine zebra
hybrids by crossing mares of various sizes with a zebra stallion, and
who has studied in addition three hybrids out of zebra mares, one
sired by a donkey, the others by ponies. Crosses have been made
between the common rabbit (Lepus cuniculus) and the guinea-pig
(Cavia cobaya), and examples of the results have been exhibited in the
Zoological Gardens of Sydney, New South Wales. The Carnivora
generally are very easy to hybridize, and many successful experiments
have been made with animals in captivity. Karl Hagenbeck of
Hamburg has produced crosses between the lion (Felis leo) and the
tiger (F. tigris). What was probably a " tri-hybrid " in which lion,
leopard and jaguar were mingled was exhibited by a London show-
man in 1908. Crosses between various species of the smaller cats
have been fertile on many occasions. The black bear ( Ursus ameri-
canus) and the European brown bear (U. arctos) bred in the London
Zoological Gardens in 1 859, but the three cubs did not reach maturity.
Hybrids between the brown bear and the grizzly-bear ( U. horribilis)
have been produced in Cologne, whilst at Halle since 1874 a series of
successful matings of polar (U. maritimus) and brown bears have
been made. Examples of these hybrid bears have been exhibited
by the London Zoological Society. The London Zoological Society
has also successfully mated several species of antelopes, for instance,
the water-bucks Kobus ettipsiprymnus and K. unctuosus, and Selous's
antelope Limnotragus selousi with L. grains.
The causes militating against the production of hybrids
have also received considerable attention. Delage, discussing
the question, states that there is a general proportion between
sexual attraction and zoological affinity, and in many cases
hybrids are not naturally produced simply from absence of the
stimulus to sexual mating, or .because of preferential mating
within the species or variety. In addition to differences of
habit, temperament, time of maturity, and so forth, gross
structural differences may make mating impossible. Thus
Escherick contends that among insects the peculiar structure
of the genital appendages makes cross-impregnation impossible,
and there is reason to believe that the specific peculiarities
of the modified sexual palps in male spiders have a similar
result.
The difficulties, however, may not exist, or may be overcome by
experiment, and frequently it is only careful management that is
required to produce crossing. Thus it has been found that when
the pollen of one species does not succeed in fertilizing the ovules
of another species, yet the reciprocal cross may be successful ; that
is to say, the pollen of the second species may fertilize the ovules
of the first. H. M. Vernon, working with sea-urchins, found that the
obtaining of hybrids depended on the relative maturity of the
sexual products. The difficulties in crossing apparently may ex-
tend to the chemiotaxic processes of the actual sexual cells. Thus
when the spermatozoa of an urchin were placed in a drop of sea-
water containing ripe eggs of an urchin and of a starfish, the former
eggs became surrounded by clusters of the male cells, while the latter
appeared to exert little attraction for the alien germ-cells. Finally,
when the actual impregnation of the egg is possible naturally, or has
been secured by artificial means, the development of the hybrid may
stop at an early stage. Thus hybrids between the urchin and the
starfish, animals belonging to different classes, reached only the
stage of the pluteus larva. A. D. Apello, experimenting with
Teleostean fish, found that very often impregnation and segmenta-
tion occurred, but that the development broke down immediately
afterwards. W. Gebhardt, crossing Rana esculenta with R. arvalis,
found that the cleavage of the ovum was normal, but that ab-
normality began with the gastrula, and that development soon
stopped. In a very general fashion there appears to be a parallel
between the zoological affinity and the extent to which the incomplete
development of the hybrid proceeds.
As to the sterility of hybrids inter se, or with either of the
parent forms, information is still wanted. Delage, summing up
the evidence in a general way, states that mongrels are more
fertile and stronger than their parents, while hybrids are at
least equally hardy but less fertile. While many of the hybrid
products of horticulturists are certainly infertile, others appear
to be indefinitely fertile.
Focke, it is true, states that the hybrids between Primula auricula
and P. hirsuta are fertile for many generations, but not indefinitely
so; but, while this may be true for the particular case, there seems
no reason to doubt that many plant hybrids are quite fertile. In the
case of animals the evidence is rather against fertility. Standfuss,
who has made experiments lasting over many years, and who has
dealt with many genera of Lepidoptera, obtained no fertile hybrid
females, although he found that hybrid males paired readily and
successfully with pure-bred females of the parent races. Elliot,
28
HYBRIDISM
dealing with birds, concluded that no hybrids were fertile with one
another beyond the second generation, but thought that they were
fertile with members of the parent races. Wallace, on the other
hand, cites from Quatrefages the case of hybrids between the moths
Bombyx cynthia and B. arrindia, which were stated to be fertile
inter se for eight generations. He also states that hybrids between
the sheep and goat have a limited fertility inter se. Charles Darwin,
however, had evidence that some hybrid pheasants were completely
fertile, and he himself interbred the progeny of crosses between the
common and Chinese geese, whilst there appears to be no doubt as to
the complete fertility of the crosses between many species of ducks,
J. L. Bonhote having interbred in various crosses for several genera-
tions the mallard (Anas boschas), the Indian spot-bill duck (A.
poecilorhyncha), the New Zealand grey duck (A. superciliosa) and the
pin-tail (Dafila acuta). Podmore's pigeon hybrids were fertile inter
se, a specimen having been exhibited at the London Zoological
Gardens. The hybrids between the brown and polar bears bred at
Halle proved to be fertile, both with one of the parent species and
with one another.
Cornevin and Lesbre state that in 1873 an Arab mule was fertilized
in Africa by a stallion, and gave birth to female offspring which she
suckled. All three were brought to the Jardin d'Acclimatation in
Paris, and there the mule had a second female colt to the same
father, and subsequently two male colts in succession to an ass and
to a stallion. The female progeny were fertilized, but their offspring
were feeble and died at birth. Cossar Ewart gives an account of a
recent Indian case in which a female mule gave birth to a male colt.
He points out, however, that many mistakes have been made about
the breeding of hybrids, and is not altogether inclined to accept this
supposed case. Very little has been published with regard to the
most important question, as to the actual condition of the sexual
organs and cells in hybrids. There does not appear to be gross
anatomical defect to account for the infertility of hybrids, but
microscopical examination in a large number of cases is wanted.
Cossar Ewart, to whom indeed much of the most interesting recent
work on hybrids is due, states that in male zebra-hybrids the sexual
cells were immature, the tails of the spermatozoa being much shorter
than those of the similar cells in stallions and zebras.' He adds,
however, that the male hybrids he examined were young, and might
not have been sexually mature. He examined microscopically the
ovary of a female zebra-hybrid and found one large and several small
Graafian follicles, in all respects similar to those in a normal mare or
female zebra. A careful study of the sexual organs in animal and
plant hybrids is very much to be desired, but it may be said that so
far as our present knowledge goes there is not to be expected any
obvious microscopical cause of the relative infertility of hybrids.
The relative variability of hybrids has received considerable
attention from many writers. Horticulturists, as Bateson has
written, are " aware of the great and striking variations which
occur in so many orders of plants when hybridization is effected."
The phrase has been used " breaking the constitution of a
plant " to indicate the effect produced in the offspring of a
hybrid union, and the device is frequently used by those who are
seeking for novelties to introduce on the market. It may be
said generally that hybrids are variable, and that the products
of hybrids are still more variable. J. L. Bonhote found extreme
variations amongst his hybrid ducks. Y. Delage states that
in reciprocal crosses there is always a marked tendency for the
offspring to resemble the male parents; he quotes from Huxley
that the mule, whose male parent is an ass, is more b'ke the ass,
and that the hinny, whose male parent is a horse, is more like
the horse. Standfuss found among Lepidoptera that males
were produced much more often than females, and that these
males paired readily. The freshly hatched larvae closely
resembled the larvae of the female parent, but in the course of
growth the resemblance to the male increased, the extent of the
final approximation to the male depending on the relative
phylogenetic age of the two parents, the parent of the older
species being prepotent. In reciprocal pairing, he found that the
male was able to transmit the characters of the parents in a
higher degree. Cossar Ewart, in relation to zebra hybrids, has
discussed the matter of resemblance to parents in very great
detail, and fuller information must be sought in his writings.
He shows that the wild parent is not necessarily prepotent,
although many writers have urged that view. He described
three hybrids bred out of a zebra mare by different horses, and
found in all cases that the resemblance to the male or horse
parent was more profound. Similarly, zebra-donkey hybrids
out of zebra mares bred in France and in Australia were in
characters and disposition far more like the donkey parents.
The results which he obtained in the hybrids which he bred
from a zebra stallion and different mothers were more variable,
but there was rather a balance in favour of zebra disposition
and against zebra shape and marking.
" Of the nine zebra-horse hybrids I have bred," he says, " only two
in their make and disposition take decidedly after the wild parent.
As explained fully below, all the hybrids differ profoundly in the plan
of their markings from the zebra, while in their ground colour they
take after their respective dams or the ancestors of their dams far
more than after the zebra — the hybrid out of the yellow and white
Iceland pony, e.g. instead of being light in colour, as I anticipated,
is for the most part of a dark dun colour, with but indistinct stripes.
The hoofs, mane and tail of the hybrids are at the most intermediate,
but this is perhaps partly owing to reversion towards the ancestors
of these respective dams. In their disposition and habits they all
undoubtedly agree more with the wild sire."
Ewart's experiments and his discussion of them also throw
important light on the general relation of hybrids to their
parents. He found that the coloration and pattern of his
zebra hybrids resembled far more those of the Somali or Grevy's
zebra than those of their sire — a Burchell's zebra. In a general
discussion of the stripings of horses, asses and zebras, he came
to the conclusion that the Somali zebra represented the older
type, and that therefore his zebra hybrids furnished important
evidence of the effect of crossing in producing reversion to
ancestral type. The same subject has of course been discussed
at length by Darwin, in relation to the cross-breeding of
varieties of pigeons; but the modern experimentalists who
are following the work of Mendel interpret reversion differently
(see MENDELISM).
Graft-Hybridism. — It is well known that, when two varieties or
allied species are grafted together, each retains its distinctive
characters. But to this general, if not universal, rule there are on
record several alleged exceptions, in which either the scion is said
to have partaken of the qualities of the stock, the stock of the
scion, or each to have affected the other. Supposing any of these
influences to have been exerted, the resulting product would
deserve to be called a graft-hybrid. It is clearly a matter of
great interest to ascertain whether such formation of hybrids by
grafting is really possible; for, if even one instance of such
formation could be unequivocally proved, it would show that
sexual and asexual reproduction are essentially identical.
The cases of alleged graft-hybridism are exceedingly few, con-
sidering the enormous number of grafts that are made every year
by horticulturists, and have been so made for centuries. Of these
cases the most celebrated are those of Adam's laburnum (Cytisus
Adami) and the bizzarria orange. Adam's laburnum is now
flourishing in numerous places throughout Europe, all the trees
having been raised as cuttings from the original graft, which was
made by inserting a bud of the purple laburnum into a stock of
the yellow. M. Adam, who made the graft, has left on record
that from it there sprang the existing hybrid. There can be no
question as to the truly hybrid character of the latter — all the
peculiarities of both parent species being often blended in the
same raceme, flower or even petal; but until the experiment shall
have been successfully repeated there must always remain a
strong suspicion that, notwithstanding the assertion and doubt-
less the belief of M. Adam, the hybrid arose as a cross in the
ordinary way of seminal reproduction. Similarly, the bizzarria
orange, which is unquestionably a hybrid between the bitter
orange and the citron — since it presents the remarkable spectacle
of these two different fruits blended into one — is stated by the
gardener who first succeeded in producing it to have arisen as a
graft-hybrid; but here again a similar doubt, similarly due to the
need of corroboration, attaches to the statement. And the same
remark applies to the still more wonderful case of the so-called
trifacial orange, which blends three distinct kinds of fruit in one,
and which is said to have been produced by artificially splitting
and uniting the seeds taken from the three distinct species, the
fruits of which now occur blended in the triple hybrid.
The other instances of alleged graft-hybridism are too numer-
ous to be here noticed in detail; they refer to jessamine, ash,
hazel, vine, hyacinth, potato, beet and rose. Of these the cases
of the vine, beet and rose are the strongest as evidence of graft-
hybridization, from the fact that some of them were produced
HYDANTOIN
29
as the result of careful experiments made by very competent
experimentalists. On the whole, the results of some of these
experiments, although so few in number, must be regarded as
making out a strong case in favour of the possibility of graft-
hybridism. For it must always be remembered that, in experi-
ments of this kind, negative evidence, however great in amount,
may be logically dissipated by a single positive result.
Theory of Hybridism. — Charles Darwin was interested in
hybridism as an experimental side of biology, but still more
from the bearing of the facts on the theory of the origin of
species. It is obvious that although hybridism is occasionally
possible as an exception to the general infertility of species
inter se, the exception is still more minimized when it is re-
membered that the hybrid progeny usually display some degree
of sterility. The main facts of hybridism appear to lend support
to the old doctrine that there are placed between all species
the barriers of mutual sterility. The argument for the fixity
of species appears still stronger when the general infertility of
species crossing is contrasted with the general fertility of the
crossing of natural and artificial varieties. Darwin himself,
and afterwards G. J. Romanes, showed, however, that the
theory of natural selection did not require the possibility of the
commingling of specific types, and that there was no reason to
suppose that the mutation of species should depend upon their
mutual crossing. There existed more than enough evidence,
and this has been added to since, to show that infertility with
other species is no criterion of a species, and that there is no
exact parallel between the degree of affinity between forms and
their readiness to cross. The problem of hybridism is no more
than the explanation of the generally reduced fertility of remoter
crosses as compared with the generally increased fertility of
crosses between organisms slightly different. Darwin considered
and rejected the view that the inter-sterility of species could
have been the result of natural selection.
" At one time it appeared to me probable," he wrote (Origin of
Species, 6th ed. p. 247), " as it has to others, that the sterility of
first crosses and of hybrids might have been slowly acquired through
the natural selection of slightly lessened degrees of fertility, which,
like any other variation, spontaneously appeared in certain indi-
viduals of one variety when crossed with those of another variety.
For it would clearly be advantageous to two varieties or incipient
species if they could be kept from blending, on the same principle
that, when man is selecting at the same time two varieties, it is
necessary that he should keep them separate. In the first place, it
may be remarked that species inhabiting distinct regions are often
sterile when crossed ; now it could clearly have been of no advantage
to such separated species to have been rendered mutually sterile and,
consequently, this could not have been effected through natural
selection; but it may perhaps be argued that, if a species were
rendered sterile with some one compatriot, sterility with other
species would follow as a necessary contingency. In the second
place, it is almost as much opposed to the theory of natural selection
as to that of special creation, that in reciprocal crosses the male
element of one form should have been rendered utterly impotent on a
second form, whilst at the same time the male element of this second
form is enabled freely to fertilize the first form; for this peculiar
state of the reproductive system could hardly have been advantage-
ous to either species."
Darwin came to the conclusion that the sterility of crossed
species must be due to some principle quite independent of
natural selection. In his search for such a principle he brought
together much evidence as to the instability of the reproductive
system, pointing out in particular how frequently wild animals
in captivity fail to breed, whereas some domesticated races have
been so modified by confinement as to be fertile together although
they are descended from species probably mutually infertile.
He was disposed to regard the phenomena of differential sterility
as, so to speak, by-products of the process of evolution. G. J.
Romanes afterwards developed his theory of physiological
selection, in which he supposed that the appearance of differential
fertility within a species was the starting-point of new species;
certain individuals by becoming fertile only inter se proceeded
along lines of modification diverging from the lines followed by
other members of the species. Physiological selection in fact
would operate in the same fashion as geographical isolation;
if a portion of a species separated on an island tends to become
a new species, so also a portion separated by infertility with the
others would tend to form a new species. According to Romanes,
therefore, mutual infertility was the starting-point, not the
result, of specific modification. Romanes, however, did not
associate his interesting theory with a sufficient number of facts,
and it has left little mark on the history of the subject. A. R.
Wallace, on the other hand, has argued that sterility between
incipient species may have been increased by natural selection in
the same fashion as other favourable variations are supposed to
have been accumulated. He thought that " some slight degree
of infertility was a not infrequent accompaniment of the external
differences which always arise in a state of nature between
varieties and incipient species."
Weismann concluded, from an examination of a series of plant
hybrids, that from the same cross hybrids of different character
may be obtained, but that the characters are determined at
the moment of fertilization; for he found that all the flowers,
on the same hybrid plant resembled one another in the minutest
details of colour and pattern. Darwin already had pointed to the
act of fertilization as the determining point, and it is in this
direction that the theory of hybridism has made the greatest
advance.
The starting-point of the modern views comes from the
experiments and conclusions on plant hybrids made by Gregor
Mendel and published in 1865. It is uncertain if Darwin had
paid attention to this work; Romanes, writing in the pth edition
of this Encyclopaedia, cited it without comment. First H. de
Vries, then W. Bateson and a series of observers returned to the
work of Mendel (see MENDELISM), and made it the foundation
of much experimental work and still more theory. It is still too
soon to decide if the confident predictions of the Mendelians
are justified, but it seems clear that a combination of Mendel's
numerical results with Weismann's (see HEREDITY) conception
of the paniculate character of the germ-plasm, or hereditary
material, is at the root of the phenomena of hybridism, and
that Darwin was justified in supposing it to lie outside the
sphere of natural selection and to be a fundamental fact of
living matter.
AUTHORITIES. — Apello, " tJber einige Resultate der Kreuz-
befruchtung bei Knochenfischen," Bergens mus. aarbog (1894) ;
Bateson, " Hybridization and Cross-breeding," Journal of the Royal
Horticultural Society (1900) ; J. L. Bonhote, " Hybrid Ducks," Proc.
Zool. Soc. of London (1905), p. 147; Boveri, article " Befruchtung,"
in Ergebnisse der Anatomic und Entwickelungsgeschichte von Merkel
und Bonnet, i. 385-485; Cornevin et Lesbre, " Etude sur un hybride
issu d'une mule fficonde et d'un cheval," Rev. Sci. li. 144; Charles
Darwin, Origin of Species (1859), The Effects of Cross and Self-
Fertilization in the Vegetable Kingdom (1878); Delage, La Structure
du protoplasma et les theories sur I'heredite (1895, with a literature);
de Vries, " The Law of Disjunction of Hybrids," Comptes rendus
(1900), p. 845; Elliot, Hybridism; Escherick, " Die biologische
Bedeutung der Genitalabhange der Insecten," Verh. z. B. Wien, xlii.
225; Ewart, The Ptnycuik Experiments (1899); Focke, Die
Pflanzen-Mischlinge (1881); Foster-Melliar, The Book of the Rose
(1894); C. F. Gaertner, various papers in Flora, 1828, 183,1, 1832,
1833, 1836, 1847, on " Bastard-Pflanzen " ; Gebhardt, " Uber die
Bastardirung von Rana esculenta mit R. arvalis," Inaug. Dissert.
(Breslau, 1894); G. Mendel, " Versuche tiber Pflanzen-Hybriden,"
Verh. Natur. Vereins in Briinn (1865), pp. 1-52; Morgan, " Experi-
mental Studies," Anal. Am. (1893), p. 141; id. p. 803; G. J.
Romanes, " Physiological Selection," Jour. Linn. Soc. xix. 337;
H. Scherren, Notes on Hybrid Bears," Proc. Zool. Soc. of
London (1907), p. 431; Saunders, Proc. Roy. Soc. (1897), Ixii. n;
Standfuss, " Etudes de zoologie expeYimentale," Arch. Sci. Nat.
vi. 495; Suchetet, "Les Oiseaux hybrides rencontre's a I'Stat
sauvage," Mem. Soc. Zool. v. 253-525, and vi. 26-45; Vernon,
" The Relation between the Hybrid and Parent Forms of Echinoid
Larvae," Proc. Roy. Soc. Ixv. 350; Wallace, Darwinism (1889);
Weismann, The Germ-Plasm (1893). (P. C. M.)
HYDANTOIN (glycolyl urea), C3H4N202 or
the ureide of glycollic acid, may be obtained by heating allantoin
or alloxan with hydriodic acid, or by heating bromacetyl urea
with alcoholic ammonia. It crystallizes in needles, melting
at 216° C.
When hydrolysed with baryta water yields hydantoic
HYDE (FAMILY)— HYDE
3°
(glycoluric) acid,H2N-CO-NH-CH2-CO2H, which is readily soluble
in hot water, and on heating with hydriodic acid decomposes
into ammonia, carbon dioxide and glycocoll, CHj-NHj-COrH.
Many substituted hydantoins are known; the a-alkyl hydantoins
are formed on fusion of aldehyde- or ketone-cyanhydrins
with urea, the |8-alkyl hydantoins from the fusion of mono-alkyl
glycocolls with urea, and the -y-alkyl hydantoins from the action
of alkalis and alkyl iodides on the a-compounds. 7-Methyl
hydantoin has been obtained as a splitting product of caffeine
(E. Fischer, Ann., 1882, 215, p. 253).
HYDE, the name of an English family distinguished in the
1 7th century. Robert Hyde of Norbury, Cheshire, had several
sons, of whom the third was Lawrence Hyde of Gussage St
Michael, Dorsetshire. Lawrence's son Henry was father of
Edward Hyde, earl of Clarendon (q.v.), whose second son by his
second wife was Lawrence, earl of Rochester (q.v.) ; another son
was Sir Lawrence Hyde, attorney-general to Anne of Denmark,
James I.'s consort; and a third son was Sir Nicholas Hyde
(d. 1631), chief-justice of England. Sir Nicholas entered parlia-
ment in 1601 and soon became prominent as an opponent of the
court, though he does not appear to have distinguished himself
in the law. Before long, however, he deserted the popular
party, and in 1626 he was employed by the duke of Buckingham
in his defence to impeachment by the Commons; and in the
following year he was appointed chief-justice of the king's bench,
in which office it fell to him to give judgment in the celebrated
case of Sir Thomas Darnell and others who had been committed
to prison on warrants signed by members of the privy council,
which contained no statement of the nature of the charge against
the prisoners. In answer to the writ of habeas corpus the attorney-
general relied on the prerogative of the crown, supported by
a precedent of Queen. Elizabeth's reign. Hyde, three other
judges concurring, decided in favour of the crown, but without
going so far as to declare the right of the crown to refuse in-
definitely to show cause against the discharge of the prisoners.
In 1629 Hyde was one of the judges who condemned Eliot,
Holies and Valentine for conspiracy in parliament to resist the
king's orders; refusing to admit their plea that they could not
be called upon to answer out of parliament for acts done in
parliament. Sir Nicholas Hyde died in August 1631.
Sir Lawrence Hyde, attorney-general to Anne of Denmark,
had eleven sons, four of whom were men of some mark. Henry
was an ardent royalist who accompanied Charles II. to the
continent, and returning to England was beheaded in 1650;
Alexander (1598-1667) became bishop of Salisbury in 1665;
Edward (1607-1659) was a royalist divine who was nominated
dean of Windsor in 1658, but died before taking up the appoint-
ment, and who was the author of many controversial works in
Anglican theology; and Robert (1595-1665) became recorder of
Salisbury and represented that borough in the Long Parliament,
in which he professed royalist principles, voting against the
attainder of Strafford. Having been imprisoned and deprived
of his 'recordership by the parliament in 1645/6, Robert Hyde
gave refuge to Charles II. on his flight from Worcester in 1651
and on the Restoration he was knighted and made a judge oi
the common pleas. He died in 1665. Henry Hyde (1672-1753)
only son of Lawrence, earl of Rochester, became 4th earl ol
Clarendon and 2nd earl of Rochester, both of which titles became
extinct at his death. He was in no way distinguished, but his
wife Jane Hyde, countess of Clarendon and Rochester (d. 1725)
was a famous beauty celebrated by the homage of Swift, Prior anc
Pope, and by the groundless scandal of Lady Mary Wortley
Montagu. Two of her daughters, Jane, countess of Essex, anc
Catherine, duchess of Queensberry, were also famous beauties
of the reign of Queen Anne. Her son, Henry Hyde (1710-1753)
known as Viscount Cornbury, was a Tory and Jacobite membei
of parliament, and an intimate friend of Bolingbroke, who
addressed to him his Letters on the Study and Use of History, anc
On the Spirit of Patriotism. In 1750 Lord Cornbury was created
Baron Hyde of Hindon, but, as he predeceased his father, thi
title reverted to the latter and became extinct at his death
Lord Cornbury was celebrated as a wit and a conversationalist.
By his will he bequeathed the papers of his great-grandfather,
,ord Clarendon, the historian, to the Bodleian Library at Oxford.
See Lord Clarendon, The Life of Edward, Earl of Clarendon (3 vols.,
Oxford, 1827); Edward Foss, The Judges of England (London,
848-1864); Anthony a Wood, Athenae oxonienses (London, 1813-
.820); Samuel Pepys, Diary and Correspondence, edited by Lord
Braybrooke (4 vols., London, 1854).
HYDE, THOMAS (1636-1703), English Orientalist, was born
at Billingsley, near Bridgnorth, in Shropshire, on the 29th of
une 1636. He inherited his taste for linguistic studies, and
received his first lessons in some of the Eastern tongues, from
lis father, who was rector of the parish. In his sixteenth year
lyde entered King's College, Cambridge, where, under Wheelock,
>rofessor of Arabic, he made rapid progress in Oriental languages,
>o that, after only one year of residence, he was invited to London
.o assist Brian Walton in his edition of the Polyglott Bible.
Besides correcting the Arabic, Persic and Syriac texts for that
work, Hyde transcribed into Persic characters the Persian
translation of the Pentateuch, which had been printed in Hebrew
etters at Constantinople in 1546. To this work, which Arch-
aishop Ussher had thought well-nigh impossible even for a
native of Persia, Hyde appended the Latin version which accom-
panies it in the Polyglolt. In 1658 he was chosen Hebrew reader
at Queen's College, Oxford, and in 1659, in consideration of his
erudition in Oriental tongues, he was admitted to the degree of
M.A. In the same year he was appointed under-keeper of the
Bodleian Library, and in 1665 librarian-in-chief. Next year he
was collated to a prebend at Salisbury, and in 1673 to the arch-
deaconry of Gloucester, receiving the degree of D.D. shortly
afterwards. In 1691 the death of Edward Pococke opened up to
Hyde the Laudian professorship of Arabic; and in 1697, on the
deprivation of Roger Altham, he succeeded to the regius chair
of Hebrew and a canonry of Christ Church. Under Charles II.,
James II. and William III. Hyde discharged the duties of
Eastern interpreter to the court. Worn out by his unremitting
labours, he resigned his librarianship in 1701, and died at Oxford
on the i8th of February 1703. Hyde, who was one of the first
to direct attention to the vast treasures of Oriental antiquity,
was an excellent classical scholar, and there was hardly an Eastern
tongue accessible to foreigners with which he was not familiar.
He had even acquired Chinese, while his writings are the best
testimony to his mastery of Turkish, Arabic, Syriac, Persian,
Hebrew and Malay.
In his chief work, Historia religionis veterum Persarum (1700),
he made the first attempt to correct from Oriental sources the
errors of the Greek and Roman historians who had described the
religion of the ancient Persians. His other writings and transla-
tions comprise Tabulae longitudinum el latitudinum stellarum
fixarum ex obseroatione principis Ulugh Beighi (1665), to which
his notes have given additional value; Quatuor evangelia el acta
apostolorum lingua Malaica, caracteribus Europaeis (1677);
Epistola de mensuris el ponderibus serum sive sinensium (1688),
appended to Bernard's De mensuris el ponderibus antiquis;
Abraham Peritsol itinera mundi (1691); and De ludis orienlalibus
libri II. (1694).
With the exception of the Historia religionis, which was repub-
lished by Hunt and Costard in 1760, the writings of Hyde, including
some unpublished MSS., were collected and printed by Dr Gregory
Sharpe in 1767 under the title Syntagma dissertationum quas olim. . .
Thomas Hyde separatim edidit. There is a life of the author pre-
fixed. Hyde also published a catalogue of the Bodleian Library
in 1674.
HYDE, a market town and municipal borough in the Hyde
parliamentary division of Cheshire, England, 7! m. E. of Man-
chester, by the Great Central railway. Pop. (1901) 32.?66.
It lies in the densely populated district in the north-east of the
county, on the river Tame, which here forms the boundary of
Cheshire with Lancashire. To the east the outlying hills of the
Peak district of Derbyshire rise abruptly. The town has cotton
weaving factories, spinning mills, print-works, iron foundries
and machine works; also manufactures of hats and margarine.
, There are extensive coal mines in the vicinity. Hyde is wholly
1 of modern growth, though it contains a few ancient houses, such
HYDE DE NEUVILLE— HYDERABAD
as Newton Hall, in the part of the town so called. The old family
of Hyde held possession of the manor as early as the reign of
John. The borough, incorporated in 1881, is under a mayor,
6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, 3081 acres.
HYDE DE NEUVILLE, JEAN GUILLAUME, BARON (1776-
1857), French politician, was born at La Charite-sur-Loire
(Nievre) on the 24th of January 1776, the son of Guillaume
Hyde, who belonged to an English family which had emigrated
with the Stuarts after the rebellion of 1745. He was only seven-
teen when he successfully defended a man denounced by Fouche
before the revolutionary tribunal of Nevers. From 1 793 onwards
he was an active agent of the exiled princes; he took part in the
Royalist rising in Berry in 1796, and after the coup d'etat of the
1 8th Brumaire (November 9, 1799) tried to persuade Bonaparte
to recall the Bourbons. An accusation of complicity in the
infernal machine conspiracy of 1800-1801 was speedily retracted,
but Hyde de Neuville retired to the United States, only to return
after the Restoration. He was sent by Louis XVIII. to London
to endeavour to persuade the British government to transfer
Napoleon to a remoter and safer place of exile than the isle of
Elba, but the negotiations were cut short by the emperor's
return to France in March 1815. In January 1816 de Neuville
became French ambassador at Washington, where he negotiated
a commercial treaty. On his return in 1821 he declined the
Constantinople embassy, and in November 1822 was elected
deputy for Cosne. Shortly afterwards he was appointed French
ambassador at Lisbon, where his efforts to oust British influence
culminated, in connexion with the coup d'etat of Dom Miguel
(April 30, 1824), in his suggestion to the Portuguese minister
to invite the armed intervention of Great Britain. It was assumed
that this would be refused, in view of the loudly proclaimed
British principle of non-intervention, and that France would then
be in a position to undertake a duty that Great Britain had
declined. The scheme broke down, however, owing to the atti-
tude of the reactionary party in the government of Paris, which
disapproved of the Portuguese constitution. This destroyed
his influence at Lisbon, and he returned to Paris to take his
seat in the Chamber of Deputies. In spite of his pronounced
Royalism, he now showed Liberal tendencies, opposed the
policy of Villele's cabinet, and in 1828 became a member of the
moderate administration of Martignac as minister of marine.
In this capacity he showed active sympathy with the cause of
Greek independence. During the Polignac ministry (1829-
1830) he was again in opposition, being a firm upholder of the
charter; but after the revolution of July 1830 he entered an
all but solitary protest against the exclusion of the legitimate
line of the Bourbons from the throne, and resigned his seat.
He died in Paris on the 28th of May 1857.
His Memoires el souvenirs (3 vols., 1888), compiled from his notes
by his nieces, the vicomtesse de Bardonnet and the baronne Lauren-
ceau, are of great interest for the Revolution and the Restoration.
HYDE PARK, a small township of Norfolk county, Massa-
chusetts, U.S.A., about 8 m. S.W. of the business centre of
Boston. Pop. (1890) 10,193; (1900) 13,244, of whom 3805
were foreign-born; (1910 census) 15,507. Its area is about
4j sq. m. It is traversed by the New York, New Haven &
Hartford railway, which has large repair shops here, and by
the Neponset river and smaller streams. The township contains
the villages of Hyde Park, Readville (in which there is the famous
" Weil " trotting-track), Fairmount, Hazelwood and Clarendon
Hills. Until about 1856 Hyde Park was a farmstead. The value
of the total factory product increased from $4,383,959 in 1900
to $6,739,307 in 1905, or 53-7%. In 1868 Hyde Park was
incorporated as a township, being formed of territory taken
from Dorchester, Dedham and Milton.
HYDERABAD, or HAIDARABAD, a city and district of British
India, in the Sind province of Bombay. The city stands on a
hill about 3 m. from the left bank of the Indus, and had a popula-
tion in 1901 of 69,378. Upon the site of the present fort is
supposed to have stood the ancient town of Nerankot, which
in the 8th century submitted to Mahommed bin Kasim. In
1768 the present city was founded by Ghulam Shah Kalhora;
and it remained the capital of Sind until 1843, when, after the
battle of Meeanee, it was surrendered to the British, and the
capital transferred to Karachi. The city is built on the most
northerly hills of the Ganga range, a site of great natural strength.
In the fort, which covers an area of 36 acres, is the arsenal of
the province, transferred thither from Karachi in 1861, and the
palaces of the ex-mirs of Sind. An excellent water supply is
derived from the Indus. In addition to manufactures of silk,
gold and silver embroidery, lacquered ware and pottery, there
are three factories for ginning cotton. There are three high
schools, training colleges for masters and mistresses, a medical
school, an agricultural school for village officials, and a technical
school. The city suffered from plague in 1896-1897.
The DISTRICT OF HYDERABAD has an area of 8291 sq. m.,
with a population in 1901 of 989,030, showing an increase of
15% in the decade. It consists of a vast alluvial plain, on the
left bank of the Indus, 216 m. long and 48 broad. Fertile along
the course of the river, it degenerates towards the east into
sandy wastes, sparsely populated, and defying cultivation. The
monotony is relieved by the fringe of forest which marks the
course of the river, and by the avenues of trees that line the
irrigation channels branching eastward from this stream. The
south of the district has a special feature in its large natural
water-courses (called dhoras) and basin-like shallows (chhaus),
which retain the rains for a long time. A limestone range
called the Ganga and the pleasant frequency of garden lands
break the monotonous landscape. The principal crops are
millets, rice, oil-seeds, cotton and wheat, which are dependent
on irrigation, mostly from government canals. There is a special
manufacture at Hala of glazed pottery and striped cotton cloth.
Three railways traverse the district: (i) one of the main lines
of the North-Western system, following the Indus valley and
crossing the river near Hyderabad; (2) a broad-gauge branch
running south to Badin, which will ultimately be extended
to Bombay; and (3) a metre-gauge line from Hyderabad city
into Rajputana.
HYDERABAD, HAIDARABAD, also known as the Nizam's
Dominions, the principal native state of India in extent, popula-
tion and political importance; area, 82,698 sq. m.; pop.
(1901) 11,141,142, showing a decrease of 3-4% in the decade;
estimated revenue 4j crores of Hyderabad rupees (£2,500,000).
The state occupies a large portion of the eastern plateau of the
Deccan. It is bounded on the north and north-east by Berar,
on the south and south-east by Madras, and on the west by
Bombay. The country presents much variety of surface and
feature; but it may be broadly divided into two tracts, dis-
tinguished from one another geologically and ethnically, which
are locally known from the languages spoken as Telingana and
Marathwara. In some parts it is mountainous, wooded and
picturesque, in others flat and undulating. The open country
includes lands of all descriptions, including many rich and fertile
plains, much good land not yet brought under cultivation, and
numerous tracts too sterile ever to be cultivated. In the north-
west the geological formations are volcanic, consisting principally
of trap, but in some parts of basalt; in the middle, southern
and south-western parts the country is overlaid with gneissic
formations. The territory is well watered, rivers being numerous,
and tanks or artificial pieces of water abundant, especially in
Telingana. The principal rivers are the Godavari, with its
tributaries the Dudna, Manjira and Pranhita; the Wardha,
with its tributary the Penganga; and the Kistna, with its
tributary the Tungabhadra. The climate may be considered
in general good; and as there are no arid bare deserts, hot
winds are little felt.
More than half the revenue of the state is derived from the
land, and the development of the country by irrigation and
railways has caused considerable expansion in this revenue,
though the rate of increase in the decade 1891-1901 was retarded
by a succession of unfavourable seasons. The soil is generally
fertile, though in some parts it consists of chilka, a red and gritty
mould little fitted for purposes of agriculture. The principal
crops are millets of various kinds, rice, wheat, oil-seeds, cotton.
HYDERABAD— HYDER ALI
tobacco, sugar-cane, and fruits and garden produce in great
variety. Silk, known as tussur, the produce of a wild species
•of worm, is utilized on a large scale. Lac, suitable for use as a
resin or dye, gums and oils are found in great quantities. Hides,
raw and tanned, are articles of some importance in commerce.
The principal exports are cotton, oil-seeds, country-clothes
and hides; the imports are salt, grain, timber, European piece-
goods and hardware. The mineral wealth of the state consists
of coal, copper, iron, diamonds and gold; but the development
of these resources has not hitherto been very successful. The
only coal mine now worked is the large one at Singareni, with an
annual out-turn of nearly half a million tons. This coal has
enabled the nizam's guaranteed state railway to be worked so
cheaply that it now returns a handsome profit to the state. It
also gives encouragement to much-needed schemes of railway
extension, and to the erection of cotton presses and of spinning
and weaving mills. The Hyderabad-Godavari railway (opened
in 1901) traverses a rich cotton country, and cotton presses
have been erected along the line. The currency of the state
is based on the kali sikka, which contains approximately the
same weight of silver as the British rupee, but its exchange
value fell heavily after 1893, when free coinage ceased in the
mint. In 1904, however, a new coin (the Mahbubia rupee)
was minted; the supply was regulated, and the rate of exchange
became about 115 = 100 British rupees. The state suffered from
famine during 1000, the total number of persons in receipt of
relief rising to nearly 50x3,000 in June of that year. The nizam
met the demands for relief with great liberality.
The nizam of Hyderabad is the principal Mahommedan ruler
in India. The family was founded by Asaf Jah, a distinguished
Turkoman soldier of the emperor Aurangzeb, who in 1713 was
appointed subahdar of the Deccan, with the title of nizam-
ul-mulk (regulator of the state), but eventually threw off the
control of the Delhi court. Azaf Jah's death in 1 748 was followed
by an internecine struggle for the throne among his descendants,
in which the British and the French took part. At one time
the French nominee, Salabat Jang, established himself with
the help of Bussy. But finally, in 1761, when the British had
secured their predominance throughout southern India, Nizam
Ali took his place and ruled till 1803. It was he who confirmed
the grant of the Northern Circars in 1766, and joined in the two
wars against Tippoo Sultan in 1792 and 1799. The additions
of territory which he acquired by these wars was afterwards
(1800) ceded to the British, as payment for the subsidiary force
•which he had undertaken to maintain. By a later treaty in
1853, the districts known as Berar were " assigned " to defray
the cost of the Hyderabad contingent. In 1857 when the
Mutiny broke out, the attitude of Hyderabad as the premier
native state and the cynosure of the Mahommedans in India
became a matter of extreme importance; but Afzul-ud-Dowla,
the father of the present ruler, and his famous minister, Sir
Salar Jang, remained loyal to the British. An attack on the
residency was repulsed, and the Hyderabad contingent displayed
their loyalty in the field against the rebels. In 1902 by a treaty
made by Lord Curzon, Berar was leased in perpetuity to the
British government, and the Hyderabad contingent was merged
in the Indian army. The nizam Mir Mahbub Ali Khan Bahadur,
Asaf Jah, a direct descendant of the famous nizam-ul-mulk,
was born on the i8th of August 1866. On the death of his
father in 1869 he succeeded to the throne as a minor, and was
invested with full powers in 1884. He is notable as the originator
of the Imperial Service Troops, which now form the contribution
of the native chiefs to the defence of India. On the occasion
of the Panjdeh incident in 1885 he made an offer of money and
men, and subsequently on the occasion of Queen Victoria's
Jubilee in 1887 he offered 20 lakhs (£130,000) annually for three
years for the purpose of frontier defence. It was finally decided
that the native chiefs should maintain small but well-equipped
bodies of infantry and cavalry for imperial defence. For many
years past the Hyderabad finances were in a very unhealthy
condition; the expenditure consistently outran the revenue,
and the nobles, who held their tenure under an obsolete feudal
system, vied with each other in ostentatious extravagance.
But in 1902, on the revision of the Berar agreement, the nizam
received 25 lakhs (£167,000) a year for the rent of Berar, thus
substituting a fixed for a fluctuating source of income, and
a British financial adviser was appointed for the purpose of
reorganizing the resources of the state.
See S. H. Bilgrami and C. Willmott, Historical and Descriptive
Sketch of the Nizam's Dominions (Bombay, 1883-1884).
HYDERABAD or HAIDARABAD, capital of the above state,
is situated on the right bank of the river Musi, a tributary of
the Kistna, with Golconda to the west, and the residency and
its bazaars and the British cantonment of Secunderabad to the
north-east. It is the fourth largest city in India; pop. (1901)
448,466, including suburbs and cantonment. The city itself is
in shape a parallelogram, with an area of more than 2 sq. m.
It was founded in 1589 by Mahommed Kuli, fifth of the Kutb
Shahi kings, of whose period several important buildings remain
as monuments. The principal of these is the Char Minar or
Four Minarets (1591). The minarets rise from arches facing the
cardinal points, and stand in the centre of the city, with four
roads radiating from their base. The Ashur Khana (1594), a
ceremonial building, the hospital, the Gosha Mahal palace and
the Mecca mosque, a sombre building designed after a mosque
at Mecca, surrounding a paved quadrangle 360 ft. square, were
the other principal buildings of the Kutb Shahi period, though
the mosque was only completed in the time of Aurangzeb. The
city proper is surrounded by a stone wall with thirteen gates,
completed in the time of the first nizam, who made Hyderabad
his capital. The suburbs, of which the most important is
Chadarghat, extend over an additional area of 9 sq. m. There
are several fine palaces built by various nizams, and the British
residency is an imposing building in a large park on the left
bank of the Musi, N.E. of the city. The bazaars surrounding it,
and under its jurisdiction, are extremely picturesque and are
thronged with natives from all parts of India. Four bridges
crossed the Musi, the most notable of which was the Purana
Pul, of 23 arches, built in 1593. On the 27th and -28th of
September 1908, however, the Musi, swollen by torrential rainfall
(during which 15 in. fell in 36 hours), rose in flood to a height of
12 ft. above the bridges and swept them away. The damage
done was widespread; several important buildings were involved,
including the palace of Salar Jang and the Victoria zenana
hospital, while the beautiful grounds of the residency were
destroyed. A large and densely populated part of the city was
wrecked, and thousands of lives were lost. The principal
educational establishments are the Nizam college (first grade),
engineering, law, medical, normal, industrial and Sanskrit
schools, and a number of schools for Europeans and Eurasians.
Hyderabad is an important centre of general trade, and there is a
cotton mill in its vicinity. The city is supplied with water from
two notable works, the Husain Sagar and the Mir Alam, both
large lakes retained by great dams. Secunderabad, the British
military cantonment, is situated s| m. N. of the residency;
it includes Bolaram, the former headquarters of the Hyderabad
contingent.
HYDER ALI, or HAIDAR 'ALI (c. 1722-1782), Indian ruler
and commander. This Mahommedan soldier-adventurer, who,
followed by his son Tippoo, became the most formidable Asiatic
rival the British ever encountered in India, was the great-grandson
of & fakir or wandering ascetic of Islam, who had found his way
from the Punjab to Gulljurga in the Deccan, and the second son
of a naik or chief constable at Budikota, near Kolar in Mysore.
He was born in 1722, or according to other authorities 1717.
An elder brother, who like himself was early turned out into
the world to seek his own fortune, rose to command a brigade
in the Mysore army, while Hyder, who never learned to read or
write, passed the first years of his life aimlessly in sport and
sensuality, sometimes, however, acting as the agent of his brother,
and meanwhile acquiring a useful familiarity with the tactics
of the French when at the height of their reputation under
Dupleix. He is said to have induced his brother to employ a
Parsee to purchase artillery and small arms from the Bombay
HYDRA
33
government, and to enrol some thirty sailors of different European
nations as gunners, and is thus credited with having been " the
first Indian who formed a corps of sepoys armed with fire-
locks and bayonets, and who had a train of artillery served by
Europeans." At the siege of Devanhalli (1749) Hyder's services
attracted the attention of Nanjiraj, the minister of the raja of
Mysore, and he at once received an independent command;
within the next twelve years his energy and ability had made
him completely master of minister and raja alike, and in every-
thing but in name he was ruler of the kingdom. In 1763 the
conquest of Kanara gave him possession of the treasures of
Bednor, which he resolved to make the most splendid capital
in India, under his own name, thenceforth changed from Hyder
Naik into Hyder Ali Khan Bahadur; and in 1765 he retrieved
previous defeat at the hands of the Mahrattas by the destruction
of the Nairs or military caste of the Malabar coast, and the
conquest of Calicut. Hyder Ali now began to occupy the
serious attention of the Madras government, which in 1766
entered into an agreement with the nizam to furnish him with
troops to be used against the common foe. But hardly had this
alliance been formed when a secret arrangement was come to
between the two Indian powers, the result of which was that
Colonel Smith's small force was met with a united army of
80,000 men and 100 guns. British dash and sepoy fidelity,
however, prevailed, first in the battle of Chengam (September 3rd,
1767), and again still more remarkably in that of Tiruvannamalai
(Trinomalai) . On the loss of his recently made fleet and forts
on the western coast, Hyder Ali now offered overtures for peace;
on the rejection of these, bringing all his resources and strategy
into play, he forced Colonel Smith to raise the siege of Bangalore,
and brought his army within 5 m. of Madras. The result was
the treaty of April 1769, providing for the mutual restitution
of all conquests, and for mutual aid and alliance in defensive
war; it was followed by a commercial treaty in 1770 with the
authorities of Bombay. Under these arrangements Hyder Ali,
when defeated by the Mahrattas in 1772, claimed British assist-
ance, but in vain; this breach of faith stung him to fury, and
thenceforward he and his son did not cease to thirst for vengeance.
His time came when in 1778 the British, on the declaration of
war with France, resolved to drive the French out of India.
The capture of Mahe on the coast of Malabar in 1779, followed
by the annexation of lands belonging to a dependent of his own,
gave him the needed pretext. Again master of all that the
Mahrattas had taken from him, and with empire extended to the
Kistna, he descended through the passes of the Ghats amid
burning villages, reaching Conjeeveram, only 45 m. from Madras,
unopposed. Not till the smoke was seen from St Thomas's
Mount, where Sir Hector Munro commanded some 5200 troops,
was any movement made; then, however, the British general
sought to effect a junction with a smaller body under Colonel
Baillie recalled from Guntur. The incapacity of these officers,
notwithstanding the splendid courage of their men, resulted
in the total destruction of Baillie's force of 2800 (September
the xoth, 1780). Warren Hastings sent from Bengal Sir Eyre
Coote, who, though repulsed at Chidambaram, defeated Hyder
thrice successively in the battles of Porto Novo, Pollilur and
Sholingarh, while Tippoo was forced to raise the siege of Wandi-
wash, and Vellore was provisioned. On the arrival of Lord
Macartney as governor of Madras, the British fleet captured
Negapatam, and forced Hyder Ali to confess that he could never
ruin a power which had command of the sea. He had sent his
son Tippoo to the west coast, to seek the assistance of the French
fleet, when his death took place suddenly at Chittur in December
1782.
See L. B. Bowring, Haidar Ali and Tipu Sultan, " Rujers of India "
series (1893). For the personal character and administration of
Hyder Ali see the History of Hyder Naik, written by Mir Hussein Ali
Khan Kirmani (translated from the Persian by Colonel Miles, and
published by the Oriental Translation Fund), and the curious work
written by M. Le Maitre de La Tour, commandant of his artillery
(Histoire d'Hayder-Ali Khan, Paris, 1783). For the whole life and
times see Wilks, Historical Sketches of the South of India (1810-1817) I
Aitchison's Treaties, vol. v. (2nd ed., 1876^; and Pearson, Memoirs
of Schwartz (1834).
XIV. 2
HYDRA (or SIDRA, NIDRA, IDERO, &c.; anc. Hydrea), an
island of Greece, lying about 4 m. off the S.E. coast of Argolis
in the Peloponnesus, and forming along with the neighbouring
island of Dokos (Dhoko) the Bay of Hydra. Pop. about 6200.
The greatest length from south-west to north-east is about n m.,
and the area is about 21 sq. m.; but it is little better than a
rocky and treeless ridge with hardly a patch or two of arable
soil. Hence the epigram of Antonios Kriezes to the queen of
Greece: " The island produces prickly pears in abundance,
splendid sea captains and excellent prime ministers." The
highest point, Mount Ere, so called (according to Miaoules)
from the Albanian word for wind, is 1958 ft. high. The next in
importance is known as the Prophet Elias, from the large convent
of that name on its summit. It was there that the patriot
Theodoras Kolokotrones was imprisoned, and a large pine tree
is still called after him. The fact that in former times the island
was richly clad with woods is indicated by the name still employed
by the Turks, Tchamliza, the place of pines; but it is only in
some favoured spots that a few trees are now to be found.
Tradition also has it that it was once a well-watered island
(hence the designation Hydrea), but the inhabitants are now
wholly dependent on the rain supply, and they have sometimes
had to bring water from the mainland. This lack of fountains
is probably to be ascribed in part to the effect of earthquakes,
which are not infrequent; that of 1769 continued for six whole
days. Hydra, the chief town, is built near the middle of the
northern coast, on a very irregular site, consisting of three hills
and the intervening ravines. From the sea its white and hand-
some houses present a picturesque appearance, and its streets
though narrow are clean and attractive. Besides the principal
harbour, round which the town is built, there are three other
ports on the north coast — Mandraki, Molo, Panagia, but none
of them is sufficiently sheltered. Almost all the population
of the island is collected in the chief town, which is the seat of a
bishop, and has a local court, numerous churches and a high
school. Cotton and silk weaving, tanning and shipbuilding
are carried on, and there is a fairly active trade.
Hydra was of no importance in ancient times. The only fact
in its history is that the people of Hermione (a city on the
neighbouring mainland now known by the common name of
Kastri) surrendered it to Samian refugees, and that from these
the people of Troezen received it in trust. It appears to be com-
pletely ignored by the Byzantine chroniclers. In 1580 it was
chosen as a refuge by a body of Albanians from Kokkinyas in
Troezenia; and other emigrants followed in 1590, 1628, 1635,
1640, &c. At the close of the I7th century the Hydriotes took
part in the reviving commerce of the Peloponnesus; and in
course of time they extended their range. About 1716 they
began to build sakturia (of from 10 to 15 tons burden), and to
visit the islands of the Aegean; not long after they introduced
the latinadika (40-50 tons), and sailed as far as Alexandria,
Constantinople, Trieste and Venice; and by and by they
ventured to France and even America. From the grain trade
of south Russia more especially they derived great wealth. In
1813 there were about 22,000 people in the island, and of these
10,000 were seafarers. At the time of the outbreak of the war of
Greek independence the total population was 28,190, of whom
16,460 were natives and the rest foreigners. One of their chief
families, the Konduriotti, was worth £2,000,000. Into the
struggle the Hydriotes flung themselves with rare enthusiasm
and devotion, and the final deliverance of Greece was mainly
due to the service rendered by their fleets.
See Pouqueville, Voy. de la Grkce, vol. vi. ; Antonios Miaoules,
'TiroM>T)Ma T«pi ™js vijaov "TSpas (Munich, 1834) ; Id. SWOJTTUCIJ iaropia
TWV KauMiX'"" 4io T&V ir\oiuv TUV rpiuv vi\ausv, "TSpas, IleTffwucai fyap£it>
(Nauplia, 1833); Id. 'laropia. TTJJ vi\aov "TSpas (Athens, 1874); G. D.
Kriezes, 'laropia TTJS vrfaov "TSpas (Patras, 1860).
HYDRA (watersnake), in Greek legend, the offspring of Typhon
and Echidna, a gigantic monster with nine heads (the number
is variously given), the centre one being immortal. Its haunt
was a hill beneath a plane tree near the river Amymone, in the
marshes of Lerna by Argos. The destruction of this Lernaean
34
HYDRA— HYDRATE
hydra was one of the twelve " labours " of Heracles, which he
accomplished with the assistance of lolaus. Finding that as
soon as one head was cut off two grew up in its place, they burnt
out the roots with firebrands, and at last severed the immortal
head from the body, and buried it under a mighty block of rock.
The arrows dipped by Heracles in the poisonous blood or gall
of the monster ever afterwards inflicted fatal wounds. The
generally accepted interpretation of the legend is that " the
hydra denotes the damp, swampy ground of Lerna with its
numerous springs (jce^aXai, heads) ; its poison the miasmic
vapours rising from the stagnant water; its death at the hands
of Heracles the introduction of the culture and consequent
purification of the soil " (Preller). A euhemeristic explanation
is given by Palaephatus (39). An ancient king named Lernus
occupied a small citadel named Hydra, which was defended
by 50 bowmen. Heracles besieged the citadel and hurled
firebrands at the garrison. As often as one of the defenders
fell, two others at once stepped into his place. The citadel
was finally taken with the assistance of the army of lolaus and
the garrison slain.
See Hesiod, Theog., 313; Euripides, Hercules furens, 419;
Pausanias ii. 37; Apollodorus ii. 5, 2; Diod. Sic. iv. II ; Roscher's
Lexikon der Mythologie. In the article GREEK ART, fig. 20 represents
the slaying of the Lernaean hydra by Heracles.
HYDRA, in astronomy, a constellation of the southern
hemisphere, mentioned by Eudoxus (4th century B.C.) and
Aratus (3rd century B.C.), and catalogued by Ptolemy (27 stars),
Tycho Brahe (19) and Hevelius (31). Interesting objects are:
the nebula H. IV. 27 Hydrae, a planetary nebula, gaseous and
whose light is about equal to an 8th magnitude star; € Hydrae,
a beautiful triple star, composed of two yellow stars of the 4th
and 6th magnitudes, and a blue star of the 7th magnitude;
R. Hydrae, a long period (425 days) variable, the range in
magnitude being from 4 to 9-7; and U. Hydrae, an irregularly
variable, the range in magnitude being 4-5 to 6.
HYDRACRYLIC ACID (ethylene lactic acid), CH2OH-CH2-
CO2H, an organic oxyacid prepared by acting with silver oxide and
water on |3-iodopropionic acid, or from ethylene by the addition
of hypochlorous acid, the addition product being then treated
with potassium cyanide and hydrolysed by an acid. It may
also be prepared by oxidizing the trimethylene glycol obtained
by the action of hydrobromic acid on allylbromide. It is a
syrupy liquid, which on distillation is resolved into water and
the unsaturated acrylic acid, CH2: CH-CO2H. Chromic and
nitric acids oxidize it to oxalic acid and carbon dioxide.
Hydracrylic aldehyde, CH2OH-CH2-CHO, was obtained in 1904
by J. U. Nef (Ann. 335, p. 219) as a colourless oil by heating
acrolein with water. Dilute alkalis convert it into crotonalde-
hyde, CH3-CH : CH-CHO.
HYDRANGEA, a popular flower, the plant to which the name
is most commonly applied being Hydrangea Horlensia, a low
deciduous shrub, producing rather large oval strongly-veined
leaves in opposite pairs along the stem. It is terminated by
a massive globular corymbose head of flowers, which remain a
long period in an ornamental condition. The normal colour
of the flowers, the majority of which have neither stamens nor
pistil, is pink; but by the influence of sundry agents in the soil,
such as alum or iron, they become changed to blue. There are
numerous varieties, one of the most noteworthy being " Thomas
Hogg " with pure white flowers. The part of the inflorescence
which appears to be the flower is an exaggerated expansion of
the sepals, the other parts being generally abortive. The perfect
flowers are small, rarely produced in the species above referred
to, but well illustrated by others, in which they occupy the inner
parts of the corymb, the larger showy neuter flowers being
produced at the circumference.
There are upwards of thirty species, found chiefly in Japan,
in the mountains of India, and in North America, and many of
them are familiar in gardens. H. Horlensia (a species long
known in cultivation in China and Japan) is the most useful
for decoration, as the head of flowers lasts long in a fresh state,
and by the aid of forcing can be had for a considerable period
for the ornamentation of the greenhouse and conservatory.
Their natural flowering season is towards the end of the summer,
but they may be had earlier by means of forcing. H. japonica
is another fine conservatory plant, with foliage and habit much
resembling the last named, but this has flat corymbs of flowers,
the central ones small and perfect, and the outer ones only
enlarged and neuter. This also produces pink or blue flowers
under the influence of different soils.
The Japanese species of hydrangea are sufficiently hardy
to grow in any tolerably favourable situation, but except in
the most sheltered localities they seldom blossom to any degree
of perfection in the open air, the head of blossom depending
on the uninjured development of a well-ripened terminal bud,
and this growth being frequently affected by late spring frosts.
They are much more useful for pot-culture indoors, and should
be reared from cuttings of shoots having the terminal bud plump
and prominent, put in during summer, these developing a single
head of flowers the succeeding summer. Somewhat larger
plants may be had by nipping out the terminal bud and inducing
three or four shoots to start in its place, and these, being steadily
developed and well ripened, should each yield its inflorescence
in the following summer, that is, when two years old. Large
plants grown in tubs and vases are fine subjects for large con-
servatories, and useful for decorating terrace walks and similar
places during summer, being housed in winter, and started
under glass in spring.
Hydrangea paniculata var. grandiflora is a very handsome
plant; the branched inflorescence under favourable circum-
stances is a yard or more in length, and consists of large spreading
masses of crowded white neuter flowers which completely conceal
the few inconspicuous fertile ones. The plant attains a height
of 8 to 10 ft. and when in flower late in summer and in autumn
is a very attractive object in the shrubbery.
The Indian and American species, especially the latter, are
quite hardy, and some of them are extremely effective.
HYDRASTINE, C2iH2iNO6, an alkaloid found with berberine
in the root of golden seal, Hydraslis canadensis, a plant indigenous
to North America. It was discovered by Durand in 1851, and
its chemistry formed the subject of numerous communications
by E. Schmidt and M. Freund (see Ann., 1892, 271, p. 311)
who, aided by P. Fritsch (Ann., 1895, 286, p. i), established
its constitution. It is related to narcotine, which is methoxy
hydrastine. The root of golden seal is used in medicine under
the name hydrastis rhizome, as a stomachic and nervine
stimulant.
HYDRATE, in chemistry, a compound containing the elements
of water in combination; more specifically, a compound contain-
ing the monovalent hydroxyl or OH group. The first and more
general definition includes substances containing water of
crystallization; such salts are said to be hydrated, and when
deprived of their water to be dehydrated or anhydrous. Com-
pounds embraced by the second definition are more usually
termed hydroxides, since at one time they were regarded as com-
binations of an oxide with water, for example, calcium oxide or
lime when slaked with water yielded calcium hydroxide, written
formerly as CaO-H2O. The general formulae of hydroxides
are: M'-OH, Mii(OH)2,Miii(OH)3,Miv(OH)4,&c., corresponding
to the oxides M2'O, Mi!O, M2iiiO3, MivO2, &c., the Roman index
denoting the valency of the element. There is an important
difference between non-metallic and metallic hydroxides;
the former are invariably acids (oxyacids), the latter are more
usually basic, although acidic metallic oxides yield acidic
hydroxides. Elements exhibiting strong basigenic or oxygenic
characters yield the most stable hydroxides; in other words,
stable hydroxides are associated with elements belonging to the
extreme groups of the periodic system, and unstable hydroxides
with the central members. The most stable basic hydroxides
are those of the alkali metals, viz. lithium, sodium, potassium,
rubidium and caesium, and of the alkaline earth metals, viz.
calcium, barium and strontium; the most stable acidic hydroxides
are those of the elements placed in groups VB, VIB and VIIB
of the periodic table.
HYDRAULICS
35
HYDRAULICS (Gr. vSup, water, and ai>X6s, a pipe), the branch
of engineering science which deals with the practical applications
of the laws of hydromechanics.
I. THE DATA OF HYDRAULICS »
§ i. Properties of Fluids. — The fluids to which the laws of
practical hydraulics relate are substances the parts of which
possess very great mobility, or which offer a very small resistance
to distortion independently of inertia. Under the general
heading Hydromechanics a fluid is defined to be a substance
which yields continually to the slightest tangential stress, and
hence in a fluid at rest there can be no tangential stress. But,
further, in fluids such as water, air, steam, &c., to which the
present division of the article relates, the tangential stresses
that are called into action between contiguous portions during
distortion or change of figure are always small compared with
the weight, inertia, pressure, &c., which produce the visible
motions it is the object of hydraulics to estimate. On the other
hand, while a fluid passes easily from one form to another, it
opposes considerable resistance to change of volume.
It is easily deduced from the absence or smallness of the
tangential stress that contiguous portions of fluid act on each
other with a pressure which is exactly or very nearly normal
to the interface which separates them. The stress must be a
pressure, not a tension, or the parts would separate. Further,
at any point in a fluid the pressure in all directions must be the
same; or, in other words, the pressure on any small element
of surface is independent of the orientation of the surface.
§ 2. Fluids are divided into liquids, or incompressible fluids,
and gases, or compressible fluids. Very great changes of pressure
change the volume of liquids only by a small amount, and if
the pressure on them is reduced to zero they do not sensibly
dilate. In gases or compressible fluids the volume alters sensibly
for small changes of pressure, and if the pressure is indefinitely
diminished they dilate without limit.
In ordinary hydraulics, liquids are treated as absolutely
incompressible. In dealing with gases the changes of volume
which accompany changes of pressure must be taken into
account.
§ 3. Viscous fluids are those in which change of form under a
continued stress proceeds gradually and increases indefinitely.
A very viscous fluid opposes great resistance to change of form
in a short time, and yet may be deformed considerably by a
small stress acting for a long period. A block of pitch is more
easily splintered than indented by a hammer, but under the
action of the mere weight of its parts acting for a long enough
time it flattens out and flows like a liquid.
All actual fluids are viscous. They oppose a resistance
to the relative motion of their parts. This resistance diminishes
with the velocity of the relative motion, and becomes zero
in a fluid the parts of which are relatively at rest. When the
relative motion of different parts of a fluid is small, the viscosity
may be neglected without introducing important errors. On
the other hand, where there is considerable relative motion,
the viscosity may be ex-
t
I
i
I : •.;/ .
pected to have an influence
too great to be neglected.
'd
FIG. i.
Measurement of Viscosity.
Coefficient of Viscosity. — •
Suppose the plane ab, fig. :
of area <a, to move with the
velocity V relatively to the
surface cd and parallel to it.
Let the space between be filled with liquid. The layers of liquid
in contact with ab and cd adhere to them. The intermediate layers
all offering an equal resistance to shearing or distort'on, the rect-
angle of fluid abed will take the form of the paralle'ogram a'b'cd.
Further, the resistance to the motion of ab may be expressed in
the form
R = KO,V, (I)
where K is a coefficient the nature of which remain; to be deter-
mined.
1 Except where other units are given, the units throughout this
article are feet, pounds, pounds per sq. ft., feet per set ond.
If we suppose the liquid between ab and cd divided into layers as
shown in fig. 2, it will be clear that the stress R acts, at each dividing
face, forwards in the direction of motion if we consider the upper
layer, backwards if we consider the lower layer. Now suppose the
original thickness of the layer T increased to wT; if the bounding
plane in its new position has the velocity nV, the shearing at each
dividing face will be exactly the same as before, and the resistance
must therefore be the same. Hence,
R = *'u(»V). (2)
But equations (i) and (2) may both be expressed in one equation if
K and K' are replaced by a constant varying inversely as the thickness
of the layer. Putting K =M/T, K' =n/nT,
R=M
or, for an indefinitely thin layer,
an expression first proposed by L. M. H. Navier. The coefficient n is
termed the coefficient of viscosity.
According to J. Clerk Maxwell, the value of n for air at 6° Fahr. in
pounds, when the velocities are expressed in feet per second, is
n =0-000 ooo 025 6(461 °+0);
that is, the coefficient of viscosity is proportional to the absolute
temperature and independent of the pressure.
The value of M for water at 77° Fahr. is, according to H. von
Helmholtz and G. Piotrowski,
M=O-OOO OOI 91,
the units being the same as before. For water p decreases rapidly
with increase of temperature.
§ 4. When a fluid flows in a very regular manner, as for instance
when it flows in a capillary tube, the velocities vary gradually
at any moment from
one point of the fluid
to a neighbouring
point. The layer ad-
jacent to the sides of
the tube adheres to it
and is at rest. The
layers more interior
than this slide on each
other. But the resist-
ance developed by
these regular move-
ments is very small. If
in large pipes and open FIG. 2.
channels^there were a
similar regularity of movement, the neighbouring filaments
would acquire, especially near the sides, very great relative
velocities. V. J. Boussinesq has shown that the central filament
in a semicircular canal of i metre radius, and inclined at a slope
of only o-oooi, would have a velocity of 187 metres per second,1
the layer next the boundary remaining at rest. But before
such a difference of velocity can arise, the motion of the fluid
becomes much more complicated. Volumes of fluid are detached
continually from the boundaries, and, revolving, form eddies
traversing the fluid in all directions, and sliding with finite
relative velocities against those surrounding them. These
slidings develop resistances incomparably greater than the
viscous resistance due to movements varying continuously from
point to point. The movements which produce the phenomena
commonly ascribed to fluid friction must be regarded as rapidly
or even suddenly varying from one point to another. The
internal resistances to the motion of the fluid do not depend
merely on the general velocities of translation at different points
of the fluid (or what Boussinesq terms the mean local velocities),
but rather on the intensity at each point of the eddying agitation.
The problems of hydraulics are therefore much more complicated
than problems in which a regular motion of the fluid is assumed,
hindered by the viscosity of the fluid.
RELATION OF PRESSURE, DENSITY, AND TEMPERATURE
OF LIQUIDS
§ 5. Units of Volume. — In practical calculations the cubic foot
and gallon are largely used, and in metric countries the litre and
cubic metre ( = 1000 litres). The imperial gallon is now exclusively
used in England, but the United States have retained the old English
wine gallon.
* Journal de M. Liouvitte, t. xiii. (1868); MGmoires de l'Ac<ul&Jnii
des Sciences de I'Institut de France, t. xxiii., xxiv. (1877).
HYDRAULICS
[KINEMATICS OF FLUIDS
I cub. ft. = 6-236 imp. gallons = 7-481 U.S. gallons.
i imp. gallon = 0-1605 cub. ft. =i -200 U.S. gallons.
I U.S. gallon = 0-1337 9"b- ft- =0-8333 imp. gallon.
i litre = 0-2201 imp. gallon = 0-2641 U.S. gallon.
Density of Water. — Water at 53° F. and ordinary pressure contains
62-4 ft per cub. ft., or 10 Ib per imperial gallon at 62° F. The litre
contains one kilogram of water at 4° C. or lopo kilograms per cubic
metre. -.River and spring water is not sensibly denser than pure
water. But average sea water weighs 64 Ib per cub. ft. at 53° F.
The weight of water per cubic unit will be denoted by G. Ice free
from air weighs 57-28 ft per cub. ft. (Leduc).
§ 6. Compressibility of Liquids. — The most accurate experiments
show that liquids are sensibly compressed by very great pressures,
and that up to a pressure of 65 atmospheres, or about 1000 Ib per
sq. in., the compression is proportional to the pressure. The chief
results of experiment are given in the following table. Let Vi be
the volume of a liquid in cubic feet under a pressure pi Ib per sq. ft.,
and Vi its volume under a pressure pi. Then the cubical compres-
sion is (Vi — Vi)/Vi, and the ratio of the increase of pressure
pi— pi to the cubical compression is sensibly constant. That is,
k = (pi— pi)Vi/(Vj— Vi) is constant. This constant is termed the
elasticity of volume. With the notation of the differential calculus,
Elasticity of Volume of Liquids.
Canton.
Oersted.
Colladon
and Sturm.
Regnault.
Water . .
Sea water .
Mercury
Oil ...
Alcohol
45,990,000
52,900,000
705,300,000
44,090,000
32,060,000
45,900,000
42,660,000
626,100,000
23,100,000
44,090,000
604,500,000
According to the experiments of Grassi, the compressibility of
water diminishes as the temperature increases, while that of ether,
alcohol and chloroform is increased.
§ 7. Change of Volume and Density of Water with Change of Tem-
perature.— Although the change of volume of water with change of
temperature is so small that it may generally be neglected in ordinary
hydraulic calculations, yet it should be noted that there is a change
of volume which should be allowed for in very exact calculations.
The values of p in the following short table, which gives data enough
for hydraulic purposes, are taken from Professor Everett's System
of Units.
Density of Water at Different Temperatures.
Temperature.
p
Density of
Water.
G
Weight of
i cub. ft.
in tb.
Temperature.
P
Density of
Water.
G
Weight of
l cub. ft.
in lt>.
Cent.
Fahr.
Cent.
Fahr.
O
32-0
-999884
62-417
2O
68-0
•998272
62-316
I
33-8
•999941
62-420
22
7I-6
•997839
62-289
2
35-6
•999982
62-423
24
75-2
•997380
62-26I
3
37-4
1-000004
62-424
26
78-8
•996879
62-229
4
39-2
I-OOOOI3
62-425
28
82-4
•996344
62-196
5
41-0
I-OOOOO3
62-424
30
86
•995778
62-l6l
6
42-8
•999983
62-423
35
95
•99469
62-093
7
44-6
-999946
62-421
40
104
•99236
61-947
8
46-4
•999899
62-418
45
"3
•99038
61-823
9
48-2
•999837
62-414
50
122
•98821
61-688
10
50-0
•999760
62-409
55
131
•98583
6I-540
ii
Si-8
•999668
62-403
60
140
•98339
6I-387
12
53-6
•999562
62-397
65
149
•98075
61-222
13
55-4
•999443
62-389
70
158
•97795
61-048
H
57-2
•999312
62-381
75
I67
•97499
60-863
IS
59-o
•999173
62-373
80
I76
•97195
60-674
16
60-8
•999015
62-363
85
'85
•96880
60-477
17
62-6
•998854
62-353
90
194
•96557
60-275
18
64-4
•998667
62-341
100
212
•95866
59-844
>9
66-2
•998473
62-329
The weight per cubic foot has been calculated from the values of
P, on the assumption that I cub. ft. of water at 39-2° Fahr. 1362-425 ft.
For ordinary calculations in hydraulics, the density of water (which
will in future be designated by the symbol G) will be taken at 62-4 ft
per cub. ft., which is its density at 53° Fahr. It may be noted also
that ice at 32° Fahr. contains 57-3 ft per cub. ft. The values of p
are the densities in grammes per cubic centimetre.
§ 8. Pressure Column. Free Surface Level. — Suppose a small
vertical pipe introduced into a liquid at any point P (fig. 3). Then
the liquid will rise in the pipe to a level OO, such that the pressure
due to the column in the pipe exactly balances the pressure on its
mouth. If the fluid is in motion the mouth of the pipe must be
supposed accurately parallel to the direction of motion, or the
impact of the liquid at the mouth of the pipe will have an influence
on the height of the column. If this condition is complied with,
the height h of the column is a measure of the pressure at the point
P. Let a be the area of section of the pipe, h the height of the
pressure column, p the intensity of pressure at P; then
pw = G/iwft,
PlG=h;
that is, h is the height due to the pressure at p. The level OO will
be termed the free surface level corresponding to the pressure
at P.
RELATION OF PRESSURE, TEMPERATURE, AND DENSITY OF GASES
§ 9. Relation of Pressure, Volume, Temperature and Density in
Compressible Fluids. — Certain problems on the flow of air and
steam are so similar to
those relating to the flow
of water that they are
conveniently treated
together. It is neces-
sary, therefore, to state as
briefly as possible the
properties ot compres-
sible fluids so far as know-
ledge of them is requisite
in the solution of these
problems. Air may be
taken as a type of these
fluids, and the numerical
data here given will relate
to air.
Relation of Pressure
FIG. 3.
and Volume at Constant Temperature. — At constant temperature
the product of the pressure p and volume V of a given quantity of
air is a constant (Boyle's law).
Let pa be mean atmospheric pressure (2116-8 Ib per sq. ft.), Vo
the volume of I Ib of air at 32° Fahr. under the pressure po. Then
£0Vo = 262l4. (i)
If Go is the weight per cubic foot of air in the same conditions,
Go=i/Vo=2ii6-8/262i4 = -o8o75. (2)
For any other pressure p, at which the volume of I ft is V and the
weight per cubic foot is G, the temperature being 32° Fahr.,
pV= pIG =26214; or G=/>/262i4. (3)
Change of Pressure or Volume by Change of Temperature. — Let pt,
Vo, Go, as before be the pressure, the volume of a pound in cubic feet,
and the weight of a cubic foot in pounds, at 32° Fahr. Let p, V, G
be the same quantities at a temperature t (measured strictly by the
air thermometer, the degrees of which differ a little from those of
a mercurial thermometer). Then, by experiment,
pV =£0Vo(46o-6+0/(4°o-6+32) =poV0T/r0, (4)
where T, TO are the temperatures / and 32° reckoned from the absolute
zero, which is —460-6 Fahr.;
G=pToGo/poT. (5)
If £0 = 2116-8, Go = -o8o75, TO = 460-6+32 =492-6, then
P/G = 53-2T. (50)
Or quite generally p/G = TX.r for all gases, if R is a constant varying
inversely as the density of the gas at 32° F. For steam R = 85'5.
II. KINEMATICS OF FLUIDS
§ 10. Moving fluids as commonly observed are conveniently
classified thus:
(1) Streams are moving masses of indefinite length, completely
or incompletely bounded laterally by solid boundaries. When
the solid boundaries are complete, the flow is said to take place
in a pipe. When the solid boundary is incomplete and leaves
the upper surface of the fluid free, it is termed a stream bed or
channel or canal.
(2) A stream bounded laterally by differently moving fluid
of the same kind is termed a current.
(3) A jet is a stream bounded by fluid of a different kind.
(4) An tidy, vortex or whirlpool is a mass of fluid the particles
of which ars moving circularly or spirally.
(5) In a stream we may often regard the particles as flowing
along defini'e paths in space. A chain of particles following
each other along such a constant path may be termed a fluid
filament or ehmentary stream.
§ ii. Steady and Unsteady, Uniform and Varying, Motion. — There
are two quite distinct ways of treating hydrodynamical questions.
We may eithe • fix attention on a given mass of fluid and consider
its changes of position and energy under the action of the stresses
to which it is subjected, or we may have regard to a given fixed
portion of spa':e, and consider the volume and energy of the fluid
entering and Ii aving that space.
KINEMATICS OF FLUIDS]
HYDRAULICS
37
If, in following a given path ab (fig. 4), a mass of water o has a
constant velocity, the motion is said to be uniform. The kinetic
energy of the mass a remains unchanged. If the velocity varies
from point to point of the path, the motion is called varying motion.
If at a given point a in space, the particles of water always arrive
with the same velocity and in the same direction, during any given
time, then the motion is termed steady motion. On the contrary,
if at the point a the velocity or direction varies from moment to
moment the motion is termed
unsteady. A river which ex-
cavates its own bed is in
unsteady motion so long as
the slope and form of the bed
changing. It, however,
FIG. 4.
a
tends always towards a condition in which the bed ceases to change,
and it is then said to have reached a condition of permanent regime.
No river probably is in absolutely permanent regime, except perhaps
in rocky channels. In other cases the bed is scoured more or less
during the rise of a flood, and silted again during the subsidence of
the flood. But while many streams of a torrential character change
the condition of their bed often and to a large extent, in others the
changes are comparatively small and not easily observed.
As a streaiji approaches a condition of steady motion, its regime
becomes permanent. Hence steady motion and permanent regime
are sometimes used as meaning the same thing. The one, however,
is a definite term applicable to the motion of the water, the other a
less definite term applicable in strictness only to the condition of
the stream bed.
§ 12. Theoretical Notions on the Motion of Water. — The actual
motion of the particles of water is in most cases very complex. To
simplify hydrodynamic problems, simpler modes of motion are
assumed, and the results of theory so obtained are compared ex-
perimentally with the actual motions.
Motion in Plane Layers. — The simplest kind of motion in a stream
is one in which the particles initially situated in any plane cross
section of the stream con-
tinue to be found in plane
cross sections during the
subsequent motion. Thus,
if the particles in a thin
plane layer ab (fig. 5) are
found again in a thin plane
P t layer a'b' after any interval
5- of time, the motion is said
to be motion in plane layers. In such motion the internal work
in deforming the layer may usually be disregarded, and the resist-
ance to the motion is confined to the circumference.
Laminar Motion. — In the case of streams having solid boundaries,
it is observed that the central parts move faster than the lateral
parts. To take account of these differences of velocity, the stream
may be conceived to be divided into thin laminae, having cross
sections somewhat similar to the solid boundary of the stream, and
sliding on each other. The different laminae can then be treated
as having differing velocities according to any law either observed
or deduced from their mutual friction. A much closer approxima-
tion to the real motion of ordinary streams is thus obtained.
Stream Line Motion. — In the preceding hypothesis, all the particles
in each lamina have the same velocity at any given cross section of
the stream. If this assumption is abandoned, the cross section of
the stream must be supposed divided into indefinitely small areas,
each representing the section of a fluid filament. Then these fila-
ments may have any law of variation of velocity assigned to them.
If the motion is steady motion these fluid filaments (or as they are
then termed stream lines) will have fixed positions in space.
Periodic Unsteady Motion. — In ordinary streams with rough
boundaries, it is observed that at any given point the velocity varies
from moment to moment in magnitude and direction, but that the
average velocity for a sensible period (say for 5 or 10 minutes)
varies very little either in magnitude or velocity. It has hence
6'
\A'
FIG. 6.
been conceived that the variations of. direction and magnitude of
the velocity are periodic, and that, if for each point of the stream the
mean velocity and direction of motion were substituted for the
actual more or less varying motions, the motion of the stream
might be treated as steady stream line or steady laminar
motion.
§ 13. Volume of Flow.— Let A (fig. 6) be any ideal plane surface,
of area a, in a stream, normal to the direction of motion, and let V
be the velocity of the fluid. Then the volume flowing through the
surface A in unit time is
Q = «V. (I)
Thus, if the motion is rectilinear, all the particles at any instant in
the surface A will be found after one second in a similar surface A',
at a distance V, and as each particle is followed by a continuous
thread of other particles, the volume of flow is the right prism AA'
having a base o> and length V.
If the direction of motion makes an angle 6 with the normal to
the surface, the volume of flow is represented by an oblique prism
AA' (fig. 7), and in that case
Q = wVcos9.
If the velocity varies at different points of the surface, let the sur-
face be divided into very small portions, for each of which the
A'
FIG. 7.
velocity may be regarded as constant. If du> is the area and v, or
v cos 6, the normal velocity for this element of the surface, the
volume of flow is
Q =fvda, or/o cos 9 dw,
as the case may be.
§ 14. Principle of Continuity. — If we consider any completely
bounded fixed space in a moving liquid initially and finally filled
continuously with liquid, the inflow must be equal to the outflow.
Expressing the inflow with a positive and the outflow with a negative
sign, and estimating the volume of flow Q for all the boundaries,
SQ = o.
In general the space will remain filled with fluid if the pressure
at every point remains positive. There will be a break of continuity,
if at any point the pressure becomes negative, indicating that the
stress at that point is tensile. In the case of ordinary water this
statement requires modification. Water contains a variable amount
of air in solution, often about one-twentieth of its volume. This air
is disengaged and breaks the continuity of the liquid, if the pressure
falls below a point corresponding to its tension. It is for this reason
that pumps will not draw water to the full height due to atmospheric
pressure.
Application of the Principle of Continuity to the case of a Stream. —
If Ai, Az are the areas of two normal cross sections of a stream,
and Vi, V2 are the velocities of the stream at those sections, then
from the principle of continuity,
that is, the normal velocities are inversely as the areas of the cross
sections. This is true of the mean velocities, if at each section the
velocity of the stream varies. In a river of varying slope the velocity
varies with the slope. It is easy therefore to see that in parts of
large cross section the slope is smaller than in parts of small cross
section.
If we conceive a space in a liquid bounded by normal sections at
Ai, As and between AI, A2 by stream lines (fig. 8), then, as there
is no flow across the stream lines,
Vj/V^Aj/A,,
as in a stream with rigid boundaries.
In the case of compressible fluids the variation of volume due to
the difference of pressure at the two sections must be taken into
FIG. 8.
account. If the motion is steady the weight of fluid between two
cross sections of a stream must remain constant. Hence the weight
flowing in must be the same as the weight flowing out. Let pi, pi
be the pressures, Vi, uj the velocities, Gi, G2 the weight per cubic foot
of fluid, at cross sections of a stream of areas AI, A2. The volumes
of inflow and outflow are
AI»I and AjUj,
and, if the weights of these are the same,
(3)
and hence, from (50) § 9, if the temperature is constant,
HYDRAULICS
[DISCHARGE OF LIQUIDS
§ 15. Stream Lines. — The characteristic of a perfect fluid, that is,
a fluid free from viscosity, is that the pressure between any two parts
into which it is divided by a plane must be normal to the plane.
One consequence of this is that the particles can have no rotation
impressed upon them, and the motion of such a fluid is irrotational.
A stream line is the line, straight or curved, traced by a particle in
a current of fluid in irrotational movement. In a steady current
FIG. 9.
each stream line preserves its figure and position unchanged, and
marks the track of a stream of particles forming a fluid filament
or elementary stream. A current in steady irrotational movement
may be conceived to be divided by insensibly thin partitions follow-
ing .the course of the stream lines into a number of elementary
streams. If the positions of these partitions are so adjusted that
the volumes of flow in all the elementary streams are equal, they
represent to the mind the velocity as well as the direction of motion
of the particles in different parts of the current, for the velocities
FIG. 10.
FIG. 11.
FIG. 12.
are inversely proportional to the cross sections of the elementary
streams. No actual fluid is devoid of viscosity, and the effect of
viscosity is to render the motion of a fluid sinuous, or rotational or
eddying under most ordinary conditions. At very low velocities
in a tube of moderate size the motion of water may be nearly pure
stream line motion. But at some velocity, smaller as the diameter
of the tube is greater, the motion suddenly becomes tumultuous.
The laws of simple stream line motion have hitherto been investi-
gated theoretically, and from mathematical difficulties have only
been determined for certain simple cases. Professor H. S. Hele
Shaw has found means of exhibiting stream
line motion in a number of very interesting
cases experimentally. Generally in these ex-
periments a thin sheet of fluid is caused to flow
between two parallel plates of glass. In the
earlier experiments streams of very small air
bubbles introduced into the water current
rendered visible the motions of the water. By
the use of a lantern the image of a portion of
the current can be shown on a screen or photo-
graphed. In later experiments streams of
coloured liquid at regular distances were intro-
duced into the sheet and these much more
clearly marked out the forms of the stream
lines. With a fluid sheet 0-02 in. thick, the
stream lines were found to be stable at almost
any required velocity. For certain simple
cases Professor Hele Shaw has shown that the
experimental stream lines of a viscous fluid are
so far as can be measured identical with the calculated stream lines of
a perfect fluid. Sir G. G. Stokes pointed out that in this case, either
from the thinness of the stream between its glass walls, or the
slowness of the motion, or the high viscosity of the liquid, or from
a combination of all these, the now is regular, and the effects_of
inertia disappear, the viscosity dominating everything. Glycerine
gives the stream lines very satisfactorily.
FIG. 9 shows the stream lines of a sheet of fluid passing a fairly
FIG. 13.
shipshape body such as a screwshaft strut. The arrow shows the
direction of motion of the fluid. Fig. 10 shows the stream lines for
a very thin glycerine sheet passing a non-shipshape body, the
stream lines being practically perfect. Fig. n shows one of the
earlier air-bubble experiments with a thicker sheet of water. In
this case the stream lines break up behind the obstruction, forming
an eddying wake. Fig. 12 shows the stream lines of a fluid passing
a sudden contraction or sudden enlargement of a pipe. Lastly,
fig. 13 shows the stream lines of a current passing an oblique plane.
. S. Hele Shaw, " Experiments on the Nature of the Surface Re-
sistance in Pipes and on Ships," Trans. Inst. Naval Arch. (1897).
" Investigation of Stream Line Motion under certain Experimental
Conditions," Trans. Inst. Naval Arch. (1898) ; " Stream Line Motion
of a Viscous Fluid," Report of British Association (1898).
III. PHENOMENA OF THE DISCHARGE OF LIQUIDS FROM
ORIFICES AS ASCERTAINABLE BY EXPERIMENTS
§ 16. When a liquid issues vertically from a small orifice, it forms
a jet which rises nearly to the level of the free surface of the liquid
in the vessel from which
it flows. The difference
of level h, (fig. 14) is
so small that it may be
at once suspected to be
due either to air resistance
on the surface of the jet
or to the viscosity of the
liquid or to friction against
the sides of the orifice.
Neglecting for the moment
this small quantity, we
may infer, from the eleva-
tion of the jet, that each
molecule on leaving the
orifice possessed the velo-
city required to lift it
against gravity to the
height h. From ordinary
dynamics, the relation
between the velocity and
height of projection is
given by the equation
As this velocity is nearly
reached in the flow from
well-formed orifices, it is
FIG. 14.
sometimes called the theoretical velocity of discharge. This relation
was first obtained by Torricelli.
If the orifice is of a suitable conoidal form, the water issues in
filaments normal to the plane of the orifice. Let u be the area of
the orifice, then the discharge per second must be, from eq. (l),
Q = wt> = wV~2«A nearly. (2)
This is sometimes quite improperly called the theoretical dis-
charge for any kind of orifice. Except for a well-formed conoidal
orifice the result is not approximate even, so that if it is supposed
to be based on a theory the theory is a false one.
Use of the term Head in Hydraulics. — The term head is an old
millwright's term, and meant primarily the height through which a
mass of water descended in actuating a hydraulic machine. Since
the water in fig. 14 descends through a height h to the orifice, we
may say there are h ft. of head above the orifice. Still more generally
any mass of liquid h ft. above a horizontal plane may be said to have
h ft. of elevation head relatively to that datum plane. Further,
since the pressure p at the orifice which produces outflow is connected
with h by the relation p/G = h, the quantity p/G may be termed
the pressure head at the orifice. Lastly, the velocity v is connected
with h by the relation f2/2g = fc, so that f2/2g may be termed the
head due to the velocity v.
§ 17. Coefficients of Velocityand Resistance. — As the actual velocity
of discharge differs from V~2jpt by a small quantity, let the actual
velocity
= V<t=C,TJ~2f[h, (3)
where c, is a coefficient to be determined by experiment, called the
coefficient of velocity. This coefficient is found to be tolerably con-
stant for different heads with well-formed simple orifices, and it very
often has the value 0-97.
The difference between the velocity of discharge and the velocity
due to the head may be reckoned in another way. The total height
h causing outflow consists of two parts — one part h, expended
effectively in producing the velocity of outflow, another hr in over-
coming the resistances due to viscosity and friction. Let
hr = Crh.,
where c, is a coefficient determined by experiment, and called the
coefficient of resistance of the orifice. It is tolerably constant for
different heads with well-formed orifices. Then
(4)
DISCHARGE OF LIQUIDS]
HYDRAULICS
39
The relation between c, and c, for any orifice is easily found : —
(5)
Cr=I/C02-I. (5<z)
Thus if c, =0-97, then £,=0-0628. That is, for such an orifice about
6J % of the head is expended in overcoming frictional resistances
to flow.
Coefficient of Contraction — Sharp-edged Orifices in Plane Surfaces. —
When a jet issues from an aperture in a vessel, it may either spring
it
FIG. 15.
clear from the inner edge of the orifice as at a or b (fig. 15), or it
may adhere to the sides of the orifice as at c. The former condition
will be found if the orifice is bevelled outwards as at a, so as to be
sharp edged, and it will also occur generally for a prismatic aperture
like b, provided the thickness of the plate in which the aperture is
formed is less than the diameter
of the jet. But if the thickness
is greater the condition shown
at c will occur.
When the discharge occurs
as at a or b, the filaments con-
verging towards the orifice
continue to converge beyond
it, so that the section of the
jet where the filaments have
become parallel is smaller than
the section of the orifice. The
inertia of the filaments opposes
sudden change of direction
of motion at the edge of the
orifice, and the convergence
continues for a distance of
about half the diameter of the
orifice beyond it. Let a be the
area of the orifice, and c,a the area of the jet at the point where
convergence ceases; then cc is a coefficient to be determined experi-
mentally for each kind of orifice, called the coefficient of contraction.
When the orifice is a sharp-edged orifice in a plane surface, the
value of ce is on the average 0-64, or the section of the jet is very
nearly five-eighths of the area of the orifice.
Coefficient of Discharge. — In applying the general formula Q=u>t>
to a stream, it is assumed that the filaments have a common velocity
v normal to the section a. But if
the jet contracts, it is at the con-
tracted section of the jet that
the direction of motion is normal
to a transverse section of the
jet. Hence the actual discharge
when contraction occurs is
Qa = CaV X Ccw = CcCpwV (2gA),
or simply, if c = c,cc,
the orifice, and / the time in which a particle moves from O to A,
then
x=vat = f-
Eliminating t,
»«
Then
In the case of large orifices such as weirs, the velocity can be
directly determined by using a Pitot tube (§ 144).
The coefficient of discharge, which for practical purposes is the
most important of the three coefficients, is best determined by tank
measurement of
the flow from the
given orifice in a
suitable time. If
Q is the discharge
measured in the
tank per second,
then
Measurements ofi
this kind though
simple in principle
are not free from
some practical
difficulties, and
require much care.
In fig. 1 8 is shown
an arrangement of
measuring tank.
The orifice is fixed
in the wall of the cistern A and discharges either into the waste
channel BB, or into the measuring tank. There is a short trough
on rollers C which when run under the jet directs the discharge
into the tank, and when run back again allows the discharge to drop
FIG. 17.
FIG. 16.
where c is called the coefficient
of discharge. Thus for a sharp-
edged plane orifice c = o-97X
0-64 = 0-62.
§ 1 8. Experimental Determina-
tion of c,, cc, and c. — The co-
efficient of contraction cc is
directly determined by measur-
ing the dimensions of the jet.
For this purpose fixed screws of fine pitch (fig. 16) are convenient.
These are set to touch the jet, and then the distance between them
can be measured at leisure.
The coefficient of velocity is determined directly by measuring
the parabolic path of a horizontal jet.
Let OX, OY (fig. 17) be horizontal and vertical axes, the origin
being at the orifice. Let h be the head, and x, y the coordinates of
a point A on the parabolic path of the jet. If va is the velocity at
FIG. 18.
into the waste channel. D is a stilling screen to prevent agitation
of the surface at the measuring point, E, and F is a discharge valve
for emptying the measuring tank. The rise of level in the tank, the
time of the flow and the head over the orifice at that time must be
exactly observed.
For well made sharp-edged orifices, small relatively to the water
surface in the supply reservoir, the coefficients under different
conditions of head are pretty exactly known. Suppose the same
quantity of water is made to flow in succession through such an
orifice and through another orifice of which the coefficient is re-
quired, and when the rate of flow is constant the heads over each
orifice are noted. Let hi, h? be the heads, on, (02 the areas of the
orifices, ci, d the coefficients. Then since the flow through each
orifice is the same
Q =CiWiV (2gW =CSUjV (2g*s).
ej=ei («!/<•*) V (ii/ii).
§ 19. Coefficients for Bellmouths and Bellmouthed Orifices. — If an
orifice is furnished with a mouthpiece exactly of the form of the
•*- ---D-l-zsd---- *
contracted vein, then the whole of the contraction occurs within
the mouthpiece, and if the area of the orifice is measured at the
smaller end, c, must be put = i. It is often desirable to bellmouth
the ends of pipes, to avoid the loss of head which occurs if this is
HYDRAULICS
[DISCHARGE OF LIQUIDS
not done ; and such a bellmouth may also have the form of the con-
tracted jet. Fig. 19 shows the proportions of such a bellmouth
or bellmouthed orifice, which approximates to the form of the con-
tracted jet sufficiently for any practical purpose.
For such an orifice L. J. Weisbach found the following values of
the coefficients with different heads.
Head over orifice, in ft. = h
•66
1-64
11-48
5577
337-93
Coefficient of velocity = c, .
Coefficient of resistance =c.
•959
•087
•967
•069
•975
•052
•994
•012
•994
•OI2
As there is no contraction after the jet issues from the orifice,
ce = i , c = c, ; and therefore
Q =C,«V (2gk) =«V [2gh/(l +Cr)\.
§ 20. Coefficients for Sharp-edged or virtually Sharp-edged Orifices. —
There are a very large number of measurements of discharge from
sharp-edged orifices under different conditions of head. An account
of these and a very careful tabulation of the average values of the
coefficients will be found in the Hydraulics of the late Hamilton
Smith (Wiley & Sons, New York, 1886). The following short table
abstracted from a larger one will give a fair notion of how the co-
efficient varies according to the most trustworthy of the experiments.
Coefficient of Discharge for Vertical Circular Orifices, Sharp-edged,
•with free Discharge into the Air. @=cW (2gh).
Head
measured to
Centre of
Orifice.
Diameters of Orifice.
•02
•04
•10
•20
•40
•60
I-O
Values of C.
o-3
0-4
0-6
0-8
I-O
2-O
4-0
8-0
20-0
•655
•648
•644
•632
•623
•614
•601
•637
•630
•626
•623
•614
•609
•605
•599
•621
•618
•613
•610
•608
•604
•602
•600
•596
•601
•601
•600
•599
•599
•598
•596
•596
•597
•598
•599
•598
•597
•596
•588
•594
•595
•597
•597
•596
•596
•583
•591
•595
•596
•596
•594
At the same time it must be observed that differences of sharpness
in the edge of the orifice and some other circumstances affect the
results, so that the values found by different careful experimenters
are not a little discrepant. When exact measurement of flow has
to be made by a sharp-edged orifice it is desirable that the coefficient
for the particular orifice should be directly determined.
The following results were obtained by Dr H. T. Bovey in the
laboratory of McGill University.
Coefficient of Discharge for Sharp-edged Orifices.
Form of Orifice.
Square.
Rectangular Ratio
of Sides 4: i.
Rectangular Ratio
of Sides ifc i .
ft.
Cir-
cular.
Sides
vertical.
Dia-
gonal
vertical.
Long
Sides
vertical.
Long
Sides
hori-
zontal.
Long
Sides
vertical.
Long
Sides
hori-
zontal.
Tri-
angular.
I
•620
•627
•628
•642
•643
•663
•664
•636
2
•613
•620
•628
•634
•636
•650
•6SI
•628
4 '
•608
•616
•618
•628
•629
•641
•642
•623
6
•607
•614
•616
•626
•627
•637
•637
•62O
8
•606
•613
•614
•623
•625
•634
•635
•619
10
•605
•612
•613
•622
•624
•632
•618
12
•604
•611
•612
•622
•623
•631
•631
•618
H
•604
•610
•612
•621
•622
•630
•630
•618
16
•603
•610
•6n
•620
•622
•630
•630
•617
18
•603
•610
•611
•62O
•621
•630
•629
•616
20
•603
•609
•6n
•62O
•621
•629
•628
•616
The orifice was 0-196 sq. in. area and the reductions were made
with 2 = 32-176 the value for Montreal. The value of the coefficient
appears to increase as (perimeter) / (area) increases. It decreases
as the head increases. It decreases a little as the size of the orifice
is greater. •
Very careful experiments by J. G. Mair (Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng.
Ixxxiv.) on the discharge from circular orifices gave the results
shown on top of next column.
The edges of the orifices were got up with scrapers to a sharp
square edge. The coefficients generally fall as the head increases
and as the diameter increases. Professor W. C. Unwin found that
the results agree with the formula
c =0-6075 +o-oo98/VA-o-o<>37d,
where h is in feet and d in inches.
Coefficients of Discharge from Circular Orifices.
Temperature 51° to 55°.
Head in
feet
h.
Diameters of Orifices in Inches (d).
I
ii
ii
if
2
at
2*
2f
3
•75
I-O
1-25
i-5«
i-75
2-OO
Coefficients (c).
•616
•613
•613
•610
•612
•609
•614
•612
•614
•612
•611
•613
•616
•612
•610
•611
•611
•609
•610
•611
•608
•606
•605
•606
•616
•612
•612
•610
•611
•609
•612
•611
•608
•607
•605
•606
•607
•604
•605
•603
•604
•604
•607
•608
•605
•607
•607
•604
•609
•609
•606
•605
•605
•605
The following table, compiled by J. T. Fanning (Treatise on Water
Supply Engineering), gives values for rectangular orifices in ver-
tical plane surfaces, the head being measured, not immediately
over the orifice, where the surface is depressed, but to the still-
water surface at some distance from the orifice. The values were
obtained by graphic interpolation, all the most reliable ex-
periments being plotted and curves drawn so as to average the
discrepancies.
Coefficients of Discharge for Rectangular Orifices, Sharp-edged,
in Vertical Plane Surfaces.
Head to
Centre of
Ratio of Height to Width.
Orifice.
4
2
ii
i
i
i
i
1
J3
•
.c «
J3 «
W o
fta
wIS
3:2
4j
I*
33
'•23
«"^
Feet.
•= s
X £
. &
3 S
^ •
~ z
4i £
ti'S
*j *-
«J *J
•*• *;
*- —
*o .j
10 *j
««
~~
rt
~t
6 M
6 w
6 i-
6 M
0-2
•6333
•3
•620^
•4
•6140
7O
•6306
•6334
•6050
•6150
•6313
•6333
•6
•5984
•6063
•6156
•6317
•6332
•7
•5994
•6074
•6l62
•6319
•6328
•8
•6130
•6000
•6082
•6l65
•6322
•6326
•9
•6134
•6006
•6086
•6168
•6323
•6324
1*0
•6135
•6010
•6090
•6172
•6320
•6320
1-25
•6188
•6140
•6018
•6095
•6173
•6317
•6312
1-50
•6187
•6144
•6026
•6100
•6172
•6313
•6303
i-75
•6186
•6145
•6033
•6103
•6168
•6307
•6296
2
•6183
•6144
•6036
•6104
•6l66
•6302
•6291
2-25
•6180
•6143
•6029
•6103
•6l63
•6293
•6286
2-50
•6290
•6176
•6139
•6043
•6102
•6157
•6282
•6278
2-75
•6280
•6173
•6136
•6046
•6101
•6155
•6274
•6273
3
•6273
•6170
•6132
•6048
•6100
•6153
•6267
•6267
3'5
•6250
•6160
•6123
•6050
•6094
•6146
•6254
•6254
4
•6245
•6150
•6110
•6047
•6085
•6136
•6236
•6236
4'5
•6226
•6138
•6100
•6044
•6074
•6125
•6222
•6222
5
•6208
•6124
•6088
•6038
•6063
•6114
•6202
•6202
6
•6158
•6094
•6063
•6020
•6044
•6087
•6154
•6154
7
•6124
•6064
•6038
•6011
•6032
•6058
•6110
•6114
8
•6090
•6036
•6022
•6010
•6022
•6033
•6073
•6087
9
•6060
•6020
•6014
•6010
•6015
•6O2O
•6045
•6070
10
•6035
•6015
•6010
•6010
•6010
•6OIO
•6030
•6060
15
•6040
•6018
•6010
•6011
•6012
•6013
•6033
•6066
20
•6045
•6024
•6012
•6012
•6014
•6018
•6036
•6074
25
•6048
•6028
•6014
•6012
•6016
•6O22
•6040
•6083
30
•6054
•6034
•6017
•6013
•6018
•6027
•6044
•6092
35
•6060
•6039
•6021
•6014
•6022
•6032
•6049
•6103
40
•6066
•6045
•6025
•6015
•6026
•6037
•6055
•6114
45
•6054
•6052
•6029
•6016
•6030
•6043
•6062
•6125
50
•6086
•6060
•6034
•6018
•6035
•6050
•6070
•6140
§ 21. Orifices with Edges of Sensible Thickness. — When the edges of
the orifice are not bevelled outwards, but have a sensible thickness,
the coefficient of discharge is somewhat altered. The following
table gives values of the coefficient of discharge for the arrangements
of the orifice shown in vertical section at P, Q, R (fig. 26). The
plan of all the orifices is shown at S. The planks forming the orifice
and sluice were each 2 in. thick, and the orifices were all 24 in. wide.
The heads were measured immediately over the orifice. In this case,
§ 22. Partially Suppressed Contraction. — Since the contraction of
the jet is due to the convergence towards the orifice of the issuing
streams, it will be diminished if for any portion of the edge of the
orifice the convergence is prevented. Thus, if an internal rim or
border is applied to part of the edge of the orifice (fig. 21), the con-
vergence for so much of the edge is suppressed. For such cases
G. Bidone found the following empirical formulae applicable: —
DISCHARGE OF LIQUIDS]
HYDRAULICS
Table of Coefficients of Discharge for Rectangular Vertical Orifices in Fig. 20.
Head A
above
Height of Orifice, H-h, in feet.
upper
edge of
i-3i
0-66
0-16
O-IO
Orifice
in feet.
P
Q
R
. P
Q
R
P .
Q
R
P
Q
R
0-328
0-598
0-644
0-648
0-634
0-665
0-668
0-691
0-664
0-666
0-710
0-694
0-696
•656
0-609
0-653
0-657
0-640
0-672
0-675
0-685
0-687
0-688
0-696
0-704
0-706
•787
0-612
0-655
0-659
0-641
0-674
0-677
0-684
0-690
0-692
0-694
0-706
0-708
.984
0-616
0-656
0-660
0-641
0-675
0-678
0-683
0-693
0-695
0-692
0-709
0-711
1-968
0-618
0-649
0-653
0-640
0-676
0-679
0-678
0-695
0-697
0-688
0-710
0-712
3-28
0-608
0-632
0-634
0-638
0-674
0-676
0-673
0-694
0-695
0-680
0-704
0-705
4-27
0-602
0-624
0-626
0-637
0-673
0-675
0-672
0-693
0-694
0-678
0-701
0-702
4-92
0-598
0-620
0-622
0-637
0-673
0-674
0-672
0-692
0-693
0-676
0-699
0-699
5-58
0-596
0-618
0-620
0-637
0-672
0-673
0-672
0-692
0-693
0-676
0-098
0-698
6-56
0-595
0-615
0-617
0-636
0-671
0-672
0-671
0-691
0-692
0-675
0-696
0-696
9-84
0-592
0-611
0-612
0-634
0-669
0-670
0-668
0-689
0-690
0-672
0-693
0-693
' For rectangular orifices,
cc =
and for circular orifices,
cc =
when n is the length of the edge of the orifice over which the border
extends, and p is the whole length of edge or perimeter of the orifice.
The following are the values of ce, when the border extends over
i, i or j of the whole perimeter : —
n/p
Ce
Rectangular Orifices.
c,
Circular Orifices.
0-25
0-50
o-75
0-643
0-667
0-691
•640
•660
•680
For larger values of nip the formulae are not applicable. C. R.
Bornemann has shown,
however, that these for-
mulae for suppressed con-
traction are not reliable.
§ 23. Imperfect Con-
traction.— If the sides of
the vessel approach near
to the edge ot the orifice,
they interfere with the
convergence of the streams
' to which the contraction
is due, and the contraction
is then modified. It is
generally stated that the
influence of the sides
begins to be felt if their
distance from the edge of
the orifice is less than 2-7
times the corresponding
FIG. 20. FIG. 21.
width of the orifice. The coefficients of contraction for this case
are imperfectly known.
§ 24. Orifices Furnished with Channels of Discharge. — These ex-
ternal borders to an orifice also modify the contraction.
The following coefficients of discharge were obtained with open-
ings 8 in. wide, and small in proportion to the channel of approach
(fig. 22, A. B, C).
hr—ki in
li, in feet.
'0656
•164
•328
•656
I'64O
3-28
4-92
6-56
9-84
A)
•480
•5"
•542
•574
•599
•601
•601
•601
•601
B } 0-656
•480
•510
•538
•506
•592
•600
•602
•602
•601
c)
•527
•553
•574
•592
•607
•610
•610
•609
•608
A)
B [• 0-164
•488
•487
•577
•571
•624
•606
•631
-617
•625
•626
•624
•628
•619
•627
•613
•623
•606
•618
C)
•585
•614
•633
•645
-652
•651
•650
•650
-649
§ 25. Inversion of the Jet. — When a jet issues from a horizontal
orifice, or is of small size compared with the head, it presents no
a.
A
Y
FIG. 23.
marked peculiarity of form. But if the orifice is in a vertical sur-
face, and if its dimensions are not small compared with the head,
T
*• _L
\
-
FIG. 22.
ope 1 in iO
j* .«.'- ^
HYDRAULICS
[STEADY MOTION OF FLUIDS
FIG. 24.
it undergoes a series of singular changes of form after leaving the
orifice. These were first investigated by G. Bidpne (1781-1839);
subsequently H. G. Magnus (1802-1870) measured jets from different
orifices; and later Lord Rayleigh (Proc. Roy. Soc. xxix. 71) in-
vestigated them anew.
Fig. 23 shows some forms, the upper figure giving the shape of
the orifices, and the others sections of the jet. The jet first contracts
as described above, in consequence of the convergence, of the fluid
streams within the vessel, retaining, however, a form similar to that
of the orifice. Afterwards it expands into sheets in planes per-
pendicular to the sides of the orifice. Thus the jet from a triangular
orifice expands into three sheets, in planes bisecting at right angles
the three sides of the triangle. Generally a jet from an orifice, in
the form, of a regular polygon of n sides, forms n sheets in planes
perpendicular to the -sides of the polygon.
Bidone explains this by reference to the simpler case of meeting
streams. If two equal streams having the same axis, but moving
in opposite directions, meet, they spread out into a thin disk normal
to the common axis of the streams. If the directions of two streams
intersect obliquely they spread into a symmetrical sheet perpendicular
to the plane of the streams.
Let 01, a* (fig. 24) be two points in an orifice at depths %, fa from
the free surface. The filaments issuing at 01, O2 will have the different
velocities V 2ghi and V 2gh2.
Consequently they will
tend to describe parabolic
paths aicbi and aicbi of
different horizontal range,
and intersecting in the
point c. But since two
filaments cannot simul-
taneously flow through the
same point, they must
exercise mutual pressure,
and will be deflected out of
the paths they tend to
describe. It is this mutual
pressure which causes
the expansion of the jet
into sheets.
Lord Rayleigh pointed out that, when the orifices are small and
the head is not great, the expansion of the sheets in directions per-
pendicular to the direction of flow reaches a limit. Sections taken
at greater distance from the orifice show a contraction of the sheets
until a compact form is reached similar to that at the first contrac-
tion. Beyond this point, if the jet retains its coherence, sheets are
thrown out again, but in directions bisecting the angles between the
previous sheets. Lord Rayleigh accepts an explanation of this con-
traction first suggested by H. Buff (1805-1878), namely, that it is
due to surface tension.
§ 26. Influence of Temperature on Discharge of Orifices. — Professor
W. C. Unwin found (Phil. Mag., October 1878, p. 281) that for
sharp-edged orifices temperature has a very small influence on the
discharge. For an orifice I cm. in diameter with heads of about
I to ii ft. the coefficients were: —
Temperature F C.
205° . ..... -594
62° -598
For a conoidal or bell-mouthed orifice I cm. diameter the effect of
temperature was greater: —
Temperature F C.
190° 0-987
130° 0-974
6p° 0-942
an increase in velocity of discharge of 4% when the temperature
increased 130°.
J. G. Mair repeated these experiments on a much larger scale
(Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng. Ixxxiv.). For a sharp-edged orifice 2j in.
diameter, with a head of 1-75 ft., the coefficient was 0-604 at 57°
and 0-607 at 179° F., a very small difference. With a conoidal
orifice the coefficient was 0-961 at 55° and 0-981 at 170° F. The
corresponding coefficients of resistance are 0-0828 and 0-0391,
showing that the resistance decreases to about half at the higher
temperature.
§ 27. Fire Hose Nozzles. — Experiments have been made by J. R.
Freeman on the coefficient of discharge from smooth cone nozzles
used for fire purposes. The coefficient was found to be 0-983 for J-in.
nozzle; 0-982 for J in.; 0-972 for I in.; 0-976 for ii in.; and
0-971 for ii in. The nozzles were fixed on a taper play-pipe, and the
coefficient includes the resistance of this pipe (Amer. Soc. Civ. Eng.
xxi., 1889). Other forms of nozzle were tried such as ring nozzles
for which the coefficient was smaller.
IV. THEORY OF THE STEADY MOTION OF FLUIDS.
§ 28. The general equation of the steady motion of a fluid given
under Hydrodynamics furnishes immediately three results as to the
distribution of pressure in a stream which may here be assumed.
(a) If the motion is rectilinear and uniform, the variation of
pressure is the same as in a fluid at rest. In a stream flowing in an
open channel, for instance, when the effect of eddies produced by the
roughness of the sides is neglected, the pressure at each point is
simply the hydrostatic pressure due to the depth below the free
surface.
(6) If the velocity of the fluid is very small, the distribution of
pressure is approximately the same as in a fluid at rest.
(c) If the fluid molecules take precisely the accelerations which
they would have if independent and submitted only to the external
forces, the pressure is uniform. Thus in a jet falling freely in the
air the pressure throughout any cross section is uniform and equal
to the atmospheric pressure.
(d) In any bounded plane section traversed normally by streams
which are rectilinear for a certain distance on either side of the
section, the distribution of pressure is the same as in a fluid at rest.
DISTRIBUTION OF ENERGY IN INCOMPRESSIBLE FLUIDS.
§ 29. Application of the Principle of the Conservation of Energy to
Cases of Stream Line Motion. — The external and internal work
done on a mass is equal to the change of kinetic energy produced.
In many hydraulic questions this principle is difficult to apply, be-
cause from the complicated nature of the motion produced it is
difficult to estimate the total kinetic energy generated, and because
in some cases the internal work done in overcoming frictional or
viscous resistances cannot be ascertained ; but in the case of stream
line motion it furnishes a simple and important result known as
Bernoulli's theorem.
Let AB (fig. 25) be any one elementary stream, in a steadily moving
fluid mass. Then, from the steadiness of the motion, AB is a fixed
path in space through which a stream of fluid is constantly flowing.
Let OO be the free surface and XX any horizontal datum line. Let
o o
FIG. 25.
u be the area of a normal cross section, v the velocity, p the intensity
of pressure, and z the elevation above XX, of the elementary stream
AB at A, and ui, pi, Vi, Zi the same quantities at B. Suppose that
in a short time t the mass of fluid initially occupying AB comes to
A'B'. Then AA', BB' are equal to vt, v\t, and the volumes of fluid
AA', BB' are the equal inflow and outflow = Qt=avt = wiVit, in the
given time. If we suppose the filament AB surrounded by other
filaments moving with not very different velocities, the frictional
or viscous resistance on its surface will be small enough to
be neglected, and if the fluid is incompressible no internal work is
done in change of volume. Then the work done by external forces
will be equal to the kinetic energy produced in the time considered.
The normal pressures on the surface of the mass (excluding the
ends A, B) are at each point normal to the direction of motion, and
do no work. Hence the only external forces to be reckoned are
gravity and the pressures on the ends of the stream.
The work of gravity when AB falls to A'B' is the same as that of
transferring AA' to BB'; that is, GQt (z— Zi). The work of the
pressures on the ends, reckoning that at B negative, because it is
opposite to the direction of motion, is (puXvt) — (piwiXvit) =
Qt(p — pi). The change of kinetic energy in the time t is the differ-
ence of the kinetic energy originally possessed by AA' and that
finally acquired by BB', for in the intermediate part A'B there is
no change of kinetic energy, in consequence of the steadiness of the
motion. But the mass of AA' and BB' is GQt/g, and the change of
kinetic energy is therefore (GQt/g) (i>i2/2 — i*2/2)- Equating this to the
work done on the mass AB,
Dividing by GQt and rearranging the terms,
.
or, as A and B are any two points,
Ppg+ffG +z = constant = H,
Now r2/2g is the head due to the velocity v , p/G is the head equivalent
to the pressure, and z is the elevation above the datum (see § 16).
Hence the terms on the left are the total head due to velocity,
pressure, and elevation at a given cross section of the filament, z is
easily seen to be the work in foot-pounds which would be done
by I ft of fluid falling to the datum line, and similarly p/G and
t>2/2g are the quantities of work which would be done by i ft of fluid
due to the pressure p and velocity v. The expression on the left of
the equation is, therefore, the total energy of the stream at the
section considered, per ft of fluid, estimated with reference to the
STEADY MOTION OF FLUIDS]
HYDRAULICS
43
datum line XX. Hence we see that in stream line motion, under
the restrictions named above, the total energy per Ib of fluid is
uniformly distributed along the stream line. If the free surface of
the fluid OO is taken as the datum, and —h, —hi are the depths of A
and B measured down from the free surface, the equation takes the
form
*/2g+p/G-h=vi'/2g+p1IG-h1; (3)
or generally
W2g+P/G— A = constant. (30)
§ 30. Second Form of the Theorem of Bernoulli. — Suppose at the
two sections A, B (fig. 26) of an elementary stream small vertical
pipes are introduced, which may be termed pressure columns
A"
B"
"^
*
f~
a
1
A
I
T---^
~~--_
5* I
—
6 B'
—
^ .j_
i
H
~_
1
1
IT
i
6'
^==±
-•
l
±= — • B
I-7
i
c
P~~
i
i_
J,
i X
projected surface as HI, and the pressures parallel to the axis of
the pipe, normal to these projected surfaces, balance each other.
Similarly the pressures on BC, CD balance those on GH, EG. In
the same way, in any combination of enlargements and contrac-
tions, a balance of pressures, due to the flow of liquid parallel to the
FIG. 26.
(§8), having their lower ends accurately parallel to the direction of
flow. In such tubes the water will rise to heights corresponding to
the pressures at A and B. Hence b = p/G, and b'=p</G. Conse-
quently the tops of the pressure columns A' and B' will be at
total heights b+c=p[G+z and b'+c' = pi/G+zi above the datum
line XX. The difference of level of the pressure column tops, or
the fall of free surface level between A and B, is therefore
and this by equation (l), § 29 is (ff—r)(H> That is, the fall of
free surface level between two sections is equal to the difference
of the heights due to the velocities at the sections. The line A'B'
is sometimes called the line of hydraulic gradient, though this
term is also used in cases where friction needs to be taken into
account. It is the line the height of which above datum is the
sum of the elevation and pressure head at that point, and it falls
below a horizontal line A"B" drawn at H ft. above XX by the
quantities a=v'/2g and a' = vi*/2g, when friction is absent.
§31. Illustrations of the Theorem of Bernoulli. In a lecture to
the mechanical section of the British Association in 1875, W. Froude
gave some experimental illustrations of the principle of Bernoulli.
He remarked that it was a common but erroneous impression that
a fluid exercises in a contracting pipe A (fig. 27) an excess of pressure
against the entire converging surface
which it meets, and that, conversely,
as it enters an enlargement B, a relief
of pressure is experienced by the
entire diverging surface of the pipe.
Further it is commonly assumed that
when passing through a contraction
C, there is in the narrow neck an
excess of pressure due to the squeezing together of the liquid at that
point. These impressions are in no respect correct; the pressure
is smaller as the section of the pipe is smaller and conversely.
Fig. 28 shows a pipe so formed that a contraction is followed by
an enlargement, and fig. 29 one in which an enlargement is followed
by a contraction. The
A B _ vertical pressure columns
show the decrease of
pressure at the contrac-
tion and increase of
pressure at the enlarge-
ment. The line abc in
both figures shows the
variation of free surface
level, supposing the pipe
frictionless. In actual
pipes, however, work is
expended in friction
against the pipe; the
axis of the pipe, will be found, provided the sectional area and
direction of the ends are the same.
The following experiment is interesting. Two cisterns provided
with converging pipes were placed so that the jet from one was ex-
actly opposite the entrance to the other. The cisterns being filled
FIG. 29.
very nearly to the same level, the jet from the left-hand cistern A
entered the right-hand cistern B (fig. 31), shooting across the free
space between them without any waste, except that due to indirect-
ness of aim and want of exact correspondence in the form of the
orifices. In the actual experiment there was 1 8 in. of head in the
right and 20$ in. of head in the left-hand cistern, so that about
FIG. 27.
total head diminishes in proceeding along the pipe, and the free
surface level is a line such as abiCi, falling below abc.
Froude further pointed out that, if a pipe contracts and enlarges
again to the same size, the resultant pressure on the converging part
exactly balances the resultant pressure on the diverging part so
that there is no tendency to move the pipe bodily when water flows
through it. Thus the conical part AB (fig. 30) presents the same
FIG. 30. *
2$ in. were wasted in friction. It will be seen that in the open space
between the orifices there was no pressure, except the atmospheric
pressure acting uniformly throughout the system.
§ 32. Venturi Meter. — An ingenious application of the variation
of pressure and velocity in a converging and diverging pipe has been
B
FIG. 31.
made by Clemens Herschel in the construction of what he terms a
Venturi Meter for measuring the flow in water mains. Suppose that,
as in fig. 32, a contraction is made in a water main, the change of
section being gradual to avoid the production of eddies. The ratio p
44
HYDRAULICS
[STEADY MOTION OF FLUIDS
of the cross sections at A and B, that is at inlet and throat, is in
actual meters 5 to I to 20 to I , and is very carefully determined by
the maker of the meter. Then, if v and u are the velocities at A
and B, -u = pv. Let pressure pipes be introduced at A, B and C,
IG. 32.
and let Hi, H, Hs be the pressure heads at those points. Since the
velocity at B is greater than at A the pressure will be less. Neglect-
» --
ing friction
Let & = Hi-H be termed the Venturi head, then
from which the velocity through the throat and the discharge of the
main can be calculated if the areas at A and B are known and h
observed. Thus if the diameters at A and B are 4 and 12 in., the
areas are 12-57 and 113'1 SQ- in-i and p=9,
« = V 8i/8oV (2gh) = I-007V (2gh).
If the observed Venturi head is 12 ft.,
«=28 ft. per sec.,
and the discharge of the main is
28X12-57=351 cub. ft. per sec.
Hence by a simple observation of pressure difference, the flow in
the main at any moment can be determined. Notice that the
pressure height at C will be the same as at A except for a small loss
»/ due to friction and eddying between A and B. To get the pressure
at the throat very exactly Herschel surrounds it by an annular
passage communicating with the throat by several small holes,
sometimes formed in vulcanite to prevent corrosion. Though con-
structed to prevent eddying as much as possible there is some eddy
loss. The main effect of this is to cause a loss of head between A
and C which may vary from a fraction of a foot to perhaps 5 ft.
at the highest velocities at which a meter can be used. The eddying
also affects a little the Venturi head h. Consequently an experi-
mental coefficient must be determined for each meter by tank measure-
ment. The range of this coefficient is, however, surprisingly small.
If to allow for friction, w=feV(pI/(A>-i)|V(2£A), then Herschel
found values of k from 0-97 to i -o for throat velocities varying from
8 to 28 ft. per sec. The
meter is extremely con-
venient. At Staines reser-
voirs there are two meters
of this type on mains 04 in.
in diameter. Herschel con-
trived a recording arrange-
ment which records the
variation of flow from hour
to hour and also the total
flow in any given time. In
Great Britain the meter is
constructed by G. Kent,
who has made improvements
Inlet in the recording arrange-
"i— «• ment.
In the Deacon Waste
Water Meter (fig. 33) a
different principle is used.
A disk D, partly counter-
balanced by a weight, is
suspended in the water flow-
ing through the main in a
conical chamber. The un-
balanced weight of the disk
is supported by the impact
of the water. If the discharge of the main increases the disk rises, but
as it rises its position in the chamber is such that in consequence^of
the larger area the velocity is less. It finds, therefore, a new position
of equilibrium. A pencil P records on a drum moved by clockwork
the position of the disk, and from this the variation of flow is in-
ferred.
§ 33. Pressure, Velocity and Energy in Different Stream Lines. —
The equation of Bernoulli gives the variation of pressure and velocity
Outlet
from point to point along a stream line, and shows that the total
energy of the flow across any two sections is the same. Two other
directions may be defined, one normal to the stream line and in
the plane containing its radius of curvature at any point, the other
normal to the stream line and the radius of curvature. For the
problems most practically useful it will be sufficient to consider
Jhe stream lines as parallel to a vertical or horizontal plane. If the
motion is in a vertical plane, the action of gravity must be taken
into the reckoning ; if the motion is in a horizontal plane, the terms
expressing variation of elevation of the filament will disappear.1
Let AB, CD (fig. 34) be two consecutive stream lines, at present
assumed to be in a vertical plane, and PQ a normal to these lines
FIG. 34.
making an angle 4> with the vertical. Let P, Q be two particles
moving along these lines at a distance PQ = ds, and let z be the
height of Q above the horizontal plane with reference to which the
energy is measured, v its velocity, and p its pressure. Then, if H is
the total energy at Q per unit of weight of fluid,
(i)
Differentiating, we get
dH=dz+dp/G+vdv/g,
for the increment of energy between Q and P. But
dz = PQ cos $=ds cos <t> ;
.'.dH=dp/G-\-vdv/g-\-dscos<j>,
where the last term disappears if the motion is in a horizontal plane.
Now imagine a small cylinder of section w described round PQ
as an axis. This will be in equilibrium under the action of its
centrifugal force, its weight and the pressure on its ends. But its
volume is wds and its weight Gwds. Hence, taking the components
of the forces parallel to PQ —
udp — GiPwds/gp-Gw cos <t>ds,
where p is the radius of curvature of the stream line at Q. Conse-
quently, introducing these values in (i),
(2)
CURRENTS
§ 34. Rectilinear Current. — Suppose the motion is in parallel
straight stream lines (fig. 35) in a vertical plane. Then p is infinite,
and from eq. (2), § 33,
dH=vdvlg.
Comparing this with (i) we see that
dz+dp/G"0;
.'. z+£/G=constant; (3)
or the pressure varies hydrostatically as in a fluid at rest. For two
stream lines in a horizontal *>
plane, z is constant, and there-
fore p is constant.
Radiating Current. — Suppose
water flowing radially between
horizontal parallel planes, at
a distance apart = 5. Conceive
two cylindrical sections of the FIG. 35.
current at radii ri and rt, where
the velocities are »i and rj, and the pressures pi and p2. Since the
flow across each cylindrical section of the current is the same,
Q = 2 uTiSDi = 2irrt&vi
riVi = r&t
ri/ri=»j/»i. (4)
a
i
T
I
dz
i
i
r1!
J,
1 The following theorem is taken from a paper by J. H. Cotterill,
" On the Distribution of Energy in a Mass of Fluid in Steady Motion,"
Phil. Mag., February 1876.
STEADY MOTION OF FLUIDS]
HYDRAULICS
The velocity would be infinite at radius o, if the current could be
conceived to extend to the axis. Now, if the motion is steady,
= t>,IC, -\-r-tvflrf2g;
22)/2g; (5)
222g- (6)
Hence the pressure increases from the interior outwards, in a way
indicated by the pressure columns in fig. 36, the curve through the
free surfaces of the pressure columns being, in a radial section, the
quasi-hyperbola of the form ry2 = c3. This curve is asymptotic to a
horizontal line, H ft. above the line from which the pressures are
measured, and to the axis of the current.
Free Circular Vortex. — A free circular vortex is a revolving mass
of water, in which the stream lines are concentric circles, and in which
FIG. 36.
the total head for each stream line is the same. Hence, if by any
slow radial motion portions of the water strayed from one stream
line to another, they would take freely the velocities propel to their
new positions under the action of the existing fluid pressures only.
For such a current, the motion being horizontal, we have for all
the circular elementary streams
H = p/G +i?t2g = constant;
Consider two stream lines at radii r and r+dr (fig. 36). Then in
(*), § 33. P = r and ds = dr,
v*dr/gr +vdv/g = o,
dv/v=-dr/r,
» - i/r, (8)
precisely as in a radiating current; and hence the distribution
of pressure is the same, and formulae 5 and 6 are applicable to this
case.
Free Spiral Vortex. — As in a radiating and circular current the
equations of motion are the same, they will also apply to a vortex
in which the motion is compounded of these motions in any pro-
portions, provided the radial component of the motion vanes, in-
versely as the radius as in a radial current, and the tangential
component varies inversely as the radius as in a free vortex. Then
the whole velocity at any point will be inversely proportional to
the radius of the point, and the fluid will describe stream lines
having a constant inclination to the radius drawn to the axis of the
current. That is, the stream lines will be logarithmic spirals.
When water is delivered from the circumference of a centrifugal
pump or turbine into a chamber, it forms a free vortex of this kind.
The water flows spirally outwards, its velocity diminishing and its
pressure increasing according to the law stated above, and the head
along each spiral stream line is constant.
§ 35- Forced Vortex. — If the law of motion in a rotating current is
different from that in a free vortex, some force must be applied to
cause the variation of velocity. The simplest case is that of a
rotating current in which all the particles have equal angular velocity,
as for instance when they are driven round by radiating paddles
revolving uniformly. Then in equation (2), § 33, considering two
circular stream lines of radii r and r-^-dr (fig. 37), we have p = r,
ds — dr. If the angular velocity is o, then v = or and dv — adr. Hence
dH = a?rdr/g+a?rdr/g = 2a?rdrjg.
Comparing this with (i), § 33, and putting dz = o, because the motion
is horizontal,
dp/G + a?rd r/g = 2 ctrdrfg,
dp/G = ofrdr/g,
p/G = aV2/2g -(-constant. (9)
Let pi, n, vi be the pressure, radius and velocity of one cylindrical
section, pi, r2, fj those of another; then
(Pr-pi)IG = a?(rf-rf)/2g = (*s*-r12)/2g. (10)
That is, the pressure increases from within outwards in a curve
FIG. 37.
which in radial sections is a parabola, and surfaces of equal pressure
are paraboloids of revolution (fig. 37).
DISSIPATION OF HEAD IN SHOCK
§ 36. Relation of Pressure and Velocity in a Stream in Steady
Motion when the Changes of Section of the Stream are Abrupt. —
When a stream changes section abruptly, rotating eddies are formed
which dissipate energy. The energy absorbed in producing rotation
is at once abstracted from that effective in causing the flow, and
sooner or later it is wasted by frictional resistances due to the rapid
relative motion of the eddying parts of the fluid. In such cases the
work thus expended internally in the fluid is too important to be
neglected, and the energy thus lost is commonly termed energy lost
in shock. Suppose fig. 38 to represent a stream haying such an
abrupt change of section. Let AB, CD be normal sections at points
where ordinary stream line motion has not been disturbed and
where it has been re-established. Let a, p, v be the area of section,
pressure and velocity at AB, and ui, pit vt corresponding quantities
at CD. Then if no work were expended internally, and assuming
the stream horizontal, we should have
(i)
46
HYDRAULICS
[DISCHARGE FROM ORIFICES
But if work is expended in producing irregular eddying motion, the
head at the section CD will be diminished.
Suppose the mass ABCD comes in a short time t to A'B'C'D'.
The resultant force parallel to the axis of the stream is
where p*, is put for the unknown pressure on the annular space
between AB and EF. The impulse of that force is
The horizontal change of momentum in the same time is the differ-
ence of the momenta of
iCDC'D' and ABA'B',
because the amount
of momentum be-
tween A'B' and CD
remains unchanged
if the motion is
steady. The volume
— ofABA'B'orCDC'D',
being the inflow and
outflow in the time
and the momentum of
these masses is
(G/g)Qf/and(G/g)Qf,/.
The change of mo-
Equating this to the impulse,
DDf
FIG. 38.
mentum is therefore (G/g)Q<(»i-fl).
Assume that po = P , the pressure at AB extending unchanged through
the portions of fluid in contact with AE, BF which lie out of the
path of the stream. Then (since Q=UI»I)
' (2)
p/G+v'/zg =pi/G+vS/2g+(wl)*l2g. (3)
This differs from the expression (i), § 29, obtained for cases where
no sensible internal work is done, by the last term on the right.
That is, (f-Fi)*/2g has to be added to the total head at CD, which
is pi/G+Vi'/2g, to make it equal to the total head at AB, or (tn/i)J/2g
is the head lost in shock at the abrupt change of section. But
v-vi is the relative velocity of the two parts of the stream. Hence,
when an abrupt change of section occurs, the head due to the relative
velocity is lost in shock, or (f-»:)!/2g foot-pounds of energy is
wasted for each pound of fluid. Experiment verifies this result,
so that the assumption that po = p appears to be admissible.
If there is no shock,
If there is shock,
pilG
Hence the pressure head at CD in the second case is less than in the
former by the quantity (v-^iYfrg, or, putting o>it>i=«D, by the
quantity
M*. (4)
o'
V. THEORY OF THE DISCHARGE FROM ORIFICES AND
MOUTHPIECES
§ 37. Minimum Coefficient of Contraction. Re-entrant Mouth-
piece of Borda. — In one special case the coefficient of contraction
can be determined
theoretically, and, as
it is the case where
the convergence of the
streams approaching
the orifice takes place
through the greatest
possible angle, the co-
efficient thus deter-
mined is the minimum
coefficient.
Let fig. 39 represent
a vessel with vertical
sides, OO being the
free water surface, at
which the pressure is
pa. Suppose the liquid
issues by a horizontal
mouthpiece, which is
re-entrant and of the
greatest length which
permits the jet to
spring clear from the
in^ner end of the
orifice, without adher-
ing to its sides. With
such an orifice the
FIG. 39. velocity near the
points CD is negligible,
and the pressure at those points may be taken equal to the hydro-
static pressure due to the depth from the free surface. Let fi be
the area of the mouthpiece AB, a that of the contracted jet aa.
Suppose that in a short time /, the mass OOoa comes to the position
O'O a' a' ; the impulse of the horizontal external forces acting on
the mass during that time is equal to the horizontal change of
momentum.
The pressure on the side OC of the mass will be balanced by the
pressure on the opposite side OE, and so for all other portions of the
vertical surfaces of the mass, excepting the portion EF opposite the
mouthpiece and the surface AoaB of the jet. On EF the pressure is
simply the hydrostatic pressure due to the depth, that is, (*0+GA)Q.
On the surface and section AoaB of the jet, the horizontal resultant
of the pressure is equal to the atmospheric pressure pa acting on the
vertical projection AB of the jet; that is, the resultant pressure is
-pM. Hence the resultant horizontal force for the wnole mass
OOoa is (pa+Gh)n-pM = Ghtt. Its impulse in the time / is Ghn t.
Since the motion is steady there is no change of momentum between
O'O' and aa. The change of horizontal momentum is, therefore,
the difference of the horizontal momentum lost in the space OOO'O'
and gained in the space aaa'a'. In the former space there is no
horizontal momentum.
The volume of the space aaa'a' is uvt; the mass of liquid in that
space is (Gjg)avt; its momentum is (G/g)u»2/. Equating impulse to
momentum gained,
But
.
2 = 2gh, and w/12 = cc
a result confirmed by experiment with mouthpieces of this kind.
A similar theoretical investigation is not possible for orifices in
plane surfaces, because the velocity along the sides of the vessel in
the neighbourhood of the orifice is not so small that it can be
neglected. The resultant horizontal pressure is therefore greater
than GhQ, and the contraction is less. The experimental values of the
coefficient of discharge for a re-entrant mouthpiece are 0-5149
(Borda), 0-5547 (Bidone), 0-5324 (Weisbach), values which differ
little from the theoretical value, 0-5, given above.
§ 38. Velocity of Filaments issuing in a Jet. — A jet is composed
of fluid filaments or elementary streams, which start into motion at
some point in the
interior of the vessel
from which the fluid
is discharged, and
gradually acquire
the velocity of the
jet. Let Mm, fig.
40 be such a fila-
ment, the point M
being taken where
the velocity is in-
sensibly small, and
m at the most con-
tracted section of
the jet, where the
filaments have be-
come parallel and
pIG_
exercise uniform mutual pressure. Take the free surface AB for
datum line, and let pi, »i, hi, be the pressure, velocity and depth
below datum at M; p, v, h, the corresponding quantities at m.
Then § 29, eq. (30),
t>iV2g+£i/G-fci.=t>V2g+/>/G-&. (i)
But at M, since the velocity is insensible, the pressure is the hydro-
static pressure due to the depth; that is, 1*1=0, pi=pa+Ghi. At
m, p = pa, the atmospheric pressure round the jet. Hence, inserting
these values,
A-A =ti22G-A
(2)
(20)
That is, neglecting the viscosity of the fluid, the velocity of fila-
ments at the contracted section of the jet is simply the velocity due
to the difference of level
of the free surface in the
reservoir and the orifice.
If the orifice is small in
dimensions compared with
h, the filaments will all
have nearly the same vel-
ocity, and if h is measured
to the centre of the orifice,
ives
the
jet.
Case of a Submerged
Orifice, — Let the orifice
discharge below the level
of the tail water. Then
the equation above gr
the mean velocity of 1
FIG. 41.
using the notation shown in fig. 41, we have at M, »i =o,/>i =Gh;-\-p*
at m, p = Ghi+pa. Inserting these values in (3), § 29,
;
(3)
DISCHARGE FROM ORIFICES]
HYDRAULICS
47
where h is the difference of level of the head and tail water, and may
be termed the effective head producing flow.
Case where the Pressures are different on the Free Surface and at
the Orifice.— Let the
fluid flow from a vessel
in which the pressure
is pa into a vessel in
which the pressure is
p, fig. 42. The pres-
sure pa will produce the
same effect as a layer
of fluid of thickness
po/G added to the head
water; and the pres-
sure p will produce
the same effect as a
layer of thickness p/G
added to the tail
water. Hence the
effective difference of
level, or effective head
producing flow, will
and the velocity of discharge will be
» = V[2g!Ao+(/>o-/>)/G)]. (4)
We may express this result by saying that differences of pressure at
the free surface and at the orifice are to be reckoned as part of the
effective head.
Hence in all cases thus far treated the velocity of the jet is the
velocity due to the effective head, and the discharge, allowing for
contraction of the jet, is
Q=«ou = ca>V(2gft), (5)
where w is the area of the orifice, cia the area of the contracted
section of the jet, and h the effective head measured to the centre of
the orifice. If h and w are taken in feet, Q is in cubic feet per second.
It is obvious, however, that this formula assumes that all the
filaments have sensibly the same velocity. That will be true for
horizontal orifices, and very approximately true in other cases, if
the dimensions of the orifice are not large compared with the head h.
In large orifices in say a vertical surface, the value of h is different
for different filaments, and then the velocity of different filaments is
not sensibly the same.
SIMPLE ORIFICES — HEAD CONSTANT
§ 39. Large Rectangular Jets from Orifices in Vertical Plane Sur-
faces.— Let an orifice in a vertical plane surface be so formed that it
produces a jet having
A £J| a rectangular con-
tracted section with
vertical and horizon-
tal sides. Let 6 (fig.
43) be the breadth of
the jet, hi and hi the
depths below the free
surface of its upper
and lower surfaces.
Consider a lamina of
the jet between the
depths h and h+dh.
Its normal section is
bdh, and the velocity
of discharge •*J2gh.
The discharge per
FIG. 43.
second in this lamina is therefore 6V2gft an, and that of the whole
jet is therefore
2°-A,?), (6)
where the first factor on the right is a coefficient depending on the
form of the orifice.
Now an orifice producing a rectangular jet must itself be very
approximately rectangular. Let B be the breadth, Hi, H2, the
depths to the upper and lower edges of the orifice. Put
6(fei-Ai')/B(H25-H1')=c. (7)
Then the discharge, in terms of the dimensions of the orifice, instead
of those of the jet, is
Q-fcBVafdtf-H,1), (8)
the formula commonly given for the discharge of rectangular orifices.
The coefficient c is not, however, simply the coefficient of contraction,
the value of which is
and not that given in (7). It cannot be assumed, therefore, that c
in equation (8) is constant, and in fact it is found to vary for different
values of B/H2 and B/Hi, and must be ascertained experimentally.
Relation between the Expressions (5) and (8). — For a rectangular
orifice the area of the orifice is u = B (H2 — HI) , and the depth measured
to its centre is J(H2+Hi). Putting these values in (5),
Qi=cB(H,-Hi)V{«(H,+H,)}.
From (8) the discharge is
.
Hence, for the same value of c in the two cases,
Let Hi/H2 = <r, then
_Q2/Qi=o-9427 (I -<73)/(i-<7V (!+*)!. (9)
If Hi varies from o to oo, o-( = Hi/H2) varies from o to I. The
following table gives values of the two estimates of the discharge
for different values of a : —
Hi/H» = <r.
Qi/Qi.
H!/H2 = <r.
Qt/Qi-
o-o
0-2
o-5
07
•943
•979
•995
•998
0-8
0-9
I'O
•999
•999
I-OOO
Hence it is obvious that, except for very small values of a, the
simpler equation (5) gives values sensibly identical with those of
(8). When <7<o-5 it is better to use equation (8) with values of
c determined experimentally for the particular proportions of orifice
which are in question.
§ 40. Large Jets having a Circular Section from Orifices in a Vertical
Plane Surface. — Let fig. 44 represent the section of the jet, OO being
o o
FIG. 44.
the free surface level in the reservoir. The discharge through the
horizontal strip aabb, of breadth aa = b, between the depths hi-\-y
and hi-\-y+dy, is
The whole discharge of the jet is
But 6
then
d sin <t>; y = \d(i — cos <t>) ;
%dsiti<l>d<t>.
e = d/(2hi-\-d),
) I"
J o
From eq. (5), putting u=ir<i2/4, h = hi+d/2, c
diameter of the jet and not that of the orifice,
i when d is the
Q/Qi = 2/irJ * sin 2<#> V 1 1 - f cos </>} d<f>.
For hi = <a, t=o and Q/Qi = i;
and for fti=o, « = i and Q/Qi=o-96.
So that in this case also the difference between the simple formula
(5) and the formula above, in which the variation of head at different
parts of the orifice is taken into account, is very small.
NOTCHES AND WEIRS
§ 41. Notches, Weirs and Eyewashes. — A notch is an orifice ex-
tending up to the free surface level in the reservoir from which the
discharge takes place. A weir is a structure over which the water
flows, the discharge being in the same conditions as for a notch.
The formula of discharge for an orifice of this kind is ordinarily
deduced by putting Hi =o in the formula for the corresponding orifice,
obtained as in the preceding section. Thus for a rectangular notch,
put Hi = oin (8). Then
Q = fCBV(2g)H', (ii)
where H is put for the depth to the crest of the weir or the bottom
of the notch. Fig. 45 shows the mode in which the discharge occurs
in the case of a rectangular notch or weir with a level crest. As the
free surface level falls very sensibly near the notch, the head H
should be measured at some distance back from the notch, at a
point where the velocity of the water is very small.
Since the area of the notch opening is BH, the above formula is
of the form
where k is a factor depending on the form of the notch and expressing
the ratio of the mean velocity of discharge to the velocity due to the
depth H.
§ 42. Francis's Formula for Rectangular Notches. — The jet dis-
charged through a rectangular notch has a section smaller than BH,
(a) because of the fall of the water surface from the point where H
HYDRAULICS
[DISCHARGE FROM ORIFICES
charge, c, would
be much more - -
U- -B- -
constant with
different values
\~ 6 . jLJL
t
of H in a trian-
gular than in a
rectangular
notch, and this
has been experi-
\o/
ff
j
•L...
mentally shown
to be the case.
Hence a trian-
FIG. 46.
This is Francis's formula, in which the coefficient of discharge c is
much more nearly constant for different values of / and h than in
the ordinary formula. Francis found for c the mean value 0-622,
the weir being sharp-edged.
§ 43. Triangular Notch (fig. 46). — Consider a lamina issuing be-
tween the depths h and h+dh. Its area, neglecting contraction, will
be bdh, and the velocity at that depth is V (2gh). Hence the dis-
charge for this lamina is
6V 2gh dh.
But B/6 = H/(H-/t);6 = B(H-A)/H.
Hence discharge of lamina
-B(H-*)V(2««<tt/H;
and total discharge of notch rn
= Q = BV(2g)J0 (H-h)Mdh/H
or, introducing a coefficient to allow for contraction,
Q = 1VBV(2g)H3.
When a notch is used to gauge a stream of varying flow, the ratio
B/H varies if the notch is rectangular, but is constant if the notch is
triangular. This led Professor James Thomson to suspect that the
coefficient of dis-
gular notch is more suitable for accurate gaugings than a rectangular
notch. For a sharp-edged triangular notch Professor J. Thomson
found £=0-617. It will be seen, as in § 41, that since JBH is the
area of section of the stream through the notch, the formula is
again of the form
where fe = TV is the ratio of the mean velocity in the notch to the
velocity at the depth H. It may easily be shown that for all notches
the discharge can be expressed in this form.
§ 44. Weir with a Broad Sloping Crest. — Suppose a weir formed
with a broad crest so sloped that the streams flowing over it have a
movement sensibly rectilinear and uniform (fig. 47). Let the inner
edge be so rounded as to prevent a crest contraction. Consider a
filament aa', the point a being so far back from the weir that the
is measured towards the weir, (6) in consequence of the crest con-
traction, (c) in consequence of the end contractions. It may be
pointed out that while the diminution of the section of the jet due
to the surface fall and
to the crest contraction
is proportional to the
length of the weir, the
end contractions have
nearly the same effect
whether the weir is wide
or narrow.
J. B. Francis's experi-
ments showed that a
perfect end contraction,
when the heads varied
from 3 to 24 in., and
the length of the weir
was not less than three
times the head, dimin-
ished the effective
length of the weir by
an amount approxi-
mately equal to one-
tenth of the head.
Hence, if / is the length
of the notch or weir, and
H the head measured
behind the weir where
the water is nearly still,
then the width of the
jet passing through the
notch would be / — o-2H,
allowing for two end
contractions. In a weir
divided by posts there
may be more than two
end contractions.
FIG. 45. Hence, generally, the
width of the jet is / — o- inH, where n is the number of end contractions
of the stream. The contractions due to the fall of surface and to the
crest contraction are proportional to the width of the jet. Hence, if cH
is the thickness of the stream over the weir, measured at the contracted
section, the section of the jet will be c(l— o-inH)H and (§ 41) the
mean velocity will be f V(2gH). Consequently the discharge will _.
be given by an equation of the form IG' 47-
velocity of approach is negligible. Let OO be the surface level in the
reservoir, and let a be at a height h" below OO, and h' above a'.
Let h be the distance from OO to the weir crest and e the thickness
of the stream upon it. Neglecting atmospheric pressure, which has
no influence, the pressure at a is Gh"; at a' it is Gz. If v be the
velocity at a',
v*J2g = h' +h"—z = h — e ;
Q=be-<j2g(h—e).
Theory does not furnish a value for e, but Q=o for e=o and for
e = h. Q has therefore a maximum for a value of e between o and h,
obtained by equating dQ/de to zero. This gives e = f h, and, inserting
this value,
Q =0-385 bh •<! 2gh,
as a maximum value of the discharge with the conditions assigned.
Experiment shows that the actual discharge is very approximately
equal to this maximum, and the formula is more legitimately ap-
plicable to the discharge over broad-crested weirs and to cases such
as the discharge with free upper surface through large masonry
Coefficients for the Discharge over Weirs, derived from the Experiments of T. E. Blackwell. When more than one experiment was made with the
same head, and the results were pretty uniform, the resulting coefficients are marked with an (*). The effect of the converging wing-boards
is very strongly marked.
Heads in
Sharp Edge.
Planks 2 in. thick, square on Crest.
Crests 3 ft. wide.
inches
measured
10 ft. long,
from still
Water in
3 ft. long.
10 ft. long.
3 ft. long.
6 ft. long.
i oft. long.
wing-boards
making an angle
3 ft. long,
level.
3 ft. long,
fallt in 1 8.
3 ft. long,
fall i in 12.
6ft. long,
level.
10 ft. long,
level.
10 ft. long,
fall i in 18.
Reservoir.
of 60°.
I
•677
•809
•467
•459
•435 l
•754
•452
•545
•467
-38l
•467
2
•675
•803
•509*
•56i
•585*
•675
•482
•546
•533
•479*
•495*
3
•630
•642*
•563*
•597*
•569*
•441
•537
•539
•492*
4
•6I7
•656
•549
•575
•602*
•656
•419
•431
•455
•497*
•515
5
•602
•650*
•588
•601*
•609*
-671
•479
•516
•518
6
•593
•593*
•608*
•576*
•501*
•531
•507
•513
•543
7
-617*
•608*
•576*
.
•488
•513
•527
•497
8
•581
•606*
•590*
•548*
.
•470
•491
•468
•507
9
•53°
•600
•569*
•558*
.
•476
•492*
.498
•480*
•486
10
•614*
•539
•534*
•465*
•455
12
•525.
•534*
•467*
H
•549*
*The discharge per second varied from -461 to -665 cub. ft. in two experiments. The coefficient -435 is derived from the mean value
DISCHARGE FROM ORIFICES]
HYDRAULICS
sluice openings than the ordinary weir formula for sharp-edged
weirs. It should be remembered, however, that the friction on
the sides and crest of the weir has been neglected, and that this
tends to reduce a little the discharge. The formula is equivalent
to the ordinary weir formula with c = 0-577.
SPECIAL CASES OF DISCHARGE FROM ORIFICES
§ 45. Cases in which the Velocity of Approach needs to be taken
into Account. Rectangular Orifices and Notches. — In finding the
velocity at the orifice in the preceding investigations, it has been
assumed that the head h has been measured from the free surface
of still water above the orifice. In many cases which occur in
practice the channel of approach to an orifice or notch is not so
large, relatively to the stream through the orifice or notch, that the
velocity in it can be disregarded.
Let hi, Ih (fig. 48) be the heads measured from the free surface to
the top and bottom edges of a rectangular orifice, at a point in the
FIG. 48.
channel of approach where the velocity is u. It is obvious that a
fall of the free surface,
B=U2/2g
has been somewhere expended in producing the velocity u, and
hence the true heads measured in still water would have been h\+$
and fe + 6. Consequently the discharge, allowing for the velocity
of approach, is
And for a rectangular notch for which h\ =o, the discharge is
(2)
In cases where u can be directly determined, these formulae give the
discharge quite simply. When, however, u is only known as a
function of the section of the stream in the channel of approach, they
become complicated. Let JJ be the sectional area of the channel
where hi and fe are measured. Then tt = Q/ fi and 6 = Q2/2g fi2.
This value introduced in the equations above would render them
excessively cumbrous. In cases therefore where fJ only is known,
it is best to proceed by approximation. Calculate an approximate
value Q' of Q by the equation
Then 1) = Q^gft2 nearly. This value of 1) introduced in the equations
above will give a second and much more approximate value of Q.
§ 46.. Partially Submerged Rectangular Orifices and Notches. —
When the tail water is above the lower but below the upper edge
of the orifice, the flow in the two parts of the orifice, into which it
is divided by the surface of the tail water, takes place under different
conditions. A filament MiOTi (fig. 49) in the upper part of the
orifice issues with a head h' which may have any value between
FIG. 49.
hi and A. But a filament M2mj issuing in the lower part of the
orifice has a velocity due to h"—h", or h, simply. In the upper part
of the orifice the head is variable, in the lower constant. If Qi, Qt
are the discharges from the upper and lower parts of the orifice,
6 the width of the orifice, then
49
(3)
In the case of a rectangular notch or weir, hi=o. Inserting this
value, and adding the two portions of the discharge together, we get
for a drowned weir
Q =cb^Tgh(h^-hl3), (4)
where h is the difference of level of the head and tail water, and ht
is the head from the free surface above the weir to the weir crest
(fig. 50).
From some experiments by Messrs A. Fteley and F. P. Stearns
(Trans. Am. Soc. C.E., 1883, p. 102) some values of the coefficient c
can be reduced
o-i
0-2
o-3
0-4
o-5
0-6
c
0-629
0-614
0-600
0-590
0-582
0-578
0-7
0-8
0-9
o-95
I -00
c
0-578
0-583
0-596
0-607
0-628
If velocity of approach is taken into account, let B be the head due
to that velocity ; then, adding Ij to each of the heads in the equations
(3), and reducing, we get for a weir
Q=c&V2g[(/!2+B) (&+IJ)! — J(/f+6)3— |ij?]; (5)
an equation which may be useful in estimating flood discharges.
Bridge Piers and other Obstructions in Streams— When the piers
of a bridge are erected m a stream they create an obstruction to the
flow of the stream, which
causes a difference of surface-
level above and below the
pier (fig. 51). If it is neces-
sary to estimate this differ-
ence of level, the flow
between the piers may be
treated as if it occurred over
a drowned weir. But the
value of c in this case is
imperfectly known. FIG. 50.
§ 47. Bazin's Researches on
Weirs. — H. Bazin has executed a long series of researches on the
flow over weirs, so systematic and complete that they almost
supersede other observations. The account of them is contained
in a series of papers in the Annales des Pants et Chaussees
(October 1888, January 1890, November 1891, February 1894,
December 1896, 2nd trimestre 1898). Only a very abbreviated
account can be given here. The general plan of the experiments
was to establish first the coefficients of discharge for a standard
weir without end contractions; next to establish weirs of other
types in series with the standard weir on a channel with steady
flow, to compare the observed heads on the different weirs and
to determine their coefficients from the discharge computed at
the standard weir. A channel was constructed parallel to the
Canal de Bourgogne, taking water from it through three sluices
0-3X1-0 metres. The water enters a masonry chamber 15 metres
long by 4 metres wide where it is stilled and passes into the canal
at the end of which is the standard weir. The canal has a length
of 15 metres, a width of 2 metres and a depth of 1-6 metres.' From
FIG. 51. >
this extends a channel 200 metres in length with a slope of I mm.
per metre. The channel is 2 metres wide with vertical sides. The
channels were constructed of concrete rendered with cement. The
water levels were taken in chambers constructed near the canal,
by floats actuating an index on a dial. Hook gauges were used in
determining the heads on the weirs.
Standard Weir. — The weir crest was 3-72 ft. above the bottom
of the canal and formed by a plate } in. thick. It was sharp-edged
with free overfall. It was as wide as the canal so that end con-
tractions were suppressed, and enlargements were formed below
the crest to admit air under the water sheet. The channel below
the weir was used as a gauging tank. Gaugings were made with the
weir 2 metres in length and afterwards with the weir reduced to
i metre and 0-5 metre in length, the end contractions being sup-
pressed in all cases. Assuming the general formula
(i)
50
Bazin arrives at the following values of m : —
Coefficients of Discharge of Standard Weir.
HYDRAULICS
[DISCHARGE FROM ORIFICES
Head h metres.
Head h feet.
m
0-05
•164
0-4485
O-IO
•328
0-4336
0-15
•492
0-4284
0-20
•656
0-4262
0-25
•820
0-4259
0-30
•984
0-4266
o-35
•148
0-4275
0-40
•312
0-4286
o-45
•476
0-4299
0-50
•640
0-43I3
o-SS
•804
0-4327
0-60
•968
0-4341
Bazin compares his results with those of Fteley and Stearns in 1877
and 1879, correcting for a different velocity of approach, and finds
a close agreement.
Influence of Velocity of Approach. — To take account of the velocity
of approach u it is usual to replace h in the formula by h-\-autJ2g
where o is a coefficient not very well ascertained. Then
Q =til(h+au?/2g) V \2g(h+au*/2g)}
= /i/&V(2g&)(l+att2/2g&)3. (2)
The original simple equation can be used if
m = n(i -\-a-u?/2gh)i
or very approximately, since u?/2gh is small,
f»=/i(l+|aM2/2gA). (3)
Now if p is the height of the weir crest above the bottom of the
canal (fig. 52), u = Q/l(p+h).
Replacing Q by its value
in (I)
' 2ghP(p+h)*}
•hl(p+k)\\ (4)
so that (3) may be written
- <5>
Gaugings were made with
W//////////// weirs of 0-75, 0-50, 0-35, and
.0-24 metres height above
the canal bottom and the
FIG. 52.
results compared with those of the standard weir taken at the same
time. The discussion of the results leads to the following values of
m in the general equation (i): —
Values of it —
=M[i+o-55i*/'+*)}f].
V2gfc)
i*/8'+
Head h metres.
Head h feet.
M
0-05
•164
0-4481
O-IO
•328
0-4322
O-20
•656
0-30
.984
0-4174
0-40
1-312
0-4144
0-50
0-60
1-640
1-968
0-4118
0-4092
An approximate formula for n is:
ti. = 0-405+0-003/4 (h in metres)
M = 0-405+0-01 /h (h in feet).
Inclined Weirs. — Experiments were made in which the plank weir
was inclined up or down stream, the crest being sharp and the end
contraction suppressed. The following are coefficients by which
the discharge of a vertical weir should be multiplied to obtain the
discharge of the inclined weir.
Coefficient,
i to i 0-93
3 to 2 0-94
3 to i 0-96
•oo
. 3 to i -04
» » 3 to 2 -07
,, ,, i to i .10
., „ I to 2 -12
i. i> I to 4 -09
The coefficient varies appreciably, if h/p approaches unity, which
case should be avoided.
In all the preceding cases the sheet passing over the weir is de-
tached completely from the weir and its under-surface is subject
to atmospheric pressure. These conditions permit the most exact
determination of the coefficient of discharge. If the sides of the
canal below the weir are not so arranged as to permit the access
of air under the sheet, the phenomena are more complicated. So
long as the head does not exceed a certain limit the sheet is detached
Inclination up stream .
»» »»
Vertical weir
Inclination down stream
from the weir, but encloses a volume of air which is at less than
atmospheric pressure, and the tail water rises under the sheet.
The discharge is a little greater than for free overfall. At greater
head the air disappears from below the sheet and the sheet is said
to be " drowned. ' The drowned sheet may be independent of the
tail water level or influenced by it. In the former case the fall is
followed by a rapid, terminating in a standing wave. In the latter
case when the foot of the ,
sheet is drowned the level
of the tail water influences
the discharge even if it is
below the weir crest.
Weirs with Flat Crests. —
The water sheet may spring
clear from the upstream edge
or may adhere to the flat
crest falling free beyond the
downstream edge. In the
former case the condition is that of a sharp-edged weir and it is
realized when the head is at least double the width of crest. It may
arise if the head is at least ij the width of crest. Between these
limits the condition of the sheet is unstable. When the sheet
is adherent the coefficient m depends on the ratio of the head h
to the width of crest c (fig. 53), and is given by the equation
m = mi [o-70+o-i85fc/c], where mi is the coefficient for a sharp-
edged weir in similar con-
ditions. Rounding the up-
stream edge even to a small
extent modifies the dis-
charge. If R is the radius
of the rounding the co-
efficient m is increased in
the ratio itoi +R/A nearly.
The results are limited to R
less than J in.
Drowned Weirs. — Let h
(fig. 54) be the height of ""''•"'"''-
head water and hi that of
tail water above the weir crest. Then Bazin obtains as the approxi-
mate formula for the coefficient of discharge
1
I
\
where as before mi is the coefficient for a sharp-edged weir in similar
conditions, that is,
when the sheet is ^*^^— ^— ^^===
free and the weir ^-<-T-, -a«x«
of the same height.
§ 48. Separating
Weirs. — Many
towns derive their
water-supply from
streams in high
moorland dis- pIG --
tricts, in which the
flow is extremely variable. The water is collected in large storage
reservoirs, from which an uniform supply can be sent to the town. In
Plan of
Cast Iron
Key
FIG. 56.
such cases it is desirable to separate the coloured water which comes
down the streams in high floods from the purer water of ordinary
flow. The latter is sent into the reservoirs; the former is allowed
DISCHARGE FROM ORIFICES]
HYDRAULICS
to flow away down the original stream channel, or is stored in
separate reservoirs and used as compensation water. To accomplish
the separation of the flood and ordinary water, advantage is taken of
the different horizontal range of the parabolic path of the water
falling over a weir, as the depth on the weir and, consequently, the
velocity change. Fig. 55 shows one of these separating weirs m the
form in which they were first introduced on the Manchester Water-
works; fig. 56 a more modern weir of the same kind designed by
Sir A. Binnie for the Bradford Waterworks. When the quantity of
water coming down the stream is not excessive, it drops over the
weir into a transverse channel leading to the reservoirs. In flood,
the water springs over the mouth of this channel and is led into a
waste channel.
It may be assumed, probably with accuracy enough for practical
purposes, that the particles describe the parabolas due to the mean
velocity of the water passing over the weir, that is, to a velocity
§V(2g£),
where h is the head above the crest of the weir.
Let cb = x be the width of the orifice and ac=y the difference of
level of its edges (fig. 57). Then, if a particle passes from a to b in t
seconds,
which gives the width x for any given difference of level y and head
h, which the jet will just pass over the orifice. Set off ad vertically
FIG. 57.
and equal to jg on any scale; af horizontally and equal to J V (gh).
Divide af, fe into an equal number of equal parts. Join a with the
divisions on ef. The intersections of these lines with verticals from
the divisions on af give the parabolic path of the jet.
MOUTHPIECES — HEAD CONSTANT
§ 49. Cylindrical Mouthpieces. — When water issues from a short
cylindrical pipe or mouthpiece of a length at least equal to i£ times
its smallest transverse dimension, the stream, after contraction within
the mouthpiece, expands to fill it and issues full bore, or without
contraction, at the point of discharge. The discharge is found to
be about one-third greater than that from a simple orifice of the
same size. On the other hand, the energy of the fluid per unit of
weight is less than that of the stream from a simple orifice with the
same head, because part of the energy is wasted in eddies produced
at the point where the stream expands to fill the mouthpiece, the
action being something like that which occurs at an abrupt change
of section.
Let fig. 58 represent a vessel discharging through a cylindrical
mouthpiece at the depth h from the free surface, and let the axis of
the jet XX be taken as the datum with reference to which the head
is estimated. Let SJ be the area of the mouthpiece, a the aiea of
the stream at the contracted section EF. Let v, p be the velocity
and pressure at EF, and VH pi the same quantities at GH. If the
discharge is into the air, pi is equal to the atmospheric pressure pa.
The total head of any filament which goes to form the jet, taken
at a point where its velocity is sensibly zero, is h+pa/G; at EF the
total head is v*/2g+p/G; at GH it is »i2/2g +pi/G.
Between EF and GH there is a loss of head due to abiupt change
of velocity, which from eq. (3), § 36, may have the value
(t>-r,)2/2g.
Adding this head lost to the head at GH, before equating it to the
heads at EF and at the point where the filaments start into motion, —
But ort> = itoi, and w=cett, if cc is the coefficient of contraction within
the mouthpiece. Hence
V = QV,/w=Vl/Ci:.
Supposing the discharge into the air, so that pi=pa,
-i)2!; d)
where the coefficient on the right is evidently the coefficient of velocity
for the cylindrical
mouthpiece in terms of
the coefficient of con-
traction at EF. Let
£5=0-64, the value for
simple orifices, then the
coefficient of velocity is
= 0-87 (2)
The actual value of c,
found by experiment is
0-82, which does not
differ more from the
theoretical value than
might be expected if
the friction of the
mouthpiece is allowed
pIG
for. Hence, for mouthpieces of this kind, and for the section at
GH,
Cr=0-82 CC = I-00 C=0-82,
It is easy to see from the equations that the pressure p at EF is
less than atmospheric pressure. Eliminating vit we get
<$>.-/>)/G = ifc nearly; (3)
or p = pa-lGh9> per sq. ft.
If a pipe connected with a reservoir on a lower level is introduced
into the mouthpiece at the part where the contraction is formed
(fig. 50), the water will rise in this pipe to a height
KL = (p, -f)IG = lh nearly.
If the distance X is less than this, the water from the lower reservoir
will be forced continuously into the jet by the atmospheric pressure,
and discharged with it. This is the crudest form of a kind of pump
known as the jet pump.
§ 50. Convergent Mouthpieces. — With convergent mouthpieces
there is a contraction within the mouthpiece causing a loss of head,
and a diminution of the velocity of discharge, as with cylindrical
mouthpieces. There is also a second contraction of the stream out-
side the mouthpiece. Hence the discharge is given by an equation
of the form
Q=Cvc£H(2gK), (4)
where S2 is the area of the external end of the mouthpiece, and c,Q
the section of the contracted jet beyond the mouthpiece.
Convergent Mouthpieces (Castel's Experiments}. — Smallest diameter of
orifice =0-05085/4. Length of mouthpiece = 2 -6 Diameters.
Angle of
Convergence.
Coefficient of
Contraction,
ce
Coefficient of
Velocity,
c.
Coefficient of
Discharge,
c
0° 0'
•999
•830
•829
i °36'
I -000
•866
•866
3° 10'
I-OOI
•894
•895
4° 10'
i -002
•910
•912
5° 26'
1-004
•920
•924
7° 52'
-998
•931
•929
8° 58'
•992
•942
•934
10° 20'
•987
•95°
•938
12° 4'
•986
•955
•942
13° 24'
•983
•962
•946
14° 28'
•979
•966
•941
16" 36'
-969
•971
•938
19° 28'
•953
•970
•924
21° 0'
•945
•971
•918
23° o'
•937
•974
•9'3
29° 58'
•919
•975
•896
40° 20'
•887
•980
•869
48° 50'
•861
•984
•847
The maximum coefficient of discharge is that for a mouthpiece
with a convergence of 13° 24'.
HYDRAULICS
[DISCHARGE OF ORIFICES
The values of c, and cc must here be determined by experiment.
The above table gives values sufficient for practical purposes. Since
the contraction beyond
the mouthpiece increases
with the convergence, or,
what is the same thing,
Cc diminishes, and on the
other hand the loss of
energy diminishes, so
that c, increases with
the convergence, there
is an angle for which the
product cc c,, and con-
sequently the discharge,
is a maximum.
§ 51. Divergent Con-
oidal Mouthpiece. — Sup-
pose a mouthpiece so
designed that there is
no abrupt change in the
section or velocity of
the stream passing
through it. It may
have a form at the
inner end approxi-
mately the same as
FIG. 59.
that of a simple contracted vein, and may then enlarge gradu-
ally, as shown in fig. 60. Suppose that at EF it becomes
cylindrical, so that the jet may be taken to be of the diameter
EF. Let a, 9, p be the section, velocity and pressure at CD,
and J2, v\, pi the same quantities at EF, pa being as usual the
atmospheric pressure, or pressure on the free surface AB. Then,
since there is no loss of
A. y\ energy, except the small
frictional resistance of the
surface of the mouthpiece,
If the jet discharges into
the air, pi = p, ; and
fcVaf-Aj
»i = V (2gh) ;
or, if a coefficient is intro-
duced to allow for friction,
where c, is about 0-97 if
the mouthpiece is smooth
and well formed.
Hence the discharge de-
pends on the area of the
stream at EF, and not at
all on that at CD, and the
latter may be made as
small as we please without
TT._ affecting the amount of
IG- °°- water discharged.
There is, however, a limit to this. As the velocity at CD is greater
than at EF the pressure is less, and therefore less than atmospheric
pressure, if the discharge is into the air. If CD is so contracted that
p = o, the continuity of flow is impossible. In fact the stream
disengages itself from the
mouthpiece for some value
of p greater than o (fig. 61).
From the equations.
whence we find that p/G
will become zero or nega-
tive if
or, putting
= 34 ft., if
FIG. 61.
In practice there will be an interruption of the full bore flow with
a less ratio of tt/w, because of the disengagement of air from the water.
But, supposing this does not occur, the maximum discharge of a
mouthpiece of this kind is
Q»»V{af(H-#«/G));
that is, the discharge is the same as for a well-bellmouthed mouth-
piece of area a, and without the expanding part, discharging into
a vacuum.
§ 52. Jet Pump. — A divergent mouthpiece may be arranged to act
as a pump, as shown in fig. 62. The water which supplies the energy
required for pumping enters at A. The water to be pumped enters
at B. The streams combine at DD where the velocity is greatest
and the pressure least. Beyond DD the stream enlarges in section,
FIG. 62.
and its pressure increases, till it is sufficient to balance the head due
to the height of the lift, and the water flows away by the discharge
pipe C.
FIG. 63 shows the whole arrangement in a diagrammatic way.
A is the reservoir which supplies the water that effects the pumping;
FIG. 63.
B is the reservoir of water to be pumped; C is the reservoir into
which the water is pumped.
DISCHARGE WITH VARYING HEAD
§ 53. Flow from a Vessel when the Effective Head varies with the
Time. — Various useful problems arise relating to the time of empty-
ing and filling vessels, reservoirs, lock chambers, &c., where the flow
is dependent on a head which increases or diminishes during the
operation. The simplest of these problems is the case of filling or
emptying a vessel of constant horizontal section.
Time of Emptying or Filling a Vertical-sided Lock Chamber. —
Suppose the lock chamber, which has a water surface of Q square
ft., is emptied through a sluice in the tail gates, of area o>, placed
below the tail-water level. Then the effective head producing flow
through the sluice is the difference of level in the chamber and tail
bay. Let H (fig. 64) be the initial difference of level, h the difference
water Uwt
Tail water Uvtl
FIG. 64.
of level after / seconds. Let — dh be the fall of level in the chamber
during an interval At. Then in the time dt the volume in the chamber
is altered by the amount —ildh, and the outflow from the sluice in
the same time is co>V (2gh)dt. Hence the differential equation con-
necting h and / is
DISCHARGE FROM ORIFICES]
HYDRAULICS
53
For the time /, during which the initial head H diminishes to any
other value h,
rh n
dt.
| ChdhHh = C'
J H Jo
For the whole time of emptying, during which h diminishes from
H too,
Comparing this with the equation for flow under a constant head,
it will be seen that the time is double that required for the discharge
of an equal volume under a constant head.
The time of filling the lock through a sluice in the head gates is
exactly the same, if the sluice is below the tail-water level. But il
the sluice is above the tail-water level, then the head is constant
till the level of the sluice is reached, and afterwards it diminishes
with the time.
PRACTICAL [USE OF ORIFICES IN GAUGING WATER
§ 54. If the water to be measured is passed through a known orifice
under an arrangement by which the constancy of the head is ensured,
the amount which passes in a given time can be ascertained by the
formulae already given. It will obviously be best to make the
orifices of the forms for which the coefficients are most accurately
determined; hence sharp-edged orifices or notches are most com-
monly used.
Water Inch. — For measuring small quantities of water circular
sharp-edged orifices have been used. The discharge from a circular
orifice one French inch in diameter, with a head of one line above the
top edge, was termed by the older hydraulic writers a water-inch.
A common estimate of its value was 14 pints per minute, or 677
English cub. ft. in 24 hours. An experiment by C. Bossut gave
634 cub. ft. in 24 hours (see Navier's edition of Belidor's Arch.
Hydr., p. 212).
L. J. Weisbach points out that measurements of this kind would be
made more accurately with a greater head over the orifice, and he
proposes that the head should be equal to the diameter of the orifice.
Several equal orifices may be used for larger discharges.
Pin Ferrules or Measuring Cocks. — To give a tolerably definite
supply of water to houses, without the expense of a meter, a ferrule
with an orifice of a definite size, or a cock, is introduced in the
service-pipe. If the head in the water main is constant, then a
definite quantity of water would be delivered in a given time. The
arrangement is not a very satisfactory one, and acts chiefly as a
check on extravagant use of water. It is interesting here chiefly as
an example Deregulation of discharge by means of an orifice. Fig. 65
shows a cock of
this kind used at
Zurich. It consists
of three cocks, the
middle one having
the orifice of the
predetermined size
in a small circular
plate, protected by
wire gauze from
stoppage by im-
purities in the
water. The cock
FIG. 65. on tne "Sht hand
can be used by the
consumer for emptying the pipes. The one on the left and the
measuring cock are connected by a key which can be locked by a
padlock, which is under the control of the water company.
§ 55. Measurement of the Flow in Streams. — To determine the
quantity of water flowing off the ground in small streams, which is
available for water supply or for obtaining water power, small
temporary weirs are often used. These may be formed of planks
supported by piles and puddled to prevent leakage. The measure-
ment of the head may be made by a thin-edged scale at a short
distance behind the weir, where the water surface has not begun to
slope down to the weir and where the velocity of approach is not
high. The measurements are conveniently made from a short pile
driven into the bed of the river, accurately level with the crest of
the weir (fig. 66). Then if at any moment the head is h, the dis-
charge is, for a rectangular notch of breadth b,
where c = 0-62; or, better, the formula in § 42 may be used.
Gauging weirs are most commonly in the form of rectangular
notches; and care should be taken that the crest is accurately
horizontal, and that the weir is normal to the direction of flow of
the stream. If the planks are thick, they should be bevelled (fig. 67),
and then the edge may be protected by a metal plate about fffth
in. thick to secure the requisite accuracy of form and sharpness of
edge. In permanent gauging weirs, a cast steel plate is sometimes
used to form the edge of the weir crest. The weir should be large
enough to discharge the maximum volume flowing in the stream,
and at the same time it is desirable that the minimum head should
not be too small (say half a foot) to decrease the effects of errors ol
measurement. The section of the jet over the weir should not exceed
one-fifth the section of the stream behind the weir, or the velocity
of approach will need to be taken into account. A triangular notch
is very suitable for measurements of this kind.
If the flow is variable, the head h must be recorded at equidistant
intervals of time, say twice daily, and then for each 12-hour period
ficate
IVetr
FIG. 66.
the discharge must be calculated for the mean of the heads at the
beginning and end of the time. As this involves a good deal of
troublesome calculation, E. Sang proposed to use a scale so graduated
as to read off the discharge in cubic feet per second. The lengths of
the principal graduations of such a scale are easily calculated by
putting Q = l,2, 3 ... in the ordinary formulae for notches;
the intermediate graduations may be taken accurately enough by
subdividing equally the distances between the principal graduations.
The accurate measurement of the discharge of a stream by means
of a weir is, however, in practice, rather more difficult than might
be inferred from
the simplicity of
the principle of the
operation. Apart
from the difficulty
of selecting a suit-
able coefficient of
discharge, which
need not be serious
if the form of the
weir and the nature
of its crest are pro-
perly attended to,
other difficulties of
measurement arise.
FIG. 67.
The length of the
weir should be very accurately deter-
mined, and if the weir is rectangular
its deviations from exactness of level
should be tested. Then the agitation
of the water, the ripple on its surface,
and the adhesion of the water to the
scale on which the head is measured,
are liable to introduce errors. Upon a
weir 10 ft. long, with I ft. depth of
water flowing over, an error of i-ioooth
of a foot in measuring the head, or an
error of l-iooth of a Foot in measuring
the length of the weir, would cause an
error in .computing the discharge of
2 cub. ft. per minute.
Hook Gauge. — For the determination
of the surface level of water, the most
accurate instrument is the hook gauge
used first by U. Boyden of Boston, in
1840. It consists of a fixed frame with
scale and vernier. In the instrument
fig. 68 the vernier is fixed to the
frame, and the scale slides vertically.
The scale carries at its lower end a hook
with a fine point, and the scale can be
raised or lowered by a fine pitched
screw. If the hook is depressed below
the water surface and then raised by the screw, the moment of its
reaching the water surface will be very distinctly marked, by the
reflection from a small capillary elevation of the water surface over
the point of the hook. In ordinary light, differences of level of the
water of -ooi of a foot are easily detected by the hook gauge. If such
a gauge is used to determine the heads at a weir, the hook should
FIG. 68
54
HYDRAULICS
[DISCHARGE FROM ORIFICES
first be set accurately level with the weir crest, and a reading taken.
Then the difference of the reading at the water surface and that
for the weir crest will be the head at the weir.
§ 56. Modules used in Irrigation. — In distributing water for
irrigation, the charge for the water may be simply assessed on the
area of the land irrigated for each consumer, a method followed in
India; or a regulated quantity of water may be given to each
consumer, and the charge may be made proportional to the quantity
of water supplied, a method employed for a long time in Italy and
other parts of Europe. To deliver a regulated quantity of water
FIG. 69.
from the irrigation channel, arrangements termed modules are used.
These are constructions intended to maintain a constant or approxi-
mately constant head above an orifice of fixed size, or to regulate
the size of the orifice so as to give a constant discharge, notwith-
standing the variation of level in the irrigating channel.
§ 57. Italian Module. — The Italian modules are masonry construc-
tions, consisting of a regulating chamber, to which water is admitted
by an adjustable sluice from the canal. At the other end of the
chamber is an orifice in a thin flagstone of fixed size. By means
of the adjustable sluice a tolerably constant head above the fixed
orifice is maintained, and therefore there is a nearly constant dis-
charge of ascertainable amount through the orifice, into the channel
leading to the fields which are to be irrigated.
In fig. 69, A is the adjustable sluice by which water is admitted
to the regulating chamber, B is the fixed orifice through which the
water is discharged. The sluice A is adjusted from time to time by
the canal officers, so as to bring the level of the water in the regulating
chamber to a fixed level marked on the wall of the chamber. When
time to time. It has further the advantage that the cultivator, by
observing the level of the water in the chamber, can always see
whether or not he is receiving the proper quantity of water.
On each canal the orifices are of the same height, and intended to
work with the same normal head, the width of the orifices being
varied to suit the demand for water. The unit of discharge varies on
different canals, being fixed in each case by legal arrangements.
Thus on the Canal Lodi the unit of discharge or one module of water
is the discharge through an orifice I -12 ft. high, 0-12416 ft. wide,
with a head of 0-32 ft. above the top edge of the orifice, or -88 ft.
above the centre. This corresponds to a discharge of about 0-6165
cub. ft. per second.
In the most elaborate Italian modules the regulating chamber is
arched over, and its dimensions are very exactly prescribed. Thus
in the modules of the Naviglio Grande of Milan, shown in fig. 70,
the measuring orifice is cut in a thin stone slab, and so placed that
the discharge is into the air with free contraction on all sides. The
adjusted it is locked. Let o>i be the area of the
orifice through the sluice at A, and w2 that of the
fixed orifice at B; let hi be the difference of level
between the surface of the water in the canal and
regulating chamber; hi the head above the centre of
the discharging orifice, when the sluice has been
adjusted and the flow has become steady; Q the
normal discharge in cubic feet per second. Then,
since the flow through the orifices at A and B is the same,
Q = Cj«iV (2ghi) = c*tfjV (2gft2) ,
where c\ and ct are the coefficients of discharge suitable for the two
orifices. Hence
CiW<*->2 = V (hi/hi).
If the orifice at B opened directly into the canal without any
intermediate regulating chamber, the discharge would increase for
a given change of level in the canal in exactly the same ratio. Conse-
quently the Italian module in no way moderates the fluctuations of
discharge, except so far as it affords means of easy adjustment from
FIG. 71.
adjusting sluice is placed with its sill flush with the bottom of the
canal, and is provided with a rack and lever and locking arrange-
ment. The covered regulating chamber is about 20 ft. long, with
a breadth 1-64 ft. greater than that of the discharging orifice. At
precisely the normal level of the water in the regulating chamber,
there is a ceiling of planks intended to still the agitation of the
water. A block of stone serves to indicate the normal level of
the water in the chamber. The water is discharged into an open
channel 0-655 ft- wider than the orifice, splaying out till it is 1-637
ft. wider than the orifice, and about 18 ft. in length.
§ 58. Spanish Module. — On thecanal of Isabella II., which supplies
water to Madrid, a module much more perfect in principle than the
Italian module is employed. Part of the water is supplied for irriga-
tion, and as it is very valuable its
strict measurement is essential. The
module (fig. 72) consists of two
chambers one above the other, the
upper chamber being in free communi-
cation with the irrigation canal, and
the lower chamber discharging by a
culvert to the fields. In the arched
roof between the chambers there is a
circular sharp-edged orifice in a bronze
plate. Hanging in this there is a
bronze plug of variable diameter sus-
pended from a hollow brass float. If
the water level in the canal lowers, the
plug descends and gives an enlarged
opening, and conversely. Thus a per-
fectly constant discharge with a vary-
ing head can be obtained, provided no
clogging or silting of the chambers pre-
vents the free discharge of the water
or the rise and fall of the float. The theory of the module is very
simple. Let R (fig. 71) be the radius of the fixed opening, r the
radius of the plug at a distance h from the plane of flotation of the
float, and Q the required discharge of the module. Then
Taking £=0-63,
Choosing a value for R, successive values of r can be found for
different values of h, and from these the curve of the plug can be
drawn. The module shown in fig. 72 will discharge I cubic metre per
second. The fixed opening is 0-2 metre diameter, and the greatest
head above the fixed orifice is I metre. The use of this module
involves a great sacrifice of level between the canal and the fields.
The module is described in Sir C. Scott-Moncrieff's Irrigation in
Southern Europe.
§ 59. Reservoir Gauging Basins. — In obtaining the power to store
the water of streams in reservoirs, it is usual to concede to riparian
DISCHARGE FROM ORIFICES]
HYDRAULICS
55
owners below the reservoirs a right to a regulated supply through-
out the year. This compensation water requires to be measured in
such a way that the millowners and others interested in the matter
can assure themselves that they are receiving a proper quantity, and
they are generally allowed a certain amount of control as to the
times during which the daily supply is discharged into the stream.
Fig. 74 shows an arrangement designed for the Manchester water
works. The water enters from the reservoir a chamber A, the object
of which is to still the irregular motion of the water. The admission
is regulated by sluices at b, b, b. The water is discharged by orifices
or notches at a, a, over which a tolerably constant head is maintained
by adjusting the sluices at 6, b, b. At any time the millowners can
see whether the discharge is given and whether the proper head is
maintained over the orifices. To test at any time the discharge of
the orifices, a gauging basin B is provided. The water ordinarily
flows over this, without entering it, on a floor of cast-iron plates.
If the discharge is to be tested, the water is turned for a definite time
into the gauging basin, by suddenly opening and closing a sluice at c.
The volume of flow can be ascertained from the depth in the gauging
chamber. A mechanical arrangement (fig. 73) was designed for
securing an absolutely constant head over the orifices at a, a. The
orifices were formed in a cast-iron plate capable of sliding up and
FIG. 73.— Scale
down, without sensible leakage, on the face of the wall of the chamber.
The orifice plate was attached by a link to a lever, one end of which
rested on the wall and the other on floats / in the chamber A. The
floats rose and fell with the changes of level in the chamber, and
raised and lowered the orifice plate at the same time. This
FIG. 74.— Scale rjs.
mechanical arrangement was not finally adopted, .careful watching
of the sluices at b, b, b, being sufficient to secure a regular discharge.
The arrangement is then equivalent to an Italian module, but on a
large scale.
§ 60. Professor Fleeming Jenkin's Constant Flow Valve. — In the
modules thus far described constant discharge is obtained by vary-
ing the area of the orifice through which the water flows. Professor
F. Jenkin has contrived a valve in which a constant pressure head
is obtained, so that the orifice need not be varied (Roy. Scot. Society
HYDRAULICS
[COMPRESSIBLE FLUIDS
Fig. 75 shows a valve of this kind suitable for a
Th
of Arts, 1876).
6-in. water main. The water arriving by the main C passes through
an equilibrium valve D into the chamber A, and thence through a
sluice O, which can be set for any required area of opening, into the
discharging main B. The object of the arrangement is to secure a
constant difference of pressure between the chambers A and B, so
that a constant discharge flows through the stop valve O. The
equilibrium valve D is rigidly connected with a plunger P loosely
fitted in a diaphragm, separating A from a chamber B2 connected by
a pipe Bi with the discharging main B. Any increase of the differ-
ence of pressure in A and B will drive the plunger up and close the
FIG. 75.— Scale
equilibrium valve, and conversely a decrease of the difference of
pressure will cause the-descent of the plunger and open the equilibrium
valve wider. Thus a constant difference of pressure is obtained in
the chambers A and B. Let w be the area of the plunger in square
feet, p the difference of pressure in the chambers A and B in pounds
per square foot, vi the weight of the plunger and valve. Then if at
any moment pa exceeds w the plunger will rise, and if it is less than
•w the plunger will descend. Apart from friction, and assuming the
valve D to be strictly an equilibrium valve, since u and w are
constant, p must be constant also, and equal to w/w. By making w
small and a large, the difference of pressure required to ensure the
working of the apparatus may be made very small. Valves working
with a difference of pressure of J in. of water have been constructed.
VI. STEADY FLOW OF COMPRESSIBLE FLUIDS.
§ 61. External Work during the Expansion of Air. — If air expands
without doing any external work, its temperature remains constant.
This result was first
experimentally demon-
strated by J. P. Joule.
It leads to the conclu-
sion that, however air
changes its state, the in-
ternal work done is pro-
portional to the change
of temperature. When,
in expanding, air does
work against an external
resistance, either heat
must be supplied or the
temperature falls.
To fix the conditions,
suppose i Ib of air con-
fined behind a piston of
I sq. ft. area (fig. 76).
Let the initial pressure
be pi and the volume of
the air »i, and suppose
this to expand to the
pressure pi and volume
FIG. 76.
r2. If p and r are the corresponding pressure and volume at any
intermediate point in the expansion, tne work done on the piston
during the expansion from v to v+dv is pdv, and the whole work
during the expansion from vi to vt, represented by the area abed, is
^pdv.
Amongst possible cases two may be selected.
Case I. — So much heat is supplied to the air during expansion
that the temperature remains constant. Hyperbolic expansion.
Then pv = piVi.
Work done during expansion per pound of air
(l)
Since the weight per cubic foot is the reciprocal of the volume per
pound, this may be written
(£i/Gi) log, G,/G2. (10)
Then the expansion curve ab is a common hyperbola.
Case 2. — No heat is supplied to the air during expansion. Then
the air loses an amount of heat equivalent to the external work done
and the temperature falls. Adiabatic expansion.
In this case it can be shown that
where y is the ratio of the specific heats of air at constant pressure
and volume. Its value for air is 1-408, and for dry steam 1-135.
Work done during expansion per pound of air.
The value of piVi for any given temperature can be found from the
data already given.
As before, substituting the weights Gi, G2 per cubic foot for the
volumes per pound, we get for the work of expansion
1), (20)
AJ. (26)
§ 62. Modification of the Theorem of Bernoulli for the Case of a
Compressible Fluid. — In the application of the principle of work to a
filament of compressible fluid, the internal work done by the ex^
pansion of the fluid, or absorbed
in its compression, must be
taken into account. Suppose,
as before, that AB (fig. 77)
comes to A'B' in a short time /.
Let pi, uj, »i, Gi be the pres-
sure, sectional area of stream,
velocity and weight of a cubic Fie. 77.
foot at A, and pi, wj, »2, G2 the
same quantities at B. Then, from the steadiness of motion, the
weight of fluid passing A in any given time must be equal to the
weight passing B:
Let Zi, zj be the heights of the sections A and B above any given
datum. Then the work of gravity on the mass AB in / seconds is
Giwit>i*(z, -Za) = W(zi -Zj)/,
where W is the weight of gas passing A or B per second. As in
the case of an incompressible fluid, the work of the pressures on the
ends of the mass AB is
The work done by expansion of W< tb of fluid between A and B is
W( f™pdv. The change of kinetic energy as before is (W/2g) (vi* — »i5)<,
Hence, equating work to change of kinetic energy,
dv. (i)
Now the work of expansion per pound of fluid has already been
given. If the temperature is constant, we get (eq. ia, § 61)
zi+pilGl+vl'l2g=*zt+pi/Gi+vi'/2g-(pilGi) log. (Gi/G2).
But at constant temperature pi/Gi=pt/Gt;
••• Zl +»l'/2g = Zs +«W2g - (£l/Gl) log. (pl/pt) , (2)
or, neglecting the difference of level,
-vi')/2g = (£,/Gi) log. (pilpt). (20)
Similarly, if the expansion is adiabatic (eq. 2a, § 61),
1'/2g = z, +p,/G,+vtt/2g - (fr/G,) 1 1 /(y - 1
or neglecting the difference of level
; (3)
(30)
It will be seen hereafter that there is a limit in the ratio pi/pi beyond
which these expressions cease to be true.
§ 63. Discharge of Air from an Orifice. — The form of the equation
of work for a steady stream of compressible fluid is
FRICTION OF LIQUIDS]
HYDRAULICS
57
the expansion being adiabatic, because in the flow of the streams of
air through an orifice no sensible amount of heat can be communi-
cated from outside.
Suppose the air flows from a vessel, where the pressure is pi and
the velocity sensibly zero, through an orifice, into a space where the
pressure is pi. Let Vi be the velocity of the jet at a point where the
convergence of the streams has ceased, so that the pressure in the
jet is also pi. As air is light, the work of gravity will be small
compared with that of the pressures and expansion, so that ZiZi
may be neglected. Putting these values in the equation above —
But
or rf2g
an equation commonly ascribed to L. J. Weisbach (Cimlingenieur,
1856), though it appears to have been given earlier by A. J. C. Barre
de Saint Venant and L. Wantzel.
It has already (§ 9, eq. 40) been seen that
where for air £e = 2ii6-8, Go = -o8o75 and ro = 492-6.
f22/2g = (MiT/Goro(7-l)l [l-(pi/pi)(y-l)/y]; (2)
or, inserting numerical values,
f22/2|; = i83-6T1{i-(p2/pi)0-29); (20)
which gives the velocity of discharge v 2 in terms of the pressure and
absolute temperature, pi, TI, in the vessel from which the air flows,
and the pressure pi in the vessel into which it flows.
Proceeding now as for liquids, and putting u for the area of the
orifice and c for the coefficient of discharge, the volume of air dis-
charged per second at the pressure pi and temperature T2 is
Qi =cavi =ca V l(2gypi/(y- i)G,) (i - (Pttpi)^'1^]
= io8-7c«VWi-te//>i)0">}]. (3)
If the volume discharged is measured at the pressure pi and
absolute temperature TI in the vessel from which the air flows, let
Qi be that volume; then
Let
Qi = c
1-' =<!'; then
(4)
The weight of air at pressure pi and temperature TI is
GI = pi/53'2Ti lb per cubic foot.
Hence the weight of air discharged is
W = G,Q! = cu V [2gypiGi^/(y - 1 )]
(5)
Weisbach found the following values of the coefficient of dis-
charge c: —
Conoidal mouthpieces of the form of the]
contracted vein with effective pressures r c =
• J 0-97 too-i
of -23 to i • i atmosphere .
to 0-99
Circular sharp-edged orifices
Short cylindrical mouthpieces .
The same rounded at the inner end
Conical converging mouthpieces
• 0-563 „ 0-788
. 0-81 ,, 0-84
. 0-92 „ 0-93
. 0-90 ,, 0-99
§ 64. Limit to the Application of the above Formulae. — In the
formulae above it is assumed that the fluid issuing from the orifice
expands from the pressure pi to the pressure pi, while passing from
the vessel to the section of the jet considered in estimating the area
<a. Hence pi is strictly the pressure in the jet at the plane of the
external orifice in the case of mouthpieces, or at the plane of the
contracted section in the case of simple orifices. Till recently it
was tacitly assumed that this pressure pi was identical with the
general pressure external to the orifice. R. D. Napier first discovered
that, when the ratio pi/pi exceeded a value which does not greatly
differ from 0-5, this was no longer true. In that case the expansion
of the fluid down to the external pressure is not completed at the
time it reaches the plane of the contracted section, and the pressure
there is greater than the general external pressure; or, what amounts
to the same thing, the section of the jet where the expansion is com-
pleted is a section which is greater than the area ccw of the contracted
section of the jet, and may be greater than the area a of the orifice.
Napier made experiments with steam which showed that, so long as
pilpi>o-5, the formulae above were trustworthy, when pi was taken
to be the general external pressure, but that, if pi/pi<o-5, then the
pressure at the contracted section was independent of the external
pressure and equal to 0-5^1. Hence in such cases the constant value
0-5 should be substituted in the formulae for the ratio of the internal
and external pressures pi/pi.
It is easily deduced from Weisbach's theory that, if the pressure
external to an orifice is gradually diminished, the weight of air dis-
charged per second increases to a maximum for a value of the ratio
= 0-527 for air
= 0-58 for dry steam.
For a further decrease of external pressure the discharge diminishes,
— a result no doubt improbable. The new view of Weisbach's
formula is that from the point where the maximum is reached, or
not greatly differing from it, the pressure at the contracted section
ceases to diminish.
A. F. Fliegner showed (Cimlingenieur xx., 1874) that for air flow-
ing from well-rounded mouthpieces there is no discontinuity of the
law of flow, as Napier's hypothesis implies, but the curve of flow
bends so sharply that Napier's rule may be taken to be a good
approximation to the true law. The limiting value of the ratio
Pi/Pi, for which Weisbach's formula, as originally understood, ceases
to apply, is for air O'5767; and this is the number to be substituted
for pilpi in the formulae when pi/pi falls below that value. For later
researches on the flow of air, reference may be made to G. A. Zeuner's
paper (Cimlingenieur, 1871), and Fliegner's papers (ibid., 1877,
1878).
VII. FRICTION OF LIQUIDS.
§ 65. When a stream of fluid flows over a solid surface, or con-
versely when a solid moves in still fluid, a resistance to the motion
is generated, commonly termed fluid friction. It is due to the vis-
cosity of the fluid, but generally the laws of fluid friction are very
different from those of simple viscous resistance. It would appear
that at all speeds, except the slowest, rotating eddies are formed by
the roughness of the solid surface, or by abrupt changes of velocity
distributed throughout the fluid; and the energy expended in pro-
ducing these eddying motions is gradually lost in overcoming the
viscosity of the fluid in regions more or less distant from that where
they are first produced.
The laws of fluid friction are generally stated thus: —
1. The frictional resistance is independent of the pressure between
the fluid and the solid against which it flows. This may be verified
by a simple direct experiment. C. H. Coulomb, for instance, oscil-
lated a disk under water, first with atmospheric pressure acting on
the water surface, afterwards with the atmospheric pressure removed.
No difference in the rate of decrease of the oscillations was observed.
The chief proof that the friction is independent of the pressure is
that no difference of resistance has been observed in water mains
and in other cases, where water flows over solid surfaces under widely
different pressures.
2. The frictional resistance of large surfaces is proportional to the
area of the surface.
3. At low velocities of not more than i in. per second for water,
the frictional resistance increases directly as the relative velocity of
the fluid and the surface against which it flows. At velocities of
J ft. per second and greater velocities, the frictional resistance is
more nearly proportional to the square of the relative velocity.
In many treatises on hydraulics it is stated that the frictional
resistance is independent of the nature of the solid surface. The
explanation of this was supposed to be that a film of fluid remained
attached to the solid surface, the resistance being generated between
this fluid layer and layers more distant from the surface. At ex-
tremely low velocities the solid surface does not seem to have much
influence on the friction. In Coulomb's experiments a metal surface
covered with tallow, and oscillated in water, had exactly the same
resistance as a clean metal surface, and when sand was scattered over
the tallow the resistance was only very slightly increased. The
earlier calculations of the resistance of water at higher velocities in
iron and wood pipes and earthen channels seemed to give a similar
result. These, however, were erroneous, and it is now well understood
that differences of roughness of the solid surface very greatly influ-
ence the friction, at such velocities as are common in engineering
practice. H. P. G. Darcy's experiments, for instance, showed that
in old and incrusted water mains the resistance was twice or some-
times thrice as great as in new and clean mains.
§ 66. Ordinary Expressions for Fluid Friction at Velocities not
Extremely Small. — Let / be the frictional resistance estimated in
pounds per square foot of surface at a velocity of I ft. per second;
w the area of the surface in square feet; and v its velocity in feet
per second relatively to the water in which it is immersed. Then,
in accordance with the laws stated above, the total resistance of the
surface is
R=/W (i)
where / is a quantity approximately constant for any given surface.
If
£=2g//G,
R-{G«e*/2«, (2)
where £ is, like /, nearly constant for a given surface, and is termed
the coefficient of friction.
The following are average values of the coefficient of friction for
water, obtained from experiments on large plane surfaces, moved in
an indefinitely large mass of water.
HYDRAULICS
[FRICTION OF LIQUIDS
Coefficient
of Friction,
E
Frictional
Resistance in
Ib per sq. ft.
New well-painted iron plate .
Painted and planed plank (Beaufoy)
Surface of iron ships (Rankine) .
Varnished surface (Froude) .
Fine sand surface „ ...
Coarser sand surface ,
•00489
•00350
•00362
•00258
•00418
•00503
•00473
-00339
•00351
•00250
•00405
•00488
The distance through which the frictional resistance is overcome
is v ft. per second. The work expended in fluid friction is therefore
given by the equation —
Work expended =fav3 foot-pounds per second ) (3).
The coefficient of friction and the friction per square foot of
surface can be indirectly obtained from observations of the discharge
of pipes and canals. In obtaining them, however, some assumptions
as to the motion of the water must be made, and it will be better
therefore to discuss these values in connexion with the cases to
which they are related.
Many attempts have been made to express the coefficient of
friction in a form applicable to low as well as high velocities. The
older hydraulic writers considered the
resistance termed fluid friction to be
made up of two parts, — a part due
directly to the distortion of the mass of
water and proportional to the velocity
of the water relatively to the solid sur-
face, and another part due to kinetic
energy imparted to the water strikini
the roughnesses of the solid surface am
proportional to the square of the
velocity. Hence they proposed to take
the resistance measured. For two planks differing in area by 46 sq.
ft., at a velocity of 10 ft. per second, the difference of resistance,
measured on the difference of area, was 0-339 K> per square foot.
Also the resistance varied as the I -949th power of the velocity.
§ 68. Fronde's Experiments.— The most important direct experi-
ments on fluid friction at ordinary velocities are those made by
William Froude (1810-1879) at Torquay. The method adopted in
these experiments was to tow a board in a still water canal, the
velocity and the resistance being registered by very ingenious re-
cording arrangements. The general arrangement of the apparatus is
shown in fig. 79. AA is the board the resistance of which is to be
determined. B is a cut-water giving a fine entrance to the plane
surfaces of the board. CC is a bar to which the board AA is attached,
and which is suspended by a parallel motion from a carriage running
on rails above the still water canal. G is a link by which the re-
sistance of the board is transmitted to a spiral spring H. A bar I
rigidly connects the other end of the spring to the carriage. The
dotted lines K, L indicate the position of a couple of levers by which
the extension of the spring is caused to move a pen M, which records
the extension on a greatly increased scale, by a line drawn on the
paper cylinder N. This cylinder revolves at a speed proportionate
to that of the carriage, its motion being obtained from the axle of the
carriage wheels. A second pen O, receiving jerks at every second
and a quarter from a clock P, records time on the paper cylinder.
The scale for the line of resistance is ascertained by stretching the
spiral spring by known weights. The boards used for the experiment
in which expression the second term is
of greatest importance at very low
velocities, and of comparatively little?? ^S ^
importance at velocities over about £ ft. r-^^^timjrr-^
per second. Values of { expressed in this ,~ ' . "
and similar forms will be given in con- —
nexion with pipes and canals.
All these expressions must at present _____ ii
be regarded as merejy empirical ex- ^_r~Z-T~Lr~I_r"L.T_r~.Jir~_r^_r
pressions serving practical purposes.
The frictional resistance will be seen'
to vary through wider limits than these
expressions allow, and to depend on circumstances of which they do
not take account.
§ 67. Coulomb's Experiments. — The first direct experiments on
fluid friction were made by Coulomb, who employed a circular disk
suspended by a thin brass wire and oscillated in its own plane. His
experiments were chiefly made at very low velocities. When the
disk is rotated to any given angle, it oscillates under the action of its
inertia and the torsion of the wire. The oscillations diminish
gradually in consequence of the work done in overcoming the friction
of the disk. The diminution furnishes a means of determining the
friction.
Fig. 78 shows Coulomb's apparatus. LK supports the wire and
disk; ag is the brass wire, the torsion of which causes the oscilla-
tions; DS is a graduated
disk serving to measure
the angles through which
the apparatus oscillates.
To this the friction disk
is rigidly attached hang-
ing in a vessel of water.
The friction disks were
from 4-7 to 7-7 in. dia-
meter, and they gencr-
, ally made one oscillation
in from 20 to 30 seconds,
through angles varying
from 360° to 6°. When
the velocity of the cir-
cumference of the disk
was less than 6 in. per
second, the resistance
was sensibly propor-
tional to the velocity.
Beaufoy 's Experiments. — Towards the end of the i8th century
Colonel Mark Beaufoy (1764-1827) made an immense mass of
experiments on the resistance of bodies moved through water
(Nautical and Hydraulic Experiments, London, 1834). Of these the
only ones directly bearing on surface friction were some made in 1796
and 1798. Smooth painted planks were drawn through water and
FIG. 78.
FIG. 79.
were A in. thick, 19 in. deep, and from I to 50 ft. in length, cutwater
included. A lead keel counteracted the buoyancy of the board.
The boards were covered with various substances, such as paint,
varnish, Hay's composition, tinfoil, &c., so as to try the effect of
different degrees of roughness of surface. The results obtained by
Froude may be summarized as follows: —
1. The friction per square foot of surface varies very greatly for
different surfaces, being generally greater as the sensible roughness
of the surface is greater. Thus, when the surface of the board was
covered as mentioned below, the resistance for boards 50 ft. long,
at 10 ft. per second, was —
Tinfoil or varnish 0-25 Ib per sq. ft.
Calico 0-47 „ ,,
Fine sand 0-405 ,, ,,
Coarser sand 0-488 ,, „
2. The power of the velocity to which the friction is proportional
varies for different surfaces. Thus, with short boards 2 ft. long,
For tinfoil the resistance varied as zi2'".
For other surfaces the resistance varied as i>2'°°.
With boards 50 ft. long,
For varnish or tinfoil the resistance varied as zi1'88.
For sand the resistance varied as i>2p°°.
3. The average resistance per square foot of surface was much
greater for short than for long boards; or, what is the same thing,
the resistance per square foot at the forward part of the board was
greater than the friction per square foot of portions more sternward.
Thus,
Mean Resistance in
Ib per sq. ft.
Varnished surface . . 2 ft. long 0-41
50 „ 0-25
Fine sand surface . . 2 „ 0-81
50 „ 0-405
This remarkable result is explained thus by Froude: "The
portion of surface that goes first in the line of motion, in experiencing
resistance from the water, must in turn communicate motion to the
water, in the direction in which it is itself travelling. Consequently
STEADY FLOW IN PIPES]
HYDRAULICS
59
the portion of surface which succeeds the first will be rubbing, not
against stationary water, but against water partially moving in its
own direction, and cannot therefore experience so much resistance
from it."
§ 69. The following table gives a general statement of Froude s
results. In all the experiments in this table, the boards had a fine
cutwater and a fine stern end or run, so that the resistance was
entirely due to the surface. The table gives the resistances per
square foot in pounds, at the standard speed of 600 feet per minute,
and the power of the speed to which the friction is proportional, so
that the resistance at other speeds is easily calculated.
Length of Surface, or Distance from Cutwater, in feet.
2ft.
8ft.
20 ft.
50ft.
A
B
C
A
B
C
A
B
C
A
B
C
Varnish .
Paraffin .
Tinfoil
Calico
Fine sand
Medium sand
Coarse sand .
2-00
2-16
1-93
2-OO
2-00
2 -OO
•41
•38
•30
•87
•81
•90
I-IO
•39°
•370
•295
•725
•690
•730
•880
1-85
1-94
1-99
1-92
2-OO
2-OO
2-OO
•325
•3H
•278
•626
•583
•625
•714
•264
•260
•263
•504
•450
•488
•520
1-85
1-93
1-90
1-89
2-OO
2-OO
2-OO
•278
•271
•262
•531
•480
•534
•588
•240
•237
•244
•447
•384
•465
•490
1-83
i-*83
1-87
2-06
2-00
•250
•246
•474
•405
•488
•226
•232
•423
•337
•456
Columns A give the power of the speed to which the resistance is
approximately proportional.
Columns B give the mean resistance per square foot of the whole
surface of a board of the lengths stated in the table.
Columns C give the resistance in pounds of a square foot of surface
at the distance sternward from the cutwater stated in the heading.
Although these experiments do not directly deal with surfaces of
greater length than 50 ft., they indicate what would be the resistances
of longer surfaces. For at 50 ft. the decrease of resistance for an
increase of length is so small that it will make no very great difference
in the estimate of the friction whether we suppose it to continue to
diminish at the same rate or not to diminish at all. For a varnished
surface the friction at 10 ft. per second diminishes from 0-41 to 0-32
Ib per square foot when the length is increased from 2 to 8 ft., but it
only diminishes from 0-278 to 0-250 Ib per square foot for an increase
from 20 ft. to 50 ft.
If the decrease of friction sternwards is due to the generation of a
current accompanying the moving plane, there is not at first sight
any reason why the decrease should not be greater than that shown
by the experiments. The current accompanying the board might be
assumed to gain in volume and velocity sternwards, till the velocity
was nearly the same as that of the moving plane and the friction per
square foot nearly zero. That this does not happen appears to be due
to the mixing up of the current with the still water surrounding it.
Part of the water in contact with the board at any point, and receiv-
ing energy of motion from it, passes afterwards to distant regions of
still water, and portions of still water are fed in towards the board
to take its place. In the forward part of the board more kinetic
energy is given to the current than is diffused into surrounding space,
and the current gains in velocity. At a greater distance back there is
an approximate balance between the energy communicated to the
water and that diffused. The velocity of the current accompanying
the board becomes constant or nearly constant, and the friction per
square foot is therefore nearly constant also.
§ 70. Friction of Rotating Disks. — A rotating disk is virtually a
surface of unlimited extent and it is convenient for experiments on
friction with different surfaces at different speeds. Experiments
carried out by Professor W. C. Unwin (Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng. Ixxx.)
are useful both as illustrating the laws of fluid friction and as giving
data for calculating the resistance of the disks of turbines and
centrifugal pumps. Disks of 10, 15 and 20 in. diameter fixed on a
vertical shaft were rotated by a belt driven by an engine. They were
enclosed in a cistern of water between parallel top and bottom fixed
surfaces. The cistern was suspended by three fine wires. The friction
of the disk is equal to the tendency of the cistern to rotate, and this
was measured by balancing the cistern by a fine silk cord passing over
a pulley and carrying a scale pan in which weights could be placed.
If co is an element of area on the disk moving with the velocity v,
the friction on this element is /uu™, where / and n are constant for
any given kind of surface. Let a be the angular velocity of rotation,
R the radius of the disk. Consider a ring of the surface between r and
r+dr. Its area is 2-nrdr, its velocity ar and the friction of this ring
is /2wdra"r". The moment of the friction about the axis of rotation
is 2va."-frnV*dr , and the total moment of friction for the two sides of
the disk is
M = 4.Tra»ffir"-»dr = J4To»/(« +3) )/R»+'.
If N is the number of revolutions per sec.,
M = {2»+V+1N»/(« +3) !/R"+s,
and the work expended in rotating the disk is
Ma = (2"+3ir"«!N"+1/(w+3)!/Rn+3 foot ft per sec.
The experiments give directly the values of M for the disks corre-
sponding to any speed N. From these the values of / and n can be
deduced, / being the friction per square foot at unit velocity. For
comparison with Froude's results it is convenient to calculate the
resistance at 10 ft. per second, which is F=/io".
The disks were rotated in chambers 22 in. diameter and 3, 6 and
12 in. deep. In all cases the friction of the disks increased a little
as the chamber was made larger. This is probably due to the stilling
of the eddies against the surface of the chamber and the feeding back
of the stilled water to the disk. Hence the friction depends not only
on the surface of the disk but to some extent on the surface of the
chamber in which it rotates. If the surface of the chamber is made
rougher by covering with coarse sand there is
also an increase of resistance.
For the smoother surfaces the friction varied
as the i-8sth power of the velocity. For the
rougher surfaces the power of the velocity to
which the resistance was proportional varied
from 1-9 to 2-1. This is in agreement with
Froude's results.
Experiments with a bright brass disk showed
that the friction decreased with increase of
temperature. The diminution between 41°
and 130° F. amounted to 18%. In the general
equation M =cN" for any given disk,
£1=0-1328(1 — 0-002IJ),
where ct is the value of c for a bright brass
disk 0-85 ft. in diameter at a temperature t° F.
The disks used were either polished or made rougher by varnish
or by varnish and sand. The following table gives a comparison of
the results obtained with the disks and Froude's results on planks
50 ft. long. The values given are the resistances per square foot at
10 ft. per sec.
Froude's Experiments.
Tinfoil surface . . . 0-232
Varnish 0-226
Fine sand .... 0-337
Medium sand . . 0-456
Disk Experiments.
Bright brass . 0-202 to 0-229
Varnish . . 0-220 to 0-233
Fine sand . . 0-339
Very coarse sand 0-587 to 0-715
VIII. STEADY FLOW OF WATER IN PIPES OF
UNIFORM SECTION.
§ 71. The ordinary theory of the flow of water in pipes, on which
all practical formulae are based, assumes that the variation of velocity
at different points of any cross section may be neglected. The
water is considered as moving in plane layers, which are driven
through the pipe against the frictional resistance, by the difference
of pressure at or elevation of the ends of the pipe. If the motion
is steady the velocity at each cross section remains the same from
moment to moment, and if the cross sectional area is constant the
velocity at all sections must be the same. Hence the motion is
uniform. The most important resistance to the motion of the water
is the surface friction of the pipe, and it is convenient to estimate
this independently of some smaller resistances which will be ac-
counted for presently.
In any portion of a uniform pipe, excluding for the present the
ends of the pipe, the water enters and leaves at the same velocity.
For that portion there-
fore the work of the
external forces and of
the surface friction
must be equal. Let
fig. 80 represent a very
short portion of the
pipe, of length dl, be-
tween cross sections at
2 and 2+dz ft. above
any horizontal datum
line xx, the pressures at
the cross sections being -~ ----- A ----------- •* -------- ^~X
p and p-\-dp Ib per
square foot. Further, pJG go
let Q be the volume of
flow or discharge of the pipe per second, Q the area of a normal
cross section, and x the perimeter of the pipe. The Q cubic feet,
which flow through the space considered per second, weigh GQ Ib,
and fall through a height— dz ft. The work done by gravity is then
-GQdz;
a positive quantity if dz is negative, and vice versa. The resultant
pressure parallel to the axis of the pipe is p — (p+dp) = —dp ft per
square foot of the cross section. The work of this pressure on the
volume Q is
-Qdp.
The only remaining force doing work on the system is the friction
against the surface of the pipe. The area of that surface is x dl.
The work expended in overcoming the frictional resistance per
second is (see § 66, eq. 3)
or, since Q =
6o
HYDRAULICS
the negative sign being taken because the work is done against a
resistance. Adding all these portions of work, and equating the
result to zero, since the motion is uniform, —
Dividing by GQ,
dz+dp/G+?(x/0)(v*/2g)dl=o.
Integrating,
z-\-plG-\-$('x]ty(iPl2g)l = constant. (i)
§ 72. Let A and B (fig. 81) be any two sections of the pipe for
which p, z, I have the values pi, z:, llt and fa, zz, k, respectively.
Then
or, if k— li = L, rearranging the terms,
(2)
Suppose pressure columns introduced at A and B. The water will
rise in those columns to the heights pi/G and fr/G due to the
Horizontal
FIG. 81.
pressures pt and p, at A and B. Hence (.Zi+pl/G)-(z,+pt/G) is
the quantity represented in the figure by DE, the fall of level of
the pressure columns, or virtual fall of the pipe. If there were no
friction in the pipe, then by Bernoulli's equation there would be no
fall of level of the pressure columns, the velocity being the same at
A and B. Hence DE or h is the head lost in friction in the distance
AB. _The quantity DE/AB=A/L is termed the virtual slope of
the pipe or virtual fall per foot of length. It is sometimes termed
very conveniently the relative fall. It will be denoted by the
symbol ».
The quantity O/x which appears in many hydraulic equations is
called the hydraulic mean radius of the pipe. It will be denoted
by m.
Introducing these values,
(3)
For pipes of circular section, and diameter d,
Then
fv*/2g = \dh/L = \di ;
(4)
(40)
which shows that the head lost in friction is proportional to the
head due to the velocity, and is found by multiplying that head by
the coefficient 4fL/d. It is assumed above that the atmospheric
pressure at C and D is the same, and this is usually nearly the case.
But if C and D are at greatly different levels the excess of baro-
metric pressure at C, in feet of water, must be added to pt/G.
,. § 73- Hydraulic Gradient or Line of Virtual Slope.— Join CD.
Since the head lost in friction is proportional to L, any intermediate
pressure column between A and B will have its free surface on the
line CD, and the vertical distance between CD and the pipe at any
point measures the pressure, exclusive of atmospheric pressure, in
the pipe at that point. If the pipe were laid along the line CD
instead of AB, the water would flow at the same velocity by gravity
without any change of pressure from section to section. Hence CD
is termed the virtual slope or hydraulic gradient of the pipe . It is
the line of free surface level for each point of the pipe.
If an ordinary pipe, connecting reservoirs open to the air, rises at
any joint above the line of virtual slope, the pressure at that point
is less than the atmospheric pressure transmitted through the pipe.
At such a point there is a liability that air may be disengaged from
the water, and the flow stopped or impeded by the accumulation of
air. If the pipe rises more than 34 ft. above the line of virtual slope,
the pressure is negative. But as this is impossible, the continuity
of the flow will be broken.
If the pipe is not straight, the line of virtual slope becomes a
curved line, but since in actual pipes the vertical alterations of level
are generally small, compared with the length of the pipe, distances
measured along the pipe are sensibly proportional to distances
[STEADY FLOW IN PIPES
measured along the horizontal projection of the pipe. Hence the
line of hydraulic gradient may be taken to be a straight line without
error of practical importance.
§ 74. Case of a Uniform Pipe connecting two Reservoirs, when all the
Resistances are taken into account. — Let h (fig. 82) be the difference
of level of the reservoirs, and v the velocity, in a pipe of length L
and diameter d. The whole work done per second is virtually the
removal of Q cub. ft. of water from the surface of the upper
reservoir to the surface of the lower reservoir, that is GQh foot-
pounds. This is expended in three ways, (i) The head vi/2g, corre-
sponding to an expenditure of GQv2/2g foot-pounds of work, is
employed in giving energy of motion to the water. This is ulti-
FIG. 82.
mately wasted in eddying motions in the lower reservoir. (2) A
portion of head, which experience shows may be expressed in the
form ftff/2g, corresponding to an expenditure of GQfof2/2g foot-
pounds of work, is employed in overcoming the resistance at the
entrance to the pipe. (3) As already shown the head expended in
overcoming the surface friction of the pipe is f(4L/d) (i?/2g) correspond-
ing to GQf(4L/<f)(n2/2g) foot-pounds of work. Hence
(5)
1 T J IJ- /
If the pipe is bellmouthed, £0 is about =-08. If the entrance to
the pipe is cylindrical, £0 = 0-505. Hence l+fo=l-o8 to 1-505.
In general this is so small compared with £4L/<2 that, for practical
calculations, it may be neglected ; that is, the losses of head other
than the loss in surface friction are left put of. the reckoning. It
is only in short pipes and at high velocities that it is necessary to
take account of the first two terms in the bracket, as well as the
third. For instance, in pipes for the supply of turbines, v is usually
limited to 2 ft. per second, and the pipe is bellmouthed. Then
I -08^/2^=0-067 ft- In pipes for towns' supply v may range from
2 to 4^ ft. per second, and then 1-5^/2^=0-1 to 0-5 ft. In either
case this amount of head is small compared with the whole virtual
fall in the cases which most commonly occur.
When d and v or d and h are given, the equations above are solved
quite simply. When v and h are given and d is required, it is better
to proceed by approximation. Find an approximate value of d by
assuming a probable value for f as mentioned below. Then from
that value of d find a corrected value for f and repeat the calculation.
The equation above may be put in the form
h = (4 f ld}[[ (i +fo)rf/4f j +L]ti2/2g ; (6)
from which it is clear that the head expended at the mouthpiece is
equivalent to that of a length
of the pipe. Putting i+fo=i'5°5 and f = o-oi, the length of pipe
equivalent to the mouthpiece is 37-6 d nearly. This may be added
to the actual length of the pipe to allow for mouthpiece resistance
n approximate calculations.
§ 75. Coefficient of Friction for Pipes discharging Water. — From the
average of a large number of experiments, the value of f for ordinary
ron pipes is
£ = 0-007567. (7)
But practical experience shows that no single value can be taken
applicable to very different cases. The earlier hydraulicians occupied
themselves chiefly with the dependence of f on the velocity. Having
regard to the difference of the law of resistance at very low ana
at ordinary velocities, they assumed that f might be expressed in the
'
The following are the best numerical values obtained for f so ex-
pressed : —
a
0
R. de Prony (from 51 experiments)
1. F. d'Aubuisson de Voisins
. A. Eytelwein
0-006836
0-00673
0-005493
0-001116
0-001211
0-00143
Weisbach proposed the formula
4f = a+0/V v = 0-003598 +0-004289/V v. ( 8)
STEADY FLOW IN PIPES]
HYDRAULICS
61
§ 76. Darcy's Experiments on Friction in Pipes. — All previous
experiments on the resistance of pipes were superseded by the re-
markable researches carried out by H. P. G. Darcy (1803-1858), the
Inspector-General of the Paris water works. His experiments were
carried out on a scale, under a variation of conditions, and with a
degree of accuracy which leaves little to be desired, and the results
obtained are of very great practical importance. These results may
be stated "thus : —
1. For new and clean pipes the friction varies considerably with
the nature and polish of the surface of the pipe. For clean cast
iron it is about I J times as great as for cast iron covered with pitch.
2. The nature of the surface has less influence when the pipes
are old and incrusted with deposits, due to the action of the water.
Thus old and incrusted pipes give twice as great a frictional resist-
ance as new and clean pipes. Darcy's coefficients were chiefly
determined from experiments on new pipes. He doubles these co-
efficients for old and incrusted pipes, in accordance with the results
of a very limited number of experiments on pipes containing incrus-
tations and deposits.
3. The coefficient of friction may be expressed in the form
f = a+/S/f ; but in pipes which have been some time in use it is
sufficiently accurate to take f = ai simply, where ot depends on the
diameter of the pipe alone, but a and /3 on the other hand depend
both on the diameter of the pipe and the nature of its surface. The
following are the values of the constants.
For pipes which have been some time in use, neglecting the term
depending on the velocity ;
(9)
a
ft
For drawn wrought-iron or smooth cast-
iron pipes
For pipes altered by light incrustations
•004973
•00996
•084
•084
These coefficients may be put in the following very simple form,
without sensibly altering their value: —
For clean pipes ....
For slightly incrusted pipes
(9")
Darcy's Value of the Coefficient of Friction f for Velocities not less
than 4 in. per second.
Diameter
f
Diameter
r
of Pipe
in Inches.
New
Pipes.
Incrusted
Pipes.
of Pipe
in Inches.
New
Pipes.
Incrusted
Pipes.
2
0-00750
0-01500
18
•00528
•01056
3
•00667
•01333
21
•00524
•01048
4
•00625
•01250
24
•00521
•01042
5
•00600
•OI2OO
27
•00519
•01037
6
•00583
•01167
30
•00517
•01033
7
•00571
•01143
36
•00514
•01028
8
•00563
•01125
42
•00512
•01024
9
•00556
•Oil II
48
•00510
•OI02I
12
•00542
•01083
54
•00509
•OIOI9
15
•00533
•01067
These values of f are, however, not exact for widely differing
velocities. To embrace all cases Darcy proposed the expression
which is a modification of Coulomb's, including terms expressing the
influence of the diameter and of the velocity. For clean pipes Darcy
found these values
a =-004346
01 = -0003992
j8 =-0010182
ft = -000005205.
It has become not uncommon to calculate the discharge of pipes
by the formula of E. Ganguillet and W. R. Kutter, which will be
discussed under the head of channels. For the value of c in the
relation v = ctj (mi), Ganguillet and Kutter take
where n is a coefficient depending only on the roughness of the pipe.
For pipes uncoated as ordinarily laid n = 0-013. The formula is very
cumbrous, its form is not rationally justifiable and it is not at all
clear that it gives more accurate values of the discharge than simpler
formulae.
§ 77. Later Investigations on Flow in Pipes. — The foregoing state-
ment gives the theory of flow in pipes so far as it can be put in a
simple rational form. But the conditions of flow are really more
complicated than can be expressed in any rational form. Taking
even selected experiments the values of the empirical coefficient f
range from 0-16 to 0-0028 in different cases. Hence means of dis-
criminating the probable value of f are necessary in using the equa-
tions for practical purposes. To a certain extent the knowledge that
f decreases with the size of the pipe and increases very much with
the roughness of its surface is a guide, and Darcy's method of deal-
ing with these causes of variation is very helpful. But a further
difficulty arises from the discordance of the results of different ex-
periments. For instance F. P. Stearns and J. M. Gale both experi-
mented on clean asphalted cast-iron pipes, 4 ft. in diameter. Ac-
cording to one set of gaugings f =-0051, and according to the other
f = -0031. It is impossible in such cases not to suspect some error in
the observations or some difference in the condition of the pipes not
noticed by the observers.
It is not likely that any formula can be found which will give
exactly the discharge of any given pipe. For one of the chief factors
in any such formula must express the exact roughness of the pipe
surface, and there is no scientific measure of roughness. The most
that can be done is to limit the choice of the coefficient for a pipe
within certain comparatively narrow limits. The experiments on
fluid friction show that the power of the velocity to which the
resistance is proportional is not exactly the square. Also in deter-
mining the form of his equation for f Darcy used only eight out of his
seventeen series of experiments, and there is reason to think that some
of these were exceptional. Barre de Saint- Venant was the first to
propose a formula with two constants,
where m and n are experimental constants. If this is written in the
form
log m+n log » = log (dh/ql),
we have, as Saint- Venant pointed out, the equation to a straight
line, of which m is the ordinate at the origin and n the ratio of the
slope. If a series of experimental values are plotted logarithmically
the determination of the constants is reduced to finding the straight
line which most nearly passes through the plotted points. Saint-
Venant found for n the value of 1-71. In a memoir on the influence
of temperature on the movement of water in pipes (Berlin, 1854) by
G. H. L. Hagen (1797-1884) another modification of the Saint- Venant
formula was given. This is h/l = mvn/d', which involves three ex-
perimental coefficients. Hagen found w=i-75; x =1-25; and m
was then nearly independent of variations of v and a. But the range
of cases examined was small. In a remarkable paper in the Trans.
Roy. Soc., 1883, Professor Osborne Reynolds made much clearer the
change from regular stream line motion at low velocities to the
eddying motion, which occurs in almost all the cases with which the
engineer has to deal. Partly by reasoning, partly by induction
from the form of logarithmically plotted curves of experimental
results, he arrived at the general equation h/l = c(vn/d3~n)P2~n,
where n = I for low velocities and n = I -7 to 2 for ordinary velocities.
P is a function of the temperature. Neglecting variations of tempera-
ture Reynold's formula is identical with Hagen's if # = 3-71. For
practical purposes Hagen's form is the more convenient.
Values of Index of Velocity.
Surface of Pipe.
Authority.
Diameter
of Pipe
in Metres.
Values of n.
Tin plate .
Bossut .
I -036
1 -054
'^H 1-72
•730) '
Wrought iron (gas 1
pipe) J
Hamilton Smith
i-oisg
•0267
•756 1 _,
•770 r x 75
•014
•866"
Lead ....
Darcy .
•027
•755
n-77
•041
•760
Clean brass
Mair
•036
•795
1-795
f
Hamilton Smith
f -0266
•760!
Asphalted . . -|
Lampe .
W. W. Bonn .
•4i85
1 -306
•850
•582
> I-85
I
Stearns .
U-2I9
•880
Riveted wrought \
iron
Hamilton Smith
f -2776
i -3219
•804'
•892
>• 1-87
1 '3749
•852j
Wrought iron (gas 1
pipe) f
Darcy .
f -0122
\ -0266
•900
•899
1-87
I '0395
•838
f -0819
•950
New cast iron
Darcy . . .
•137
1 -188
•923
•957
1-95
I -50
•95°
r -0364
•835'
Cleaned cast iron .
Darcy .
1 -0801
1 -2447
2-OOO
2-000
y 2-OO
I -397
2-07 .
f -°359
I -980]
Incrusted cast iron
Darcy
i -0795
I -990!- 2-OO
I -2432
i-99oj
62
HYDRAULICS
[STEADY FLOW IN PIPES
2-9
1-0
FIG. 83.
In 1886, Professor W C. Unwin plotted logarithmically all the
most trustworthy experiments on flow in pipes then available.1
F'g- 83 gives one such plotting. The results of measuring the slopes
of the lines drawn through the plotted points are given in the
table.
It will be seen that the values of the index n range from 1-72 for
the smoothest and cleanest surface, to 2-00 for the roughest. The
numbers after the brackets are rounded off numbers.
The value of n having been thus determined, values of m/d* were
next found and averaged for each pipe. These were again plotted
logarithmically in order to find a value for x. The lines were not
very regular, but in all cases the slope was greater than i to I, so
that the value of x must be greater than unity. The following table
gives the results and a comparison of the value of * and Reynolds's
value 3-n.
Kind of Pipe.
n
3-n
X
Tin plate ....
•72
•28
•100
Wrought iron (Smith).
Asphalted pipes
Wrought iron (Darcy) .
•75
•85
•87
•25
•'5
-I3
•2IO
•127
•680
Riveted wrought iron .
•87
•13
•390
New cast iron .
•95
•°5
•168
Cleaned cast iron .
2-OO
•oo
•168
Incrusted cast iron
2-OO
•00
•160
With the exception of the anomalous values for Darcy's wrought-
iron pipes, there is no great discrepancy between the values of * and
3-n, but there is no appearance of relation in the two quantities.
For the present it appears preferable to assume that x is independent
of n.
It is now possible to obtain values of the third constant m, using
the values found for n and x. The following table gives the results,
the values of m being for metric measures.
1 " Formulae for the Flow of Water in Pipes," Industries (Man-
chester, 1886).
Here, considering the great range of diameters and velocities in
the experiments, the constancy of m is very satisfactorily close.
The asphalted pipes give lather variable values. But, as some of
these were new and some old, the variation is, perhaps, not surprising.
The incrusted pipes give a value of m quite double that for new pipes
but that is perfectly consistent with what is known of fluid friction
in other cases.
Kind of Pipe.
Diameter
in
Metres.
Value of
m.
Mean
Value
of m.
Authority.
Tin plate
(-0-036
\o-054
•016971
•01676.1
•01686
Bossut
Wrought iron
{0-016
0-027
•013021
•01319;
•01310
Hamilton Smith
{0-027
•01749-1
Hamilton Smith
0-306
•02058
W. W. Bonn
Asphalted
pipes
0-306
0-419
•02107 1
•01650 r
VV. W. Bonn
Lampe
1-219
•01317
Stearns
1-219
•02107 J
Gale
{0-278
•01370-,
Riveted
0-322
•01440
wrought iron
0-375
0-432
•01390 \-
•oi,V>,S
•01403
Hamilton Smith
0-657
•01448 J
r 0-082
•01725]
New cast iron
J 0-137
1 0-188
•01427 L
•01734
•01658
Darcv
Lo-soo
•01745 J
Cleaned cast
iron
1 0-080
1 0-245
•01979
•02091 f
•01994
Darcy
10-297
•01913=;
Incrusted cast
iron
(0-036
•j 0-080
•03693]
•03530 Y
•03643
Darcy
[0-243
•03706 J
STEADY FLOW IN PIPES]
HYDRAULICS
General Mean Values of Constants.
The general formula (Hagen's) — h/l=*mvn/dI.2g — can therefore be
taken to fit the results with convenient closeness, if the following
mean values of the coefficients are taken, the unit being a metre: —
Kind of Pipe.
m
X
n
Tin plate ....
Wrought iron
Asphalted iron .
Riveted wrought iron .
New cast iron .
Cleaned cast iron
Incrusted cast iron
•0169
•0131
•0183
•0140
•0166
•0199
•0364
•10
•21
•127
•390
•168
•168
•160
•72
•75
•85
•87
•95
2-O
2-0
The variation of each of these coefficients is within a comparatively
narrow range, and the selection of the proper coefficient for any given
case presents no difficulty, if the character of the surface of the pipe
is known.
It only remains to give the values of these coefficients when the
quantities are expressed in English feet. For English measures the
following are the values of the coefficients : —
Kind of Pipe.
m
X
n
Tin plate ....
•0265
I-IO
•72
Wrought iron
•0226
•21
•75
Asphalted iron .
•0254
•127
•»5
Riveted wrought iron .
•0260
•390
-87
New cast iron .
•0215
•168
•95
Cleaned cast iron .
•0243
•168
2-O
Incrusted cast iron
•0440
•160
2-0
§ 78. Distribution of Velocity in the Cross Section of a Pipe. — Darcy
made experiments with a Pilot tube in 1850 on the velocity at
different points in the cross section of a pipe. He deduced the
relation
where V is the velocity at the centre and v the velocity at radius r in
a pipe of radius R with a hydraulic gradient i. Later Bazin repeated
the experiments and extended them (Mem. de I' Academic des Sciences,
xxxii. No. 6). The most important result was the ratio of mean to
central velocity. Let 6 = Rz'/U2, where U is the mean velocity in the
pipe; then V/U = I +9-03 V 6. A very useful result for practical
purposes is that at 0-74 of the radius of the pipe the velocity is equal
to the mean velocity. Fig. 84 gives the velocities at different radii
as determined by Bazin.
§ 79. Influence of Temperature on the Flow through Pipes. — Very
careful experiments on the flow through a pipe 0-1236 ft. in diameter
This shows a marked decrease of resistance as the temperature
rises. If Professor Osborne Reynolds's equation is assumed
h = mLV"/d3~", and n is taken 1-795, tnen values of m at each
temperature are practically constant —
Temp. F.
57
70
£
90
0-000276
0-000263
0-000257
0-000250
Temp. F.
100
no
1 20
13°
160
m.
0-000244
0-000235
0-000229
0-000225
0-000206
where again a regular decrease of the coefficient occurs as the
temperature rises. In experiments on the friction of disks at
different temperatures Professor W. C. Unwin found that the re-
sistance was proportional to constant X (I-O-OO2U) and the values
of m given above are expressed almost exactly by the relation
In tank experiments on ship models for small ordinary variations
of temperature, it is usual to allow a decrease of 3 % of resistance for
10° F. increase of temperature.
§ 80. Influence of Deposits in Pipes on the Discharge. Scraping
Water Mains. — The influence of the condition of the surface of a pipe
on the friction is shown by various facts known to the engineers of
waterworks. In pipes which convey certain kinds of water, oxidation
proceeds rapidly and the discharge is considerably diminished. A
main laid at Torquay in 1858, 14 m. in length, consists of lo-in., 9-in.
and 8-in. pipes. It was not protected from corrosion by any coating.
But it was found to the surprise of the engineer that in eight years
the discharge had diminished to 51 % of the original discharge.
J. G. Appold suggested an apparatus for scraping the interior of the
pipe, and this was constructed and used under the direction of
William Froude (see " Incrustation of Iron Pipes," by W. Ingham,
Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng., 1899). It was found that by scraping the
interior of the pipe the discharge was increased 56 %. The scraping
requires to be repeated at intervals. After each scraping the dis-
charge diminishes rather rapidly to 10% and afterwards more
slowly, the diminution in a year being about 25 %.
Fig. 85 shows a scraper for water mains, similar to Appold's but
modified in details, as constructed by the Glenfield Company, at
Kilmarnock. A is a longitudinal section of the pipe, showing the
scraper in place; B is an end view of the plungers, and C, D sections
of the boxes placed at intervals on the main for introducing or with-
drawing the scraper. The apparatus consists of two plungers,
packed with leather so as to fit the main pretty closely. On the
spindle of these plungers are fixed eight steel scraping blades, with
curved scraping edges fitting the surface of the main. The apparatus
is placed in the main by removing the cover from one of the boxes
shown at C, D. The cover is then replaced, water pressure is ad-
mitted behind the plungers, and the apparatus driven through the
FIG. 84.
and 25 ft. long, with water at different temperatures, have been
made by J. G. Mair (Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng. Ixxxiv.). The loss of head
was measured from a point I ft. from the inlet, so that the loss at
entry was eliminated. The if in. pipe was made smooth inside and
to gauge, by drawing a mandril through it. Plotting the results
logarithmically, it was found that the resistance for all temperatures
varied very exactly as p1'795, the index being less than 2 as in
other experiments with very smooth surfaces. Taking the ordinary
equation of flow A = f(4L/p)(f2/2g), then for heads varying from I ft.
to nearly 4 ft., and velocities in the pipe varying from 4 ft. to 9 ft. per
second, the values of f were as follows: —
Temp. F.
57
70
80
90
f
•0044 to -0052
•0042 to -0045
•0041 to -0045
•0040 to -0045
Temp. F.
100
no
1 20
130
160
f
•0039 to
•0037 to
•0037 to
•0035 to
•0035 to
•0042
•0041
•0041
•0039
•0038
FIG. 85. Scale ^E.
main. At Lancaster after twice scraping the discharge was increased
56f %, at Oswestry 545%. The increased discharge is due to the
diminution of the friction of the pipe by removing the roughnesses
due to oxidation. The scraper can be easily followed when the mains
are about 3 ft. deep by the noise it ma,kes. The average speed of the
scraper at Torquay is 2f m. per hour. At Torquay 49 % of the
deposit is iron rust, the rest being silica, lime and organic matter.
In the opinion of some engineers it is inadvisable to use the
scraper. The incrustation is only temporarily removed, and if the
use of the scraper is continued the life of the pipe is reduced. The
only treatment effective in preventing or retarding the incrustation
due to corrosion is to coat the pipes when hot with a smooth and
perfect layer of pitch. With certain waters such as those derived
from the chalk the incrustation is of a different character, consisting
of nearly pure calcium carbonate. A deposit of another character
which has led to trouble in some mains is a black slime containing a
good deal of iron not derived from the pipes. It appears to be an
64
HYDRAULICS
[STEADY FLOW IN PIPES
organic growth. Filtration of the water appears to prevent the
growth of the slime, and its temporary removal may be effected by
a kind of brush scraper devised by G. F. Deacon (see " Deposits in
Pipes," by Professor J. C. Campbell Brown, Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng.,
1903-1904).
§ 81. Flow of Water through Fire Hose. — The hose pipes used for
fire purposes are of very varied character, and the roughness of the
surface varies. Very careful experiments have been made by J. R.
Freeman (Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. xxi., 1889). It was noted that under
pressure the diameter of the hose increased sufficiently to have a
marked influence on the discharge. In reducing the results the true
diameter has been taken. Let i> = mean velocity in ft. per sec.;
r = hydraulic mean radius or one-fourth the diameter in feet; «' =
hydraulic gradient. Then v = «V (»•*')•
Diameter
in
Inches.
Gallons
(United
States)
per min.
i
t>
n
Solid rubber (
2-65
215
•1863
12-50
123-3
hose \
344
•4714
20-00
124-0
Woven cotton, <
2-47
200
•2464
13-40
119-1
rubber lined <
299
•5269
20-00
121-5
Woven cotton, (
2-49
200
•2427
13-20
117-7
rubber lined (
319
•5708
21-00
I22-I
Knit cotton, (
2-68
132
•0809
7-50
III-6
rubber lined <
p_
299
•3931
I7-OO
II4-8
Knit cotton, (
2-69
204
•2357
11-50
100- 1
rubber lined (
319
•5165
18-00
105-8
Woven cotton, 5
2-12
154
•3448
14-00
"3-4
rubber lined (
,,
240
•7673
2I-8I
118-4
Woven cotton, 5
2-53
54-8
•0261
3-50
94'3
rubber lined (
298
•8264
19-00
91-0
Unlined linen (
2-60
57-9
•0414
3-50
73-9
hose
••
331
1-1624
2O-OO
79-6
| 82. Reduction of a Long Pipe of Varying Diameter to an Equivalent
Pipe of Uniform Diameter. Dupuit's Equation. — Water mains for
the supply of towns often consist of a series of lengths, the diameter
being the same for each length, but differing from length to length.
In approximate calculations of the head lost in such mains, it is
generally accurate enough to neglect the smaller losses of head
and to have regard to the pipe friction only, and then the calcula-
tions may be facilitated by reducing the main to a main of uniform
diameter, in which there would be the same loss of head. Such a
uniform main will be termed an equivalent main.
I*
FIG. 86.
In fig. 86 let A be the main of variable diameter, and B the equiva-
lent uniform main. In the given main of variable diameter A, let
/i, It... be the lengths,
di, dt... the diameters,
»i, vt... the velocities,
ii, it... the slopes,
for the successive portions, and let /, d, v and i be corresponding
quantities for the equivalent uniform main B. The total loss of
head in A due to friction is
and in the uniform main
If the mains are equivalent, as defined above,
t(*-4l/2gd) = fW-4ltl2gdt) + tW-4l,/2
But, since the discharge is the same for all portions,
i = vd*/di* ; v, =
Also suppose that f may be treated as constant for all the pipes.
Then
l/d - (d
...
which gives the length of the equivalent uniform main which would
have the same total loss of head for any given discharge.
§ 83. Other Losses of Head in Pipes. — Most of the losses of head in
pipes, other than that due to surface friction against the pipe, are due
to abrupt changes in the velocity of the stream producing eddies.
The kinetic energy of these is deducted from the general energy of
translation, and practically wasted.
Sudden Enlargement of Section. — Suppose a pipe enlarges in section
from an area at, to an area u>i (fig.
87) ; then
or, if the section is circular,
The head lost at the abrupt change
of velocity has already been
shown to be the head due to the
relative velocity of the two parts
of the stream. Hence head lost
f).= (»0 — fl)2/2g= (ui/WO — l)W/2g =
or fy«'~ f<Pi*/2g,
if f« is put for the expression in brackets.
FIG. 87.
(I)
«!/"*> =
i.i
1.2
i-S
'•7
1.8
1-9
2.O
2-5
3-0
3-5
4-0
5-0
6.0
7-o
S.o
d,/do =
1.05
Z.IO
1.22
1.3°
1-34
1.38
I.4I
1.58
1-73
1.87
2.00
2.24
2-45
2.65
2.83
f.=
.ox
.04
•25
•49
•64
.81
I.OO
2.25
4.00
6.25
9.OO
16.00
25.00
36.0
4g.o
Abrupt Contraction of Section. — When water passes from a larger
to a smaller section, as in figs. 88, 89, a contraction is formed, and
the contracted stream abruptly expands to fill the section of the pipe.
FIG. 88.
FIG. 89.
Let a be the section and v the velocity of the stream at bb. At aa
the section will be cca, and the velocity (a/Ccu)v = v/Ci, where cc is
the coefficient of contraction. Then the head lost is
and, if ce is taken 0-64,
The value of the coefficient of contraction for this case is, however,
not well ascertained, and the result is somewhat modified by friction.
For water entering a cylindrical, not bell-mouthed, pipe from a
reservoir of indefinitely large size, experiment gives
$.= 0-505 *l2g. (3)
If there is a diaphragm at the mouth of the pipe as in fig. 89, let ui
be the area of this orifice. Then the area of the contracted stream
i, and the head lost is
(4)
if f, is put for ((w/Ce«i) — l)2. Weisbach has found experimentally
the following values of the coefficient, when the stream approaching
the orifice was considerably larger than the orifice : —
001/OJ =
O.I
0.2
0.3
0.4
0-5
0.6
0-7
0.8
0-9
I.O
C,=
.616
.614
.612
.610
.617
.605
.603
.601
-598
.596
f.=
231.7
50-99
19.78
0.612
5.256
3-077
1.876
1.169
0-734
0.480
When a diaphragm was placed in a tube of uniform section (fig. 90)
FIG. 90.
the following values were obtained,
and u that of the pipe : —
being the area of the orifice
Wl/U) =
O.I
O.2
0-3
0.4
o.S
0.6
o-7
0.8
0-9
I.O
c.=
.624
-632
•643
•659
.681
.712
• 755
.813
.892
I.OO
{.=
235.9
47-77
30.83
7.801
I -753
1.796
• 797
.290
.060
.000
STEADY FLOW IN PIPES]
HYDRAULICS
Elbows. — Weisbach considers the loss of head at elbows (fig. 91)
to be due to a contraction formed by the stream. From experiments
with a pipe I J in. diameter, he found the loss of head
\, = !j?l2g; (5)
f. = 0-9457 si
<t> —
r«-
0.046
0.139
0.364
0.740
0.984
1.260
i.ss*
1.861
2.158
3.431
Hence at a right-angled elbow the whole head due to the velocity
very nearly is lost.
Bends. — Weisbach traces the loss of head at curved bends to a
similar cause to that at
elbows, but the coeffi-
cients for bends are not
very satisfactorily ascer-
tained. Weisbach ob-
tained for the loss of
head at a bend in a pipe
of circular section
(6)
FIG. 91.
where d is the diameter
of the pipe and p the
radius of curvature of
the bend. The resistance
at bends is small and at present very ill determined.
Valves, Cocks and Sluices. — These produce a contraction of the
. water-stream, similar to that for an abrupt
diminution of section already discussed. The
loss of head may be taken as before to be
where v is the velocity in the pipe beyond the valve
and f, a coefficient determined by experiment. The
following are Weisbach's results.
Sluice in Pipe of Rectangular Section (fig. 92).
Section at sluice =o>i in pipe=w.
_
<IG. 92.
OJl/OJ =
r.=
I-O
o-oo
0-9
•09
0-8
•39
0-7
•95
0-6
2-08
o-5
4-02
0-4
8-12
o-3
17-8
O-2
44'5
O-I
193
Sluice in Cylindrical Pipe (fig. 93).
Ralio of height of)
opening to diameter ^
of pipe J
I.O
i
1
J
i
J
i
i
Wl/GJ =
I.OO
0.948
.856
.740
.609
.466
•315
• 159
r» =
0.00
0.07
0.26
0.81
2.06
5-5»
17.0
97.8
FIG. 93. FIG. 94.
Cock in a Cylindrical Pipe (fig. 94). Angle through which cock
is turned =8.
e =
5°
10°
15°
20°
25°
3°°
35°
Ratio of "I
cross >
•926
•850
•772
•692
•613
•535
•458
sections J
f.=
•05
•29
•75
I-56
3-10
5-47
9-68
9 =
40°
45°
50°
55°
60°
65°
82°
Ratio of ]
cross >-
•385
•315
•250
•190
•137
•091
0
sections J
r. =
17-3
31-2
52-6
1 06
206
486
00
Throttle Valve in a Cylindrical Pipe (fig. 95).
0 =
r.-
5°
•24
10°
•52
15°
•90
20°
i-54
25°
2-51
30°
3-91
35°
6-22
40°
10-8
0 =
r»=
45°
18-7
50°
32-6
55°
58-8
60°
118
65°
256
?o°
75i
90°
CO
e
A.
§ 84. Practical Calculations on, the Flow of Water in Pipes. — In
the following explanations it will be assumed that the pipe is of so
great a length that only the
loss of head in friction against ,-•"'
the surface of the pipe needs
to be considered. In general
it is one of the four quantities
d, i, v or Q which requires
to be determined. For since
the loss of head h is given by
the relation h = U, this need
not be separately considered. FIG. 95.
There are then three equa-
tions (see eq. 4, § 72, and ga, § 76) for the solution of such problems
as arise : —
f = o(i+i/i2d); (i)
where 0 = 0-005 f°r new and = o-oi for incrusted pipes.
&l2g = \di. (2)
Q = l«ft». (3)
Problem I. Given the diameter of the pipe and its virtual slope,
to find the discharge and velocity of flow. Here d and i are given,
and Q and v are required. Find f from (i); then v from (2); lastly
Q from (3). This case presents no difficulty.
By combining equations (i) and (2), v is obtained directly: —
»=V (gdi/2f) =V (g/2a)V[<K/|i + i/i2<*l ]. (4)
For new pipes . . . V (g/2a) =56-72
Forjncrusted pipes . . =40-13
For pipes not less than I, or more than 4 ft. in diameter, the
mean values of f are
For new pipes ...... 0-00526
For incrusted pipes ..... 0-01052.
Using these values we get the very simple expressions —
» = 55-3I V (<**') for new pipes ) (40)
= 39-iiV (di) for incrusted pipes) '
Within the limits stated, these are accurate enough for practical
purposes, especially as the precise value of the coefficient f cannot
be known for each special case.
Problem 2. Given the diameter of a pipe and the velocity of flow,
to find the virtual slope and discharge. The discharge is given by
(3); the proper value of f by (i); and the virtual slope by (2).
This also presents no special difficulty.
Problem 3. Given the diameter of the pipe and the discharge, to
find the virtual slope and velocity. Find v from (3); f from (i);
lastly i from (2). If we combine (i) and (2) we get
i=f(n2/2g) (4/<Z)=2a{l+I/I2<Z}Wg<*; (5)
and, taking the mean values of f for pipes from i to 4 ft. diameter,
given above, the approximate formulae are
1 = 0-0003268 v^/d for new pipes (50)
= 0-0006536 if jd for incrusted pipes ) •
Problem 4. Given the virtual slope and the velocity, to find the
diameter of the pipe and the discharge. The diameter is obtained
from equations (2) and (i), which give the quadratic expression
d1—d(2a.v1lgi) —avi/6gi = o.
.'. d = ai^/gt+V ( (aoVgi) (a»>/gt + 1/6)}. (6)
For practical purposes, the approximate equations
(6a)
= 0-00031 D2/i + -o83 for new pipes
= 0-00062 !)2/i+-o83 for incrusted pipes
are sufficiently accurate.
Problem 5. Given the virtual slope and the discharge, to find the
diameter of the pipe and velocity of flow. This case, which often
occurs in designing, is the one which is least easy of direct solution.
From equations (2) and (3) we get —
d5 = 32fQV«ir«i. (7)
If now the value of f in (i) is introduced, the equation becomes very
cumbrous. Various approximate methods of meeting the difficulty
may be used.
(a) Taking the mean values of f given above for pipes of I to 4
ft. diameter we get
d = V(32f/gis)V(QVO (8)
=0-2216 V (Q2/J) for new pipes
= 0-2541 V (Q2/*) for incrusted pipes;
equations which are interesting as showing that when the value of
f is doubled the diameter of pipe for a given discharge is only in-
creased by 13 %.
xiv. 3
66
HYDRAULICS
[STEADY FLOW IN PIPES
(b) A second method is to obtain a rough value of dby assuming
= o. This value is
= 06319 V(QV*)Va.
Then a very approximate value of f is
and a revised value of d, not sensibly differing from the exact value,
is '
d' = V teff/gT^V f ' =0-6319 V (QVi)V f-
(c) Equation 7 may be put in the
form
<i = V(32oQ2/gir!»)V (l+l/i2<i). (9) .... _.»_ .g=
Expanding the term in brackets, ^-^^zjjpi^
if the average demand is 25 gallons per head per day, the mains
should be calculated for 50 gallons per head per day.
§ 86. Determination of the Diameters of Different Parts of a Water
Main.— When the plan of the arrangement of mains is determined
upon, and the supply to each locality and the pressure required is
ascertained, it remains to determine the diameters of the pipes. Let
fig- 97 show an elevation of a main ABCD..., R being the reservoir
from which the supply is derived. Let NN be the datum line of the
levelling operations, and Ho, H&...the heights of the main above
the datum line, Hr being the height of the water surface in the
Neglectingthe terms afterthesecond,
and
V(32a/gTs)V(Q2/t)+o.oi667;(9a)
*.
•^••--p ^ 8.r..v<;.
JPreiitm^ _Jjai>^._
V(32a/gT2) =0-219 for new pipes
=0-252 forincrusted pipes.
§ 85. Arrangement of Water Mains
for Towns' Supply. — Town mains are
usually supplied by gravitation from
a service reservoir, which in turn is
supplied by gravitation from a storage reservoir or by pumping
from a lower level. The service reservoir should contain three
days' supply or in important cases much more. Its elevation
should be such that water is delivered at a pressure of at least about
100 ft. to the highest parts of the district. The greatest pressure in
the mains is usually about 200 ft., the pressure for which ordinary
pipes and fittings are designed. Hence if the district supplied has
FIG. 96.
great variations of level it must be divided into zones of higher and
lower pressure. Fig. 96 shows a district of two zones each with its
service reservoir and a range of pressure in the lower district from
100 to 200 ft. The total supply required is in England about 25
gallons per head per day. But in many towns, and especially in
America, the supply is considerably greater, but also in many cases
FIG. 98.
reservoir from the same datum. Set'up next heights AAi, BBi,...
representing the minimum pressure height necessary for the adequate
supply of each locality. Then AiBiQDi... is a line which should
form a lower limit to the line of virtual slope. Then if heights
f)a, I)&, f)e... are taken representing the actual losses of head in each
length /„, lb, lc— of the main, AoBoCo will be the line of virtual
slope, and it will be obvious at what points such as Do and E0, the
pressure is deficient, and a different choice of diameter of main is
required. For any point z in the length of the main, we have
Pressure height = Hr - H, - ($„ +t)b +.. .$,)•
Where no other circumstance limits the loss of head to be assigned
to a given length of main, a consideration of the safety of the main
from fracture by hydraulic shock leads to a limitation of the velocity
of flow. Generally the velocity in water mains lies between ij and
4} ft. per second. Occasionally the velocity in pipes reaches 10 ft.
per second, and in hydraulic machinery working under enormous
pressures even 20 ft. per second. Usually the velocity diminishes
along the main as the discharge diminishes, so as to reduce somewhat
the total loss of head which is liable to render the pressure insufficient
at the end of the main.
J. T. Fanning gives the following velocities as suitable in pipes
for towns' supply : —
Diameter in inches . . . 4 8 12 1 8 24 30 36
Velocity in feet per sec. . . 2-5 3-0 3-5 4-5 5-3 6-2 7-0
§ 87. Branched Pipe connecting Reservoirs at Different Levels. — Let
A, B, C (fig. 98) be three reservoirs connected by the arrangement of
Cipes shown, — /i, d\, Qi, »i; k, dt, Qi, fa; h, da, Qa, »> being the
?ngth, diameter, discharge and velocity in the three portions of
the main pipe. Suppose the dimensions and positions of the pipes
known and the discharges required.
If a pressure column is introduced at X, the water will rise to a
height XR, measuring the pressure at X, and oR, Rft, Re will be the
lines of virtual slope. If the free surface level at R is above b, the
reservoir A supplies B and C, and if
R is below 6, A and B supply C.
Consequently there are three cases: —
I. R above 6; Qi = Qi+Q».
II. R level with 6; Qi = Q3; Q2 = o.
III. R below 6; Qi+Qi = Q>.
To determine which case has to be
dealt with in the given conditions,
suppose the pipe from X to B closed
by a sluice. Then there is a simple
main, and the height of free surface
V at X can be determined. For this
condition
FIG. 97.
a good deal of the supply is lost by leakage of the mains. The supply
through the branch mains of a distributing system is calculated from
the population supplied. But in determining; the capacity of the
mains the fluctuation of the demand must be allowed for. It is usual
to take the maximum demand at twice the average demand. Hence
where Q' is the common discharge
of the two portions of the pipe.
Hence
(*.-*')/(*'-*.) =W,«/W,«,
from which h' is easily obtained. If then h' is greater than hb,
opening the sluice between X and B will allow flow towards B, and
the case in hand is case I. If h' is less than hb, opening the sluice
will allow flow from B, and the case is case III. If h' = ht, the case
is case II., and is already completely solved.
COMPRESSIBLE FLUIDS IN PIPES]
HYDRAULICS
67
The true value of h must lie between h' and hi,. Choose a new
value of h, and recalculate Qi, Q2, Qa- Then if
Qi>Q2+Qa [n case I.,
or Qi+Q2>Us in case III.,
the value chosen for h is too small, and a new value must be chosen.
If
8i<Q,2+Qs in case I.,
i+Q2<Q3 in case III.,
the value of h is too great.
Since the limits between which h can vary are in practical cases not
very distant, it is easy to approximate to values sufficiently accurate.
§ 88. Water Hammer. — If in a pipe through which water is flowing
a sluice is suddenly closed so as to arrest the forward movement of
the water, there is a rise of pressure which in some cases is serious
enough to burst the pipe. This action is termed water hammer or
water ram. The fluctuation of pressure is an oscillating one and
gradually dies out. Care is usually taken that sluices should only be
closed gradually and then the effect is inappreciable. Very careful
experiments on water hammer were made by N. J. Joukowsky at
Moscow in 1898 (Stoss in Wasserleitungen, St Petersburg, 1900), and
the results are generally confirmed by experiments made by E. B.
Weston and R. C. Carpenter in America. Joukowsky used pipes,
2, 4 and 6 in. diameter, from 1000 to 2500 ft. in length. The sluice
closed in 0-03 second, and the fluctuations of pressure were auto-
matically registered. The maximum excess pressure due to water-
hammer action was as follows : —
Pipe 4-in. diameter.
Pipe 6-in. diameter.
Velocity
ft. per sec.
Excess Pressure.
Ib per sq. in.
Velocity
ft. per sec.
Excess Pressure.
Ib per sq. in.
o-5
2-9
4'i
9-2
31
1 68
232
519
0-6
3-o
5'6
7-5
43
173
369
426
In some cases, in fixing the thickness of water mains, 100 Ib per sq. in.
excess pressure is allowed to cover the effect of water hammer.
With the velocities usual in water mains, especially as no valves can
be quite suddenly closed, this appears to be a reasonable allowance
(see also Carpenter, Am. Soc. Mech. Eng., 1893).
IX. FLOW OF COMPRESSIBLE FLUIDS IN PIPES
§ 89. Flow of Air in Long Pipes.— When air flows through a long
pipe, by far the greater part of the work expended is used in over-
coming frictional resistances due to the surface of the pipe. The
work expended in friction generates heat, which for the most part
must be developed in and given back to the air. Some heat may
be transmitted through the sides of the pipe to surrounding materials,
but in experiments hitherto made the amount so conducted away
appears to be very small, and if no heat is transmitted the air in the
tube must remain sensibly at the same temperature during expansion.
In other words, the expansion may be regarded as isothermal
expansion, the heat generated by friction exactly neutralizing the
cooling due to the work done. Experiments on the pneumatic tubes
used for the transmission of messages, by R. S. Culley and R. Sabine
(Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng. xliii.), show that the change of temperature of
the air flowing along the tube is much less than it would be in adia-
batic expansion.
§ 90. Differential Equation of the Steady Motion of Air Flowing in
a Long Pipe of Uniform Section. — When air expands at a constant
absolute temperature T, the relation between the pressure p in
pounds per square foptjand the density or weight per cubic foot G
is given by the equation
P/G = cr, (i)
where c = 53- 1 5. Taking r = 52 1 , corresponding to a temperature of
60° Fahr.,
cr =27690 foot-pounds. (2)
The equation of continuity, which expresses the condition that in
steady motion the same weight of fluid, W, must pass through each
cross section of the stream in
. the unit of time, is
GBw = W = constant, (3)
where Q is the section of the
pipe and « the velocity of
the air. Combining (l) and
(3),
QupfW = cr = constant. (30)
Since the work done by
gravity on the air during its
now through a pipe due to
--AI ...»
|
—air— —*
A'0
FIG. 99.
variations of its level is generally small compared with the work
done by changes of pressure, the former may in many cases be
neglected.
Consider a short length dl of the pipe limited by sections Ao, Ai at
a distance dl (fig. 99). Let p, u be the pressure and velocity at Ao,
p-\-dp and u-\-du those at Ai. Further, suppose that in a very short
time dt the mass of air between AoAi comes to A'oA'i so that AoA'o =
udt and AiA'i = (u-\-du)dk. Let J2 be the section, and m the hydraulic
mean radius of the pipe, and W the weight of air flowing through the
pipe per second.
From the steadiness of the motion the weight of air between the
sections AoA'o, and AiA'i is the same. That is,
Wdt = Gtiudt = Gfl(« +du)dt.
By analogy with liquids the head lost in friction is, for the length
dl (see § 72, eq. 3), £(u?/2g)(dl/m). Let H=w2/2g. Then the head
lost is f(H/m)dl; and, since Vfdt Ib of air flow through the
pipe in the time considered, the work expended in friction is
— f(H/m)Wd/ dt. The change of kinetic energy in dt seconds is the
difference of the kinetic energy of AoA'o and AiA'i, that is,
(W/g)<fc((«-Nw)2-tt2|/2 = (W/g) udu dt = WdUdt.
The work of expansion when Sludt_ cub. ft. of air at a pressure
p expand to tt(u+du)dt cub. ft. is Qpdudt. But from (30)
, and therefore
And the work done by expansion is — (crW /p)dp dt.
The work done by gravity on the mass between Ao and Ai is zero
if the pipe is horizontal, and may in other cases be neglected without
great error. The work of the pressures at the sections AoAi is
pQudt- (p+dp)tt(u+du)dt
= -(pdu+udp)Qdt.
But from (30)
pu = constant,
and the work of the pressures is zero. Adding together the quantities
of work, and equating them to the change of kinetic energy,
VldHdt = - (crMV/p)dp dt - t(H/m)Wdl dt
/p)dp
But
and
tt=CTW/np,
e2T2W2
(4)
(40)
For tubes of uniform section m is constant; for steady motion W
is constant ; and for isothermal expansion T is constant. Integrating,
log H-t-gn2p2/W2CT+#/m = constant; (5)
for l = o, let H =Ho, and p = p»;
and for / = /, let H = Hi, and p = pi.
log (Hi/H
-p<?)+tl/m=>o.. (50)
where pa is the greater pressure and pi the less, and the flow is from
AO towards AI.
By replacing W and H,
Hence the initial velocity in the pipe is
When I is great, log po/pi is comparatively small, and then
«o = V [(sCTm/?ty\(pt?~ pt*)lp<i*\\' (7°)
a very simple and easily used expression. For pipes of circular
section m=d/$, where d is the diameter: —
or approximately
§ 91. Coefficient of Friction for Air. — A discussion by Professor
Unwin of the experiments by Culley and Sabine on the rate of
transmission of light carriers through pneumatic tubes, in which
there is steady flow of air not sensibly affected by any resistances
other than surface friction, furnished the value f=-oo7. The pipes
were lead pipes, slightly moist, 2% in. (0-187 ft-) ln diameter, and in
lengths of 2000 to nearly 6000 ft.
In some experiments on the flow of air through cast-iron pipes
A. Arson found the coefficient of friction to vary with the velocity and
diameter of the pipe. Putting
.. __ , I p /0\
he obtained the following values —
Diameter of Pipe
in feet.
a
ft
f for 100 ft.
per second.
1-64
1-07
•83
•338
•266
•164
•OOI29
•00972
•01525
•03604
•03790
•04518
•00483
•00640
•00704
•00941
•00959
•01167
•00484
•00650
•00719
•00977
•00997
•OI2I2
It is worth while to try if these numbers can be expressed in the
form proposed by Darcy for water. For a velocity of 100 ft. per
second, and without much error for higher velocities, these numbers
agree fairly with the formula
f = 0-005(1 -f-3/lod), (9)
which only differs from Darcy's value for water in that the second
term, which is always small except for very small pipes, is larger.
68
HYDRAULICS
[FLOW IN RIVERS
Some later experiments on a very large scale, by E. Stockalper
at the St Gotthard Tunnel, agree better with the value
f = 0-0028(1 +3/iod).
These pipes were probably less rough than Arson's.
When the variation of pressure is very small, it is
neglect the variation of level of the pipe. For that
to
neglect the work done by expansion, and then
it is no longer safe
case we may
(//m)=o,
(10)
precisely equivalent to the equation for the flow of water, Zo and Zi
being the elevations of the two ends of the pipe above any datum,
pa and pi the pressures, Go and Gi the densities, and v the mean
velocity in the pipe. This equation may be used for the flow of
coal gas.
§ 92. Distribution of Pressure in a Pipe in which Air is Flowing. —
From equation (70) it results that the pressure p, at / ft. from that
end of the pipe where the pressure is pa, is
which is of the form
for any given pipe with given end pressures. The curve of free sur-
face level for the pipe is, therefore, a parabola with horizontal axis.
Fig. loo shows calculated curves of pressure for two of Sabine's
experiments, in one of which the pressure was greater than atmo-
,157*
2113-SFt.
FIG. ioo.
spheric pressure, and in the other less than atmospheric pressure.
The observed pressures are given in brackets and the calculated
pressures without brackets. The pipe was the pneumatic tube be-
tween Fenchurch Street and the Central Station, 2818 yds. in length.
The pressures are given in inches of mercury.
Variation of Velocity in the Pipe. — Let pn, «o be the pressure
and velocity at a given section of the pipe; p, u, the pressure and
velocity at any other section. From equation (30)
up = crW/p = constant ;
so that, for any given uniform pipe,
Up^Uepts,
u = u0po!p; (12)
which gives the velocity at any section in terms of the pressure,
which has already been determined. Fig. 101 gives the velocity
FIG. 101.
curves for the two experiments of Culley and Sabine, for which the
pressure curves have already been drawn. It will be seen that the
velocity increases considerably towards that end of the pipe where
the pressure is least.
§ 93- Weight of Air Flowing per Second. — The weight of air dis-
charged per second is (equation 30) —
From equation (76), for a pipe of circular section and diameter d,
W = 1*-V \gd*(p<?-pV/!lcT},
= -6iiV|d'(po2-pi2)/fH d3)
Approximately
W = (-6916ft, --4438ft) (d'/fr)}. (130)
§ 94. Application to the Case of Pneumatic Tubes for the Trans-
mission of Messages. — In Paris, Berlin, London, and other towns, it
has been found cheaper to transmit messages in pneumatic tubes
than to telegraph by electricity. The tubes are laid underground
with easy curves ; the messages are made into a roll and placed in
a light felt carrier, the resistance of which in the tubes in Lot.don
is only } oz. A current of air forced into the tube or drawn through
it propels the carrier. In most systems the current of air is steady
and continuous, and the carriers are introduced or removed without
materially altering the flow of air.
Time of Transit through the Tube. — Putting t for the time of transit
from o to /,
t= fal/u,
From (40) neglecting dH/H, and puttingj» = d/4,
From (l) and (3)
dl/u =
i— CP°
'";#
But
(14)
If T = 52i°, corresponding to 60° F.,
d5)
(151)
which gives the time of transmission in terms of the initial and final
pressures and the dimensions of the tube.
Mean Velocity of Transmission. — The mean velocity is ///; or, for
The following table gives some results : —
Absolute
Pressures in
Ib per sq. in.
Mean Velocities for Tubes of a
length in feet.
Pt
Pi
1000
2OOO
3000
4000
5000
Vacuum ( .
15
5
99-4
70-3
57-4
49-7
44'5
Working ( .
15
10
67-2
47-5
38-8
34-4
30-1
20
15
57-2
40-5
33-o
28-6
25-6
Working 1 •
25
3°
15
15
74-6
84-7
52-7
60-0
43-1
49-0
37-3
42-4
33-3
37-9
Limiting Velocity in the Pipe when the Pressure at one End is
diminished indefinitely. — If in the last equation there be put pi=o,
then
where the velocity is independent of the pressure pa at the other
end, a result which apparently must be absurd. Probably for long
pipes, as for orifices, there is a limit to the ratio of the initial and
terminal pressures for which the formula is applicable.
X. FLOW IN RIVERS AND CANALS
§ 95. Flow of Water in Open Canals and Rivers. — When water
flows in a pipe the section at any point is determined by the form
of the boundary. When it flows in an open channel with free upper
surface, the section depends on the velocity due to the dynamical
conditions.
Suppose water admitted to an unfilled canal. The channel will
gradually fill, the section and velocity at each point gradually
changing. But if the inflow to the canal at its head is constant,
the increase of cross section and diminution of velocity at each
point attain after a time a limit. Thenceforward the section and
velocity at each point are constant, and the motion is steady, or
permanent regime is established.
If when the motion is steady the sections of the stream are all
equal, the motion is uniform. By hypothesis, the inflow S2i> is con-
stant for all sections, and SI is constant; therefore v must be constant
also from section to section. The case is then one of uniform steady
motion. In most artificial channels the form of section is constant,
and the bed has a uniform slope. In that case the motion is uniform,
the depth is constant, and the stream surface is parallel to the bed.
If when steady motion is established the sections are unequal, the
motion is steady motion with varying velocity from section to
section. Ordinary rivers are in this condition, especially where the
flow is modified by weirs or obstructions. Short unobstructed
lengths of a river may be treated as of uniform section without great
error, the mean section in the length being put for the actual sections.
In all actual streams the different fluid filaments have different
velocities, those near the surface and centre moving faster than
those near the bottom and sides. The ordinary formulae for the
flow of streams rest on a hypothesis that this variation of velocity
may be neglected, and that all the filaments may be treated as having
a common velocity equal to the mean velocity of the stream. On
this hypothesis, a plane layer 0606 (fig. 102) between sections normal
AND CANALS]
HYDRAULICS
69
to the direction of motion is treated as sliding down the channel to
a'a'b'b' without deformation. The component of the weight parallel
to the channel bed balances the friction against the channel, and
in estimating the friction the velocity of rubbing is taken to be the
mean velocity of the stream. In actual streams, however, the
velocity of rubbing on which the friction depends is not the mean
variation of the coefficient of friction with the velocity, proposed an
expression of the form
r=od+0/t>), (5)
and from 255 experiments obtained for the constants the values
0 = 0-007409; # = 0-1920.
This gives the following values at different velocities: —
v =
r=
o-3
0-01215
o-5
0-01025
0-7
0-00944
i
0-00883
ll
0-00836
2
O-OO8I2
3
0-90788
5
0-00769
7
0-00761
10
0-00755
15
0-00750
velocity of the stream, and is not in any simple relation with it, for
channels of different forms. The
theory is therefore obviously based
on an imperfect hypothesis. How-
ever, by taking variable values for
the coefficient of friction, the errors
of the ordinary formulae are to a
great extent neutralized, and they
may be used without leading to
practical errors. Formulae have
been obtained based on less re-
stricted hypotheses, but at present they are not practically so
reliable, and are more complicated than the formulae obtained in
the manner described above.
§ 96. Steady Flow of Water with Uniform Velocity in 'Channels of
Constant Section. — Let aa', bb' (fig. 103) be two cross sections normal
to the direction of motion at a distance dl. Since the mass aa'bb'
moves uniformly, the external forces acting on it are in equilibrium.
Let & be the area of the cross sections, \ the wetted perimeter,
FIG. 102.
FIG. 103.
pq+qr+rs, of a section. Then the quantity m = tt/x is termed the
hydraulic mean depth of the section. Let v be the mean velocity
of the stream, which is taken as the common velocity of all the
particles, i, the slope or fall of the stream in feet, per foot, being
the ratio bc/ab.
The external forces acting on aa'bb' parallel to the direction of
motion are three: — (a) The pressures on aa' and bb', which are
equal and opposite since the sections are equal and similar, and the
mean pressures on each are the same. (6) The component of the
weight W of the mass in the direction of motion, acting at its centre
of gravity g. The weight of the mass aa'bb' is Gildl, and the com-
ponent of the weight in the direction of motion is GSldl X the cosine of
the angle between Wg and ab, that is, GQdl cos abc = Gttdl bc/ab =
GOidl. (c) There is the friction of the stream on the sides and
bottom of the channel. This is proportional to the area \dl of
rubbing surface and to a function of the velocity which may be
written _f(i>) ; /(») being the friction per sq. ft. at a velocity v. Hence
the friction is — \dlf(ji). Equating the sum of the forces to zero,
(i)
But it has been already shown (§ 66) that/(ti) =
.'. fi>2/2g = mt. ' (2)
This may be put in the form
" = V(2g/f)V("»)=cV(»«); (20)
where c is a coefficient depending on the roughness and form of the
channel.
The coefficient of friction f varies greatly with the degree of
roughness of the channel sides, and somewhat also with the velocity.
It must also be made to depend on the absolute dimensions of the
section, to eliminate the error of neglecting the variations of velocity
in the cross section. A common mean value assumed for f is 0-00757.
The range of values will be discussed presently.
It is often convenient to estimate the fall of the stream in feet per
mile, instead of in feet per foot. If/ is the fall in feet per mile>
/ = 52801.
Putting this and the above value of f in (20), we get the very simple
and long-known approximate formula for the mean velocity of a
stream —
» = HV(2m/). (3)
The flow down the stream per second, or discharge of the stream,
Q = 0» = n»V (mi)- (4)
§ 97. Coefficient of Friction for Open Channels. — Various ex-
pressions have been proposed for the coefficient of friction for
' annels as for pipes. Weisbach, giving attention chiefly to the
In using this value of f when v is not known, it is best to proceed
by approximation.
§ 98. Darcy and Bazin's Expression for the Coefficient of Friction, —
Darcy and Bazin's researches have shown that f varies very greatly
for different degrees of roughness of the channel bed, and that it
also varies with the dimensions of the channel. They give for f an
empirical expression (similar to that for pipes) of the form
f = a(i-hS/m); (6)
where m is the hydraulic mean depth. For different kinds of
channels they give the following values of the coefficient of friction : —
Kind of Channel.
I. Very smooth channels, sides of smooth
cement or planed timber ....
II. Smooth channels, sides of ashlar, brick-
work, planks ... ...
III. Rough channels, sides of rubble masonry or
pitched with stone
IV. Very rough canals in earth ....
V. Torrential streams encumbered with detritus
0-00294
0-00373
0-00471
0-00549
0-00785
o-io
0-23
0-82
4-10
5-74
.The last values (Class V.) are not Darcy and Bazin's, but are taken
from experiments by Ganguillet and Kutter on Swiss streams.
The following table very much facilitates the calculation of the
mean velocity and discharge of channels, when Darcy and Bazin's
value of the coefficient of friction is used. Taking the general
formula for the mean velocity already given in equation (20) above,
D = cV (mi),
where c = V (2g/f), the following table gives values of c for channels
of different degrees of roughness, and for such values of the hydraulic
mean depths as are likely to occur in practical calculations : —
Values ofc in v = cV (mi), deduced from Darcy and Bazin's Values.
.
JS
J4
.a
5
e
•T? O
£ x
4> .
eo A 3
•
(3
it's
•A r»»
oj •
C -fl
^ a 3
Hydraulic Me;
Depth = m.
Very Smooth
Channels. Cem<
Smooth Chann(
Ashlar or Brickw
Rough Channe
Rubble Masonr
Very Rough Chan
4 Canals in Eart
Excessively Roi
Channels encui
bered with Detri
Hydraulic Mei
Depth = m.
Very Smoott
Channels. Ceme
Smooth Channe
Ashlar or Brickw
ll
Is
£3
Very Rough Chan
Canals in Eart
Excessively Rou
Channels encui
bered with Detri
•25
125
95
57
26
18-5
8-5
H7
130
112
89
•5
135
no
72
36
25-6
9-0
H7
130
112
90
71
•75
139
116
81
42
30-8
9'5
147
130
112
90
I-O
141
119
•87
48
34'9
IO-O
147
130
112
91
72
1-5
143
122
94
56
41-2
II
147
130
113
92
2-O
144
124
98
62
46-0
12
147
130
113
93
74
2-5
H5
126
IOI
67
13
147
130
113
94
3-0
145
126
104
70
53
14
H7
130
"3
95
3-5
146
127
105
73
15
H7
130
114
96
77
4-0
146
128
106
76
58
16
147
130
114
97
4'5
146
128
107
78
17
H7
130
114
97
146
128
1 08
80
62
18
147
130
114
98
5'5
146
129
109
82
20
H7
131
114
98
80
6-0
147
129
IIO
84
65
25
148
131
US
IOO
6-5
129
IIO
85
30
148
131
US
102
83
7-0
147
129
IIO
86
67
4°
148
131
116
103
85
7-5
147
129
III
87
50
I48
116
IO4
86
8-0
147
130
III
88
69
00
148
131
117
1 08
9i
§ 99. Ganguillet and Kutter's Modified Darcy Formula. — Starting
from the general expression v — c^mi, Ganguillet and Kutter
examined the variations of c for a wider variety of cases than those
discussed by Darcy and Bazin. Darcy and Bazin's experiments
were confined to channels of moderate section, and to a limited
variation of slope. Ganguillet and Kutter brought into the dis-
cussion two very distinct and important additional series of results.
The gaugings of the Mississippi by A. A. Humphreys and L. H.
Abbot afford data of discharge for the case of a stream of exception-
ally large section and of very low slope. On the other hand, their
own measurements of the flow in the regulated channels of some
7o
HYDRAULICS
[FLOW IN RIVERS
Swiss torrents gave data for cases in which the inclination and
roughness of the channels were exceptionally great. Darcy and
Bazin's experiments alone were conclusive as to the dependence of
the coefficient c on the dimensions of the channel and on its rough-
ness of surface. Plotting values of c for channels of different in-
clination appeared to indicate that it also depended on the slope of
the stream. Taking the Mississippi data only, they found
£ = 256 for an inclination of 0-0034 per thousand,
= 154 „ „ 0-02
so that for very low inclinations no constant value of c independent
of the slope would furnish good values of the discharge. In small
rivers, on the other hand, the values of c vary little with the slope.
As regards the influence of roughness of the sides of the channel a
different law holds. For very small channels differences of rough-
ness have a great influence on the discharge, but for very large
channels different degrees of roughness have but little influence, and
for indefinitely large channels the influence of different degrees of
roughness must be assumed to vanish. The coefficients given by
Darcy and Bazin are different for each of the classes of channels of
different roughness, even when the dimensions of the channel are
infinite. But, as it is much more probable that the influence of the
nature of the sides diminishes indefinitely as the channel is larger,
this must be regarded as a defect in their formula.
Comparing their own measurements in torrential streams in
Switzerland with those of Darcy and Bazin, Ganguillet and Kutter
found that the four classes of coefficients proposed by Darcy and
Bazin were insufficient to cover all cases. Some of the Swiss streams
gave results which showed that the roughness of the bed was
markedly greater than in any of the channels tried by the French
engineers. It was necessary therefore in adopting the plan of
arranging the different channels in classes of approximately similar
roughness to increase the number of classes. Especially an additional
class was required for channels obstructed by detritus.
To obtain a new expression for the coefficient in the formula
» = V (2g/f ) V (mi) = c V (mi) ,
Ganguillet and Kutter proceeded in a purely empirical way. They
found that an expression of the form
could be made to fit the experiments somewhat better than Darcy's
expression. Inverting this, we get
I/c=I/a+/3/oVm,
an equation to a straight line having i/^m for abscissa, i/c for
ordinate, and inclined to the axis of abscissae at an angle the tangent
of which is /3/o.
Plotting the experimental values of l/c and i/V»», the points so
found indicated a curved rather than a straight line, so that 0 must
depend on a. After much comparison the following form was
arrived at —
where n is a coefficient depending only on the roughness of the sides
of the channel, and A and / are new coefficients, the value of which
remains to be determined. From what has been already stated, the
coefficient c depends on the inclination of the stream, decreasing as
the slope i increases.
Let A. = a+p/i.
Then c = (a+l/n+p/i)/(l+(a+p/i)nHm},
the form of the expression for c ultimately adopted by Ganguillet
and Kutter.
For the constants a, I, p Ganguillet and Kutter obtain the values
23, I and 0-00155 f°r metrical measures, or 41-6, 1-811 and 0-00281
for English feet. The coefficient of roughness n is found to vary
from 0-008 to 0-050 for either metrical or English measures.
The most practically useful values of the coefficient of roughness n
are given in the following table : —
Nature of Sides of Channel. Coefficient of
Roughness n.
Well-planed timber ......... 0-009
Cement plaster .......... o-oio
Plaster of cement with one-third sand .... o-oi I
Unplaned planks .......... 0-012
Ashlar ana brickwork ......... 0-013
Canvas on frames ......... 0-015
Rubble masonry .......... 0-017
Canals in very firm gravel ....... 0-020
Rivers and canals in perfect order, free from stones )
or weeds ........... I 0-025
Rivers and canals in moderately good order, not }
quite free from stones and weeds . . . . { o'°3°
Rivers and canals in bad order, with weeds and /
detritus ............ \ °'°35
Torrential streams encumbered with detritus . . 0-050
Ganguillet and Kutter's formula is so cumbrous that it is difficult
to use without the aid of tables.
Lewis D'A. Jackson published complete and extensive tables for
facilitating the use of the Ganguillet and Kutter formula (Canal
Values
of M fo
r n =
O-OIO
O-OI2
0-015
0-017
O-O2O
0-025
0-030
•OOOOI
3-2260
3-8712
4-8390
5-4842
6-4520
8-0650
9-6780
•OOOO2
1-8210
2-1852
2-73I5
3-0957
3-6420
4-5525
5-4630
•OOOO4
1-1185
1-3422
1-6777
1-9014
2-2370
2-7962
3-3555
•OOOO6
0-8843
1-0612
1-3264
I-5033
1-7686
2-2107
2-6529
•00008
0-7672
0-9206
1-1508
1-3042
1-5344
•9180
2-3016
•OOOIO
0-6970
0-8364
1-0455
1-1849
1-3940
•7425
2-0910
•00025
0-5284
0-6341
0-7926
0-8983
1-0568
•3210
•5852
•00050
0-4722
0-5666
0-7083
0-8027
0-9444
•1805
•4166
•00075
0-4535
0-5442
0-6802
0-7709
0-9070
•1337
•3605
•OOIOO
0-4441
0-5329
0-6661
0-7550
0-8882
•IIO2
•3323
•OO2OO
0-4300
0-5160
0-6450
0-7310
0-8600
•0750
•2900
•00300
0-4254
0-5105
0-6381
0-7232
0-8508
•0635
•2762
and Culvert Tables, London, 1878). To lessen calculation he puts the
formula in this form : —
M = M(4i-6+o-oo28i/»);
» = (Vw/w)l(M + i-8ii)/(M+Vw))V (mi).
The following table gives a selection of values of M, taken from
Jackson's tables: — •
A difficulty in the use of this formula is the selection of the co-
efficient of roughness. The difficulty is one which no theory will
overcome, because no absolute measure of the roughness of stream
beds is possible. For channels lined with timber or masonry the
difficulty is not so great. The constants in that case are few and
sufficiently defined. But in the case of ordinary canals and rivers the
case is different, the coefficients having a much greater range. For
artificial canals in rammed earth or gravel n varies from o 0163 to
0-0301. For natural channels or rivers n varies from 0-020 to 0-035.
In Jackson's opinion even Kutter's numerous classes of channels
seem inadequately graduated, and he proposes for artificial canals
the following classification : —
I. Canals in very firm gravel, in perfect order n=o-O2
II. Canals in earth, above the average in order n=o-O225
III. Canals in earth, in fair order .... n = 0-025
IV. Canals in earth, below the average in order n = 0-0275
V. Canals in earth, in rather bad order, partially }
overgrown with weeds and obstructed by >n = 0-03
detritus . . ...... '
Ganguillet and Kutter's formula has been considerably used
partly from its adoption in calculating tables for irrigation work in
India. But it i» an empirical formula of an unsatisfactory form.
Some engineers apparently have assumed that because it is com-
plicated it must be more accurate than simpler formulae. Com-
parison with the results of gaugings shows that this is not the case.
The term involving the slope was introduced to secure agreement
with some early experiments on the Mississippi, and there is strong
reason for doubting the accuracy of these results.
§ too. Bazin's New Formula. — Bazin subsequently re-examined
all the trustworthy gaugings of flow in channels and proposed a
modification of the original Darcy formula which appears to be
more satisfactory than any hitherto suggested (£tude d'une nouvelle
formule, Paris, 1898). He points out that Darcy's original formula,
which is of the form mi/i? = a+fi/m, does not agree with experiments
on channels as well as with experiments on pipes. It is an objection
to it that if m increases indefinitely the limit towards which mi/v*
tends is different for different values of the roughness. It would
seem that if the dimensions of a canal are indefinitely increased the
variation of resistance due to differing roughness should vanish.
This objection is met if it is assumed that V (mi/ti3) = o + /3/V»w,
so that if o is a constant mifv" tends to the limit a when m increases.
A very careful discussion of the results of gaugings shows that they
can be expressed more satisfactorily by this new formula than by
Ganguillet and Kutter's. Putting the equation in the form ft>2/2g =
mi, f = 0-002594(1 +7/V>w), where y has the following values: —
I. Very smooth sides, cement, planed plank, 7 = 0-109
II. Smooth sides, planks, brickwork .... 0-290
III. Rubble masonry sides ....... 0-833
IV. Sides of very smooth earth, or pitching . . 1-539
V. Canals in earth in ordinary condition . . . 2-353
VI. Ca'nals in earth exceptionally rough . . . 3-168,
§ 101. The Vertical Velocity Curve. — If at each point along a
vertical representing the depth of a stream, the velocity at that
point is plotted horizontally, the curve obtained is the vertical
velocity curve and it has been shown by many observations that
it approximates to a parabola with horizontal axis. The vertex of
the parabola is at the level of the greatest velocity. Thus in fig. 104
OA is the vertical at which velocities are observed; va is the sur-
face; v, the maximum and Vd the bottom velocity. B C D is the
vertical velocity curve which corresponds with a parabola having its
vertex at C. The mean velocity at the vertical is
The Horizontal -Velocity Curve. — Similarly if at each point along a
horizontal representing the width of the stream the velocities are
AND CANALS]
HYDRAULICS
plotted, a curve is obtained called the horizontal velocity curve.
In streams of symmetrical section this is a curve symmetrical about
the centre line of the stream. The velocity varies little near the
centre of the stream, but very rapidly near the banks. In un-
symmetrical sections the greatest
velocity is at the point where the
stream is deepest, and the general
form of the horizontal velocity curve
is roughly similar to the section of
the stream.
§ 1 02. Curves or Contours of Equal
Velocity. — If velocities are observed
at a number of points at different
widths and depths in a stream, it is
possible to draw curves on the cross
section through points at which the
velocity is the same. These repre-
sent contours of a solid, the volume
of which is the discharge of the
stream per second. Fig. 105 shows
the vertical and horizontal velocity curves and the contours of
equal velocity in a rectangular channel, from one of Bazin's
gaugings.
§ 103. Experimental Observations on the Vertical Velocity Curve. —
A preliminary difficulty arises in observing the velocity at a given
point in a stream because the velocity rapidly varies, the motion
not being strictly steady. If an average of several velocities at the
same point is taken, or the average velocity for a sensible period of
time, this average is found to be constant. It may be inferred that
FIG. 104.
«f g b ^-
Contours of Equal Velocity
FIG. 105.
though the velocity at a point fluctuates about a mean value, the
fluctuations being due to eddying motions superposed on the general
motion of the stream, yet these fluctuations produce effects which
disappear in the mean of a series of observations and, in calculating
the volume of flow, may be disregarded.
In the next place it is found that in most of the best observations
on the velocity in streams, the greatest velocity at any vertical is
found not at the surface but at some distance below it. In various
river gaugings the depth d, at the centre of the stream has been found
to vary from o to 0-3^.
§ 104. Influence of the Wind. — In the experiments on the Missis-
sippi the vertical velocity curve in calm weather was found to agree
fairly with a parabola, the greatest velocity being at $,ths of the
depth of the stream from the surface. With a wind blowing down
stream the surface velocity is increased, and the axis of the parabola
approaches the surface. On the contrary, with a wind blowing up
stream the surface velocity is diminished, and the axis of the para-
bola is lowered, sometimes to half the depth of the stream. The
American observers drew from their observations the conclusion
that there was an energetic retarding action at the surface of a
stream like that due to the bottom and sides. If there were such
a retarding action the position of the filament of maximum velocity
below the surface would be explained.
It is not difficult to understand that a wind acting on surface
ripples or waves should accelerate or retard the surface motion of
the stream, and the Mississippi results may be accepted so far as
showing that the surface velocity of a stream is variable when the
mean velocity of the stream is constant. Hence observations of
surface velocity by floats or otherwise should only be made in very
calm weather. But it is very difficult to suppose that, in still air,
there is a resistance at the free surface of the stream at all analogous
to that at the sides and bottom. Further, in very careful experi-
ments, P. P. Boileau found the maximum velocity, though raised a
little above its position for calm weather, still at a considerable
distance below the surface, even when the wind was blowing down
stream with a velocity greater than that of the stream, and when
the action of the air must have been an accelerating and not a re-
tarding action. A much more probable explanation of the diminution
of the velocity at and near the free surface is that portions of water,
with a diminished velocity from retardation by the sides or bottom,
are thrown off in eddying masses and mingle with the rest of the
stream. These eddying masses modify the velocity in all parts of
the stream, but have their greatest influence at the free surface.
Reaching the free surface they spread out and remain there, mingling
with the water at that level and diminishing the velocity which would
otherwise be found there.
Influence of the Wind on the Depth at which the Maximum Velocity
is found. — In the gaugings of the Mississippi the vertical velocity
curve was found to agree well with a parabola having a horizontal
axis at some distance below the water surface, the ordinate of the
parabola at the axis being the maximum velocity of the section.
During the gaugings the force of the wind was registered on a scale
ranging from o for a calm to 10 for a hurricane. Arranging the
velocity curves in three sets — (i) with the wind blowing up stream,
(2) with the wind blowing down stream, (3) calm or wind blowing
across stream — it was found that an up-stream wind lowered, and
a down-stream wind raised, the axis of the parabolic velocity curve.
In calm weather the axis was at -ftths of the total depth from the
surface for all conditions of the stream.
Let h' be the depth of the axis of the parabola, m the hydraulic
mean depth, / the number expressing the force of the wind, which
may range from + io to — 10, positive if the wind is up stream,
negative if it is down stream. Then Humphreys and Abbot find
their results agree with the expression
h'/m =0-317 ±O-O6/.
Fig. 106 shows the parabolic velocity curves according to the
American observers for calm weather, and for an up- or down-stream
wind of a force represented by 4. .
FIG. 106.
It is impossible at present to give a theoretical rule for the vertical
velocity curve, but in very many gaugings it has been found that a
parabola with horizontal axis fits the observed results fairly well.
The mean velocity on any vertical in a stream varies from 0-85 to
0-92 of the surface velocity at that vertical, and on the average if v,
is the surface and »„, the mean velocity at a vertical vm = %vc, a result
useful in float gauging. On any vertical there is a point at which
the velocity is equal to the mean velocity, and if this point were
known it would be useful in gauging. Humphreys and Abbot in
the Mississippi found the mean velocity at 0-66 of the depth ; G. H. L.
Hagen and H. Heinemann at 0-56 to 0-58 of the depth. The mean
of observations by various observers gave the mean velocity at from
0-587 to 0-62 of the depth, the average of all being almost exactly
0-6 of the depth. The mid-depth velocity is therefore nearly equal
to, but a little greater than, the mean velocity on a vertical. If
vmd is the mid-depth velocity, then on the average vm=o-<)8vmd.
§ 105. Mean Velocity on a Vertical from Two Velocity Observations.
— A. J. C. Cunningham, in gaugings on the Ganges canal, found the
following useful results. Let v, be the surface, vm the mean, and
Vzd the velocity at the depth xd ; then
§ 1 06. Ratio of Mean to Greatest Surface Velocity, for the whole
Cross Section in Trapezoidal Channels^. — It is often very important
to be able to deduce the mean velocity, and thence the discharge,
from observation of the greatest surface velocity. The simplest
method of gauging small streams and channels is to observe the
greatest surface velocity by floats, and thence to deduce the mean
velocity. In general in streams of fairly regular section the mean
velocity for the whole section varies from 0-7 to 0-85 of the greatest
surface velocity. For channels not widely differing from those
experimented on by Bazin, the expression obtained by him for the
ratio of surface to mean velocity may be relied on as at least a good
approximation to the truth. Let va be the greatest surface velocity,
vm the mean velocity of the stream. Then, according to Bazin,
»«•=»„— 25-4V (»»')•
But vm = c^l(mi),
where c is a coefficient, the values of which have been already given
in the table in § 98. Hence
HYDRAULICS
[FLOW IN RIVERS
Values of Coefficient c/(c+25~4) in the Formula vm = c
Hydraulic
Mean Depth
=m.
Very
Smooth
Channels.
Cement.
Smooth
Channels.
Ashlar or
Brickwork.
Rough
Channels.
Rubble
Masonry.
Very Rough
Channels.
Canals in
Earth.
Channels
encumbered
with
Detritus.
0-25
•83
•79
•69
•51
•42
°-5
•84
•81
•74
•58
•50
o-75
•84
•82
•76
•63
•55
I-O
•85
•77
•65
•58
2-O
•83
•79
•71
•64
3-o
•80
•73
•67
4-0
•8:
•75
•70
5-o
•76
•7i
6-0
•84
•77
•72
7-0
•78
•73
8-0
9-0
•82
•74
IO-O
15-0
•79
•75
2O-O
•80
•76
30-0
•82
•77
4O-O
50-0
oo
•79
§ 107. River Bends. — In rivers flowing in alluvial plains, the wind-
ings which already exist tend to increase in curvature by the scouring
away of material from the outer bank and the deposition of detritus
along the .inner bank. The sinuosities sometimes increase till a
loop is formed with only a narrow strip of land between the two
encroaching branches of the river. Finally a " cut off " may occur,
a waterway being opened through the strip of land and the loop
left separated from the
stream, forming a horse-
shoe shaped lagoon or
marsh. Professor James
Thomson pointed out
(Proc. Roy. Soc., 1877,
P- 356; Proc. Inst. of
Mech. Eng., 1879, p. 456)
that the usual supposi-
tion is that the water
jy tending to go forwards
in a straight line rushes
against the outer bank
and scours it, at the
same time creating de-
posits at the inner bank.
That view is very far
from a complete account
of the matter, and Pro-
fessor Thomson gave a
p much more ingenious
10. 107. account of the action at
the bend, which he completely confirmed by experiment.
When water moves round a circular curve under the action of
gravity only, it takes a motion like that in a free vortex. Its velocity
is greater parallel to the axis of the stream at the inner than at the
outer side of the bend. Hence the scouring at the outer side and
the deposit at the inner side of the bend are not due to mere difference
of velocity of flow in the general direction of the stream; but, in
virtue of the centrifugal force, the water passing round the bend
presses outwards, and the free surface in a radial cross section has
a slope from the inner side upwards to the outer side (fig. 108).
For the greater part of the water flowing in curved paths, this
difference of pressure produces no tendency to transverse motion.
But the water im-
InncrBanlt Outer Bank
Section at M N.
FlG. 108.
mediately in contact
with the rough bot-
tom and sides of the
channel is retarded,
and its centrifugal
force is insufficient to
balance the pressure
due to the greater
depth at the outside
of the bend. It there-
fore flows inwards towards the innet side of the bend, carrying
with it detritus which is deposited at the inner bank. Con-
jointly with this flow inwards along the bottom and sides, the
general mass of water must flow outwards to take its place. Fig. 107
shows the directions of flow as observed in a small artificial stream,
by means of light seeds and specks of aniline dye. The lines CC
show the directions of flow immediately in contact with the sides
and bottom. The dotted line AB shows the direction of motion of
floating particles on the surface of the stream.
§ 1 08. Discharge of a River when flowing at different Depths. —
When frequent observations must be made on the flow of a river
or canal, the depth of which varies at different times, it is very
convenient to have to observe the depth only. A formula can be
established giving the flow in terms of the depth. Let Q be the
discharge in cubic feet per second ; H the depth of the river in some
straight and uniform part. Then Q = oH+6H2, where the constants
a and b must be found by preliminary gaugings in different con-
ditions of the river. M. C. Moquerey found for part of the upper
Sa&ne, Q=64'7H+8-2H2 in metric measures, or Q = 696H+26-8H«
in English measures.
§ 109. Forms of Section of Channels. — The simplest form of section
for channels is the semicircular or nearly semicircular channel (fig.
109), a form now often adopted from the facility with which it can be
FlG. 109.
executed in concrete. It has the advantage that the rubbing surface
is less in proportion to the area than in any other form.
Wooden channels or flumes, of which there are examples on a
large scale in America, are rectangular in section, and the same form
is adopted for wrought and cast-iron aqueducts. Channels built
with brickwork or masonry may be also rectangular, but they
are often trapezoidal, and are always so if the sides are pitched
with masonry laid dry. In a trapezoidal channel, let b (fig. no)
FIG. no.
be the bottom breadth, 60 the top breadth, d the depth, and let
the slope of the sides be n horizontal to I vertical. Then the area
of section is U = (b+nd)d = (ba — nd)d, and the wetted perimeter
When a channel is simply excavated in earth it is always
originally trapezoidal, though it becomes more or less rounded in
course of time. 'The slope of the sides then depends on the
stability of the earth, a slope of 2 to I being the one most
commonly adopted.
Figs, in, 112 show the form of canals excavated in earth, the
former being the section of a navigation canal and the latter the
section of an irrigation canal.
§ 1 10. Channels of Circular Section. — The following short table
facilitates calculations of the discharge with different depths of water
in the channel. Let r be the radius of the channel section; then
for a depth of water = xr, the hydraulic mean radius is itr and the
area of section of the waterway w2, where K, MI and v have the
following values: —
terms of radius . . J "
•OS
.10
•15
.20
•25
•30
•35
.40
•45
•50
•55
.60
• 65
•70
•75
.80
.85
.90
• 95
I.O
Hydraulic mean depth /
in terms of radius . )
.00668
.0331
•0523
.0963
.1278
•'574
.1852
.2142
.242
.269
•253
•320
•343
.365
.387
.408
.429
•449
.466
.484
.500
Waterway in terms oO _
square of radius . . )
.00180
.0211
.0508
.1067
.1651
.228
.204
•370
•450
•532
.614
• 700
•705
• 885
•079
1-075
I.I75
1.276
1371
1.470
I.57I
AND CANALS]
HYDRAULICS
73
§ III. Egg-Shaped Channels or Sewers. — In sewers for discharging
storm water and house drainage the volume of flow is extremely
variable; and there is a great liability for deposits to be left when
the flow is small, which are not removed during the short periods
when the flow is large. The sewer in consequence becomes choked.
In Bank
could be found satisfying the foregoing conditions. To render
the problem determinate, let it be remembered that, since for
a given discharge to -J x< other things being the same, the
amount of excavation will be least for that channel which has
the least wetted perimeter. Let d be the depth and b the bottom
width of the channel, and let the
sides slope n horizontal to I vertical
(fig. 114), then
In Cattincf
Both J2 and x are to be minima.
Differentiating, and equating to
zero.
(db/dd+n)d+b+nd = o,
FIG. in. — Scale 20 ft. = i in.
eliminating dbjdd,
But
Inserting the value of b,
j» 120-O—r.-
FIG. 112. — Scale 80 ft. = i in.
To obtain uniform scouring action, the velocity of flow should be
constant or nearly so; a complete uniformity of velocity cannot be
obtained with any form of section suitable for sewers, but an ap-
proximation to uniform velocity is obtained by making the sewers
of oval section. Various forms of oval have been suggested, the
simplest being one in
which the radius of the
crown is double the radius
of the invert, and the
greatest width is two-
thirds the height. The
section of such a sewer
is shown in fig. 113, the
numbers marked on the
figure being proportional
•-(. i\ ./ •»' numbers.
§ 112. Problems on
Channels in which the
Flow is Steady and at
Uniform Velocity. — The
general equations given
in §§ 96, 98 are
J- = a(l+0/m); (l)
fi>2/2g = mi ; (2
FIG. 113. Q=to. (3
Problem I. — Given the transverse section of stream and dis-
charge, to find the slope. From the dimensions of the section
find tt and m; from (i) find f, from (3) find », and lastly from (2)
find i.
Problem II. — Given the transverse section and slope, to find the
discharge. Find r from (2), then Q from (3).
Problem III. — Given the discharge and slope, and either the
breadth, depth, or general form of the section of the channel, to
determine its remaining dimensions. This must generally be solved
by approximations. A breadth or depth or both are chosen, and
the discharge calculated. If this is greater than the given discharge,
the dimensions are reduced and the discharge recalculated.
Since m lies generally between the limits m = d and m = %d, where
d is the depth of the stream, and since, moreover, the velocity
varies as V (m) so that an error in the value of m leads only to a much
less error in the value of the velocity calculated from it, we may
proceed thus. Assume a value for m, and calculate v from it.
Let iii be this first approximation to v. Then Qjvi is a first approxi-
mation to 12, say Qi. With this value of ft design the section of the
annel ; calculate a second value for m ; calculate from it a second
value of v, and from that a
second value for fi. Repeat
the process till the succes-
sive values of m approxi-
mately coincide.
§ 113. Problem IV. Most
Economical Form of Channel
p for given Side Slopes. — Sup-
pose the channel is to be
trapezoidal in section (fig. 114), and that the sides are to have a
given slope. Let the longitudinal slope of the stream be given,
and also the mean velocity. An infinite number of channels
That is, with given side slopes,
the section is least for a given
discharge when the hydraulic mean
depth is half the actual depth.
A simple construction gives the
form of the channel which fulfils
this condition, for it can be shown that when m = \d, the sides
of the channel are tangential to a semicircle drawn on the
water line.
Since £)/x = \d,
therefore Q = Jx^- (i)
Let ABCD be the channel (fig. 115); from E'the'centre of AD drop
perpendiculars EF, EG, EH on the sides.
AB=CD=a; BC=6; EF = EH=c; and EG=d.
H = area AEB + BEC+CED,
= ac -\- \ba.
Putting these values in (i),
= (a + \V)d ; and hence c = d.
E
B G C
FIG. 115.
That is, EF, EG, EH are all equal, hence a semicircle struck
from E with radius equal to the depth of the stream will pass
through F and H and be
tangential to the sides of /
the channel.
To draw the channel,
describe a semicircle on
a horizontal line with
radius = depth of channel. i* & x
The bottom will be a FIG. 116.
horizontal tangent of that
semicircle, and the sides tangents drawn at the required side
slopes.
The above result may be obtained thus (fig. 1 16) : —
(i)
(2)
(3)
From (i) and (2),
This will be a minimum for
dx/dd =fi/<P+cot 0— 2/sin/3 = o,
or £2/d2 = 2 cosec. 0 — cot 0. (4)
From (3) and (4),
b/d = 2(l— cos0)/sin 0 = 2 tan J0.
xiv. 3 a
= d(b+dcot ft);
74
HYDRAULICS
[FLOW IN RIVERS
Proportions of Channels of Maximum Discharge for given Area and
Side Slopes. Depth of channel = d; Hydraulic mean depth = %d;
Area of section = H.
Inclination
of Sides to
Horizon.
Ratio of
Side
Slopes.
Area of
Section a.
Bottom
Width.
Top width =
twice length
of each Side
Slope.
Semicircle .
I-S7ld?
O
2d
Semi-hexagon .
60° o'
3 5
1-732^
I'I55<*
2-ziod
Semi-square
90° o'
0 I
2d2
2d
2d
75° 58'
4
I-812&
i 562d
2-O62d
63° 26'
53° 8'
2
3 4
I-73&*2
i-75oeP
i-2$6d
2-23612
2-500(2
45° o'
I-82&P
o-828<2
2-828<2
38° 40'
i
i -952<22
0--J02d
3-202(2
33° 42'
i
2-io6<P
o-6o6d
3-6o6(2
29° 44'
|
2-282^
o-532d
4-032(2
26° 34'
2
2-472d2
o-472<Z
4-472(2
23° 58'
2}
2-674^
0-424^
4-924(2
21° 48'
2J
2-885^
0-385^
5-385d
19° 58'
2«
3- 104^
o-354<*
5'854<*
18° 26'
3
3-325^
0-325^
6-325(2
Half the top width is the length of each side slope. The wetted
perimeter is the sum of the top and bottom widths
§ 114. Form of Cross Section of Channel in which the Mean Velocity
is Constant with Varying Discharge. — In designing waste channels
from canals, and in some other cases, it is desirable that the mean
velocity should be restricted within narrow limits with very different
volumes of discharge. In channels of trapezoidal form the velocity
increases and diminishes with the discharge. Hence when the
discharge is large there is danger of erosion, and when it is small of
silting or obstruction by weeds. A theoretical form of section for
which the mean velocity would be constant can be found, and,
although this is not very suitable for practical purposes, it can be
more or less approximated to in actual channels.
Let fig. 117 represent the cross section of the channel. From the
symmetry of the section, only half the channel need be considered.
-y
Scale io Inch = I Foot.
FIG. 117.
Let oboe be any section suitable for the minimum flow, and let it
be required to find the curve beg for the upper part of the channel
so that the mean velocity shall be constant. Take o as origin of
coordinates, and let de, fg be two levels of the water above ob.
Let 06 = 6/2; de = y,fg — y+dy, od = x, of=x+dx; eg = ds.
The condition to be satisfied is that
v = c V (mi)
should be constant, whether the water-level is at ob, de, or fg. Con-
sequently
m = constant = k
for all three sections, and can be found from the section oboe. Hence
also
Increment of section _ydx_ .
Increment of perimeter" ds '
y*dx* = kids* = P(dx*+dy*) and dx = kdy/ V (j**-*1).
Integrating,
x = k loge|y+ VCx2 — £2))+constant;
and, since y = b/2 when * = o,
Assuming values for y, the values of x can be found and the curve
drawn.
The figure has been drawn for a channel the minimum section of
which is a half hexagon of 4 ft. depth. Hence k = 2; 6 = 9-2; the
rapid flattening of the side slopes is remarkable.
STEADY MOTION OF WATER IN OPEN CHANNELS OF VARYING
CROSS SECTION AND SLOPE
§ 115. In every stream the discharge of which is constant, or may
be regarded as constant for the time considered, the velocity at
different places depends on the slope of the bed. Except at certain
exceptional points the velocity will be greater as the slope of the
bed is greater, and, as the velocity and cross section of the stream
vary inversely, the section of the stream will be least where the
velocity and slope are greatest. If in a stream of tolerably uniform
slope an obstruction such as a weir is built, that will cause an altera-
tion of flow similar to that of an alteration of the slope of the bed
for a greater or less distance above the weir, and the originally uni-
form cross section of the stream will become a varied one. In such
cases it is often of much practical importance to determine the
longitudinal section of the stream.
The cases now considered will be those in which the changes of
velocity and cross section are gradual and not abrupt, and in which
the only internal work which needs to be taken into account is that
due to the friction of the stream bed, as in cases of uniform motion.
Further, the motion will be supposed to be steady, the mean velocity
at each given cross section remaining constant, though it varies from
section to section along the course of the stream.
Let fig. 118 represent a longitudinal section of the stream, AoAi
being the water surface, BoBi the stream bed. Let AoB0, AiBi be
A, P,
FIG. 118.
cross sections normal to the direction of flow. Suppose the mass
of water AoBoAiBi comes in a short time 8 to C0D0CiDi, and let the
work done on the mass be equated to its change of kinetic energy
durifig that period. Let I be the length A0Ai of the portion of the
stream considered, and z the fall of surface level in that distance.
Let Q be the discharge of the stream per second.
Change of Kinetic Energy. — At the end of the time 8 there are as
many particles possessing the same velocities in the space
as at the beginning. The
change of kinetic energy is
therefore the difference of
the kinetic energies of
AoBoCoDo and AiBiCiDi.
Let fig. 119 represent the
cross section AoBo, and let
be a small element of its
area at a point where the
velocity is v. Let fh be the
whole area of the cross section and «o the mean velocity for the
whole cross section. From the definition of mean velocity we have
,,
IG'
tto =
Let V = UQ+W, where w is the difference between the velocity at the
small element o> and the mean velocity. For the whole cross section,
The mass of fluid passing through the element of section u, in 8
seconds, is (G/g)un0, and its kinetic energy is (G/2g)u®38. For the
whole section, the kinetic energy of the mass AoBoCoDo passing in 8
seconds is
(G9/2g)So«i3 =
The factor 3Ut>+w is equal to 2«o-ff, a quantity necessarily
positive. Consequently 2ufs> QnUtf, and consequently the kinetic
energy of AoBoCoDo is greater than
which would be its value if all the particles passing the section had
the same velocity «o. Let the kinetic energy be taken at
a(Ge/2g)a«,,>» = a(G0/2g)Q«o2,
where o is a corrective factor, the value of which was estimated by
J. B. C. J. B61anger at i-i.1 Its precise value is not of great im-
portance.
In a similar way we should obtain for the kinetic energy of
AiBiCiD: the expression
o(G0/2g)n,«i> = a(G0/2g)Q«i8,
where ft, Ui are the section and mean velocity at AiBi, and where a
may be taken to have the same value as before without any im-
portant error.
Hence the change of kinetic energy in the whole mass AoBoAiBi
in 8 seconds is
a(G»/2g)Q(w,«-itf). (i)
Motive Work of the Weight and Pressures.— Consider a small
filament OoOi which comes in 6 seconds to CoCi. The work done by
gravity during that movement is the same as if the portion aoCt, were
carried to aid. Let dQff be the volume of OoCo or a\c\, and ya, y\ the
depths of ac, ot from the surface of the stream. Then the volume
1 Boussinesq has shown that this mode of determining the corrective
factor a is not satisfactory.
AND CANALS]
HYDRAULICS
75
dQ6 or GdQO pounds falls through a vertical height 2+3-1— 3*0, and
the work done by gravity is
GdQ6(z +311-3-0).
Putting pa for atmospheric pressure, the whole pressure per unit of
area at oo is Gyo+pa, and that at ai is — (Gyi+p,). The work of
these pressures is
G(3-o+£a/G -3-! -pt/QdQe = G(3-o -yi)dQ6.
Adding this to the work of gravity, the whole work is GzdQO; or,
for the whole cross section,
GzQO. (2)
Work expended in Overcoming the Friction of the Stream Bed. —
Let A'B', A"B" be two cross sections at distances s and s+ds from
AoBo. Between these sections the velocity may be treated as uni-
form, because by hypothesis the changes of velocity from section
to section are gradual. Hence, to this short length of stream the
equation for uniform motion is applicable. But in that case the
work in overcoming the friction of the stream bed between A'B' and
A"B"is
where it, x, ® are the mean velocity, wetted perimeter, and section
at A'B'. Hence the whole work lost in friction from AoBo to AiBi
will be
(3)
Equating the work given in (2) and (3) to the change of kinetic
energy given in (i),
a(GQ0/2g) (M,2 -Mo2) = GQaS -GQ0/«'f(«
.'. Z = a(«i' -Wo2)/2g+
§ 116. Fundamental Differential Equation of SteadyVariedMotion. —
Suppose the equation just found to be applied to an indefinitely
short length ds of the stream, limited by the end sections ab, Oi&j,
taken for simplicity normal to the stream bed (fig. 120). For that
short length of stream the fall of surface level, or difference of level of
FIG. 120.
a and 01, may be written dz. Also, if we write u for uo, and u+du for
MI, the term (Mo2 — «i!)/2g becomes udu/g. Hence the equation
applicable to an indefinitely short length of the stream is
<ZZ = MdM/g+(xA2)r(M2/2g)<fc. (I)
From this equation some general conclusions may be arrived at as
to the form of the longitudinal section of the stream, but, as the
investigation is somewhat complicated, it is convenient to simplify
it by restricting the conditions of the problem.
Modification of the Formula for the Restricted Case of a Stream
flowing in a Prismatic Stream Bed of Constant Slope. — Let * be
the constant slope of the bed. Draw ad parallel to the bed, and ac
horizontal. Then dz is sensibly equal to a'c. The depths of the
stream, h and h-\-dh, are sensibly equal to ab and a'b', and therefore
dh=a'd. Also cd is the fall of the bed in the distance ds, and is
equal to ids. Hence
dz = a'c=cd—a'd = ids—dh. (2)
Since the motion is steady —
Q = fltt = constant.
Differentiating,
Let x be the width of the stream, then dQ = xdh very nearly. In-
serting this value,
du=-(ux/U\dh. (3)
Putting the values of du and dz found in (2) and (3) in equation (i),
ids-dh = - (u*x/gn)dh + (x/ti)t(u2l2g)ds.
dh/ds = {i-(xin)!;(u*l2g)}/{i-(u*/g)(x/ff).} (4)
Further Restriction to the Case of a Stream of Rectangular Section
and of Indefinite Width. — The equation might be discussed in the
form just given, but it becomes a little simpler if restricted in the
way just stated. For, if the stream is rectangular, xh=tt, and if x
is large compared with .h, ®/x=xh/x = h nearly. Then equation (4)
becomes
dh/ds = i(i -tu*/2gih)/(i -u'lgh). (5)
§ 117. General Indications as to the Form of Water Surface fur-
nished by Equation (5). — Let AoAi (fig. 121) be the water surface,
BoBi the bed in a longitudinal section of the stream, and 06 any
section at a distance s from Bo, the depth 06 being h. Suppose
BoBi, BoAo taken as rectangular coordinate axes, then dhfds is the
trigonometric tangent of the angle which the surface of the stream
at a makes with the axis BoBi. This tangent dhjds will be positive,
if the stream is increasing in depth in the direction BoBi ; negative,
FIG. 121.
if the stream is diminishing in depth from Bo towards BI. If dh/ds = o.
the surface of the stream is parallel to the bed, as in cases of uniform
motion. But from equation (4)
dh/ds = o, if t-(x/n)f(M2/2g)=o;
•
which is the well-known general equation for uniform motion, based
on the same assumptions as the equation for varied steady motion
now being considered. The case of uniform motion is therefore a
limiting case between two different kinds of varied motion. ,
Consider the possible changes of value of the fraction
As h tends towards the limit o, and consequently « is large, the
numerator tends to the limit — oo. On the other hand if fe = o>, in
which case u is small, the numerator becomes equal to i. For a
value H of h given by the equation
H=fM2/2gi,
we fall upon the case of uniform motion. The results just stated
may be tabulated thus : —
For h = o, H, >H, oo,
the numerator has the value — °o, o, > o, i.
Next consider the denominator. If h becomes very small, in which
case u must be very large, the denominator tends to the limit — oo .
As h becomes very large and u consequently very small, the de-
nominator tends to the limit i. For h = u?/g, or w = V(gA), the
denominator becomes zero. Hence, tabulating these results as
before : —
For h = o, u*/g, >M2/g, oo,
the denominator becomes — oo, o, > o, i.
§ 118. Case i. — Suppose h>u?/g, and also ft>H, or the depth
greater than that corresponding to uniform motion. In this case
dh/ds is positive, and the stream increases in depth in the direction
of flow. In fig. 122 let BoBi be the bed, CcCi a line parallel to the
bed and at a height above it equal to H. By hypothesis, the surface
. 122.
AoAi of the stream is above CoCi, and it has just been shown that the
depth of the stream increases from Bo towards BI. But going up
stream h approaches more and more nearly the value H, and there-
fore dh/ds approaches the limit o, or the surface of the stream is
asymptotic to CoCi. Going down stream h increases and u diminishes,
thenumeratorand denominator of thefraction(i — f«2/2gt7i)/(l — M2/gA)
both tend towards the limit i, and dh/ds to the limit i. That is,
the surface of the stream tends to become asymptotic to a horizontal
line DoDi.
The form of water surface here discussed is produced when the
flow of a stream originally uniform is altered by the construction of
a weir. The raising of the water surface above the level CoCi is
termed the backwater due to the weir.
§ 119. Case 2. — Suppose A>«2/g, and also A<H. Then dh/ds is
76
HYDRAULICS
[FLOW IN RIVERS AND CANALS
negative, and the stream is diminishing in depth in the direction of
flow. In fig. 123 let BoBi be the stream bed as before; CoCi a line
drawn parallel to BoBi at a height above it equal to H. By hypo-
thesis the surface AoAi of the stream is below CoCi, and the depth has
just been shown to
diminish from Bo
towards Bi. Going
up stream h ap-
proaches the limit
H, and dh/ds tends
to the limit zero.
That is, up stream
AoAi is asymptotic
to CoCi. Going down
FIG 123 ' stream h diminishes
and u increases; the
inequality h>u2/g diminishes; the denominator of the frac-
tion (i—fu2/2gih)l(i-u''/gh) tends to the limit zero, and con-
sequently dh/ds tends to » . That is, down stream AoAi tends
to a direction perpendicular to the bed. Before, however, this
limit was reached the assumptions on which the general equation is
based would cease to be even approximately true, and the equation
would cease to be applicable. The filaments would have a relative
motion, which would make the influence of internal friction in the
fluid too important to be neglected. A stream surface of this form
may be pro-
duced if there
is an abrupt
fall in the bed
of the stream
(fig. 124).
On the Ganges
canal, as orig-
inally con-
structed, there
were abrupt
falls precisely
FlG. 124. of this kind,
and it appears
that the lowering of the water surface and increase of velocity
which such falls occasion, for a distance of some miles up stream,
was not foreseen. The result was that, the velocity above the
falls being greater than was intended, the bed was scoured and
considerable damage was done to the works. " When the canal
was first opened the water was allowed to pass freely over the
crests of the overfalls, which were laid on the level of the bed
of the earthen channel; erosion of bed and sides for some miles
up rapidly followed, and it soon became apparent that means
must be adopted for raising the surface of the stream at
those points (that is, the crests of the falls). Planks were accord-
ingly fixed in the grooves above the bridge arches, or temporary
weirs were formed over which the water was allowed to fall ; in some
cases the surface of the water was thus raised above its normal
height, causing a backwater in the channel above " (Crofton's
Report on the Ganges Canal, p. 14). Fig. 125 represents in an ex-
aggerated form what probably occurred, the diagram being intended
FIG. 125.
to represent some miles' length of the canal bed above the fall.
AA parallel to the canal bed is the level corresponding to uniform
motion with the intended velocity of the canal. In consequence of
the presence of the ogee fall, however, the water surface would take
some such form as BB, corresponding to Case 2 above, and the
velocity would be greater than the intended velocity, nearly in the
inverse ratio of the actual to the intended depth. By constructing
a weir on the crest of the fall, as shown by dotted lines, a new water
surface CC corresponding to Case I would be produced, and by
suitably choosing the height of the weir this might be made to agree
approximately with the intended level AA.
8 1 20. Case 3. — Suppose a stream flowing uniformly with a depth
«<u2/g. For a stream in uniform motion fu2/2g — mi, or if the
Nature of Bed of Stream.
Slope below
which a Stand-
ing Wave is
impossible in
feet per foot.
Standing Wave Formed.
Slope in feet
per foot.
Least Depth
in feet.
f 0-002
0-262
Very smooth cemented surface
0-00147
< 0-003
•098
I O-OO4
•065
Ashlar or brickwork .
0-00186
( 0-003
< O-OO4
•394
•197
( O-OOO
•098
( 0-004
1-181
Rubble masonry ....
0-00235
< 0-006
•525
lo-oio
•262
{0-006
3-478
Earth
0-00275
0-010
1-542
0-015
•919
stream is of indefinitely great width, so that m = H,then f«2/2g = »H,
and H = ftt2/2gi. Consequently the condition stated above involves
that
£«'/2gz <«Vg. or that i> f/2.
If such a stream is interfered with by the construction of a weir
which raises its level, so that its depth at the weir becomes Ai>«2/g,
then for a portion of the stream the depth h will satisfy the con-
ditions h<u*lg and h> H, which are not the same as those assumed
in the two previous cases. At some point of the stream above the
weir the depth h becomes equal to u2/g, and at that point dh/ds
becomes infinite, or the surface of the stream is normal to the bed.
It is obvious that at that point the influence of internal friction will
be too great to be neglected, and the general equation will cease to
represent the true conditions of the motion of the water. It is known
that, in cases such as this, there occurs an abrupt rise of the free
surface of the stream, or a standing wave is formed, the conditions
of motion in which will be examined presently.
It appears that the condition necessary to give rise to a standing
wave is that i>?/2. Now f depends for different channels on the
roughness of the channel and its hydraulic mean depth. Bazin
calculated the values of f for channels of different degrees of rough-
ness and different depths given in the following table, and the corre-
sponding minimum values of i for which the exceptional case of the
production of a standing wave may occur.
STANDING WAVES
§ 121. The formation of a standing wave was first observed by
Bidone. Into a small rectangular masonry channel, having a slope
of 0-023 ft- P61" loot, he admitted water till it flowed uniformly with
a depth of 0-2 ft. He then placed a plank across the stream which
raised the level just above the obstruction to 0-95 ft. He found that
the stream above the obstruction was sensibly unaffected up to a
point 15 ft. from it. At that point the depth suddenly increased
from 0-2 ft. to 0-56 ft. _ The velocity of the stream in the part un-
affected by the obstruction was 5-54 ft. per second. Above the point
where the abrupt change of depth occurred u* = 5-54' = 30-7, and
gh = 32-2X0-2 =6-44; hence tt2 was>g/t. Just below the abrupt
change of depth « = 5-54X0-2/0-56 = 1-97; «2 = 3-88; and gh =
32-2X0-56 = 18-03; hence at this point u'<gh. Between these two
points, therefore, u* = gh; and the condition for the production of a
standing wave occurred.
The change of level at a standing wave may be found thus. Let
fig. 126 represent the longitudinal section of a stream and ab, cd
a
•^J 1
m — *
*0
b
if
I'i id
^W' '
d'
FIG. 126.
cross sections normal to the bed, which for the short distance con-
sidered may be assumed horizontal. Suppose the mass of water
abed to come to a'b'c'd' in a short time /; and let «o, HI be the
velocities at ab and cd, S4>, Qi the areas of the cross sections. The force
causing change of momentum in the mass abed estimated horizont-
ally is simply the difference of the pressures on ab and cd. Putting
ho, hi for the depths of the centres of gravity of ab and cd measured
down from the free water surface, the force is G(&oJi> — AiQ,) pounds,
and the_ impulse in / seconds is G (Wi> — AiJJi) t second pounds.
The horizontal change of momentum is the difference of the momenta
of cdc'd' and aba'b' ; that is,
ON STREAMS AND RIVERS]
Hence, equating impulse and change of momentum,
HYDRAULICS
77
(i)
For simplicity let the section be rectangular, of breadth B and
depths Ho and Hi, at the two cross sections considered; then
Ao = iHo, and fci = iHi. Hence
But, since
= Qi«i, we have
Hi-Ho). (2)
This equation is satisfied if Ho = Hi, which corresponds to the case
of uniform motion. Dividing by H0 — HL, the equation becomes
(H,/H0)(Ho+H1)=2«o2/g; (3)
In Bidone's experiment Mo = 5'54, a"d H=o-2. Hence Hi=o-52,
which agrees very well with the observed height.
§ 122. A standing wave is frequently produced at the foot of
a weir. Thus in the ogee falls originally constructed on the Ganges
canal a standing wave was observed as shown in fig. 127. The water
falling over the weir crest A acquired a very high velocity on the
FIG. 127.
steep slope AB, and the section of the stream at B became very
small. It easily happened, therefore, that at B the depth h<i?lg.
In flowing along the rough apron of the weir the velocity « diminished
and the depth h increased. At a point C, where h became equal to
«2/g. the conditions for producing the standing wave occurred.
Beyond C the free surface abruptly rose to the level corresponding to
uniform motion with the assigned slope of the lower reach of the
canal.
A standing wave is sometimes formed on the down stream side of
bridges the piers of which obstruct the flow of the water. Some
interesting cases of this kind are described in a paper on the " Floods
in the Nerbudda Valley " in the Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng. vol. xxvii.
p. 222, by A. C. Howden. Fig. 128 is compiled from the data given
in that paper. It represents the section of the stream at pier 8 of
the Towah Viaduct,
during the flood of 1865.
The ground level is not
exactly given by How-
den, but has been in-
ferred from data given
on another drawing. The
velocity of the stream
was not observed, but
the author states it was
probably the same as at
the Gunjal river during
a similar flood, that is
i6'58 ft. per second.
Now, taking the depth
on the down stream face
of the pier at 26 ft., the
velocity necessary for the
production of a standing
wave would be u = V (gn)
= V(32-2X26)=29 ft.
FlG. 128. per second nearly. But
the velocity at this
point was probably from Howden's statements l6-58Xj° =25-5
ft., an agreement as close as the approximate character of the
data would lead us to expect.
XI. ON STREAMS AND RIVERS
§ 123. Catchment Basin. — A stream or river is the channel for the
discharge of the available rainfall of a district, termed its catchment
basin. The catchment basin is surrounded by a ridge or watershed
line, continuous except at the point where the river finds an outlet.
The area of the catchment basin may be determined from a suitable
contoured map on a scale of at least I in 100,000. Of the whole rain-
fall on the catchment basin, a part only finds its way to the stream.
Part is directly re-evaporated, part is absorbed by vegetation, part
may escape by percolation into neighbouring districts. The follow-
ing table gives the relation of the average stream discharge to the
average rainfall on the catchment basin (Tiefenbacher).
Ratio of average
Discharge to
average Rainfall.
Loss by Evaporation,
&c., in per cent of
total Rainfall.
Cultivated land and spring- /
forming declivities . . \
Wooded hilly slopes .
Naked unfissured mountains
•3 to -33
•35 to -45
•55 to -60
67 to 70
55 to 65
40 to 45
§ 124. Flood Discharge^ — The flood discharge can generally only be
determined by examining the greatest height to wnich floods have
been known to rise. To produce a flood the rainfall must be heavy
and widely distributed, and to produce a flood of exceptional height
the duration of the rainfall must be so great that the flood waters
of the most distant affluents reach the point considered, simultane-
ously with those from nearer points. The jarger the catchment
basin the less probable is it that all the conditions tending to pro-
duce a maximum discharge should simultaneously occur. Further,
lakes and the river bed itself act as storage reservoirs during the rise
of water level and diminish the rate of discharge, or serve as flood
moderators. The influence of these is often important, because very
heavy rain storms are in most countries of comparatively short
duration. Tiefenbacher gives the following estimate of the flood
discharge of streams in Europe : —
Flood discharge of Streams
per Second per Square Mile
of Catchment Basin.
In flat country 8-7 to 12-5 cub. ft.
In hilly districts 17-5 to 22-5 „
In moderately mountainous districts 36-2 to 45-0 „
In very mountainous districts . . 50^0 to 75-0 ,,
It has been attempted to express the decrease of the rate of flood
discharge with the increase of extent of the catchment basin by
empirical formulae. Thus Colonel P. P. L. O'Connell proposed the
formula y = MV*, where M is a constant called the modulus of the
river, the value of which depends on the amount of rainfall, the
physical characters of the basin, and the extent to which the floods
are moderated by storage of the water. If M is small for any given
river, it shows that the rainfall is small, or that the permeability or
slope of the sides of the valley is such that the water does not drain
rapidly to the river, or that lakes and river bed moderate the rise of
the floods. If values of M are known for a number of rivers, they
may be used in inferring the probable discharge of other similar rivers.
For British rivers M varies from 0-43 for a small stream draining
meadow land to 37 for the Tyne. Generally it is about 15 or 20.
For large European rivers M varies from 16 for the Seine to 67-5 for
the Danube. For the Nile M = 1 1 , a low value which results from the
immense length of the Nile throughout which it receives no affluent,
and probably also from the influence of lakes. For different tribu-
taries of the Mississippi M varies from 13 to 56. For various Indian
rivers it varies from 40 to 303, this variation being due to the great
variations of rainfall, slope and character of Indian rivers.
In some of the tank projects in India, the flood discharge has been
calculated from the formula D = C\'n2, where D is the discharge in
cubic yards per hour from re square miles of basin. The constant C
was taken =61,523 in the designs for the Ekrooka tank, =75,000 on
Ganges and Godavery works, and =10,000 on Madras works.
§ 125. Action of a Stream on itsBed. — If the velocity of a stream
exceeds a certain limit, depending on its size, and on the size, heavi-
ness, form and coherence of the
material of which its bed is com- „ —SB
posed, it scours its bed and
carries forward the materials.
The quantity of material which
a given stream can carry in
suspension depends on the size
and density of the particles in
suspension, and is greater as
FIG. 129.
the velocity of the stream is greater. If in one part of its course the
velocity of a stream is great enough to scour the bed and the water
.becomes loaded with silt, and in a subsequent part of the river's
course the velocity is diminished, then part of the transported
material must be deposited. Probably deposit and scour go on
simultaneously over the whole river bed, but in some parts the rate
of scour is in excess of
the rate of deposit, and , __
in other parts the rate
of deposit is in excess
of the rate of scour.
Deep streams appear to
have the greatest scour-
ing power at any given
velocity. It is possible
that the difference is
strictly a difference of
FIG. 130.
transporting, not of scouring action. Let fig. 129 represent a section of
a stream. The material lifted at a will be diffused through the mass of
the stream and deposited at different distances down stream. The
average path of a particle lifted at a will be some such curve as abc,
and the average distance of transport each time a particle is lifted
HYDRAULICS
[ON STREAMS
will be represented by ac. In a deeper stream such as that in fig.
130, the average height to which particles are lifted, and, since the
rate of vertical fall through the water may be assumed the same as
before, the average distance a'c' of transport will be greater. Con-
sequently, although the scouring action may be identical in the two
streams, the velocity of transport of material down stream is greater
as the depth of the stream is greater. The effect is that the deep
stream excavates its bed more rapidly than the shallow stream.
§ 126. Bottom Velocity at which Scour commences. — The following
bottom velocities were determined by P. L. G. Dubuat to be the
maximum velocities consistent with stability of the stream bed for
different materials.
Darcy and Bazin give, for the relation of the mean velocity vm
and bottom velocity »&.
fm
But
Taking a mean value for f , we get
and from this the following values of the mean velocity are ob-
tained : —
Bottom Velocity
=tv
Mean Velocity
= »m.
I. Soft earth ....
2. Loam
3. Sand
4. Gravel
5. Pebbles
6. Broken stone, flint .
7. Chalk, soft shale . .
8. Rock in beds. . . .
9. Hard rock ....
0-25
0-50
I -CO
2-OO
3-40
4-OO
5-00
6-00
10-00
•33
•65
1-30
2-62
4-46
5-25
6-56
7-87
13-12
The following table of velocities which should not be exceeded
in channels is given in the Ingenieurs Taschenbuch of the Verein
" Hutte ": —
Surface
Velocity.
Mean
Velocity.
Bottom
Velocity.
Slimy earth or brown clay
Clay
•49
•98
1-97
4-00
5-00
7-28
8-00
14-00
•36
•75
i-5i
3-15
4-03
6-10
7-45
12-15
•26
•52
I -02
2-30
3-o8
4-90
6-00
10-36
Firm sand
Pebbly bed
Boulder bed
Conglomerate of slaty fragments
Stratified rocks
Hard rocks ' .
§ 127. Regime of a River Channel. — A river channel is said to be in
a state of regime, or stability, when it changes little in draught or
form in a series of years. In some rivers the deepest part of the
channel changes its position perpetually, and is seldom found in the
same place in two successive years. The sinuousness of the river
also changes_by the erosion of the banks, so that in time the position
of the river is completely altered. In other rivers the change from
year to year is very small, but probably the regime is never perfectly
stable except where the rivers flow over a rocky bed.
If a river had a constant discharge it would gradually modify its
bed till a permanent regime was established. But as the volume
happen if by artificial means the erosion of the banks is prevented.
If a river flows in soil incapable of resisting its tendency to scour
it is necessarily sinuous (§ 107), for the slightest deflection of the
current to either side begins an erosion which increases progres-
sively till a considerable bend is formed. If such a river is
straightened it becomes sinuous again unless its banks are pro-
tected from scour.
§ 128. Longitudinal Section of River Bed. — The declivity of rivers
decreases from source to mouth. In their higher parts rapid and
torrential, flowing over beds of gravel or boulders, they enlarge in
volume by receiving affluent streams, their slope diminishes, their
bed consists of smaller materials, and finally they reach the sea.
Fig. 131 shows the length in miles, and the surface fall in feet per
mile, of the Tyne and its tributaries.
The decrease of the slope is due to two causes, (i) The action of
the transporting power of the water, carrying the smallest debris
the greatest distance, causes the bed to be less stable near the mouth
than in the higher parts of the river; and, as the river adjusts its
slope to the stability of the bed by scouring or increasing its sinuous-
ness when the slope is too great, and by silting or straightening its
course if the slope is too small, the decreasing stability of the bed
would coincide with a decreasing slope. (2) The increase of volume
and section of the river leads to a decrease of slope; for the larger
the section the less slope is necessary to ensure a given velocity.
The following investigation, though it relates to a purely arbitrary
case, is not without interest. Let it be assumed, to make the con-
ditions definite — (i) that a river flows over a bed of uniform resist-
ance to scour, and let it be further assumed that to maintain stability
the velocity of the river in these circumstances is constant from
source to mouth ; (2) suppose the sections of the river at all points
are similar, so that, b being the breadth of the river at any point, its
hydraulic mean depth is ab and its section is cb2, where a and c are
constants applicable to all parts of the river; (3) let us further assume
that the discharge increases uniformly in consequence of the supply
from affluents, so that, if / is the length of the river from its source to
any given point, the
discharge there will be \ ^ jj y
kl, where k is another
FIG. 132.
constant applicable to
all points in the course
of the river.
Let AB (fig. 132) be
the longitudinal section
of the river, whose
source is at A; and
take A for the origin of l<
vertical and horizontal coordinates. Let C be a point whose ordinates
are x and y, and let the river at C have the breadth b, the slope «,
and the velocity v.
Since velocity X area of section = discharge, vcb* = kl, or 6 = V (kl/cv).
Hydraulic mean depth =a6 = oV (kl/cv).
But, by the ordinary formula for the flow of rivers, »»«'«= fr*;
I
It
3-8/f
...... am,,.
FIG. 131.
discharged is constantly changing, and therefore
the velocity, silt is deposited when the velocity
decreases, and scour goes on when the velocity
increases in the same place. When the scouring
and silting are considerable, a perfect balance
between the two is rarely established, and hence
continual variations occur in the form of the river
and the direction of its currents. In other cases,
where the action is less violent, a tolerable balance may be established,
and the deepening of the bed by scour at one time is compensated by
the silting at another. In that case the general regime is permanent,
though alteration is constantly going on. This is more likely to
But i is the tangent of the angle which the curve at C makes with
the axis of X, and is therefore=dy/<te. Also, as the slope is small,
1= AC = AD =x nearly.
:.dyldx=(fv\la}-j(clkx);
and, remembering that v is constant,
y-(a|tl/«W <«/*)?
or y* = constant X x;
so that the curve is a common parabola, of which the axis is hori-
zontal and_ the vertex at the source. This may be considered an
ideal longitudinal section, to which actual rivers ap-
proximate more or less, with exceptions due to the vary-
ing hardness of their beds, and the irregular manner in
which their volume increases.
§ 129. Surface Level of River. — The surface level of a
river is a plane changing constantly in position from
changes in the volume of water discharged, and more
slowly from changes in the river bed, and the circum-
stances affecting the drainage into the river.
For the purposes of the engineer, it is important to
determine (i) the extreme low water level, (2) the
extreme high water or flood level, and (3) the highest
navigable level.
I. Low Water Level cannot be absolutely known,
because a river reaches its lowest level only at rare inter-
vals, and because alterations in the cultivation of the
land, the drainage, the removal of forests, the removal
or erection of obstructions in the river bed, &c., gradu-
ally alter the conditions of discharge. The lowest level
of which records can be found is taken as the conven-
tional or approximate lowjwater level, and allowance is
made for possible changes.
2. High Water or Flood Level. — The engineer assumes as the highest
flood level the highest level of which records can be obtained. In
forming a judgment of the data available, it must be remembered that
the highest level at one point of a river is not always simultaneous
AND RIVERS]
HYDRAULICS
79
with the attainment of the highest level at other points, and that
the rise of a river in flood is very different in different parts of its
course. In temperate regions, the floods of rivers seldom rise more
than 20 ft. above low-water level, but in the tropics the rise of floods
is greater.
3. Highest Navigable Level. — When the river rises above a certain
level, navigation becomes difficult from the increase of the velocity
of the current, or from submersion of the tow paths, or from the head-
way under bridges becoming insufficient. Ordinarily the highest
navigable level may be taken to be that at which the river begins to
overflow its banks.
§ 130. Relative Value of Different Materials for Submerged Works. —
That the power of water to remove and transport different materials
depends on their density has an important bearing on the selection
of materials for submerged works. In many cases, as in the aprons
or floorings beneath bridges, or in front of locks or falls, and in the
formation of training walls and breakwaters by pierres perdus,
which have to resist a violent current, the materials of which the
structures are composed should be of such a size and weight as to
be able individually to resist the scouring action of the water. The
heaviest materials will therefore be the best; and the different value
of materials in this respect will appear much more striking, if it is
remembered that all materials lose part of their weight in water.
A block whose volume is V cubic feet, and whose density in air is
w Ib per cubic foot, weighs in air wV ft, but in water only (w— 62-d.)
V ft.
Weight of a Cub. Ft. in ft.
In Air.
In Water.
Basalt
Brick
Brickwork ....
Granite and limestone
Sandstone
Masonry ....
I87-3
130-0
II2-0
I7O-O
144-0
116-144
124-9
67-6
49-6
107-6
81-6
53-6-81-6
§ 131. Inundation Deposits from a River. — When a river carrying
silt periodically overflows its banks, it deposits silt over the area
flooded, and gradually raises the surface of the country. The silt is
deposited in greatest abundance where the water first leaves the
river. It hence results that the section of the country assumes a
peculiar form, the river flowing in a trough along the crest of a ridge,
from which the land slopes downwards on both sides. The silt
deposited from the water forms two wedges, having their thick ends
towards the river (fig. 133).
FIG. 133.
This is strikingly the case with the Mississippi, and that river is
now kept from flooding immense areas by artificial embankments or
levees. In India, the term deltaic segment is sometimes applied to
that portion of a river running through deposits formed by inunda-
tion, and having this characteristic section. The irrigation of the
country in this case is very easy; a comparatively slight raising of
the river surface by a weir or annicut gives a command of level
which permits the water to be conveyed to any part of the district.
§ 132. Deltas. — The name delta was originally given to the A-
shaped portion of Lower Egypt, included between seven branches of
the Nile. It is now given to the whole of the alluvial tracts round
river mouths formed by deposition of sediment from the river, where
its velocity is checked on its entrance to the sea. The characteristic
feature of these alluvial deltas is that the river traverses them, not
in a single channel, but in two or many bifurcating branches. Each
branch has a tract of the delta under its influence, and gradually
raises the surface of that tract, and extends it seaward. As the delta
extends itself seaward, the conditions of discharge through the
different branches change. The water finds the passage through
one of the branches less obstructed than through the others; the
velocity and scouring action in that branch are increased; in the
others they diminish. The one channel gradually absorbs the whole
of the water supply, while the other branches silt up. But as the
mouth of the new main channel extends seaward the resistance in-
creases both from the greater length of the channel and the formation
of shoals at its mouth, and the river tends to form new bifurcations
AC or AD (fig. 134), and one of these may in time become the main
channel of the river.
§ 133- Field Operations preliminary to a Study of River Improve-
ment.^— There are required (i) a plan of the river, on which the
positions of lines of levelling and cross sections are marked; (2) a
longitudinal section and numerous cross sections of the river; (3) a
series of gaugings of the discharge at different points and in different
conditions of the river.
Longitudinal Section. — This requires to be carried out with great
accuracy. A line of stakes is planted, following the sinuosities of the
river, and chained and levelled. The cross sections are referred to
the line of stakes, both as to position and direction. The determina-
tion of the surface slope is very difficult, partly from its extreme
smallness, partly from oscillation of the water. Cunningham recom-
mends that the slope be taken in a length of 2000 ft. by four simul-
taneous observations, two on each side of the river.
§ 134. Cross Sections. — A stake is planted flush with the water, and
its level relatively to some point on the line of levels is determined.
Then the depth of the water is determined at a series of points (if
V
— -o
possible at uniform distances) in a line starting from the stake and
perpendicular to the thread of the stream. To obtain these, a wire
may be stretched across with equal distances marked on it by hang-
ing tags. The depth at each of these tags may be obtained by a
light wooden staff, with a disk-shaped shoe 4 to 6 in. in diameter.
If the depth is great, soundings may be taken by a chain and weight!
To ensure the wire being perpendicular to the thread of the stream,
it is desirable to stretch two other wires similarly graduated, one
above and the other below, at a distance of 20 to 40 yds. A
number of floats being then thrown in, it is observed whether they
pass the same graduation on each wire.
For large and rapid rivers the cross section is obtained by sounding
in the following way. Let AC (fig. 135) be the line on which sound-
ings are required. A base line AB is measured out at right angles
to AC, and ranging staves are set up at AB and at D in line with AC.
A boat is allowed to drop down stream, and, at the moment it comes
in line with AD, the lead is
dropped, and an observer in the
boat takes, with a box sextant, £
the angle AEB subtended by
AB. The sounding line may
have a weight of 14^ ft of lead,
and, if the boat drops down
stream slowly, it may hang near
the bottom, so that the observa-
tion is made instantly. In ex-
tensiva surveys of the Missis-
sippi observers with theodolites
were stationed at A and B. The
theodolite at A was directed
towards C, that at B was kept
on the boat. When the boat
came on the line AC, the ob-
server at A signalled, the sound-
ing line was dropped, and the
observer at B read off the angle
ABE. By repeating observations a number of soundings are ob-
tained, which can be plotted in their proper position, and the form
of the river bed drawn by connecting the extremities of the lines.
From the section can be measured the sectional area of the stream
i) and its wetted perimeter x', and from these the hydraulic mean
depth m can be calculated.
§ ^135. Measurement of the Discharge of Rivers. — The area of cross
section multiplied by the mean velocity gives the discharge of the
stream. The height of the river with reference to some fixed mark
should be noted whenever the velocity is observed, as the velocity
and area of cross section are different in differest states of the river.
To determine the mean velocity various methods may be adopted ;
and, since no method is free from liability to error, either from the
difficulty of the observations or from uncertainty as to the ratio of
the mean velocity to the velocity observed, it is desirable that more
:han one method should be used.
INSTRUMENTS FOR MEASURING THE VELOCITY OF WATER
§ 136. Surface Floats are convenient for determining the surface
velocities of a stream, though their use is difficult near the banks.
The floats may be small balls of wood, of wax or of hollow metal, so
oaded as to float nearly flush with the water surface. To render
B
FIG. 135.
8o
HYDRAULICS
[ON STREAMS
them visible they may have a vertical painted stem. In experi-
ments on the Seine, cork balls if in. diameter were used, loaded to
float flush with the water, and provided with a stem. In A. J. C.
Cunningham's observations at Roorkee, the floats were thin circular
disks of English deal, 3 in. diameter and 1 in. thick. For observa-
tions near the banks, floats I in. diameter and J in. thick were used.
To render them visible a tuft of cotton wool was used loosely hxed
in a hole at the centre.
The velocity is obtained by allowing the float to be carried down,
and noting the time of passage over a measured length of the stream.
If v is the velocity of any float, t the time of passing over a length
/, then v = l/t. To mark out distinctly the length of stream over
which the floats pass, two ropes may be stretched across the stream
at a distance apart, which varies usually from 50 to 250 ft., according
to the size and rapidity of the river. In the Roorkee experiments
a length of run of 50 ft. was found best for the central two-fifths of the
width, and 25 ft. for the remainder, except very close to the banks,
where the run was made 12 J ft. only. The longer the run the less
is the proportionate error of the time observations, but on the other
hand the greater the deviation of the floats from a straight course
parallel to the axis of the stream. To mark the precise position at
which the floats cross the ropes, Cunningham used short white rope
pendants, hanging so as nearly to touch the surface of the water. In
thiscase the streams were 80 to iSoft. in width. In wider streams the
use of ropes to mark the length of run is impossible, and recourse must
be had to box sextants or theodolites to mark the path of the floats.
Let AB (fig. 136) be a measured base line strictly parallel to the
thread of the stream, and AAi, BBi lines at right angles to AB
marked out by ranging rods at Ai and
BI. Suppose observers stationed at A
and B with sextants or theodolites, and
let CD be the path of any float down
stream. As the float approaches AAi,
the observer at B keeps it on the cross wire
of his instrument. The observer at A
observes the instant of the float reaching
the line AAi, and signals to B who then
reads off the angle ABC. Similarly, as
the float approaches BBi, the observer
at A keeps it in sight, and when signalled
to by B reads the angle BAD. The data
so obtained are sufficient for plotting
the path of the float and determining
the distances AC, BD.
The time taken by the float in passing
over the measured distance may be ob-
served by a chronograph, started as the
float passes the upper rope or line, and
stopped when it passes the lower. In
Cunningham's observations two chrono-
meters were sometimes used, the time of passing one end of the run
being noted on one, and that of passing the other end of the run
being noted on the other. The chronometers were compared
immediately before the observations. In other cases a single
chronometer was used placed midway of the run. The moment of
the floats passing the ends of the run was signalled to a time-
keeper at the chronometer by shouting. It was found quite pos-
sible to count the chronometer beats to the nearest half second,
and in some cases to the nearest quarter second.
§ 137. Sub-surface Floats. — The velocity at different depths below
the surface of a stream may be obtained by sub-surface floats, used
precisely in the same way as surface floats. The most usual arrange-
ment is to have a large float, of slightly greater density than water,
connected with a small and very light surface float. The motion
of the combined arrangement is not
sensibly different from that of the large
float, and the small surface float enables
an observer to note the path and velo-
city of the sub-surface float. The in-
strument is, however, not free from
objection. If the large submerged
float is made of very nearly the same
density as water, then it is liable to be
thrown upwards by very slight eddies
in the water, and it does not maintain
its position at the depth at which it is
^^L^a intended to float. On the other hand,
if the large float is made sensibly
heavier than water, the indicating or
surface float must be made rather large,
and then it to some extent influences
the motion of the submerged float.
Fig. '37 shows one form of sub-
surface float. It consists of a couple
— o
FIG. 136.
FIG. 137.
of tin plates bent at a right angle and soldered together at the angle.
This is connected with a wooden ball at the surface by a very thin
wire or cord. As the tin alone makes a heavy submerged float, it is
better to attach to the tin float some pieces of wood to diminish its
weight in water. Fig. 138 shows the form of submerged float used
by Cunningham. It consists of a hollow metal ball connected to a
slice of cork, which serves as the surface float.
§ 138. Twin Floats. — Suppose two equal and similar floats (fig. 139)
connected by a wire. Let one float be a little lighter and the other
a little heavier than water. Then the velocity of the combined
FIG. 138. FIG. 139.
floats will be the mean of the surface velocity and the velocity at the
depth at which the heavier float swims, which is determined by the
length of the connecting wire. Thus if v, is the surface velocity
and Vd the velocity at the depth to which the lower float is sunk, the
velocity of the combined floats will be
Consequently, if v is observed, and v, determined by an experiment
with a single float,
Vi = 2V — V,.
According to Cunningham, the twin float gives better results than
the sub-surface float.
§ J39- Velocity Rods. — Another form of float is shown in fig. 140.
This consists of a cylindrical rod loaded at the lower end so as to
float nearly vertical in water. A wooden rod, with a metal cap at the
bottom in which shot can be placed,
answers better than anything else, and
sometimes the wooden rod is made in
lengths, which can be screwed together
so as to suit streams of different depths.
A tuft of cotton wool at the top serves
to make the float more easily visible.
Such a rod, so adjusted in length that it
sinks nearly to the bed of the stream,
gives directly the mean velocity of the
whole vertical section in which it floats.
§ 140. Revy's Current Meter. — No in-
strument has been so much used in
directly determining the velocity of a
stream at a given point as the screw
current meter. Of this there are a
dozen varieties at least. As an example
of the instrument in its simplest form,
Revy's meter may be selected. This is an
ordinary screw meter of a larger size than
usual, more carefully made, and with its I
details carefully studied (figs. 141, 142).
It was designed after experience in gaug-
ing the great South American rivers. The screw, which is actuated by
the water, is 6 in. in diameter, and is of the type of the Griffiths screw
used in ships. The hollow spherical boss serves to make the weight of
the screw sensibly equal to its displacement, so that friction is much
reduced. On the axis aa of the screw is a worm which drives the
counter. This consists of two worm wheels g and h fixed on a common
axis. The worm wheels are carried on a frame attached to the pin /.
By means of a string attached to / they can be pulled into gear with
the worm, or dropped out of gear and stopped at any instant. A
nut m can be screwed up, if necessary, to keep the counter per-
manently in gear. The worm is two-threaded, and the worm wheel
g has 200 teeth. Consequently it makes one rotation for loo rota-
tions of the screw, and the number of rotations up to 100 is marked
by the passage of the graduations on its edge in front of a fixed index.
The second worm wheel has 196 teeth, and its edge is divided into
49 divisions. Hence it falls behind the first wheel one division for a
complete rotation of the latter. The number of hundreds of rota-
tions of the screw are therefore shown by the number of divisions on
h passed over by an index fixed to g. One difficulty in the use of the
ordinary screw meter is that particles of grit, getting into the working
parts, very sensibly alter the friction, and therefore the speed of the
meter. Revy obviates this by enclosing the counter in a brass box
with a glass face. This box is filled with pure water, which ensures a
constant coefficient of friction for the rubbing parts, and prevents any
mud or grit finding its way in. In order that the meter may place itself
with the axis parallel to the current, it is pivoted on a vertical axis
and directed by a large vane shown in fig. 142. To give the vane
FIG. 140.
AND RIVERS]
HYDRAULICS
81
more directing power the vertical axis is nearer the screw than in
ordinary meters, and the vane is larger. A second horizontal vane is
attached by the screws x, x, the object of which is to allow the meter
to rest on the ground without the motion of the screw being inter-
fered with. The string or wire for starting and stopping the meter is
FIG. 141. — Scale i full size.
carried through the centre of the vertical axis, so that the strain on
it may not tend to pull the meter oblique to the current. The pitch
of the screw is about 9 in. The screws at x serve for filling the meter
with water. The whole apparatus is fixed to a rod (fig. 142), of a
length proportionate to the depth, or for very great depths it is
fixed to a weighted bar lowered by ropes, a plan invented by Revy.
The instrument is generally used thus. The reading of the counter is
noted, and it is put out of gear. The meter is
then lowered into the water to the required
position from a platform between two boats,
or better from a temporary bridge. Then the
'counter is put into gear for one, two or five
minutes. Lastly, the instrument is raised
and the counter again read. The velocity is
deduced from the number of rotations in unit
time by the formulae given below. For
surface velocities the counter may be kept
permanently in gear, the screw being started
and stopped by hand.
§ 141. The Harlacher Current Meter. — In
this the ordinary counting apparatus is aban-
doned. A worm drives a worm wheel, which
makes an electrical contact once for each 100
rotations of the worm. This contact gives a
signal above water. With this arrangement,
a series of velocity observations can be made,
without removing the instrument from the
water, and a number of practical difficulties
attending the accurate starting and stopping
of the ordinary counter are entirely got rid
of. Fig. 143 shows the meter. The worm
wheel z makes one rotation for 100 of the
screw. A pin moving the lever x makes the
electrical contact. The wires 6, c are led
through a gas pipe B ; this also serves to
adjust the meter to any required position on
the wooden rod dd. The rudder or vane is
shown at WH. The galvanic current acts on
the electromagnet m, which is fixed in a
small metal box containing also the battery.
The magnet exposes and withdraws a coloured
disk at an opening in the cover of the box.
§ 142. Amsler Laffon Current Meter. — -A
very convenient and accurate current meter
is constructed by Amsler Laffon of Schaff-
hausen. This can be used on a rod, and
put into and out of gear by a ratchet. The
peculiarity in this case is that there is a double ratchet, so that
one pull on the string puts the counter into gear and a second
puts it out of gear. The string may be slack during the action
of the meter, and there is less uncertainty than when the
FIG. 142.
counter has to be held in gear. For deep streams the meter A is
suspended by a wire with a heavy lenticular weight below (fig. 144).
The wire is payed out from a small winch D, with an index showing
the depth of the meter, and passes over a pulley B. The meter is in
gimbals and is directed by a conical rudder which keeps it facing the
stream with its axis horizontal. There is an electric circuit from a
battery C through the meter, and a contact is made closing the circuit
every 100 revolutions. The moment the circuit closes a bell rings.
By a subsidiary arrangement, when the foot of the instrument, 0-3
metres below the axis of the meter, touches the ground the circuit is
also closed and the bell rings. It is easy to distinguish the continuous
ring when the ground is reached from the short ring when the counter
signals. A convenient winch for the wire is so graduated that if
W
H
FIG. 143.
set when the axis of the meter is at the water surface it indicates at
any moment the depth of the meter below the surface. Fig. 144
shows the meter as used on a boat. It is a very convenient instru-
ment for obtaining the velocity at different depths and can also be
used as a sounding instrument.
§ 143. Determination of the Coefficients of the Current Meter. — Sup-
pose a series of observations has been made by towing the meter in
still water at different speeds, and that it is required to ascertain from
these the constants of the meter. If v is the velocity of the water and
« the observed number of rotations per second, let
!) = a+/3« (i)
where a and /3 are constants. Now let the meter be towed over a
measured distance L, and let N be the revolutions of the meter and
/ the time of transit. Then the speed of the meter relatively 10 the
water is L/t = » feet per second, and the number of revolutions per
second is N/t = ». Suppose m observations have been made in this
way, furnishing corresponding values of v and n, the speed in each
trial being as uniform as possible,
2n=ni+n2+ . . .
82
HYDRAULICS
[ON STREAMS
Then for the determination of the constants a and ft in (i), by the
method of least squares —
In a few cases the constants for screw current meters have been
determined by towing them in R. E. Froude's experimental tank in
FIG. 144.
which the resistance of ship models is ascertained. In that case the
data are found with exceptional accuracy.
§ 144. Darcy Gauge or modified Pitot Tube. — A very old instru-
ment for measuring velocities, invented by Henri Pitot in 1730
(Histoire de I' Academic des Sciences, 1732, p. 376), consisted simply
of a vertical glass tube with a right-angled bend, placed so that its
mouth was normal to the direction of flow (fig. 145).
The impact of the stream on the mouth of the tube balances a
column in the tube, the height of which is approximately h = v'/2g,
where v is the velocity
at the depth x. Placed
with its mouth parallel
to the stream the water
inside the tube is nearly
at the same level as the
surface of the stream,
and turned with the
mouth down stream, the
fluid sinks a depth
h' =vi/2g nearly, though
the tube in that case
interferes with the free
B C flow of the liquid and
FIG. 145. somewhat modifies the
result. Pitot expanded
the mouth of the tube so as to form a funnel or bell mouth. In that
case he found by experiment
But there is more disturbance of the stream. Darcy preferred to
make the mouth of the tube very small to avoid interference with the
stream and to check oscillations of the water column. Let the
difference of level of a pair of tubes A and B (fig. 145) be taken to be
h = kv^/2g, then k may be taken to be a corrective coefficient whose
value in well-shaped instruments is very nearly unity. By placing
his instrument in front of a boat towed through water Darcy found
£ = 1.034; by placing the instrument in a stream the velocity of
which had been ascertained by floats, he found k = I -006; by readings
taken in different parts of the section of a canal in which a known
volume of water was flowing, he found k = 0-993. He believed the
first value to be too high in con-
sequence of the disturbance caused
by the boat. The mean of the other
two values is almost exactly unity
(Recherches hydrauliques , Darcy and
Bazin, 1865, p. 63). W. B. Gregory
used somewhat differently formed
Pitot tubes for which the k = I (Am.
Soc. Mech. Eng., 1903, 25). T. E.
Stanton used a Pitot tube in deter-
mining the velocity of an air current,
and for his instrument he found
k _= i -030 to k = i -032 ("On the Re-
sistance of Plane Surfaces in a
Current of Air," Proc. Inst. Civ.
Eng., 1904, 156).
One objection to the Pitot tube
in its original form was the great
difficulty and inconvenience of
reading the height h in the imme-
diate neighbourhood of the stream
surface. This is obviated in the
Darcy gauge, which can be removed
from the stream to be read.
Fig. 146 shows a Darcy gauge.
It consists of two Pitot tubes
having their mouths at right angles.
In the instrument shown, the two
tubes, formed of copper in the
lower part, are united into one for
strength, and the mouths of the
tubes open vertically and horizon-
tally. The upper part of the tubes
is of glass, and they are provided
with a brass scale and two verniers
6, b. The whole instrument is sup-
ported on a vertical rod or small pile
AA, the fixing at B permitting the
instrument to be adjusted to any
height on the rod, and at the same
time allowing free rotation, so that
it can be held parallel to the current.
At c is a two-way cock, which can
be opened or closed by cords. If
this is shut, the instrument can be
lifted out of the stream for reading.
The glass tubes are connected at
top by a brass fixing, with a stop
cock a, and a flexible tube and
mouthpiece m. The use of this is
as follows. If the velocity is re-
quired at a point near the surface of the stream, one at least of
the water columns would be below the level at which it could be
read. It would be in the copper part of the instrument. Suppose
then a little air is sucked out by the tube m, and the cock a
closed, the two columns will be forced up an amount correspond-
ing to the difference between atmospheric pressure and that in the
tubes. But the difference of level will remain unaltered.
When the velocities to be measured are not very small, this instru-
ment is an admirable one. It requires observation only of a single
linear quantity, and does not require any time observation. The
law connecting the velocity and the observed height is a rational
one, and it is not absolutely necessary to make any experiments on
the coefficient of the instrument. If we take v = k-<l(2gh), then it
appears from Darcy's experiments that for a well-formed instrument
k does not sensibly differ from unity. It gives the velocity at a
definite point in the stream. The chief difficulty arises from the fact
that at any given point in a stream the velocity is not absolutely
constant, but varies a little from moment to moment. Darcy in
some of his experiments took several readings, and deduced the
velocity from the mean of the highest and lowest.
§ 145. Perrodil Hydrodynamometer. — This consists of a frame
abed (fig. 147) placed vertically in the stream, and of a height not
less than the stream's depth. The two vertical members of this
frame are connected by cross bars, and united above water by a
circular bar, situated in the vertical plane and carrying a horizontal
graduated circle ef. This whole system is movable round its axis,
being suspended on a pivot at g connected with the fixed support
mn. Other horizontal arms serve as guides. The central vertical
rod gr forms a torsion rod, being fixed at r to the frame abed, and,
passing freely upwards through the guides, it carries a horizontal
AND RIVERS]
HYDRAULICS
needle moving over the graduated circle ef. The support g, which
carries the apparatus, also receives in a tubular guide the end of the
torsion rod gr and a set screw for fixing the upper end of the torsion
rod when necessary. The impulse of the stream of water is received
on a circular disk x, in the plane of the torsion rod and the frame
abed. To raise and lower the apparatus easily, it is not fixed directly
to the rod mn, but to a tube kl sliding on mn.
Suppose the apparatus arranged so that the disk x is at that level
in the stream where the velocity is to be determined. The plane
FIG. 146.
abed is placed parallel to the direction of motion of the water. Then
the disk x (acting as a rudder) will place itself parallel to the stream
on the down stream side of the frame. The torsion rod will be un-
strained, and the needle will be at zero on the graduated circle.
If, then, the instrument is turned by pressing the needle, till the plane
abed of the disk and the zero of the graduated circle is at right angles
to the stream, the torsion rod will be twisted through an angle which
measures the normal impulse of the stream on the disk x. That angle
will be given by the distance of the needle from zero. Observation
shows that the velocity of the water at a given point is not constant.
It varies between limits more or less wide. VVhen the apparatus is
nearly in its right position, the set screw at g is made to clamp the
torsion spring. Then the needle is fixed, and the apparatus carrying
the graduated circle oscillates. It
is not, then, difficult to note the
mean angle marked by the needle.
Let r be the radius of the torsion
rod, / its length from the needle
over ef to r, and a the observed
torsion angle. Then the moment
of the couple due to the molecular
forces in the torsion rod is
M=E,Ia//;
where Ei is the modulus of elas-
ticity for torsion, and I the polar
moment of inertia of the section of
the rod. If the rod is of circular
section, I = j7rr4. Let R be the
radius of the disk, and b its
leverage, or the distance of its
centre from the axis of the torsion
rod. The moment of the pressure
of the water on the disk is
where G is the heaviness of water
and k an experimental coefficient.
Then
0-32
0-66
•I-I2. In the actual
For any given instrument,
"^Vo, FIG. 147. nV
where c is a constant coefficient for
the instrument.
The instrument as constructed had three disks which could be
used at will. Their radii and leverages were in feet
R= b =
1st disk . . . 0-052 0-16
2nd „ ... 0-105
3rd „ ... 0-210
For a thin circular plate, the coefficient k=
instrument the torsion rod was a brass wire 0-06 in. diameter and
6$ ft. long. Supposing a measured in degrees, we get by calculation
f =o-335V<i! o-nsVa; o-o42Vo-
Very careful experiments were made with the instrument. It
was fixed to a wooden turning bridge, revolving over a circular
channel of 2 ft. width, and about 76 ft.fcircumferential length. An
allowance was made for the slight current produced in the channel.
These experiments gave for the coefficient c, in the formula f = cVo,
1st disk, c = 0-3126 for velocities of 3 to 16 ft.
2nd ,, 0-1177 .. .. il to 3i ,,
3rd „ 0-0349 ,. .. less than ij ,,
The instrument is preferable to the current meter in giving the
velocity in terms of a single observed quantity, the angle of torsion,
while the current meter involves the observation of two quantities,
the number of rotations and the time. The current meter, except
in some improved forms, must be withdrawn from the water to read
the result of each experiment, and the law connecting the velocity
and number of rotations of a current meter is less well-determined
than that connecting the pressure on a disk and the torsion of the
wire of a hydrodynamometer.
The Pitot tube, like the hydrodynamometer, does not require a
time observation. But, where the velocity is a varying one, and
consequently the columns of water in the Pitot tube are oscillating,
there is room for doubt as to whether, at any given moment of closing
the cock, the difference of level exactly measures the impulse of
the stream at the moment. The Pitot tube also fails to give measur-
able indications of very low velocities.
PROCESSES FOR GAUGING STREAMS
§ 146. Gauging by Observation of the Maximum Surface Velocity. —
The method of gauging which involves the least trouble is to deter-
mine the surface velocity at the thread of the stream, and to deduce
from it the mean velocity of the whole cross section. The maximum
surface velocity may be determined by floats or by a current meter.
Unfortunately the ratio of the maximum surface to the mean velo-
city is extremely variable. Thus putting v0 for the surface velocity
at the thread of the stream, and vm for the mean velocity of the whole
cross section, vm/v0 has been found to have the following values : —
De Prpny, experiments on small wooden channels 0-8164
Experiments on the Seine 0-62
Destrem and De Prony, experiments on the Neva 0-78
Boileau, experiments on canals 0-82
Baumgartner, experiments on the Garonne . . 0-80
Briinings (mean) 0-85
Cunningham, Solani aqueduct 0-823
84
HYDRAULICS
[ON STREAMS AND RIVERS
Various formulae, either empirical or based on some theory of the
vertical and horizontal velocity curves, have been proposed for
determining the ratio vm/va. Bazin found from his experiments the
empirical expression
where m is the hydraulic mean depth and i the slope of the stream.
In the case of irrigation canals and rivers, it is often important to
determine the discharge either daily or at other intervals of time,
while the depth and consequently the mean velocity is varying.
Cunningham (Roorkee Prof. Papers, iv. 47), has shown that,
for a given part of such a stream, where the bed is regular and of
permanent section, a simple formula may be found for the variation
of the central surface velocity with the depth. When once the
constants of this formula have been determined by measuring the
central surface velocity and depth, in different conditions of the
stream, the surface velocity can be obtained by simply observing the
depth of the stream, and from this the mean velocity and discharge
can be calculated. Let z be the depth of the stream, and v, the surface
velocity, both measured at the thread of the stream. Then V02 = cz;
where c is a constant which for the Solani aqueduct had the values
1-9 to 2, the depths being 6 to 10 ft., and the velocities 33 to 4^ ft.
Without any assumption of a formula, however, the surface velocities,
or still better the mean velocities, for different conditions of the
stream may be plotted 911 a diagram in which the abscissae are depths
and the ordinates velocities. The continuous curve through points so
found would then always give the velocity for any observed depth of
the stream, without the need of making any new float or current
meter observations.
§ 147. Mean Velocity determined by observing a Series of Surface
Velocities. — The ratio of the mean velocity to the surface velocity
in one longitudinal section is better ascertained than the ratio of
the central surface velocity to the mean velocity of the whole cross
section. Suppose the river divided into a number of compartments
by equidistant longitudinal planes, and the surface velocity observed
in each compartment. From this the mean velocity in each com-
partment and the discharge can be calculated. The sum of the
partial discharges will be the total discharge of the stream. When
wires or ropes can be stretched across the stream, the compartments
can be marked out by tags attached to them. Suppose two such
ropes stretched across the stream, and floats dropped in above the
upper rope. By observing within which compartment the path of
the float lies, and noting the time of transit between the ropes, the
surface velocity in each compartment can be ascertained. The
mean velocity in each compartment is 0-85 to 0-91 of the surface
velocity in that compartment. Putting A for this ratio, and
PI, v* . . . for the observed velocities, in compartments of area
Qi, Qt . . . then the total discharge is
AT— -K
If several floats are allowed to pass over each compartment, the
mean of all those corresponding to one compartment is to be taken
as the surface velocity of that compartment.
This method is very applicable in the case of large streams or
rivers too wide to stretch a rope across. The paths of the floats
are then ascertained in this way. Let fig. 148 represent a portion
of the river, which should be straight and free from obstructions.
Suppose a base line AB measured
parallel to the thread of the stream,
and let the mean cross section of
the stream be ascertained either by
sounding the terminal cross sections
AE, BF, or by sounding a series of
equidistant cross sections. The
cross sections are taken at right
angles to the base line. Observers
are placed at A and B with theo-
dolites or box sextants. The floats
are dropped in from a boat above
AE, and picked up by another boat
below BF. An observer with a
chronograph or watch notes the
time in which each float passes
from AE to BF. The method of
proceeding is this. The observer
A sets his theodolite in the direc-
tion AE, and gives a signal to drop
a float. B keeps his instrument
on the float as it comes down. At
the moment the float arrives at
C in the line AE, the observer at
A calls out. B clamps his instrument and reads off the angle ABC,
and the time observer begins to note the time of transit. B now
points his instrument in the direction BF, and A keeps the float on
the cross wire of his instrument. At the moment the float arrives
at D in the line BF, the observer B calls out, A clamps his instru-
ment and reads off the angle BAD, and the time observer notes the
time of transit from C to D. Thus all the data are determined for
plotting the path CD of the float and determining its velocity. By
dropping in a series of floats, a number of surface velocities can be
determined. When all these have been plotted, the river can be
U
FIG. 148
-F
divided into convenient compartments. The observations belonging
to each compartment are then averaged, and the mean velocity and
discharge calculated. It is obvious that, as the surface velocity is
greatly altered by wind, experiments of this kind should be made in
very calm weather.
The ratio of the surface velocity to the mean velocity in the same
vertical can be ascertained from the formulae for the vertical velocity
curve already given (§ 101). Exner, in Erbkam's Zeitschrift for 1875,
gave the following convenient formula. Let v be the mean and V
the surface velocity in any given vertical longitudinal section, the
depth of which is h
V/V = (i +0-I478V *)/(! +0-22I6V h).
If vertical velocity rods are used instead of common floats, the
mean velocity is directly determined for the vertical section in
which the rod floats. No formula of reduction is then necessary.
The observed velocity has simply to be multiplied by the area of
the compartment to which it belongs.
§ 148. Mean Velocity of the Stream from a Series of Mid Depth
Velocities. — In the gaugings of the Mississippi it was found that
the mid depth velocity differed by only a very small quantity from
the mean velocity in the vertical section, and it was uninfluenced by
wind. If therefore a series of mid depth velocities are determined
by double floats or by a current meter, they may be taken to be the
mean velocities of the compartments in which they occur, and no
formula of reduction is necessary. If floats are used, the method
is precisely the same as that described in the last paragraph for sur-
face floats. The paths of the double floats are observed and plotted,
and the mean taken of those corresponding to each of the compart-
ments into which the river is divided. The discharge is the sum of
the products of the observed mean mid depth velocities and the
areas of the compartments.
§ 149. P. P. Boileau' s Process for Gauging Streams. — Let U be the
mean velocity at a given section of a stream, V the maximum velocity,
or that of the principal filament, which is generally a little below the
surface, W and w the greatest and least velocities at the surface.
The distance of the principal filament from the surface is generally
less than one-fourth of the depth of the stream; W is a little less
than V; and U lies between W and w. As the surface velocities
change continuously from the centre towards the sides there are at
the surface two filaments having a velocity equal to U. The deter-
mination of the position of these filaments, which Boileau terms the
gauging filaments, cannot be effected entirely by theory. But, for
sections of a stream in which there are no abrupt changes of depth,
their position can be very approximately assigned. Let A and I be
the horizontal distances of the surface filament, haying the velocity
W, from the gauging filament, which has the velocity U, and from
the bank on one side. Then
c being a numerical constant. From gaugings by Humphreys and
Abbot, Bazin and Baumgarten, the values £=0-919, 0-922 and
0-925 are obtained. Boileau adopts as a mean value 0-922. Hence,
if W and w are determined by float gauging or otherwise, A can
be found, and then a single velocity observation at A ft. from the
filament of maximum velocity gives, without need of any reduction,
the mean velocity of the stream. More conveniently W, w, and U
can be measured from a horizontal surface velocity curve, obtained
from a series of float observations.
§ 1 50. Direct Determination of the Mean Velocity by a Current Meter
or Darcy Gauge. — The only method of determining the mean velocity
at a cross section of a stream which involves no assumption of the
ratio of the mean velocity to other quantities is this — a plank
bridge is fixed across the stream near its surface. From this, velocities
are observed at a sufficient number of points in the cross section of
the stream, evenly distributed over its area. The mean of these is
the true mean velocity of the stream. In Darcy and Bazin's ex-
periments on small streams, the velocity was thus observed at 36
points in the cross section.
When the stream is too large to fix a bridge across it, the observa-
tions may be taken from a boat, or from a couple of boats with a
gangway between them, anchored successively at a series of points
across the width of the stream. The position of the boat for each
series of observations is fixed by angular observations to a base line
on shore.
§ 151. A. R. Harlacher' s Graphic Method of determining the Dis-
charge jrom a Series of Current Meter Observations. — Let ABC (fig.
149) be the cross section of a river at which a complete series of
ffl
FIG. 149.
current meter observations have been taken. Let I., II., III. ... be
the verticals at different points of which the velocities were measured.
HYDRAULIC MACHINES]
HYDRAULICS
E
m
$ 9
Suppose the depths at I., II., III., . . . (fig. 149), set off as vertical
ordinates in fig. 150, and on these vertical ordinates suppose the
velocities set off horizontally at their proper depths. Thus, if v is
the measured velocity at the depth h from the surface in fig. 149, on
vertical marked III., then at III. in fig. 150 take cd = h and ac=v.
Then d is a point in the vertical velocity curve for the vertical III.,
and, all the velocities for that ordinate being similarly set off, the
curve can be drawn. Suppose all the vertical velocity curves I. ...
V. (fig. 150), thus drawn. On each of these figures draw verticals
corresponding to veloci-
ties of x, 2x, 3* ... ft.
per second. Then for
instance cd at III. (fig.
which a velocity of 2x
ft. per second existed
on the vertical III. in
fig. 149 and if cd is set
on at III. in fig. 149 it
gives a point in a curve
passing through points of the section where the velocity was 2x ft.
per second. Set off on each of the verticals in fig. 149 all the depths
thus found in the corresponding diagram in fig. 150. Curves drawn
through the corresponding points on the verticals are curves of
equal velocity.
The discharge of the stream per second may be regarded as a solid
having the cross section of the river (fig. 149) as a base, and cross
FIG. 150.
out in this way. The upper figure shows the section of the river
and the positions of the verticals at which the soundings and gaugings
were taken. The lower gives the curves of equal velocity, worked out
from the current meter observations, by the aid of vertical velocity
curves. The vertical scale in this figure is ten times as great as in
the other. The discharge calculated from the contour curves is
14-1087 cubic metres per second. In the lower figure some other
interesting curves are drawn. Thus, the uppermost dotted curve is
the curve through points at which the maximum velocity was found ;
it shows that the maximum velocity was always a little below the
surface, and at a greater depth at the centre than at the sides. The
next curve shows the depth at which the mean velocity for each
vertical was found. The next is the curve of equal velocity corre-
sponding to the mean velocity of the stream; that is, it passes
through points in the cross section where the velocity was identical
with the mean velocity of the stream.
HYDRAULIC MACHINES
§ 152. Hydraulic machines may be broadly divided into two
classes: (i) Motors, in which water descending from a higher
to a lower level, or from a higher to a lower pressure, gives up
energy which is available for mechanical operations; (2) Pumps,
in which the energy of a steam engine or other motor is expended
in raising water from a lower to a higher level. A few machines
such as the ram and jet pump combine the functions of motor
Left bank-
Maximum surface velocity "V-1-3J 2
Riyht bank.
s? w w *? ":• M e* "? Vs? i>
-.-00 « o "> <" S S fe£ 8£ gjg &£ 5 °> 29-«
1-08 4-80 6-667-30 9-2+ 9-SO 11-82 12-30 !*•* H-80K-92 17-30 19-SJ 19-80 22-15 22-3O 24-8O 27-30
& S
Discharge per Second = Q= 14-10 87 cub'm
Carves of equal velocity.
Transformation ra/io 10:1
• " 3 t i
FIG. 151.
sections normal to the plane of fig. 149 given by the diagrams in fig.
150. The curves of equal velocity may therefore be considered as
contour lines of the solid whose volume is the discharge of the stream
per second. Let Qo be the area of the cross section of the river, HL
BI . . . the areas contained by the successive curves of equal velocity,
or, if these cut the surface of the stream, by the curves and that
surface. Let x be the difference of velocity for which the successive
curves are drawn, assumed above for simplicity at I ft. per second.
Then the volume of the successive layers of the solid body whose
volume represents the discharge, limited by successive planes passing
through the contour curves, will be
ix(no-rA), %x($li+Qi), and so on.
Consequently the discharge is
The areas J2o, fli . . . are easily ascertained by means of the polar
planimeter. A slight difficulty arises in the part of the solid lying
above the last contour curve. This will have generally a height
which is not exactly *, and a form more rounded than the other
layers and less like a conical frustum. The volume of this may be
estimated separately, and taken to be the area of its base (the area
fin) multiplied by 3 to | its height.
Fig. 151 shows the results of one of Harlacher's gaugings worked
and pump. It may be noted that constructively pumps are
essentially reversed motors. The reciprocating pump is a re-
versed pressure engine, and the centrifugal pump a reversed
turbine. Hydraulic machine tools are in principle motors com-
bined with tools, and they now form an important special class.
Water under pressure conveyed in pipes is a convenient and
economical means of transmitting energy and distributing it to
many scattered working points. Hence large and important
hydraulic systems are adopted in which at a central station
water is pumped at high pressure into distributing mains,
which convey it to various points where it actuates hydraulic
motors operating cranes, lifts, dock gates, and in some cases
riveting and shearing machines. In this case the head driving
the hydraulic machinery is artificially created, and it is the con-
venience of distributing power in an easily applied form to distant
points which makes the system advantageous. As there is
some unavoidable loss in creating an artificial head this system
is most suitable for driving machines which work intermittently
86
HYDRAULICS
[IMPACT AND REACTION
(see POWER TRANSMISSION). The development of electrical
methods of transmitting and distributing energy has led to the
utilization of many natural waterfalls so situated as to be useless
without such a means of transferring the power to points where
it can be conveniently applied. In some cases, as at Niagara, the
hydraulic power can only be economically developed in very
large units, and it can be most conveniently subdivided and
distributed by transformation into electrical energy. Partly
from the development of new industries such as paper-making
from wood pulp and electro-metallurgical processes, which
require large amounts of cheap power, partly from the facility
with which energy can now be transmitted to great distances
electrically, there has been a great increase in the utilization
of water-power in countries having natural waterfalls. According
to the twelfth census of the United States the total amount of
water-power reported as used in manufacturing establishments
in that country was 1,130,431 h.p. in 1870; 1,263,343 h.p.
in 1890; and 1,727,258 h.p. in 1900. The increase was 8-4%
in the decade 1870-1880, 3-1% in 1880-1890, and no less than
36-7% in 1890-1900. The increase is the more striking because
in this census the large amounts of hydraulic power which are
transmitted electrically are not included.
XII. IMPACT AND REACTION OF WATER
§ 153. When a stream of fluid in steady motion impinges on a
solid surface, it presses on the surface with a force equal and opposite
to that by which the velocity and direction of motion of the fluid
are changed. Generally, in problems on the impact of fluids, it is
necessary to neglect the effect of friction between the fluid and the
surface on which it moves.
During Impact the Velocity of the Fluid relatively to the Surface on
which it impinges remains unchanged in Magnitude. — Consider a
mass of fluid flowing in contact with a solid surface also in motion,
the motion of both fluid and solid being estimated relatively to the
earth. Then the motion of the fluid may be resolved into two parts,
one a motion equal to that of the solid, and in the same direction, the
other a motion relatively to the solid. The motion which the fluid
has in common with the solid cannot at all be influenced by the con-
tact. The relative component of the motion of the fluid can only be
altered in direction, but not in magnitude. The fluid moving in
contact with the surface can only have a relative motion parallel to
the surface, while the pressure between the fluid and solid, if friction
is neglected, is normal to the surface. The pressure therefore can
only deviate the fluid, without altering the magnitude of the relative
velocity. The unchanged common component and, combined with
it, the deviated relative component give the resultant final velocity,
which may differ greatly in magnitude and direction from the initial
velocity.
From the principle of momentum, the impulse of any mass of
fluid reaching the surface in any given time is equal to the change
of momentum estimated in the same direction. The pressure between
the fluid and surface, in^any direction, Is equal to the change of
momentum in that direction of so much fluid as reaches the surface
in one second. If Po is the pressure in any direction, m the mass
of fluid impinging per second, va the change of velocity in the direction
of Pa due to impact, then
P0=»mi<..
If DI (fig. 152) is the velocity and direction of motion before impact,
vi that after impact, then v is the total change of motion due to
impact. The resultant pressure of the
fluid on the surface is in the direction of
v, and is equal to v multiplied by the mass
impinging per second. That is, putting
P for the resultant pressure,
P = mv.
Let P be resolved into two components,
N and T, normal and tangential to the
direction of motion of the solid on which
the fluid impinges. Then N is a lateral
force producing a pressure on the supports
of the solid, T is an effort which does work on the solid. If u is the
velocity of the solid, Tit is the work done per second by the fluid in
moving the solid surface.
Let Q be the volume, and GQ the weight of the fluid impinging
per second, and let 1/1 be the initial velocity of the fluid before striking
the surface. Then GQvSfeg is the original kinetic energy of Q cub.
ft. of fluid, and the efficiency of the stream considered as an arrange-
ment for moving the solid surface is
§ 154. Jet deviated entirely in one Direction. — Geometrical Solution
(fig- IS3)- — Suppose a jet of water impinges on a surface ac with a
velocity ab, and let it be wholly deviated in planes parallel to the
figure. Also let ae be the velocity and direction of motion of the
surface. Join eb; then the water moves with respect to the surface
in the direction and with the velocity eb. As this relative velocity
is unaltered by contact with the surface, take cd = eb, tangent to the
surface at c, then cd is the relative motion of the water with respect to
the surface at c. Take df equal and parallel to ae. Then/c (obtained
by compounding the relative motion of water to surface and common
velocity of water and surface) is the absolute velocity and direction
FIG. 153.
of the water leaving the surface. Take ag equal and parallel to fc.
Then, since ab is the initial and ag the final velocity and direction of
motion, go is the total change of motion of the water. The resultant
pressure on the plane is in the direction gb. Join eg. In the triangle
gae, ae is equal and parallel to df, and ag to/c. Hence eg is equal and
parallel to cd. But cd — eb = relative motion of water and surface.
Hence the change of motion of the water is represented in magnitude
and direction by the third side of an isosceles triangle, of which the
other sides are equal to the relative velocity of the water and surface,
and parallel to the initial and final directions of relative motion.
SPECIAL CASES
§ 155- (l) A Jet impinges on a plane surface at rest, in a direction
normal to the plane (fig. 154). — Let a jet whose section is u> impinge
with a velocity v on a plane surface at rest,
in a direction normal to the plane. The
particles approach the plane, are gradually
deviated, and finally flow away parallel to
the plane, having then no velocity in the
original direction of the jet. The quantity
of water impinging per second is uv . The
pressure on the plane, which is equal to V
the change of momentum per second, is
(2) // the plane is moving in the direction
of the jet with the velocity *=u, the quantity
impinging per second is tafyfU). The
momentum of this quantity before impact
is (G/g)u(v=f=tt)ti. After impact, the water
still possesses the velocity =*=« in the
direction of the jet; and the momentum,
in that direction, of so much water as
impinges in one second, after impact, is
±(G/g)u>(»=i=tt)tt. The pressure on the
plane, which is the change of momentum
per second, is the difference of these quantities or P = (G/g)o>(ti=?=«)2.
This differs from the expression obtained in the previous case,
in that the relative velocity of the water and plane v*=u is sub-
stituted for t». The expression maybe written P = 2XGX">(i'=i=«)2/2gr
where the last two terms are the volume of a prism of water whose
section is the area of the jet and whose length is the head due
to the relative velocity. The pressure on the plane is twice the
weight of that prism of water. The work done when the plane
FIG. 154.
OF WATER]
HYDRAULICS
87
is moving in the same direction as the jet is Pu = (G/g)<a(v-u)tu
foot-pounds per second. There issue from the jet COD cub. ft.
per second, and the energy of this quantity before impact is
(G/2g)wv3. The efficiency of the jet is therefore 7; = 2 (v — u)*u/v3.
The value of « which makesthisa maximum isfound bydifferentiating
and equating the differential coefficient to zero : —
.'. u=v or Ji>.
The former gives a minimum, the latter a maximum efficiency.
Putting w = 311 in the expression above,
ij max. =-/y.
(3) If, instead of one plane moving before the jet, a scries of planes
are introduced at short intervals at the same point, the quantity of
water impinging on the series will be cot) instead of ta(v-u), and the
whole pressure = (G/g)uv(v — u). The work done is (G/g)<avu(v-u).
The efficiency •n = (G/g)iavu(v-u)-T-(G/2g)av3 = 2u(v-u)/v2. This be-
comes a maximum for di)/du = 2(v-2u) =o, or u = %v, and the 7j = J.
This result is often used as an approximate expression for the velocity
of greatest efficiency when a jet of water strikes the floats of a water
wheel. The work wasted in this case is half the whole energy of the
jet when the floats run at the best speed.
§ 1 56. (4) Case of a Jet impinging on a Concave Cup Vane, velocity
of water v, velocity of vane in the same direction u (fig. 155), weight
impinging per second = Gw(v — u).
If the cup is hemispherical, the water leaves the cup in a
direction parallel to the jet. Its relative velocity is v-u when ap-
proaching the cup, and
— (v - u) when leaving it.
Hence its absolute velocity
when leaving the cup is
M - (v - u) = 2u- v. The
change of momentum per
second = (G/g)w(f-«) (i>-
(2M-t>)} = 2(G/g)co(t>-w)2.
Comparing this with case 2,
it is seen that the pressure
on a hemispherical cup is
double that on a flat plane.
The work done on the
cup=2(G/g)co (t>-«)2« foot-
2li-v
FIG. 155.
pounds per second. The efficiency of the jet is greatest when v =
in that case the efficiency = 4?.
If a series of cup vanes are introduced in front of the jet, so that the
quantity of water acted upon is <av instead of a>(»-«), then the whole
pressure on the chain of cups is (G/g)a>r(r-(2«-r)j =2(G/g)av(v-u).
In this case the efficiency is greatest when v = 2u, and the maximum
efficiency is unity, or all the energy of the water is expended on the
cups.
§157- (5) Caseofa FlatVane oblique to the Jet (fig.156). — Thiscase
presents some difficulty. The water spreading on the plane in all
FIG. 156.
directions from the point of impact, different particles leave the plane
with different absolute velocities. Let AB=t> = velocity of water,
AC =« = velocity of plane. Then, completing the parallelogram,
AD represents in magnitude and direction the relative velocity of
water and plane. Draw AE normal to the plane and DE parallel to
the plane. Then the relative velocity AD may be regarded as con-
sisting of two components, one AE normal, the other DE parallel to
the plane. On the assumption that friction is insensible, DE is
unaffected by impact, but AE is destroyed. Hence AE represents
the entire change of velocity due to impact and the direction of
that change. The pressure on the plane is in the direction AE, and
its amount is = mass of water impinging per second X AE.
Let DAE =9, and let AD =&y. Then AE =vr cos 6 ; DE =»r sin 8.
If Q is the volume of water impinging on the plane per second,
the change of momentum is (G/g)Qiv cos 0. Let AC = u=velocity
of the plane, and let AC make the angle CAE=8 with the normal
to the plane. The velocity of the plane in the direction AE =
u cos S. The work of the jet on the plane = (G/g)Qfr cos 8 u cos 5.
The same problem may be thus treated algebraically (fig. 157).
Let BAF = a, and CAF =6. The velocity v of the water may be de-
composed into AF=t> cos a normal to the plane, and FB=u sin a
parallel to the plane. Similarly the velocity of the plane =u =AC =
BD can be decomposed into BG = FE = M cos 5 normal to the plane,
and DG = u sin 8 parallel to the plane. As friction is neglected, the
velocity of the water parallel to the plane is unaffected by the im-
pact, but its component v cos a normal to the plane becomes after
impact the same as that of the plane, that is, u cos 5. Hence the
change of velocity during impact = AE=» cos a-u cos S. The
change of momentum per second, and consequently the normal
d FIG. 157.
pressure on the plane is N = (G/g) Q (v cos a-wcos 8). The pressure
in the direction m which the plane is moving is P = N cos 8 = (G/g)Q
(v cos a-u cos 8) cos 8, and the work done on the plane is PM =
(G/g)Q(f cos a-u cos 5) u cos 5, which is the same expression as
before, since AE =vr cos 8 —v cos a—u cos 8.
In one second the plane moves so that the point A (fig. 158) comes
to C, or from the position
shown in full lines to the
position shown in dotted
lines. If the plane remained
stationary, a length AB =w
of the jet would impinge on
the plane, but, since the plane
moves in the same direction
as the jet, only the length
HB = AB-AH impinges, on
the plane.
But AH = AC cos SI cos o =
u cos 8/ cos a, and therefore
HB =v— u cos S/ cos o. Let
oj = sectional area of jet ;
volume impinging on plane p _ leR
per second =Q=a(v-u cos
8/cos a)=u(i> cos a-u cos 8)/ cos a. Inserting this in the formulae
above, we get
B
cos a-u cos 8)2;
(v cos a-ttcos S)2;
(i)
(2)
(3)
cos o
Three cases may be distinguished : —
(o) The plane is at rest. Then «=o, N = (G/g)o>ti2 cos a; and the
work done on the plane and the efficiency of the jet are zero.
(6) The plane moves parallel to the jet. Then 8 = 0, and P« =
(G/g) o>Mcos2a(ti—«)2, which is a maximum when u = \v.
When U = \TI then Pu max. = ^?(G/g)wt)s cos 2a, and the efficiency
= !? = j COS 2O.
(c) The plane moves perpendicularly to the jet. Then 8 = go°-a;
cos 5 = sin a; and PM= — uMSln a(v cos o-wsin o)2. This is a maxi-
g cos a
mum when « = |» cos a.
When u = Ju cos o, the maximum work and the efficiency are the
same as in the last case.
§ 158. Best Form of Vane to receive Water. — When water impinges
normally or obliquely on a plane, it is scattered in all directions
after impact, and the work carried away by the water is then gener-
ally lost, from the impossibility of dealing afterwards with streams of
water deviated in so many directions. By suitably forming the vane,
FIG. 159.
however, the water may be entirely deviated in one direction, and
the loss of energy from agitation of the water is entirely avoided.
Let AB (fig. 159) be a vane, on which a jet of water impinges at
the point A and in the direction AC. Take AC =v = velocity of
88
HYDRAULICS
[IMPACT AND REACTION
water, and let AD represent in magnitude and direction the velocity
of the vane. Completing the parallelogram, DC or AE represents the
direction in which the water is moving relatively to the vane. If
the lip of the vane at A is tangential to AE, the water will not have
its direction suddenly changed when it impinges on the vane, and
will therefore have no tendency to spread laterally. On the contrary
it will be so gradually deviated that it will glide up the vane in the
direction AB. This is sometimes expressed by saying that the vane
receives the water without shock,
§ 159. Floats of Poncelet Water Wheels. — Let AC (fig. 160) repre-
sent the direction of a thin horizontal stream of water having the
A,
FIG. 160.
™
velocity v. Let AB be a curved float moving horizontally with
velocity u. The relative motion of water and float is then initially
horizontal, and equal to v — u.
In order that the float may receive the water without shock, it is
necessary and sufficient that the lip of the float at A should be
tangential to the direction AC of relative motion. At the end of
(v— u)/g seconds the float moving with the velocity « comes to the
position AiB,, and during this time a particle of water received at
A and gliding up the float with the relative velocity v — u, attains a
height DE = (»— «)2/2£. At E the water comes to relative rest. It
then descends along the float, and when after 2(v—u)/g seconds the
float has come to A2B2 the water will again have reached the lip at
A2 and will quit it tangentially, that is, in the direction CA2, with
a relative velocity — (» — «) = —V (2gDE) acquired under the influ-
ence of gravity. The absolute velocity of the water leaving the float
is therefore u — (v — u)=2u—v. If u = % v, the water will drop off the
bucket deprived of all energy of motion. The whole of the work
of the jet must therefore have been expended in driving the float.
The water will have been received without shock and discharged
without velocity. This is the principle of the Poncelet wheel, but
in that case the floats move over an arc of a large circle; the stream
of water has considerable thickness (about 8 in.); in order to get
the water into and out of the wheel, it is then necessary that the lip
of the float should make a small angle (about 15°) with the direction
of its motion. The water quits the wheel with a little of its energy of
motion remaining.
§ 1 60. Pressure on a Curved Surface when the Water is deviated
wholly in one Direction. — When a jet of water, impinges on a curved
surface in such a direction that it is received without shock, the
pressure on the surface is due to its gradual deviation from its first
direction. On any portion of the area the pressure is equal and
opposite to the force required to cause the deviation of so much
water as rests on that surface. In common language, it is equal
to the centrifugal force of that quantity of water.
Case I. Surface Cylindrical and Stationary. — Let AB (fig. 161)
be the surface, having its axis at O and its radius =r. Let the
water impinge at A tangentially,
and quit the surface tangentially
at B. Since the surface is at rest,
v is both the absolute velocity of
the water and the velocity relatively
to the surface, and this remains un-
changed during contact with the
surface, because the deviating force
is at each point perpendicular to
the direction of motion. The water
is deviated through an angle
BCD=AOB=<#>. Each particle of
water of weight p exerts radially
a centrifugal force pv*/rg. Let the
thickness of the stream = / ft. Then
the weight of water resting on
Ib; and the normal pressure per unit of
n = Gtv*/gr. The resultant of the radial pressures uni-
formly distributed from A to B will be a force acting in the
direction OC bisecting AOB, and its magnitude will equal that of a
force of intensity = n, acting on the projection of AB on a plane
perpendicular to the direction OC. The length of the chord AB =
2r sin %<i>; let 6 = breadth of the surface perpendicular to the plane
of the figure. The resultant pressure on surface
unit of
surface
FIG. 161.
surface = G<
2 g r g
which is independent of the radius of curvature. It may be inferred
that the resultant pressure is the same for any curved surface of the
same projected area, which deviates the water through the same
angle.
Case 2. Cylindrical Surface moving in the Direction AC with Velo-
city u. — The relative velocity = v — u. The final velocity BF (fig. 162)
is found by combining the relative velocity BD=zi — u tangential to
the surface with the velocity BE = M of the surface. The intensity of
normal pressure, as in the last case, is (G/g)t(v—u)2/r. The resultant
FIG. 162.
normalpressureR = 2(G/g)6/(i> — w)2sin J </>. This resultant pressure
may be resolved into two components P and L.one parallel and the
other perpendicular to the direction of the vane's motion. The
former is an effort doing work on the vane. The latter is a lateral
force which does no work.
P = R sin j* = (G/g)i/(u — M)S(I —cos*) ;
The work done by the jet on the vane is Pu = (G/g)btu(v — tt)*(i-
cos 4>), which is a maximum when u = \v. This result can also be
obtained by considering that the work done on the plane must be
equal to the energy lost by the water, when friction is neglected.
If *=i8o°, cos <#>=— i, i— cos <t> = 2; then P = 2(G/g)bt(v-u)',
the same result as for a concave cup.
§ 161. Position which a Movable Plane takes in Flowing Water. —
When a rectangular plane, movable about an axis parallel to one of
its sides, is placed in an in-
definite current of fluid, it
takes a position such that the
resultant of the normal pres-
sures on the two sides of the
axis passes through the axis.
If, therefore, planes pivoted
so that the ratio a/b (fig. 163)
is varied are placed in water,
and the angle they make with
the direction of the stream is
observed, the position of the
resultant of the pressures on FIG. 163.
the plane is determined for
different angular positions. Experiments of this kind have been
made by Hagen. Some of his results are given in the following
table: —
Larger plane.
Smaller Plane.
a/b = I -o
</>=...
0 = 90°
0-9
75°
72i°
0-8
60°
57°
07
48°
43°
0-6
25°
29°
o-5
13°
13°
0-4
8°
6J°
0-3
6J°
0-2
4°
§ 162. Direct Action distinguished from Reaction (Rankine, Steam
Engine, § 147).
The pressure which a jet exerts on a vane can be distinguished
into two parts, viz.: —
(1) The pressure arising from changing the direct component of
the velocity of the water into the velocity of the vane. In fig.
!53- § '54' ao c°s bae is the direct component of the water's velocity,
or component in the direction of motion of vane. This is changed
into the velocity ae of the vane. The pressure due to direct impulse
is then
PI =GQ(a6 cos bae—ae)/g.
For a flat vane moving normally, this direct action is the only action
producing pressure on the vane.
(2) The term reaction is applied to the additional action due to
the direction and velocity with which the water glances off the
vane. It is this which is diminished by the friction between the
water and the vane. In Case 2, § 160, the direct pressure is
That due to reaction is
Pa- -
If 4><90°, the direct component of the water's motion is not
wholly converted into the velocity of the vane, and the whole
OF WATER]
HYDRAULICS
89
pressure due to direct impulse is not obtained. If <t>>go°, cos ^ is
negative and an additional pressure due to reaction is obtained.
§ 163. Jet Propeller. — In the case of vessels propelled by a jet of
water (fig. 164), driven stern wards from orifices at the side of the
vessel, the water, originally at rest out-
side the vessel, is drawn into the ship
and caused to move with the forward
velocity V of the ship. Afterwards it is
projected sternwards from the jets with
a velocity v relatively to the ship, or
ti— V relatively to the earth. If U is
the total sectional area of the jets, Qv is
the quantity of water discharged per
second. The momentum generated per
second in a sternward direction is
u — V), and this is equal to the forward acting reaction P
O
FIG. 164.
which propels the ship.
The energy carried away by the water
(I)
(2)
Adding (i) and (2), we get the whole work expended on the water,
neglecting friction : —
The useful work done on the ship
Hence the efficiency of the jet propeller is
PV/W=2V/(i>+V). (3)
This increases towards unity as v approaches V. In other words,
the less the velocity of the jets exceeds that of the ship, and there-
fore the greater the area of the orifice of discharge, the greater is the
efficiency of the propeller.
In the " Waterwitch " v was about twice V. Hence in this case
the theoretical efficiency of the propeller, friction neglected, was
about f.
§ 164. Pressure of a Steady Stream in a Uniform Pipe on a Plane
normal to the Direction of Motion. — Let CD (fig. 165) be a plane
placed normally to the stream which, for simplicity, may be sup-
posed to flow horizontally. The fluid filaments are deviated in
front of the plane, form a contraction at AiAi, and converge again,
leaving a mass of eddying water behind the plane. Suppose the
section AoAo taken at a point where the parallel motion has not
begun to be disturbed, and A2A2 where the parallel motion is re-
established. Then since the same quantity of water with the same
velocity passes AoAo, A2A2 in any given time, the external forces
produce no change of momentum on the mass AoAoA2A2, and must
therefore be in equilibrium. If Ji is the section of the stream at
AoAo or A2A2, and o> the area of the plate CD, the area of the con-
tracted section of the stream at AiAi will be cc(O— &>), where cc is the
coefficient of contraction. Hence, if v is the velocity at AoAo or A2A2,
and i>! the velocity at AiAi,
..ic.
Let pa, pi, pi be the pressures at the three sections. Applying
Bernoulli's theorem to the sections AoAo and AiAi,
2g
Also, for the sections AiAi and A2A2, allowing that the head due
to the relative velocity Vi— v is lost in shock: —
Pi ,vf_p2 . f2 , fa -i')2
+-+
2g
or, introducing the value in (i),
(2)
(3)
Now the external forces in the direction of motion acting on the
mass AoA0A2A2 are the pressures p&l, , — p£l at the ends, and the
reaction — R of the plane on the water, which is equal and opposite
to the pressure of the water on the plane. As these are in equilibrium,
(A)
an expression like that for the pressure of an isolated jet on an
indefinitely extended plane, with the addition of the term in brackets,
which depends only on the areas of the stream and the plane. For
a given plane, the expression in brackets diminishes as Q increases.
If B/w = p, the equation (4) becomes
which is of the form
R=Go)(r2/2g)K,
where K depends only on the ratio of the sections of the stream and
plane.
For example, let cc = o-85, a value which is probable, if we allow
that the sides of the pipe act as internal borders to an orifice. Then
I
2
3
4
5
10
50
IOO
K =
00
3-66
1-75
1-29
I-IO
•94
2-OO
3-50
The assumption that the coefficient of contraction c, is constant
for different values of p is probably only true when p is not very
large. Further, the increase of K for large values of p is contrary to
experience, and hence it may be inferred that the assumption that
all the filaments have a common velocity Hi at the section AiAi and
a common velocity v at the section A2A2 is not true when the stream
is very much larger than the plane. Hence, in the expression
,
Vi=vp/cc(p—l), t)2 = rp/(p — i).
R = KiGu»2/2g,
K must be determined by experiment in each special case. For a
cylindrical body putting a for the section, cc for the coefficient of
contraction, c»(J2— w) for the area of the stream at AiAi,
or, putting
Then
where
.
Taking cc = o-8s and p = 4, Ki =0-467, a value less than before.
Hence there is less pressure on the cylinder than on the thin plane.
§ 165. Distribution of Pressure on a Surface on which a Jet impinges
normally. — The principle of momentum gives readily enough the
total or resultant pressure of a jet impinging on a plane surface, but
in some cases it is useful to know the distribution of the pressure.
The problem in the case in which
the plane is struck normally, and
the jet spreads in all directions, is
one of great complexity, but even
in that case the maximum intensity
of the pressure is easily assigned.
Each layer of water flowing from
an orifice is gradually deviated
(fig. 1 66) by contact with the sur-
face, and during deviation exercises
a centrifugal pressure towards the
_. axis of the jet. The force exerted
by each small mass of water is
normal to its path and inversely as
FIG. 166. the radius of curvature of the path.
Hence the greatest pressure on the
plane must be at the axis of the jet, and the pressure must decrease
from the axis outwards, in some such way as is shown by the curve
of pressure in fig. 167, the branches of the curve being probably
asymptotic to the plane.
For simplicity suppose the jet is a vertical one. Let hi (fig. 167) be
the depth of the orifice from the free surface, and fi the velocity of
discharge. Then, if w is the area of the orifice, the quantity of water
impinging on the plane is obviously
Q=(d»i=a>V(2g/,i);
that is, supposing the orifice rounded, and neglecting the coefficient
of discharge.
The velocity with which the fluid reaches the plane is, however,
greater than this, and may reach the value
where h is the depth of the plane below the free surface. The
external layers of fluid subjected throughout, after leaving the
orifice, to the atmospheric pressure will attain the velocity v, and
will flow away with this velocity unchanged except by friction.
The layers towards the interior of the jet, being subjected to a pressure
greater than atmospheric pressure, will attain a less velocity, and so
much less as they are nearer the centre of the jet. But the pressure
9o
HYDRAULICS
[IMPACT AND REACTION
can in no case exceed the pressure iPJ2g or h measured in feet of
water, or the direction of motion of the water would be reversed, and
there would be reflux. Hence the maximum intensity of the pressure
FIG. 167.
of the jet on the plane is h ft. of water. If the pressure curve is
drawn with pressures represented by feet of water, it will touch the
free water surface at the centre of the jet.
Suppose the pressure curve rotated so as to form a solid of revolu-
tion. The weight of water contained in that solid is the total
pressure of the jet on the surface, which has already been deter-
mined. Let V = volume of this solid, then GV is its weight in pounds.
Consequently
GV = (G/g)wt»i»;
V=2«V(AA,).
We have already, therefore, two conditions to be satisfied by the
pressure curve.
Some very interesting experiments on the distribution of pressure
on a surface struck by a jet have been made by J. S. Beresford
(Prof. Papers on Indian Engineering, No. cccxxii.), with a view to
afford information as to the forces acting on the aprons of weirs.
Cylindrical jets i in. to 2 in. diameter, issuing from a vessel in
which the water level was constant, were allowed to fall vertically
on a brass plate 9 in. in diameter. A small hole in the brass plate
communicated by a flexible tube with a vertical pressure column.
Arrangements were made by which this aperture could be moved
fa in. at a time across the area struck by the jet. The height of the
pressure column, for each position of the aperture, gave the pressure
at that point of the area struck by the jet. When the aperture was
o os 1-6
Distance from axis of let ID inches.
FIG. 1 68. — Curves of Pressure of Jets impinging normally on a Plane.
exactly in the axis of the jet, the pressure column was very nearly
level with the free surface in the reservoir supplying the jet ; that is,
the pressure was very nearly n2/2g. As the aperture moved away from
the axis of the jet, the pressure diminished, and it became insensibly
small at a distance from the axis of the jet about equal to the dia-
meter of the jet. Hence, roughly, the pressure due to the jet extends
over an area about four times the area of section of the jet.
Fig. 168 shows the pressure curves obtained in three experiments
with three jets of the sizes shown, and with the free surface level in
the reservoir at the heights marked.
Experiment i.
Jet "475 in. diameter.
Experiment 2.
Jet '988 in. diameter.
Experiment 3.
Jet 19' 5 in. diameter.
llj
•a .
***
1
Si
.9
il
1
||j
•~
<J
1
S3--
I-E
It
ffi
l-s
1*3
J.s
ll
*H u-^
aj.9
I*
OJ-S
"I
B*^
tj.s
gjs
c «3
.3 rt «*
3«
.£P*C 'rt
52*^5
rt ""~i
!'• ^
.^•t 'a
rt --^
Eft ®
i«s
«°
(5
"OSJ
s"3
1
xZZ
r°
1
43
O
40-5
42-15
o
42
27-15
o
26-9
•05
39-40
•05
41-9
•08
26-9
•I
37'5-39-S
•I
41-5-41-8
•13
26-8
•15
35
•15
41
•18
26-5-26-6
•2
33-5-37
•2
40-3
•23
26-4-26-5
•25
31
•25
39-2
•28
26-3-26-6
•3
21-27
•3
37-5
27
•33
26-2
•35
21
•35
34-8
•38
25-9
•4
H
•45
27
•43
25-5
•45
8
42 25
•5
23
•48
25
•5
3-5
•55
18-5
•53
24-5
•55
i
•6
13
•58
24
•6
o-5
•65
8-3
•63
23-3
•65
0
•7
5
•68
22-5
•75
3
•73
21-8
•8
2-2
•78
21
42 15
•85
1-6
•83
20-3
,,
•95
I
•88
19-3
•93
18
•98
17
265
•13
13-5
•18
12-5
•23
10-8
•28
9-5
•33
8
•38
7
•43
6-3
•48
5
•53
4'3
•58
3'5
•9
2
As the general form of the pressure curve has been already indi-
cated, it may be assumed that its equation is of the form
y=a&-*1- (i)
But it has already been shown that for x = o, y = h, hence a = h.
To determine the remaining constant, the other condition may be
used, that the solid formed by rotating the pressure curve represents
the total pressure on the plane. The volume of the solid is
V =
r°°
J 0 2*xydx
b ''xdx
= rh/\og,b.
Using the coridition already stated,
log, fr = (*-/
Putting the value of b in (2) in eq. (i), and also r for the radius of
the jet at the orifice, so that w=irc2, the equation to the pressure
curve is
§ 1 66. Resistance of a Plane moving through a Fluid, or Pressure
of a Current on a Plane. — When a thin plate moves through the
air, or through an indefinitely large mass of still water, in a direction
normal to its surface, there is an excess of pressure on the anterior
face and a diminution of pressure on the posterior face. Let v be
the relative velocity of the plate and fluid, J2 the area of the plate, G
the density of the fluid, h the height due to the velocity, then the
total resistance is expressed by the equation
R =/Gfl ti2/2g pounds
where /is a coefficient having about the value 1-3 for a plate moving
in still fluid, and I -8 for a current impinging on a fixed plane, whether
the fluid is air or water. The difference in the value of the coefficient
in the two cases is perhaps due to errors of experiment. There is a
similar resistance to motion in the case of all bodies of " unfair "
form, that is, in which the surfaces over which the water slides are
not of gradual and continuous curvature.
The stress between the fluid and plate arises chiefly in this way.
WATER MOTORS]
HYDRAULICS
91
The streams of fluid deviated in front of the plate, supposed for
definiteness to be moving through the fluid, receive from it forward
momentum. Portions of this forward moving water are thrown off
laterally at the edges of the plate, and diffused through the surround-
ing fluid, instead of falling to their original position behind the
plate. Other portions of comparatively still water are dragged into
motion to fill the space left behind the plate; and there is thus a
pressure less than hydrostatic pressure at the back of the plate. The
whole resistance to the motion of the plate is the sum of the excess of
pressure in front and deficiency of pressure behind. This resistance
is independent of any friction or viscosity in the fluid, and is due
simply to its inertia resisting a sudden change of direction at the
edge of the plate.
Experiments made by a whirling machine, in which the plate is
fixed on a long arm and moved circularly, gave the following values
of the coefficient /. The method is not free from objection, as the
centrifugal force causes a flow outwards across the plate.
Approximate
Area of Plate
in sq. ft.
Values of/.
Borda.
Hutton.
Thibault.
0-13
0-25
0-63
I«II
1-39
1-49
I '64
1-24
i-43
I-525
1-784
There is a steady increase of resistance with the size of the plate,
in part or wholly due to centrifugal action.
P. L. G. Dubuat (1734-1809) made experiments on a plane I ft.
square, moved in a straight line in water at 3 to 6j ft. per second.
Calling m the coefficient of excess of pressure in front, and n the
coefficient of deficiency of pressure behind, so that f=m+n, he
found the following values: —
m = i;n = o-433;/=i-433.
The pressures were measured by pressure columns. Experiments
by A. J. Morin (1795-1880), G. Piobert (1793-1871) and I. Didion
(1798-1878) on plates of 0-3 to 2-7 sq. ft. area, drawn vertically
through water, gave/=2-i8; but the experiments were made in a
reservoir of comparatively small depth. For similar plates moved
through air they found /= I -36, a result more in accordance with
those which precede.
For a fixed plane in a moving current of water E. Mariotte found
/=i-25. Dubuat, in experiments in a current of water like those
mentioned above, obtained the values m = i-l86; 71=0-670; /=
1-856. Thibault exposed to wind pressure planes of 1-17 and 2-5
sq. ft. area, and found /to vary from 1-568 to 2-125, the mean value
being /= I -834, a result agreeing well with Dubuat.
§ 167. Stanton' s Experiments on the Pressure of Air on Surfaces. —
At the National Physical Laboratory, London, T. E. Stanton carried
put a series of experiments on the distribution of pressure on surfaces
in a current of air passing through an air trunk. These were on a
small scale but with exceptionally accurate means of measurement.
These experiments differ from those already given in that the plane
is small relatively to the cross section of the curre'nt (Proc. Inst.
Civ. Eng. clvi., 1904). Fig. 169 shows the distribution of pressure
on a square plate, ab is the plate in
vertical section, acb the distribution
of pressure on the windward and adb
that on the leeward side of the central
section. Similarly aeb is the distribu-
tion of pressure on the windward and
afb on the leeward side of a diagonal
section. The intensity of pressure at
the centre of the plate on the windward
side was in all cases p = Gv*/2j> Ib per
sq. ft., where G is the weight ofa cubic
foot of air and » the velocity of the
current in ft. per sec. On the leeward
side the negative pressure is uniform
except near the edges, and its value
depends on the form of the plate. For
a circular plate the pressure on the
leeward side was 0-48 Gr2/2g and for
a rectangular plate 0-66 Gi>2/2g. For
circular or square plates the resultant
pressure on the plate was P =0-00126
if ft per sq. ft. where v is the velocity
of the current in ft. per sec. On a long
narrow rectangular plate the resultant pressure was nearly 60%
greater than on a circular plate. In later tests on larger planes in
free air, Stanton found resistances 18% greater than those observed
with small planes in the air trunk.
§ 168. Case when the Direction of Motion is oblique to the Plane. —
The determination of the pressure between a fluid and surface in this
case is of importance in many practical questions, for instance, in
assigning the load due to wind pressure on sloping and curved roofs,
and experiments have been made by Hutton, Vince, and Thibault on
planes moved circularly through air and water on a whirling machine.
FIG. 169.
Let AB (fig. 170) be a plane moving in the direction R makin
an angle <t> with the plane. The resultant pressure between the fluii
and the plane will be a normal
pressure N. The component R
of this normal pressure is the
resistance to the motion of the
plane and the other component
L is a lateral force resisted by
the guides which support the
plane. Obviously
R = N sin <t>;
L = N cos <£.
In the case of wind pressure on
a sloping roof surface, R is the
horizontal and L the vertical
component of the normal pres-
N
FIG. 170.
In experiments with the whirling machine it is the resistance to
motion, R, which is directly measured. Let P be the pressure on a
plane moved normally through a fluid. Then, for the same plane
inclined at an angle <t> to its direction of motion, the resistance was
found by Hutton to be
R = P(sin 4.) 1-842 cos*.
A simpler and more convenient expression given by Colonel
Duchemin is
Consequently, the total pressure between the fluid and plane is
N =2? sin <t>/(i +sin2 <t>) =2P/(cosec <t> + sin <#>),
and the lateral force is
L = 2P sin 0 cos <£/(i -fsin2 <t>).
In 1872 some experiments were made for the Aeronautical Society
on the pressure of air on oblique planes. These plates, of I to 2 ft.
square, were balanced by ingenious mechanism designed by F. H.
Wenham and Spencer Browning, in such a manner that both the
pressure in the direction of the air current and the lateral force were
separately measured. These planes were placed opposite a blast
from a fan issuing from a wooden pipe 18 in. square. The pressure of
the blast varied from -ft to I in. of water pressure. The following are
thejresults given in pounds per square foot of the plane, and a com-
parison of the experimental results with the pressures given by
Duchemin's rule. These last values are obtained by .taking P =3-31,
the observed pressure on a normal surface :—
Angle between Plane and Direction )
of Blast \
15°
20°
60°
90°
Horizontal pressure R . . . .
Lateral pressure L
0-4
1-6
1-65
1-605
0-61
1-96
2-05
2-027
273
1-26
3-01
3-276
3-3i
3-31
3-31
Normal pressure VL2 + R2 .
Normal pressure by Duchemin's rule
WATER MOTORS
In every system of machinery deriving energy from a natural
water-fall there exist the following parts: —
1. A supply channel or head race, leading the water from the
highest accessible level to the site of the machine. This may be
an open channel of earth, masonry or wood, laid at as small a
slope as is consistent with the delivery of the necessary supply of
water, or it may be a closed cast or wrought-iron pipe, laid at
the natural slope of the ground, and about 3 ft. below the surface.
In some cases part of the head race is an open channel, part
a closed pipe. The channel often starts from a small storage
reservoir, constructed near the stream supplying the water motor,
in which the water accumulates when the motor is not working.
There are sluices or penstocks by which the supply can be cut
off when necessary.
2. Leading from the motor there is a tail race, culvert, or
discharge pipe delivering the water after it has done its work
at the lowest convenient level.
3. A waste channel, weir, or bye- wash is placed at the origin
of the head race, by which surplus water, in floods, escapes.
4. The motor itself, of one of the kinds to be described presently,
which either overcomes a useful resistance directly, as in the case
of a ram acting on a lift or crane chain, or indirectly by actuating
transmissive machinery, as when a turbine drives the shafting,
belting and gearing of a mill. With the motor is usually com-
bined regulating machinery for adjusting the power and speed
to the work done. This may be controlled in some cases by
automatic governing machinery.
HYDRAULICS
[WATER MOTORS
§ 169. Water Motors with Artificial Sources of Energy. — The
great convenience and simplicity of water motors has led to their
adoption in certain cases, where no natural source of water
power is available. In these cases, an artificial source of water
power is created by using a steam-engine to pump water to a
reservoir at a great elevation, or to pump water into a closed
reservoir in which there is great pressure. The water flowing
from the reservoir through hydraulic engines gives back the
energy expended, less so much as has been wasted by friction.
Such arrangements are most useful where a continuously acting
steam engine stores up energy by pumping the water, while the
work done by the hydraulic engines is done intermittently.
§ 170. Energy of a- Water-fall. — Let H, be the total fall of level from
the point where the water is taken from a natural stream to the
point where it is discharged into it again. Of this total fall a portion,
which can be estimated independently, is expended in overcoming
the resistances of the head and tail races or the supply and discharge
pipes. Let this portion of head wasted be I),.. Then the available
head to work the motor is H =Hi — f)r. It is this available head which
should be used in all calculations of the proportions of the motor.
Let Q be the supply of water per second. Then GQH foot-pounds
per second is the gross available work of the fall. The power of the
fall may be utilized in three ways, (a) The GQ pounds of water may
be placed on a machine at the highest level, and descending in con-
tact with it a distance of H ft., the work done will be (neglecting
losses from friction or leakage) GQH foot-pounds per second. (6)
Or the water may descend in a closed pipe from the higher to the
lower level, in which case, with the same reservation as before, the
pressure at the foot of the pipe will be p = GH pounds per square foot.
If the water with this pressure acts on a movable piston like that
of a steam engine, it will drive the piston so that the volume described
is Q cubic feet per second. Then the work done will be pQ = GHQ
foot-pounds per second as before, (c) Or lastly, the water may be
allowed to acquire the velocity v = V 2gH by its descent. The kinetic
energy of Q cubic feet will then be iGOy/g = GQH, and if the water
is allowed to impinge on surfaces suitably curved which bring it
finally to rest, it will impart to these the same energy as in the
previous cases. Motors which receive energy mainly in the three
ways described in (a), (b), (c) may be termed gravity, pressure and
inertia motors respectively. Generally, if Q ft. per second of water
act by weight through a distance hi, at a pressure p due to hi ft. of
fall, and with a velocity v due to h, ft. of fall, so that hi+h^+h3 = H,
then, apart from energy wasted by friction or leakage or imperfection
of the machine, the work done will be
GQA+pQ+(G/g)Q(W2g)=GQH foot pounds,
the same as if the water acted simply by its weight while descending
H ft.
§ 171. Site for Water Motor. — Wherever a stream flows from
a higher to a lower level it is possible to erect a water motor.
The amount of power obtainable depends on the available head
and the supply of water. In choosing a site the engineer will
select a portion of the stream where there is an abrupt natural
fall, or at least a considerable slope of the bed. He will have
regard to the facility of constructing the channels which are to
convey the water, and will take advantage of any bend in the river
which enables him to shorten them. He will have accurate
measurements made of the quantity of water flowing in the
stream, and he will endeavour to ascertain the average quantity
available throughout the year, the minimum quantity in dry
seasons, and the maximum for which bye-wash channels must
be provided. In many cases the natural fall can be increased
by a dam or weir thrown across the stream. The engineer will
also examine to what extent the head will vary in different
seasons, and whether it is necessary to sacrifice part of the fall
and give a steep slope to the tail race to prevent the motor being
drowned by backwater in floods. Streams fed from lakes which
form natural reservoirs or fed from glaciers are less variable than
streams depending directly on rainfall, and are therefore advan-
tageous for water-power purposes.
i 172. Water Power at Holyoke, U.S.A. — About 85 m. from the
mouth of the Connecticut river there was a fall of about 60 ft. in
a short distance, forming what were called the Grand Rapids, below
which the river turned sharply, forming a kind of peninsula on which
the city of Holyoke is built. In 1845 the magnitude of the water-
power available attracted attention, and it was decided to build a
dam across the river. The ordinary flow of the river is 6000 cub. ft.
per sec., giving a gross power of 30,000 h.p. In dry seasons the
power is 20,000 h.p., or occasionally less. From above the dam a
system of canals takes the water to mills on three levels. The first
canal starts with a width of 140 ft. and depth of 22 ft., and supplies
the highest range of mills. A second canal takes the water which
has driven turbines in the highest mills and supplies it to a second
series of mills. There is a third canal on a still lower level supplying
the lowest mills. The water then finds its way back to the river.
With the grant of a mill site is also leased the right to use the water-
power. A mill-power is defined as 38 cub. ft. of water per sec.
during 16 hours per day on a fall of 20 ft. This gives about 60 h.p.
effective. The charge for the power water is at the rate of 2os. per
h.p. per annum.
§ 173. Action of Water in a Water Motor. — Water motors may
be divided into water-pressure engines, water-wheels and
turbines.
Water-pressure engines are machines with a cylinder and piston
or ram, in principle identical with the corresponding part of a
steam-engine. The water is alternately admitted to and dis-
charged from the cylinder, causing a reciprocating action of the
piston or plunger. It is admitted at a high pressure and dis-
charged at a low one, and consequently work is done on the piston.
The water in these machines never acquires a high velocity, and
for the most part the kinetic energy of the water is wasted.
The useful work is due to the difference of the pressure of
admission and discharge, whether that pressure is due to the
weight of a column of water of more or less considerable height,
or is artificially produced in ways to be described presently.
Water-wheels are large vertical wheels driven by water falling
from a higher to a lower level. In most water-wheels, the water
acts directly by its weight loading one side of the wheel and so
causing rotation. But in all water-wheels a portion, and in some
a considerable portion, of the work due to gravity is first em-
ployed to generate kinetic energy in the water; during its
action on the water-wheel the velocity of the water diminishes,
and the wheel is therefore in part driven by the impulse due to
the change of the water's momentum. Water-wheels are there-
fore motors on which the water acts, partly by weight, partly by
impulse.
Turbines are wheels, generally of small size compared with
water wheels, driven chiefly by the impulse of the water. Before
entering the moving part of the turbine, the water is allowed
to acquire a considerable velocity; during its action on the
turbine this velocity is diminished, and the impulse due to the
change of momentum drives the turbine.
In designing or selecting a water motor it is not sufficient to
consider only its efficiency in normal conditions of I working.
It is generally quite as important to know how it will act with
a scanty water supply or a diminished head. The greatest
difference in water motors is in their adaptability to varying
conditions of working.
Water-pressure Engines.
§174. In these the water acts by pressure either due to the
height of the column in a supply pipe descending from a high-
level reservoir, or created by pumping. Pressure engines were
first used in mine-pumping on waterfalls of greater height than
could at that time be utilized by water wheels. Usually they
were single acting, the water-pressure lifting the heavy pump
rods which then made the return or pumping stroke by their
own weight. To avoid losses by fluid friction and shock the
velocity of the water in the pipes and passages was restricted
to from 3 to 10 ft. per second, and the mean speed of plunger to
i ft. per second. The stroke was long and the number of strokes
3 to 6 per minute. The pumping lift being constant, such engines
worked practically always at full load, and the efficiency was
high, about 84%. But they were cumbrous machines. They
are described in Weisbach's Mechanics of Engineering.
The convenience of distributing energy from a central station
to scattered working-points by pressure water conveyed in pipes
— a system invented by Lord Armstrong — has already been
mentioned. This system has led to the development of a great
variety of hydraulic pressure engines of very various types.
The cost of pumping the pressure water to some extent restricts
its use to intermittent operations, such as working lifts and
cranes, punching, shearing and riveting machines, forging and
flanging presses. To keep down the cost of the distributing
WATER MOTORS]
HYDRAULICS
generally 700 ft per
93
mains very high pressures are adopted,
sq. in. or 1600 ft. of head or more.
In a large number of hydraulic machines worked by water at
high pressure, especially lifting machines, the motor consists of a
direct, single acting ram and cylinder. In a few cases double-
acting pistons and cylinders are used; but they involve a
water-tight packing of the piston not easily accessible. In some
cases pressure engines are used to obtain rotative movement,
and then two double-acting cylinders or three single-acting
cylinders are used, driving a crank shaft. Some double-acting
cylinders have a piston rod half the area of the piston. The
pressure water acts continuously on the annular area in front
of the piston. During the forward stroke the pressure on the
front of the piston balances half the pressure on the back. During
the return stroke the pressure on the front is unopposed. The
water in front of the piston is not exhausted, but returns to the
supply pipe. As the frictional losses in a fluid are independent
of the pressure, and the work done increases directly as the
pressure, the percentage loss decreases for given velocities of
flow as the pressure increases. Hence for .high-pressure machines
somewhat greater velocities are permitted in the passages than
for low-pressure machines. In supply mains the velocity is
from 3 to 6 ft. per second, in valve passages 5 to 10 ft. per second,
or in extreme cases 20 ft. per second, where there is less object
in economizing energy. As the water is incompressible, slide
valves must have neither lap nor lead, and piston valves are
preferable to ordinary slide valves. To prevent injurious com-
pression from exhaust valves closing too soon in rotative engines
with a fixed stroke, small self-acting relief valves are fitted to the
cylinder ends, opening outwards against the pressure into the
valve chest. Imprisoned water can then escape without over-
straining the machines.
In direct single-acting lift machines, in which the stroke is
fixed, and in rotative machines at constant speed it is obvious
that the cylinder must be filled at each stroke irrespective of the
amount of work to be done. The same amount of water is used
whether much or little work is done, or whether great or small
weights are lifted. Hence while pressure engines are very
efficient at full load, their efficiency decreases as the load de-
creases. Various arrangements have been adopted to diminish
this defect in engines working with a variable load. In lifting
machinery there is sometimes a double ram, a hollow ram
enclosing a solid ram. By simple arrangements the solid ram
only is used for small loads, but for large loads the hollow ram is
locked to the solid ram, and the two act as a ram of larger area.
In rotative engines the case is more difficult. In Hastie's and
Rigg's engines the stroke is automatically varied with the load,
increasing when the load is large and decreasing when it is small.
But such engines are complicated and have not achieved much
success. Where pressure engines are used simplicity is generally
a first consideration, and economy is of less importance.
§ 175. Efficiency of Pressure Engines. — It is hardly possible to form
a theoretical expression for the efficiency of pressure engines, but
some general considerations are useful. Consider the case of a' long
stroke hydraulic ram, which has a fairly constant velocity v during
the stroke, and valves which are fairly wide open during most of the
stroke. Let r be the ratio of area of ram to area of valve passage,
a ratio which may vary in ordinary cases from 4 to 12. Then the
loss in shock of the water entering the cylinder will be (r— l)V/2g in
ft. of head. The friction in the supply pipe is also proportional to
v1. The energy carried away in exhaust will be proportional to i>2.
Hence the total hydraulic losses may be taken to be approximately
jT!/2g ft., where f is a coefficient depending on the proportions of the
machine. Let / be the friction of the ram packing and mechanism
reckoned in ft per sq. ft. of ram area. Then if the supply-pipe
pressure driving the machine is p ft per sq. ft., the effective working
pressure will be
p-G£v*/2g-f ft per sq. ft.
Let A be the area of the ram in sq. ft., v its velocity in ft. per sec.
The useful work done will be
(p-G?v2/2g-f)Av ft. ft per sec.,
and the efficiency of the machine will be
regulating the engine for varying load the pressure is throttled,
part of the available head is destroyed at the throttle valve, and
p in the bracket above is reduced. Direct-acting hydraulic lifts,
without intermediate gearing, may
have an efficiency of 95 % during the
working stroke. If a hydraulic jigger is
used with ropes and sheaves to change
the speed of the ram to the speed 'of
the lift, the efficiency may be only
50%. E. B. Ellington has given the
efficiency of lifts with hydraulic
balance at 85% during the working
stroke. Large pressure engines have
an efficiency of 85 %, but small rota-
tive engines probably not more than
50 % and that only when fully loaded.
Level of
This shows that the efficiency increases with the pressure p, and
diminishes with the speed », other things being the same. If in
§ 176. Direct-Acting Hydraulic
Lift (fig. 171).— This is the
simplest of all kinds of hydraulic
motor. A cage W is lifted directly
by water pressure acting in a
cylinder C, the length of which is
a little greater than the lift. A
ram or plunger R of the same
length is attached to the cage.
The water-pressure admitted by a
cock to the cylinder forces up the
ram, and when the supply valve is
closed and the discharge valve
opened, the ram descends. In
this case the ram is 9 in. diameter,
with a stroke of 49 ft. It consists
of lengths of wrought-iron pipe
screwed together perfectly water-
tight, the lower end being closed
by a cast-iron plug. The ram
works in a cylinder n in. dia-
meter of 9 ft. lengths of flanged
cast-iron pipe. The ram passes
water-tight through the cylinder
cover, which is provided with
double hat leathers to prevent
leakage outwards or inwards. As
the weight of the ram and cage is
much more than sufficient to cause
a descent of the cage, part of the
weight is balanced. A chain at-
tached to the cage passes over a
pulley at the top of
the lift, and carries
at its free end a
balance weight B,
working in f iron
guides. Water is ad-
mitted to the cylinder
from a 4-in. supply
pipe through a two-
way slide, worked by
a rack, spindle and
endless rope. The
lift works under 73
ft. of head, and lifts
1350 ft at 2 ft. per
second. The effi-
ciency is from 75 to
80%.
The principal pre-
judicial resistance to
the motion of a ram
of this kind is the fric-
tion of the cup leathers,
which make the joint
between the cylinder
and ram. Some ex- "°- I7I-
periments by John Hick give for the friction of these
the following formula. Let F= the total friction in
W
H
leathers
pounds;
94
HYDRAULICS
[WATER MOTORS
d = diameter of ram in ft.; p = water-pressure in pounds per sq. ft.;
k a coefficient.
F = kpd
£ = 0-00393 if the leathers are new or badly lubricated;
= 0-00262 if the leathers are in good condition and well lubricated.
Since the total pressure on the ram is P = \TrcPp, the fraction of the
total pressure expended in overcoming the friction of the leathers is
F/P = -005/d to -0033/d, d being in feet.
Let H be the height of the pressure column measured from the
free surface of the supply reservoir to the bottom of the ram in its
lowest position, Hi the height from the discharge reservoir to the
same point, h the height of the ram above its lowest point at any
moment, S the length of stroke, JJ the area of the ram, W the weight
of cage, R the weight of ram, B the weight of balance weight, w the
weight of balance chain per foot run, F the friction of the cup leather
and slides. Then, .neglecting fluid friction, if the ram is rising the
accelerating force is
and if the ram is descending
If iu = % Gtt, PI and Pz are constant throughout the stroke; and
the moving force in ascending and descending is the same, if
B = W+R+a;S-Gn(H+H6)/2.
Using the values just found for w and B,
Let W+R+a>S+B = U, and let P be the constant accelerating
force acting on the system, then the acceleration is (P/U)g. The
velocity at the end of the stroke is (assuming the friction to be
constant)
r = V(2PgS/U);
and the mean velocity of ascent is |u.
§ 177. Armstrong's Hydraulic Jigger. — This is simply a single-
acting hydraulic cylinder and ram, provided with sheaves so
as to give motion to a wire rope or chain. It is used in various
forms of lift and crane. Fig. 172 shows the arrangement. A
hydraulic ram or plunger B works in a
stationary cylinder A. Ram and cylinder
carry sets of sheaves over which passes a
chain or rope, fixed at one end to the
cylinder, and at the other connected over
guide pulleys to a lift or crane. For each
pair of pulleys, one on the cylinder and one
on the ram, the movement of the free end
of the rope is doubled compared with that
of the ram. With three pairs of pulleys the
free end of the rope has a movement equal
\ to six times the stroke of the ram, the force
i exerted being in the inverse proportion.
\ § 178. Rotative Hydraulic Engines. — Valve-
gear mechanism similar in principle to that
of steam engines can be applied to actuate
the admission and discharge valves, and the
pressure engine is then converted into a con-
tinuously-acting motor.
Let H be the available fall to work the
engine after deducting the loss of head in the
supply and discharge pipes, Q the supply of
water in cubic feet per second, and ij the
efficiency of the engine. Then the horse-power
of the engine is
H.P.=,GQH/s5o.
The efficiency of large slow-moving pressure engines is >/= -66 to -8.
In small motors of this kind probably ij is not greater than -5.
Let v be the mean velocity of the piston, then its diameter d is given
by the relation
Q = Trd*v/A in double-acting engines,
= ir<fti/8 in single-acting engines.
If there are n cylinders put Q/n for Q in these equations.
Small rotative pressure engines form extremely convenient
motors for hoists, capstans or winches, and for driving small
machinery. The single-acting engine has the advantage that
the pressure of the piston on the crank pin is always in one
direction; there is then no knocking as the dead centres are
passed. Generally three single-acting cylinders are used, so
that the engine will readily start in all positions, and the driving
effort on the crank pin is very uniform.
Brotherhood Hydraulic Engine. — Three cylinders at angles of 120°
with each other are formed in one casting with the frame. The
FIG. 172.
plungers are hollow ^trunks, and the connecting rods abut in
cylindrical recesses in them and are connected to a common crank
pin. A circular valve disk with concentric segmental ports revolves
at the same rate as the crank over ports in the valve face common to
the three cylinders. Each cylinder is always in communication with
cither an admission or exhaust port. The blank parts of the circular
valve close the admission and exhaust ports alternately. The fixed
valve face is of lignum vitae in a metal recess, and the revolving
valve of gun-metal. In the case of a small capstan engine the
cylinders are 3! in. diameter and 3 in. stroke. At 40 revs, per minute,
the piston speed is 31 ft.
per minute. The ports
are I in. diameter or^
of the piston area, and
the mean velocity in
the ports 6-4 ft. per
sec. With 700 Ib per
sq. in. water pressure
and an efficiency of
50%, the engine is
about 3 h.p. A com-
mon arrangement is to
have three parallel
cylinders acting on a
three-throw crank shaft,
the cylinders oscillating
on trunnions.
Hastie's Engine. — Fig.
173 shows a similar
engine made by Messrs
Hastie of Greenock. G,
G, G are the three
plungers which pass out
of the cylinders through cup leathers, and act on the same crank pin.
A is the inlet pipe which communicates with the cock B. This cock
controls the action of the engine, being so constructed that it acts as
a reversing valve when the handle C is in its extreme positions and
as a brake when in its middle position. With the handle in its
middle position, the ports of the cylinders are in communication
with the exhaust. -Two passages are formed in the framing leading
from the cock B to the ends of the cylinders, one being in com-
munication with the supply pipe A, the other with the discharge
pipe Q. These passages end as shown at E. The oscillation of the
cylinders puts them
alternately in com-
munication with each of
these passages, and thus
the water is alternately
admitted and exhausted.
In any ordinary rota-
tive engine the length of
stroke is invariable.
Consequently the con-
sumption of water de-
pends simply on the p
speed of the engine, ' '*"
irrespective of the effort overcome. If the power of the engine
FIG. 173.
must be varied without altering the -number of rotations, then
the stroke must be made variable. Messrs Hastie have con-
trived an exceedingly ingenious method of varying the stroke
automatically, in proportion to the amount of work to be done (fig.
174). The crank pin I
is carried in a slide H
moving in a disk M.
In this is a double
cam K acting on two
small steel rollers J,
L attached to the
slide H. If the cam
rotates it moves the
slide and increases or
decreases the radius of
the circle in which the
crank pin I rotates.
The diskJM is keyed
on a hollow shaft sur-
rounding the driving
shaft P, to which the
cams are attached.
The hollow shaft N
has two snugs to
which the chains RR
are attached (fig. 175).
The shaft P carries the
spring case SS to which
FIG. 175.
sp
also are attached the
other ends of the chains. When the engine is at rest the springs
extend themselves, rotating the hollow shaft N and the frame M,
so as to place the crank pin I at its nearest position to the axis of
rotation. When a resistance has to be overcome, the shaft N rotates
WATER MOTORS]
HYDRAULICS
95
relatively to P, compressing the springs, till their resistance balances
the pressure due to the resistance to the rotation of P. The engine
then commences to work, the crank pin being in the position in
which the turning effort just overcomes the resistance. If the
resistance diminishes, the springs force out the chains and shorten the
stroke of the plungers, and vice versa. The following experiments,
on an engine of this kind working a hoist, show how the automatic
arrangement adjusted the water used to the work done. The lift
was 22 ft. and the water pressure in the cylinders 80 ft per sq. in.
Weight lifted, ( Chain
in ft (
Water used, in )
only
7i
427 633
10
gallons
179. Accumulator Machinery.-
745
16
857 969 1081 1193
17 2O 21 22
-It has already been pointed
out that it is in some cases convenient to use a steam engine
to create an artificial head of water, which is afterwards employed
in driving water-pressure machinery. Where power is required
intermittently, for short periods, at a number of different points,
as, for instance, in moving the cranes, lock gates, &c., of a
dockyard, a separate steam engine and boiler at each point is
very inconvenient; nor can engines worked from a common
boiler be used, because of the great loss of heat and the difficulties
which arise out of condensation in the pipes. If a tank, into
which water is continuously pumped, can be placed at a great
elevation, the water can then be used in hydraulic machinery
in a very convenient way. Each hydraulic machine is put
in communication with the tank by a pipe, and on opening a
valve it commences work, using a quantity of water directly
proportional to the work done. No attendance is required when
the machine is not working.
A site for such an elevated tank is, however, seldom available,
and in place of it a beautiful arrangement termed an accumulator,
invented by Lord Armstrong, is used. This consists of a tall
vertical cylinder; into this works a solid ram through cup
leathers or hemp packing, and the ram is loaded by fixed weights,
so that the pressure in the cylinder is 700 ft or 800 ft per sq.in.
In some cases the ram is fixed and the cylinder moves on it.
The pumping en-
gines which supply
the energy that
is stored in the ac-
cumulator should
be a pair coupled
at right angles, so
as to start in any
position. The en-
gines pump into
the accumulator
cylinder till the
ram is at the top
of its stroke, when
by a catch ar-
rangement acting
on the engine
throttle valve
the engines are
stopped. If the
accumulator ram
descends, in con-
sequence of water
being taken to
work machinery,
the engines im-
mediately recom-
mence working.
Pipes lead from
the accumulator
to each of the
FIG. 176. machines requir-
ing to be driven,
and do not require to be of large size, as the pressure is so
great.
Fig. 176 shows a diagrammatic way the scheme of a system of
accumulator machinery. A is the accumulator, with its ram carry-
FIG. 177.
ing a cylindrical wrought-iron tank W, in which weights are placed
to load the accumulator. At R is one of the pressure engines or
jiggers, worked from the accumulator, discharging the water after use
into the tank T. In this case the pressure engine is shown working a
set of blocks, the fixed block being on the ram cylinder, the running
block on the ram. The chain running over these blocks works a
lift cage C, the speed of which is as many times greater than that of
the ram as there are plies of chain on
the block tackle. B is the balance
weight of the cage.
In the use of accumulators on ship-
board for working gun gear or steering
gear, the accumulator ram is loaded by
springs, or by steam pressure acting on a
piston much larger than the ram.
R. H. Tweddell has used accumula-
tors with a pressure of 2000 ft per
sq. in. to work hydraulic riveting ma-
chinery.
The amount of energy stored in the
accumulator, having a ram d in. in
diameter, a stroke of S ft., and deliver-
ing at p ft pressure per sq. in., is
—piFS foot-pounds.
Thus, if the ram is 9 in., the stroke 20 ft.,
and the pressure 800 ft per sq. in., the
work stored in the accumulator when the
ram is at the top of the stroke is 1 ,01 7,600
foot-pounds, that is, enough to drive a
machine requiring one horse power for
about half an hour. As, however, the
pumping engine replaces water as soon
as it is drawn off, the working capacity
of the accumulator is very much greater
than this. Tweddell found that an ac-
cumulator charged at 1250 ft discharged
at 1225 ft per sq. in. Hence the friction
was equivalent to I2j ft per sq. in. and
the efficiency 98 %.
When a very great pressure is required
a differential accumulator (fig. 177) is
convenient. The ram is fixed and passes through both ends of
the cylinder, but is of different diameters at the two ends,
A and B. Hence if di, d% are the diameters of the ram in inches and
* the required pressure in ft per sq. in., the load required is
\pTr(d?i— d?i). An accumulator of this kind used with riveting
machines has </i = 5J in., d2 = 4fin. The pressure is 2000 ft per sq. in.
and the load 5-4 tons.
Sometimes an accumulator is loaded by water or steam pressure
instead of by a dead weight. Fig. 178 shows the arrangement. A
piston A is connected to a plunger B of much
smaller area. Water pressure, say from town
mains, is admitted below A, and the high
pressure water is pumped into and discharged
from the cylinder C in which B works. If r is
the ratio of the areas of A and B, then, neglect-
ing friction, the pressure in the upper cylinder
is r times that under the piston A. With a
variable rate of supply and demand from the
upper cylinder, the piston A rises and falls,
maintaining always a constant pressure in the
upper cylinder.
Water Wheels.
§ 1 80. Overshot and High Breast Wheels.
— When a water fall ranges between 10
and 70 ft. and the water supply is from 3
to 25 cub. ft. per second, it is possible to
construct a bucket wheel on which the water
acts chiefly by its weight. If the variation
of the head-water level does not exceed 2 ft.,
an overshot wheel may be used (fig. 179).
The water is then projected over the summit
of the wheel, and falls in a parabolic path
into the buckets. With greater variation of head-water level, a
pitch-back or high breast wheel is better. The water falls over
the top of a sliding sluice into the wheel, on the same side as the
head race channel. By adjusting the height of the sluice, the
requisite supply is given to the wheel in all positions of the
head-water level.
The wheel consists of a cast-iron or wrought-iron axle C
supporting the weight of the wheel. To this are attached two
Fig. 178.
96
HYDRAULICS
[WATER WHEELS
sets of arms A of wood or iron, which support circular segmental
plates, B, termed shrouds. A cylindrical sole plate dd extends
between the shrouds on the inner side. The buckets are formed
FIG. 179.
by wood planks or curved wrought-iron plates extending from
shroud to shroud, the back of the buckets being formed by the
sole plate.
The efficiency may be taken at 0-75. Hence, if h.p. is the effective
horse power, H the available fall, and Q the available water supply
per second,
h. />.=o-75(GQH/55o) =0-085 QH.
If the peripheral velocity of the water wheel is too great, water is
thrown out of the buckets before reaching the bottom of the fall.
In practice, the circumferential velocity of water wheels of the kind
now described is from 4^ to 10 ft. per second, about 6 ft. being the
usual velocity of good iron wheels not of very small size. In order
that the water may enter the buckets easily, it must have a greater
velocity than the wheel. Usually the velocity of the water at the
point where it enters the wheel is from 9 to 12 ft. per second, and
to produce this it must enter the wheel at a point 16 to 27 in. below
the head-water level. Hence the diameter of an overshot wheel
may be
D = H-iJtoH-2ift.
Overshot and high breast wheels work badly in back-water, and hence
if the tail-water level varies, it is better to reduce the diameter of
the wheel so that its greatest immersion in flood is not more than
i ft. The depth d of the shrouds is about 10 to 16 in. The number
of buckets may be about
N = jrD/<2.
Let v be the peripheral velocity of the wheel. Then the capacity
of that portion of the wheel which passes the sluice in one second is
= » b d nearly,
b being the breadth of the wheel between the shrouds. If, however,
this quantity of water were allowed to pass on to the wheel the
buckets would begin to spill their contents almost at the top of the
fall. To diminish the loss from spilling, it is not only necessary to
give the buckets a suitable form, but to restrict the water supply to
one-fourth or one-third of the gross bucket capacity. Let m be the
value of this ratio; then, Q being the supply of water per second,
Q = mQi = mbdv.
This gives the breadth of the wheel if the water supply is known.
The form of the buckets should be determined thus. The outer
element of the bucket should be in the direction of motion of the
water entering relatively to the wheel, so that the water may enter
without splashing or shock. The buckets should retain the water as
long as possible, and the width of opening of the buckets should be
2 or 3 in. greater than the thickness of the sheet of water entering.
For a wooden bucket (fig. 180, A), take ab = distance between two
buckets on periphery of wheel. Make ed = J eb, and 6c = J to j ab.
Join cd. For an iron bucket (fig. 180, B), take ed = J eb; bc =
Draw cO making an
angle of 10° to 15° with
the radius at c. On Oc
take a centre giving a
circular arc passing
near d, and round the
curve into the radial
part of the bucket de.
There are two ways
in which the power of
a water wheel is given
off to the machinery
driven. In wooden
wheels and wheels
with rigid arms, a spur
or bevil wheel keyed
on the axle of the ,
turbine will transmit
the power to the shafting. It is obvious that the whole
turning moment due to the weight of the water is then trans-
mitted through the arms and axle of the water wheel. When
the water wheel is an iron one, it usually has light iron
suspension arms incapable of resisting the bending action due
to the transmission of the turning effort to the axle. In that
case spur segments are bolted to one of the shrouds, and the
pinion to which the power is transmitted is placed so that the
teeth in gear are, as nearly as may be, on the line of action of the
resultant of the weight of the water in the loaded arc of the wheel.
The largest high breast wheels ever constructed were probably
the four wheels, each 50 ft. in diameter, and of 125 h.p., erected
by Sir W. Fairbairn in 1825 at Catrine in Ayrshire. These wheels
are still working.
§ 181. Poncdet Water Wheel. — When the fall does not exceed
6 ft., the best water motor to adopt in many cases is the Poncelet
undershot water wheel. In this the water acts very nearly in the
same way as in a turbine, and the Poncelet wheel, although
slightly less efficient than the best turbines, in normal conditions
of working, is superior to most of them when working with
a reduced supply of water. A general notion of the action
of the water on a Poncelet wheel has already been given in
§ 159. Fig. 181 shows its construction. The water penned back
between the side walls of the wheel pit is allowed to flow to the
FIG. 181.
wheel under a movable sluice, at a velocity nearly equal to the
velocity due to the whole fall. The water is guided down a slope
of i in 10, or a curved race, and enters the wheel without shock.
Gliding up the curved floats it comes to rest, falls back, and
acquires at the point of discharge a backward velocity relative
to the wheel nearly equal to the forward velocity of the wheel.
Consequently it leaves the wheel deprived of nearly the whole
of its original kinetic energy.
Taking the efficiency at 0-60, and putting H for the available fall,
h.p. for the horse-power, and Q for the water supply per second,
h.p. = 0-068 QH.
The diameter D of the wheel may be taken arbitrarily. It should not
be less than twice the fall and is more often four times the fall. For
ordinary cases the smallest convenient diameter is 14 ft. with a
straight, or 10 ft. with a curved, approach channel. The radial
TURBINES]
HYDRAULICS
97
depth of bucket should be at least half the fall, and radius of curvature
of buckets about half the radius of the wheel. The shrouds are
usually of cast iron with flanges to receive the buckets. The buckets
may be of iron J in. thick bolted to the flanges with f6 in. bolts.
Let H' be the fall measured from the free surface of the head-
water to the point F where the mean layer enters the wheel ; then the
velocity at which the water enters is » = V (2gH'), and the best
circumferential velocity of the wheel is V = 0-551; to o-6i>. The
number of rotations of the wheel per second is N = V/irD. The
thickness of the sheet of water entering the wheel is very im-
portant. The best thickness according to experiment is 8 to 10
in. The maximum thickness should not exceed 12 to 15 in., when
there is a surplus water supply. Let e be the thickness of the sheet
of water entering the wheel, and b its width ; then
bev = Q ; or b = Q/ev.
Grashof takes e = JH, and then
6 = 6Q/HV(2gH).
Allowing for the contraction of the stream, the area of opening
through the sluice may be 1-25 be to 1-3 be. The inside width of
the wheel is made about 4 in. greater than b.
Several constructions have been given for the floats of Poncelet
wheels. One of the simplest is that shown in figs. 181, 182.
Let OA (fig. 181) be the vertical radius of the wheel. Set off OB,
OD making angles of 15° with OA. Then BD may be the length of
FIG. 182.
the close breasting fitted to the wheel. Draw the bottom of the
head race BC at a slope of I in 10. Parallel to this, at distances je
and e, draw EF and GH. Then EF is the mean layer and GH the
surface layer entering the wheel. Join OF, and make OFK = 23°.
Take FK=o-5 to 0-7 H. Then K is the centre from which the
bucket curve is struck and KF is the radius. The depth of the
shrouds must be sufficient to prevent the water from rising over the
top of the float. It is £H to §H. The number of buckets is not
very important. They are usually I ft. apart on the circumference
of the wheel.
The efficiency of a Poncelet wheel has been found in experiments
to reach 0-68. It is better to take it at 0-6 in estimating the power
of the wheel, so as to allow some margin.
In fig. 182 Vi is the initial and va the final velocity of the water,
v, parallel to the vane the relative velocity of the water and wheel,
and V the velocity of the wheel.
Turbines.
§ 182. The name turbine was originally given in France to
any water motor which revolved in a horizontal plane, the axis
being vertical. The rapid development of this class of motors
dates from 1827, when a prize was offered by the Societe
d'Encouragement for a motor of this kind, which should be
an improvement on certain wheels then in use. The prize
was ultimately awarded to Benoit Fourneyron (1802-1867),
whose turbine, but little modified, is still constructed.
Classification of Turbines. — In some turbines the whole
available energy of the water is converted into kinetic energy
before the water acts on the moving part of the turbine. Such
turbines are termed Impulse or Action Turbines, and they are
distinguished by this that the wheel passages are never entirely
filled by the water. To ensure this condition they must be placed
a little above the tail water and discharge into free air. Turbines
in which part only of the available energy is converted into
kinetic energy before the water enters the wheel are termed
Pressure or Reaction Turbines. In these there is a pressure
which in some cases amounts to half the head in the clearance
space between the guide vanes and wheel vanes. The velocity
with which the water enters the wheel is due to the difference
between the pressure due to the head and the pressure in the
clearance space. In pressure turbines the wheel passages must
be continuously filled with water for good efficiency, and the
wheel may be and generally is placed below the tail water level.
Some turbines are designed to act normally as impulse turbines
discharging above the tail water level. But the passages are so
designed that they are just filled by the water. If the tail water
rises and drowns the turbine they become pressure turbines with
a small clearance pressure, but the efficiency is not much affected.
Such turbines are termed Limit turbines.
Next there is a difference of constructive arrangement of
turbines, which does not very essentially alter the mode of action
of the water. In axial flow or so-called parallel flow turbines,
the water enters and leaves the turbine in a direction parallel
to the axis of rotation, and the paths of the molecules lie on
cylindrical surfaces concentric with that axis. In radial outward
and inward flow turbines, the water enters and leaves the turbine
in directions normal to the axis of rotation, and the paths of the
molecules lie exactly or nearly in planes normal to the axis of
rotation. In outward flow turbines the general direction of flow
is away from the axis, and in inward flow turbines towards the
axis. There are also mixed flow turbines in which the water
enters normally and is discharged parallel to the axis of rotation.
Another difference of construction is this, that the water may
be admitted equally to every part of the circumference of the
turbine wheel or to a portion of the circumference only. In the
former case, the condition of the wheel passages is always the
same; they receive water equally in all positions during rotation.
In the latter case, they receive water during a part of the rotation
only. The former may be termed turbines with complete
admission, the latter turbines with partial admission. A reaction
turbine should always have complete admission. An impulse
turbine may have complete or partial admission.
When two turbine wheels similarly constructed are placed on
the same axis, in order to balance the pressures and diminish
journal friction, the arrangement may be termed a twin turbine.
If the water, having acted on one turbine wheel, is then passed
through a second on the same axis, the arrangement may be
termed a compound turbine. The object of such an arrangement
would be to diminish the speed of rotation.
Many forms of reaction turbine may be placed at any height not
exceeding 30 ft. above the tail water. They then discharge into
an air-tight suction pipe. The weight of the column of water
in this pipe balances part of the atmospheric pressure, and the
difference of pressure, producing the flow through the turbine, is
the same as if the turbine were placed at the bottom of the fall.
I. Impulse Turbines.
(Wheel passages not filled, and
discharging above the tail
water.)
[a) Complete admission. (Rare.)
(b) Partial admission. (Usual.)
II. Reaction Turbines.
(Wheel passages filled, discharg-
ing above or below the tail
water or into a suction-pipe.)
Always with complete admis-
Axial flow, outward flow, inward flow, or mixed flow.
Simple turbines; twin turbines; compound turbines.
§ 183. The Simple Reaction Wheel.— It has been shown, in § 162,
that, when water issues from a vessel, there is a reaction on the
vessel tending to cause motion in a
direction opposite to that of the jet.
This principle was applied in a rotating
water motor at a very early period, and
the Scotch turbine, at one time much
used, differs in no essential respect from
the older form of reaction wheel.
The old reaction wheel consisted of a
vertical pipe balanced on a vertical
axis, and supplied with water (fig. 183).
From the bottom of the vertical pipe
two or more hollow horizontal arms
extended, at the ends of which were
orifices from which the water was dis-
charged. The reaction of the jets caused
the rotation of the machine.
Let H be the available fall measured
from the level of the water in the ver-
tical pipe to the centres of the orifices,
r the radius from the axis of rotation to the centres of the orifices,
v the velocity of discharge through the jets, a the angular velocity of
FIG. 183.
XIV. 4
9»
HYDRAULICS
[TURBINES
the machine. When the machine is at rest the water issues from
the orifices with the velocity V (2gH) (friction being neglected). But
when the machine rotates the water in the arms rotates also, and is
in the condition of a forced vortex, all the particles having the same
angular velocity. Consequently the pressure in the arms at the
orifices is H+aV2/2g ft. of water, and the velocity of discharge
through the orifices is » = V (2gH-j-aV2). If the total area of the
orifices is w, the quantity discharged from the wheel per second is
Q = ui>=uV (2gH+a2r2).
While the water passes through the orifices with the velocity v, the
orifices are moving in the opposite direction with the velocity ar.
The absolute velocity of the water is therefore
»- ar = V (2gH+aV2)-ar.
The momentum generated per second is (GQ/g)(v-ar), which is
numerically equal to the force driving the motor at the radius r.
The work done by the water in rotating the wheel is therefore
(GQ/g)(v-ar~)ar foot-pounds per sec.
The work expended by the water fall is GQH foot-pounds per second.
Consequently the efficiency of the motor is
_(v-ar) ar_
Let
then ij = i-gH/2or+...
which increases towards the limit I as ar increases towards infinity.
Neglecting friction, therefore, the maximum efficiency is reached
when the wheel has an infinitely great velocity of rotation. But
this condition is impracticable to realize, and even, at practicable but
high velocities of rotation, the friction would considerably reduce the
efficiency. Experiment seems to show that the best efficiency is reached
when ar = V (2gH). Then the efficiency apart from friction is
i, = (V(2aV)-or}ar/gH
' =o-4i4aV/gH =0-828,
about 17 % of the energy of the fall being carried away by the water
discharged. The actual efficiency realized appears to be about 60 %,
so that about 21% of the energy of the fall is lost in friction, in
addition to the energy carried away by the water.
| 184. General Statement of Hydrodynamical Principles necessary for
the Theory of Turbines.
(a) When water flows through any pipe-shaped passage, such as
the passage between the vanes of a turbine wheel, the relation be-
tween the changes of pressure and velocity is given by Bernoulli's
theorem (§ 29). Suppose that, at a section A of such a passage, hi
is the pressure measured in feet of water, »i the velocity, and Zi the
elevation above any horizontal datum plane, and that at a section
B the same quantities are denoted by fe, »2, z2. Then
Al-&2 = W-f lJ)/2g +Z2-21. (l )
If the flow is horizontal, 22 = 21; and
hi-hi = (f22-»i2)/2g. (la)
(6) When there is an abrupt change of section of the passage, or
an abrupt change of section of the stream due to a contraction, then,
in applying Bernoulli's equation allowance must be made for the
loss of head in shock (§ 36). Let vi, vi be the velocities before and
after the abrupt change, then a stream of velocity »i impinges on a
stream at a velocity vt, and the relative velocity is PI-VJ. The
head lost is (»i-i>2)2/2g. Then equation (la) becomes
To diminish as much as possible the loss of energy from irregular
eddying motions, the change of section in the turbine passages must
be very gradual, and the curva-
ture without discontinuity.
(c) Equality of A ngular Impulse
and Change of Angular Momen-
tum.— Suppose that a couple, the
moment of which is M, acts on a
body of weight W for / seconds,
during which it moves from Ai
to A2 (fig. 184). Let »i be the
velocity of the body at Ai, vt its
velocity at A2, and let pi, pi be
the perpendiculars from C on »i
and t>2. Then M/ is termed the
angular impulse of the couple, and
W.
the quantity
FIG l8d
and change of angular momentum
is the change of angular momen-
tum re'at'.ve'y to C. Then, from
the equality of angular impulse
or, if the change of momentum is estimated for one second,
. M =
Let n, r2 be the radii drawn from C to AI, A2, and let w,, Wi be the
components of »i, r2, perpendicular to these radii, making angles
ft and o with v\, fa. Then
Wi sec ft ; t>2 =o>2 sec a ;
= ri cos f);pi = rt cos a.
/gXwr-zwi), (3)
where the moment of the couple is expressed in terms of the radii
drawn to the positions of the body at the beginning and end of a
second, and the tangential components of its velocity at those
points.
Now the water flowing through a turbine enters at the admission
surface and leaves at the discharge surface of the wheel, with its
angular momentum relatively to the axis of the wheel changed. It
therefore exerts a couple -M tending to rotate the wheel, equal and
opposite to the couple M which the wheel exerts on the water. Let
Q cub. ft. enter and leave the wheel per second, and let wi, wi be
the tangential components of the velocity of the water at the receiv-
ing and discharging surfaces of the wheel, ri, r? the radii of those
surfaces By the principle above,
- M =_(GQ/g) (wr-ovi). (4)
If o is the angular velocity of the wheel, the work done by the
water on the wheel is
T = Ma= (GQ/g)(i0iri-i£>2r2)a foot-pounds per second. (5)
§ 185. Total and Available Fall. — Let H( be the total difference of
level from the head-water to the tail-water surface. Of this total
head a portion is expended in overcoming the resistances of the head
race, tail race, supply pipe, or other channel conveying the water.
Let t>p be that loss of head, which varies with the local conditions in
which the turbine is placed. Then
H=H,-hp
is the available head for working the turbine, and on this the calcu-
lations for the turbine should be based. In some cases it is necessary
to place the turbine above the tail-water level, and there is then a
fall J) from the centre of the outlet surface of the turbine to the tail-
water level which is wasted, but which is properly one of the losses
belonging to the turbine itself. In that case the velocities of the
water in the turbine should be calculated for a head H-Ij, but the
efficiency of the turbine for the head H.
§ 1 86. Gross Efficiency and Hydraulic Efficiency of a Turbine. — Let
Td be the useful work done by the turbine, in foot-pounds per
second, Ti the work expended in friction of the turbine shaft,
gearing, &c., a quantity which varies with the local conditions in
which the turbine is placed. Then the effective work done by the
water in the turbine is
The gross efficiency of the whole arrangement of turbine, races,
and transmissive machinery is
r,,=Td/GQH,. (6)
And the hydraulic efficiency of the turbine alone is
H-T/GQH._ (7)_
It is this last efficiency only with which the theory of turbines is
concerned.
From equations (5) and (7) we get
TjGQH = (GQ/g) (a)iri-a»2r2)o ;
r> = (iVirr^Wzrz) o/gH. (8)
This is the fundamental equation in the theory of turbines. In
general,1 Wi and w}, the tangential components of the water's
motion on entering and leaving the wheel, are completely inde-
pendent. That the efficiency may be as great as possible, it is
obviously necessary that a>2 = o. In that case
ij=aiiria/gH. (9)
ori is the circumferential velocity of the wheel at the inlet surface.
Calling this Vi, the equation becomes
ij=i0iVj/gH. (90)
This remarkably simple equation is the fundamental equation in
the theory of turbines. It was first given by Reiche (Turbinen-
baues, 1877).
§ 187. General Description of a Reaction Turbine. — Professor
James Thomson's inward flow or vortex turbine has been
selected as the type of reaction turbines. It is one of the best
in normal conditions of working, and the mode of regulation
introduced is decidedly superior to that in most reaction turbines.
Figs. 185 and 186 are external views of the turbine case; figs.
187 and 1 88 are the corresponding sections; fig. 189 is the
turbine wheel. The example chosen for illustration has suction
pipes, which permit the turbine to be placed above the tail-water
level. The water enters the turbine by cast-iron supply pipes at
A, and is discharged through two suction pipes S, S. The water
1 In general, because when the water leaves the turbine wheel it
ceases to act on the machine. If deflecting vanes or a whirlpool are
added to a turbine at the discharging side, then t»i may in part depend
on i^, and the statement above is no longer true.
TURBINES]
HYDRAULICS
99
on entering the case distributes itself through a rectangular
supply chamber SC, from which it finds its way equally to the
four guide-blade passages G, G, G, G. In these passages it
in equal proportions from each guide-blade passage. It consists
of a centre plate /> (fig. 189) keyed on the shaft aa, which passes
through stuffing boxes on the suction pipes. On each side of
FIG. 185.
FIG. 1 86.
FIG. 187.
acquires a velocity about equal to that due to half the fall, and is
directed into the wheel at an angle of about 10° or 12° with the
tangent to its circumference. The wheel W receives the water
FIG. 188.
the centre plate are the curved wheel vanes, on which the pressure
of the water acts, and the vanes are bounded on each side by
dished or conical cover plates c, c. Joint-rings j, j on the cover
100
HYDRAULICS
[TURBINES
plates make a sufficiently water-tight joint with the casing, to
prevent leakage from the guide-blade chamber into the suction
pipes. The pressure near the joint rings is not very great,
probably not one-fourth the total head. The wheel vanes
receive the water
without shock, and
deliver it into central
spaces, from which it
flows on either side
to the suction pipes.
The mode of regu-
lating the power of
the turbine is very
simple. The guide-
blades are pivoted to
the case at their inner
ends, and they are
connected by a link-
work, so that they all
open and close simul-
taneously and
equally. In this way
the area of opening
through the guide-
blades is altered with-
out materially alter-
ing the angle or the
other conditions of
the delivery into the
wheel. The guide-
blade gear may be
FIG. 189. variously arranged.
In this example four
spindles, passing through the case, are linked to the guide-
blades inside the case, and connected together by the links
- •
FIG. 190.
I, I, I on the outside of the case. A worm wheel on one of the
spindles is rotated by a worm d, the motion being thus slow
enough to adjust the guide-blades very exactly. These turbines
are made by Messrs Gilkes & Co. of Kendal.
Fig. 190 shows another arrangement of a similar turbine, with some
adjuncts not shown in the other drawings. In this case the turbine
rotates horizontally, and the turbine case is placed entirely below
the tail water. The water is supplied to the turbine by a vertical
pipe, over which is a wooden pentrough, containing a strainer,
which prevents sticks and other solid bodies getting into the turbine.
The turbine rests on three foundation stones, and, the pivot for the
vertical shaft being under water, there is a screw and lever arrange-
ment for adjusting it as it wears. The vertical shaft gives motion
to the machinery driven by a pair of bevel wheels. On the right
are the worm and wheel for working the guide-blade gear.
§ 1 88. Hydraulic Power at Niagara. — The largest development of
hydraulic power is that at Niagara. The Niagara Falls Power
Company have constructed two power houses on the United States
side, the first with 10 turbines of 5000 h.p. each, and the second
with 10 turbines of 5500 h.p. The effective fall is 136 to 140 ft.
In the first power house the turbines are twin outward flow reaction
turbines with vertical shafts running at 250 revs, per minute and
driving the dynamos direct. In the second power house the turbines
FIG. 191.
are inward flow turbines with draft tubes or suction pipes. Fig. 191
shows a section of one of these turbines. There is a balancing
piston keyed on the shaft, to the under side of which the pressure
due to the fall is admitted, so that the weight of turbine, vertical
shaft and part of the dynamo is water borne. About 70,000 h.p.
is daily distributed electrically from these two power houses. The
Canadian Niagara Power Company are erecting a power house to
contain eleven units of 10,250 h.p. each, the turbines being twin
inward flow reaction turbines. The Electrical Development Com-
pany of Ontario are erecting a power house to contain 1 1 units of
12,500 h.p. each. The Ontario Power Company are carrying out
another scheme for developing 200,000 h.p. by twin inward flow
turbines of 12,000 h.p. each. Lastly the Niagara Falls Power and
Manufacturing Company on the United States side have a station
giving 35,000 h.p. and are constructing another to furnish 100,000
h.p. The mean flow of the Niagara river is about 222,000 cub. ft. per
second with a fall of 1 60 ft. The works in progress if completed will
utilize 650,000 h.p. and require 48,000 cub. ft. per second or 21 J% of
the mean flow of the river (Unwin, " The Niagara Falls Power
Stations," Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng., 1906).
§ 189. Different Forms of Turbine Wheel. — The wheel of a turbine
or part of the machine on which the water acts is an annular space,
furnished with curved vanes dividing it into passages exactly or
roughly rectangular in cross section. For radial flow turbines the
wheel may have the form A or B, fig. 192, A being most usual with
B
M »",
FIG. 192.
TURBINES]
HYDRAULICS
101
FIG. 193.
)
) '
inward, and B with outward flow turbines. In A the wheel vanes
are fixed on each side of a centre plate keyed on the turbine shaft.
The vanes are limited by slightly-coned annular cover plates. In B
the vanes are fixed on one side of a disk, keyed on the shaft, and
limited by a cover plate parallel to the disk. Parallej flow or axial
flow turbines have the wheel as in C. The vanes are limited by two
concentric cylinders.
Theory of Reaction Turbines.
§ 190. Velocity of Whirl and Velocity of Flow. — Let acb (fig. 193)
be the path of the particles of water in a turbine wheel. That
path will be in a
plane normal to the
axis of rotation in
radial flow turbines,
and on a cylindrical
surface in axial flow
turbines. At any
point c of the path
the water will have
some velocity », in
the direction of a
tangent to the path.
That velocity may be
resolved into two
components, a whirl-
ing velocity w in the
direction of the
wheel's rotation at the point c, and a component u at right angles
to this, radial in radial flow, and parallel to the axis in axial now
turbines. This second component is termed the velocity of flow.
Let Dp, wa, ua be the velocity of the water, the whirling velocity and
velocity of flow at the outlet surface of the wheel, and ti,-, Wi, ti
the same quantities at the inlet surface of the wheel. Let a and /3
be the angles which the water's direction of motion makes with the
direction of motion of the wheel at those surfaces. Then
Wo=v0 cos/3; ua=v,
Wi=ViCOsa; «,=!)< sin a
The velocities of flow are easily ascertained independently from
the dimensions of the wheel. The velocities of flow at the inlet and
outlet surfaces of the wheel are normal to those surfaces. Let
ft, ft be the areas of the outlet and inlet surfaces of the wheel, and
Q the volume of water passing through the wheel per second ; then
»o = Q/ft.; w = Q/ft. (u)
Using the notation in fig. 191, we have, for an inward flow turbine
(neglecting the space occupied by the vanes),
Q<, = 2irrada; ft =2«-<di. (i2a)
Similarly, for an outward flow turbine,
ft, = 2ur0<Z; ft =2vnd; (126)
and, for an axial flow turbine,
Relative and Common Velocity of the Water and Wheel. — There
is another way of resolving the velocity of the water. Let V be the
velocity of the wheel at the point c, fig. 194. Then the velocity of the
water may be resolved
into a component V,
which the water has
in common with the
wheel, and a component
IV, which is the velocity
of the water relatively
to the wheel.
Velocity of Flow. —
It is obvious that the
frictional losses of head
in the wheel passages
will increase as the
velocity of flow is
greater, that is, the
smaller the wheel is
made. But if the wheel
works under water, the
skin friction of the wheel cover increases as the diameter of the
wheel is made greater, and in any case the weight of the wheel
and consequently the journal friction increase as the wheel is made
larger. It is therefore desirable to choose, for the velocity of flow,
as large a value as is consistent with the condition that the frictional
losses in the wheel passages are a small fraction of the total head.
The values most commonly assumed in practice are these : —
In axial flow turbines, Mo = M«=o-j5toO-2V (2gH) ;
In outward flow turbines, tt,- = o-25V2g(H- fi),
w0 = o-2i to o-l7V2g(H-lj);
In inward flow turbines, M0 = M<=o-l25V (2gH).
§ 191. Speed of the Wheel. — The best speed of the wheel depends
partly on the frictional losses, which the oniinary theory of turbines
FlG. 194.
disregards. It is best, therefore, to assume for V. and V< values
which experiment has shown to be most advantageous.
In axial flow turbines, the circumferential velocities at the mean
radius of the wheel may be taken
Va = Vi=o-6TJ~2^i to o-66V2^H:
In a radial outward flow turbine,
Vi=o-56V2g(H-t|)
Vo = Vir.l«,
where ra, n are the radii of the outlet and inlet surfaces.
In a radial inward flow turbine,
If the wheel were stationary and the water flowed through it, the
water would follow paths parallel to the wheel vane curves, at least
when the vanes were so close that irregular motion was prevented.
Similarly, when the wheel is in motion, the water follows paths rela-
tively to the wheel, which are curves parallel to the wheel vanes.
Hence the relative component, tv, of the water's motion at c is tan-
gential to a wheel vane curve drawn through the point c. Let va,
V», fro be the velocity of the water and its common and relative
components at the outlet surface of the wheel, and u,-, Vi, tvt be the
same quantities at the inlet surface; and let 9 and <t> be the angles
the wheel vanes make with the inlet and outlet surfaces ; then
cos
COS
, ,
FIG. 195
equations which may be used to determine <t> and 0.
§ 192. Condition determining the Angle of the Vanes at the Outlet
Surface of the Wheel. — It has been shown that, when the water leaves
the wheel, it should ^ r^x~
have no tangential -^"^
velocity, if the effici-
ency is to be as
great as possible ;
that is, w0 = o. Hence,
from (10), cos /3 = o,
0 = 90°, Up=v,, and
the direction of the
water's motion is
normal to the outlet
surface of the wheel,
radial in radial flow,
and axial in axial flow
turbines.
Drawing v, or u,
radial or axial as the
case may be, and V0
tangential to the direction of motion, v,, can be found by the
parallelogram of velocities. From fig. 195,
tan <#> = i>«/V» = «o/V<>; (14)
but <t> is the angle which the wheel vane makes with the outlet
surface of the wheel, which is thus determined when the velocity
of flow «<> and velocity of the wheel V0 are known. When <t> is thus
determined,
Correction of the Angle <f> to allow for Thickness of Vanes. — In
determining <t>, it is most convenient to calculate its value approxi-
mately at first, from a value of u, obtained by neglecting the thick-
ness of the vanes. As, however, this angle is the most important
angle in the turbine, the value should be afterwards corrected to
allow for the vane thickness.
Let
<*>' = tan-' («„ /V0) = tan-1 (Q/ft V0)
be the first or approximate value of <f>, and let t be the thickness,
and n the number of wheel vanes which reach the outlet surface of
the wheel. As the vanes cut the outlet surface approximately at
the angle <t>', their width measured on that surface is t cosec <t>'.
Hence the space occupied by the vanes on the outlet surface is
For A, fig. 192, ntdo cosec <t> T
B, fig. 192, ntd cosec <t> f" (15)
C, fig. 192, ntfa-n) cosec <t>)
Call this area occupied by the vanes u. Then the true value of the
clear discharging outlet of the wheel is ft — w, and the true value
of ua is Q/(ft - w). The corrected value of the angle of the vanes will
be
B2/V.(0,-i»)J.
(16)
§ 193. Head producing Velocity with which the Water enters the
Wheel. — Consider the variation of pressure in a wheel passage,
which satisfies the condition that the sections change so gradually
that there is no loss of head in shock. When the flow is in a hori-
zontal plane, there is no work done by gravity on the water passing
through the wheel. In the case of an axial flow turbine, in which
the flow is vertical, the fall d between the inlet and outlet surfaces
should be taken into account.
102
HYDRAULICS
[TURBINES
Let V,-, V, be the velocities of the wheel at the inlet and
outlet surfaces,
Vi, v0 the velocities of the water,
«,-, MO the velocities of flow,
tVi.tVo the relative velocities,
hi, h, the pressures, measured in feet of water,
Ti, Ta the radii of the wheel,
a the angular velocity of the wheel.
At any point in the path of a portion of water, at radius r, the
velocity v of the water may be resolved into a component V = or
equal to the velocity at that point of the wheel, and a relative com-
ponent »r. Hence the motion of the water may be considered to
consist of two parts: — (a) a motion identical with that in a forced
vortex of constant angular velocity o; (6) a flow along curves
parallel to the wheel vane curves. Taking the latter first, 'and using
Bernoulli's theorem, the change of pressure due to flow through the
wheel passages is given by the equation
h'i+Vri*/2g=h'.+Vn>/2g;
A'i-A'. = (tV,,'-«ViJ)/2g.
The variation of pressure due to rotation in a forced vortex is
A'i-A'. = (Vi4-V.s)/2g.
Consequently the whole difference of pressure at the inlet and outlet
surfaces of the wheel is
hi-ho^h'i+h'i-h'.-h'.
= (Vi2- V.')/2g + (^'-IV<J)/2g. (17)
Case i. Axial Flow Turbines. — V<=V0; and the first term on the
right, in equation 17, disappears. Adding, however, the work of
gravity due to a fall of d ft. in passing through the wheel,
hi-h^&S-Vri^/zg-d. (170)
Case 2. Outward Flow Turbines. — The inlet radius is less than
the outlet radius, and (Vi1 — V<,2)/2g is negative. The centrifugal head
diminishes the pressure at the inlet surface, and increases the velocity
with which the water enters the wheel. This somewhat increases
the frictipnal loss of head. Further, if the wheel varies in velocity
from variations in the useful work done, the quantity (Vi2 — V02)/2g
increases when the turbine speed increases, and vice versa. Conse-
quently the flow into the turbine increases when the speed increases,
and diminishes when the speed diminishes, and this again augments
the variation of speed. The action of the centrifugal head in an out-
ward flow turbine is therefore prejudicial to steadiness of motion.
For this reason r0:n is made small, generally about 5 14. Even
then a governor is sometimes required to regulate the speed cf the
turbine.
Case 3. Inward Flow Turbines. — The inlet radius is greater than
the outlet radius, and the centrifugal head diminishes the velocity
of flow into the turbine. This tends to diminish the frictional
losses, but it has a more important influence in securing steadiness
of motion. Any increase of speed diminishes the flow into the
turbine, and vice versa. Hence the variation of speed is less than
the variation of resistance overcome. In the so-called centre vent
wheels in America, the ratio n : r, is about 5 : 4, and then the influ-
ence of the centrifugal head is not very important. Professor
James Thomson first pointed out the advantage of a much greater
difference of radii. By making r< :»•<, = 2:1, the centrifugal head
balances about half the head in the supply chamber. Then the
velocity through the guide-blades does not exceed the velocity due
to half the fall, and the action of the centrifugal head in securing
steadiness of speed is considerable.
Since the total head producing flow through the turbine is H — j>,
and of this hi—h, is expended in overcoming the pressure in the
wheel, the velocity of flow into the wheel is
J'i=<;.V(2g(H-f)-(Vi2-V,,'/2g + (lV<,1-tVi')/2g)|, (18)
where c, may be taken 0-96.
From (140),
It will be shown immediately that
or, as this is only a small term, and 9 is on the average 90°, we
may take, for the present purpose, v,i =«< nearly.
Inserting these values, and remembering that for an axial flow
turbine V< = V,,, Ij =o, and the fall d in the wheel is to be added,
For an outward flow turbine,
For an inward flow turbine,
§ 194. Angle which the Guide-Blades make with the Circumference
of the Wheel. — At the moment the water enters the wheel, the
radial component of the velocity is tt,-, and the velocity is Vi. Hence,
if 7 is the angle between the guide-blades and a tangent to the
wheel
•X = sin-'(«tM).
This angle can, if necessary, be corrected to allow for the thickness
of the guide-blades.
§ 195. Condition determining the Angle of the Vanes at the Inlet
Surface of the Wheel. — The single condition necessary to be satisfied
at the inlet surface of
the wheel is that the *•«»_
water should enter the
wheel without shock.
This condition is satis-
fied if the direction of
relative motion of the
water and wheel is
parallel to the first
element of the wheel
vanes.
Let A (fig. 196) be a
point on the inlet sur-
face of the wheel, and
let Vi represent in
magnitude and direc-
tion the velocity of the water entering the wheel, and V,- the velocity
of the wheel. Completing the parallelogram, t)ri is the direction of
relative motion. Hence the angle between iv< and V, is the angle 6
which the vanes should make with the inlet surface of the wheel.
§ 196. Example of the Method of designing a Turbine. Professor
James Thomson's Inward Flow Turbine. —
Let H =the available fall after deducting loss of head in pipes
and channels from the gross fall ;
Q = the supply of water in cubic feet per second; and
ij =the efficiency of the turbine.
The work done per second is »;GQH, and the horse-power of the
turbine is h.p. =))GQH/55O. If i\ is taken at 0-75, an allowance will
be made for the frictional losses in the turbine, the leakage and the
friction of the turbine shaft. Then h.p. = o-o8sQH.
The velocity of flow through the turbine (uncorrected for the
space occupied by the vanes and guide-blades) may be taken
tti=«<,=0-I25V2gH,
in which case about jfoth of the energy of the fall is carried away by
the water discharged.
The areas of the outlet and inlet surface of the wheel are then
27rr,,(f0 = 2xri(/i=Q/o-i25V (2gH).
If we take r0, so that the axial velocity of discharge from the central
orifices of the wheel is equal to «„, we get
da = ra.
If, to obtain considerable steadying action of the centrifugal head,
Ti =2re, then di = %da.
Speed of the Wheel. — Let Vi = o-66V2gH, or the speed due to half
the fall nearly. Then the number of rotations of the turbine per
second is
N = Vi/2iri = i -Q579V (HV H/Q) ;
also V«=Vir0/ri=o-33V2gH.
Angle of Vanes with Outlet Surface.
Tan <f> = tto/Vo = 0-125/0-33 = -3788 ;
(jf> = 21 "nearly.
If this value is revised for the vane thickness it will ordinarily
become about 25°.
Velocity with which the Water enters the Wheel. — The head pro-
ducing the velocity is
H - (Vi'/2g) (i +«oWi2) +tti"/2g
= H|i --4356(1 +0-0358) + -0156)
Then the velocity is
Vi = -96V2g(-5646H) =0-721 V~2gH".
Angle of Guide-Blades.
Siny = Ui/Vi =0-125/0-721 =0-173;
7 = 10° nearly.
Tangential Velocity of Water entering Wheel.
0-7101 V 2gH.
1 25 = -4008;
Angle of Vanes at Inlet Surface.
Cot 8 = (wi— Vi)/tti = (-
6 = 68 "nearly.
Hydraulic Efficiency of Wheel.
= °-9373-
This, however, neglects the friction of wheel covers and leakage.
The efficiency from experiment has been found to be 0-75 to 0-80.
Impulse and Partial Admission Turbines.
§ 197. The principal defect of most turbines with complete
admission is the imperfection of the arrangements for working
with less than the normal supply. With many forms of reaction
turbine the efficiency is considerably reduced when the regulating
TURBINES]
HYDRAULICS
103
sluices are partially closed, but it is exactly when the supply
of water is deficient that it is most important to get out of
it the greatest possible amount of work. The imperfection of
the regulating arrangements is therefore, from the practical
point of view, a serious defect. All turbine makers have sought
by various methods to improve the regulating mechanism.
B. Fourneyron, by dividing his wheel by horizontal diaphragms,
virtually obtained three or more separate radial flow turbines,
which could be successively set in action at their full power,
but the arrangement is not altogether successful, because of
the spreading of the water in the space between the wheel and
guide-blades. Fontaine similarly employed two concentric
axial flow turbines formed in the same casing. One was worked
at full power, the other regulated. By this arrangement the
loss of efficiency due to the action of the regulating sluice affected
only half the water power. Many makers have adopted the
expedient of erecting two or three separate turbines on the same
waterfall. Then one or more could be put out of action and the
others worked at full power. All these methods are rather
palliatives than remedies. The movable guide-blades of
Professor James Thomson meet the difficulty directly, but they
are not applicable to every form of turbine.
C. Gallon, in 1840, patented an arrangement of sluices for
axial or outward flow turbines, which were to be closed success-
ively as the water supply diminished. By preference the sluices
were closed by pairs, two diametrically opposite sluices forming
a pair. The water was thus admitted to opposite but equal
arcs of the wheel, and the forces driving the turbine were sym-
metrically placed. As soon as this arrangement was adopted,
FIG. 197.
a modification of the mode of action of the water in the turbine
became necessary. If the turbine wheel passages remain full of
water during the whole rotation, the water contained in each
passage must be put into motion each time it passes an open
portion of the sluice, and stopped each time it passes a closed
portion of the sluice. It is thus put into motion and stopped
twice in each rotation. This gives rise to violent eddying
motions and great loss of energy in shock. To prevent this, the
turbine wheel with partial admission must be placed above the
tail water, and the wheel passages be allowed to clear themselves
of water, while passing from one open portion of the sluices to
the next.
But if the wheel passages are free of water when they arrive
at the open guide passages, then there can be no pressure other
than atmospheric pressure in the clearance space between guides
and wheel. The water must issue from the sluices with the whole
velocity due to the head.; received on the curved vanes of the
wheel, the jets must be gradually deviated and discharged with
a small final velocity only, precisely in the same way as when
a single jet strikes a curved vane in the free air. Turbines of
this kind are therefore termed turbines of free deviation. There
is no variation of pressure in the jet during the whole time of
its action on the wheel, and the whole energy of the jet is im-
parted to the wheel, simply by the impulse due to its gradual
change of momentum. It is clear that the water may be admitted
in exactly the same way to any fraction of the circumference
at pleasure, without altering the efficiency of the wheel. The
diameter of the wheel may be made as large as convenient, and
the water admitted to a small fraction of the circumference only.
Then the number of revolutions is independent of the water
velocity, and may be kept down to a manageable value.
§ 198. General Description of an Impulse Turbine or Turbine with
Free Deviation. — Fig. 197 shows a general sectional elevation of a
Girard turbine, in n n n n
which the flow is
axial. The water, a a la L
admitted above a
horizontal floor,
passes down through
the annular wheel
containing the guide-
blades G, G, and
thence into the re-
volving wheel WW.
The revolving wheel
is fixed to a hollow
shaft suspended from
the pivot p. The solid
internal shaft ii is
merely a fixed column
supporting the pivot.
The advantage of this ,-.
is that the pivot is <IG- '9°-
accessible for lubrication and adjustment. B is the mortise bevel
wheel by which the power of the turbine is given off. The sluices
are worked by the hand wheel h, which raises them successively,
in a way to be described presently, d, d are the sluice rods. Figs.
198, 199 show the sectional form of the guide-blade chamber and
wheel and the curves of the wheel vanes and guide-blades, when
drawn on a plane de-
velopment of the cylin-
drical section of the
wheel; a, a, a are the
sluices for cutting off
the water; b, b, b are
apertures by which the
entrance or exit of air
is facilitated as the
buckets empty and fill.
Figs. 200, 201 show the
guide-blade gear, a, a, a
are the sluice rods as
before. At the top of
each sluice rod is a
small block c, having
a projecting tongue,
which slides in the
groove of the circular
cam plate d, d. This
circular plate is sup-
ported on the frame e,
Dfl
FIG. 199.
and revolves on it by means of the flanged rollers /. Inside, at the
top, the cam plate is toothed, and gears into a spur pinion connected
with the hand wheel h. At gg is an inclined groove or shunt. When
the tongues of the blocks c, c arrive at g, they slide up to a second
groove, or the reverse, according as the cam plate is revolved in one
direction or in the other. As this operation takes place with each
IO4
HYDRAULICS
[TURBINES
sluice successively, any number of sluices can be opened or closed as
desired. The turbine is of 48 horse power on 5-12 ft. fall, and the
supply of water varies from 35 to 112 cub. ft. per second. The
d
U UUU.
a a a
FIG. 200.
efficiency in normal working is given as 73 %. The mean diameter
of the wheel is 6 ft., and the speed 27-4 revolutions per minute.
As an example of a partial admission radial flow impulse turbine,
a loo h.p. turbine at Immenstadt may be taken. The fall varies
from 538 to 570 ft. The external diameter of the wheel is 4! ft., and
\JL
J°B35agf5?P3
JTJ u u u u u u u u rn
u u u u u u u u uui
a a a a a
FIG. 2OI.
its internal diameter 3 ft. 10 in. Normal speed 400 revs, per minute.
Water is discharged into the wheel by a single nozzle, shown in fig.
202 with its regulating apparatus and some of the vanes. The water
enters the wheel
at an angle of 22°
with the direc-
tion of motion,
and the final
angle of thewheel
vanesis2O°. The
efficiency on trial
was from 75 to
78%.
§ 199. Theory
of the Impulse
Turbine. — The
theory of the im-
pulse turbine
does not essen-
tially differ from
that of the re-
action turbine,
except that there
is no pressure in
the wheel oppos-
ing the discharge
from the guide-blades. Hence the velocity with which the water
enters the wheel is simply
»i =o-96V2g(H-b),
where I) is the height of the top of the wheel above the tail water.
If the hydropneumatic system is used, then f)=o. Let Q™ be the
maximum supply of water, n, fj the internal and external radii of
the wheel at the inlet surface; then
FIG. 202.
The value of «i may be about o-45V2£(H-b), whence fi, rj can be
determined.
The guide-blade angle is then given by the equation
sin y = iti/Vi = 0-45/0-94 = -48 ;
Y = 29°.
The value of u> should, however, be corrected for the space occupied
by the guide-blades.
The tangential velocity of the entering water is
TVi =Vi COS-y=0-82V2g(H-b).
The circumferential velocity of the wheel may be (at mean radius)
Vi = o-sV2g(H-b).
Hence the vane angle at inlet surface is given by the equation
cot0=(«ii-Vi)/tti = (o-82-o-5)/o-45 = -7i;
0 = 55°-
The relative velocity of the water striking the vane at the inlet
edge is iv>=tt; cosec0 = \-22Ui. This relative velocity remains
unchanged during the passage of the water over the vane; conse-
quently the relative velocity at the point of discharge is vra = I-22M,.
Also in an axial flow turbine V<, = Vi.
If the final velocity of the water is axial, then
cos^ = V0/»r<, = Vi/t)ri=o-5/(i-22Xo-45)=cos24° 23'.
This should be corrected for the vane thickness. Neglecting this,
U0 = vrosm<t>=vrisin <#> = M,- cosec 0 sin <£ = o-5«;. The discharging area
of the wheel must therefore be greater than the inlet area in the
ratio of at least 2 to I. In some actual turbines the ratio is 7 to 3.
This greater outlet area is obtained by splaying the wheel, as shown
in the section (fig. 199).
§ 200. Pelton Wheel. — In the mining district of California about
1860 simple impulse wheels were used, termed hurdy-gurdy wheels.
The wheels rotated in a vertical plane, being supported on a hori-
zontal axis. Round the circumference were fixed flat vanes which
were struck normally by a jet from a nozzle of size varying with the
head and quantity of water. Such wheels have in fact long been used.
They are not efficient, but they are very
simply constructed. Then attempts were
made to improve the efficiency, first by using
hemispherical cup vanes, and then by using
a double cup vane with a central dividing
ridge, an arrangement invented by Pelton.
In this last form the water from the nozzle
passes half to each side of the wheel, just
escaping clear of the backs of the advancing
buckets. Fig. 203 shows a Pelton vane.
Some small modifications have been made
FIG. 203.
by other makers, but they are not of any great importance.
Fig. 204 shows a complete Pelton wheel with frame and casing,
supply pipe and nozzle. Pelton wheels have been very largely used
in America and to some extent in Europe. They are extremely
simple and easy to construct or repair and on falls of 100 ft. or more
are very efficient. The jet strikes tangentially to the mean radius
of the buckets, and the face of the buckets is not quite radial but at
right angles to the direction of the jet at the point of first impact.
For greatest efficiency the peripheral velocity of the wheel at the
mean radius of the buckets should be a little less than half the velocity
of the jet. As the radius of the wheel can be taken arbitrarily, the
number of revolutions per minute can be accommodated to that of
the machinery to be driven. Pelton wheels have been made as small
\ ,-ir\\. !$? I i
"\« •-./ .- •:- •<: \ /' /A> i ;
FIG. 204.
as 4 in. diameter, for driving sewing machines, and as large as 24 ft.
The efficiency on high falls is about 80 %. When large power is
required two or three nozzles are used delivering on one wheel.
The width of the buckets should be not less than seven times the
diameter of the jet.
At the Comstock mines, Nevada, there is a 3&-in. Pelton wheel
made of a solid steel disk with phosphor bronze buckets riveted to
the rim. The head is 2100 ft. and the wheel makes 1 150 revolutions
per minute, the peripheral velocity being 180 ft. per sec. With a \-\n.
nozzle the wheel uses 32 cub. ft. of water per minute and develops
100 h.p. At the Chollarshaft, Nevada, there are six Pelton wheeli
on a fall of 1680 ft. driving electrical generators. With f-in. nozzles
each develops 125 h.p.
§ 201. Theory of the Pelton Wheel.— Suppose a jet with a velocity
» strikes tangentially a curved vane AB (fig. 205) moving in the
same direction with the velocity u. The water will flow over the
vane with the relative velocity » — u and at B will have the tangential
TURBINES]
HYDRAULICS
relative velocity » — u making an angle a with the direction of the
vane's motion. Combining this with the velocity u of the vane, the
absolute velocity of the water leaving the vane will bew = Be. The com-
ponent of w in the direction of motion of the vane is Bo = B6 — ab
= u — (v — u) cos a. Hence
if Q is the quantity of
water reaching the vane
per second the change of
momentum per second in
the direction of the vane's
motion is (GQ/g)[f — {u —
(r-tt)coso)] = (GQ/g)(v-u)
(l + cos a). If a = 0°,
cos 0 = 1, and the change
of momentum per second,
which is equal to the
effort driving the vane, is
P = 2(GQ/g) (»-«)• The
work done on the vane is
P«-3(GQ/f)(p-«)«. If a
series of vanes are inter-
posed in succession, the
quantity of water imping-
ing on the vanes per second is the total discharge of the nozzle,
and the energy expended at the nozzle is GQi^g. Hence the
efficiency of the arrangement is, when a = o°, neglecting friction,
FIG. 205.
which is a maximum and equal to unity if u = \v. In that case the
whole energy of the jet is usefully expended in driving the series of
vanes. In practice a cannot be quite zero or the water leaving one
vane would strike the back of the next advancing vane. Fig. 203
shows a Pelton vane. The water divides each way, and leaves the
vane on each side in a direction nearly parallel to the direction of
motion of the vane. The best velocity of the vane is very approxi-
mately half the velocity of the jet.
§ 202. Regulation of the Pelton Wheel. — At first Pelton wheels were
adjusted to varying loads merely by throttling the supply. This
method involves a total loss of part of the head at the sluice or
throttle valve. In addition as the working head is reduced, the
relation between wheel velocity and jet velocity is no longer that of
greatest efficiency. Next a plan was adopted of deflecting the jet
so that only part of the water reached the wheel when the Toad was
reduced, the rest going to waste. This involved the use of an equal
quantity of water for large and small loads, but it had, what in some
cases is an advantage, the effect of preventing any water hammer in
the supply pipe due to the action of the regulator. In most cases
now regulation is effected by varying the section of the jet. A
conical needle in the nozzle can be advanced or withdrawn so as to
occupy more or less of the aperture of the nozzle. Such a needle can
be controlled by an ordinary governor.
§ 203. General Considerations on the Choice of a Type of
Turbine. — -The circumferential speed of any turbine is necessarily
a fraction of the initial velocity of the water, and therefore is
greater as the head is greater. In reaction turbines with com-
plete admission the number of revolutions per minute becomes
inconveniently great, for the diameter cannot be increased
beyond certain limits without greatly reducing the efficiency.
In impulse turbines with partial admission the diameter can be
chosen arbitrarily and the number of revolutions kept down
on high falls to any desired amount. Hence broadly reaction
turbines are better and less costly on low falls, and impulse
turbines on high falls. For variable water flow impulse turbines
have some advantage, being more efficiently regulated. On the
other hand, impulse turbines lose efficiency seriously if their
speed varies from the normal speed due to the head. If the head
is very variable, as it often is on low falls, and the turbine must
run at the same speed whatever the head, the impulse turbine
is not suitable. Reaction turbines can be constructed so as to
overcome this difficulty to a great extent. Axial flow turbines
with vertical shafts have the disadvantage that in addition to
the weight of the turbine there is an unbalanced water pressure
to be carried by the footstep or collar bearing. In radial flow
turbines the hydraulic pressures are balanced. The application of
turbines to drive dynamos directly has involved some new con-
ditions. The electrical engineer generally desires a high speed
of rotation, and a very constant speed at all times. The reaction
turbine is generally more suitable than the impulse turbine.
As the diameter of the turbine depends on the quantity of water
and cannot be much varied without great inefficiency, a difficulty
arises on low falls. This has been met by constructing four
independent reaction turbines on the same shaft, each having of
course the diameter suitable for one-quarter of the whole dis-
charge, and having a higher speed of rotation than a larger
turbine. The turbines at Rheinfelden and Chevres are so con-
structed. To ensure constant speed of rotation when the head
varies considerably without serious inefficiency, an axial flow
turbine is generally used. It is constructed of three or four
concentric rings of vanes, with independent regulating sluices,
forming practically independent turbines of different radii.
Any one of these or any combination can be used according to
the state of the water. With a high fall the turbine of largest
radius only is used, and the speed of rotation is less than with a
turbine of smaller radius. On the other hand, as the fall decreases
the inner turbines are used either singly or together, according
to the power required. At the Zurich waterworks there are
turbines of 90 h.p. on a fall varying from ic4 ft. to 4! ft. The
power and speed are kept constant. Each turbine has three
concentric rings. The outermost ring gives 90 h.p. with 105
cub. ft. per second and the maximum fall. The outer and middle
compartments give the same power with 140 cub. ft. per second
and a fall of 7 ft. 10 in. All three compartments working together
develop the power with about 250 cub. ft. per second. In some
tests the efficiency was 74% with the outer ring working alone,
75-4% with the outer and middle ring working and a fall of
7 ft., and 80-7% with all the rings working.
§ 204. Speed Governing. — When turbines are used to drive
dynamos direct, the question of speed regulation is of great im-
portance. Steam engines using a light elastic fluid can be easily
regulated by governors acting on throttle or expansion valves.
It is different with water turbines using a fluid of great inertia.
IV
Hand
Regulator
FIG. 206.
In one of the Niagara penstocks there are 400 tons of water
flowing at 10 ft. per second, opposing enormous resistance to rapid
change of speed of flow. The sluices of water turbines also are
necessarily large and heavy. Hence relay governors must be
xiv. 4 a
io6
HYDRAULICS
[PUMPS
used, and the tendency of relay governors to hunt must be
overcome. In the Niagara Falls Power House No. i, each tur-
bine has a very sensitive centrifugal governor acting on a ratchet
relay. The governor puts into gear one or other of two ratchets
driven by the turbine itself. According as one or the other
ratchet is in gear the sluices are raised or lowered. By a sub-
sidiary arrangement the ratchets are gradually put out of gear
unless the governor puts them in gear again, and this prevents the
over correction of the speed from the lag in the action of the
governor. In the Niagara Power House No. 2, the relay is an
hydraulic relay similar in principle, but rather more complicated
in arrangement, to that shown in fig. 206, which is a governor
used for the 1250 h.p. turbines at Lyons. The sensitive governor
G opens a valve and puts into action a plunger driven by oil
pressure from an oil reservoir. As the plunger moves forward
it gradually closes the oil admission valve by lowering the
fulcrum end/ of the valve lever which rests on a wedge w attached
to the plunger. If the speed is still too high, the governor re-
opens the valve. In the case of the Niagara turbines the oil
pressure is 1200 Ib per sq. in. One millimetre of movement of
the governor sleeve completely opens the relay valve, and the
relay plunger exerts a force of 50 tons. The sluices can be
completely opened or shut in twelve seconds. The ordinary
variation of speed of the turbine with varying load does not
exceed i%. If all the load is thrown off, the momentary
variation of speed is not more than 5 %. To prevent hydraulic
shock in the supply pipes, a relief valve is provided which opens
if the pressure is in excess of that due to the head.
§ 205. The Hydraulic Ram. — The hydraulic ram is an arrange-
ment by which a quantity of water falling a distance h forces
a portion of the water to rise to a height hi, greater than //.
It consists of a supply reservoir (A, fig. 207), into which the water
enters from some natural stream. A pipe s of considerable
length conducts the water to a lower level, where it is discharged
intermittently through a self-acting pulsating valve at d. The
supply pipe s may be fitted with a flap valve for stopping the
ram, and this is attached in some cases to a float, so that the ram
starts and stops itself automatically, according as the supply
cistern fills or empties. The lower float is just sufficient to keep
open the flap after it has been raised by the action of the upper
float. The length of chain is adjusted so that the upper float
opens the flap when the level in the cistern is at the desired
height. If the water-level falls below the lower float the flap
closes. The pipe i should be as long and as straight as possible,
and as it is subjected to considerable pressure from the sudden
arrest of the motion of the water, it must be strong and strongly
FIG. 208.
FIG. 207.
jointed, a is an air vessel, and e the delivery pipe leading to
the reservoir at a higher level than A, into which water is to be
pumped. Fig. 208 shows in section the construction of the ram
itself, d is the pulsating discharge valve already mentioned,
which opens inwards and downwards. The stroke of the valve
is regulated by the cotter through the spindle, under which are
washers by which the amount of fall can be regulated. At o
is a delivery valve, opening outwards, which is often a ball-
valve but sometimes a flap-valve. The water which is pumped
passes through this valve into the air vessel a, from which it
flows by the delivery pipe in a regular stream into the cistern
to which the water is to be raised. In the vertical chamber
behind the outer valve a small air vessel is formed, and into
this opens an aperture J in. in diameter, made in a brass screw
plug b. The hole is reduced to -jV in. in diameter at the outer
end of the plug and is closed by a small valve opening inwards.
Through this, during the rebound after each stroke of the ram,
a small quantity of air is sucked in which keeps the air vessel
supplied with its elastic cushion of air.
During the recoil after a sudden closing of the valve d, the
pressure below it is diminished and the valve opens, permitting
outflow. In consequence of the flow through this valve, the
water in the supply pipe acquires a gradually increasing velocity.
The upward flow of
the water, towards the
valve d, increases the
pressure tending to lift
the valve, and at last,
if the valve is not too
heavy, lifts and closes
it. The forward mo-
mentum of the column
in the supply pipe
being destroyed by the
stoppage of the flow,
the water exerts a
pressure at the end of
the pipe sufficient to
open the delivery
valve o, and to cause
a portion of the water
to flow into the air
vessel. As the water
in the supply pipe
comes to rest and
recoils, the valve d
opens again and the
operation is repeated. Part of the energy of the descending
column is employed in compressing the air at the end of the
supply pipe and expanding the pipe itself. This causes a recoil
of the water which momentarily diminishes the pressure in the
pipe below the pressure due to the statical head. This assists
in opening the valve d. The recoil of the water is sufficiently
great to enable a pump to be attached to the ram body instead
of the direct rising pipe. With this arrangement a ram working
with muddy water may be employed to raise clear spring water.
Instead of lifting the delivery valve as in the ordinary ram, the
momentum of the column drives a sliding or elastic piston,
and the recoil brings it back. This piston lifts and forces
alternately the clear water through ordinary
pump valves.
PUMPS
§ 206. The different classes of pumps corre-
spond almost exactly to the different classes
of water motors, although the mechanical
details of the construction are somewhat
different. They are properly reversed water
motors. Ordinary reciprocating pumps corre-
spond to water-pressure engines. Chain
and bucket pumps are in principle similar
to water wheels in which the water acts by
weight. Scoop wheels are similar to undershot water wheels,
and centrifugal pumps to turbines.
Reciprocating Pumps are single or double acting, and differ
from water-pressure engines in that the valves are moved by
the water instead of by automatic machinery. They may be
classed thus: —
1. Lift Pumps. — The water drawn through a foot valve on
the ascent of the pump bucket is forced through the bucket
valve when it descends, and lifted by the bucket when it reascends.
Such pumps give an intermittent discharge.
2. Plunger or Force Pumps, in which the water drawn through
the foot valve is displaced by the descent of a solid plunger, and
forced through a delivery valve. They have the advantage that
PUMPS]
HYDRAULICS
107
the friction is less than that of lift pumps, and the packing
round the plunger is easily accessible, whilst that round a lift
pump bucket is not. The flow is intermittent.
3. The Double-acting Force Pump is in principle a double
plunger pump. The discharge fluctuates from zero to a maximum
and back to zero each stroke, but is not arrested for any
appreciable time.
4. Bucket and Plunger Pumps consist of a lift pump bucket
combined with a plunger of half its area. The flow varies as in
a double-acting pump.
5. Diaphragm Pumps have been used, in which the solid
plunger is replaced by an elastic diaphragm, alternately depressed
into and raised out of a cylinder.
As single-acting pumps give an intermittent discharge three
are generally used on cranks at 120°. But with all pumps the
variation of velocity of discharge would cause great waste of work
in the delivery pipes when they are long, and even danger from
the hydraulic ramming action of the long column of water.
An air vessel is interposed between the pump and the delivery
pipes, of a volume from 5 to 100 times the space described by
the plunger per stroke. The air in this must be replenished
from time to time, or continuously, by a special air-pump.
At low speeds not exceeding 30 ft. per minute the delivery of a
pump is about 90 to 95% of the volume described by the plunger
or bucket, from 5 to 10% of the discharge being lost by leakage.
At high speeds the quantity pumped occasionally exceeds the
volume described by the plunger, the momentum of the water
keeping the valves open after the turn of the stroke.
The velocity of large mining pumps is about 140 ft. per minute,
the indoor or suction stroke being sometimes made at 250 ft.
per minute. Rotative pumping engines of large size have a
plunger speed of 90 ft. per minute. Small rotative pumps are
run faster, but at some loss of efficiency. Fire-engine pumps
have a speed of 1 80 to 220 ft. per minute.
The efficiency of reciprocating pumps varies very greatly.
Small reciprocating pumps, with metal valves on lifts of 15 ft.,
were found by Morin to have an efficiency of 16 to 40%, or on
the average 25%. When used to pump water at considerable
pressure, through hose pipes, the efficiency rose to from 28 to
57%, or on the average, with 50 to 100 ft. of lift, about 50%.
A large pump with barrels 18 in. diameter, at speeds under 60
ft. per minute, gave the following results: — •
Lift in feet . . . 14} 34 47
Efficiency .... -46 -66 -70
The very large steam-pumps employed for waterworks,
with 150 ft. or more of lift, appear to reach an efficiency of 90%,
not including the friction of the discharge pipes. Reckoned on
the indicated work of the steam-engine the efficiency may be
80%.
Many small pumps are now driven electrically and are usually
three-throw single-acting pumps driven from the electric motor
by gearing. It is not convenient to vary the speed of the motor
to accommodate it to the]varying rate of pumping usually required.
Messrs Hayward Tyler have introduced a mechanism for varying
the stroke of the pumps (Sinclair's patent) from full stroke
to nil, without stopping the pumps.
§ 207. Centrifugal Pump. — For large volumes of water on
lifts not exceeding about 60 ft. the most convenient pump is
the centrifugal pump. Recent improvements have made it
available also for very high lifts. It consists of a wheel or fan
with curved vanes enclosed in an annular chamber. Water flows
in at the centre and is discharged at the periphery. The fan
may rotate in a vertical or horizontal plane and the water may
enter on one or both sides of the fan. In the latter case there
is no axial unbalanced pressure. The fan and its casing must
be filled with water before it can start, so that if not drowned
there must be a foot valve on the suction pipe. When no special
attention needs to be paid to efficiency the water may have a
velocity of 6 to 7 ft. in the suction and delivery pipes. The fan
often has 6 to 12 vanes. For a double-inlet fan of diameter
D, the diameter of the inlets is D/2. If Q is the discharge in
cub. ft. per second D = about 0-6 VQ in average cases. The
peripheral speed is a little greater than the velocity due to the lift.
Ordinary centrifugal pumps will have an efficiency of 40 to 60%.
The first pump of this kind which attracted notice was one
exhibited by J. G. Appold in 1851, and the special features of
his pump have been retained in the best pumps since constructed.
Appold's pump raised continuously a volume of water equal to
1400 times its own capacity per minute. It had no valves, and
it permitted the passage of solid bodies, such as walnuts and
oranges, without obstruction to its working. Its efficiency was
also found to be good.
Fig. 209 shows the ordinary form of a centrifugal pump.
The pump disk and vanes B are cast in one, usually of bronze,
FIG. 209.
and the disk is keyed on the driving shaft C. The casing A
has a spirally enlarging discharge passage into the discharge
pipe K. A cover L gives access to the pump. S is the suction
pipe which opens into the pump disk on both sides at D.
Fig. 210 shows a centrifugal pump differing from ordinary
centrifugal pumps in one feature only. The water rises through
a suction pipe S, which divides so as to enter the pump wheel
W at the centre on each side. The pump disk or wheel is very
similar to a turbine wheel. It is keyed on a shaft driven by a
belt on a fast and loose pulley arrangement at P. The water
rotating in the pump disk presses outwards, and if the speed is
sufficient a continuous flow is maintained through the pump
and into the discharge pipe D. The special feature in this pump
is that the water, discharged by the pump disk with a whirling
velocity of not inconsiderable magnitude, is allowed to continue
rotation in a chamber somewhat larger than the pump. The
use of this whirlpool chamber was first suggested by Professor
James Thomson. It utilizes the energy due to the whirling
velocity of the water which in most pumps is wasted in eddies
in the discharge pipe. In the pump shown guide-blades are also
added which have the direction of the stream lines in a free
vortex. They do not therefore interfere with the action of the
water when pumping the normal quantity, but only prevent
irregular motion. At A is a plug by which the pump case is
filled before starting. If the pump is above the water to be
pumped, a foot valve is required to permit the pump to be filled.
Sometimes instead of the foot valve a delivery valve is used,
an air-pump or steam jet pump being employed to exhaust the
air from the pump case.
§ 208. Design and Proportions of a Centrifugal Pump. — The design
of the pump disk is very simple. Let ri, ra be the radii of the inlet
and outlet surfaces of the pump disk, di, </„ the clear axial width at
those radii. The velocity of flow through the pump may be taken
io8
HYDRAULICS
[PUMPS
FIG. 210.
the same as for a turbine. If Q is the quantity pumped, and H the
lift,
Also in practice
Hence,
Usually
and
'257iV(Q/VH).J
(2)
'V,
"n,
</„•-</; i >r i </i
according as the disk is parallel-sided or coned. The water enters
the wheel radially with the velocity m, and
Mo = Q/2jrr0d0. (3)
Fig. 211 shows the notation adopted for the velocities.
Suppose the water enters the wheel with the velocity w, while
the velocity of the
"• "o wheel is V<. Com-
pleting the parallelo-
gram, VT( is the rela-
tive velocity of the
water and wheel, and
is the proper direction
of the wheel vanes.
Also, by resolving, in
and Wi are the com-
ponent velocities of
flow and velocities of
whir of the velocity »,•
of the water. At the
outlet surface, »„ is the
FIG. 211. final velocity of dis-
charge, and the rest of
the notation is similar to that for the inlet surface.
Usually the water flows equally in all directions in the eye of the
wheel, in that case vt is radial. Then, in normal conditions of work-
ing, at the inlet surface,
Vi=Ui "I
Wi=0 f v
tanfl=tti/Vi _ [
Vri = Ui COSCC 0 = V (ttj2+ViSJ a
If the pump is raising less or more than its proper quantity, 9 will
not satisfy the last condition, and there is then some loss of head in
shock.
At the outer circumference of the wheel or outlet surface,
fro = «o COSCC <t>
. — u.cot <t> (5)
Variation of Pressure in the Pump Disk. — Precisely as in the case
of turbines, it can be shown that the variation of pressure between
the inlet and outlet surfaces of the pump is
*.-*i = (V,«- Vi«)/2g - (lV.'-»ri!)/22.
Inserting the values of v,,, Vn in (4) and (5), we get for normal
conditions of working
h,-hi = WJ-
t-*J cosecV/2g+ («i2+Vi2)/2g
= Vo2/2g - Mo2 COSCC V/2g +«i2/2g. (6)
Hydraulic Efficiency of the Pump. — Neglecting disk friction,
journal friction, and leakage, the efficiency of the pump can be found
in the same way as that of turbines (§ 186). Let M be the moment
of the couple rotating the pump, and a its angular velocity; wot ra
the tangential velocity of the water and radius at the outlet
surface; wt, n the same quantities at the inlet surface. Q being
the discharge per second, the change of angular momentum per
second is
(GQ/g)(w<,r0— win).
Hence M = (GQ/g)(war0—Win).
In normal working, wi = o. Also, multiplying by the angular velocity,
the work done per second is
Ma = (
But the useful
efficiency is
work done in pumping is GQH. Therefore the
§ 209. Case I. Centrifugal Pump with no Whirlpool Chamber. —
When no special provision is made to utilize the energy of motion of
the water leaving the wheel, and the pump discharges directly into a
chamber in which the water is flowing to the discharge pipe, nearly
the whole of the energy of the water leaving the disk is wasted. The
water leaves the disk with the more or less considerable velocity »„,
and impinges on a mass flowing to the discharge pipe at the much
slower velocity v,. The radial component of va is almost necessarily
wasted. From the tangential component there is a gain of pressure
(W? -V ,2)/2g - (w, -».)*/22
= V,(W0— »,)/£,
which will be small, if v, is small compared with wa. Its greatest
value, if v, = %wa, is \w£\2g, which will always be a small part of the
whole head. Suppose this neglected. The whole variation of
pressure in the pump disk then balances the lift and the head
tt;2/2g necessary to give the initial velocity of flow in the eye of the
wheel.
Mi2/2g + H = V02/2g-W02 COSCC 24>/2g+Mi2/2g,
H = V02/2g - uf cosec 2</>/2g ) (8)
or Vo = V(2gH+tt<,2 cosec *<j> . !
and the efficiency of the pump is, from (7),
l-»H/Vrf»,-fH/fy(V.-«. cot «)),
= (V02-M«2 cosec V)/(2V.(V.-*. cot *!. (9)
For<#>=oo0, i7=(V02-M<,2)/2V02,
which is necessarily less than J. That is, half the work expended in
driving the pump is wasted. By recurving the vanes, a plan intro-
duced by Appold, the efficiency is increased, because the velocity
v0 of discharge from the pump is diminished. If <t> is very small,
cosec <t> = cot <t> ;
and then ij = (V0+«. cosec 0)/2V»,
which may approach the value I, as <t> tends towards o. Equation
(8) shows that u, cosec <t> cannot be greater than V0. Putting
M0 = o'2sV (2gH) we get the following numerical values o! the
efficiency and the circumferential velocity of the pump : —
PUMPS]
HYDRAULICS
109
30°
20°
10°
0-47
0-56
0-65
o-73
0-84
i -06
I-I2
1-24
1-75
<t> cannot practically be made less than 20°; and, allowing for the
f fictional losses neglected, the efficiency of a pump in which <t> = 20° is
found to be about -60.
§210. Case 2. Pump with a Whirlpool Chamber, as in fig. 210. —
Professor James Thomson first suggested that the energy of the water
after leaving the pump disk might be utilized, if a space were left
in which a Free vortex could be formed. In such a free vortex the
velocity varies inversely as the radius. The gain of pressure in the
vortex chamber is, putting r0, ra for the radii to the outlet surface
of wheel and to outside of free vortex,
if k = ra/rn.
The lift is then, adding this to the lift in the last case,
H = (Vo'-wc,2 cosec^+ivKl -£2))/2g.
But v,?=V<?-2V0u0 cot <#>+«o2 cosecV;
.-.H ={(2-k2)VS-2kV0u0 cot <t>-kW cosec2<£j/2g. (10)
Putting this in the expression for the efficiency, we find a con-
siderable increase of efficiency. Thus with
<#> = 9O0 and fc = i, 17 = 5 nearly,
<t> a small angle and k = j, i) = I nearly.
With this arrangement of pump, therefore, the angle at the outer
ends of the vanes is of comparatively little importance. A moderate
angle of 30° or 40° may very well be adopted. The following
numerical values of the velocity of the circumference of the pump
have been obtained by taking & = j, and w0 = o-25v (2gH).
45° -842
3°° "911 11
20° 1-023 „
The quantity of water to be pumped by a centrifugal pump neces-
sarily varies, and an adjustment for different quantities of water can-
not easily be introduced. Hence it is that the average efficiency of
pumps of this kind is in practice less than the efficiencies given above.
The advantage of a vortex chamber is also generally neglected. The
velocity in the supply and discharge pipes is also often made greater
than is consistent with a high degree of efficiency. Velocities of 6
or 7 ft. per second in the discharge and suction pipes, when the lift
is small, cause a very sensible waste of energy; 3 to 6 ft. would
be much better. Centrifugal pumps of very large size have been
constructed. Easton and Anderson made pumps for the North Sea
canal in Holland to deliver each 670 tons of water per minute on a
lift of 5 ft. The pump disks are 8 ft. diameter. J. and H. Gwynne
constructed some pumps for draining the Ferrarese Marshes, which
together deliver 2000 tons per minute. A pump made under Pro-
fessor J. Thomson's direction for drainage works in Barbados had
a pump disk 16 ft. in diameter and a whirlpool chamber 32 ft. in
diameter. The efficiency of centrifugal pumps when delivering less
or more than the normal quantity of water is discussed in a paper in
the Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng. vol. 53.
§ 211. High Lift Centrifugal Pumps. — It has long been known
that centrifugal pumps could be worked in series, each pump
overcoming a part of the lift. This method has been perfected,
and centrifugal pumps for very high lifts with great efficiency
have been used by Sulzer and others. C. W. Darley {Proc. Inst.
Civ. Eng., supplement to vol. 154, p. 156) has described some
pumps of this new type driven by Parsons steam turbines for
the water supply of Sydney, N.S.W. Each pump was designed to
deliver i \ million gallons per twenty-four hours against a head
of 240 ft. at 3300 revs, per minute. Three pumps in series give
therefore a lift of 720 ft. The pump consists of a central double-
sided impeller 12 in. diameter. The water entering at the
bottom divides and enters the runner at each side through a
bell-mouthed passage. The shaft is provided with ring and
groove glands which on the suction side keep the air out and on
the pressure side prevent leakage. Some water from the pressure
side leaks through the glands, but beyond the first grooves it
passesinto a pocket and is returned to the suction side of the pump.
For the glands on the suction side water is supplied from a low-
pressure service. No packing is used in the glands. During
the trials no water was seen at the glands. The following are
the results of tests made at Newcastle: —
I.
II.
III.
IV.
Duration of test . . hours
2
1-54
1-2
1-55
Steam pressure Ib per sq. in.
57
57
84
55
Weight of steam per water
h.p. hour Ib
27-93
30-67
28-83
27-89
Speed in revs, per min.
3300
3330
3710
334°
Height of suction . . .ft.
ii
ii
II
ii
Total lift ft.
762
744
917
756
Million galls, per day pumped —
By Venturi meter
1-573
1-499
1-689
I-503
By orifice
1-623
I-5I3
I-723
1-555
Water h.p
252
235
326
239
In trial IV. the steam was superheated 95° F. From other
trials under the same conditions as trial I. the Parsons turbine
uses 15-6 Ib of steam per brake h.p. hour, so that the combined
efficiency of turbine and pumps is about 56%, a remarkably
good result.
§ 212. Air-Lift Pumps. — An interesting and simple method of
pumping by compressed air, invented by Dr J. Pohle of Arizona,
is likely to be very useful in certain cases. Suppose a rising
main placed in a deep bore hole in which there is a considerable
depth of water. Air compressed to a sufficient pressure is con-
veyed by an air pipe and introduced at the lower end of the rising
main. The air
rising in the main
diminishes the
average density
of the contents of
the main, and
their aggregate
weight no longer
balances the pres-
sure at the lower
end of the main
due to its sub-
mersion. An up-
ward flow is set
up, and if the air
supply is suffi-
cient the water
in the rising main
is lifted to any
required height.
The higher the
lift above the
level in the bore
hole the deeper
must be the point
at which air is
injected. Fig.
212 shows an air-
lift pump con-
structed for W.
H. Maxwell at
the Tunbridge
Wells water-
works. There is a
two-stage steam
air compressor,
compressing air to | FIG. 212.
from 90 to 100 Ib
per sq. in. The bore hole is 350 ft. deep, lined with steel pipes 1 5 in.
diameter for 200 ft. and with perforated pipes 135 in. diameter for
the lower 150 ft. The rest level of the water is 96 ft. from the
ground-level, and the level when pumping 32,000 gallons per hour
is 1 20 ft. from the ground-level. The rising main is 7 in. diameter,
and is carried nearly to the bottom of the bore hole and to
20 ft. above the ground-level. The air pipe is 2\ in. diameter.
In a trial run 31,402 gallons per hour were raised 133 ft. above
the level in the well. Trials of the efficiency of the system made
at San Francisco with varying conditions will be found in a
paper by E. A. Rix (Journ. Amer. Assoc. Eng. Soc. vol. 25,
-STeel Tubes 15 Diam.
Rising Main 7 Diam.
Air Pipt Zi' Diam
no
HYDRAZINE
1 900) . Maxwell found the best results when the ratio of immersion
to lift was 3 to i at the start and 2-2 to i at the end of the trial.
In these conditions the efficiency was 37% calculated on the
indicated h.p. of the steam-engine, and 46% calculated on the
indicated work of the compressor. 2-7 volumes of free air were
used to i of water lifted. The system is suitable for temporary
purposes, especially as the quantity of water raised is much
greater than could be pumped by any other system in a bore
hole of a given size. It is useful for clearing a boring of sand
and may be advantageously used permanently when a boring
is in sand or gravel which cannot be kept out of the bore hole.
The initial cost is small.
§ 213. Centrifugal Fans. — Centrifugal fans are constructed
similarly to centrifugal pumps, and are used for compressing
air to pressures not exceeding 10 to 15 in. of water-column.
With this small variation of pressure the variation of volume
and density of the air may be neglected without sensible error.
The conditions of pressure and discharge for fans are gener-
ally less accurately known than in the case of pumps, and the
design of fans is generally somewhat crude. They seldom have
whirlpool chambers, though a large expanding outlet is pro-
vided in the case of the important Guibal fans used in mine
ventilation.
It is usual to reckon the difference of pressure at the inlet
and outlet of a fan in inches of water-column. One inch of water-
column =64-4 ft. of air at average atmospheric pressure = 5-2lb per
sq. ft.
Roughly the pressure-head produced in a fan without means of
utilizing the kinetic energy of discharge would be ti*/2g ft. of air, or
0-00024 »2 in. of water, where v is the velocity of the tips of the fan
blades in feet per second. If d is the diameter of the fan and / the width
at the external circumference, then wdt is the discharge area of the fan
disk. If Q is the discharge in cub. ft. per sec., u=Q/-rdt is the radial
velocity of discharge which is numerically equal to the discharge per
square foot of outlet in cubic feet per second. As both the losses in the fan
and the work done are roughly proportional to u* in fans of the same
type, and are also proportional to the gauge pressure p, then if the
losses are to be a constant percentage of the work done u may be
taken proportional to V p. In ordinary cases u = about 22V p. The
width / of the fan is generally from 0-35 to o-45</. Hence if Q is
given, the diameter of the fan should be : —
For/=o-35<i, rf=o-2oV(Q/V/>)
80-
0
AS
.
a
X2
1
i
C
L
J
^
f
«.«•
^*
4
1
i
1.
1'
£•
t
o-
0
0
If p is the pressure difference in the fan in inches of water, and N the
revolutions of fan,
»=T<iN/6o ft. per sec.
N = i23oV/>/<i revs, per min.
As the pressure difference is small, the work done in compressing the
air is almost exactly $-2pQ foot-pounds per second. Usually, however,
the kinetic energy of the air in the discharge pipe is not inconsiderable
compared with the work done in compression. If w is the velocity
of the air where the discharge pressure is measured, the air carries
away vflzg foot-pounds per Ib of air as kinetic energy. In Q cubic feet
or o-o8o7QR> the kinetic energy is 0-00125 Q1"2 foot-pounds per
second.
The efficiency of fans is reckoned in two ways. If B.H.P. is the
effective horse-power applied at the fan shaft, then the efficiency
reckoned on the work of compression is
On the other hand, if the kinetic energy in the delivery pipe is taken
as part of the useful work the efficiency is
...
Although the theory above is a rough one it agrees sufficiently with
experiment, with some merely numerical modifications.
An extremely interesting experimental investigation of the action
of centrifugal fans has been made by H. Heenan and W. Gilbert
(Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng. vol. 123, p. 272). The fans delivered through an
air trunk in which different resistances could be obtained by intro-
ducing diaphragms with circular apertures of different sizes. Suppose
a fan run at constant speed with different resistances and the com-
pression pressure, discharge and brake horse-power measured. The
results plot in such a diagram as is shown in fig. 213. The less the
resistance to discharge, that is the larger the opening in the air trunk,
the greater the quantity of air discharged at the given speed of the
fan. On the other hand the compression pressure diminishes. The
curve marked total gauge is the compression pressure +the velocity
head in th« discharge pipe, both in inches of water. This curve falls,
but not nearly so much as the compression curve, when the resist-
ance in the air trunk is diminished. The brake horse-power increases
as the resistance is diminished because the volume of discharge in-
creases very much. The curve marked efficiency is the efficiency
calculated on the work of compression only. It is zero for no dis-
charge, and zero also when there is no resistance and all the energy
given to the air is carried away as kinetic energy. There is a dis-
charge for which this efficiency is a maximum; it is about half the
discharge which there is when there is no resistance and the delivery
pipe is full open. The conditions of speed and discharge correspond-
ing to the greatest efficiency of compression are those ordinarily
taken as the best normal conditions of working. The curve marked
2000 3OOO
Discharge - CfT. ptr mln.
Tip Speed . too -ft. joer arc.
FIG. 213.
total efficiency gives the efficiency calculated on the work of com-
pression and kinetic energy of discharge. Messrs Gilbert and
Heenan found the efficiencies of ordinary fans calculated on the
compression to be 40 to 60% when working at about normal
conditions.
Taking some of Messrs Heenan and Gilbert's results for ordinary
fans in normal conditions, they have been found to agree fairly with
the following approximate rules. Let pc be the compression pressure
and q the volume discharged per second per square foot of outlet area of
fan. Then the total gauge pressure due to pressure of compression
and velocity of discharge is approximately: p = pe-\-Q-ooo$<f in. of
water, so that if pc is given, p can be found approximately. The
pressure p depends on the circumferential speed v of the fan disk —
p = 0-0002 5^ in. of water
f = 63V/> ft. per sec.
The discharge per square foot of outlet of fan is —
9 = 15 to i8Vp cub. ft. per sec.
The total discharge is
t = -35^,
7 to 56 dt-Jp
d = 0-22 to 0-25 V (
d=0-20 to 0-22V(
/V p) ft.
ft.
For
These approximate equations, which are derived purely from
experiment, do not differ greatly from those obtained by the rough
theory given above. The theory helps to explain the reason for the
form of the empirical results. (W. C. U.)
HYDRAZINE (DIAMIDOGEN), N2H< or H2 N-NH2, a compound
of hydrogen and nitrogen, first prepared by Th. Curtius in 1887
from diazo-acetic ester, N2CH-CO2C2H6. This ester, which is
obtained by the action of potassium nitrate on the hydrochloride
of amidoacetic ester, yields on hydrolysis with hot concentrated
potassium hydroxide an acid, which Curtius regarded as.
CaHjN6(CO2H)8, but which A. Hantzsch and O. Silberrad
(Ber., 1900, 33, p. 58) showed to be C2H2N4(CQ2H)2, bisdiazo-
acetic acid. On digestion of its warm aqueous solution with
warm dilute sulphuric acid, hydrazine sulphate and oxalic acid
are obtained. C. A. Lobry de Bruyn (Ber., 1895, 28, p. 3085)
prepared free hydrazine by dissolving its hydrochloride in
methyl alcohol and adding sodium methylate; sodium chloride
was precipitated and the residual liquid afterwards fractionated
under reduced pressure. It can also be prepared by reducing
potassium dinitrososulphonate in ice cold water by means of
sodium amalgam: —
HYDRAZONE— HYDROCEPHALUS
in
P. J. Sohestalcov (/. Russ. Phys. Chem. Soc., 1905, 37, p. i)
obtained hydrazine by oxidizing urea with sodium hypochlorite
in the presence of benzaldehyde, which, by combining with the
hydrazine, protected it from oxidation. F. Raschig (German
Patent 198307, 1908) obtained good yields by oxidizing ammonia
with sodium hypochlorite in solutions made viscous with glue.
Free hydrazine is a colourless liquid which boils at 113-5° C.,
and solidifies about o° C. to colourless crystals; it is heavier
than water, in which it dissolves with rise of temperature. It
is rapidly oxidized on exposure, is a strong reducing agent, and
reacts vigorously with the halogens. Under certain conditions
it may be oxidized to azoimide (A. W. Browne and F. F.
Shetterly, /. Amer. C.S., 1908, p. 53). By fractional distilla-
tion of its aqueous solution hydrazine hydrate NzHj-HjO
(or perhaps H2N-NH3OH), a strong base, is obtained, which
precipitates the metals from solutions of copper and silver
salts at ordinary temperatures. It dissociates completely in a
vacuum at 143°, and when heated under atmospheric pressure
to 183° it decomposes into ammonia and nitrogen (A. Scott,
J. Chem. Soc., 1904, 85, p. 913). The sulphate NjHLj-HzSO^
crystallizes in tables which are slightly soluble in cold water
and readily soluble in hot water; it is decomposed by heating
above 250° C. with explosive evolution of gas and liberation of
sulphur. By the addition of barium chloride to the sulphate, a
solution of the hydrochloride is obtained, from which the
crystallized salt may be obtained on evaporation.
Many organic derivatives of hydrazine are known, the most
important being phenylhydrazine, which was discovered by Emil
Fischer in 1877. It can be best prepared by V. Meyer and Lecco's
method (Ber., 1883, 16, p. 2976), which consists in reducing phenyl-
diazonium chloride in concentrated hydrochloric acid solution with
stannous chloride also dissolved in concentrated hydrochloric acid.
Phenylhydrazine is liberated from the hydrochloride so obtained
by adding sodium hydroxide, the solution being then extracted with
ether, the ether distilled off, and the residual oil purified by distilla-
tion under reduced pressure. Another method is due to E. Bam-
berger. The diazonium chloride, by the addition of an alkaline
sulphite, is converted into a diazosulphonate, which is then reduced
by zinc dust and acetic acid to phenylhydrazine potassium sulphite.
This salt is then hydrolysed by heating it with hydrochloric acid —
C,HsN2CI + K2SO, = KC1 + C6H6N2-SO,K,
C6H6N2-SO*K + 2H = C,H6-NH.NH-SO3K,
Phenylhydrazine is a colourless oily liquid which turns brown on
exposure. It boils at 241° C., and melts at 17-5° C. It is slightly
soluble in water, and is strongly basic, forming well-defined salts
with acids. For the detection of substances containing the carbonyl
group (such for example as aldehydes and ketones) phenylhydrazine
is a very important reagent, since it combines with them with
elimination of water and the formation of well-defined hydrazones
(see ALDEHYDES, KETONES and SUGARS). It is a strong reducing
agent; it precipitates cuprous oxide when heated with Fehling's
solution, nitrogen and benzene being formed at the same time—
C,H6-NH-NH2.+ 2CuO = Cu2O + N2+H2O + C.He. By energetic re-
duction of phenylhydrazine (e.g. by use of zinc dust and hydrochloric
acid), ammonia and aniline are produced — CeHsNH-NHj + 2H =
CeH6NH2 + NH3. It is a]so a most important synthetic reagent.
It combines with aceto-acetic ester to form phenylmethylpyrazolone,
from which antipyrine (q.v.) may be obtained. Indoles (q.v.) are
formed by heating certain hydrazones with anhydrous zinc chloride ;
while semicarbazides, pyrrols (q.v.) and many other types of organic
compounds may be synthesized by the use of suitable phenylhydrazine
derivatives.
HYDRAZONE, in chemistry, a compound formed by the con-
densation of a hydrazine with a carbonyl group (see ALDE-
HYDES ; KETONES).
HYDROCARBON, in chemistry, a compound of carbon and
hydrogen. Many occur in nature in the free state: for example,
natural gas, petroleum and paraffin are entirely composed of
such bodies; other natural sources are india-rubber, turpentine
and certain essential oils. They are also revealed by the spectro-
scope in stars, comets and the sun. Of artificial productions the
most fruitful and important is provided by the destructive or
dry distillation of many organic substances; familiar examples
are the distillation of coal, which yields ordinary lighting gas,
composed of gaseous hydrocarbons, and also coal tar, which,
on subsequent fractional distillations, yields many liquid and
solid hydrocarbons, all of high industrial value. For details
reference should be made to the articles wherein the above
subjects are treated. From the chemical point of view the
hydrocarbons are of fundamental importance, and, on account
of their great number, and still greater number of derivatives,
they are studied as a separate branch of the science, namely,
organic chemistry.
See CHEMISTRY for an account of their classification, &c.
HYDROCELE (Gr. vSup, water, and wjXij, tumour), the
medical term for any collection of fluid other than pus or blood
in the neighbourhood of the testis or cord. The fluid is usually
serous. Hydrocele may be congenital or arise in the middle-aged
without apparent cause, but it is usually associated with chronic
orchitis or with tertiary syphilitic enlargements. The hydrocele
appears as a rounded, fluctuating translucent swelling in the
scrotum, and when greatly distended causes a dragging pain.
Palliative treatment consists in tapping aseptically and remov-
ing the fluid, the patient afterwards wearing a suspender.
The condition frequently recurs and necessitates radical
treatment. Various substances may be injected; or the
hydrocele is incised, the tunica partly removed and the cavity
drained.
HYDROCEPHALUS (Gr. vSup, water, and K€<£aXi), head),
a term applied to disease of the brain which is attended
with excessive effusion of fluid into its cavities. It exists
in two forms — acute and chronic hydrocephalus. Acute hydro-
cephalus is another name for tuberculous meningitis (see
MENINGITIS).
Chronic hydrocephalus, or " water on the brain," consists in
an effusion of fluid into the lateral ventricles of the brain. It
is not preceded by tuberculous deposit or acute inflammation,
but depends upon congenital malformation or upon chronic
inflammatory changes affecting the membranes. When the
disease is congenital, its presence in the foetus is apt to be a source
of difficulty in parturition. It is however more commonly
developed in the first six months of life; but it occasionally
arises in older children, or even in adults. The chief symptom
is the gradual increase in size of the upper part of the head out
of all proportion to the face or the rest of the body. Occurring
at an age when as yet the bones of the skull have not become
welded together, the enlargement may go on to an enormous
extent, the spaces between the bones becoming more and more
expanded. In a well-marked case the deformity is very striking;
the upper part of the forehead projects abnormally, and the
orbital plates of the frontal bone being inclined forwards give
a downward tilt to the eyes, which have also peculiar rolling
movements. The face is small, and this, with the enlarged head,
gives a remarkable aged expression to the child. The body is
ill-nourished, the bones are thin, the hair is scanty and fine and
the teeth carious or absent.
The average circumference of the adult head is 22 in., and in
the normal child it is of course much less. In chronic hydro-
cephalus the head of an infant three months old has measured
29 in.; and in the case of the man Cardinal, who died in Guy's
Hospital, the head measured 33 in. In such cases the head
cannot be supported by the neck, and the patient has to keep
mostly in the recumbent posture. The expansibility of the skull
prevents destructive pressure on the brain, yet this organ is
materially affected by the presence of the fluid. The cerebral
ventricles are distended, and the convolutions are flattened.
Occasionally the fluid escapes into the cavity of the cranium,
which it fills, pressing down the brain to the base of the skull.
As a consequence, the functions of the brain are interfered
with, and the mental condition is impaired. The child is dull,
listless and irritable, and sometimes imbecile. The special senses
become affected as the disease advances; sight is often lost, as
is also hearing. Hydrocephalic children generally sink in a few
years; nevertheless there have been instances of persons with
this disease living to old age. There are, of course, grades of the
affection, and children may present many of the symptoms of
it in a slight degree, and yet recover, the head ceasing to expand,
and becoming in due course firmly ossified.
112
HYDROCHARIDEAE
Various methods of treatment have been employed, but the
results are unsatisfactory. Compression of the head by bandages,
and the administration of mercury with the view of promoting
absorption of the fluid, are now little resorted to. Tapping the
fluid from time to time through one of the spaces between the
bones, drawing off a little, and thereafter employing gentle
pressure, has been tried, but rarely with benefit. Attempts have
also been made to establish a permanent drainage between the
interior of the lateral ventricle and the sub-dural space, and
between the lumbar region of the spine and the abdomen, but
without satisfactory results. On the whole, the plan of treatment
which aims at maintaining the patient's nutrition by appropriate
food and tonics is the most rational and successful. (E. O.*)
HYDROCHARIDEAE, in botany, a natural order of Mono-
cotyledons, belonging to the series Helobieae. They are water-
plants, represented in Britain by frog-bit (Hydrocharis Morsus-
ranae) and water-soldier (Stratiotes aloides). The order contains
about fifty species in fifteen genera, twelve of which occur in
fresh water while three are marine: and includes both floating
and submerged forms.
Hydrocharis floats on
the surface of still
water, and has rosettes
of kidney-shaped
leaves, from among
which spring the
flower-stalks; stolons
bearing new leaf-
rosettes are sent out
on all sides, the plant
thus propagating itself
in the same way as
the strawberry.
Slratiotes alcfides has a
rosette of stiff sword-
like leaves, which when
the plant is in flower
project above the
Surface; it is also
stoloniferous, the
young rosettes sinking
to the bottom at the
beginning of winter
and rising again to the
surface in the spring.
Vallisneria (eel-grass)
contains two species,
one native of tropical
Asia, the other in-
habiting the warmer
parts of both hemi-
spheres and reaching
as far north as south
Morsus-ranae — Europe. It grows in
FlG. I. — Hydrocharis
the mud at the bottom
of fresh water, and the
short stem bears a
cluster of long, narrow
grass-like leaves; new
plants are formed at
Frog-bit — male plant, half natural size.
1, Female flower, half natural size.
2, Stamens, enlarged.
3, Barren pistil of male flower, enlarged.
4, Pistil of female flower.
5, Fruit.
6, Fruit cut transversely.
7 Seed
8, 9, Floral diagrams of male and female the end °f
flowers respectively. runners. Another type
s. Rudimentary stamens. is represented by
Elodea canadensis or
water-thyme, which has been introduced into the British Isles from
North America. It is a small, submerged plant with long, slender
branching stems bearing whorls of narrow toothed leaves; the
flowers appear at the surface when mature. Halophila, Enhalus
and Thalassia are submerged maritime plants found on tropical
coasts, mainly in the Indian and Pacific oceans; Halophila has
an elongated stem rooting at the nodes; Enhalus a short, thick
rhizome, clothed with black threads resembling horse-hair, the
persistent hard-bast strands of the leaves; Thalassia has a
creeping rooting stem with upright branches bearing crowded
strap-shaped leaves in two rows. The flowers spring from, or are
enclosed in, a spathe, and are unisexual and regular, with
generally a calyx and corolla, each of three members; the
stamens are in whorls of three, the inner whorls are often barren;
the two to fifteen carpels form an inferior ovary containing
generally numerous ovules on often large, produced, parietal
placentas. The fruit is leathery or fleshy, opening irregularly.
The seeds contain a large embryo and no endosperm. In
Hydrocharis (fig.
i), which is dioe-
cious, the flowers
are borne above
the surface of the
water, have con-
spicuous white
petals, contain
honey and are
pollinated by in-
sects. Stratiotes
has similar flowers
which come above
the surface only
for pollination,
becoming sub-
merged again
during ripening of
the fruit. In Val-
lisneria (fig. 2),
which is also dioe-
cious, the small
male flowers are
borne in large
numbers in short-
stalked spathes;
the petals are
minute and scale-
like, and only two
of the three
stamens are fer- FIG. 2.— Vallisneria spiralis—Ee\ grass —
tile; the flowers 9ya,rter, natural size- A' Female plant; B,
, . , Male plant,
become detached
before opening and rise to the surface, where the sepals expand
and form a float bearing the two projecting semi-erect stamens.
The female flowers are solitary and are raised to the surface
on a long, spiral stalk; the ovary bears three broad styles, on
which some of the
large, sticky Af^A
pollen-grains from
the floating male
flowers get de-
posited (fig. 3).
After pollination
the female flower
becomes drawn
below the surface
by the spiral con-
traction of the
long stalk, and the
fruit ripens near
the bottom.
Elodea has poly-
gamous flowers
FIG. 3.
(that is, male, female and hermaphrodite), solitary, in slender,
tubular spathes; the male flowers become detached and rise to
the surface; the females are raised to the surface when mature,
and receive the floating pollen from the male. The flowers of
Halophila are submerged and apetalous.
The order is a widely distributed one; the marine forms are
tropical or subtropical, but the fresh-water genera occur also in
the temperate zones.
HYDROCHLORIC ACID— HYDROGEN
HYDROCHLORIC ACID, also known in commerce as " spirits
of salts " and " muriatic acid," a compound of hydrogen and
chlorine. Its chemistry is discussed under CHLORINE, and 'its
manufacture under ALKALI MANUFACTURE.
HYDRODYNAMICS (Gr. vdwp, water, 8vva/us, strength),
the branch of hydromechanics which discusses the motion of
fluids (see HYDROMECHANICS).
HYDROGEN [symbol H, atomic weight 1-008(0=16)], one
of the chemical elements. Its name is derived from Gr. OSoip,
water, and yevvativ, to produce, in allusion to the fact that
water is produced when the gas burns in air. Hydrogen appears
to have been recognized by Paracelsus in the i6th century;
the combustibility of the gas was noticed by Turquet de Mayenne
in the i7th century, whilst in 1700 N. Lemery showed that a
mixture of hydrogen and air detonated on the application of
a light. The first definite experiments concerning the nature
of hydrogen were made in 1766 by H. Cavendish, who showed
that it was formed when various metals were acted upon by
dilute sulphuric or hydrochloric acids. Cavendish called it " in-
flammable air," and for some time it was confused with other
inflammable gases, all of which were supposed to contain the
'Same inflammable principle, " phlogiston," in combination
with varying amounts of other substances. In 1781 Cavendish
showed that water was the only substance produced when
hydrogen was burned in air or oxygen, it having been thought
previously to this date that other substances were formed
during the reaction, A. L. Lavoisier making many experiments
with the object of finding an acid among the products of
combustion.
Hydrogen is found in the free state in some volcanic gases, in
fumaroles, in the carnallite of the Stassfurt potash mines (H.
Precht, Bcr., 1886, 19, p. 2326), in some meteorites, in certain
stars and nebulae, and also in the envelopes of the sun. In
combination it is found as a constituent of water, of the gases
from certain mineral springs, in many minerals, and in most
animal and vegetable tissues. It may be prepared by the electro-
lysis of acidulated water, by the decomposition of water by
various metals or metallic hydrides, and by the action of many
metals on acids or on bases. The alkali metals and alkaline earth
metals decompose water at ordinary temperatures; magnesium
begins to react above 70° C., and zinc at a dull red heat. The
decomposition of steam by red hot iron has been studied by
H. Sainte-Claire Deville (Comptes rendus, 1870, 70, p. 1105)
and by H. Debray (ibid., 1879, 88, p. 1341), who found that at
about 1500° C. a condition of equilibrium is reached. H. Moissan
(Bull. soc. chim., 1902, 27, p. 1141) has shown that potassium
hydride decomposes cold water, with evolution of hydrogen,
KH-r-H2O = KOH+H2. Calcium hydride or hydrolite, prepared
by passing hydrogen over heated calcium, decomposes water
similarly, i gram giving i litre of gas; it has been proposed
as a commercial source (Prats Aymerich, Abst. J.C.S., 1907, ii.
p. 543), as has also aluminium turnings moistened with potassium
cyanide and mercuric chloride, which decomposes water regularly
at 70°, i gram giving 1-3 litres of gas (Mauricheau-Beaupre,
Comptes rendus, 1908, 147, p. 310). Strontium hydride behaves
similarly. In preparing the gas by the action of metals on
acids, dilute sulphuric or hydrochloric acid is taken, and the
metals commonly used are zinc or iron. So obtained, it contains
many impurities, such as carbon dioxide, nitrogen, oxides of
nitrogen, phosphoretted hydrogen, arseniuretted hydrogen, &c.,
the removal of which is a matter of great difficulty (see E. W.
Morley, Amer. Chem. Journ., 1890, 12, p. 460). When prepared
by the action of metals on bases, zinc or aluminium and caustic
soda or caustic potash are used. Hydrogen may also be obtained
by the action of zinc on ammonium salts (the nitrate excepted)
(Lorin, Comptes rendus, 1865, 60, p. 745) and by heating
the alkali formates or oxalates with caustic potash or soda,
Na2C2O4+2NaOH = H2-r-2Na2CO3. Technically it is prepared
by the action of superheated steam on incandescent coke (see
F. Hembert and Henry, Comptes rendus, 1885, 101, p. 797;
A. Naumann and C. Pistor, Ber., 1885, 18, p. 1647), or by the
electrolysis of a dilute solution of caustic soda (C. Winssinger,
Chem. Zeit., 1898, 22, p. 609; " Die Elektrizitats-Aktiengesell-
schaft," Zeit. f. Elektrochem., 1901, 7, p. 857). In the latter
method a 15 % solution of caustic soda is used, and the
electrodes are made of iron; the cell is packed in a wooden
box, surrounded with sand, so that the temperature is kept
at about 70° C.; the solution is replenished, when necessary,
with distilled water. The purity of the gas obtained is about
97 %•
Pure hydrogen is a tasteless, colourless and odourless gas of
specific gravity 0-06947 (air= i) (Lord Rayleigh, Proc. Roy. Soc.,
1893, p. 319). It may be liquefied, the liquid boiling at -252-68°
C. to -252-84°C., and it has also been solidified, the solid melting
at -264° C. (J. Dewar, Comptes rendus, 1899, 129, p. 451;
Chem. News, 1901, 84, p. 49; see also LIQUID GASES). The
specific heat of gaseous hydrogen (at constant pressure) is
3.4041 (water=i), and the ratio of the specific heat at constant
pressure to the specific heat at constant volume is 1-3852 (W. C.
Rontgen, Fogg. Ann., 1873, 148, p. 580). On the spectrum see
SPECTROSCOPY. Hydrogen is only very slightly soluble in water.
It diffuses very rapidly through a porous membrane, and through
some metals at a red heat (T. Graham, Proc. Roy. Soc., 1867, 15,
p. 223; H. Sainte-Claire Deville and L. Troost, Comptes rendus,
1863, 56, p. 977). Palladium and some other metals are capable
of absorbing large volumes of hydrogen (especially when the metal
is used as a cathode in a water electrolysis apparatus). L. Troost
and P. Hautefeuille (Ann. chim. phys., 1874, (5) 2, p. 279)
considered that a palladium hydride of composition Pd2H was
formed, but the investigations of C. Hoitsema (Zeit. phys. Chem.,
1895, 17, p. i), from the standpoint of the phase rule, do not
favour this view, Hoitsema being of the opinion that the occlusion
of hydrogen by palladium is a process of continuous absorption.
Hydrogen burns with a pale blue non-luminous flame, but will
not support the combustion of ordinary combustibles. It forms
a highly explosive mixture with air or oxygen, especially when in
the proportion of two volumes of hydrogen to one volume of
oxygen. H. B. Baker (Proc. Chem. Soc., 1902, 18, p. 40) has
shown that perfectly dry hydrogen will not unite with perfectly
dry oxygen. Hydrogen combines with fluorine, even at very low
temperatures, with great violence; it also combines with carbon,
at the temperature of the electric arc. The alkali metals when
warmed in a current of hydrogen, at about 360° C., form hydrides
of composition RH(R = Na, K, Rb, Cs), (H. Moissan, Bull. soc.
chim., 1902, 27, p. 1141); calcium and strontium similarly
form hydrides CaH2, SrH2 at a dull red heat (A. Guntz, Comptes
rendus, 1901, 133, p. 1209). Hydrogen is a very powerful re-
ducing agent; the gas occluded by palladium being very
active in this respect, readily reducing ferric salts to
ferrous salts, nitrates to nitrites and ammonia, chlorates to
chlorides, &c.
For determinations of the volume ratio with which hydrogen and
oxygen combine, see J. B. Dumas, Ann. chim. phys., 1843 (3), 8,
p. 189; O. Erdmann ^nd R. F. Marchand, ibid. p. 212; E. H.
Keiser, Ber., 1887, 20, p. 2323; J. P. Cooke and T. W. Richards,
Amer. Chem. Journ., 1888, 10, p. 191; Lord Rayleigh, Chem. News,
1889, 59, p. 147; E. W. Morley, Zeit. phys. Chem., 1890, 20, p. 417;
and S. A. Leduc, Comptes rendus, 1899, 128, p. 1158.
Hydrogen combines with oxygen to form two definite com-
pounds, namely, water (q.v.), H2O, and hydrogen peroxide,
H2O2, whilst the existence of a third oxide, ozonic acid, has been
indicated.
Hydrogen peroxide, H2O2, was discovered by L. J. Thenard in
1818 (Ann. chim. phys., 8, p. 306). It occurs in small quantities
in the atmosphere. It may be prepared by passing a current of
carbon dioxide through ice-cold water, to which small quantities
of barium peroxide are added from time to time (F. Duprey,
Comptes rendus, 1862, 55, p. 736; A. J. Balard, ibid., p. 758),
BaO2+CO2-r-H2O = H2O2+BaCO3. E. Merck (Abst. J.C.S.,
1907, ii., p. 859) showed that barium percarbonate, BaC04, is
formed when the gas is in excess; this substance readily yields
the peroxide with an acid. Or barium peroxide may be decom-
posed by hydrochloric, hydrofluoric, sulphuric or silicofluoric
acids (L. Crismer, Bull. soc. chim., 1891 (3), 6, p. 24; Hanriot,
Comptes rendus, 1885, 100, pp. 56, 172), the peroxide being added
HYDROGRAPHY— HYDROLYSIS
in small quantities to a cold dilute solution of the acid. It is
necessary that it should be as pure as possible since the commercial
product usually contains traces of ferric, manganic and aluminium
oxides, together with some silica. To purify the oxide, it is
dissolved in dilute hydrochloric acid until the acid is neatly
neutralized, the solution is cooled, filtered, and baryta water is
added until a faint permanent white precipitate of hydrated
barium peroxide appears; the solution is now filtered, and a
concentrated solution of baryta water is added to the filtrate,
when a crystalline precipitate of hydrated barium peroxide,
BaO28-H2O, is thrown down. This is filtered off and well washed
with water. The above methods give a dilute aqueous solution
of hydrogen peroxide, which may be concentrated somewhat
by evaporation over sulphuric acid in vacua. H. P. Talbot and
H. R. Moody (Jour. Anal. Chem., 1892, 6, p. 650) prepared a more
concentrated solution from the commercial product, by the
addition of a 10% solution of alcohol and baryta water. The
solution is filtered, and the barium precipitated by sulphuric
acid. The alcohol is removed by distillation in vacua, and by
further concentration in vacua a solution may be obtained which
evolves 580 volumes of oxygen. R. Wolffenstein (Ber., 1894,
27, p. 2307) prepared practically anhydrous hydrogen peroxide
(containing 99-1% H20j) by first removing all traces of dust,
heavy metals and alkali from the commercial 3% solution.
The solution is then concentrated in an open basis on the water-
bath until it contains 48% HjOj. The liquid so obtained is
extracted with ether and the ethereal solution distilled under
diminished pressure, and finally purified by repeated distillations.
W. Staedel (Zeit.f. angew. Chem., 1902, 15, p. 642) has described
solid hydrogen peroxide, obtained by freezing concentrated
solutions.
Hydrogen peroxide is also found as a product in many chemical
actions, being formed when carbon monoxide and cyanogen burn
in air (H. B. Dixon); by passing air through solutions of strong
bases in the presence of such metals as do not react with the
bases to liberate hydrogen; by shaking zinc amalgam with
alcoholic sulphuric acid and air (M. Traube, Ber., 1882, 15,
p. 659) ; in the oxidation of zinc, lead and copper in presence of
water, and in the electrolysis of sulphuric acid of such strength
that it contains two molecules of water to one molecule of
sulphuric acid (M. Berthelot, Camples rendus, 1878, 86,
p. 71).
The anhydrous hydrogen peroxide obtained by Wolfienstein
boils at 84-8s°C. (68 mm.) ; its specific gravity is 1-4996 (1-5° C.).
It is very explosive (W. Spring, Zeit. anorg. Chem., 1895, 8,
p. 424). The explosion risk seems to be most marked in the
preparations which have been extracted with ether previous to
distillation, and J. W. Briihl (Ber., 1895, 28, p. 2847) is of opinion
that a very unstable, more highly oxidized product is produced
in small quantity in the process. The solid variety prepared by
Staedel forms colourless, prismatic crystals which melt at -2° C. ;
it is decomposed with explosive violence by platinum sponge, and
traces of manganese dioxide. The dilute aqueous solution is
very unstable, giving up oxygen readily, and decomposing with
explosive violence at 100° C. An aqueous solution containing
more than 1-5% hydrogen peroxide reacts slightly acid. To-
wards lupetidin [oa' dimethyl piperidine, C6HjN(CH3)2] hydrogen
peroxide acts as a dibasic acid (A. Marcuse and R. Wolffenstein,
Ber., 1001, 34, p. 2430; see also G. Bredig, Zeit. Electrochem.,
1901, 7, p. 622). Cryoscopic determinations of its molecular
weight show that it is H2O2. [G. Carrara, Rend, della Accad.
dei Lincei, 1892 (5), i, ii. p. 19; W. R. Orndorff and J. White,
Amer. Chem. Journ., 1893, 15, p. 347.] Hydrogen peroxide
behaves very frequently as a powerful oxidizing agent; thus
lead sulphide is converted into lead sulphate in presence of a
dilute aqueous solution of the peroxide, the hydroxides of the
alkaline earth metals are converted into peroxides of the type
MOy8H2O, titanium dioxide is converted into the trioxide,
iodine is liberated from potassium iodide, and nitriles (in alkaline
solution) are converted into acid-amides (B. Radziszewski,5er.,
1884, 17, p. 355). In many cases it is found that hydrogen
peroxide will only act as an oxidant when in the presence of a
catalyst; for example, formic, glygollic, lactic, tartaric, malic,
benzoic and other organic acids are readily oxidized in the
presence of ferrous sulphate (H. J. H. Fenton, Jour. Chem. Soc.,
1900, 77, p. 69), and sugars are readily oxidized in the presence
of ferric chloride (O. Fischer and M. Busch, Ber., 1891, 24,
p. 1871). It is sought to explain these oxidation processes by
assuming that the hydrogen peroxide unites with the compound
undergoing oxidation to form an addition compound, which
subsequently decomposes (J. H. Kastle and A. S. Loevenhart,
Amer. Chem. Journ., 1903, 29, pp. 397, 517). Hydrogen peroxide
can also react as a reducing agent, thus silver oxide is reduced
with a rapid evolution of oxygen. The course of this reaction can
scarcely be considered as definitely settled; M. Berthelot
considers that a higher oxide of silver is formed, whilst A.
Baeyer and V. Villiger are of opinion that reduced silver is
obtained [see Comptes rendus, 1901, 133, p. 555; Ann. Chim.
Phys., 1897 (7), n, p. 217, and .Ber., 1901,34, p. 2769]. Potassium
permanganate, in the presence of dilute sulphuric acid, is rapidly
reduced by hydrogen peroxide, oxygen being given off, 2KMnO4-(-
3H2SO4-r-5H2O2 = K2SO4-|-2MnSO4-r-8H2O+5O2. Lead peroxide
is reduced to the monoxide. Hypochlorous acid and its salts,
together with the corresponding bromine and iodine compounds,
liberate oxygen violently from hydrogen peroxide, giving hydro-
chloric, hydrobromic and hydriodic acids (S. Tanatar, Ber., 1899,
32, p. 1013).
On the constitution of hydrogen peroxide see C. F. Schonbein,
Jour. prak. Chem., 1858-1868; M. Traube, Ber., 1882-1889; J. W.
Briihl, Ber., 1895, 28, p. 2847; 1900, 33, p. 1709; S. Tanatar, Ber.,
1903. 36, p. 1893.
Hydrogen peroxide finds application as a bleaching agent, as an
antiseptic, for the removal of the last traces of chlorine and sulphur
dioxide employed in bleaching, and for various quantitative separa-
tions in analytical chemistry (P. Jannasch, Ber., 1893, 26, p. 2908).
It may be estimated by titration with potassium permanganate in
acid solution; with potassium ferricyanide in alkaline solution,
2K,Fe(CN)8+2KOH+H2O2 = 2K4Fe(CN)«+2H2O+O2;or by oxidiz-
ing arsenious acid in alkaline solution with the peroxide and
back titration of the excess of arsenious acid with standard iodine
(B. Grutzner, Arch, der Pharm., 1899, 237, p. 705). It may be
recognized by the violet coloration it gives when added to a very
dilute solution of potassium bichromate in the presence of hydro-
chloric acid ; by the orange-red colour it gives with a solution of
titanium dioxide in concentrated sulphuric acid; and by the pre-
cipitate of Prussian blue formed when it is added to a solution
containing ferric chloride and potassium ferricyanide.
Ozonic Acid, H2O«. By the action of ozone on a 40% solution
of potassium hydroxide, placed in a freezing mixture, an orange-
brown substance is obtained, probably K2O4, which A. Baeyer and
V. Villiger (Ber., 1902, 35, p. 3038) think is derived from ozonic
acid, produced according to the reaction Oa+H2O = H2O«.
HYDROGRAPHY (Gr. vSup, water, and ypafaiv, to write),
the science dealing with all the waters of the earth's surface,
including the description of their physical features and con-
ditions; the preparation of charts and maps showing the position
of lakes, rivers, seas and oceans, the contour of the sea-bottom,
the position of shallows, deeps, reefs and the direction and
volume of currents; a scientific description of the position,
volume, configuration, motion and condition of all the waters
of the earth. See also SURVEYING (Nautical) and OCEAN AND
OCEANOGRAPHY. The Hydrographic Department of the British
Admiralty, established in 1795, undertakes the making of charts
for the admiralty, and is under the charge of the hydrographer to
the admiralty (see CHART).
HYDROLYSIS (Gr. vSup, water, \vttv, to loosen), in chemistry,
a decomposition brought about by water after the manner shown
in the equation R-X+H-OH = R-H+X-OH. Modern research
has proved that such reactions are not occasioned by water
acting as H2O, but really by its ions (hydrions and hydroxidions),
for the velocity is proportional (in accordance with the law of
chemical mass action) to the concentration of these ions. This
fact explains the so-called " catalytic " action of acids and bases
in decomposing such compounds as the esters. The term
" saponification " (Lat. sapo, soap) has the same meaning, but
it is more properly restricted to the hydrolysis of the fats, i.e.
glyceryl esters of organic acids, into glycerin and a soap (see
CHEMICAL ACTION).
HYDROMECHANICS
HYDROMECHANICS (Gr. vdpo/jurixanKa) , the science of the
mechanics of water and fluids in general, including hydrostatics
or the mathematical theory of fluids in equilibrium, and hydro-
mechanics, the theory of fluids in motion. The practical applica-
tion of hydromechanics forms the province of hydraulics (g.v.) .
Historical. — The fundamental principles of hydrostatics were first
given by Archimedes in his work lUpi ran bxov^tv<av, or De Us quae
vehuntur in humido, about 2^0 B.C., and were afterwards applied
to experiments by Marino Ghetaldi (1566-1627) in his Promotus
Archimedes (1603). Archimedes maintained that each particle of
a fluid mass, when in equilibrium, is equally pressed in every direc-
tion ; and he inquired into the conditions according to which a solid
body floating in a fluid should assume and preserve a position of
equilibrium.
In the Greek school at Alexandria, which flourished under the
auspices of the Ptolemies, the first attempts were made at the
construction of hydraulic machinery, and about 120 B.C. the fountain
of compression, the siphon, and the forcing-pump were invented by
Ctesibius and Hero. The siphon is a simple instrument; but the
forcing-pump is a complicated invention, which could scarcely
have been expected in the infancy of hydraulics. It was probably
suggested to Ctesibius by the Egyptian Wheel or Noria, which was
common at that time, and which was a kind of chain pump, con-
sisting of a number of earthen pots carried round by a wheel. In
some of these machines the pots have a valve in the bottom which
enables them to descend without much resistance, and diminishes
greatly the load upon the wheel ; and, if we suppose that this valve
was introduced so early as the time of Ctesibius, it is not difficult
to perceive how such a machine might have led to the invention of
the forcing-pump.
Notwithstanding these inventions of the Alexandrian school, its
attention does not seem to have been directed to the motion of
fluids; and the first attempt to investigate this subject was made
by Sextus Julius Frontinus, inspector of the public fountains at
Rome in the reigns of Nerva and Trajan. In his work De aquae-
ductibus urbis Romae commentarius, he considers the methods
which were at that time employed for ascertaining the quantity of
water discharged from ajutages, and the mode of distributing the
waters of an aqueduct or a fountain. He remarked that the flow of
water from an orifice depends not only on the magnitude of the orifice
itself, but also on the height of the water in the reservoir; and that
a pipe employed to carry off a portion of water from an aqueduct
should, as circumstances required, have a position more or less
inclined to the original direction of the current. But as he was
unacquainted with the law of the velocities of running water as
depending upon the depth of the orifice, the want of precision which
appears in his results is not surprising.
Benedetto Castelli (1577-1644), and Evangelista Torricelli (1608-
1647), two of the disciples of Galileo, applied the discoveries of their
master to the science of hydrodynamics. In 1628 Castelli published
a small work, Delia misura dell' acque correnti, in which he satis-
factorily explained several phenomena in the motion of fluids in
rivers and canals; but he committed a great paralogism in sup-
posing the velocity of the water proportional to the depth of the
orifice below the surface of the vessel. Torricelli, observing that in
a jet where the water rushed through a small ajutage it rose to nearly
the same height with the reservoir from which it was supplied,
imagined that it ought to move with the same velocity as if it had
fallen through that height by the force of gravity, and hence he
deduced the proposition that the velocities of liquids are as the
square root of the head, apart from the resistance of the air and the
friction of the orifice. This theorem was published in 1643, at the
end of his treatise De motu gravium projectorum, and it was con-
firmed by the experiments of Raffaello Magiotti on the quantities
of water discharged from different ajutages under different pressures
(1648).
In the hands of Blaise Pascal (1623-1662) hydrostatics assumed
the dignity of a science, and in a treatise on the equilibrium of
liquids (Sur I'equilibre des liqueurs), found among his manuscripts
after his death and published in 1663, the laws of the equilibrium
of liquids were demonstrated in the most simple manner, and amply
confirmed by experiments.
The theorem of Torricelli was employed by many succeeding
writers, but particularly . by Edm6 Mariotte (1620-1684), whose
Traitedu mouvement des eaux, published after his death in the year
1686, is founded on a great variety of well-conducted experiments
on the motion of fluids, performed at Versailles and Chantilly. In
the discussion of some points he committed considerable mistakes.
Others he treated very superficially, and in none of his experiments
apparently did he attend to the diminution of efflux arising from the
contraction of the liquid vein, when the orifice is merely a perforation
in a thin plate ; but he appears to have been the first who attempted
to ascribe the discrepancy between theory and experiment to the
retardation of the water's velocity through friction. His contem-
porary Domenico Guglielmini (1655-1710), who was inspector of
the rivers and canals at Bologna, had ascribed this diminution of
velocity in rivers to transverse motions arising from inequalities in
their bottom. But as Mariotte observed similar obstructions even
in glass pipes where no transverse currents could exist, the cause
assigned by Guglielmini seemed destitute of foundation. The
French philosopher, therefore, regarded these obstructions as the
effects of friction. He supposed that the filaments of water which
graze along the sides of the pipe lose a portion of their velocity;
that the contiguous filaments, having on this account a greater
velocity, rub upon the former, and suffer a diminution of their
celerity; and that the other filaments are affected with similar
retardations proportional to their distance from the axis of the pipe.
In this way the medium velocity of the current may be diminished,
and consequently the quantity of water discharged in a given time
must, from the effects of friction, be considerably less than that
which is computed from theory.
The effects of friction and viscosity in diminishing the velocity of
running water were noticed in the Principia of Sir Isaac Newton,
who threw much light upon several branches of hydromechanics.
At a time when the Cartesian system of vortices universally pre-
vailed, he found it necessary to investigate that hypothesis, and in
the course of his investigations he showed that the velocity of any
stratum of the vortex is an arithmetical mean between the velocities
of the strata which enclose it; and from this it evidently follows
that the velocity of a filament of water moving in a pipe is an arith-
metical mean between the velocities of the filaments which surround
it. Taking advantage of these results, Henri Pitot (1695-1771)
afterwards showed that the retardations arising from friction are
inversely as the diameters of the pipes in which the fluid moves.
The attention of Newton was also directed to the discharge of water
from orifices in the bottom of vessels. He supposed a cylindrical
vessel full of water to be perforated in its bottom with a small hole
by which the water escaped, and the vessel to be supplied with
water in such a manner that it always remained full at the same
height. He then supposed this cylindrical column of water to be
divided into two parts,— the first, which he called the " cataract,"
being an hyperboloid generated by the revolution of an hyperbola
of the fifth degree around the axis of the cylinder which should pass
through the orifice, and the second the remainder of the water in
the cylindrical vessel. He considered the horizontal strata of this
hyperboloid as always in motion, while the remainder of the water
was in a state of rest, and imagined that there was a kind of cataract
in the middle of the fluid. When the results of this theory were
compared with the quantity of water actually discharged, Newton
concluded that the velocity with which the water issued from the
orifice was equal to that which a falling body would receive by
descending through half the height of water in the reservoir. This
conclusion, however, is absolutely irreconcilable with the known
fact that jets of water rise nearly to the same height as their reservoirs,
and Newton seems to have been aware of this objection. Accord-
ingly, in the second edition of his Principia, which appeared in 1713,
he reconsidered his theory. He had discovered a contraction in the
vein of fluid (vena contracta) which issued from the orifice, and found
that, at the distance of about a diameter of the aperture, the section
of the vein was contracted in the subduplicate ratio of two to one.
He regarded, therefore, the section of the contracted vein as the
true orifice from which the discharge of water ought to be deduced,
and the velocity of the effluent water as due to the whole height of
water in the reservoir; and by this means his theory became more
conformable to the results of experience, though still open to
serious objections. Newton was also the first to investigate the
difficult subject of the motion of waves (q.v.).
In 1738 Daniel Bernoulli (1700-1782) published his Hydrodynamica
sen de viribus et motibus fluidorum commentarii. His theory of
the motion of fluids, the germ of which was first published in his
memoir entitled Theoria nova de motu aquarum per canales quocun-
que fluentes, communicated to the Academy of St Petersburg as
early as 1726, was founded on two suppositions, which appeared to
him conformable to experience. He supposed that the surface of
the fluid, contained in a vessel which is emptying itself by an orifice,
remains always horizontal; and, if the fluid mass is conceived to be
divided into an infinite number of horizontal strata of the same
bulk, that these strata remain contiguous to each other, and that
all their points descend vertically, with velocities inversely pro-
portional to their breadth, or to the horizontal sections of the
reservoir. In order to determine the motion of each stratum, he
employed the principle of the conseryatio virium vivarum, and
obtained very elegant solutions. But in the absence of a general
demonstration of that principle, his results did not command the
confidence which they would otherwise have deserved, and it
became desirable to have a theory more certain, and depending solely
on the fundamental laws of mechanics. Colin Maclaurin (1698-
1746) and John Bernoulli (1667-1748), who were of this opinion,
resolved the problem by more direct methods, the one in his Fluxions,
published in 1742, and the other in his Hydraulica nunc primum
detecta, et demonstrata directe ex fundamentis pure mechanicis, which
forms the fourth volume of his works. The method employed by
Maclaurin has been thought not sufficiently rigorous; and that of
John Bernoulli is, in the opinion of Lagrange, defective in clearness
and precision. The theory of Daniel Bernoulli was opposed also by
Jean le Rond d'Alembert. When generalizing the theory of pendu-
lums of Jacob Bernoulli (1654-1705) he discovered a principle of
dynamics so simple and general that it reduced the laws of the
motions of bodies to that of their equilibrium. He applied this
u6
HYDROMECHANICS
[HYDROSTATICS
principle to the motion of fluids, and gave a specimen of its applica-
tion at the end of his Dynamics in 1743. It was more fully developed
in his Traite des fluides, published in 1744, in which he gave simple
and elegant solutions of problems relating to the equilibrium and
motion of fluids. He made use of the same suppositions as Daniel
Bernoulli, though his calculus was established in a very different
manner. He considered, at every instant, the actual motion of a
stratum as composed of a motion which it had in the preceding
instant and of a motion which it had lost; and the laws of equili-
brium between the motions lost furnished him with equations re-
presenting the motion of the fluid. It remained a desideratum to
express by equations the motion of a particle of the fluid in any
assigned direction. These equations were found by d'Alembert from
two principles — that a rectangular canal, taken in a mass of fluid in
equilibrium, is itself in equilibrium, and that a portion of the fluid,
in passing from one place to another, preserves the same volume
when the fluid is incompressible, or dilates itself according to a
given law when the fluid is elastic. His ingenious method, published
in 1752, in his Essai sur la resistance des fluides, was brought to per-
fection in his Opuscules mathematiques, and was adopted by Leonhard
Euler.
The resolution of the questions concerning the motion of fluids
was effected by means of Euler's partial differential coefficients.
This calculus was first applied to the motion of water by d'Alembert,
and enabled both him and Euler to represent the theory of fluids
in formulae restricted by no particular hypothesis.
One of the most successful labourers in the science of hydro-
dynamics at this period was Pierre Louis Georges Dubuat (1734-
1809). Following in the steps of the Abb6 Charles Bossut (Nouvelles
Experiences sur la resistance des fluides, 1777), he published, in 1786,
a revised edition of his Principes d'hydraulique, which contains a
satisfactory theory of the motion of fluids, founded solely upon
experiments. Dubuat considered that if water were a perfect
fluid, and the channels in which it flowed infinitely smooth, its
motion would be continually accelerated, like that of bodies descend-
ing in an inclined plane. But as the motion of rivers is not continually
accelerated.and soon arrives at a state of uniformity.it is evident that
the viscosity of the water, and the friction of the channel in which
it descends, must equal the accelerating force. Dubuat, therefore,
assumed it as a proposition of fundamental importance that, when
water flows in any channel or bed, the accelerating force which obliges
it to move is equal to the sum of all the resistances which it meets
with, whether they arise from its own viscosity or from the friction
of its bed. This principle was employed by him in the first edition
of his work, which appeared in 1779. The theory contained in that
edition was founded on the experiments of others, but he soon saw
that a theory so new, and leading to results so different from the
ordinary theory, should be founded on new experiments more direct
than the former, and he was employed in the performance of these
from 1780 to 1783. The experiments of Bossut were made only on
pipes of a moderate declivity, but Dubuat used declivities of every
kind, and made his experiments upon channels of various sizes.
The theory of running water was greatly advanced by the re-
searches of Gaspard Riche de Prony (1755-1839). From a collection
of the best experiments by previous workers he selected eighty-two
(fifty-one on the velocity of water in conduit pipes, and thirty-one
on its velocity in open canals) ; and, discussing these on physical
and mechanical principles, he succeeded in drawing up general
formulae, which afforded a simple expression for the velocity of
running water.
I. A. Eytelwein (1764-1848) of Berlin, who published in 1801 a
valuable compendium of hydraulics entitled Handbuch der Mechanik
und der Hydraulik, investigated the subject of the discharge of water
by compound pipes, the motions of jets and their impulses against
plane and oblique surfaces; and he showed theoretically that a water-
wheel will have its maximum effect when its circumference moves
with half the velocity of the stream.
J. N. P. Hachette (1769-1834) in 1816-1817 published memoirs
containing the results of experiments on the spouting of fluids and the
discharge of vessels. His object was to measure the contracted part
of a fluid vein, to examine the phenomena attendant on additional
tubes, and to investigate the form of the fluid vein and the results
obtained when different forms of orifices are employed. Extensive
experiments on the discharge of water from orifices (Experiences
hydrauliques, Paris, 1832) were conducted under the direction of the
French government by J. V. Poncelet (1788-1867) and I. A. Lesbros
(1790-1860). P. P. Boileau (1811-1891) discussed their results and
added experiments of his own (Traite de la mesure des eaux courantes,
Paris, 1854). K. R. Bornemann re-examined all these results with
great care, and gave formulae expressing the variation of the co-
efficients of discharge in different conditions (Civil Ingenieur, 1880).
Julius Weisbach (1806-1871) also made many experimental in-
vestigations on the discharge of fluids. The experiments of J. B.
Francis (Lowell Hydraulic Experiments, Boston, Mass., 1855) led him
to propose variations in the accepted formulae for the discharge over
weirs, and a generation later a very complete investigation of this
subject was carried out by H. Bazm. An elaborate inquiry on the
flow of water in pipes and channels was conducted by H. G. P.
Darcy (1803-1858) and continued by H.Bazin, at the expense of the
French government (Recherches hydrauliques, Paris, 1866). German
engineers have also devoted special attention to the measurement
of the flow in rivers; the Beitrdge zur Hydrographie des Konig-
reiches Bohmen (Prague, 1872-1875) of A. R. Harlacher (1842-1890)
contained valuable measurements of this kind, together with a com-
parison of the experimental results with the formulae of flow that had
been proposed up to the date of its publication, and important data
were yielded by the gaugings of the Mississippi made for the United
States government by A. A. Humphreys and H. L. Abbot, by Robert
Gordon's gaugings of the Irrawaddy, and by Allen J. C. Cunningham's
experiments on the Ganges canal. The friction of water, investigated
for slow speeds by Coulomb, was measured for higher speeds by
William Froude (1810-1879), whose work is of great value in the
theory of ship resistance (Brit. Assoc. Report., 1869), and stream line
motion was studied by Professor Osborne Revnolds and by Professor
H. S. Hele Shaw. (X.)
HYDROSTATICS
Hydrostatics is a science which grew originally out of a number
of isolated practical problems; but it satisfies the requirement
of perfect accuracy in its application to phenomena, the largest
and smallest, of the behaviour of a fluid. At the same time,
it delights the pure theorist by the simplicity of the logic with
which the fundamental theorems may be established, and by the
elegance of its mathematical operations, insomuch that hydro-
statics may be considered as the Euclidean pure geometry of
mechanical science.
1. The Different States of a Substance or Matter. — All substance
in nature falls into one of the two classes, solid and fluid; a
solid substance, the land, for instance, as contrasted with a
fluid, like water, being a substance which does not flow of itself.
A fluid, as the name implies, is a substance which flows, or
is capable of flowing; water and air are the two fluids distributed
most universally over the surface of the earth.
Fluids again are divided into two classes, termed a liquid
and a gas, of which water and air are the chief examples.
A liquid is a fluid which is incompressible or practically so,
i.e. it does not change in volume sensibly with change of pressure.
. A gas is a compressible fluid, and the change in volume is
considerable with moderate variation of pressure.
Liquids, again, can be poured from one open vessel into another,
and can be kept in an uncovered vessel, but a gas tends to diffuse
itself indefinitely and must be preserved in a closed reservoir.
The distinguishing characteristics of the three kinds of sub-
stance or states of matter, the solid, liquid and gas, are summarized
thus in O. Lodge's Mechanics: —
A solid has both size and shape.
A liquid has size but not shape.
A gas has neither size nor shape.
2. The Change of State of Matter. — By a change of temperature
and pressure combined, a substance can in general be made to
pass from one state into another; thus by gradually increasing
the temperature a solid piece of ice can be melted into the liquid
state of water, and the water again can be boiled off into the
gaseous state as steam. Again, by raising the temperature,
a metal in the solid state can be melted and liquefied, and poured
into a mould to assume any form desired, which is retained when
the metal cools and solidifies again; the gaseous state of a metal
is revealed by the spectroscope. Conversely, a combination
of increased pressure and lowering of temperature will, if carried
far enough, reduce a gas to a liquid, and afterwards to the solid
state; and nearly every gaseous substance has now undergone
this operation.
A certain critical temperature is observed in a gas, above which
the liquefaction is impossible; so that the gaseous state has two
subdivisions into (i.)a true gas, which cannot be liquefied, because
its temperature is above the critical temperature, (ii.) a vapour,
where the temperature is below the critical, and which can
ultimately be liquefied by further lowering of temperature or
increase of pressure.
3. Plasticity and Viscosity. — Every solid substance is found to
be plastic more or less, as exemplified by punching, shearing
and cutting; but the plastic solid is distinguished from the
viscous fluid in that a plastic solid requires a certain magnitude
of stress to be exceeded to make it flow, whereas the viscous
liquid will yield to the slightest stress, but requires a certain
length of time for the effect to be appreciable.
HYDROSTATICS]
HYDROMECHANICS
117
According to Maxwell (Theory of Heat) " When a continuous
alteration of form is produced only by a stress exceeding a certain
value, the substance is called a solid, however soft and plastic
it may be. But when the smallest stress, if only continued long
enough, will cause a perceptible and increasing change of form,
the substance must be regarded as a viscous fluid, however hard
it may be." Maxwell illustrates the difference between a soft
solid and a hard liquid by a jelly and a block of pitch; also by
the experiment of supporting a candle and a stick of sealing-
wax; after a considerable time the sealing-wax will be found
bent and so is a fluid, but the candle remains straight as a solid.
4. Definition of a Fluid. — A fluid is a substance which yields
continually to the slightest tangential stress in its interior;
that is, it can be divided very easily along any plane (given plenty
of time if the fluid is viscous). It follows that when the fluid has
come to rest, the tangential stress in any plane in its interior
must vanish, and the stress must be entirely normal to the plane.
This mechanical axiom of the normality oj fluid pressure is the
foundation of the mathematical theory of hydrostatics.
The theorems of hydrostatics are thus true for all stationary
fluids, however, viscous they may be; it is only when we come
to hydrodynamics, the science of the motion of a fluid, that
viscosity will make itself felt and modify the theory; unless we
begin by postulating the perfect fluid, devoid of viscosity, so
that the principle of the normality of fluid pressure is taken to
hold when the fluid is in movement.
5. The Measurement of Fluid Pressure. — The pressure at any point
cf a plane in the interior of a fluid is the intensity of the normal
thrust estimated per unit area of the plane.
Thus, if a thrust of P Ib is distributed uniformly over a plane
area of A sq. ft., as on the horizontal bottom of the sea or any
reservoir, the pressure at any point of the plane is P/A ft per sq. ft.,
or P/I44A ft per sq. in. (ft/ft.2 and ft/in.2, in the Hospitalier notation,
to be employed in the sequel). If the distribution of the thrust is
not uniform, as, for instance, on a vertical or inclined face or wall of a
reservoir, then P/A represents the average pressure over the area ; and
the actual pressure at any point is the average pressure over a small
area enclosing the point. Thus, if a thrust AP ft acts on a small plane
area AA ft.2 enclosing a point B, the pressure p at B is the limit of
AP/AA ; and
£=lt(AP/AA)=<fP/<ZA, (i)
in the notation of the differential calculus.
6. The Equality of Fluid Pressure in all Directions. — This funda-
mental principle of hydrostatics follows at once from the principle of
the normality of fluid pressure implied in the definition of a fluid in
§ 4. Take any two arbitrary directions in the plane of the paper, and
draw a small isosceles triangle abc, whose sides are perpendicular
to the two directions, and consider the equilibrium of a small triangular
prism of fluid, of which the triangle is the cross section. Let P, Q
denote the normal thrust across the sides be, ca, and R the normal
thrust across the base ab. Then, since these three forces main-
tain equilibrium, and R makes equal angles with P and Q, therefore
P and Q must be equal. But the faces be, ca, over which P and Q
act, are also equal, so that the pressure on each face is equal. A
scalene triangle abc might also be employed, or a
W tetrahedron.
It follows that the pressure of a fluid requires
to be calculated in one direction only, chosen as
the simplest direction for convenience.
7. The Transmissibility of Fluid Pressure. — Any
additional pressure applied to the fluid will be
5- —=—r— transmitted equally to every point in the case of
I2-^E-.J| a liquid; this principle of the transmissibility of
~ — T • pressure was enunciated by Pascal, 1653, and
FIG. la. applied by him to the invention of the hydraulic
press.
This machine consists essentially of two communicating cylinders
(fig. I a), filled with liquid and closed by pistons. If a thrust P ft is
applied to one piston of area A ft.2, it will be balanced by a thrust
W ft applied to the other piston of area B ft.2, where
p = p/A=\V/B, (i)
the pressure p of the liquid being supposed uniform; and, by
making the ratio B/A sufficiently large, the mechanical advantage
can be increased to any desired amount, and in the simplest manner
possible, without the intervention of levers and machinery.
Fig. ib shows also a modern form of the hydraulic press, applied
to the operation of covering an electric cable with a lead coating.
8. Theorem. — In a fluid at rest under gravity the pressure is the
same at any two points in the same horizontal plane; in other
words, a surface of equal pressure is a horizontal plane.
This is proved by taking any two points A and B at the same
level, and considering the equilibrium of a thin prism of liquid AB,
bounded by planes at A and B perpendicular to AB. As gravity
and the fluid pressure on the sides of the prism act at right angles
to AB, the equilibrium requires the equality of thrust on the ends
A and B; and as the areas are equal, the pressure must be equal at
A and B ; and so the pressure is the same at all points in the same
horizontal plane. If the fluid is a liquid, it
can have a free surface without diffusing
itself, as a gas would; and this free surface,
being a surface of zero pressure, or more
generally of uniform atmospheric pressure,
will also be a surface of equal pressure, and
therefore a horizontal plane.
Hence the theorem. — The free surface of
a liquid at rest under gravity is a horizontal
plane. This is the characteristic distinguish-
ing between a solid and a liquid; as, for in-
stance, between land and water. The land
has hills and valleys, but the surface of
water at rest is a horizontal plane; and if
disturbed the surface moves in waves.
9. Theorem. — In a homogeneous liquid at
rest under gravity the pressure increases
uniformly with the depth.
This is proved by taking the two points
A and B in the same vertical line, and
considering the equilibrium of the prism by
resolving vertically. In this case the thrust
at the lower end B must exceed the thrust
at A, the upper end, by the weight of the
prism of liquid; so that, denoting the cross
FIG. ib.
section of the prism by a ft.2, the pressure at A and By by pa and
p ft/ft.2, and by w the density of the liquid estimated in ft/ft.3,
pa. — poa=wa. AB, (i)
p=w.AB+A>- (2)
Thus in water, where w=62-4lb/ft.3, the pressure increases
62-4 ft/ft.2, or 62-4 -5-144=0-433 ft/in.2 for every additional foot of
depth.
10. Theorem. — If two liquids of different density are resting in
vessels in communication, the height of the free surface of such liquid
above the surface of separation is inversely as the density.
For if the liquid of density a rises to the height h and of density p
to the height k, and po denotes the atmospheric pressure, the pressure
in the liquid at the level of the surface of separation will be ah-\-ps,
and pk-{-po, and these being equal we have
ah = pk. (i)
The principle is illustrated in the article BAROMETER, where a
column of mercury of density a and height h, rising in the tube to the
Torricellian vacuum, is balanced by a column of air of density p,
which may be supposed to rise as a homogeneous fluid to a height k,
called the height of the homogeneous atmosphere. Thus water being
about 800 times denser than air and mercury 13-6 times denser
than water,
(2)
and with an average barometer height of 30 in. this makes k 27,200
ft., about 8300 metres.
1 1 . The Head of Water or a Liquid. — The pressure a h at a depth
h ft. in liquid of density a is called the pressure due to a head of h ft.
of the liquid. The atmospheric pressure is thus due to an average
head of 30 in. of mercury, or 30X13-6-^12=34 ft. of water, or
27,200 ft. of air. The pressure of the air is a convenient unit to
employ in practical work, where it is called an " atmosphere "; it is
made the equivalent of a pressure of one kg/cm2; and one ton/inch2,
employed as the unit with high pressure as in artillery, may be taken
as 150 atmospheres.
12. Theorem. — A body immersed in a fluid is buoyed up by a force
equal to the weight of the liquid displaced, acting vertically upward
through the centre of gravity of the displaced liquid.
For if the body is removed, and replaced by the fluid as at first,
this fluid is in equilibrium under its own weight and the thrust of the
surrounding fluid, which must be equal and opposite, and the sur-
rounding fluid acts in the same manner when the body replaces the
displaced fluid again; so that the resultant thrust of the fluid acts
vertically upward through the centre of gravity of the fluid displaced,
and is equal to the weight.
When the body is floating freely like a ship, the equilibrium of
this liquid thrust with the weight of the ship requires that the weight
of water displaced is equal to the weight of the ship and the two
centres of gravity are in the same vertical line. So also a balloon
begins to rise when the weight of air displaced is greater than the
weight of the balloon, and it is in equilibrium when the weights are
equal. This theorem is called generally the principle of Archimedes.
It is used to determine the density of a body experimentally;
for if W is the weight of a body weighed in a balance in air (strictly
in vacua), and if W is the weight required to balance when the
body is suspended in water, then the upward thrust of the liquid
n8
HYDROMECHANICS
[HYDROSTATICS
or weight of liquid displaced is W-W, so that the specific gravity
(S.G.), defined as the ratio of the weight of a body to the weight
of an equal volume of water, is W/(W-W')-
As stated first by Archimedes, the principle asserts the obvious
fact that a body displaces its own volume of water; and he utilized it
in the problem of the determination of the adulteration of the crown
of Hiero. He weighed out a lump of gold and of silver of the same
weight as the crown; and, immersing the three in succession in
water, he found they spilt over measures of water in the ratio
•ft '• A : ft °r 33 : 24 : 44 ; thence it follows that the gold : silver alloy
of the crown was as 1 1 : 9 by weight.
13. Theorem. — The resultant vertical thrust on any portion of a
curved surface exposed to the pressure of a fluid at rest under
gravity is the weight of fluid cut out by vertical lines drawn round
the boundary of the curved surface.
Theorem. — The resultant horizontal thrust in any direction is
obtained by drawing parallel horizontal lines round the boundary,
and intersecting a plane perpendicular to their direction in a plane
curve; and then investigating the thrust on this plane area, which
will be the same as on the curved surface.
The proof of these theorems proceeds as before, employing the
normality principle; they are required, for instance, in the deter-
mination of the liquid thrust on any portion of the bottom of a ship.
In casting a thin hollow object like a bell, it will be seen that the
resultant upward thrust on the mould may be many times greater
than the weight of metal; many a curious experiment has been
devised to illustrate this property and classed as a hydrostatic
paradox (Boyle, Hydrostatical Paradoxes, 1666).
Consider, for instance, the operation of casting a hemispherical
bell, in fig. 2. As the molten metal is run in, the upward thrust on
the outside mould, when
the level has reached
PP', is the weight of
metal in the volume gen-
erated by the revolution
of APQ; and this, by a
theorem of Archimedes,
has the same volume as
the cone ORR', or fay*,
where y is the depth of
metal, the horizontal
sections being equal so
long as y is less than the
radius of the outside
hemisphere. Afterwards,
when the metal has risen
above B, to the level KK', the additional thrust is the weight of
the cylinder of diameter KK' and height BH. The upward thrust
is the same, however thin the metal may be in the interspace
between the outer mould and the core inside ; and this was formerly
considered paradoxical.
Analytical Equations of Equilibrium of a Fluid at rest under any
System of Force.
14. Referred to three fixed coordinate axes, a fluid, in which
the pressure is p, the density p, and X, Y, Z the components of
impressed force per unit mass, requires for the equilibrium of the part
filling a fixed surface S, on resolving parallel to Ox,
JjlpdS=jjfpXdxdydz, (i)
where /, m, n denote the direction cosines of the normal drawn
outward of the surface S.
But by Green's transformation
///pdS=///gd*<fy<fc, (2)
thus leading to the differential relation at every point
The three equations of equilibrium obtained by taking moments
round the axes are then found to be satisfied identically.
Hence the space variation of the pressure in any direction, or the
pressure-gradient, is the resolved force per unit volume in that
direction. The resultant force is therefore in the direction of the
steepest pressure-gradient, and this is normal to the surface of equal
pressure; for equilibrium to exist in a fluid the lines of force must
therefore be capable of being cut orthogonally by a system of
surfaces, which will be surfaces of equal pressure.
Ignoring temperature effect, and taking the density as a function
of the pressure, surfaces of equal pressure are also of equal density,
and the fluid is stratified by surfaces orthogonal to the lines of force ;
i dp i dp i dp Y v 7 , ,
- -f-. - ~f~t — -f-, or A, Y, L (4)
p dx' pdy' p dz'
are the partial differential coefficients of some function P, =fdp/p,
of x, y, z; so that X, Y, Z must be the partial differential coefficients
of a potential -V, such that the force m any direction is the down-
ward gradient of V ; and then
= o, or P + V = constant, (5)
in which P may be called the hydrostatic head and V the head of
potential.
With variation of temperature, the surfaces of equal pressure and
density need not coincide; but, taking the pressure, density and
temperature as connected by some relation, such as the gas-equation,
the surfaces of equal density and temperature must intersect in lines
lying on a surface of equal pressure.
15. As an example of the general equations, take the simplest
case of a uniform field of gravity, with Oz directed vertically down-
ward ; employing the gravitation unit of force,
I dp i dp i dp
pdX=0'pdy = °<pdz=l' O
P=J<Zp/p=z+a constant. (2)
When the density p is uniform, this becomes, as before in (2) § 9
p=pz+pt. (3)
Suppose the density p varies as some nth power of the depth
below O, then
p = tiz'1 (4)
(5)
* Mn + i n + i n + i
supposing p and p to vanish together.
These equations can be made to represent the state of convective
equilibrium of the atmosphere, depending on the gas-equation
p = pk = Rp8, (6)
where 8 denotes the absolute temperature ; and then
_
dz~dz
(7)
so that the temperature-gradient d6/dz is constant, as in convective
equilibrium in (n).
From the gas-equation in general, in the atmosphere
i dp_i dp__i dti_p__i dj>_i_± d9 .
pdz~p dz~8 dz~p~6dz~k~8dz'
which is positive, and the density p diminishes with the ascent,
provided the temperature-gradient dS/dz does not exceed 8/k.
With uniform temperature, taking k constant in the gas-equation,
dp/dz = p=p/k, p=pee'"<, . (9)
so that in ascending in the atmosphere of thermal equilibrium the
pressure and density diminish at compound discount, and for
pressures pi and pi at heights Zi and z2
(zi-za)/* =log.(#j//>i) =2-3 logio(/>2//>i). (10)
In the convective equilibrium of the atmosphere, the air is sup-
posed to change in density and pressure without exchange of heat by
conduction ; and then
p/po = (9/ffo)", Plpo = (0/ft>)"+1, (n)
where y is the ratio of the specific heat at constant pressure and
constant volume.
In the more general case of the convective equilibrium of a spherical
atmosphere surrounding the earth, of radius a,
gravity varying inversely as the square of the distance r from the
centre; so that, k = po/po, denoting the height of the homogeneous
atmosphere at the surface, 8 is given by
(n + i)ft(i-9/flo)=o(i-o/r), (13)
or if c denotes the distance where 8 = 0,
i = -r-^ 04) '
When the compressibility of water is taken into account in a
deep ocean, an experimental law must be employed, such as
/>-£o = £(p-po), or p/po =! + (£-» A, X = fcpo, (15)
so that X is the pressure due to a head k of the liquid at density po
under atmospheric pressure /v, and it is the gauge pressure required
on this law to double the density. Then
dp/dz = kdp/dz=p, p=p^'k, p-po = kpo(e""'-i); (16)
and if the liquid was incompressible, the depth at pressure p would
be (p—pa)/pa, so that the lowering of the surface due to compression is
ke*lk-k-z = \zllk, when k is large. (17)
For sea water, X is about 25,000 atmospheres, and k is then 25,000
times the height of the water barometer, about 250,000 metres, so
that in an ocean 10 kilometres deep the level is lowered about 200
metres by the compressibility of the water; and the density at the
bottom is increased 4 %.
On another physical assumption of constant cubical elasticity X,
(i 8)
dz
pt p
(19)
HYDROSTATICS]
HYDROMECHANICS
119
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
and the lowering of the surface is
i> — Po p F i / z \ z* , *
<- ^— Z = k log — — Z= — k log I I— j-1 — ZK—r (2O)
Po 6 Po V «/ 2«
as before in 17).
16. Centre of Pressure. — A plane area exposed to fluid pressure
on one side experiences a single resultant thrust, the integrated
pressure over the area, acting through a definite point called
the centre of pressure (C.P.) of the area.
Thus if the plane is normal to Oz, the resultant thrust
R=ffpdxdy, (i)
and the co-ordinates *, y of the C.P. are given by
xR=ffxpdxdy, yR = ffypdxdy. (2)
The C.P. is thus the C.G. of a plane lamina bounded by the area,
in which the surface density is p.
If p is uniform, the C.P. and C.G. of the area coincide.
For a homogeneous liquid at rest under gravity, p is proportional
to the depth below the surface, i.e. to the perpendicular distance
from the line of intersection of the plane of the area with the free
surface of the liquid.
If the equation of this line, referred to new coordinate axes in the
plane area, is written
x cos o +y sin a — h = O,
R=fjp(h—xcosa—y sin a)dxdy,
xR = ffpx(h—xcos o— y sin a)dxdy,
yR = fjpy(h—xcos a— y sin a)dxdy.
Placing the new origin at the C.G. of the area A,
ffxdxdy = o, ffydxdy = o,
R = p«A,
xhA= —cos affxydA— sin affxydA,
yhA = —cos affxydA— sin aff)3dA.
Turning the axes to make them coincide with the principal axes
of the area A, thus making ffxydA = O,
xh = — a* cos a, y&= — V sin a, (10)
where
a and 6 denoting the semi-axes of the momental ellipse of the area.
This shows that the C.P. is the antipole of the line of intersection of
its plane with the free surface with respect to the momental ellipse at
the C.G. of the area.
Thus the C.P. of a rectangle or parallelogram with a side in the
surface is at f of the depth of the lower side; of a triangle with a
vertex in the surface and base horizontal is J of the depth of the base;
but if the base is in the surface, the C.P. is at half the depth of the
vertex; as on the faces of a tetrahedron, with one edge in the
surface.
The core of an area is the name given to the limited area round
its C.G. within which the C.P. must lie when the area is immersed
completely; the boundary of the core is therefore the locus of the
antipodes with respect to the momental ellipse of water lines which
touch the boundary of the area. Thus the core of a circle or an
ellipse is a concentric circle or ellipse of one quarter the size.
The C.P. of water lines passing through a fixed point lies on a
straight line, the antipolar of the point ; and thus the core of a tri-
angle is a similar triangle of one quarter the size, and the core of a
parallelogram is another parallelogram, the diagonals of which are
the middle third of the median lines.
In the design of a structure such as a tall reservoir dam it is
important that the line of thrust in the material should pass inside
the core of a section, so that the material should not be in a state
of tension anywhere and so liable to open and admit the water.
17. Equilibrium and Stability of a Ship or Floating Body.
The Metacentre. — The principle of Archimedes in § 12 leads
immediately to the
conditions of equili-
brium of a body sup-
ported freely in fluid,
like a fish in water or
a balloon in the air,
or like a ship (fig. 3)
floating partly im-
mersed in water and
the rest in air. The
body is in equili-
brium under two
forces: — (i.) its
weight W acting
vertically downward
through G, the C.G. of the body, and (ii.) the buoyancy of the
fluid, equal to the weight of the displaced fluid, and acting
vertically upward through E, the C.G. of the displaced fluid;
for equilibrium these two forces must be equal and opposite in
the same line.
The conditions of equilibrium of a body, floating like a ship
on the surface of a liquid, are therefore: —
(i.) the weight of the body must be less than the weight of the
total volume of liquid it can displace; or else the body will sink
to the bottom of the liquid; the difference of the weights is
called the " reserve of buoyancy."
(ii.) the weight of liquid which the body displaces in the
position of equilibrium is equal to the weight W of the body ; and
(iii.) the C.G., B, of the liquid displaced and G of the body,
must lie in the same vertical line GB.
18. In addition to satisfying these conditions of equilibrium,
a ship must fulfil the further condition of stability, so as to keep
upright; if displaced slightly from this position, the forces
called into play must be such as to restore the ship to the upright
again. The stability of a ship is investigated practically by
inclining it; a weight is moved across the deck and the angle is
observed of the heel produced.
Suppose P tons is moved c ft. across the deck of a ship of W tons
displacement ; the C.G. will move from G to Gi the reduced distance
GiG2 = c(P/W); and if B, called the centre of buoyancy, moves
to BI, along the curve of buoyancy BBi, the normal of this curve at
Bi will be the new vertical Bid, meeting the old vertical in a point
M, the centre of curvature of BBi, called the metacentre.
If the ship heels through an angle 9 or a slope of I in m,
GU=GGicot0=mc(PfW), (i)
and GM is called the metacentric height; and the ship must be
ballasted, so that G lies below M. If G was above M, the tangent
drawn from G to the evolute of B , and normal to the curve of buoyancy,
would give the vertical in a new position of equilibrium. Thus in
H.M.S. " Achilles " of 9000 tons displacement it was found that
moving 20 tons across the deck, a distance of 42 ft., caused the bob
of a pendulum 20 ft. long to move through 10 in., so that
also
cot 9=24, e =2" 24'.
(2)
(3)
In a diagram it is conducive to clearness to draw the ship in one
position, and to incline the water-line; and the page can be turned
if it is desired to bring the new water-line horizontal.
Suppose the ship turns about an axis through F in the water-line
area, perpendicular to the plane of the paper; denoting by y the
distance of an element dA if the water-line area from the axis of
rotation, the change of displacement is ~LydA tan 9, so that there is
no change of displacement if 2y<2A=o, that is, if the axis passes
through the C.G. of the water-line area, which we denote by F
and call the centre of notation.
The righting couple of the wedges of immersion and emersion
will be
ZwydA. tan O.y=w tan 02/dA = w tan e.Ak1 f t. tons, (4)
w denoting the density of water in tons/ft.3, and W = a>V, for a
displacement of V ft.3
This couple, combined with the original buoyancy W through B,
is equivalent to the new buoyancy through B, so that
W.BBi=wA*2tan9, (5)
BM = BBi cot 9 = A£2/V, (6)
giving the radius of curvature BM of the curve of buoyancy B, in
terms of the displacement V, and Ak1 the moment of inertia of the
water-line area about an axis through F, perpendicular to the plane
of displacement.
An inclining couple due to moving a weight about in a ship will heel
the ship about an axis perpendicular to the plane of the couple, only
when this axis is a principal axis at F of the momental ellipse of
the water-line area A. For if the ship turns through a small angle 6
about the line FF', then 61, 62, the C.G. of the wedge of immersion
and emersion, will be the C.P. with respect to FF' of the two parts of
the water-line area, so that bibi will be conjugate to FF' with respect
to the momental ellipse at F.
The naval architect distinguishes between the stability of form,
represented by the righting couple W.BM, and testability of ballast-
ing, represented by W.BG. Ballasted with G at B, the righting
couple when the ship is heeled through 0 is given by W.BM. tan0; but
if weights inside the ship are raised to bring G above B, the righting
couple is diminished by W.BG. tan 8, so that the resultant righting
couple is W.GM. tan B. Provided the ship is designed to float
upright at the smallest draft with no load on board, the stability
at any other draft of water can be arranged by the stowage of the
weight, high or low.
19. Proceeding as in § 16 for the determination of the C.P. of an
area, the same argument will show that an inclining couple due to
120
HYDROMECHANICS
[HYDRODYNAMICS
the movement of a weight P through a distance c will cause the ship
to heel through an angle 6 about an axis FF' through F, which is
conjugate to the direction of the movement of P with respect to an
ellipse, not the momental ellipse of the water-line area A, but a
confocal to it, of squared semi-axes
a?-hV/A, 62-/rV/A, (i)
h denoting the vertical height BG between C.G. and centre of
buoyancy. The varying direction of the inclining couple PC may be
realized by swinging the weight P from a crane on the ship, in a circle of
radius c. But if the weight P was lowered on the ship from a crane
on shore, the vessel would sink bodily a distance P/wA if P was
deposited over F; but deposited anywhere else, say over Q on the
water-line area, the ship would turn about a line the antipolar of Q
with respect to the confocal ellipse, parallel to FF', at a distance FK
from F
FK = (£2-fcV/A)/FQ sin QFF' (2)
through an angle 0 or a slope of one in m, given by
where k denotes the radius of gyration about FF' of the water-line
area. Burning the coal on a voyage has the reverse effect on a
steamer.
HYDRODYNAMICS
20. In considering the motion of a fluid we shall suppose it
non-viscous, so that whatever the state of motion the stress
across any section is normal, and the principle of the normality
and thence of the equality of fluid pressure can be employed, as
in hydrostatics. The practical problems of fluid motion, which
are amenable to mathematical analysis when viscosity is taken
into account, are excluded from treatment here, as constituting
a separate branch called "hydraulics" (q.v.). Two methods are
employed in hydrodynamics, called the Eulerian and Lagrangian,
although both are due originally to Leonhard Euler. In the
Eulerian method the attention is fixed on a particular point of
space, and the change is observed there of pressure, density
and velocity, which takes place during the motion; but in the
Lagrangian method we follow up a particle of fluid and observe
how it changes. The first may be called the statistical method,
and the second the historical, according to J. C. Maxwell. The
Lagrangian method being employed rarely, we shall confine
ourselves to the Eulerian treatment.
The Eulerian Form of the Equations of Motion.
21. The first equation to be established is the equation of
continuity, which expresses the fact that the increase of matter
within a fixed surface is due to the flow of fluid across the surface
into its interior.
In a straight uniform current of fluid of density p, flowing with
velocity q, the flow in units of mass per second across a plane area A,
placed in the current with the normal of the plane making an angle 9
with the velocity, is oAg cos 0, the product of the density p, the area
A, and q cos 9 the component velocity normal to the plane.
Generally if S denotes any closed surface, fixed in the fluid, M the
mass of the fluid inside it at any time t, and 9 the angle which the
outward-drawn normal makes with the velocity q at that point,
dM/dt = rate of increase of fluid inside the surface, (i)
= flux across the surface into the interior
= -//P2 cos 6dS,
the integral equation of continuity.
In the Eulerian notation u, v, w denote the components of the
velocity q parallel to the coordinate axes at any point (x, y, z) at the
time t; u, v, w are functions of x, y, z, t, the independent variables;
and d is used here to denote partial differentiation with respect to
any one of these four independent variables, all capable of varying
one at a time.
To transfer the integral equation into the differential equation of
continuity, Green's transformation is required again, namely,
or individually
I I I -rdxdydz= jfl^dS, ..., (3)
where the integrations extend throughout the volume and over the
surface of a closed space S; I, m, n denoting the direction cosines
of the outward-drawn normal at the surface element dS, and {, ij, f
any continuous functions of x, y, z.
The integral equation of continuity (i) may now be written
fffdidxdydz +ff(lP"+mpv+npw)dS = o, (4)
///(&-
-} dxdydz = o,
(5)
which becomes by Green's transformation
(pu) d(pv) d(pw)^
dx dy dz
leading to the differential equation of continuity when the integration
is removed.
22. The equations of motion can be established in a similar
way by considering the rate of increase of momentum in a fixed
direction of the fluid inside the surface, and equating it to the
momentum generated by the force acting throughout the space
S, and by the pressure acting over the surface S.
Taking the fixed direction parallel to the axis of x, the time-rate
of increase of momentum, due to the fluid which crosses the surface, is
-fCpuq cos 6dS> = -Jf(lpu*-\-mpuv+npuw)dS, (i)
which by Green's transformation is
The rate of generation of momentum in the interior of S by the
component of force, X per unit mass, is
fffpXdxdyds, (3)
and by the pressure at the surface S is
-JflpdS = - fjj^dydz, (4)
by Green's transformation.
The time rate of increase of momentum of the fluid inside S is
and (5) is the sum of (i), (2}, (3), (4), so that
dpuv . dpuw v , d
---'
r r r/dpu dpu*
JJJ (rar+-3F-
(5)
dxdydz = o, (6)
(7)
leading to the differential equation of motion
dpu dpu* dpuv dpuw __ -vjip
with two similar equations.
The absolute unit of force is employed here, and not the gravitation
unit of hydrostatics; in a numerical application it is assumed that
C.G.S. units are intended.
These equations may be simplified slightly, using the equation of
continuity (5) §21; for
dpu . dpu1 dpuv dpuw
du . du . du . du
dp , dpu dpv dpw\ • ,„•.
reducing to the first line, the second line vanishing in consequence of
the equation of continuity; and so the equation of motion may be
written in the more usual form
du . du , du , du -v- i dp
with the two others
dv
dv dv dv
-, — t- u~r~ -T-V-T~ -rW~r~ ~
(Lt dx dy dz
dw . dw , dw , dw
dy
dp
(10)
(u)
23. As a rule these equations are established immediately
by determining the component acceleration of the fluid particle
which is passing through (x, y, z) at the instant t of time con-
sidered, and saying that the reversed acceleration or kinetic
reaction, combined with the impressed force per unit of mass
and pressure-gradient, will according to d'Alembert's principle
form a system in equilibrium.
To determine the component acceleration of a particle, suppose F
to denote any function of x, y, z, t, and investigate the time rate of F
for a moving particle; denoting the change by DF/dt,
DF = . F(X+uSl, y+v&l, z+wSi, t+St)-F(x, y, z, t)
~dT U
dF. dF. dF. dF , .
= Tt+u3X-+vdy+m^'
and D/dl is called particle differentiation, because it follows the rate
of change of a particle as it leaves the point x, y, z; but
dF/dt, dFfdx, dF/dy, dF/dz (2)
represent the rate of change of F at the time t, at the point, x, y, z,
fixed in space.
HYDRODYNAMICS]
HYDROMECHANICS
Dp dv dv dv dv
~dT = ^Tt' U7T~ '^iTv' "^ti?'
Div div . dw . dw . dw
The components of acceleration of a particle of fluid are conse-
quently
D« du . du.au. du ,„.,
(4)
leading to the equations of motion above.
If F (x, y, z, t) =o represents the equation of a surface containing
always the same particles of fluid,
— =o or— +«— +v— +w— = o (6)
which is called the differential equation of the bounding surface.
A bounding surface is such that there is no flow of fluid across it,
as expressed by equation (6). The surface always contains the same
fluid inside it, and condition (6) is satisfied over the complete surface,
as well as any part of it.
But turbulence in the motion will vitiate the principle that a
bounding surface will always consist of the same fluid particles,
as we see on the surface of turbulent water.
24. To integrate the equations of motion, suppose the impressed
force is due to a potential V, such that the force in any direction is the
rate of diminution of V, or its downward gradient ; and then
X = -dV/dx, Y = -dV/dy, Z = -dV/dz; (i)
and putting
dw dv . du dw dv du
rf| dr, .
dx+dy+dz~
dx dy
o,
the equations of motion may be written
dv
dw
dH
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
where
(7)
(8)
and the three terms in H may be called the pressure head, potential
head, and head of velocity, when the gravitation unit is employed
and ig2 is replaced by j?2/g.
Eliminating H between (5) and (6)
D{ du dv dw . /du . dv
---
and combining this with the equation of continuity
i_ Dp du dv dw
p dt +dx+dy+~dz-°'
we have -j- (I) -I5H _2 *!_£^_o
dt \pf pdx pdx p dx
with two similar equations.
Putting
(10)
(ii)
(12)
a vortex line is defined to be such that the tangent is in the direction
of w, the resultant of £, i\, f, called the components of molecular
rotation. A small sphere of the fluid, if frozen suddenly, would
retain this angular velocity.
If a vanishes throughout the fluid at any instant, equation (11)
shows that it will always be zero, and the fluid motion is then called
irrotational; and a function <j> exists, called the velocity function,
such that
udx+vdy+wdz — -d<t>, (13)
and then the velocity in any direction is the space-decrease or
downward gradient of <j>.
25. But in the most general case it is possible to have three
functions <j>, $, m of x, y, z, such that
udx -\-vdy -\-wdz = -d<t>-md^, (i)
as A. Clebsch has shown, from purely analytical considerations
(Crelle, Ivi.) ; and then
, m)
17 •
>~2
dm dm . dm
(2)
and
so that, at any instant, the surfaces over which i
intersect in the vortex lines.
(3)
and m are constant
Putting
d<t>
~-
the equations of motion (4), (5), (6) § 24 can be written
dK _ , d(t, m)
dK . dK . dK
121
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
dK d<f> Dm dm D^-
Jx~dx ~dT+-dJ-dT=0
and as we prove subsequently (§37) that the vortex lines are composed
of the same fluid particles throughout the motion, the surface m and
i/< satisfies the condition of (6) § 23 ; so that K is uniform throughout
the fluid at any instant, and changes with the time only, and so
may be replaced by F(/).
26. When the motion is steady, that is, when the velocity at any
point of space does not change with the time,
* — CD
and therefore
Equation (5) becomes, by a rearrangement,
dK d\L /dm . dm . dm . dm\
-' --
dm
dK dK.dK
dK. dK. dK
and
(3)
is constant along a vortex line, and a stream line, the path of a fluid
particle, so that the fluid is traversed by a series of H surfaces, each
covered by a network of stream lines and vortex lines; and if the
motion is irrotational H is a constant throughout the fluid.
Taking the axis of x for an instant in the normal through a point
on the surface H= constant, this makes u = o, £ = o ; and in steady
motion the equations reduce to
where 0 is the angle between the stream line and vortex line; and
this holds for their projection on any plane to which dv is drawn
perpendicular.
In plane motion (4) reduces to
dH lag , a\
—j — = 2oF = Q i — ^ -i- I lO
dv \dv r]
if r denotes the radius of curvature of the stream line, so that
p dv' dv ~ dv dv ~r'
the normal acceleration.
The osculating plane of a stream line in steady motion contains
the resultant acceleration, the direction ratios of which are
du , du , du d|<72 dig* dH
and when q is stationary, the acceleration is normal to the surface H
= constant, and the stream line is a geodesic.
Calling the sum of the pressure and potential head the statical
head, surfaces of constant statical and dynamical head intersect
in lines on H, and the three surfaces touch where the velocity is
stationary.
Equation (3) is called Bernoulli's equation, and may be interpreted
as the balance-sheet of the energy which enters and leaves a given
tube of flow.
If homogeneous liquid is drawn off from a vessel so large that the
motion at the free surface at a distance may be neglected, then
Bernoulli's equation may be written
where P denotes the atmospheric pressure and h the height of the
free surface, a fundamental equation in hydraulics; a return has
been made here to the gravitation unit of hydrostatics, and Oz is
taken vertically upward.
In particular, for a jet issuing into the atmosphere, where p = P,
(fJ2g = h-z, (9)
or the velocity of the jet is due to the head k— z of the still free
surface above the orifice; this is Torricelli's theorem (1643), the
foundation of the science of hydrodynamics.
27. Uniplanar Motion. — In the uniplanar motion of a homogeneous
liquid the equation of continuity reduces to
du d_v_
dx dy '
so that we can put
, v = d4>/dx,
(2)
122
HYDROMECHANICS
where <t is a function of x, y, called the stream- or current-function;
interpreted physically, ^-^o, the difference of the value of ^ at a
fixed point A and a variable point P is the flow, in ft.3/ second, across
any curved line AP from A to P, this being the same for all lines in
accordance with the continuity.
Thus if d\j/ is the increase of <!/ due to a displacement from P to P',
and k is the component of velocity normal to PP', the flow across
PP' is dt = k.PP'; and taking PP' parallel to Ox, d^=vdx; and
similarly d<f> = - udy with PP' parallel to Oy; and generally d\///ds
is the velocity across ds, in a direction turned through a right angle
forward, against the clock.
In the equations of uniplanar motion
4 dx dy d:
so that in steady motion
dH , _,,<fy' dH
= o,
(3)
(4)
and vV must be a function of \(/.
If the motion is irrotational,
.— $—
(5)
d\L* Off) i
~r~ = ~~ T~, P = — ; — = •
dx dy dy
so that ^ and <t> are conjugate functions of x and y,
or putting
<j>-\-iln=w, x-\-yi = z, w=f(z).
The curves <t> = constant and 4* = constant form an orthogonal
system; and the interchange of <j> and ^ will give a new state of
uniplanar motion, in which the velocity at every point is turned
through a right angle without alteration of magnitude.
For instance, in a uniplanar flow, radially inward towards O, the
flow across any circle of radius r being the same and denoted by
27rOT, the velocity must be mjr, and
<t> = m\ogr, tl/ = mO, <t>-\-^i = m log re**, w = m\ogz. (7)
Interchanging these values
gives a state of vortex motion, circulating round Oz, called a straight
or columnar vortex.
A single vortex will remain at rest, and cause a velocity at any point
inversely as the distance from the axis and perpendicular to its direc-
tion ; analogous to the magnetic field of a straight electric current.
If other vortices are present, any one may be supposed to move
with the velocity due to the others, the resultant stream function
being
^ = Sm log r = log Ilrw; (9)
the path of a vortex is obtained by equating the value of ^ at the
vortex to a constant, omitting the r"> of the vortex itself.
When the liquid is bounded by a cylindrical surface, the motion
of a vortex inside may be determined as due to a series of vortex-
images, so arranged as to make the flow zero across the boundary.
For a plane boundary the image is the optical reflection of the
vortex. For example, a pair of equal opposite vortices, moving on
a line parallel to a plane boundary, will have a corresponding pair
of images, forming a rectangle of vortices, and the path of a vortex
will be the Cotes' spiral
r sin 26 = 20, or x~*+y-ut = a-t; (10)
this is therefore the path of a single vortex in a right-angled corner;
and generally, if the angle of the corner is ir/n, the path is the Cotes'
spiral
r sin nO = na. (n)
A single vortex in a circular cylinder of radius o at a distance c
from the centre will move with the velocity due to an equal opposite
image at a distance o2/c, and so describe a circle with velocity
»»c/(a2-c2)in the periodic time 2r(ai-c*)/m. (12)
Conjugate functions can be employed also for the motion of liquid
in a thin sheet between two concentric spherical surfaces; the com-
ponents of velocity along the meridian and parallel in colatitude 9
and longitude X can be written
_ J . J *
(13)
d4 _ i <ty i d(t> _ _ dj,
~SB sin e 3\' sin 03X de'
and then
^+^» = F(tan J0. «x«). (14)
28. Uniplanar Motion of a Liquid due to the Passage of a Cylinder
through it. — A stream-function <!/ must be determined to satisfy the
conditions
vV = o, throughout the liquid; (i)
<fr = constant, over any fixed boundary; (2)
d<l//ds = normal velocity reversed over a solid boundary, (3)
so that, if the solid is moving with velocity U in the direction O*,
d^/ds = — Udy/ds, or ^ + U>= constant over the moving cylinder;
[HYDRODYNAMICS
and ^+Uy = ^' is the stream function of the relative motion of the
liquid past the cylinder, and similarly <ft-Vx for the component
velocity V along Oy ; and generally
is the relative stream-function, constant over a solid boundary
moving with components U and V of velocity.
If the liquid is stirred up by the rotation R of a cylindrical body,
d<I*/ds = normal velocity reversed
(5)
(6)
a constant over the boundary; and ^' is the current-function of
the relative motion past the cylinder, but now
throughout the liquid.
Inside an equilateral triangle, for instance, of height h,
t'= -2 Ra.f}~r/h, (8)
where a, /3, y are the perpendiculars on the sides of the triangle.
In the general case f =>// + \Jy- Vx+4R(x2+}'2) is the relative
stream function for velocity components, U, V, R.
29. Example I. — Liquid motion past a circular cylinder.
Consider the motion given by
(i)
so that
(2)
Then ^ = o over the cylinder r — a, which may be considered a fixed
post; and a stream line past it along which \[/ = \]c, a constant, is
the curve
a cubic curve (C»).
Over a concentric cylinder, external or internal, of radius r = b,
and \l/' is zero if
(4)
(5)
so that the cylinder may swim for an instant in the liquid without
distortion, with this velocity Ui; and w in (i) will give the liquid
motion in the interspace between the fixed cylinder r = a and the
concentric cylinder r = b, moving with velocity Ui.
When 6 = 0, Ui = oo; and when 6 = 00, Ui = — U, so that at
infinity the liquid is streaming in the direction xO with velocity U.
If the liquid is reduced to rest at infinity by the superposition of
an opposite stream given by w = — Uz, we are left with
(6)
(7)
1^ = - U (o2/r) sin 0 = - Va2y/(x' +y*) , (8)
giving the motion due to the passage of the cylinder r = a with
velocity U through the origin O in the direction Ox.
If the direction of motion makes an angle 8' with Ox,
-y
tan 26, 0 =
and the velocity is Ua2/r2.
Along the path of a particle, defined by the C» of (3),
.*&-£>,
. sin2 ie^jdpj, 0,
.,dB' 2y-cd
(9)
(10)
(II)
on the radius of curvature is }a2/(j> — \c), which shows that the curve
is an Elastica or Lintearia. (J. C. Maxwell, Collected Works, ii. 208.)
If <t>i denotes the velocity function of the liquid filling the cylinder
r = 6, and moving bodily with it with velocity Ui,
*,= -U,*, (12)
and over the separating surface r = b
U/. ,«* a*+b> ^
and this, by § 36, is also the ratio of the kinetic energy in the annular
interspace between the two cylinders to the kinetic energy of the
liquid moving bodily inside r = b.
Consequently the inertia to overcome in moving the cylinder
r = b, solid or liquid, is its own inertia, increased by the inertia of
liquid (o'+fr2)/^2 — V) times the volume of the cylinder r = b;
this total inertia is called the effective inertia of the cylinder r = 6,
at the instant the two cylinders are concentric.
HYDRODYNAMICS]
With liquid of density p, this gives rise to a kinetic reaction to
acceleration dV/dt, given by
irpb2 . ,2 "gr~ ^2 — pM '~di' ('4^
if M' denotes the mass of liquid displaced by unit length of the
cylinder r = b. In particular, when a = co, the extra inertia is M'.
When the cylinder r = a is moved with velocity U and r = 6 with
velocity Ui along Ox,
HYDROMECHANICS
123
#=
and similarly, with velocity components V and Vi along Oy
(15)
(16)
(17)
and then for the resultant motion
„= (U2 + V2)^
TJ
Ui+Vi*.
'V-a2Ui+Vii &2_02 z ' ^
The resultant impulse of the liquid on the cylinder is given by the
component, over r = a (§ 36),
X =/pc*> cos e.ade = wpa? (\J jrr^-Uigj^^) ; (20)
and over r = b
and the difference X— Xi is the component momentum of the liquid
in the interspace ; with similar expressions for Y and Yi.
Then, if the outside cylinder is free to move
XVI
i=°» TV
(22)
But if the outside cylinder is moved with velocity Ui, and the
inside cylinder is solid or filled with liquid of density a,
(23)
and the inside cylinder starts forward or backward with respect to
the outside cylinder, according as p> or <a.
30. The expression for iv in (i) § 29 may be increased by the
addition of the term
im log z=-m6 + im log r,
(i)
representing vortex motion circulating round the annulus of
liquid.
Considered by itself, with the cylinders held fixed, the vortex
sets up a circumferential velocity m/r on a radius r, so that the
angular momentum of a circular filament of annular cross section dA
is pmdA, and of the whole vortex is pmw(b2—a?).
Any circular filament can be started from rest by the application
of a circumferential impulse vpmdr at each end of a diameter; so
that a mechanism attached to the cylinders, which can set up a
uniform distributed impulse irpm across the two parts of a diameter
in the liquid, will generate the vortex motion, and react on the
cylinder with an impulse couple — pmira2 and pinvV, having re-
sultant pm7r(i2 — a2), and this couple is infinite when 6 = 00, as the
angular momentum of the vortex is infinite. Round the cylinder
r = a held fixed in the U current the liquid streams past with velocity
g' = 2Usin0+wi/a; (2)
and the loss of head due to this increase of velocity from U to g1 is
g"- U2 = (all sin 9 +m/q)2 - U'
2g 2g • (3'
so that cavitation will take place, unless the head at a great distance
exceeds this loss.
The resultant hydrostatic thrust across any diametral plane
of the cylinder will be modified, but the only term in the loss
of head which exerts a resultant thrust on the whole cylinder is
2mU sin 0/ga, and its thrust is 2irpm\] absolute units in the direction
Cy, to be counteracted by a support at the centre C; the liquid is
streaming past r = a with velocity U reversed, and the cylinder is
surrounded by a vortex. Similarly, the streaming velocity V
reversed will give rise to a thrust 2irpmV in the direction xC.
Now if the cylinder is released, and the components U andV are
reversed so as to become the velocity of the cylinder with respect
to space filled with liquid, and at rest at infinity, the cylinder will
experience components of force per unit length
(i.) — 2irpmV, 2irpmU, due to the vortex motion;
(ii.) —irpa?-^, -irpa2-^, due to the kinetic reaction of the liquid;
(iii.) o, — v(y— p)a2g, due to gravity,
taking Oy vertically upward, and denoting the density of the cylinder
by a; so that the equations of motion are
(4)
Tffa"o7 = ~rpa dt +2*PmV ~ *(" ~ P^S' (5)
or, putting w = a2co, so that the vortex velocity is due to an angular
velocity w at a radius a,
(<,+P)dU/dt+2paV = o, (6)
(<r+p)dV/dt-2pu\J + (<r-p)g = o. (7)
Thus with g = o, the cylinder will describe a circle with angular
velocity 2pw/(<r+p), so that the radius is (a-\-p)vJ2pui, if the velocity
is v. With <7=p, the angular velocity of the cylinder is 201; in this
way the velocity may be calculated of the propagation of ripples
and waves on the surface of a vertical whirlpool in a sink.
Restoring a will make the path of the cylinder a trochoid; and
so the swerve can be explained of the ball in tennis, cricket, base-
ball, or golf.
Another expjanation may be given of the sidelong force, arising
from the velocity of liquid past a cylinder, which is encircled by a
vortex. Taking two planes x= ±6, and considering the increase of
momentum in the liquid between them, due to the entry and exit
of liquid momentum, the increase across dy in the direction Oy,
due to elements at P and P' at opposite ends of the diameter PP', is
pay (U - UaV-icos29+mr-1sin9)(UaV-2 sinze+m^cose)
+ pdy (-U-l-UaV-2 cos2e+mr-1sine)(Va-r-2 sin26-mr-1 cos0)
= 2pa'y»zUr-1(cos0— aV~*cos30), (8)
and with y = b tan 6,r = b sec 6, this is
2ptnVde(i — a26~2cos 30 cos 0), (9)
and inte
is 2irpm\
31. Example 2. — Confocal Elliptic Cylinders. — Employ the elliptic
coordinates ij, £, and f = ij+{», such that
a=cchf, *=cchij cosf, y = cshij sinf; (i)
then the curves for which i; and £ are constant are confocal ellipses
and hyperbolas, and
(2)
the focal
(3)
,
tegrating between the limits 0= =*=j7r, the resultant, as before,
m\J.
if OD is the semi-diameter conjugate to OP, and n,
distances,
(4)
= & (ch2?; - sin2J)
= ^C2(ch 21J+COS 2{).
Consider the streaming motion given by
w = mch({--7), 7 = •»+/»«, (5)
4. = mch(7j-a)cos(£-0), f = msh()j-a)sin(£-0). (6)
Then ^ = o over the ellipse j) = a, and the hyperbola £ = |8, so that
these may be taken as fixed boundaries; and ^ is a constant on a C4.
Over any ellipse?), moving with components U and V of velocity,
so that ^'=o, if
having a resultant in the direction PO, where P is the intersection of
an ellipse 17 with the hyperbola 0; and with this velocity the ellipse
17 can be swimming in the liquid, without distortion for an instant.
At infinity
(7) — a)sin/3+Vcchr)] cos£; (7)
., m s
v= -
TT fa
U = - -e~°cos /3 = -
(9)
a and b denoting the semi-axes of the ellipse a; so that the liquid is
streaming at infinity with velocity Q=jn/(a+6) in the direction of
the asymptote of the hyperbola ^.
An ellipse interior to rj = a will move in a direction opposite to
the exterior current ; and when ij = o, U = oo , but V = (m/c) sh a sin j3.
Negative values of TJ must be interpreted by a streaming motion
on a parallel plane at a level slightly different, as on a double Riemann
sheet, the stream passing from one sheet to the other across a cut
SS' joining the foci S, S'. A diagram has been drawn by Col. R. L.
Hippisley.
124
HYDROMECHANICS
The components of the liquid velocity q, in the direction of the
normal of the ellipse 17 and hyperbola |, are
-mJ-'sMiraJcosCf-fl), mj^ch (77-0) sin (£-/S). (10)
The velocity q is zero in a corner where the hyperbola j3 cuts the
ellipse a; and round the ellipse a the velocity g reaches a maximum
when the tangent has turned through a right angle, and then
and the condition can be inferred when cavitation begins.
With /3 = o, the stream is parallel to xo, and
= — Uc ch (if-a) sh 17 cos £/sh (17-0)
over the cylinder 77, and as in (12) § 29,
for liquid filling the cylinder; and
(12)
(13)
, .
ovrr the surface of 17; so that parallel to Ox, the effective inertia
of the cylinder 7), displacing M' liquid, is increased by M'thj)/th(ij-a),
reducing when 0 = 00 to M' thi7 = M'(6/a).
Similarly, parallel to Oy, the increase of effective inertia is
M'/th 17 th(i7-a), reducing to M'/th 7) = M'(o/i), when 0 = 00, and
the liquid extends to infinity.
32. Next consider the motion given by
<t> — mch 2(i7-o)sin2{, ^ = -j»sh 2 (77-0)033 2{; (i)
in which \j/ = o over the ellipse o, and
(2)
which is constant over the ellipse ij if
JRc2^ wish 2 (17-0); (3)
so that this ellipse can be rotating with this angular velocity R for
an instant without distortion, the ellipse o being fixed.
For the liquid filling the interior of a rotating elliptic cylinder of
cross section
with
vVi'=-2R=-2mi(i/a2+i/62;,
(5)
(6)
The velocity of a liquid particle is thus (a2— 62)/(a2+62) of what
it would be if the liquid was frozen and rotating bodily with
the ellipse; and so the effective angular inertia of the liquid is
(of — fr^Vfa'+fc2)2 of the solid; and the effective radius of gyration,
solid and liquid, is given by
*' = J(o'+n and Ka'-JWa'+P). (7)
For the liquid in the interspace between a and 77,
4>_ _ TO ch 2(17-0) sin 2?
~
(8)
_
<t>i ~ JRc2sh 217 sin
= l/th2(iro)th277;
and the effective K* of the liquid is reduced to
JcVth2(7j-o)sh2>J, (9)
which becomes Jc2/sh 217 = \(al-V)lab, when o = °o,andthe liquid
surrounds the ellipse 17 to infinity.
An angular velocity R, which gives components — Ry, R* of
velocity to a body, can be resolved into two shearing velocities, — R
parallel to O*, p.nd R parallel to Oy; and then ^ is resolved into
fa+fa, such that ih+JR*2 and fa+$Ry* is constant over the
boundary.
Inside a cylinder
*i-HM = - HRk+yiya'Ka'+b1), (10)
*i+*»* = iiRCc+yiT^/V+fi2), (n)
and for the interspace, the ellipse a being fixed, and ai revolving
with angular velocity R
</>i-hM' = -4»Rc2sh2(77-a+fi)(ch2a+l)/sh2(a1-a), (12)
<h+fai = iiRc2sh2(t,-a+fi)(ch2a-l)/sh2(a1-a), (13)
satisfying the condition that ^i and fa are zero over 17 = a, and over
lh + iR*2 = iRc'(ch 20,4-1), (14)
*»+iR>« = lRe'(ch2a,-i), (15)
constant values.
In a similar way the more general state of motion may be analysed,
given by
W = mch2(f-y), y = a+0i, (16)
as giving a homogeneous strain velocity to the confocal system;
to which may be added a circulation, represented by an additional
term mf in w.
[HYDRODYNAMICS
Similarly, with
x+yi=CTJ[sin(£-\-rii)] (17)
the function
lf = Qe shjfo— o)sinj(£-/3) (18)
will give motion streaming past the fixed cylinder 77 = 0, and dividing
along £ = 0; and then
x2— ji2=c2sin£ch77, 2xy=c2cos£sh77. (19)
In particular, with sh a = i , the cross-section of 77 = o is
when the axes are turned through 45°.
33. Example 3. — Analysing in this way the rotation of a rectangle
filled with liquid into the two components of shear, the stream
function ^i is to be made to satisfy the conditions
(i.) vVi=o,
(ii.) ^i + jRx2 = JRa2, or ^i = o when x = =t a,
Expanded in a Fourier series,
, ,.,-32
-
(i)
so that
lh = R-3<j
16 a
To: (2)
an elliptic-function Fourier series; with a similar expression for fa
with x and y, a and 6 interchanged ; and thence <j/=fa+fa.
Example 4. — Parabolic cylinder, axial advance, and liquid stream-
ing past.
The polar equation of the cross-section being
ricos %8 = a\, orr + x = 2a, (3)
the conditions are satisfied by
sin 3#=2Ur} sin 20(ri cos %9— oi)> (4)
(5)
(6)
and the resistance of the liquid is 27rpoV2/2g.
A relative stream line, along which \j/' = Uc, is the quartic curve
'. (7)
jjT-i r=-
and in the absolute space curve given by ^,
dy (y-c)2 2oc . , .
25= zaT' x=-y^-2al°s(y-c).
(8)
34. Motion symmetrical about an Axis. — When the motion of a
liquid is the same for any plane passing through O*, and lies in the
plane, a function \l/ can be found analogous to that employed in
plane motion, such that the flux across the surface generated by the
revolution of any curve AP from A tq P is the same, and represented
by 2ir(\l/— fa); and, as before, if d\)/ is the increase in ^ due to a
displacement of P to P', then k the component of velocity normal
to the surface swept out by PP' is such that 2wd\(' = 2iryk.PP' ; and
taking PP' parallel to Oy and Ox,
u = — difr/ydy, v — d^/Jydx, (i)
and \lf is called after the inventor, "Stokes's stream or current
function," as it is constant along a stream line (Trans. Camb. Phil.
Soc., 1842; "Stokes's Current Function," R. A. Sampson, Phil.
Trans., 1892); and d<j/lyds is the component velocity across ds in a
direction turned through a right angle forward.
In this symmetrical motion
d /irfA , d_(l<ty\
i a" A i
--
(2)
—j j —j t j
suppose; and in steady motion,
dH i d'j/ 2 rfH i difr j
so that
2f/y = — y~2vV' = dH/d$ (4)
is a function of ^, say/'^), and constant along a stream line;
= constant, (5)
throughout the liquid.
When the motion is irrotational,
d<t> I '/•/-
f = 0' u = - = -
231-5; a?
(6)
(7)
HYDRODYNAMICS]
HYDROMECHANICS
Changing to polar coordinates, x = r cos 0, y = r sin 0, the equation
(2) becomes, with cos 0=ju,
of which a solution, when f = o, is
0 = {(n-r-i)Ar"-nBr-"-1lPn, (10)
where Pn denotes the zonal harmonic of the nth order; also, in the
exceptional case of
^ = Ao cos 8, <(> = Ao/r ;
if* = B0r, (f> = - Bo log tan %9
--iBosh-1*/?. (ii)
Thus cos 9 is the Stokes' function of a point source at O, and
PA- PB of a line source AB.
The stream function ^ of the liquid motion set up by the passage
of a solid of revolution, moving with axial velocity U, is such that
I^=-U^, ^-HU/ constant, (12)
over the surface of the solid; and $ must be replaced byy-'^+illy2
in the general equations of steady motion above to obtain the steady
relative motion of the liquid past the solid.
For instance, with ra = i in equation (9), the relative stream
function is obtained for a sphere of radius a, by making it
,£•=,£+ iUy2 = JU(r2-<z3/r) sin2 0, ^ = -|Ua3 sin2 8/r; (13)
and then
0' = U*(i-Ba3/r2), 0 = iUa3cos0/r2, (14)
so that, if the direction of motion makes an angle ^ with Ox,
tan ty-9) =i tan 8, tan ^ = 3 tan 0/ (2- tan2 0). (16)
Along the path of a liquid particle tf>' is constant, and putting it
equal to JUc8,
(r2-as/r) sin20=c2, sin20=cV/(r3-rt3), (17)
the polar equation; or
y = c2r3/(r3-a3), r3=a3;y2/(:y2-c2), (18)
a curve of the loth degree (do).
In the absolute path in space
cos ^ = (2-3 sin20)/V (4-sin20), and sin30 = (;y3-c2;y)/a3, (19)
which leads to no simple relation.
The velocity past the surface of the sphere is
., (20)
so that the loss of head is
(1 sin2 0 — 1 )U2/2g, having a maximum |U2/2g, (21)
which must be less than the head at infinite distance to avoid
cavitation at the surface of the sphere.
With n = 2, a state of motion is given by
(22)
(23)
representing a stream past the surface r1 =oV-
35. A circular vortex, such as a smoke ring, will set up motion
symmetrical about an axis, and provide an illustration; a half
vortex ring can be generated in water by drawing a semicircular
blade a short distance forward, the tip of a spoon for instance.
The vortex advances with a certain velocity; and if an equal
circular vortex is generated coaxially with the first, the mutual
influence can be observed. The first vortex dilates and moves
slower, while the second contracts and shoots through the first;
after which the motion is reversed periodically, as if in a game of
leap-frog. Projected perpendicularly against a plane boundary,
the motion is determined by an equal opposite vortex ring, the
optical image; the vortex ring spreads out and moves more
slowly as it approaches the wall; at the same time the molecular
rotation, inversely as the cross-section of the vortex, is seen to
increase. The analytical treatment of such vortex rings is the
same as for the electro-magnetic effect of a current circulating
in each ring.
36. Irrotational Motion in General. — Liquid originally at rest in
a singly-connected space cannot be set in motion by a field of force
due to a single- valued potential function; any motion set up in
the liquid must be due to a movement of the boundary, and the
motion will be irrotational ; for any small spherical element of the
liquid may be considered a smooth solid sphere for a moment, and
the normal pressure of the surrounding liquid cannot impart to it
any rotation.
The kinetic energy of the liquid inside a surface S due to the
velocity function <t> is given by
T = i
i^dS
(0
by Green's transformation, dv denoting an elementary step along
the normal to the exterior of the surface; so that d<j>/dv = o over
the surface makes T = o, and then
If the actual motion at any instant is supposed to be generated
instantaneously from rest by the application of pressure impulse
over the surface, or suddenly reduced to rest again, then, since no
natural forces can act impulsively throughout the liquid, the pressure
impulse ts satisfies the equations
i(to__ I^5=_ I^5__ /
pdx ' p dy ' p dz~ '
» = p0+a constant, (4)
and the constant may be ignored; and Green's transformation of
the energy T amounts to the theorem that the work done by an
impulse is the product of the impulse and average velocity, or half
the velocity from rest.
In a multiply connected space, like a ring, with a multiply valued
velocity function 0, the liquid can circulate in the circuits inde-
pendently of any motion of the surface; thus, for example,
will give motion to the liquid, circulating in any ring-shaped figure
of revolution round Oz.
To find the kinetic energy of such motion in a multiply connected
space, the channels must be supposed barred, and the space made
acyclic by a membrane, moving with the velocity of the liquid;
and then if k denotes the cyclic constant of 0 in any circuit, or the
value by which <t> has increased in completing the circuit, the values
of 0 on the two sides of the membrane are taken as differing by k,
so that the integral over the membrane
-j-^S, (6)
dv
and this term is to be added to the terms in (i) to obtain the ad-
ditional part in the kinetic energy; the continuity shows that the
integral is independent of the shape of the barrier membrane, and
its position. Thus, in (5), the cyclic constant k = 2irm.
In plane motion the kinetic energy per unit length parallel to Oz
(7)
For example, in the equilateral triangle of (8) § 28, referred to co-
ordinate axes made by the base and height,
and over the base y = o,
(9)
(10)
Integrating over the base, to obtain one-third of the kinetic
energy T,
so that the effective k2 of the liquid filling the triangle is given by
= | (radius of the inscribed circle)2, (12)
or two-fifths of the & for the solid triangle.
Again, since
'"•, d<t>/ds=-dt/dv, (13)
— 2pf\f/d<f>. (14)
With the Stokes' function \j/ for motion symmetrical about an
axis.
37. Flow, Circulation, and Vortex Motion. — The line integral of
the tangential velocity along a curve from one point to another,
defined by
dx , dy , dz\ , ,, , , , ,
u-j-+ v -^ -\-w-j-] ds=J(ud x -\-vdy -\-zdz), (i)
as ds as/
is called the " flux " along the curve from the first to the second
point ; and if the curve closes in on itself the line integral round the
curve is called the " circulation " in the curve.
With a velocity function 0, the flow
~fd<f> — 01 — 02, (2)
/(
126
HYDROMECHANICS
so that the flow is independent of the curve for all curves mutual!'
reconcilable; and the circulation round a closed curve is zero, i
the curve can be reduced to a point without leaving a region fo
which <t> is single valued.
If through every point of a small closed curve the vortex lines ar
drawn, a tube is obtained, and the fluid contained is called a vortex
filament.
By analogy with the spin of a rigid body, the component spin o
the fluid in any plane at a point is defined as the circulation round a
small area in the plane enclosing the point, divided by twice the
area. For in a rigid body, rotating about Oz with angular velocity f
the circulation round a curve in the plane xy is
I f ( x ^ ~y~J~) ds — f times twice the area. \T,)
In a fluid, the circulation round an elementary area dxdy
equal to
udx + (v+£dx)dy- (u+fydy) dx~^y= (frx -|) dxdy' w
so that the component spin is
in the previous notation of § 24; so also for the other two com-
ponents £ and j;.
Since the circulation round any triangular area of given aspect
is the sum of the circulation round the projections of the area on
the coordinate planes, the composition of the components of spin
|, 7j, f, is according to the vector law. Hence in any infinitesimal
part of the fluid the circulation is zero round every small plane
curve passing through the vortex line; and consequently the cir-
culation round any curve drawn on the surface of a vortex filament
is zero.
If at any two points of a vortex line the cross-section ABC,
A'B'C' is drawn of the vortex filament, joined by the vortex line
AA', then, since the flow in AA' is taken in opposite directions in
the complete circuit ABC AA'B'C' A'A, the resultant flow in AA'
cancels, and the circulation in ABC, A'B'C' is the same; this is
expressed by saying that at all points of a vortex filament ua is
constant where a is the cross-section of the filament and o> the
resultant spin (W. K. Clifford, Kinematic, book iii.).
So far these theorems on vortex motion are kinematical; but
introducing the equations of motion of § 22,
,
-dT+7x
dz
dy'
Q-f&fp+V,
and taking dx, dy, dz in the direction of u, v, w, and
dx: dy: dz = u: v. w,
o,
(6)
(7)
(8)
and integrating round a closed curve
jij (udx+vdy+wdz) =o, (9)
and the circulation in any circuit composed of the same fluid particles
is constant ; and if the motion is differential irrotational and due
to a velocity function, the circulation is zero round all reconcilable
paths. Interpreted dynamically the normal pressure of the sur-
rounding fluid on a tube cannot create any circulation in the tube.
The circulation being always zero round a small plane curve
passing through the axis of spin in vortical motion, it follows con-
versely that a vortex filament is composed always of the same fluid
particles; and since the circulation round a cross-section of a
vortex filament is constant, not changing with the time, it follows
from the previous kinematical theorem that aw is constant for all
time, and the same for every cross-section of the vortex filament.
A vortex filament must close on itself, or end on a bounding
surface, as seen when the tip of a spoon is drawn through the surface
of water.
Denoting the cross-section a of a filament by dS and its mass by
dm, the quantity adS/dm is called the vorticity; this is the same at
all points of a filament, and it does not change during the motion;
and the vorticity is given by w cos edS/dm, if dS is the oblique
section of which the normal makes an angle e with the filament,
while the aggregate vorticity of a mass M inside a surface S is
Employing
geneous,
M"1/* cos fdS.
the equation of continuity when the liquid is homo-
which is expressed by
V(u, v,w)=2 curl ({, i), f), (£, ij, f) = i curl (u, v, w). (i i)
38. Moving Axes in Hydrodynamics. — In many problems, such as
the motion of a solid in liquid, it is convenient to take coordinate
axes fixed to the solid and moving with it as the movable trihedron
frame of reference. The components of velocity of the moving
[HYDRODYNAMICS
origin are denoted by U, V, W, and the components of angular
velocity of the frame of reference by P, Q, R; and then if u, v, w
denote the components of fluid velocity in space, and u', v', w' the
components relative to the axes at a point (x, y, z) fixed to the
frame of reference, we have
+u'-yR +zQ, (i)
a> = W +w'-xQ .
Now if k denotes the component of absolute velocity in a direction
fixed in space whose direction cosines are I, m, n,
k—lu-\-mv -\-mn\ (2)
and in the infinitesimal element of time dt, the coordinates of the
fluid particle at (x, y, z) will have changed by («', v', w')dt ; so that
Dk dl .dm . dn
tft^"tK-rrTy^w'd*r (3)
But as /, m, n are the direction cosines of a line fixed in space,
so that
(5)
py pdz '
for all values of I, m, n, leading to the equations of motion with
moving axes.
When the motion is such that
as in § 25 (i), a first integral of the equations in (5) may be written
in which
-F0, (7)
dt dx dy dz
is the time-rate of change of <t> at a point fixed in space, which is
left behind with velocity components u — u', v—v', w—w'.
In the case of a steady motion of homogeneous liquid symmetrical
about Ox, where O is advancing with velocity U, the equation (5)
of § 34
Pip + V + £g'2 -f(4*') = constant (9)
jecomes transformed into
subject to the condition, from (4) § 34,
Thus, for example, with
or the space inside the sphere r = a, compared with the value of
I/' in § 34^ (13) for the space outside, there is no discontinuity of the
velocity in crossing the surface.
Inside the sphere
A l\d$'\ _i$,,y
av U4)
d fid A
yTx)-
o that § 34 (4) is satisfied, with
«-&(5
and (10) reduces to
constant;
(I6)
his gives the state of motion in M. J. M. Hill's spherical vortex,
advancing through the surrounding liquid with uniform velocity.
39. As an application of moving axes, consider the motion of
quid filling the ellipsoidal case
"2
? = I= (0
nd first suppose the liquid to be frozen, and the ellipsoid to be
HYDRODYNAMICS]
HYDROMECHANICS
127
rotating
i), f ; then
about the centre with components of angular velocity
(2)
Now suppose the liquid to be melted, and additional components of
angular velocity a, %> $2s communicated to the ellipsoidal case;
the additional velocity communicated to the liquid will be due to
a velocity-function
as may be verified by considering one term at a time.
If u', v', w' denote the components of the velocity of the liquid
relative to the axes,
u' = u+yR-zQ=-^^Ay-^^Oi!i, (4)
' = v+zP-xR =
w' =
-yP =
Thus
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
1*2 1*2 «*K
so that a liquid particle remains always on a similar ellipsoid.
The hydrodynamical equations with moving axes, taking into
account the mutual gravitation of the liquid, become
. du „ . „ . ,du . _,,du , ...,du_n ^ ,-,
where
A,B,C,
abcd\
X, C2+X)P
i2 = 4"(o2+X)(62+X)(c2+X). (10)
With the values above of u, v, w, u', v', w', the equations become
of the form
=o, (u)
= 0, (12)
= 0, (13)
and integrating
-
+§(a*2-)-/3y2+7Z2+2/;yz+2gzx+2A:cy) = const., (14)
so that the surfaces of equal pressure are similar quadric surfaces,
which, symmetry and dynamical considerations show, must be
coaxial surfaces; and /, g, h vanish, as follows also by algebraical
reduction ; and
(15)
with similar equations for /3 and y.
If we can make
the surfaces of equal pressure are similar to the external case, which
can then be removed without affecting the motion, provided a, 0, y
remain constant.
This is so when the axis of revolution is a principal axis, say Oz;
when
a = o, $22 = 0, { = 0, ri = o. (17)
If $2s = o or 63 = f in addition, we obtain the solution of Jacobi's
ellipsoid of liquid of three unequal axes, rotating bodily about the
least axis; and putting a = b, Maclaurin's solution is obtained of
the rotating spheroid.
In the general motion again of the liquid filling a case, when a = 6,
Hs may be replaced by zero, and the equations, hydrodynamical
and dynamical, reduce to
Jt~ -,r2 .1 T-,2 .It- ~~2
- _ .. a i „_ q<-_ zc /„ > n- ^"(jg)
of which three integrals are
and then
where Z is a quadratic in
except when c — a, or 30.
Put a =
I6c4(a2-c2)
f2, so that f
J2 cos
— Q sin <t>,
M +
_4±* /
<" d C ./
M ,
^
(24)
(25)
(26)
which, as Z is a quadratic function of f2, are non-elliptic integrals;
so also for <//, where £ = w cos <//, q= — u sin \f/.
In a state of steady motion
df a $2*
dr°'7=T
= \l/ = nt, suppose,
>^ acM
dt * a2-c2nfl
I —
(27)
(28)
,(29)
(30)
(30
(32)
(33)
\" — i v / TV** I ~ /
and a state of steady motion is impossible when 30^ c >o
An experiment was devised by Lord Kelvin for demonstrating
this, in which the difference of steadiness was shown of a copper
shell filled with liquid and spun gyroscopically, according as the
shell was slightly oblate or prolate. According to the theory
above the stability is regained when the length is more than three
diameters, so that a modern projectile with a cavity more than
three diameters long should fly steadily when filled with water;
while the old-fashioned type, not so elongated, would be highly
unsteady; and for the same reason the gas bags of a dirigible
balloon should be over rather than under three diameters long.
40. A Liquid Jet. — By the use of the complex variable and its
conjugate functions, an attempt can be made to give a mathe-
matical interpretation of problems such as the efflux of water in a
jet or of smoke from a chimney, the discharge through a weir, the
flow of water through the piers of a bridge, or past the side of a
ship, the wind blowing on a sail or aeroplane, or against a wall,
or impinging jets of gas or water; cases where a surface of
discontinuity is observable, more or less distinct, which separates
the running stream from the dead water or air.
Uniplanar motion alone is so far amenable to analysis; the
velocity function <j> and stream function <j/ are given as conjugate
functions of the coordinates x, y by
and then
ui=/(z), where z = x+yi, w =
dw
so that, with u = q cos 6, v = q sin 9, the function
(cos
(3)
gives f as a vector representing the reciprocal of the velocity j in
direction and magnitude, in terms of some standard velocity Q.
To determine the motion of a jet which issues from a vessel with
plane walls, the vector f must be constructed so as to have a constant
128
HYDROMECHANICS
[HYDRODYNAMICS
direction 6 along a plane boundary, and to give a constant skin
velocity over the surface of a jet, where the pressure is constant.
It is convenient to introduce the function
so that the polygon representing n conformally has a boundary
given by straight lines parallel to the coordinate axes; and then to
determine Q and w as functions of a variable u (not to be confused
with the velocity component of q),
, such that in the conformal repre-
J sentation the boundary of the 12
and w polygon is made to coincide
with the real axis of u.
It will be sufficient to give a
few illustrations.
Consider the motion where the
liquid is coming from an infinite
distance between two parallel
walls at a distance xx' (fig. 4), and
FIG. 4.
. ,
issues in a jet between two edges A and A' ; the wall xA being bent
at a corner B, with the external angle (3 = Jtr/n.
The theory of conformal representation shows that the motion is
given by
where u = a, a' at the edge A, A1; u = b at a corner B; w=o across
xx' where <£ = <»; and w = oo, <j> = <x> across the end JJ' of the jet,
bounded by the curved lines APJ, A'P'T', over which the skin
velocity is Q. The stream lines *BAJ, xA ]' are given by ^ = o, m;
so that if c denotes the ultimate breadth JJ' of the jet, where the
velocity may be supposed uniform and equal to the skin velocity Q,
If there are more B corners than one, either on xA or x'A', the
expression for f is the product of corresponding factors, such as in (5).
Restricting the attention to a single corner B,
", V(6-a'.«-a)+V(6— a.u—a')
W (cosH+ismf*) — V(a-a'.«-6) ' (6)
-©'
ch nQ
= ch log (—)
cos nB +i sh log
sh ni2 = sh log \*j cos nS+i ch log (— j sin nB
\la— a \u — t
oo >o>6>o>o'> —oo ;
(7)
(8)
(9)
and then
dfl i -<J (b—a.b — a') dw _ m
^M 2n(u — 6)V (u—a.u—a'y du ~ itu'
the formulas by which the conformal representation is obtained.
For the Q polygon has a right angle at u = a, a', and a zero angle at
u = b, where 9 changes from o to fain and SJ increases by ^zV/n ; so
that
dfl A . •*/ (b—a.b—a')
Si = (M-i)V(K-a.K-a')'whereA= — 3S ' (M)
And the if polygon has a zero angle at « = o, oo , where ^ changes
from o to m and back again, so that w changes by JOT, and
dw B
u
Along the stream line xBAPJ,
m
-j- =— , where B = .
'//(
and over the jet surface JPA, where the skin velocity is Q,
o>
3J=-2=-Q- « =
denoting the arc AP by s, starting at «=a;
sh «H
(12)
(13)
(14)
% (15)
T- (I6)
(17)
and this gives the intrinsic equation of the jet, and then the radius
of curvature
ds i d<t> i dw i dw
_£ u — b V(u— a.u — a')
not requiring the integration of (11) and (12)
(18)
If 0 = a across the end JJ'of the jet, where u = 00, q = Q,
t, t i
ch n!2 = (
•os na = \j 7, sh nS2 = isin na=i\-
\a — a \a—a
', (19)
Then
cos 2ni
~~0 ~ a ^'^ fl/ 1 • •> ^ a'
(20)
(21)
a—a'.u — b
V(M — a.u— a')
211 c ( b \^(a — b.b — a')
cos 2na — [a+a'+(a — a') cos 2na]cos 2nO
(a— a') sin2 2na
Along the wall
^COS 2110. -
-cos 2n0
X sin
AB, cos nd=o, sin n6 = l,
2ne
a>u>b,
(22)
ch
nO = ishlog( — ) =i\ —i\r~tt,
\q/ \a — a \M — o
(23)
sh
»n =,• ch log (2) " mi^Js^Js:^,
(24)
AB_ C"Qdu
V C ~J 62 M
ds ds d<t> wi c Q
du~d<f>dt ~irqu~ir qu
j L V(o— <*')V (« — b) J u' ^u;
Along the wall Bx, cos «0 = i, sin nff=o,
b>u>o
(27)
At * where <#> = oo, «=o, and g=2o,
In crossing to the line of flow x'A'P'J', \f/ changes from o to m, so
that with q = Q across JJ', while across xx' the velocity is gc, so that
(31)
giving the contraction of the jet compared with the initial breadth
of the stream.
Along the line of flow x'A'P'J', \l/ = m, M = o'e-"p*/m, and from *' to
A', cos nO = l, sin n6 = o,
(33)
(34)
(35)
(36)
(37)
(38)
o>u>a'.
Along the jet surface A'J', 2 = Q,
a'>u=a'e"'":> — oo ,
giving the intrinsic equation.
41. The first problem of this kind, worked out by H. v. Helm-
holtz, of the efflux of a jet between two edges A and Ai in an infinite
wall, is obtained by the symmetrical duplication of the above, with
n = i, b = o, a' = — oo , as in fig. 5,
(2)
(3)
and along the jet APJ, oo >u=aelr'lc>a,
/«
si
4
HYDRODYNAMICS]
HYDROMECHANICS
129
so that PT=c/5T, and the curve AP is the tractrix;
efficient of contraction, or
breadth of the jet •*
breadth of the orifice ?r+2'
and the co-
(4)
A change of Q and 0 into n£l and n8 will give the solution for
two walls converging symmetrically to the orifice AAt at an angle jr/n.
With n = \, the re-entrant walls are given of Borda's mouthpiece,
and the coefficient of contraction becomes f . Generally, by making
o' = — oo, the line *'A' may be taken as a straight stream line of
infinite length, forming an axis of symmetry; and then by duplica-
tion the result can be ob-
O tained, with assigned n, a,
" and 6, of the efflux from
a symmetrical converging
FIG. 5.
FIG. 6.
mouthpiece, or of the flow of water through the arches of a bridge,
with wedge-shaped piers to divide the stream.
42. Other arrangements of the constants n, a, b, a' will give the
results of special problems considered by J. M. Michell, Phil.
Trans. 1890.
Thus with o'=o, a stream is split symmetrically by a wedge of
angle ir/n as in Bobyleff's problem; and, by making 0=00, the
wedge extends to infinity ; then
f 6 In
chnQ = \lT—r.,shnQ = \l- — 7.. (i)
Over the jet surface ^ = m, q=Q,
u = —e~n<t>lm = —be"'lc,
ch Q = cos »9 =
For a jet impinging normally on an infinite plane, as in fig. 6, n = l,
ejir«/« = tan 0, ch (fas/c) sin 20 = I, (4)
sh \icx\c = cot 0, sh \ttylc =tan 0,
sh \irxlc sh fary/c — l, ei"(I+»)/c=ejiM/»-)-gjnw/t-(-i. (g)
With n = \, the jet is reversed in direction, and the profile is the
: catenary of equal strength.
' '.In Bobyleff's problem of the wedge of finite breadth,
,16 lu—a Ib—a -
*
ch "°-
,
. sh
.
|-, sm na
and along the free surface APJ, g=Q, ^=o, u=e-*4'lm—ae*'ic,
(6)
(7)
sin2n0 — sm2tta"
the intrinsic equation, the other free surface A'P'J' being given by
Putting n= i gives the case of a stream of finite breadth disturbed
by a transverse plane, a particular case of Fig. 7.
When 0 = 6, a=o, and the stream is very broad compared with
the wedge or lamina; so, putting w = w' (a — 6)/o in the penultimate
case, and
u=ae~"xa — (a—b)'w', (10)
(ii)
in which we may write
w' =0+fi. (12)
Along the stream line *ABPJ, ^=o; and along the jet surface
APJ, — i>(j>>— cc ; and putting <t>= —irslc — i, the intrinsic
equation is
irs/c = cot2n0, (13)
which for n = i is the evolute of a catenary.
43. When the barrier AA' is held oblique to the current, the
stream line #B is curved to the branch point B on AA' (fig. 7), and
so must be excluded from the
boundary of u; the conformal re- P\ /c
presentation is made now with
du (u— 6)V (u—a.u — a')
dw _ _m I m' l
du TT u — i TT u — j '
m+m' u—b
u-j.u-f
mj'+m'j
m-\-m' '
taking w = oo at
the source where
FIG. 7.
<t> = », u = b at the branch point B, u=j, j' at the end of the two
diverging streams where <f>=— oo ; while <ff = o along the stream
line which divides at B and passes through A, A'; and $ = m, —m'
along the outside boundaries, so that m/Q, m'/Q is the final breadth
of the jets, and (m+m')/Q is the initial breadth, c, of the impinging
stream. Then
,-v, in Ib — a' lu—a . Ib — a lu — a' , ,
cnjU='\/ -,\\ j, shJJ2='\l -,\ r. (•*)
\o— a'\u— b' \o— a \ u— b' VlJ' ,
N
a— a
Q, and
= cosa— Jsin2a(o— O')/(M— 6), (5)
if 0 = a at the source x of the jet xB, where « = oo ; and supposing
0 =ft, ft' at the end of the streams where u =j, j',
Along a jet surface, q =
chO=cos0 =
= Jsin!
cos 9— cos
(cos a —cos ft) (cos o —cos 0)*
cos 0— cos ft'
(6) .
(cos o —cos ft') (cos a —cos 0) '
and ^ being constant along a stream line
d_4i_dw ... ds _ d<l> dw du
a-Q ds _irds _ (cos a— cos j3) (cos a— cos/3') sin 0
— L —*' ~*" ~~c dd ~ (cos a —cos 0) (cos 0 —cos ft) (cos 0 —cos ft')'
sin 0 , cos a —cos ft' sin 0
l^^ija w — \,\js \j 0111 v
"cos o— cos 0 ' cos j3— cos j3''cos 0— cos ft
cos o— cos /3 sin 0
(7)
cos ft— cos ft' cos 0 —cos ft"
giving the intrinsic equation of the surface of a jet, with proper
attention to the sign.
From A to B, a>u>b, 0=o,
.
= cos a — j sm
ch fl =
sh JJ = sh log •"•^ — ~u=b
Q _ (u — b) cos a — %(a— a') sin2a+V (o— u.u— a')sin a ,0.
q u-b W
^ds ^ds d<t> _ _Q dw
q du
m+m' (u — b) cos a — j(a— a') sin2a+V (o— u.u — a') sin a
•AB r*
r~=J>
j-u.u-j
(9)
a—a'.j—u.u—j'
with a similar expression for BA'.
The motion of a jet impinging on an infinite barrier is obtained
by putting j = a,j'=a'; duplicated on the other side of the barrier,
the motion reversed will represent the direct collision of two jets of
unequal breadth and equal velocity. When the barrier is small
compared with the jet, a=ft=ft', and G. Kirchhoff's solution is
obtained of a barrier placed obliquely in an infinite stream.
Two corners Bi and 82 in the wall xA, with o'= — oo, and n = i,
will give the solution, by duplication, of a jet issuing by a reentrant
mouthpiece placed symmetrically in the end wall of the channel;
or else of the channel blocked partially by a diaphragm across the
middle, with edges turned back symmetrically, problems discussed
by J. H. Michell, A. E. H. Love and M. Rethy.
XIV. 5
130
HYDROMECHANICS
When the polygon is closed by the walls joining, instead of reach-
ing back to infinity at xx', the liquid motion must be due to a
source, and this modification has been worked out by B. Hopkinson
in the Proc. Land. Math. Soc., 1898.
Michell has discussed also the hollow vortex stationary inside a
polygon (Phil. Trans., 1890) ; the solution is given by
ch nf2 = snoi, shnfi=icna/ (n)
so that, round the boundary of the polygon, ^ = K', sin W0 = o;
and on the surface of the vortex ^ = o, q = Q, and
(12)
the intrinsic equation of the curve.
This is a closed Sumner line for n = I , when the boundary consists
of two parallel walls ; and n = j gives an Elastica.
44. The Motion of a Solid through a Liquid. — An important
problem in the motion of a liquid is the determination of the state
of velocity set up by the passage of a solid through it ; and thence
of the pressure and reaction of the liquid on the surface of the solid,
by which its motion is influenced when it is free.
Beginning with a single body in liquid extending to infinity, and
denoting by U, V, W, P, Q, R the components of linear and angular
velocity with respect to axes fixed in the body, the velocity function
takes the form
(0
where the <£'s and x's are functions of x, y, z depending on the
shape of the body; interpreted dynamically, C— p<t> represents the
impulsive pressure required to stop the motion, or C+p4> to start it
'again from rest.
The terms of $ may be determined one at a time, and this problem
is purely kinematical; thus to determine <fo, the component U alone
is taken to exist, and then /, m, n, denoting the direction cosines of
the normal of the surface drawn into the exterior liquid, the function
<(>i must be determined to satisfy the conditions
(i.) V'^i=o, throughout the liquid;
(ft.) d£l = —lt the gradient of <t> down the normal at the surface
of the moving solid ;
(iii.) TT=O, over a fixed boundary, or at infinity;
' dv
similarly for fa and ^>.
To determine xi the angular velocity P alone is introduced, and
the conditions to be satisfied are
(i.) v'xi=o, throughout the liquid;
(Ji.) 4xi = mz-ny, at the surface of the moving body, but zero over
a fixed surface, and at infinity ; the same for x> a°d xs-
For a cavity filled with liquid in the interior of the body, since the
liquid inside moves bodily for a motion of translation only,
, j. - l->\
<pi— —x, fa= —y, <pt — — z, \*>
but a rotation will stir up the liquid in the cavity, so that the" x's
depend on the shape of the surface.
The ellipsoid was the shape first worked out, by George Green, in
his Research on the Vibration of a Pendulum in a Fluid Medium (1833) ;
the extension to any other surface will form an important step in
this subject.
A system of confocal ellipsoids is taken
and a velocity function of the form
<t> = x<i', (4)
where ^ is a function of X only, so that ^ is constant over an ellipsoid
and we seek to determine the motion set up, and the form of i
which will satisfy the equation of continuity.
Over the ellipsoid, p denoting the length of the perpendicular from
the centre on a tangent plane,
(5)
(6)
(7)
d\
(8)
Thence
JMMf
(9)
so that the velocity of the liquid may be resolved into a componen
— ^ parallel to Ox, and — 2(a2+X)W^/dX along the normal of th<
[HYDRODYNAMICS
llipsoid ; and the liquid flows over an ellipsoid along a line of slope
with respect to Ox, treated as the vertical.
Along the normal itself
(10)
»o that over the surface of an ellipsoid where X and ^ are constant,
he normal velocity is the same as that of the ellipsoid itself, moving
as a solid with velocity parallel to Ox
and so the boundary condition is satisfied ; moreover, any ellipsoidal
surface X may be supposed moving as if rigid with the velocity in
'll), without disturbing the liquid motion for the moment.
The continuity is secured if the liquid between two ellipsoids X
and Xi, moving with the velocity U and Ui of equation (u), is
squeezed out or sucked in across the plane x = o at a rate equal to the
integral flow of the velocity ^ across the annular area ai — a of the
; wo ellipsoids made by x = o ; or if,
ifdX, (12)
•A
-x). (13)
Expressed as a differential relation, with the value of U from (n),
4? = o, (14)
and integrating
so that we may put
(a2+X)3'2o^=a constant,
MdX
(15)
(16)
07)
4(a2+X)(62+X)(c2+X), (18)
where M denotes a constant ; so that ^ is an elliptic integral of the
second kind.
The quiescent ellipsoidal surface, over which the motion is entirely
tangential, is the one for which
and this is the infinite boundary ellipsoid if we make the upper limit
Xi =00.
The velocity of the ellipsoid defined by X = o is then
with the notation
so that in (4)
(20)
(21)
(22)
in (i) for an ellipsoid.
The impulse required to set up the motion in liquid of density p is
the resultant of an impulsive pressure p<£ over the surface S of the
ellipsoid, and is therefore
= p^o (volume of the ellipsoid) = ^oW, (23)
where W denotes the weight of liquid displaced.
Denoting the effective inertia of the liquid parallel to Ox by oW,
the momentum
(24)
in this way the air drag was calculated by Green for an ellipsoidal
pendulum.
Similarly, the inertia parallel to Oy and Oz is
•W, TW'=7^7J0W'' (26)
and
abcd\
For a sphere
A+B+C=a6e/iP, Ao+Bo+C0=i.
(27)
(28)
(29)
HYDRODYNAMICS]
HYDROMECHANICS
so that the effective inertia of a sphere is increased by half the weight
of liquid displaced; and in frictionless air or liquid the sphere, of
weight W, will describe a parabola with vertical acceleration
Thus a spherical air bubble, in which W/W' is insensible, will begin
to rise in water with acceleration 2g.
45. When the liquid is bounded externally by the fixed ellipsoid
X = Xi, a slight extension will give the velocity function <t> of the
liquid in the interspace as the ellipsoid X = o is passing with velocity
U through the confocal position ; <j> must now take the "
and will satisfy the conditions in the shape
abc , Ai abcd\
•+Cl _TT_
Bo 4" Co — Bi— Ci
_ abc _ Ai
aibiCi J o (a
abcd\
(I)
and any~confocal ellipsoid defined by ft, internal or external to
X = Xi, may be supposed to swim with the liquid for an instant,
without distortion or rotation, with velocity along O*
TTBA+Cx-Bi-Ci
uB0+Co-B,-Cr
Since - U* is the velocity function for the liquid W' filling the
ellipsoid X = o, and moving bodily with it, the effective inertia of the
liquid in the interspace is
(2)
Bo+Co-Bi-Ci"
If the ellipsoid is of revolution, with 6 =
and the Stokes' current function ^ can be written down
(3)
(4)
reducing, when the liquid extends to infinity and BI=O, to
#-JU«J-o, ^=-JU/Br; (5)
so that in the relative motion past the body, as when fixed in the
current U parallel to xO,
A \ / T3 \
(6)
Changing the origin from the centre to the focus of a prolate
spheroid, then putting V = pa, X = X'a, and proceeding to the limit
where a = 00 , we find for a paraboloid of revolution
B = i^p, | = ^T7, (7)
(8)
(9)
*=-iu/» log
The relative path of a liquid particle is along a stream line
t' = iUc2, a constant, (12)
with X' = o over the surface of the paraboloid; and then
a C4 ; while the absolute path of a particle in space'wfll be given by
dy _ r-x _ y2 - c2
d'x~" y '' ~ 2py ' W)
(IS)
(i)
46. Between two concentric spheres, with
a2+X = r2, a^+X^B!2,
a3
(2)
and the effective inertia of the liquid in the interspace is
2Ao-2A,vv = >0l3-a3V1/'- (3)
When the spheres are not concentric, an expression for the effective
inertia can be found by the method of images (W. M. Hicks, Phil.
Trans., 1880).
The image of a source of strength M at S outside a sphere of
radius a is a source of strength na/f at H, where OS=/, OH=o2//,
and a line sink reaching from the image H to the centre O of
line strength — ft/a; this combination will be found to produce no
flow across the surface of the sphere.
Taking Ox along OS, the Stokes' function at P for the source S
is in cos PSx, and of the source H and line sink OH is u(a//) cos PH*
and -(»,/a)(PO-PH); so that
/ a PO - PH\
t = M (cos PSx + j cos PH* J , (4)
and tj/= -n, a constant, over the surface of the sphere, so that there
is no flow across.
When the source S is inside the sphere and H outside, the line
sink must extend from H to infinity in the image system ; to realize
physically the condition of zero flow across the sphere, an equal
sink must be introduced at some other internal point S'.
When S and S' lie on the same radius, taken along Ox, the Stokes'
function can:,be written down ; and when S and S' coalesce a doublet
is produced, with a doublet image at H.
For a doublet at S, of moment m, the Stokes' function is
d v2
— rnQ PS-r = — • ( e ^
df ijx "*pg3» ^5/
and for its image at H the Stokes' function is
so that for the combination
(6)
(7)
• •» /
and this vanishes over the surface of the sphere.
There is no Stokes' function when the axis of the doublet at S
does not pass through O; the image system will consist of an
inclined doublet at H, making an equal angle with OS as the doublet
S, and of a parallel negative line doublet, extending from H to O,
of moment varying as the distance from O.
A distribution of sources and doublets over a moving surface
will enable an expression to be obtained for the velocity function
of a body moving in the presence of a fixed sphere, or inside it.
The method of electrical images will enable the stream function $'
to be inferred from a distribution of doublets, finite in number
when the surface is composed of two spheres intersecting at an
angle v/m, where m is an integer (R. A. Herman, Quart. Jour, of
Math. xxii.).
Thus for m=2, the spheres are orthogonal, and it can be verified
that
where a\, a2, a = aia2/V (<Zi2+a22) is the radius of the spheres and
their circle of intersection, and r\, r2, r the distances of a point
from their centres.
The corresponding expression for two orthogonal cylinders will be
(10)
With 02 = oo , these reduce to
for a sphere or cylinder, and a diametral plane.
Two equal spheres, intersecting at 120°, will require
with a similar expression for cylinders; so that the plane x=o
may be introduced as a boundary, cutting the surface at 60°. The
motion of these cylinders across the line of centres is the equivalent
of a line doublet along each axis.
47. The extension of Green's solution to a rotation of the ellipsoid
was made by A. Clebsch, by taking a velocity function
<t> = xyx (i)
for a rotation R about Oz; and a similar procedure shows that an
ellipsoidal surface X may be in rotation about Oz without disturbing
the motion if
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
. (6)
p_
and that the continuity of the liquid is secured if
'X (a2+X)(62+X)P~aic' a2-*2 •
and at the surface X = o,
/i_ , i\ N Bo-Ao JN i
R=- —
I/62- i/a2
N
_R
= K
abc i
a^F2'
i - Ao
(a2-62)2/(a2+62)
V(a2-ft2)/(a2 + fi2)- (Bo-Ao)
132
HYDROMECHANICS
[HYDRODYNAMICS
The velocity function of the liquid inside the ellipsoid X = o due
to the same angular velocity will be
and on the surface outside
N Bo-Ao /a-.
so that the ratio of the exterior and interior value of <t> at the surface
is
</>0 BQ — Ao /Q\
0I~(a2-62)/(a2+&2)-(B0-Ao)'
and this is the ratio of the effective angular inertia of the liquid,
outside and inside the ellipsoid X = o.
The extension to the case where the liquid is bounded externally
by a fixed ellipsoid X = Xi is made in a similar manner, by putting
<t>=xy(x+M), (10)
and the ratio of the effective angular inertia in (9) is changed to
Make c = °o for confocal elliptic cylinders ; and then
ab al
A
ab
(a»+X)V (4.a2+X.62+X)
i=cshoi (13)
and then as above in § 31, with
o = cch o, 6 = csh a, ai = V(a2+X)=cch
the ratio in (n) agrees with § 31 (6).
As before in § 31, the rotation may be resolved into a shear-pair,
in planes perpendicular to O* and Oy.
A torsion of the ellipsoidal surface will give rise to a velocity
function of the form <j> = xyz$l, where JJ can be expressed by the
elliptic integrals Ax, Bx, Cx, in a similar manner, since
48. The determination of the </>'s and x's is a kinematical
problem, solved as yet only for a few cases, such as those discussed
above.
But supposing them determined for the motion of a body through
a liquid, the kinetic energy T of the system, liquid and body, is
expressible as a quadratic function of the components U, V, W, P,
Q, R. The partial differential coefficient of T with respect to a
component of velocity, linear or angular, will be the component of
momentum, linear or angular, which corresponds.
Conversely, if the kinetic energy T is expressed as a quadratic
function of *i, %, xa, y\, yi, ya, the components of momentum, the
partial differential coefficient with respect to a momentum com-
ponent will give the component of velocity to correspond.
These theorems, which hold for the motion of a single rigid body,
are true generally for a flexible system, such as considered here for a
liquid, with one or more rigid bodies swimming in it; and they ex-
press the statement that the work done by an impulse is the product
of the impulse and the arithmetic mean of the initial and final
velocity; so that the kinetic energy is the work done by the impulse
in starting the motion from rest.
Thus if T is expressed as a quadratic function of U, V, W, P, Q, R,
the components of momentum corresponding are
<rr <nr) <rr . ,
*1=' Xl = ' x> = '
dT
dT
'
but when it is expressed as a quadratic function of *i, Xt, xt, y\,,
u=£- v=£ w=£ (2)
p^ Q=£I. R = dT.
The second system of expression was chosen by Clebsch and
adopted by Halphen in his Fonctions elliptiques; and thence the
dynamical equations follow
_dxt _.dT , .. dT. Y=..., Z=.. (3)
dT
dT
dT dT
.,
M= • • - N= • • - (4)
where X, Y, Z, L, M, N denote components of external applied force
on the body.
These equations are proved by taking a line fixed in space, whose
direction cosines are /, m, n, then
(5)
If P denotes the resultant linear impulse or momentum in this
direction
P = lxi+mx2+nX3, (6)
dP dl . ,dm . dn
=«+»«Y+nZ, (7)
for all values of /, m, n.
Next, taking a fixed origin n and axes parallel to Ox, Oy, Oz
through O, and denoting by x, y, z the coordinates of O, and by G
the component angular momentum about Q. in the direction (/, m, n)
. ... (8)
Differentiating with respect to t, and afterwards moving the fixed
origin up to the moving origin O, so that
^=U ^!=V -=W
dt ' dt ' dt
(9)
for all values of I, m, n.
When no external force acts, the case which we shall consider, there
are three integrals of the equations of motion
(i.) T = constant,
(ii.) *i2+:
(ii.) Xi*+Xs'+x,2 = F*, a constant,
(iii.) Xiyi -{-Xtyt +x3j>j = n — GF, a constant ;
and the dynamical equations in (3) express the fact that *:, Xi, xt
are the components of a constant vector having a fixed direction;
while (4) shows that the vector resultant of yi, yt, ya moves as if
subject to a couple of components
*3W-*,V, *SU-*,W, xtf-xJJ, (10)
and the resultant couple is therefore perpendicular to F, the re-
sultant of x\, Xi, x>, so that the component along OF is constant, as
expressed by (iii).
If a fourth integral is obtainable, the solution is reducible to a
quadrature, but this is not possible except in a limited series of cases,
investigated by H. Weber, F. Kotter, R. Liouville, Caspary,
Jukovsky, Liapounoff, Kolosoff and others, chiefly Russian mathe-
maticians; and the general solution requires the double-theta
hyperelliptic function.
49. In the motion which can be solved by the elliptic function, the
most general expression of the kinetic energy was shown by A.
Clebscn to take the form
(i)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
so that a fourth integral is given by
dy>/dt=o, ys = constant ;
dxt ,
-fr = xi(qxt-
+ryi) = r (XM - x,yl),
? (w)' = <*'2+*2')W
in which
so that
i +X2y,)-2q'x3ys-r'ys>
mi
(6)
(7)
i /dx,\ 2 „
3\~JT1 =x»>
(8)
where X> is a quartic function of X3, and thus t is given by an elliptic
HYDRODYNAMICS]
HYDROMECHANICS
133
integral of the first kind ; and by inversion x3 is in elliptic function
of the time t. Now
requiring the elliptic integral of the third kind; thence the ex-
pression of Xi+x2i and yi+y2i.
Introducing Euler's angles 6, <t>, $,
Xi=F sin 0 sin <£, X2 = F sin 0 cos <f>,
(14)
(15)
dT . dT
= qF2sin-8+r(FG-x3y,),
—Xjy3 Frdx3
-
(16)
, .
(17)
elliptic integrals of the third kind.
Employing G. Kirchhoff's expressions for X, Y, Z, the coordinates
of the centre of the body,
FX =yi cos x7+yj cos yY+y3 cos zY,
FY = -yi cos xX+y2 cos yX+y3 cos zX,
G = yi cos *Z+y2 cos yZ+y3 cos zZ,
F2(X2+Y2) =yi2+y22+y32-G*,
(18)
(19)
(20)
(21)
(22)
Suppose xs~F is a repeated factor of Xs, then y3 = G, and
X3 = (*3-F)2 [^(*3+F)2+22^G(*3+F) -G2] , (23)
and putting *8-F = y,
+2 2F+G y+^ , (24)
so that the stability of this axial movement is secured if
A = 4^7^F2+42-pFG-G2 (25)
is negative, and then the axis makes rV ( — A)/ir nutations per second.
Otherwise, if A is positive
-/=
yV (A+2By+Cy!)
-' VAV(A + 2By+Cy2)
= VAch-' yV(B2~AC)
' A + By
lyV(B2~AC)'
(26)
and the axis falls away ultimately from its original direction.
A number of cases are worked out in the American Journal of
Mathematics (1907), in which the motion is made algebraical by the
use of the pseudo-elliptic integral. To give a simple instance,
changing to the stereographic projection by putting tan j0 = x,
(27)
6, (28)
N'= -8(0+6), (29)
will give a possible state of motion of the axis of the body ; and the
motion of the centre may then be inferred from (22).
50. The theory preceding is of practical application in the
investigation of the stability of the axial motion of a submarine
boat, of the elongated gas bag of an airship, or of a spinning rifled
projectile. In the steady motion under no force of such a body in
a medium, the centre of gravity describes a helix, while the axis
describes a cone round the direction of motion of the centre of
gravity, and the couple causing precession is due to the dis-
placement of the medium.
In the absence of a medium the inertia of the body to trans-
lation is the same in all directions, and is measured by the
weight W, and under no force the C.G. proceeds in a straight
line, and the axis of rotation through the C.G. preserves its
original direction, if a principal axis of the body; otherwise
the axis describes a cone, right circular if the body has uniaxial
symmetry, and a Poinsot cone in the general case.
But the presence of the medium makes the effective inertia
depend on the direction of motion with respect to the external
shape of the body, and on W the weight of fluid medium displaced.
Consider, for example, a submarine boat under water; the inertia
is different for axial and broadside motion, and may be represented
c,=W+W'a, c2 = W+W'/3, (I)
where a, ft are numerical factors depending on the external shape;
and if the C.G is moving with velocity V at an angle <l> with the axis,
so that the axial and broadside component of velocity is u = V cos <t>,
v=V sin <t>, the total momentum F of the medium, represented by
the vector OF at an angle 9 with the axis, will have components,
expressed in sec. ft,
Fcos9 = c,- = (W+W'o)-cos0, Fsin0 = <;2-=(W+W'/3)-sin0. (2)
Suppose the body is kept from turning as it advances; after t
seconds the C.G. will have moved from O to O', where OO'=V<;
and at O' the momentum is the same in magnitude as before, but
its vector is displaced from OF to O'F'.
For the body alone the resultant of the components of momentum
V V V
W— cos <t> andW— sin <f> is W— sec. Ib, (3)
6 & &
acting along OO', and so is unaltered.
But the change of the resultant momentum F of the medium as
well as of the body from the vector OF to O'F' requires an impulse
couple, tending to increase the angle FOO', of magnitude, in sec.
foot-pounds
F.OO'.sin FOO' = FV< sin (ff-<t>), (4)
equivalent to an incessant couple
N=FVsin (9-0)
= (F sin 6 cos 4>— F cos 8 sin tf>)V
= (c2-Ci)(VVg) sin 0cos <j>
= W(0-a)w>lg. (5)
This N is the couple in foot-pounds changing the momentum of the
medium, the momentum of the body alone remaining the same ; the
medium reacts on the body with the same couple N in the opposite
direction, tending when ci-ci is positive to set the body broadside
to the advance.
An oblate flattened body, like a disk or plate, has c^-Ci negative,
so that the medium steers the body axially ; this may be verified by a
plate dropped in water, and a leaf or disk or rocket-stick or piece of
paper falling in air. A card will show the influence of the couple N if
projected with a spin in its plane, when it will be found to change its
aspect in the air.
An elongated body like a ship has Ci-Ci positive, and the couple N
tends to disturb the axial movement and makes it unstable, so that
a steamer requires to be steered by constant attention, at the helm.
Consider a submarine boat or airship moving freely with the
direction of the resultant momentum horizontal, and the axis at a
slight inclination 8. With no reserve of buoyancy W = W', and the
couple N, tending to increase 8, has the effect of diminishing the
metacentric height by h ft. vertical, where
(6)
, _
51. An elongated shot is made to preserve its axial flight
through the air by giving it the spin sufficient for stability,
without which it would turn broadside to its advance; a top in
the same way is made to stand upright on the point in the
position of equilibrium, unstable statically but dynamically .
stable if the spin is sufficient; and the investigation proceeds in
the same way for the two problems (see GYROSCOPE).
The effective angular inertia of the body in the medium is now
required ; denote it by Ci about the axis of the figure, and by C2 about
a diameter of the mean section. A rotation about the axis of a
figure of revolution does not set the medium in motion, so that Ci is
the moment of inertia of the body about the axis, denoted by Wfc? .
But if Wfe| is the moment of inertia of the body about a mean
diameter, and « the angular velocity about it generated by an impluse
couple M, and M' is the couple required to set the surrounding medium
in motion, supposed of effective radius of gyration k',
, (i)
(2) /
*i, (3)
in which we have put k'i = tk2, where « is a numerical factor depend-
ing on the shape.
134
HYDROMECHANICS
[HYDRODYNAMICS
If the shot is spinning about its axis with angular velocity p, and
is precessing steadily at a rate n about a line parallel to the resultant
momentum F at an angle 6, the velocity of the vector of angular
momentum, as in the case of a top, is
CI/>M sin 0-C2M2 sin0 cos 0; (4)
and equating this to the impressed couple (multiplied by g), that is, to
gN = (c, -£,)?«' tan 9, (5)
t/2
and dividing out sin 6, which equated to zero would imply perfect
centring, we obtain
2 cos 6- Cipn + (ci-cj -«2 sec 6 = o.
(6)
The least admissible value of p is that which makes the roots equal
of this quadratic in it, and then
the roots would be imaginary for a value of p smaller than given by
If the shot is moving as if fired from a gun of calibre d inches, in
which the rifling makes one turn in a pitch of n calibres or nd inches,
so that the angle i of the rifling is given by
(10)
**"If <r denotes the density of the metal, and if the shell has a cavity
homothetic with the external ellipsoidal shape, a fraction / of the
linear scale; then the volume of a round shot being fad3, and
fad3x of a shot x calibres long
Vf = fad3x(i-f>)v, (20)
VfW = fad'x— (i-/*)<r, (21)
(22)
(23)
(24)
(25)
(26)
in which <r/p may be replaced by 800 times the S.G. of the metal,
taking water as 800 times denser than air on the average, in
round numbers, and formula (10) may be written n tan S — v, or
«5 = 1 80, when S is a small angle, and given in degrees.
From this formula (26) the table following has been calculated
by A. G. Hadcock, and the results are in agreement with practical
experience.
If p denotes the density of the air or medium
W' = l«Z"xp,
W'_ i p
Table of Rifling for Stability of an Elongated Projectile, x Calibres long, giving S the Angle of
Rifling, and n the Pitch of Rifling in Calibres.
Cast-iron Common Shell
Palliser Shell
Solid Steel Bullet
Solid Lead Bullet
/=§, S.G. 7-2.
/ = J,S.G. 8.
/=o,S.G. 8.
/=o, S.G. 10-9.
x
0-a
S
n
5
n
a
n
I
n
I-O
o-oooo
0° 0'
Infinity
0° 0'
Infinity
0° 0'
Infinity
0° 0'
Infinity
2-O
0-4942
2 49
63-87
2 32
71-08
2 29
72-21
2 08
84-29
2-5
0-6056
3 46
47-91
3 23
53-32
3 19
54-17
2 51
63-24
3-o
0-6819
4 41
38-45
4 13
42-79
4 09
43-47
3 38
50-74
3-5
0-7370
5 35
32-I3
5 02
35-75
4 58
36-33
4 15
42-40
4-0
0-7782
6 30
27-60
5 5i
30-72
5 45
31-21
4 56
36-43
4-5
0-8100
7 24
24-20
6 40
26-93
6 32
27-36
5 37
31-94
5-o
0-8351
8 16
21-56
7 28
23-98
7 21
24-36
6 18
28-44
6-0
0-8721
10 05
17-67
9 04
19-67
8 56
19-98
7 40
23-33
IO-O
0-9395
16 57
10-31
15 19
11-47
15 05
11-65
13 oo
13-60
Infinity
I-OOOO
90 oo
o-oo
90 oo
o-oo
90 oo
o-oo
90 oo
0-00
which is the ratio of the linear velocity of rotation \dp to «, the
velocity of advance,
W
'\ /fe\*
;V U)
(II)
For a shot in air the ratio W'/W is so small that the square may
be neglected, and formula (n) can be replaced for practical purpose
in artillery by
if then we can calculate /9, a, or 0-a for the external shape of the
shot, this equation will give the value of J and n required for stability
of flight in the air.
The ellipsoid is the only shape for which a and ft have so far been
determined analytically, as shown already in § 44, so we must restrict
our calculation to an egg-shaped bullet, bounded by a prolate
ellipsoid of revolution, in which, with b=c,
ff\ T 1 Ti
,(13)
(14)
"l-Ao1 M~ l-Bo =I+Ao = l+2o'
The length of the shot being denoted by I and the calibre by d, and
the length in calibres by *
l/d = 2a/2b=x, (16)
(17)
(18)
A,
Ao+2Bo = I,
Bo _I-Ao
52. In the steady motion the centre of the shot describes a helix,
with axial velocity
u cos 6+v sine = ( i +^tan29j ucosOtsfu sec 6,
and transverse velocity
u sin 0 - v cos 8 = ( I - — ) u sin 0 fss (j3 - a)« sin 6;
and the time of completing a turn of the spiral is 2T//i.
When n has the critical value in (7),
(i)
(2)
which makes the circumference of the cylinder on which the helix
is wrapped
= wd(j8-a)(*1+l)sinecos0, (4)
and the length of one turn of the helix
^(ucos0+nsin0)=Hd(*2+i); (5)
thus for * = 3, the length is 10 times the pitch of the rifling.
53. The Motion of a Perforated Solid in Liquid. — In the preceding
investigation, the liquid stops dead when the body is brought to rest;
and when the body is in motion the surrounding liquid moves in a
uniform manner with respect to axes fixed in the body, and the
force experienced by the body from the pressure of the liquid on its
surface is the opposite of that required to change the motion of the
liquid; this has been expressed by the dynamical equations given
above. But if the body is perforated, the liquid can circulate through
a hole, in reentrant stream lines linked with the body, even while
the body is at rest ; and no reaction from the surface can influence
this circulation, which may be supposed started in the ideal manner
described in § 29, by the application of impulsive pressure across an
ideal membrane closing the hole, by means of ideal mechanism
connected with the body. The body is held fixed, and the reaction
of the mechanism and the resultant of the impulsive pressure on the
surface are a measure of the impulse, linear £, 17, f, and angular
X, it, r, required to start the circulation.
HYDROMEDUSAE
135
This impulse will remain of constant magnitude, and fixed
relatively to the body, which thus experiences an additional reaction
from the circulation which is the opposite of the force required to
change the position in space of the circulation impulse; and these
extra forces must be taken into account in the dynamical equations.
An article may be consulted in the Phil. Mag., April 1893, by
G. H. Bryan, in which the analytical equations of motion are
deduced of a perforated solid in liquid, from considerations purely
hydrodynamical.
The effect of an external circulation of vortex motion on the
motion of a cylinder has been investigated in § 29; a similar pro-
cedure will show the influence of circulation through a hole in a solid,
taking as the simplest illustration a ring-shaped figure, with uni-
planar motion, and denoting by £ the resultant axial linear
momentum of the circulation.
As the ring is moved from O to O' in time I, with velocity Q, and
angular velocity R, the components of liquid momentum change
from
oM'U +| and /3M'V along Ox and Qy
to aM'U'+{ and 0M'V along O'x' and O'y', (l)
the axis of the ring changing from Ox to O'x'; and
U = Qcos0, V = Q sinfl,
U' = Q cos (9-RO, V' = Q sin (0-Ri), (2)
so that the increase of the components of momentum, Xi, Yi, and NI,
linear and angular, are
X, = (aM'U'+4) cos Ri-aM'U-J-pM'V' sin Rt
= (a-/3)M'Q sin (0-R/) sin R/-£ver R/ (3)
Y^CaM'U'+J) sin Rt+pUV cos R/-0M'V
= (a-/3)M'Q cos (0-R/) sin R/+£ sin RT, (4)
N,=[-(aM'U'-K) sin (O-R^+jSM'V'cos (0-R/)]OO'
= [-(a-/3)M'Qcos(0-R/)sin(0-R<)-£sm(0-R<)]Q/. (5)
The components of force, X, Y, and N, acting on the liquid at O,
and reacting on the body, are then
(6)
, (7)
X = lt. X1// = (a
Y = lt. Y1/i = (a
Z = lt. Zi//=-(a-|3)M'Q2sin0cos0-£Qsin0
= [-(a-/3)M'U-K]V. (8)
Now suppose the cylinder is free; the additional forces acting on
the body are the components of kinetic reaction of the liquid
-aM'
- VR) , -
so that its equations of motion are
-eC
'f ,
(9)
M r-
-oM'
c— =
and putting as before
dR
showing the modification of the equations of plane motion
the component { of the circulation.
The integral of (14) and (15) may be written
0, c2V=-Fsin0,
dx
di
= Ucos0— Vsin0 =
Fcos20 Fsin'0
Ci "*"
du, /F F\ £
-jr = Usin0+Vcos0= (- ) sin 0 cos 0 — - sin 0,
at \Ci Cil d
-(a-flM'VR, (10)
(12)
(13)
(H)
(15)
(16)
due to
(17)
(18)
d9)
' = c2, C+«C' =
=o,
--cose,
de
so that cos 0 and y is an elliptic function of the time.
When £ is absent, dx/dt is always positive, and the centre of the
body cannot describe loops ; but with £, the influence may be great
enough to make dx/dt change sign, and so loops occur, as shown in
A. B. Basset's Hydrodynamics, i. 192, resembling the trochoidal
curves, which can be looped, investigated in § 29 for the motion of
a cylinder under gravity, when surrounded by a vortex.
The branch of hydrodynamics which discusses wave motion in a
liquid or gas is given now in the articles SOUND and WAVE; while
the influence of viscosity is considered under HYDRAULICS.
REFERENCES. — For the history and references to the original
memoirs see Report to the British Association, by G. G. Stokes (1846),
and W. M. Hicks (1882). See also -the Fortschritte der Mathematik,
and A. E. H. Love, " Hydrodynamik " in the Encyklopddie der
malhematischen Wissenschaften (1901). (A. G. G.)
HYDROMEDUSAE, a group of marine animals, recognized
as belonging to the Hydrozoa (q.v.) by the following characters.
(1) The polyp (hydropolyp) is of simple structure, typically much
longer than broad, without ectodermal oesophagus or mesenteries,
such as are seen in the anthopolyp (see article ANTHOZOA); the
mouth is usually raised above the peristome on a short conical
elevation or hypostome; the ectoderm is without cilia.
(2) With very few exceptions, the polyp is not the only type of
individual that occurs, but alternates in the life-cycle of a given
species, with a distinct type, the medusa (q.v.), while in other
cases the polyp-stage may be absent altogether, so that only
medusa-individuals occur in the life-cycle.
The Hydromedusae represent, therefore, a sub-class of the
Hydrozoa. The only other sub-class is the Scyphomedusae
(q.v.). The Hydromedusae contrast with the Scyphomedusae
in the following points, (i) The polyp, when present, is without
the strongly developed longitudinal retractor muscles, forming
ridges (laeniolae) projecting into the digestive cavity, seen in the
scyphistoma or scyphopolyp. (2) The medusa, when present,
has a velum and is hence said to be craspedote; the nervous
system forms two continuous rings running above and below
the velum; the margin of the umbrella is not lobed (except
in Narcomedusae) but entire; there are characteristic differences
in the sense-organs (see below, and SCYPHOMEDUSAE); and
gastral filaments (phacellae), subgenital pits, &c., are absent.
(3) The gonads, whether formed in the polyp or the medusa,
are developed in the ectoderm.
The Hydromedusae form a widespread, dominant and highly
differentiated group of animals, typically marine, and found in
all seas and in all zones of marine life. Fresh-water forms,
however, are also known, very few as regards species or genera,
but often extremely abundant as individuals. In the British
fresh-water fauna only two genera, Hydra and Cordylophora, are
found; in America occurs an additional genus, Microhydra.
The paucity of fresh-water forms contrasts sharply with the great
abundance of marine genera common in all seas and on every
shore. The species of Hydra, however, are extremely common
and familiar inhabitants of ponds and ditches. i
In fresh-water Hydromedusae the life-cycle is usually second-
arily simplified, but in marine forms the life-cycle may be
extremely complicated, and a given species often passes in the
course of its history through widely different forms adapted to
different habitats and modes of life. Apart from larval or
embryonic forms there are found typically two types of person,
as already stated, the polyp and the medusa, each of which may
vary independently of the other, since their environment and
life-conditions are usually quite different. Hence both polyp
and medusa present characters for classification, and a given
species, genus or other taxonomic category may be defined
by polyp-characters or medusa-characters or by both combined.
If our knowledge of the life-histories of these organisms were
perfect, their polymorphism would present no difficulties to
classification; but unfortunately this is far from being the case.
In the majority of cases we 'do not know the polyp corresponding
to a given medusa, or the medusa that arises from a given polyp.1
Even when a medusa is seen to be budded from a polyp under
observation in an aquarium, the difficulty is not always solved,
since the freshly-liberated, immature medusa may differ greatly
from the full-grown, sexually-mature medusa after several
months of life on the high seas (see figs, n, B,C, and 59, a, b, c).
To establish the exact relationship it is necessary not only to
breed but to rear the medusa, which cannot always be done in
1 In some cases hydroids have been reared in aquaria from ova
of medusae, but these hydroids have not yet been found in the sea
(Browne [10 o]).
HYDROMEDUSAE
[ORGANIZATION
confinement. The alternative is to fish all stages of the medusa
in its growth in the open sea, a slow and laborious method in
which the chance of error is very great, unless the series of stages
is very complete.
At present, therefore, classifications of the Hydromedusae
have a more or less tentative character, and are liable to revision
•with increased knowledge of the life-histories of these organisms.
Many groups bear at present two names, the one representing
the group as defined by polyp-characters, the other as defined
by medusa-characters. It is not even possible in all cases to be
certain that the polyp-group corresponds exactly to the medusa-
group, especially -in minor systematic categories, such as families.
The following is the main outline of the classification that is
adopted in the present article. Groups founded on polyp-
characters are printed in ordinary type, those founded on medusa-
characters in italics. For definitions of the groups see below.
Sub-class Hydromedusae (Hydrozoa Craspedotd).
Order I. Eleutheroblastea.
„ II. Hydroidea (Leptolinae).
Sub-order I. Gymnoblastea (Anthomedusae) .
„ 2. Calyptoblastea (Leptomedusae).
Order III. Hydrocorallinae.
„ IV. Graptolitoidea.
„ V. Trachylinae.
Sub-order I. Trachomedusae.
„ 2. Narcomedusae.
Order VI. Siphonophora.
Sub-order I. Chondrophorida.
,, 2. Calycophorida.
„ 3. Physophorida.
„ 4. Cystophorida.
Organization and Morphology of the Hydromedusae.
As already stated, there occur in the Hydromedusae two
distinct types of person, the polyp and the medusa; and either
of them is capable of non-sexual reproduction by budding, a
process which may lead to the
formation of colonies, composed
of more or fewer individuals com-
bined and connected together.
The morphology of the group
thus falls naturally into four
sections — (i) the hydropolyp, (2)
the polyp-colony, (3) the hydro-
medusa, (4) the medusa-colonies.
Since, however, medusa-colonies
occur only in one group, the Siph-
onophora, and divergent views
are held with regard to the
morphological interpretation of
the members of a siphonophore,
only the first three of the above
sub-divisions of hydromedusa
morphology will be dealt with
here in a general way, and the
morphology of the Siphonophora
will be considered under the head-
ing of the group itself.
i. The Hydropolyp (fig. i) — The
b
i
FIG. i. — Diagram of a typical
Hydropolyp.
a, Hydranth ;
b, Hydrocaulus;
c, Hydrorhiza ;
/, Tentacle; ,.
ps, Perisarc, forming in the general characters of this organism
region of the hydranth are described above and in the
acuporhydrotheca(/»,0, articles HYDROZOA and POLYP. It
— which, however.is only js rarely free, but usually fixed and
found in polyps of the incapable of locomotion. The foot
order Calyptoblastea. , by which it is attached often sends
out root-like processes — the hydro-
rhiza (c). The column (b) is generally long, slender and stalk-
like (hydrocaulus). Just below the crown of tentacles, however,
the body widens out to form a " head," termed the hydranth (a),
containing a stomach-like dilatation of the digestive cavity. On the
upper face of the hydranth the crown of tentacles (/) surrounds the
peristome, from which rises the conical hypostome, bearing the
mouth at its extremity. The general ectoderm covering the surface
of the body has entirely lost the cilia present in the earlier larval
stages (planula), and may be naked, or clothed in a cuticle or exo-
skeleton, the perisarc (ps), which in its simplest condition is a
chit i nous membrane secreted by the ectoderm. The perisarc when
present invests the hydrorhiza and hydrocaulus; it may stop short
below the hydranth, or it may extend farther. In general there are
two types of exoskeleton, characteristic of the two principal divisions
of the Hydroidea. In the Gymnoblastea the perisarc either stops
below the hydranth, or, if continued on to it, forms a closely-fitting
investment extending as a thin cuticle as far as the bases of the
tentacles (e.g. Bimeria, see G. J. Allman [i],1 pi. xii. figs. I and 3).
In the Calyptoblastea the perisarc is always continued above the
From Allman's Gymnoblastic Bydroids, by permission of the Council of the Ray
Society.
FIG. 2. — Stauridium productum, portion of the colony magnified;
p, polyp; rh, hydrorhiza.
hydrocaulus, and forms a cup, the hydrangium or hydrotheca (h, t),
standing off from the body, into which the hydranth can be retracted
for shelter and protection.
The architecture of the hydropolyp, simple though it be, furnishes a
long series of variations affecting each part of the body. The greatest
variation, however, is seen in the tentacles. As regards number, we
find in the aberrant forms Protohydra and Microhydra tentacles
entirely absent. In the curious hydroid Monobrachium a single
tentacle is present, and the same is the
case in Clathrozoon; in Amphibrachium
and in Lar (fig. n, A) the polyp bears
two tentacles only. The reduction of
the tentacles in all these forms may be
correlated with their mode of life, and
especially with living in a constant
current of water, which brings food-
particles always from one direction and
renders a complete whorl or circle of
tentacles unnecessary. Thus Microhydra
lives amongst Bryozoa, and appears to
utilize the currents produced by these
animals. Protohydra occurs in oyster-
banks and Monobrachium also grows on
the shells of bivalves, and both these
hydroids probably fish in the currents
produced by the lamellibranchs. Am-
phibrachium grows in the tissues of a
sponge, Euplectella, and protrudes its
hydranth into the canal-system of the
sponge; and Lar grows on the tubes of
the worm Sabella. With the exception
of these forms, reduced for the most part
in correlation with a semi-parasitic mode
of life, the tentacles are usually numerous.
It is rare to find in the polyp a regular, Cnrvmnrt>ha
symmetrical disposition of the tentacles fXrm n<-r"on
as in the medusa. The primitive number
of four in a whorl is seen, however, in
Stauridium (fig. 2) and Cladonema
(Allman [i], pi. xvii.), and in Clavatella
each whorl consists regularly of eight
(Allman, loc. cit. pi. xviii.). As a rule,
however, the number in a whorl is
irregular. The tentacles may form a
single whorl, or more than one; thus
in Corymorpha (fig. 3) and Tubularia
(fig. 4) there are two circlets; in Staur-
idium (fig. 2) several ; in Coryne and Cordylophora the tentacles are
scattered irregularly over the elongated hydranth.
As regards form, the tentacles show a number of types, of which
the most important arc (i) filiform, i.e. cylindrical or tapering from
1 The numbers in square brackets [ ] refer to the bibliography at
the end of this article; but when the number is preceded by the
word Hydrozoa, it refers to the bibliography at the end of the article
HYDROZOA.
to medusiform persons
by budding from the
margin of the disk; B,
^ "3fff Fort£?
(A~ii,nmflia,nf) an,
£}' ^ *?£ * /After Alf
°
AND MORPHOLOGY]
HYDROMEDUSAE
base to extremity, as in Clava (fig. 5); (2) capitate, i.e. knobbed
at the extremity, as in Coryne (see Allman, loc. cit. pi. iv.); (3)
branched, a rare form in the polyp, but seen in Cladocoryne (see
Allman, loc. cit. p. 380, fig. 82). Sometimes more than one type of
form is found in the same
polyp; in Pennaria and
Stauridium (fig. 2) the upper
whorls are capitate, the lower
filiform. Finally, as regards
structure,^ the tentacles may
retain their primitive hollow
nature, or become solid by
obliteration of the axial
cavity.
The hypostome of the
hydropolyp may be small, or,
on the other hand, as in
Eudendrium (Allman, loc. cit.
pis. xiii., xiv.), large and
trumpet - shaped. In the
curious polyp Myriothela the
body of the polyp is differ-
FIG. 4. — Diagram of Tubularia entiated into nutritive and
indivisa. A single hydriform person reproductive portions.
a bearing a stalk carrying numerous Histology. — The ectoderm
degenerate medusiform persons or of the hydropolyp is chiefly
sporosacs b. (After Allman.) sensory, contractile and pro-
tective in function. It may
also be glandular in places. It consists of two regions, an external
epithelial layer and a more internal sub-epithelial layer.
The epithelial layer consists of (l) so-called " indifferent " cells
secreting the perisarc or cuticle and modified to form glandular cells
in places; for example, the adhesive cells in the foot. (2) Sensory
cells, which may be fairly numerous in places, especially on the
tentacles, but which occur always scattered and isolated, never
aggregated to form sense-organs as in the medusa. (3) Contractile
From Altaian's Gymnoblastic Hydroids, by permission of the Council of the Ray
Society.
FIG. 5. — Colonies of Clava. A, Clava squamata, magnified. B,
C. multicornis, natural size; p, polyp; gort, gonophores; rh,
hydrorhiza.
or myo-epithelial cells, with the cell prolonged at the base into a
contractile muscle-fibre (fig. 6, B). In the hydropolyp the ectodermal
muscle-fibres are always directed longitudinally. Belonging primarily
to the epithelial layer, the muscular cells may become secondarily
sub-epithelial.
The sub-epithelial layer consists primarily of the so-called inter-
stitial cells, lodged between the narrowed basal portions of the
epithelial cells. From them are developed two distinct types of
histological elements ; the genital cells and the cnidoblasts or mother-
cells of the nematocysts. The sub-epithelial layer thus primarily
constituted may be recruited by immigration from without of other
FIG. 6 A. — Portion .of the body-wall of Hydra, showing ecto-
derm cells above, separated by " structureless lamella " from three
flagellate .endoderm cells below. The latter are vacuolated, and
contain each a nucleus and several dark granules. In the middle
ectoderm cell are seen a nucleus and three nematocysts, with
trigger hairs projecting beyond the cuticle. A large nematocyst,
with everted thread, is seen in the right-hand ectodermal cell.
(After F. E. Schulze.)
elements, more especially by nervous (ganglion) cells and muscle-
cells derived from the epithelial layer. In its fullest development,
therefore, the sub-epithelial layer consists of four classes of cell-
elements.
The genital cells are simple wandering cells (archaeocytes), at first
minute and without any specially distinctive features, until they
begin to develop into germ-cells. According to Wulfert [60] the-
primitive germ-cells of Gonothyraea can be distinguished soon after
the fixation of the planula, appearing amongst the interstitial cells
of the ectoderm. The germ-cells are capable of extensive migrations,
not only in the body of the same polyp, but also from parent to bud
through many non-sexual generations of polyps in a colony (A.
Weismann [58]).
The cnidoblasts are the mother-cells of the nematocysts, each
cell producing one nematocyst in its interior. The complete nemato-
cyst (fig. 7) is a spherical or oval capsule containing a hollow thread,
usually barbed, coiled in its interior. The capsule has a double wall,
an outer one (o.c.), tough and rigid
in nature, and an inner one (i.e.)
of more flexible consistence. The
outer wall of the capsule is in-
complete at one pole, leaving an
aperture through which the thread
is discharged. The inner mem-
brane is continuous with the wall Fie. 6 B.— Epidermo-muscular
of the hollow thread at a spot im- cells of Hydra, m, muscular-fibre
mediately below the aperture in the processes. (After Kleinenberg,
outer wall, so that the thread itself from Gegenbaur.)
(/) is simply a hollow prolongation
of the wall of the inner capsule inverted and pushed into its cavity.
The entire nematocyst is enclosed in the cnidoblast which formed
it. When the nematocyst is completely developed, the cnidoblast
passes outwards so as to occupy a superficial position in the ectoderm,
and a delicate protoplasmic process of sensory nature, termed the
cnidocil (en) projects from the cnidoblast like a fine hair or cilium.
Many points in the development and mechanism of the nematocyst
are disputed, but it is tolerably certain (i) that the cnidocil is of
sensory nature, and that stimulation, by contact with prey or in other
ways, causes a reflex discharge of the nematocyst ; (2) that the dis-
charge is an explosive change whereby the in-turned thread is
suddenly everted and turned inside out, being thus shot through the
opening in the outer wall of the capsule, and forced violently into
the tissues of the prey, or, it may be, of an enemy; (3) that the thread
inflicts not merely a mechanical wound, but instils an irritant poison,
numbing and paralysing in its action. The points most in dispute
are, first, how the explosive discharge is brought about, whether
by pressure exerted external to the capsule (i.e. by contraction of
the cnidoblast) or by internal pressure. N. Iwanzov [27] has brought
forward strong grounds for the latter view, pointing out that the
cnidoblast has no contractile mechanism and that measurements
show discharged capsules to be on the average slightly larger than
undischarged ones. He believes that the capsule contains a sub-
stance which swells very rapidly when brought into contact with
water, and that in the undischarged condition the capsule has its
opening closed by a plug of protoplasm (x, fig. 7) which prevents
xiv. 5 a
138
HYDROMEDUSAE
ORGANIZATION
cn-
access of water to the contents; when the cnidocil is stimulated it
sets in action a mechanism or perhaps a series of chemical changes
by which the plug is dissolved or removed; as a result water pene-
trates into the capsule and causes its contents to swell, with the
result that the thread is
everted violently. A
second point of dispute
concerns the spot at which
thepoison is lodged.
Iwanzoy believes it to be
contained within the
thread itself before dis-
charge, and to be intro-
duced into the tissues of
the prey by the eversion
of the thread. A third
point of dispute is whether
the nematocysts are
formed in situ, or whether
the cnidoblasts migrate
with them to the region
where they are most
needed; the fact that in
Hydra, for example, there
are no interstitial cells in
the tentacles, where nema-
tocysts are very abundant,
is certainly in favour of
the view that the cnido-
blasts migrate on to the
tentacles from the body,
and that like the genital
cells the cnidoblasts are
wandering cells.
The muscular tissue
consists primarily of pro-
cesses from the bases of
the epithelial cells, pro-
cesses which are contrac-
tile in nature and may be
distinctly striated. A
FIG. 7.— Diagrams~to show the struc- further stage in evolution
ture of Nematocysts and their mode of }s that the muscle-cells
working. (After Iwanzov.)
a, Undischarged nematocyst
b. Commencing discharge.
Discharge complete.
CnidociL
Nucleus of cnidoblast.
Outer capsule.
c,
en,
N,
o.c
x.
lose their connexion with
the epithelium and come
to lie entirely beneath it,
forming a sub-epithelial
contractile layer, de-
veloped chiefly in the ten-
tacles of the polyp. The
t.c.
Plug closing the opening of the evolution of the ganglion-
outer capsule. cells is probably similar;
Inner capsule, continuous with the an epithelial cell develops
wall of the filament, /. processes of nervous nature
b Barbs. from the base, which come
into connexion with the
bases of the sensory cells, with the muscular cells, and with the
similar processes of other nerve-cells; next the nerve-cell loses
its connexion with the outer epithelium and becomes a sub-epithelial
ganglion-cell which is closely connected with the muscular layer,
conveying stimuli from the sensory cells to the contractile elements.
The ganglion-cells of Hydromedusae are generally very small.
In the polyp the nervous tissue
is always in the form of a
scattered plexus, never con-
centrated to form a definite
nervous system as in the medusa.
The endoderm of the polyp is
typically a flagellated epithelium
of large cells (fig. 6) , from the bases
of which arise contractile muscular
processes lying in the plane of
the transverse section of the body.
In different parts of the coelen-
teron the endoderm may be of
From Gegenbaur's Elements oj Com-
parative Anatomy.
FIG. 8. — Vacuolated Endo-
derm Cells of cartilaginous _„_ _
consistence from the axis of the three principal types — (i)
tentacle of a Medusa (Cunina). digestive endoderm, the primi-
tive type, with cells of large
size and considerably vacuolated, found in the hydranth; some
of these cells may become special glandular cells, without
flagella or contractile processes; (2) circulatory endoderm, without
vacuoles and without basal contractile processes, found in the hydro-
rhiza and hydrocaulus; (3) supporting endoderm (fig. 8), seen in solid
tentacles as a row of cubical vacuolated cells, occupying the axis
of the tentacle, greatly resembling notochordal tissue, particularly
that of Amphioxus at a certain stage of development; as a fourth
variety of endodermal cells excretory cells should perhaps be reckoned
as seen in the pores in the foot of Hydra and elsewhere (cf. C. Chun
HYDROZOA [i], pp. 314, 315).
The mesogloea in the hydropolyp is a thin elastic layer, in which
may be lodged the muscular fibres and ganglion cells mentioned abovei
jut which never contains any connective tissue or skeletogenous
cells or any other kind of special mesogloeal corpuscles.
2. The Polyp-colony. — All known hydropolyps possess the power
of reproduction by budding, and the buds produced may become
either polyps or
nedusae. The
juds may all be-
come detached
after a time and
_ive rise to
separate and in-
dependent indi-
viduals, as in the
:ommon Hydra,
n which only
jolyp-individuals
are produced and
sexual elements From Allman's Gymnoblaslic Bydroids, by permission of
are developed the Council of the Ray Society.
upon the polyps FIG. 9. — Colony of Hydractinia echinata, grow-
themselves; or, ing on the Shell of a Whelk. Natural size.
on the other
hand, the polyp -individuals produced by budding may remain
permanently in connexion with the parent polyp, in which case
sexual elements are never developed on polyp-individuals but
only on medusa-individuals, and a true colony is formed. Thus
the typica.1 hydroid colony starts from a " founder " polyp, which
n the vast majority of cases is fixed, but which may be floating, as in
Nemopsis, Pelagohydra, &c. The founder-polyp usually produces by
rmdding polyp-individuals, and these in their turn produce other
Duds. The polyps are all non-sexual individuals whose function
s purely nutritive. After a time the polyps, or certain of them,
aroduce by budding medusa-individuals, which sooner or later
develop sexual elements; in some cases, however, the founder_
polyp remains solitary, that is
to say, does not produce polyp-
buds, but only medusa-buds,
from the first (Corymorpha, fig. 3,
Myriothela, &c.). In primitive
forms the medusa-individuals
; set free before reaching
sexual maturity and do not con-
tribute anything to the colony.
In other cases, however, the
medusa-individuals become
sexually mature while still at-
tached to the parent polyp, and
are then not set free at all, but
become appanages of the hydroid
colony and undergo degenerative
changes leading to reduction and
even to complete obliteration of
their original medusan structure.
In this way the hydroid colony
becomes composed of two por-
tions of different function, the
nutritive " trophosomc," com-
posed of non-sexual polyps, and
the reproductive " gonosome,"
composed of sexual medusa-
individuals, which never exercise
a nutritive function while at-
tached to the colony. As a
general rule polyp-buds are pro-
duced from the hydrorhiza and
hydrocaulus, while medusa-buds
are formed on the hydranth. In
some cases, however, medusa-
buds are formed on the hydro-
rhiza, as in Hydrocorallines.
In such a colony of connected
individuals, the exact limits of
the separate " persons " are not
always clearly marked out.
Hence it is necessary to distin-
guish between, first, the " zooids,"
indicated in the case of the polyps
by the hydranths, each with
mouth and tentacles; and,
secondly, the "coenosarc," or rh, hydrorhiza.
common flesh, which cannot
be assigned more to one individual than another, but consists
of a more or less complicated network of tubes, corresponding to the
hydrocaulus and hydrorhiza of the primitive independent polyp-
individual. The coenosarc constitutes a system by which the
digestive cavity of any one polyp is put into communication with
that of any other individual either of the trophosome or gonosome.
In this manner the food absorbed by one individual contributes
to the welfare of the whole colony, and the coenosarc has the
90*
From Allman's Gymnoblaslic Bydroidt,
by permission of the Council of the Ray
Society.
FIG. 10. — Polyps from a Colony
of Hydractinia, magnified, dz,
dactylozoid; gz, gastrozoid; b,
blastostyle; gon, gonophores;
AND MORPHOLOGY]
HYDROMEDUSAE
function of circulating and distributing nutriment through the
colony.
The hydroid colony shows many variations in form and architec-
ture which depend simply upon differences in the methods in which
polyps are budded.
In the first place,
buds may be produced
only from the hydro-
rhiza, which grows out
and branches to form
a basal stolon, typically
net-like, spreading over
the substratum to
which the founder-
polyp attached itself.
From the stolon the
daughter-polyps grow
up vertically. The re-
sult is a spreading or
creeping colony, with
the coenosarc in the
form of a root-like
horizontal network (fig.
5, B; n, A). Such a
colony may undergo
two principal modifica-
tions. The meshes of
the basal network may
become very small or
virtually obliterated, so
that the coenosarc be-
comes a crust of tubes
tendingtofusetogether,
and covered over by
a common perisarc.
Encrusting colonies of
this kind are seen in
Clava squamata (fig.
5, A) and Hydractinia
(figs. 9, 10), the latter
having the perisarc
calcified. A further
very important modifi-
After Hincks, Forbes, and Browne. A and B modified cation is seen when the
from Hincks; C modified from Forbes's Brit. Naked- ^ U.L_ Kocol
eyed Medusae.
perisarc do not remain
FIG. ii. — Lar sabellarum and two stages spread out in one plane,
of its Medusa, Willia stellata. A, colony of but grow in all planes
Lar; B and C, young and adult medusae. forming a felt-work;
the result is a massive
colony, such as is seen in the so-called Hydrocorallines (fig. 60),
where the interspaces between the coenosarcal tubes are filled up
with calcareous matter, or coenosteum, replacing the chitinous
perisarc. The result is a stony, solid mass, which contributes to
the building up of coral reefs. In massive colonies of this kind no
sharp distinction can be drawn between hydrorhiza and hydro-
,. caulus in the coenosarc; it
^7- Tis practically all hydrorhiza.
==r=^" Massive colonies may assume
various forms and are often
branching or tree-like. A fur-
ther peculiarity of this type of
colony is that the entire coeno-
sarcal complex is covered ex-
ternally by a common layer
of ectoderm; it is not clear
how this covering layer is
developed.
In the second place, the
buds may be produced from
the hydrocaulus, growing out
laterally from it; the result
is an arborescent, tree-like
colony (figs. 12, 13). Budding
from the hydrocaulus may be
combined with budding from
the hydrorhiza, so that numer-
ous branching colonies arise
from a common basal stolon.
In the formation of arbores-
cent colonies, two sharply
FIG. 12.— Colony of Bougainvillea distinct types of budding are
fruticosa, natural size, attached to the found, which are best de-
underside of a piece of floating tim- scribed in botanical termmo-
ber. (After Allman.) logy as the monopodial or
racemose, and the sympodial
or cymose types respectively; each is characteristic of one of the
two sub-orders of the Hydroidea, the Gymnoblastea and Calypto-
blastea.
In the monopodial method (figs. 12, 14) the founder-polyp is,
theoretically, of unlimited growth in a vertical direction, and as il
grows up it throws out buds right and left alternately, so that the
first bud produced by it is the lowest down, the second bud is above
the first, the third above this again, and so on. Each bud produced
FIG. 13. — Portion of colony of Bougainmllea fruticosa (Antho-
medusae-Gymnoblasted) more magnified. (From Lubbock, after
Allman.)
by the founder proceeds to grow and to bud in the same way as the
founder did, producing a side branch of the main stem. Hence, in a
colony of gymnoblastic hydroids, the oldest polyp of each system,
that is to say, of the main stem or of a' branch, is the topmost polyp ;
FIG. 14. — Diagrams of the monopodial method of budding, shown
in five stages (1-5). F, the founder-polyp; I, 2, 3, 4, the succession
of polyps budded from the founder-polyp; a', b', c' , the succession
of polyps budded from I ; a2, V, polyps budded from 2 ; a3, polyp
budded from 3.
the youngest polyp of the system is the one nearest to the topmost
polyp ; and the axis of the system is a true axis.
In the sympodial method of budding, on the other hand, the
founder-polyp is of limited growth, and forms a bud from its side,
which is also of limited growth, and forms a bud in its turn, and so on
(figs. 15, 16). Hence, in a colony of calyptoblastic hydroids, the
oldest polyp °f a system is the lowest ; the youngest polyp is the top-
140
HYDROMEDUSAE
[ORGANIZATION
most one; and the axis of the system is a false axis composed of
portions of each of the consecutive polyps. In this method of budding
there are two
types. In one, the
biserial type (fig.
1 5), the polyps pro-
duce buds right
i3 and left alter-
nately, so that the
hydranths are
arranged in a zig-
zag fashion, form-
ing a " scorpioid
cyme," as in Obelia
and Sertularia. In
the other, the uni-
serial type (fig. 1 6),
the buds are
formed always on
the same side,
forming a " heli-
FIG. 15. — Diagram of sympodial budding, coid cyme," as in
biserial type, shown in five stages (1-5). F, Hydrallmania,
founder-polyp; j, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, succession of according to H.
polyps budded from the founder; a, b, c, Driesch, in which,
second series of polyps budded from the founder ; h o w ey e r, the
a3, b3, series budded from 3. primitively uni-
serial arrange-
ment becomes masked later by secondary torsions of the hydranths.
In a colony formed by sympodial budding, a polyp always produces
first a bud, which contributes to the system to which it belongs, i.e.
continues the stem or branch of which its parent forms a part. The
I polyp may then form a second
bud, which becomes the starting
^v point of a new system, the
j \ beginning, that is, of a new
*>. A ) branch; and even a third bud,
starting yet another system,
may be produced from the same
polyp. Hence the colonies of
Calyptoblastea may be com-
plexly branched, and the bud-
ding may be biserial through-
out, uniserial throughout, or
partly one, partly the other.
Thus in Plumularidae (figs. 17,
7. , 1 8) there is formed a main stem
FIG. 16.— Diagram of sympodial by biserial budding; each polyp
budding, uniserial type shown on the main stem forms a
in four stages (1-4).. F, founder- second bud which usuall
E olIPliV 2' 3, succession of polyps forms a side branch or pinnuie
budded from the founder. by uniserial budding. In this
way are formed the familiar feathery colonies of Plumularia, in
which the pinnules are all in one plane, while in the allied Anten-
nularia the pinnules are arranged in whorls round the main biserial
stem. The pinnules never branch again, since in the uniserial mode
of budding a polyp
never forms a second
polyp-bud. On the
other hand, a polyp
on the main stem may
form a second bud
which, instead of form-
ing a pinnule by uni-
serial budding, pro-
duces by biserial bud-
ding a branch, from
which pinnules arise as
from the main stem
(fig. 18— 3, 6). Or a
polyp on the main
stem, after having
budded a second time
to form a pinnule,
may give rise to a
third bud, which
starts a new biserial
FIG. 17. — Diagram of sympodial budding, system, from which
simple unbranched Plumularia-type. F, uniserial pinnules arise
founder; 1-8, main axis formed by biserial as from the main stem
budding from founder; a-e, pinnule formed — type of Aglaophenia
by uniserial budding from founder; al-d{, (fig. 19). The laws of
branch formed by similar budding from I ; budding in hydroids
a2-d? from 2, and so forth. have been worked out
in an interesting
manner by H. Driesch [13], to whose memoirs the reader must be
referred for further details.
Individualization of Polyp-Colonies. — As in other cases where
animal colonies are formed by organic union of separate individuals,
there is ever a tendency for the polyp-colony as a whole to act as a
single individual, and for the members to become subordinated to
the needs of the colony and to undergo specialization for particular
functions, with the result that they simulate organs and their in-
dividuality becomes masked to a greater or less degree. Perhaps the
earliest of such specializations is connected with the reproductive
function. Whereas primitively any polyp in a colony may produce
medusa-buds, in many hydroid colonies medusae are budded only by
certain polyps termed blastostyles (fig. 10, b). At first not differing
in any way from other
polyps (fig. 5), the blasto-
styles gradually lose their
nutritive function and the
organs connected with it;
the mouth and tentacles
disappear, and the blasto-
style obtains the nutriment
necessary for its activity by
way of the coenosarc. In
the Calyptoblastea, where
the polyps are protected
by special capsules of the
perisarc, the gonothecae en-
closing the blastostyles
differ from the hydro-
thecae protecting the hy-
dranths (fig. 54).
In other colonies the two
functions of the nutritive
polyp, namely, capture and
digestion of food, may be
shared between different _
polyps (fig. 10). One class /,IG- 18— Diagram showing method
of polyps, the dactylozoids of branching in the Plumulana-type;
(dz), lose their mouth and compare with fig. 17. Polyps 3 and 6,
stomach, and become elon- instead of producing uniserial pinnules,
gated and tentacle-like, have produced biserial branches (31, 3',
showing great activity of 33- 34: 61;6 ),' which give off uniserial
movement. Another class, branches in their turn,
the gastrozoids (gz), have the tentacles reduced or absent, but have
the mouth and stomach enlarged. The dactylozoids capture food
and pass it on to the gastrozoids, which swallow and digest it.
Besides the three types of individual above mentioned, there are
other appendages of hydroid colonies, of which the individuality is
doubtful. Such are the " guard-polyps " (machopolyps) of Plumu-
laridae, which are often regarded as individuals of the nature of dac-
tylozoids, but from a study of the mode of budding in this hydroid
family Driesch concluded that the guard-polyps were not true
polyp-individuals, although each is enclosed in a small protecting
cup of the perisarc, known as a nematophore. Again, the spines
arising from the
basal crust of
Podocoryne have
been interpreted
by some authors
as reduced polyps.
3. The Medusa.
— In the Hydro-
medusae the
medusa-individual
occurs, as already
stated, in one of
two conditions,
either as an inde-
pendent organism
leading a true life
the open seas,
or as a subordinate
individuality in
the hydroid
colony, from which
it is never set free;
it then becomes a
mere reproductive
appendage or gono-
phore, losing sue- FIG. 19. — Diagram showing method of branch-
cessively its organs ing in the A glaophenia-type. Polyp 7 has pro-
of sense, loco- duced as its first bud, 8; as its second bud, a7,
motion and nutri- which starts a uniserial pinnule; and as a third
tion, until its bud I7, which starts a biserial branch (II'-VI7)
medusoid nature that repeats the structure of the main stem and
and organization gives off pinnules. The main stem is indicated
become scarcely by — — , the new stem by
re cognizab 1 e.
Hence it is convenient to consider the morphology of the medusa
from these two aspects.
(o) The Medusa as an Independent Organism. — The general
structure and characteristics of the medusa are described elsewhere
(see articles HYDROZOA and MEDUSA), and it is only necessary here to
deal with the peculiarities of the Hydromedusa.
As regards habit of life the vast majority of Hydromedusae arc
AND MORPHOLOGY]
HYDROMEDUSAE
141
pelagic organisms, floating on the surface of the open sea, propelling
themselves feebly by the pumping movements of the umbrella
produced by contraction of the sub-umbral musculature, and
capturing their prey with their tentacles. The genera Cladonema
(fig. 20) and Clava-
tella (fig. 21), how-
ever,are ambulatory,
creeping forms, living
in rock-pools and
walking, as it were,
on the tips of the
proximal branches of
each of the tentacles,
while the remaining
branches serve for
capture of food.
Cladonema still has
the typical medusan
structure, and is able
to swim about, but in
Clavatella the um-
brella is so much re-
duced that swimming
-t
oc.
t
From Allman's Gymnoblastic Eydroids, by permission of
the Council of the Ray Society.
FIG. 2 1 . — Clavatella prolifera, ambulatory
medusa. /, tentacles; oct ocelli.
is no longer possible.
The remarkable
medusa Mnestra
/>ar<m/e.sisecto-para-
sitic throughout life
From Allman's Gymwblastic Bydroids, by permission of on the pelagic mollusc
the Council of the Ray Society. Phyttirrhoe, attached
FIG. 20.— Cladonema radiatum, the medusa to jt ,by the sub-
walking on the basal branches of its tentacles umbral surface, and
(0, which are turned up over the body. 'ts tentacles have
become rudimentary
or absent. It is inter-
esting to note that Mnestra has been shown by J. W. Fewkes
[15] and R. T. Gunther [19] to belong to the same family (Cladone-
mtdae) as Cladonema and Clavatella, and it is reasonable to suppose
that the non-parasitic ancestor of Mnestra was, like the other two
genera, an ambu-
latory medusa which
acquired louse-like
habits. In some
species of the genus
Cttnma(Narcomedu-
sae) the youngest
individuals (actinu-
lae) are parasitic on
other medusae (see
below), but in later
life the parasitic
habit is abandoned.
No other instances
are known of sessile
habit in Hydro-
medusae.
The external form of the Hydromedusae varies from that of a deep
bell or thimble, characteristic of the Anthomedusae, to the shallow
saucer-like form characteristic of the Leptomedusae. It is usual for
the umbrella to have an even, circular, uninterrupted margin; but
in the order Narcomedusae secondary
down-growths between the tentacles
produce a lobed, indented margin to
the umbrella. The marginal tentacles
are rarely absent in non-parasitic forms,
and are typically four in number, cor-
responding to the four perradii marked
by the radial canals. Interradial ten-
tacles may be also developed, so that
the total number present may be in-
creased to eight or to an indefinitely
large number. In Willia, Geryonia, &c.,
however, the tentacles and radial
canals are on the plan of six instead of
four (figs, ii and 26). On the other
hand, in some cases the tentacles are
less 'n number than the perradii; in
Corymorpha (figs. 3 and 22) there is but
a single tentacle, while two are found
in Amphinema and Gemmaria (An-
FIG. 22. — Corymorpha thomedusae), and in Solmiindella
nut an s, adult female bitentaculata (fig. 67) and Aeginopsis
Medusa. Magnified 10 hensenii (fig. 23) (Narcomedusae). The
diameters. tentacles also vary considerably in
other ways than in number: first, in
form, being usually simple, with a basal bulb, but in Cladonem-
idae they are branched, often in complicated fashion; secondly,
in grouping, being usually given off singly, and at regular intervals
from the margin of the umbrella, but in Margelidae and in some
Trachomedusae they are given off in tufts or bunches (fig. 24) ;
After E. T, Browne, from Proc.
Zool. Soc. o/ London.
thirdly, in position and origin, being usually implanted on the
extreme edge of the umbrella, but in Narcomedusae they become
secondarily shifted and are given off high up on the ex-umbrella
(figs. 23 and 25) ; and, fourthly, in structure, being hollow or solid,
as in the polyp. In some medusae, for instance, the remarkable
deep-sea family Pectyllidae, the tentacles may bear suckers, by which
the animal may attach itself temporarily. It should be mentioned
finally that the tentacles are very contractile
and extensible, and may therefore present
themselves, in one and the same individual, as
long, drawn-out threads, or in the form of short
corkscrew - like ringlets ; they may stream
downwards from the sub-umbrella, or be held
out horizontally, or be directed upwards over
the ex-umbrella (fig. 23). Each species of
After O. Maas, Die
craspedotm Medusen der
Plankton Expedition, by
permission of Lipsius and
Tischer.
FIG. 23. — Aegin-
opsis hensenii,
slightly magnified,
showing the manner
in which the ten-
tacles are carried in
life.j
After O. Maas, Craspedoten Medusen der Siboga-
Expeditian, by permission of E. S. Brill & Co.
FIG. 24. — Rathkea octonemalis.
characteristic method of carrying its
medusa usually has a
tentacles.
The sub-umbrella invariably shows a velum as an inwardly
projecting ridge or rim at its margin, within the circle of tentacles;
hence the medusae of this sub-class are termed craspedote. The
manubrium is absent altogether in the fresh-water medusa Limno-
cnida, in which the diameter of the mouth exceeds half that of the
umbrella; on the other hand, the manubrium may attain a great
length, owing to the centre of the sub-umbrella with the stomach
being drawn into it, as it were, to form a long proboscis, as in Geryonia.
The mouth may be a simple, circular pore at the extremity of the
manubrium, or by folding of the edges it may become square or shaped
like a Maltese cross, with four corners and four lips. The corners of
the mouth may then be drawn
out into lobes or lappets, which
may have a branched or
fringed outline (fig. 27), and
in Margelidae the subdivisions
of the fringe simulate tentacles
(fig. 24).
The internal anatomy of the
Hydromedusae shows numer-
ous variations. The stomach
may be altogether lodged in
the manubrium, from which
the radial canals then take
origin directly as in Geryonia
(Trachomedusae); it may be
with or without gastric
pouches. The radial canals
may be simple or branched,
primarily four, rarely six in
number. The ring-canal is
drawn out in Narcomedusae
into festoons corresponding
with the lobes of the margin,
and may be obliterated altogether (Solmaris) . I n this order the radial
canals are represented only by wide gastric pouches, and in the family
Solmaridae are suppressed altogether, so that the tentacles and the
festoons of the ring-canal arise directly from the stomach. In
Geryonia, centripetal canals, ending blindly, arise from the ring-canal
and run in a radial direction towards the centre of the umbrella
(fig. 26).
Histology of the Hydromedusa. — The histology described above
for the polyp may be taken as the primitive type, from which that
After A. Maas, Medusae, in Prince of
Monaco's"
FIG. 25. — Aeginura grimaldii,
natural size.
142
HYDROMEDUSAE
[ORGANIZATION
of the medusa differs only in greater elaboration and differentiation
of the cell-elements, which are also more concentrated to form
distinct tissues.
The ectoderm furnishes the general epithelial covering of the body,
and the muscular tissue, nervous system and sense-organs. The
FlG. 26. — Carmarina (Geryonia)
(After
Nerve ring.
Radial nerve.
Tentaculocyst.
Circular canal.
Radiating canal.
Ovary.
Peronia or cartilaginous pro-
cess ascending from the
cartilaginous margin of the
disk centripetally in the
outer surface of the jelly-
like disk; six of these are
perradial, six interradial,
corresponding to the twelve
hastata, one of the Trachomedusae.
Haeckel.)
solid larval tentacles, re-
sembling those of Cunina.
k, Dilatation (stomach) of the
manubrium.
/, Jelly of the disk.
p, Manubrium.
/. Tentacle (hollow and tertiary,
i.e. preceded by six per-
radial and six interradial
solid larval tentacles).
«, Cartilaginous margin of the
disk covered by thread-
cells.
r. Velum.
external epithelium is flat on the ex-umbral surface, more columnar
on the sub-umbral surface, where it forms the muscular tissue of the
sub-umbrella and the velum. The nematocysts of the ectoderm
may be grouped to form batteries on the tentacles, umbrellar margin
and oral lappets. In places the nematocysts may be crowded so
thickly as to form a tough, supporting, " chondral " tissue, resembling
cartilage, chiefly developed at the margin of the umbrella and forming
i streaks or bars supporting the tentacles
(" Tentakelspangen, ' peronia) or the ten-
taculocysts ( ' Gehorspangen," otoporpae).
The muscular tissue of the Hydro-
medusae is entirely ectodermal. The
muscle-fibres arise as processes from the
bases of the epithelial cells; such cells
may individually become sub-epithelial
in position, as in the polyp; or, in places
where muscular tissue is greatly de-
veloped, as in the velum or sub-umbrella,
the entire muscular epithelium may be
thrown into folds in order to increase its
surface, so that a deeper sub-epithelial
muscular layer becomes separated com-
pletely from a more superficial body-
of^thelium.
After O. Maas fa KMB/JJ o/ jn ;ts arrangement the muscular tissue
Museum "of" Com^arS fo.rms. two systems: the one composed
Zoology, Cambridge, Mass., of striated fibres arranged circularly, that
is to say, concentrically round the central
FIG. 27.—Stomoloca axjs Of the umbrella; the other of non-
dtftta.oneoftheTjarttZae striated fibres running longitudinally,
(Anthomedusae). that is to say, in a radial direction from,
or (in the manubrium) parallel to, the same ideal axis. The
circular system is developed continuously over the entire sub-
umbral surface, and the velum represents a special local develop-
ment of this system, at a region where it is able to act at the greatest
mechanical advantage in producing the contractions of the umbrella
by which the animal progresses. The longitudinal system is dis-
continuous, and is subdivided into proximal, medial and distal
portions. The proximal portion forms the retractor muscles of the
manubrium, or proboscis, well developed, for example, in Geryonia.
The medial portion forms radiating tracts of fibres, the so-called
" bell-muscles " running underneath, and parallel to, the radial
canals; when greatly developed, as in Tiandae, they form ridges,
so-called, mesenteries, projecting into the sub-umbral cavity.
The distal portions form the muscles of the tentacles. In con-
trast with the polyp, the longitudinal muscle-system is entirely
ectodermal, there being no endodermal muscles in craspedote
medusae.
The nervous system of the medusa consists of sub-epithelial
ganglion-cells, which form, in the first place, a diffuse plexus of nervous
tissue, as in the
polyp, but developed
chieny on the sub-
umbral surface; and
which are concen-
trated, in the second
place, to form a
definite central ner-
vous system, never
found in the polyp.
In Hydromedusae
the central nervous
system forms two Flo. 28.— Muscular Cells of Medusae
concentric nerve- (Lizzia). The uppermost is a purely muscular
rings at the margin cell from tne sub-umbrella; the two lower are
of the umbrella, near epidermo-muscular cells from the base of a
thebaseof the velum, tentacle; the upstanding nucleated portion
One, the upper forms part of the epidermal mosaic on the
or ex-umbral nerve- free surface of the body. (After Hertwig.)
ring, is derived irom
the ectoderm on the ex-umbral side of the velum; it is the larger
of the two rings, containing more numerous but smaller ganglion-
cells, and innervates the tentacles. The other, the " lower or sub-
umbral nerve-ring, is derived from the ectoderm on the sub-umbral
side of the velum; it contains fewer but larger ganglion-cells and
innervates the muscles of the velum (see diagram in article MEDUSAE).
The two nerve-rings are connected by fibres passing from one to the
other.
The sensory cells are slender epithelial cells, often with a cilium
or stiff protoplasmic process, and should perhaps be regarded as the
only ectoderm-cells which retain the primitive dilation of the larval
ectoderm, otherwise lost in all Hydrozoa. The sense-cells form,
in the first place, a diffuse system of scattered sensory cells, as in the
polyp, developed chiefly on the manubrium, the tentacles and the
margin of the umbrella, where they form a sensory ciliated epithelium
covering the nerve-centres; in the second place, the sense-cells are
concentrated to form
definite sense-organs,
situated always at
the margin of the
umbrella, hence often
termed " marginal
bodies." The posses-
sion of definite sense-
organs at once dis-
tinguishes the medusa
from the polyp, in
which they are never
found.
The sense-organs of
medusae are of two
kinds — first, organs
sensitive to light,
usually termed ocelli
(fig. 29) ; secondly,
organs commonly
termed otocysts, on
account of their re-
semblance to the audi-
tory vesicles of higher ^ o Maas Crasfedalen Medusm der sib
animals, but serving Expedition, by permission of E. S. Brill & Co.
for the s e n s c o f Fl(, 2f)—Tiaropsis rosea (Ag. and Mayer)
balance and oncnta- showingythc eight adradial Statocysts, each
close to an Ocellus. Cf. fig. 30.
of statocysts (fig. 30). The sense-organs may be tentaculocysts, i.e.
modifications of a tentacle, as in Trachylinae, or developed from the
margin of the umbrella, in no connexion with a tentacle (or, if so
connected, not producing any modification in the tentacle), as in
Leptolinae. In Hydromedusae the sense-organs are always exposed
at the umbrellar margin (hence Gymnophthalmata), while in Scyphp-
medusae they are covered over by flaps of the umbrellar margin
(hence Steganophthalmata).
The statocysts present in general the structure of cither a knob
or a closed vesicle, composed of (i) indifferent supporting epithelium ;
(2) sensory, so-called auditory epithelium of slender cells, each*
AND MORPHOLOGY]
HYDROMEDUSAE
bearing at its free upper end a stiff bristle and running out at its base
into a nerve-fibre ; (3) concrement-cells, which produce intercellular
concretions, so-called oto-
liths. By
vibrations
-Sub
means of
or shocks
transmitted through the
water, or by displace-
ments in the balance or
position of the animal,
the otoliths are caused
to impinge against the
bristles of the sensory
cells, now on one side,
now on the other, causing
shocks or stimuli which
are transmitted by the
basaJ nerve-fibre to the
central nervous system.
Two stages in the de-
velopment of the otocyst
Modified after Linko, Tramux Soc. Imp. Nat., St. can foe recognized the
Petersburg, BB. first that of «, Qpe'n pi(.
FIG. 30. — Section of a Statocyst and on a freely - projecting
Ocellus of Tiaropsis diademata ; cf . fig. 29. knob, in which the oto-
ex, Ex-umbral ectoderm.
sub, Sub-umbral ectoderm.
c.c, Circular canal.
v, Velum.
st.c, Cavity of statocyst.
con, Concrement-cell with otolith.
V
St.e
con
liths are exposed, the
second that of a closed
vesicle, in which the oto-
liths are covered over.
Further, two distinct
types of otocyst can be
recognized in the Hydro-
medusae; that of the Leptolinae, in which the entire organ is
ectodermal, concrement-cells and all, and the organ is not a tenta-
culocyst; and that of the Trachylinae, in which the organ is a
tentaculocyst, and the con-
crement-cells are endodermal,
derived from the endoderm
of the modified tentacle, while
the rest of the organ is ecto-
dermal.
In the Leptolinae the oto-
cysts are seen in their first
stage in Mitrocoma annae
(fig. 31) and Tiaropsis (figs. 29,
30) as an open pit at the base
of the velum, on its sub-
umbral side. The pit has its
opening turned towards the
sub-umbral cavity, while its
, „..,,. base or fundus forms a bulge,
more or less pronounced, on
Nemn- the ex-umbral side of the
by velum. At the fundus are
placed the concrement-cells
FIG. 31. — Section of a Statocyst of with their conspicuous oto-
Modified after O. and R. Hertwij
system und Sinnesorgane der Medusen
permission of F. C. W. Vogel.
Mitrocoma annae.
sub, Sub-umbral ectoderm
c.c, Circular canal.
», Velum.
st.c, Cavity of statocyst.
con, Concrement-cell with otolith.
liths (con) and the inconspicu-
ous auditory cells, which are
connected with the sub-
umbral nerve -ring. From
the open condition arises
the closed condition very
simply by closing up of the
aperture of the pit. We then find the typical otocyst of the
Leptomedusae, a vesicle bulging on the ex-umbral side of the velum
(figs. 32, 33). The otocysts are placed on the outer wall of the
Sub
.: — ex.
con
Modified after O. and R. Hertwig, Nenen-
syslcm und Smnesorgane der Medusen, by
permission of F. C. W. Vogel.
FIG. 32. — Section of a Statocyst
of Phialidium.
ex, Ex-umbral ectoderm.
.sub, Sub-umbral ectoderm.
v, Velum.
st.c, Cavity of statocyst.
con, Concrement-cell with otolith.
con
st.c.
Modified after 0. and R. Hertwig,
Nervensyslem und Sinnesorgano der
Medusen, by permission of F. C. W.
Vogd.
FIG. 33. — Optical Section of
a Statocyst of Octorchis.
con, Concrement - cell with
otolith.
st.c, Cavity of statocyst.
vesicle (the fundus of the original pit) or on its sides; their arrange-
ment and number vary greatly and furnish useful characters for
distinguishing genera. The sense-cells are innervated, as before,
from the sub-umbral nerve-ring. The inner wall of the vesicle
con —
•con.
(region of closure) is frequently thickened to form a so-called " sense-
cushion," apparently a ganglionic offshoot from the sub-umbral
nerve -ring. In many
Leptomedusae the oto-
cysts are very small, in-
conspicuous and em-
bedded completely in the
tissues; hence they may
be easily overlooked in
badly-preserved material,
and perhaps are present
in many cases where they fnd.-
have been said to have
been wanting.
In the Trachylinae the n.C.
simplest condition of the
otocyst is a freely pro-
jecting club, a so-called
statorhabd (figs. 34, 35),
representing a tentacle
greatly reduced in size, ,, s- „,_. ^wns.! >iiu?mvr '' " ""*
covered with sensory ^Uf^m&Sn''"'''*"
ectodermal epithelium
(eft 1 and rnnt-aini'no- on ^tei O. and R. Hertwig, Nenensystem und Sinnes-
A A cmitammg an organe da Medusen, by permission of F. C. W.
endodermal core (end.), Vogel.
which is at first continu- FIG. 34.— Tentaculocyst (statorhabd)
ous with the endoderm of Cunina solmaris. n.c, Nerve-cushion;
of the ring-canal, but ena, endodermal concrement-cells; con,
later becomes separated otolith.
from it. In the endoderm
large concretions are formed (con.). Other sensory cells with long
cilia cover a sort of cushion (n.c.) at the base of the club ; the club
may be long and the
cushion small, or the
cushion large and the
club small. The whole
structure is innervated,
like the tentacles, from
the ex-umbral nerve-ring.
An advance towards the
second stage is seen in
such a form as Rhopalo-
nema (fig. 36), where the
ectoderm of the cushion
rises up in a double fold
to enclose the club in a
protective covering form-
ing a cup or vesicle, at
first open distally ; finally
the opening closes and
the closed vesicle may
sink inwards and be
found far removed from After 0. and R. Hertwig, Nenensystem und Sinnes-
the surface, as in Geryonia "'Sane der Medusen, by permission of F. C. W.
(fig. 37). V°sel-
The ocelli are seen in FIG. 35.— Tentaculocyst of Cunina lati-
their simplest form as a ventris.
pigmented patch of ecto- ect, Ectoderm,
derm, which consists of n.c, Nerve-cushion,
two kinds of cells — (l) end, Endodermal concrement-cells.
pigment-cells, which are con, Otolith.
ordinary indifferent cells
of the epithelium containing pigment-granules, and (2) visual cells,
slender sensory epithelial cells of the usual type, which may develop
visual cones or
rods at their free
extremity. The
ocelli occur
usually either on
the inner or outer
sides of the ten-
tacles; if on the
inner side, the
tentacle is turned
upwards and
carried over the
ex - umbrella, so
as to expose the
ocellus to the
light; if the
-end.
nc.
-hit
FIG. 36. — Simple tentaculocyst of Rhopalo'
ocellus be on the nema velatum. The process carrying the otolith
outer side of a or concretion hk, formed by endoderm cells, is
tentacle, two enclosed by an upgrowth forming the " vesicle,"
nerves run round which is not yet quite closed in at the top.
the base of the (After Hertwig.)
tentacle to it. In
other cases ocelli may occur between tentacles, as in Tiaropsis (fig. 29).
The simple form of ocellus described in the foregoing paragraph
may become folded into a pit or cup, the interior of which becomes
filled with a clear gelatinous secretion forming a sort of vitreous
144
HYDROMEDUSAE
[ORGANIZATION
-ex
ex,
sub,
c.c,
v,
body. The distal portion of the vitreous body may project from rhe
cavity of the cup, forming a non-cellular lens as in Lizzia (fig. 28).
Beyond this simple condition the visual organs of the Hydromedusae
do not advance, and are far from reaching the wonderful develop-
ment of the eyes of Scyphomedusae (Charybdaea) .
Besides the ordinary type of ocellus just described, there is found
in one genus(Tiaropsis) a type of ocellus in which the visual elements
are inverted, and
s'-£ _ have their cones
turned away from
the light, as in the
human retina (fig.
30). In this case
the pigment-cells
are endodermal,
forming a cup of
pigment in which
the visual cones
are embedded. A
similar ocellus is
formed in Aurelia
among the Scypho-
medusae (g.f.).
After O. and R. Hertwig, ffenensystem and Sinnesors/me Other sense
ier Hcdusm, by permission of F. C. W. Vogel. organs of Hydro-
FIG. 37. — Section of statocyst of Geryonia medusae are the
(Carmarina hastata). so-called sense-
st.c, Statocyst containing the minute tentaculo- clubs or cordyli
cyst, found in a few
nrjt Ex-umbral nerve-ring. Leptomedusae,
nr,, Sub-umbral nerve-ring. especially in those
Ex-umbral ectoderm. genera, in which
Sub-umbral ectoderm. otocysts are mcon-
Circular canal. spicuous or absent
Velum. (fig- 39)-. Each
cordylus is a ten-
tacle-like structure with an endodermal axis containing an
axial cavity which may be continuous with the ring-canal, or may
be partially occluded. Externally the cordylus is covered by very
flattened ectoderm, and bears no otoliths or sense-cells, but the base
of the club rests upon the ex-umbral nerve-ring. Brooks regards these
organs as sensory, serving for the sense of balance, and representing
a primitive stage of the tentaculocysts of Trachylinae; Linko, on
the other hand! finding no nerve-elements connected with them,
regards them as digestive (?) in function.
The sense-organs of the two fresh-water medusae Limnocodium
and Limnocnida are peculiar and of rather doubtful nature (see E. T.
Browne [10]).
The endoderm of the medusa shows the same general types of
structure as in the polyp, described above. We can distinguish (i)
digestive endoderm, in the stomach, often
with special glandular elements; (2) circu-
latory endoderm, in the radial and ring-
canals; (3) supporting endoderm in the axes
of the tentacles and in the endoderm-
lamella; the latter is primitively a double
layer of cells, produced by concrescence
of the ex-umbral and sub-umbral layers of
the coelenteron, but it is usually found as a
single layer of flattened cells (fig. 40); in
Geryonia, however, it remains double, and
the centripetal canals arise by parting of
the two layers; (4) excretory endoderm,
lining pores at the margin of the umbrella,
occurring in certain Leptomedusae as so-
called " marginal tubercles," opening, on
the one hand, into the ring-canal and, on
the other hand, to the exterior by " marginal
funnels," which debouch into the sub-umbral
cavity above the velum. As has been de-
FIG. 38. — Ocellus of scribed above, the endoderm may also con-
Lizzia koellikeri. oc, tribute to the sense-organs, but such
Pigmented ectodermal contributions are always of an accessory
cefis; /, lens. (After nature, for instance, concrement-cells in
Hertwig.) the otocysts, pigment in the ocelli, and
never of sensory nature, sense-cells being
in all cases ectodermal.
The reproductive cells may be regarded as belonging primarily
to neither ectoderm nor endoderm, though lodged in the ectoderm
in all Hydromedusae. As described for the polyp, they are wandering
cells capable of extensive migrations before reaching the particular
spot at which they ripen. In the Hydromedusae they usually, if
not invariably, ripen in the ectoderm, but in the neighbourhood of the
main sources of nutriment, that is to say, not far from the stomach.
Hence the gonads are found on the manubrium in Anthomedusae
generally; on the base of the manubrium, or under the gastral
pouches, or in both these situations (Octorchidae), or under the radial
canals, in Trachomedusae; under the gastral pouches or radial
canals, in Narcomedusae. When ripe, the germ-cells are dehisced
directly to the exterior.
Hydromedusae are of separate sexes, the only known exception
being Amphogona apsteini, one of the Trachomedusae (Browne [9]).
Moreover, all the medusae budded from a given hydroid colony are
either male or female, so that even the non-sexual polyp must be
considered to have a latent sex. (In Hydra, on the other hand, the
individual is usually hermaphrodite.) The medusa always reproduces
itself sexually, and in some cases non-sexually also. The non-sexual
reproduction takes the
form of fission, budding
or sporogony, the details
of which are described
below. Buds may be pro-
duced from the manu-
brium, radial canals,
ring-canal, or tentacle-
bases, or from an aboral
stolon (Narcomedasae).
In all cases only medusa-
buds are produced, never
polyp-buds.
The- mesogloea of the
medusa is largely de-
veloped and of great
thickness in the umbrella.
The sub-epithelial tissues,
i.e. the nervous and mus-
cular ceHs, are lodged
in the mesogloea, but in
Hydromedusae it never
contains tissue-cells or After w |K Brooks Jmrnai o{ Morphology, x.,
mesogloeal corpuscles. by permission of Ginn & Co.
FIG. 39. — Section of a Cordylus of
Laodice.
Circular canal.
Velum.
Tentacle.
Cordylus, composed
e»
c c
„
'
of flattened
ectoderm ec covering a large-celled
endodermal axis en.
(6) The Medusae as a
Subordinate Individuality.
— It has been shown
above that polyps are
budded only from polyps
and that the medusae
may be budded either
from polyps or from
medusae. I n any case the
daughter-individuals produced from the buds may be imagined as
remaining attached to the parent and forming a colony of individuals
in organic connexion with one another, and thus three possible cases
arise. The first case gives a colony entirely composed of polyps, as
in many Hydroidea. The second case gives a colony partly composed
of polyp-individuals, partly of medusa-individuals, a possibility also
realized in many colonies of Hydroidea. The third case gives a colony
entirely composed of medusa-individuals, a possibility perhaps
realized in the Siphonophora, which will be discussed in dealing with
this group.
The first step towards the formation of a mixed hydroid colony is
undoubtedly a hastening of the sexual maturity of the medusa-
individual. Normally the medusae are liberated in quite an imma-
ture state; they swim
away, feed, grow and
become adult mature
individuals. From the
bionomical point of
view, the medusa is to
be considered as a
means of spreading the
species, supplementing
the deficiencies of the
sessile polyp. It may
be, however, that in-
creased reproductive-
ness becomes of greater
importance to the
species than wide diffu-
sion; such a condition FIG. 40. — Portions of Sections through
will be brought about if the Disk of Medusae — the upper one of
the medusae mature Lizzia, the lower of Aurelia. (After
quickly and are either Hertwig.)
set free in a mature d Endoderm iamella.
condition or remain in Muscular processes of the ectoderm-cells
the shelter of the polyp- in croi.£Brtfcn.
Ectoderm.
Endoderm lining the enteric cavity.
Wandering endoderm cells of the
gelatinous substance.
colony, protected^ from j
risks of a free life in the '
open sea. In this way '
the medusa sinks from '
an independent per-
sonality to an organ of the polyp-colony, becoming a so-called
medusoid gonophore, or bearer of the reproductive organs, and losing
gradually all organs necessary for an independent existence, namely
those of sense, locomotion and nutrition.
In some cases both free medusae and gonophpres may be produced
from the same hydroid colony. This is the case in Syncoryne mirabilis
(Allman [1], p. 378) and in Campanularia volubilis; in the latter,
free medusae are produced in summer, gonophores in winter
(Duplessis [14]). Again in Pennaria, the male medusae are set free
AND MORPHOLOGY]
HYDROMEDUSAE
in a state of maturity, and have ocelli ; the female medusae remain
attached and have no sense organs.
The gonophores of different hydroids differ greatly in structure
from one another, and form a series showing degeneration of the
medusa-individual, which is gradually stripped, as it were, of its
characteristic features of medusan organization and finally reduced to
the simplest structure. A very early stage in the degeneration is well
exemplified by the so-called " meconidium " of Gonothyraea (fig.
41, A). Here the medusoid, attached by the centre of its ex-umbral
surface, has lost its velum and sub-umbral muscles, its sense organs
and mouth, though still retaining rudimentary tentacles. The
gonads (g) are produced on the manubrium, which has a hollow
endodermal axis, termed the spadix (sp.), in open communication
with the coenosarc of the polyp-colony and serving for the nutrition
of the generative cells. A very similar condition is seen in Tubularia
(fig. 41, B), where, however, the tentacles have quite disappeared,
and the circular rim formed by the margin of the umbrella has nearly
closed over the manubrium leaving only a small aperture through
which the embryos emerge. The next step is illustrated by the
female gonophores of Cladocoryne, where the radial and ring-canals
H
Modified from Weismaan, Entstehung der Sexucdzellen bei den Hydromedusen.
FIG. 41. — Diagrams of the Structure of the Gonophores
of
various Hydromedusae, based on the figures of G. J. Allman and
A. Weismann.
A, "Meconidium" of Gonothyraea. H, Withspadix branched (Cordy-
B, Type of Tubularia.
C, Type of Garveia, &c. [&c.
D, Type of Plumularia, Agalma,
E, Type of Coryne, Forskalia, &c.
F, G, H, Sporosacs.
F, With simple spadix.
G, With spadix prolonged
(Eudendrium).
lophora) .
s.c, Sub-umbral cavity.
/, Tentacles.
c.c, Circular canal,
g, Gonads.
sp, Spadix.
e.l, Endoderm-lamella.
ex, Ex-umbral ectoderm.
ect, Ectotheca.
have become obliterated by coalescence of their walls, so that the
entire endoderm of the umbrella is in the condition of the endoderm-
lamella. Next the opening of the umbrella closes up completely
and disappears, so that the sub-umbral cavity forms a closed space
surrounding the manubrium, on which the gonads are developed;
such a condition is seen in the male gonophore of Cladocoryne and in
Garveia (fig. 41, C), where, however, there is a further complication in
the form of an adventitious envelope or ectotheca (ect.) split off from
the gonophore as a protective covering, and not present in Clado-
coryne. The sub-umbral cavity (s.c.) functions as a brood-space
for the developing embryos, which are set free by rupture of the wall.
It is evident that the outer envelope of the gonophore represents the
e»-umbral ectoderm (ex.), and that the inner ectoderm lining the
cavity represents the sub-umbral ectoderm of the free medusa.
The next step is the gradual obliteration of the sub-umbral cavity
(s.c.) by disappearance of which the sub-umbral ectoderm comes into
contact with the ectoderm of the manubrium. Such a type is found
in Plumularia and also in Agalma (fig. 41, D) ; centrally is seen the
spadix (sp.), bearing the generative cells (g), and external to these (i)
a layer of ectoderm representing the epithelium of the manubrium ;
(2) the layer of sub-umbral ectoderm; (3) the endoderm-lamella
(e.l.) ; (4) the ex-umbral ectoderm (ex.) ; and (5) there may or may
not be present also an ectotheca. Thus the gonads are covered over
by at least four layers of epithelium, and since these are unnecessary,
presenting merely obstacles to the dehiscence of the gonads, they
gradually undergo reduction. The sub-umbral ectoderm and that
covering the manubrium undergo concrescence to form a single layer
(fig. 41, E), which finally disappears altogether, and the endoderm-
lamella disappears. The gonophore is now reduced to its simplest
condition, known as the sporosac (fig. 41, F, G, H), and consists of the
spadix bearing the gonads covered by a single layer of ectoderm (ex.),
with or without the addition of an ectotheca. It cannot be too
strongly emphasized, however, that the sporosac should not be com-
pared simply with the manubrium of the medusa, as is sometimes
done. The endodermal spadix (sp ) of the sporosac represents the
endoderm of the manubrium; the ectodermal lining of the sporosac
(ex.) represents the ex-umbral ectoderm of the medusa; and the
intervening layers,
together with the
sub-umbral cavity,
have disappeared.
The spadix, as the
organ of nutrition
for the gonads,
may be developed
in various ways,
being simple (fig.
41, F) or branched
(fig. 41, H); in
Eudendrium (fig.
41, G) it curls
round the single
large ovum.
The hydroid
Dicoryne is re-
markable for the
possession of gono-
phores, which are
ciliate and become
detached and
swim away by
means of their
cilia. Each such
sporosac has two
long tentacle-like
processes thickly
ciliated.
It has been
maintained that
the gonads of
Hydra represent
sporosacs or gono-
phores greatly re-
duced, with the
last traces of
medusoid Struc- ^ter Allman, Gymnoblastic Hydroids, by permission of the
ture completely CouncU o£ the ^ Sodety~
obliterated. There FIG. 42. — Gonophores of Dicoryne conferta.
is, however, no A, A male gonophore still enclosed in its ecto-
evidence whatever theca.' [liberation,
for this, the gonads B and C, Two views of a female gonophore after
of Hydra being t, Tentacles.
purely ectodermal ov, Ova, two carried on each female gonophore.
structures, while sp, Testis.
all medusoid gono-
phores have an endodermal portion. Hydra is, moreover, bisexual,
in contrast with what is known of hydroid colonies.
In some Leptomedusae the gonads are formed on the radial
canals and form protruding masses resembling sporosacs super-
ficially, but not in structure. Allman, however, regarded this type
of gonad as equivalent to a sporosac, and considered the medusa
bearing them as a non-sexual organism, a " blastocheme " as he
termed it, producing by budding medusoid gonophores. As medusae
are known to bud medusae from the radial canals there is nothing
impossible in Allman's theory, but it cannot be said to have; received
satisfactory proof.
Reproduction and Ontogeny of the Hydromedusae.
Nearly every possible method of reproduction occurs amongst
the Hydromedusae. In classifying methods of generation it is
usual to make use of the sexual or non-sexual nature of the
reproduction as a primary difference, but a more scientific
classification is afforded by the distinction between tissue-cells
146
HYDROMEDUSAE
[REPRODUCTION
(histocytes) and germinal cells, actual or potential (archaeo-
cytes), amongst the constituent cells of the animal body. In
this way we may distinguish, first, vegetative reproduction, the
result of discontinuous growth of the tissues and cell-layers
of the body as a whole, leading to (i) fission, (2) autotomy, or
(3) vegetative budding; secondly, germinal reproduction, the
result of the reproductive activity of the archaeocytes or germinal
tissue. In germinal reproduction the proliferating cells may be
undi/erentiated, so-called primitive germ-cells, or they may be
differentiated as sexual cells, male or female, i.e. spermatozoa
and ova. If the germ-cells are undifierentiated, the offspring
may arise from many cells or from a single cell; the first type
is (4) germinal budding, the second is (5) sporogony. If the germ-
cells are differentiated, the offspring arises by syngamy or sexual
union of the ordinary type between an ovum and spermatozoon,
so-called fertilization of the ovum, or by parthenogenesis, i.e.
development of an ovum without fertilization. The only one of
these possible modes of reproduction not known to occur in
Hydromedusae is parthenogenesis.
(1) True fission or longitudinal division of an individual into
two equal and similar daughter-individuals is not common but
occurs in Gastroblasta, where it has been described in detail by
Arnold Lang [30].
(2) Autotomy, sometimes termed transverse fission, is the name
given to a process of unequal fission in which a portion of the
body separates off with subsequent regeneration. In Tubularia
by a process of decapitation the hydranths may separate off
and give rise to a separate individual, while the remainder of
the body grows a new hydranth. Similarly in Schizocladium
portions of the hydrocaulus are cut off to form so-called " spores,"
which grow into new
individuals (see
Allman [1]).
(3) Vegetative bud-
ding is almost uni-
versal in the Hydro-
medusae. By budding
is understood the
formation of a new in-
dividual from a fresh
growth of undiffer-
entiated material. It
is convenient to dis-
tinguish buds that
give rise to polyps
from those that form
medusae.
(a) The Polyp.— The
buds that form polyps
are very simple in
mode of formation.
Four stages may be
distinguished; the first
is a simple outgrowth
of both layers, ecto-
derm and endoderm
containing a prolonga-
tion of the coelenteric
cavity; in the seconc
stage the tentacles
"Coelenterata," in grow put as secondary
diverticula from the
side of the first out-
growth; in the thirc
stage the mouth is
formed as a perfora
tion of the two layers,
and, lastly, if the but
S.o.
Much modified from C. Chun,
Bronn's Tieneich.
FIG. 43. — Direct Budding of Cunina.
A, B, C, E, F, In ver- t, Tentacle.
tical section.
D, Sketch of exter-
nal view.
st. Stomach.
m, Manubrium.
s.o,
v,
s.c,
n.s,
Sense organ.
Velum.
Sub-um bral
cavity.
Nervous system.
from the parent polyp and begins a free existence.
(6) The Medusae. — Two types of budding must be distinguished
— the direct, so-called palingenetic type, and the indirect, so-callet
•coenogenotic type.
The direct type of budding is rare, but is seen in Cunina anc
Millepora. In Cunina there arises, first, a simple outgrowth of both
layers, as in a polyp-bud (fig. 43, A) ; in this the mouth is formec
distally as a perforation (B) ; next the sides of the tube so formec
>ulge out laterally near the attachment to form the umbrella, while
:he distal undilated portion of the tube represents the manubrium
^C) ; the umbrella
now grows out
nto a number of
obes or lappets,
and the tentacles
and tentaculocysts
*row out, the
ormer in a notch
jet ween two
appets, the latter
on the apex of each
lappet (D, E);
finally, the velum
arises as a growth
of the ectoderm
alone, the whole
bud shapes itself,
so to speak, and
the little medusa is
separated off by
rupture of the thin
stalk connecting it
with the parent (F).
The direct method
of medusa-budding
only differs from
the polyp-bud by
its greater com-
plexity of parts and
organs.
The indirect
mode of budding
(figs. 44, 45) is the
commonest method
by which medusa-
buds are formed.
It is marked by the
formation in the
bud of a character-
istic structure
termed the ento-
codon (Knospen-
kern, Glockenkern).
The first stage is
a simple hollow
outgrowth of both
body-layers (fig. 44,
A); at the tip of
this is formed a
thickening of the
ectoderm, arising
Krimitively as a
ollow ingrowth
(fig. 44, B), but
more usually as a
solid mass of ecto-
derm-cells (fig. 45,
A). The ectodermal
ingrowth is the
entocodon (Gc.) ; it
bulges into, and
pushes down, the
endoderm at the
apex of the bud,
and if solid it soon
acquires a cavity (fig. 44, C, s.c.). The cavity of the entocodon
increases continually in size, while the endoderm pushes up at the
sides of it to form a cup with hollow walls, enclosing but not quite
surrounding the _
entocodon, which - •
remains in contact
at its outer side
with the ectoderm
covering the bud
(fig. 44, D, t). The
next changes that
take place are
chiefly in the endo-
derm-cup (fig. 44,
D, E) ; the cavity
between the two
walls of the cup
becomes reduced
by concrescence to
form the radial
canals (r.c.), ring-canal (c.c.), and endoderm-lamella (e.l., fig. 44, E),
and at the same time the base of the cup is thrust upwards to form
the manubrium (m), converting the cavity of the entocodon into a
FIG. 44. — Diagrams of Medusa budding with
the formation of an entocodon. The endoderm
is shaded, the ectoderm left clear.
A, B, C, D, F, Succes-
sive stages in ver-
tical section.
E, Transverse sec-
tion of a stage
similar to D.
Gc, Entocodon.
s.c, Cavity of ento-
codon, forming
the future
sub-u m b r a 1
cavity.
st, Stomach.
r.c. Radial canal.
c.c, Circular canal.
e.l, Endoderm lamella.
m, Manubrium.
», Velum.
t, Tentacle.
A B C
FIG. 45. — Modifications of the method of
budding shown in fig. 44, with solid Ento-
codon (Gc.) and formation of an ectotheca (ect.).
AND ONTOGENY]
HYDROMEDUSAE
space which is crescentic or horse-shoe-like in section. Next ten-
tacles (t, fig. 44, F) grow out from the ring-canal, and the double
plate of ectoderm on the distal side of the entocodon becomes
perforated, leaving a circular rim composed of two layers of ectoderm,
the velum (v) of the medusa. Finally, a mouth is formed by breaking
through at the apex of the manubrium, and the now fully-formed
medusa becomes
separated by rup-
ture of the stalk
of the bud and
swims away.
If the bud, how
ever, is destined to
give rise not to a
free medusa, but
to a gonophore
the developmenl
is similar buc be-
comes arrested at
various points, ac-
cording to the
degree to which
the gonophore i:
degenerate. The
entocodon is
usually formed
proving the medu-
soid nature of the
bud, but in sporo-
sacs the entocodon
may be rudiment-
ary or absent
altogether. The
process of budding
as above described
may be varied or
complicated in
various ways;
thus a secondary,
amnion-Iike, ecto-
dermal covering
or ectotheca (fig.
45, C, ect.) may be
formed over all, as
in Garveia, &c. ;
or the entocodon
may remain solid
and without cavity
until after the
formation of the
manubrium, or
may never acquire
a cavity at all, as
described above
for the gono-
phores.
Phylogenetic Sig-
nificance of the
Entocodon. — It is
seen from the
foregoing account
FIG. 46. — Diagrams to show the significance
of the Entocodon in Medusa-buds. (Modified
from a diagram given by A. Weismann.)
I,
II
Ideally primitive method of budding, in of medusa - bud-
which the mouth is formed first (la), ding that the ento-
next the tentacles (16), and lastly the codon is a
umbrella.
very
important consti-
Method of Cunina; (a) the mouth arises, tuent of the bud,
next the umbrella (b), and lastly the ten- furnishing some of
tacles (c). the most essential
[II, Hypothetical transition from II to the in- portions of the
direct method with an entocodon; the medusa ; its cavity
formation of the manubrium is retarded, becomes the sub-
that of the umbrella hastened (Ilia, b). umbral cavity,
IV, a, b, c, budding with an entocodon (cf. and its lining fur-
fig- 44)- nishes the ecto-
V, Budding with a solid entocodon (cf. fig. 45). dermal epithelium
of the manubrium
and of the sub-umbral cavity as far as the edge of the velum.
Hence the entocodon represents a precocious formation of the
sub-umbral surface, equivalent to the peristome of the polyp,
differentiated in the bud prior to other portions of the organism
which must be regarded as antecedent to it in phylogeny.
If the three principal organ-systems of the medusa, namely mouth,
tentacles and umbrella, be considered in the light of phylogeny,
it is evident that the manubrium bearing the mouth must be the
oldest, as representing a common property of all the Coelentera,
even of the gastrula embryo of all Enterozoa. Next in order come
the tentacles, common to all Cnidaria. The special property of the
medusa is the umbrella, distinguishing the medusa at once from
other morphological types among the Coelentera. If, therefore, the
formation of these three systems of organs took place according to
a strictly phylogenetic sequence, we should expect them to appear
in the order set forth above (fig. 46, la, b, c). The nearest approach
to the phylogenetic sequence is seen in the budding of Cunina, where
the manubrium and mouth appear first, but the umbrella is formed
before the tentacles (fig. 46, Ha, b, c). In the indirect or coeno-
genetic method of budding, the first two members of the sequence
exhibited by Cunina change places, and the umbrella is formed first,
the manubrium next, and then the tentacles; the actual mouth-
perforation being delayed to the very last (fig. 46, IVa, b, c). Hence
the budding of medusae exemplifies very clearly a common pheno-
menon in development, a phylogenetic series of events completely
dislocated in the ontogenetic time-sequence.
The entocodon is to be regarded, therefore, not as primarily an
ingrowth of ectoderm, but rather as an upgrowth of both body-
layers, in the form of a circular rim (IVo), representing the umbrellar
margin ; it is comparable to the bulging that forms the umbrella in
the direct method of budding, but takes place before a manubrium
is formed, and is greatly reduced in size, so as to become a little pit.
By a simple modification, the open pit becomes a solid ectodermal
ingrowth, just as in Teleostean fishes the hollow medullary tube, or
the auditory pit of other vertebrate embryos, is formed at first as a
solid cord of cells, which acquires a cavity secondarily. Moreover,
the entocodon, however developed, gives rise at first to a closed
cavity, representing a closing over of the umbrella, temporary in
the bud destined to be a free medusa, but usually permanent in the
sessile gonophore. As has been shown above, the closing up of the
sub-umbral cavity is one of the earliest degenerative changes in the
evolution of the gonophore, and we may regard it as the umbrellar
fold taking on a protective function, either temporarily for the bud
or permanently for the gonophore.
To sum up, the entocodon is a precocious formation of the umbrella,
closing over to protect the organs in the umbrellar cavity. The
possession of an entocodon proves the medusa-nature of the bud,
and can only be explained on the theory that gonophores are de-
generate medusae, and is inexplicable on the opposed view that
medusae are derived from gonophores secondarily set free. In the
sporosac, however, the medusa-individual has become so degenerate
that even the documentary proof, so to speak, of its medusoid
nature may have been destroyed, and only circumstantial evidence
of its nature can be produced.
4. Germinal Budding. — This method of budding is commonly
described as budding from a single body-layer, instead of from
both layers. The layer that produces the bud is invariably the
ectoderm, i.e. the layer in which, in Hydromedusae, the generative
cells are lodged; and in some cases the buds are produced in the
exact spot in which later the gonads appear. From these facts,
and from those of the sporogony, to be described below, we may
regard budding to this type as taking place from the germinal
epithelium rather than from ordinary ectoderm.
(a) The Polyp. — Budding from the ectoderm alone has been
described by A. Lang [29] in Hydra and other polyps. The tissues
of the bud become differentiated into ectoderm and endoderm, and
the endoderm of the bud becomes secondarily continuous with that
of the parent, but no part of the parental endoderm contributes
to the building up of the daughter-polyp. Lang regarded this
method of budding as universal in polyps, a notion disproved by
O. Seeliger [52] who went to the opposite extreme and regarded the
type of budding described by Lang as non-existent. In view,
however, both of the statements and figures of Lang and of the facts
to be described presently for medusae (Margellium), it is at least
theoretically possible that both germinal and vegetative budding may
occur in polyps as well as in medusae.
(b) The Medusa. — The clearest instance of germinal budding is
furnished by Margellium (Rathkea) octopunctatum, one of the
Margelidae. The budding of this medusa has been worked out in
detail by Chun (HvDROZOA, [1]), to whom the reader must be referred
for the interesting laws of budding regulating the sequence and
order of formation of the buds.
The buds of Margellium are produced on the manubrium in each of
the four interradii, and they arise from the ectoderm, that is to say,
the germinal epithelium, which later gives rise to the gonads. The
buds do not appear simultaneously but successively on each of the
four sides of the manubrium, thus: 3 4 and secondary buds
2
may be produced on the medusa-buds before the latter are set free
as medusae. Each bud arises as a thickening of the epithelium, which
first forms two or three layers (fig. 47, A), and becomes separated into
a superficial layer, future ectoderm, surrounding a central mass, future
endoderm (fig. 47, B). The ectodermal epithelium on the distal side
of the bud becomes thickened, grows inwards, and forms a typical
entocodon (fig. 37, D, E, F). The remaining development of the bud
"s just as described above for the indirect method of medusa-budding
'fig. 47, G, H). When the bud is nearly complete, the body-wall of
the parent immediately below it becomes perforated, placing the
coelenteric cavity of the parent in secondary communication with
that of the bud (H), doubtless for the better nutrition of the latter.
HYDROMEDUSAE
[REPRODUCTION
Especially noteworthy in the germinal budding of Margellium
is the formation of the entocodon, as in the vegetative budding of
the indirect type.
5. Sporogony. — This method of reproduction has been described
by E. Metchnikoff in Cunina and allied genera. In individuals
either of the male or female sex, germ-cells which are quite un-
differentiated and neutral in character, become amoeboid, and
wander into the endoderm. They divide each into two sister-
cells, one of which — the spore — becomes enveloped by the other.
The spore-cell multiplies by division, while the enveloping cell
is nutrient and protective. The spore cell gives rise to a " spore-
larva," which is set free in the coelenteron and grows into a
medusa. Whether sporogony occurs also in the polyp or not
remains to be proved.
6. Sexual Reproduction and Embryology. — The ovum of Hydro-
medusae is usually one of a large number of oogonia, and grows
at the expense of its sister-cells. No regular follicle is formed,
but the oocyte absorbs nutriment from the remaining oogonia.
In Hydra the oocyte is a large amoeboid cell, which sends out
pseudopodia amongst the oogonia and absorbs nutriment from
them. When the oocyte is full grown, the residual oogonia
die off and disintegrate.
The spermatogenesis and maturation and fertilization of the
germ-cells present nothing out of the common and need not be
FIG. 47. — Budding from the Ectoderm (germinal epithelium) in
Margellium. (After C. Chun.)
A, The epithelium becomes two- the bud forms an entocodon
layered. (Gc.).
B, The lower layer forms a solid G,H, Formation of the medusae.
mass of cells, which (C) s.c, Sub-umbral cavity,
becomes a vesicle, the future r.c. Radial canal,
endoderm, containing the st, Stomach, which in H ac-
coelenteric cavity (coel), quires a secondary corn-
while the outer layer munication with the diges-
furnishes the future ecto- tive cavity of the mother,
derm. c.c. Circular canal.
D, E, F, a thickening of the ecto- v. Velum,
derm on the distal side of /, Tentacle.
described here. These processes have been studied in detail
by A. Brauer [2] for Hydra.
The general course of the development is described in the article
HYDROZOA. We may distinguish the following series of stages:
(i) ovum; (2) cleavage, leading to formation of a blastula; (3)
formation of an inner mass or parenchyma, the future endoderm,
by immigration or delamination, leading to the so-called parenchy-
mula-stage; (4) formation of an archenteric cavity, the future
coelenteron, by a splitting of the internal parenchyma, and of a
blastopore, the future mouth, by perforation at one pole, leading to
the gast ru la-stage ; (5) the outgrowth of tentacles round the mouth
(blastopore), leading to the actinula-stage; and (6) the actinula
becomes the polyp or medusa in the manner described elsewhere
(see articles HYDROZOA, POLYP and MEDUSA). This is the full, ideal
development, which is always contracted or shortened to a greater or
less extent. If the embryo is set free as a free-swimming, so-called
planula-larva, in the blastula, parenchymula, or gastrula stage, then
a free actinula stage is not found; if, on the other hand, a free
actinula occurs, then there is no free planula stage.
The cleavage of the ovum follows two types, both seen in Tubularia
(Brauer [3]). In the first, a cleavage foljows each nuclear division;
in the second, the nuclei multiply by division a number of times,
and then the ovum divides into as many blastomeres as there are
nuclei present. The result of cleavage in all cases is a typical
blastula, which when set free becomes oval and develops a flagcllum
to each cell, but when not set free, it remains spherical in form and
has no fiagella.
The germ-layer formation is always by immigration or delamina-
tion, never by invagination. When the blastula is oval and free-
swimming the inner mass is formed by unipolar immigration from
the hinder pole. When the blastula is spherical and not set free, the
germ-layer formation is always multipolar, either by immigration
or by delamination, i.e. by tangential division of the cells of the
blastoderm, as in Geryonia, or by a mixture of immigration and
delamination, as in Hydra, Tubularia, &c. The blastopore is formed
as a secondary perforation at one spot, in free-swimming forms
at the hinder pole. Formation of archenteron and blastopore may,
however, be deferred till a later stage (actinula or after).
The actinula stage is usually suppressed or not set free, but it is
seen in Tubularia (fig. 48), where it is ambulatory, in Gonionemus
(Trachomedusae), and in Cunina (Narco-
medusae), where it is parasitic.
In Leptolinae the embryonic develop-
ment culminates in a polyp, which is
usually formed by fixation of a planula
(parenchymula), rarely by fixation of an
actinula. The planula may fix itself (i)
by one end, and then becomes the hydro-
caulus and hydranth, while the hydro-
rhiza grows out from the base; or (2)
partly by one side and then gives rise to Modified from a plate by L.
the hydrorhiza as well as to the other Agassiz, Contributions to Nat.
parts of the polyp; or (3) entirely by its'"
side, and then forms a recumbent hydro- piG. 48.— Free Actinula
rhiza from which a polyp appears to be of Tubularia.
budded as an upgrowth.
In Trachylinae the development produces always a medusa, and
there is no polyp-stage. The medusa arises direct from the actinula-
stage and there is no entocodon formed, as in the budding described
above.
Life-cycles of the Hydromedusae. — The life-cycle of the Leptolinae
consists of an alternation of generations in which non-sexual indi-
viduals, polyps, produce by budding sexual individuals, medusae,
which give rise by the sexual process to the non-sexual polyps again,
so completing the cycle. Hence the alternation is of the type termed
metagenesis. The Leptolinae are chiefly forms belonging to the in-
shore fauna. The Trachylinae, on the other hand, are above all
oceanic forms, and have no polyp-stage, and hence there is typically
no alternation in their life-cycle. It is commonly assumed that the
Trachylinae are forms which have lost the alternation of generations
possessed by them ancestrally, through secondary simplification of
the life-cycle. Hence the Trachylinae are termed " hypogenetie "
medusae to contrast them with the metagenetic Leptolinae. The
whole question has, however, been argued at length by W. K. Brooks
[4], who adduces strong evidence for a contrary view, that is to say,
for regarding the direct type of development seen in Trachylinae as
more primitive, and the metagenesis seen in Leptolinae as a secondary
complication introduced into the life-cycle by the acquisition of
larval budding. The polyp is regarded, on this view, as a form
phylogenetically older than the medusa, in short, as nothing more
than a sessile actinula. In Trachylinae the polyp-stage is passed
over, and is represented only by the actinula as a transitory embry-
onic stage. In Leptolinae the actinula becomes the sessile polyp
which has acquired the power of budding and producing individuals
either of its own or of a higher rank; it represents a persistent larval
stage and remains in a sexually immature condition as a neutral
individual, sex being an attribute only of the final stage in the de-
velopment, namely the medusa. The polyp of the Leptolinae has
reached the limit of its individual development and is incapable of
becoming itself a medusa, but only produces medusa-buds; hence a
true alternation of generations is produced. In Trachylinae also the
beginnings of a similar metagenesis can be found. Thus in Cunina
octonaria, the ovum develops into an actinula which buds daughter-
actinulae; all of them, both parent and offspring, develop into
medusae, so that there is no alternation of generations, but only
larval multiplication. In Cunina parasitica, however, the ovum
develops into an actinula, which buds actinulae as before, but only
the daughter-actinulae develop into medusae, whije the original,
parent-actinula dies off; here, therefore, larval budding has led to a
true alternation of generations. In Gonionemus the actinula becomes
fixed and polyp-like, and reproduces by budding, so that here also an
alternation of generations may occur. In the Leptolinae we must
first substitute polyp for actinula, and then a condition is found which
can be compared to the case of Cunina parasitica or Gonionemus, if
we suppose that neither the parent-actinula (i.e. founder-polyp) nor
its offspring by budding (polyps of the colony) have the power of
becoming medusae, but only of producing medusae by budding.
For further arguments and illustrations the reader must be referred
to Brooks's most interesting memoir. The whole theory is one most
ELEUTHEROBLASTEA]
HYDROMEDUSAE
149
intimately connected with the question of the relation between polyp
and medusa, to be discussed presently. It will be seen elsewhere,
however, that whatever view may be held as to the origin of meta-
genesis in Hydromedusae, in the case of Scyphomedusae (?.f.) no
other view is possible than that the alternation of generations is the
direct result of larval proliferation.
To complete our survey of life-cycles in the Hydromedusae it is
necessary to add a few words about the position of Hydra and its
allies. If we accept the view that Hydra is a true sexual polyp, and
that its gonads are not gonophores (i.e. medusa-buds) in the extreme
of degeneration, then it follows from Brooks's theory that Hydra
must be descended from an archaic form in which the medusan type
of organization had not yet been evolved. Hydra must, in short, be
a living representative of the ancestor of which the actinula-stage is
a transient reminiscence in the development of higher forms. It
may be pointed out in this connexion that the fixation of Hydra is
only temporary, and that the animal is able at all times to detach
itself, to move to a new situation, and to fix itself again. There is no
difficulty whatever in regarding Hydra as bearing the same relation
to the actinula-stage of other Hydromedusae that a Rotifer bears to
a trochophore-larva or a fish to a tadpole.
The Relation of Polyp and M edusa.— Many views have been put
forward as to the morphological relationship between the two
types of person in the Hydromedusae. For the most part,
polyp and medusa have been regarded as modifications of a
common type, a view supported by the existence, among Scypho-
medusae (q.v.), of sessile polyp-like medusae (Lucernaria, &c.).
R. Leuckart in 1848 compared medusae in general terms to
flattened polyps. G. J. Allman [1] put forward a more detailed
view, which was as follows. In some polyps the tentacles are
webbed at the base, and it was supposed that a medusa was a
polyp of this kind set free, the umbrella being a greatly developed
web or membrane extending between the tentacles. A very
different theory was enunciated by E. Metchnikoff. In some
hydroids the founder-polyp, developed from a planula after fixa-
tion, throws out numerous outgrowths from the base to form the
hydrorhiza; these outgrowths may be radially arranged so as to
form by contact or coalescence a flat plate. Mechnikov considered
the plate thus formed at the base of the polyp as equivalent
to the umbrella, and the body of the polyp as equivalent to the
manubrium, of the medusa; on this view the marginal tentacles
almost invariably present in medusae are new formations, and
the tentacles of the polyp are represented in the medusa by the
oral arms which may occur round the mouth, and which some-
times, e.g. in Margelidae, have the appearance and structure of
tentacles. Apart from the weighty arguments which the develop-
ment furnishes against the theories of Allman and Mechnikov,
it may be pointed out that neither hypothesis gives a satisfactory
explanation of a structure universally present in medusae of
whatever class, namely the endoderm-lamella, discovered by
the brothers O. and R. Hertwig. It would be necessary to regard
this structure as a secondary extension of the endoderm in the
tentacle-web, on Allman's theory, or between the outgrowths
of the hydrorhiza, on Mechnikov's hypothesis. The develop-
ment, on the contrary, shows unequivocally that the endoderm-
lamella arises as a local coalescence of the endodermal linings of a
primitively extensive gastral space.
The question is one intimately connected with the view taken
as to the nature and individuality of polyp, medusa and gono-
phore respectively. On this point the following theories have
been put forward.
i. The theory that the medusa is simply an organ, which has
become detached and has acquired a certain degree of independence,
like the well-known instance of the hectocotyle of the cuttle-fish.
On this view, put forward by E. van Beneden and T. H. Huxley, the
sporosac is the starting-point of an evolution leading up through the
various types of gonophores to the free medusa as the culminating
point of a phyletic series. The evidence against this view may be
classed under two heads: first, comparative evidence; hydroids
very different in their structural characters and widely separate in
the systematic classification of these organisms may produce medusae
very similar, at least so far as the essential features of medusan
organization are concerned; on the other hydroids closely allied,
perhaps almost indistinguishable, may produce gonophores in the one
case, medusae in the other; for example, Hydractinia (gonophores)
and Podocoryne (medusae), Tubularia (gonophores) and Ectopleura
(medusae), Coryne (gonophores) and Syncoryne (medusae), and so on.
Tf it is assumed that all these genera bore gonophores ancestrally,
then medusa of similar type must have been evolved quite inde-
pendently in a great number of cases. Secondly, there is the evidence
from the development, namely, the presence of the entocodon in the
medusa-bud, a structure which, as explained above, can only be
accounted for satisfactorily by derivation from a medusan type of
organization. Hence it may be concluded that the gonophores are
degenerate medusae, and not that the medusae are highly elaborated
gonophores, as the organ-theory requires.
2. The theory that the medusa is an independent individual, fully
equivalent to the polyp in this respect, is now universally accepted
as being supported by all the facts of comparative morphology and
development. The question still remains open, however, which of
the two types of person may be regarded as the most primitive, the
most ancient in the race-history of the Hydromedusae. F. M.
Balfour put forward the view that the polyp was the more primitive
type, and that the medusa is a special modification of the polyp for
reproductive purposes, the result of division of labour in a polyp-
colony, whereby special reproductive persons become detached and
acquire organs of locomotion for spreading the species. W. K.
Brooks, on the other hand, as stated above, regards the medusa as
the older type and looks upon both polyp and medusa, in the Hydro-
medusae, as derived from a free-swimming or floating actinula, the
polyp being thus merely a fixed nutritive stage, possessing second-
arily acquired powers of multiplication by budding.
The Hertwigs when they discovered the endoderm-lamella showed
on morphological grounds that polyp and medusa are independent
types, each produced by modification in different directions of a
more primitive type represented in development by the actinula-
stage. If a polyp, such as Hydra, be regarded simply as a sessile
actinula, we must certainly consider the polyp to be the older type,
and it may be pointed out that in the Anthozoa only polyp-indi-
viduals occur. This must not be taken to mean, however, that the
medusa is derived from a sessile polyp; it must be regarded as a
direct modification of the more ancient free actinula form, without
primitively any intervening polyp-stage, such as has been introduced
secondarily into the development of the Leptolinae and represents a
revival, so to speak, of an ancestral form or larval stage, which has
taken on a special role in the economy of the species.
SYSTEMATIC REVIEW OF THE HYDROMEDUSAE
ORDER I. Eleutheroblastea. — Simple polyps which become
sexually mature and which also reproduce non-sexually, but
without any medusoid stage in the life-cycle.
The sub-order includes the family Hydridae, containing the
common fresh-water polyps of the genus Hydra. Certain other
forms of doubtful affinities have also been referred provisionally
to this section.
Hydra. — This genus comprises fresh-water polyps of simple struc-
ture. The body bears tentacles, but shows no division into hydrorhiza,
hydrocaulus or hydranth ; it is temporarily fixed and has no perisarc.
The polyp is usually hermaphrodite, developing both ovaries and
testes in the same individual. There is no free-swimming planula
larva, but the stage corresponding to it is passed over in an envelop-
ing cyst, which is secreted round the embryo by its own ectodermal
layer, shortly after the germ-layer formation is complete, i.e. in the
parenchymula-stage. The envelope is double, consisting of an ex-
ternal chitinous stratified shell, and an internal thin elastic membrane.
Protected by the double envelope, the embryo is set free as a so-called
" egg>" a"d in Europe it passes the winter in this condition. In the
spring the embryo bursts its shell and is set free as a minute actinula
which becomes a Hydra.
Many species are known, of which three are common in European
waters. It has been shown by C. F. Jickeli (28) that the species are
distinguishable by the characters of their nematocysts. They also
show characteristic differences in the egg (Brauer [2]). In Hydra
viridis the polyp is of a green colour and produces a spherical egg
with a smooth shell which is dropped into the mud. H. grisea is
greyish in tint and produces a spherical egg with a spiky shell,
which also is dropped into the mud. H. fusca (=H. vulgaris) is brown
in colour, and produces a bun-shaped egg, spiky on the convex
surface, and attached to a water-weed or some object by its flattened
side. Brauer found a fourth species, similar in appearance to H.
fusca, but differing from the three other species in being of separate
sexes, and in producing a spherical egg with a knobby shell, which is
attached like that of H. fusca.
The fact already noted that the species of Hydra can be dis-
tinguished by the characters of their nematocysts is a point of great
interest. In each species, two or three kinds of nematocysts occur,
some large, some small, and for specific identification the nemato-
cysts must be studied collectively in each species. It is very re-
markable that this method of characterizing and diagnozing species
has never been extended to the marine hydroids. It is quite possible
that the characters of the nematocysts might afford data as useful
to the systematist in this group as do the spicules of sponges, for
instance. It would be particularly interesting to ascertain how the
nematocysts of a polyp are related to those possessed by the medusa
budded from it, and it is possible that in this manner obscure questions
of relationship might be cleared up.
HYDROMEDUSAE
[HYDROIDEA
Protohydra is a marine genus characterized by the absence of
tentacles, by a great similarity to Hydra in histological structure, and
by reproduction by transverse fission. It was found originally in an
oyster-farm at Ostend. The sexual reproduction is unknown. For
further information see C. Chun (HYDROZOA [1J.P1. I.).
Polypodium hydriforme Ussow is a fresh-water form parasitic on
the eggs of the sterlet. A " stolon " of unknown origin produces
thirty-two buds, which become as many Polypodia-, each has
twenty-four tentacles and divides by fission repeated twice into four
individuals, each with six tentacles. The daughter-individuals grow,
form the full number
of twenty-four tentacles
and divide again. The
polyps aref ree and walk
on their tentacles. See
Ussow [54].
Tetraplatia volitans
Viguier is a remarkable
floating marine form.
See C. Viguier [56] and
Delage and Herouard
(HYDROZOA [2]).
Haleremita Schau-
dinn. SeeF.Schaudinn
[50] and Delage and
Herouard (HYDROZOA
[2]).
In all the above-
mentioned genera, with
the exception of Hydra,
the life-cycle is so im-
perfectly known that
their true position can-
not be determined in
the present state of
our knowledge. They
may prove eventually
to belong to other
orders. Hence only the
genus Hydra can be
considered as truly re-
presenting the order
Eleutheroblastea. The
phylogenetic position
of this genus has been
discussed above.
FIG. 49. — Diagram showing possible
modifications of persons of a gymnoblastic
Hydromedusa. (After Allman.)
a, Hydrocaulus (stem).
b, Hydrorhiza (root).
c, Enteric cavity.
d, Endoderm.
e, Ectoderm.
/, Perisarc, (horny case).
g, Hydranth (hydriform person)expanded.
g', Hydranth (hydriform person) con-
tracted.
h, Hypostome, bearing mouth at its
extremity.
k, Sporosac springing from the hydro-
caulus.
k', Sporosac springing from m, a modified
hydriform person (blastostyle) : the
genitalia are seen surrounding the
spadix or manubrium.
/, Medusiform person or medusa.
m, Blastostyle.
ORDER II. Hy-
droidea seu Lep-
tolinae. — Hydro-
medusae with alter-
nation of generations
(metagenesis)in which
a non-sexual polyp-
generation (tropho-
some) produces by
budding a sexual
medusa-generation
(gonosome). The
polyp may be solitary,
but more usually pro-
duces polyps by
budding and forms
a polyp-colony. The polyp usually has the body distinctly
divisible into hydranth, hydrocaulus and hydrorhiza, and is
usually clothed in a perisarc. The medusae may be set free or
may remain attached to the polyp-colony and degenerate into
a gonophore. When fully developed the medusa is characterized
by the sense organs being composed entirely of ectoderm,
developed independently of the tentacles, and innervated from
the sub-umbral nerve-ring.
The two kinds of persons present in the typical Hydroidea make
the classification of the group extremely difficult, for reasons ex-
plained above. Hence the systematic arrangement that follows
must be considered purely provisional. A natural classification
of the Hydroidea has yet to be put forward. Many genera and
families are separated by purely artificial characters, mere shelf-
and-bottle groupings devised for the convenience of the museum
curator and the collector. Thus many subdivisions are diagnosed by
setting free medusae in one case, or producing gonophores in another;
although it is very obvious, as pointed out above, that a genus pro-
ducing medusae may be far more closely allied to one producing
gonophores than to another producing medusae, or vice versa, and
that in some cases the production of medusae or gonophores varies
with the season or the sex. Moreover, P. Hallez [22]_has recently
shown that hydroids hitherto regarded as distinct species are only
forms of_the same species grown under different conditions.
SUB-ORDER i. HYDROIDEA GYMNOBLASTEA (ANTHOMEDUSAE).
— Trophosome without hydrothecae or gonothecae, with mono-
podial type of budding. Gonosome with free medusae or
gonophores; medusae usually with ocelli, never with otocysts.
The gymnoblastic polyp usually has a distinct perisarc investing
the hydrorhiea and the hydrocaulus, sometimes also the hydranth
as far as the bases of the tentacles (Bimeria); but in such cases
the perisarc forms a closely-fitting investment or cuticule on
the hydranth, never a hydrotheca standing off from it, as in the
next sub-order. The polyps may be solitary, or form colonies,
which may be of the spreading or encrusting type, or arborescent,
and then always of monopodial growth and budding. In some
cases, any polyp of the colony may bud medusae; in other
cases, only certain polyps, the blastostyles, have this power.
When blastostyles are present, however, they are never enclosed
FIG. 50. — Sarsia
(Dipurena) gemnifera.
b, The long manu-
brium, bearing medusi-
form buds; a, mouth.
FIG. 51. — Sarsia prolifera.
Ocelli are seen at the base of the
tentacles, and also (as an ex-
ception) groups of medusiform
buds.
in special gonothecae as in the next sub-order. In this sub-order
the characters of the hydranth are very variable, probably owing
to the fact that it is exposed and not protected by a hydrotheca,
as in Calyptoblastea.
Speaking generally, three principal types of hydranth can be
distinguished, each with subordinate varieties of form.
1. Club-shaped hydranths with numerous tentacles, generally
scattered irregularly, sometimes with a spiral arrangement, or in
whorls (" verticillate ").
(a) Tentacles filiform; type of Clava (fig. 5), Cordylophora, &c.
(b) Tentacles capitate, simple; type of Coryne and byncoryne;
Myriothela is an aberrant form with some of the tentacles
modified as " claspers " to hold the ova. it
(c) Tentacles capitate, branched, wholly or in part; type of
Cladocoryne.
(d) Tentacles filiform or capitate, tending to be arranged in
definite whorls; type of Stauridium (fig. 2), Cladonema
and Pennaria.
2. Hydranth more shortened, daisy-like in form, with two whorls
of tentacles, oral and aboral.
(a) Tentacles filiform, simple, radially arranged or scattered
irregularly; type of Tubularia (fig. 4), Corymorpha (fig. 3),
Nemopsis, Pelagohydra, &c.
(b) Tentacles with a bilateral arrangement, branched tentacles
in addition to simple filiform ones; type of Branchio-
cerianthus.
3. Hydranth with a single circlet of tentacles.
(a) With filiform tentacles; the commonest type, seen in
Bougainvillea (fig. 13), Eudendrium, &c.
(b) With capitate tentacles; type of Clavatella.
4. Hydranth with tentacles reduced below four; type of Lar-
(fig. il), Monobrachium, &c.
HYDROIDEA]
HYDROMEDUSAE
The Anlhomedusa in form is generally deep, bell-shaped.
The sense organs are typically ocelli, never otocysts. The gonads
are borne on the manubrium, either forming a continuous ring
(Codonid type), or four masses or pairs of masses (Oceanid type).
The tentacles may be scattered singly round the margin of the
umbrella (" monerenematous ") or arranged in tufts (" lophone-
matous ") ; in form they may be simple or branched (Cladonemid
type); in structure they may be hollow (" coelomerinthous ");
or solid (" pycnomerinthous ")• When sessile gonophores are
produced, they may show all stages- of degeneration.
Classification. — Until quite recently the hydroids (Gymnoblastea)
and the medusae (Anthomedusae) have been classified separately,
since the connexion between them was insufficiently known. Delage
and Herouard (HYDROZOA [2]) were the first to make an heroic
attempt to unite the two classifications into one, to which Hickson
(HYDROZOA [4]) has made some additions and slight modifications.
The classification given here is for the most part that of Delage and
Herouard. It is certain, however, that no such classification can be
considered final at present, but must undergo continual revision in
the future. With this reservation we may recognize fifteen well-
characterized families and others of more doubtful nature. Certain
discrepancies must also be noted.
1. Margelidae ( = medusa-family Margelidae+hydrold families
Bougainvtilidae, Dicorynidae, Bimeridae and Eudendridae). Tropho-
some arborescent, with hydranths of Bougainvillea-type; gonosome
free medusae or gonophores, the medusae with solid tentacles in
tufts (lophonematous). Common genera are the hydroid Bougain-
villea (figs. 12, 13), and the medusae Hippocrene (budded from
Bougainvillea), Margelis, Rathkea (fig. 24), and MargeUium. Other
hydroids are Garveia, Bimeria, Eudendrium and Heterocordyle, with
gonophores, and Dicoryne with peculiar sporosacs.
2. Podocorynidae( = medusa-families Thamnostomidae and Cytaeidae
-fhydroid families Podocorynidae and Hydractiniidae) . Trophosome
encrusting with hydranths of BougainviUea-type, polyps differenti-
ated into blastostyles, gastrozoids and dactylozoids ; gonosome free
medusae or gonophores. The typical genus is the well-known
hydroid Podo-
coryne, budding
the medusa known
as Dysmorphosa ;
Thamnostylus,
Cytaeis, &c., are
other medusae
with unknown
hydroids. Hydrac-
tinia. (figs. 9, 10)
is a familiar
hydroid genus,
bearing gono-
phores.
3. Cladonemidae.
— T rophosome,
polyps with two
whorls of ten-
tacles, the lower
filiform, the upper
capitate; gono-
some, free med-
usae, with ten-
tacles solid and
branched. The
type-genus Clado-
nema (fig. 20) is a
common British
form.
4. Clavatellidae.
— Trop hosome,
polyps with a
single whorl of
capitate tentacles;
gonosome, free
medusae, with ten-
tacles branched,
solid. Clavatella
(fig. 21), with a
peculiar ambula-
tory medusa is a
British form.
5. Pennariidae.
— T rophosome,
polyps with an
upper circlet of numerous capitate tentacles, and a lower circlet of fili-
form tentacles. Pennaria, with a free medusa known as Globiceps, is a
common Mediterranean form. Stauridium (fig. 2) is a British hydroid.
6. Tubulariidae. — Trophosome, polyps with two whorls of ten-
tacles, both filiform. Tubularia (fig. 4), a well-known British hydroid,
bears gonophores.
After Haeckel, System der Medusen, by permission of Gustav
Tischer.
FIG. 52. — Tiara pileata, L. Agassiz.
7. Corymorphidae (including the medusa-family Hybocodonidae). — •
Trophosome solitary polyps, with two whorls of tentacles; gono-
some, free medusae or gonophores. Corymorpha (fig. 3), a well-
known British genus, sets free a medusa known as Steenstrupia (fig.
22). Here belong the deep-sea genera Monocaidus and Branchioceri-
anthus, including the largest
hydroid polyps known, both
genera producing sessile gono-
phores.
8. Dendrodamdae. — T r o p h o-
some, polyp with filiform tentacles
in three or four whorls. Dendro-
clava, a hydroid, produces the
medusa known as Turritopsis.
9. Clavidae (including the
medusa-family Tiaridae (figs. 27
and 51)- Trophosome, polyps
with scattered filiform tentacles;
gonosome, medusae or gono-
phores, the medusae with hollow
tentacles. Clava (fig. 5), a
common British hydroid, pro-
duces gonophores; so also does
Cordylophora, a form inhabiting
fresh or brackish water. Turns
produces free medusae. Amphi-
nema is a medusan genus of un-
known hydroid.
10. Bythotiaridae. — Tropho-
some unknown; gonosome, free
medusae, with deep, bell-shaped
umbrella, with interradial gonads '
on the base of the stomach, with
branched radial canals, and corre-
spondingly numerous hollow ten-
tacles. Bythotiara, Sibogita.
11. Corynidae( = hydroid families
Corynidae, Syncorynidae and
Cladocorynidae+medusan family
Sarsiidae). — Trophosome polyps After Haeckel, System der Medusen, by
with capitate tentacles, simple or pe™.ss,on of Gustav F,scher.
branched, scattered or verticillate ; ^,FlG- 53-— Pteronema darunnn.
gonosome, free medusae or gono- The apex of the stomach is pro-
phores. Coryne, a common British longed into a brood pouch con-
hydroid, produces gonophores ; taming embryos.
Syncoryne, indistinguishable from
it, produces medusae known as Sarsia (fig. 51). Cladocoryne is
another hydroid genus ; Codonium and Dipurena (fig. 50) are medusan
genera.
12. Myriothelidae. — The genus Myriothela is a solitary polyp with
scattered capitate tentacles, producing sporosacs.
13. Hydrolaridae, — Trophosome (only known in one genus),
polyps with two tentacles forming a creeping colony; gonosome,
free medusae with four, six or more radial canals, giving off one or
more lateral branches which run to the margin of the umbrella, with
the stomach produced into four, six or more lobes, upon which the
gonads are developed; the mouth with four lips or with a folded
margin; the tentacles simple, arranged evenly round the margin of
the umbrella. The remarkable hydroid Lar (fig. n) grows upon the
tubes of the worm Sabella and produces a medusa known as Willia.
Another medusan genus is Proboscidactyla.
14. Monobrachiidae. — The genus Monobrachium^ is a colony-
forming hydroid which grows upon the shells of bivalve molluscs,
each polyp having but a single tentacle. It buds medusae, which,
however, are as yet only known in an immature condition (C.
Mereschkowsky [41]).
15. Ceratellidae. — Trophosome polyps forming branching colonies
of which the stem and main branches are thick and composed of a
network of anastomosing coenosarcal tubes covered by a common
ectoderm and supported by a thick chitinous perisarc; hydranths
similar to those of Coryne; gonosome, sessile gonophores. Ceratella,
an exotic genus from the coast of East Africa, New South Wales and
Japan. The genera Dehitella Gray and Dendrocoryne Inaba should
perhaps be referred to this family; the last-named is regarded by
S. Goto [16] as the type of a distinct family, Dendrocorymdae.
Doubtful families, or forms difficult to classify, are : Pteronemidae,
Medusae of Cladonemid type, with hydroids for the most part un-
known. The British genus Gemmariq, however, is budded from a
hydroid referable to the family Corynidae. Pteronema (fig. 53).
Nemopsidae, for the floating polyp Nemopsis, very similar to
Tubularia in character; the medusa, on the other hand, is very
similar to Hippocrene (Margelidae). See C. Chun (HYDROZOA[!]).
Pelagohydridae, for the floating polyp Pelagohydra, Dendy, from
New Zealand. The animal is a solitary polyp bearing a great number
of medusa-buds. The body, representing the hydranth of an
ordinary hydroid, has the aboral portion modified into a float, from
which hangs down a proboscis bearing the mouth. The float is
covered with long tentacles and bears the medusa-buds. The
proboscis bears at its extremity a circlet of smaller oral tentacles.
Thus the affinities of the hydranth are clearly, as Dendy points out,
152
HYDROMEDUSAE
[HYDROIDEA
with a form such as Corymorpha, which also is not fixed but only
rooted in_the mud. The medusae, on the other hand, have thi
tentacles in four tufts of (in the buds) five each, and thus resemble
the medusae of the
i family Mareelidae.
See A. Dendy [12].
Perigonimus. — This
common British hy-
droid belongs by it
characters to the
family Bougainvil-
lidae; it produces,
however, a medusa
of the genus Tiara (fig.
52), referable to the
family Clavidae ; a
fact sufficient to indi-
cate the tentative
character of even the
most modern classifi-
cations of this order.
SUB-ORDER II.
HYDROIDEA CALYP-
TOBLASTEA (LEPTO-
MEDUSAE).— Tropho-
some with polyps
always differentiated
into nutritive and
reproductive indi-
viduals(blastostyles)
enclosed in hydro-
thecae and gono-
thecae respectively;
with sympodial type
FIG. 54. — Diagram showing possible modi- of budding. Gono-
fications of the persons of a Calyptoblastic some with free med-
Hydromedusa. Letters a to h same as in <»nnnr>tin«>c.
fig. 49- i, The horny cup or hydrotheca of u*ae Or 8on°Pnores.>
the hydriform persons; /, medusiform person tne medusae typl-
springing from m, a modified hydriform cally with otocysts,
person (blastostyle); n, the horny case or sometimes with cor-
gonangium enclosing the blastostyle and j i; __ n/._ii; if.a.
its buds. This and the hydrotheca i give dyh °.r oceUl
origin to the name Calyptoblastea. (After 54, 55)-
Allman.) The calyptoblastic
polyp of the nutritive
type is very uniform in character, its tendency to variation
being limited, as it were, by the enclosing hydrotheca. The
hydranth almost always has a single circlet of tentacles, like
the Bougainvillea-type in the preceding sub-order; an excep-
tion is the curious genus Clathrozoon, in which the hydranth has
a single tentacle. The
characteristic hydrotheca
is formed by the bud at
an early stage (fig. 56);
when complete it is an
open cup, in which the
hydranth develops and
can be protruded from the
opening for the capture
of food, or is withdrawn
into it for protection.
Solitary polyps are un-
known in this sub-order;
the colony may be creep-
ing or arborescent in form ;
FIG. 55. — View of the Oral Surface of if tne latter, the budding
one of the Leptomedusae (Irene pellu- of the polyps, as already
g*. Genital glands, re, The four mdi
M, Manubrium. ating canals.
ott Otocysts. Ve, The velum.
T
forming stems
capable of further branch-
ing, or uniserial, forming
pinnules not capable of further branching. In the biserial type
the polyps on the two sides of the stem have primitively an
alternating, zigzag arrangement; but, by a process of differential
growth, quickened in the ist, 3rd, sth, &c., members of the
stem, and retarded in the 2nd, 4th, 6th, &c., members, the polyps
may assume secondarily positions opposite to one another on
the two sides of the stem. Other variations in the mode of
growth or budding bring about further differences in the building
up of the colony, which are not in all cases properly understood
and cannot be described in detail here. The stem may contain
a single coenosarcal tube (" monosiphonic ") or several united
in a common perisarc (" polysiphonic "). An important variation
is seen, in the form of the hydrotheca itself, which may come
off from the main stem by a stalk, as in Obelia, or may be
sessile, without a stalk, as in Sertularia.
In many Calyptoblastea there occur also reduced defensive
polyps or dactylozoids, which in this sub-order have received
the special name of sarcostyles. Such are the " snake-like zoids "
of Ophiodes and other genera, and as such are generally inter-
preted the " macho-
polyps" of the
P lumular idae.
These organs are
supported by cup-
like structures of the
perisarc, termed
nematophores, re-
garded as modified
hydrothecae sup-
porting the special-
ized polyp-indi-
viduals. They are
specially character-
istic of the family
Plumularidae.
The medusa-buds,
as already stated,
are always produced
from blastostyles,
reduced non-nutri-
tive polyps without
mouth or tentacles.
An apparent, but
not real, exception
is Halecium kaleci-
num, in which the
blastostyle is pro-
duced from the side
of a nutritive polyp,
and both are en-
closed in a common
theca without a
partition between
them (Allman [1]
p. 50, fig. 24). The
jonotheca is formed in its early stage in the same way as the
iydrotheca, but the remains of the hydranth persists as an
operculum closing the capsule, to be withdrawn when the
medusae or genital products are set free (fig. 56) .
Theblastostyles, gonophoresand gonothecaefurnishaseriesof varia-
tions which can best be considered as so many stages of evolution.
Stage i , seen in Obelia. Numerous medusae are budded successively
within the gonotheca and set free; they swim off and mature in the
open sea (Allman [1], p. 48, figs. 18, IQ).
Stage 2, seen in Gonothyraea. Medusae, so-called " meconidia,"
are budded but not liberated; each in turn, when it reaches sexual
maturity, is protruded from the gonotheca by elongation of the
stalk, and sets free the embryos, after which it withers and is re-
placed by another (Allman [1], p. 57, fig. 28).
Stage 3, seen in Sertularia. — The gonophores are reduced in varying
degree, it may be to sporosacs; they are budded successively from
he blastostyle, and each in turn, when ripe, protrudes the spadix
through the gonotheca (fig. 57, A, B). The spadix forms a gelatinous
cyst, the so-called acrocyst (ac), external to the gonotheca (gth),
inclosing and protecting the embryos. Then the spadix withers,
caving the embryos in the acrocyst, which may be further protected
>y a so-called_ marsupium, a structure formed by tentacle-like
>rocesses growing out from the blastostyle to enclose the acrocyst,
each such process being covered by perisarc like a glove-finger
secreted by it (fig. 57, C). (Allman [1], pp. 50, 51, figs., 21-24;
Weismann [58], p. 170, pi. ix., figs. 7, 8.)
After Allman, Gymnoblaslic Bydnids, by permission of
the council of the Ray Society .
FIG. 56. — Diagrams to show the mode of
formation of the Hydrotheca and Gonotheca
in Calyptoblastic Hydroids. A-D are stages
common to both ; from D arises the hydro-
theca (E) or the gonotheca (F); th, theca;
st, stomach; t, tentacles; m, mouth; mb,
medusa-buds.
HYDROIDEA]
HYDROMEDUSAE
153
Stage 4, seen in Plumularidae. — The generative elements are
produced in structures termed corbulae, formed by reduction
and modification of branches of the colony. Each corbula
contains a central row of blastostyles enclosed and protected
by lateral rows of branches representing stunted buds (Allman [1],
p. 60, fig. 30).
The Leptomedusa in form is generally shallow, more or less
saucer-like, with velum less developed than in Anthomedusae
(fig. 55). The characteristic sense-organs are ectodermal oto-
cysts, absent, however, in some genera, in which case cordyli
may replace them. When otocysts are present, they are at least
eight in number, situated adradially, but are often very numerous.
The cordyli are scattered on the ring-canal. Ocelli, if present,
are borne on the tentacle-bulbs. The tentacles are usually
hollow, rarely solid (Obelia). In number they are rarely less than
four, but in Dissonema there are only two. Primitively there
are four perradial tentacles, to which may be added four inter-
radial, or they may become very numerous and are then scattered
evenly round the margin, never arranged in 'tufts or clusters.
In addition to
tentacles, there
may be marginal
cirri (Laodice)
with a solid
endodermal axis,
spirally coiled,
very contractile,
and bearing a
terminal battery
of nematocysts.
The gonads are de-
veloped typically
beneath the radial
canals or below
the stomach or
its pouches, often
stretching as long
bands on to the
base of the man-
ubrium. In Octor-
chidae (fig. 58)
each such band
is interrupted,
forming one mass
at the base of the
manubrium and
After Allman, Gymnoblastic Hydroids, by permission of the
council of the Ray Society.
FIG. 57. — Diagrams to show the mode of
formation of an Acrocyst and a Marsupium.
In A two medusa-buds are seen within thegono-
theca (gth), the upper more advanced than the
lower one. In B thespadixof the upper bud has
protruded itself through the top of the gono-
theca and the acrocyst (ac) is secreted round it.
In C the marsupium (m) is formed as finger-like
process from the summit of the blastostyle, en- another below the
closing the acrocyst; b, medusa-buds on the
blastostyle.
radial canal in
each radius, in all
eight separate gonad-masses, as the name implies. In some
Leptomedusae excretory " marginal tubercles " are developed
on the ring-canal.
Classification. — As in the Gymnoblastea, the difficulty of uniting
the hydroid and medusan systems into one scheme of classification
is very great in the present state of our knowledge. In a great many
Leptomedusae the hydroid stage is as yet unknown, and it is by no
means certain even that they possess one. It is quite possible that
some of these medusae will be found to be truly hypogenetic, that is
to say, with a life-cycle secondarily simplified by suppression of
metagenesis. At present, ten recent and one extinct family of
Calyptoblastea (Leptomedusae) may be recognized provisionally:
1. Eucopidae (figs. 55, 59).— Trophosome with stalked hydro-
thecae; gonosome, free medusae with otocysts and four, rarely six
or eight, unbranched radial canals. Two of the commonest British
hydroids belong to this family, Obelia and Clytia. Obelia forms
numerous polyserial stems of the characteristic zigzag pattern grow-
ing up from a creeping basal stolon, and buds the medusa of the same
name. In Clytia the polyps arise singly from the stolon, and the
medusa is known as Phialidium (fig. 59).
2. Aequoridae. — Trophosome only known in one genus (Poly-
canna), and similar to the preceding; gonosome, free medusae with
otocysts and with at least eight radial canals, often a hundred or
more, simple or branched. Aequorea is a common medusa.
3. Thaumantidae. — Trophosome only known in one genus (Thau-
mantias), similar to that of the Eucopidae; gonosome, free medusae
with otocysts inconspicuous or absent, with usually four, sometimes
eight, rarely more than eight, radial canals, simple and unbranched,
along which the gonads are developed, with numerous tentacles
bearing ocelli and with marginal sense-clubs. Laodice and Thau*
mantias are representative genera.
4. Berenicidae. — Trophosome unknown; gonosome, free medusae,
with four or six radial canals, bearing the gonads, with numerous
tentacles, between which occur sense-clubs, without otocysts.
Berenice, Staurodiscus, &c.
5. Polyorchidae. — Trophosome unknown; gonosome, free medusae
of deep form, with radial canals branched in a feathery manner, and
After Haeckel, System dcr Mcdusen, by permission of Gustav Fischer.
FIG. 58. — Octorchandra canariensis, from life, magnified 4
diameters.
bearing gonads on the main canal, but not on the branches, with
numerous hollow tentacles bearing ocelli, and without otocysts.
Polyorchis, Spirocodon.
6. Campanularidae. — Trophosome as in Eucopidae; gonosome,
sessile gonophores. Many common or well-known genera belong
here, such as Halecium, Campanularia, Gonothyraea, &c.
7. Lafoeidae. — Trophosome as in the preceding; gonosome, free
medusae or gonophores, the medusae with large open otocysts.
The hydroid genus Lafoea is remarkable for producing gonothecae on
the hydrorhiza, each containing a blastostyle which bears a single
gonophore; this portion of the colony was formerly regarded as an
independent parasitic hydroid, and was named Coppinia. Medusan
genera are Mitrocoma, Halopsis, Tiaropsis (fig. 29, &c.).
(So far as the characters of the trophosome are concerned, the
seven preceding families are scarcely distinguishable, and they form
After E. T. Browne, Proc. tool. Sac. of London, 1896.
FIG. 59. — Three stages in the development of Phialidium tem-
porarium. a, The youngest stage, is magnified 22 diameters; 6,
older, is magnified 8 diameters; c, the adult medusa, is magnified
6 diameters.
a section apart, contrasting sharply with the families next to be
mentioned, in none of which are free medusae liberated from the
colony, so that only the characters of the trophosome need be con-
sidered.)
8. Sertularidae. — Hydrothecae sessile, biserial, alternating or
opposite on the stem. Sertularia and Sertularella are two very
common genera of this family.
9. Plumularidae. — Hydrothecae sessile, biserial on the main stem,
uniserial on the lateral branches or pinnules, which give the colony
its characteristic feathery form; with nematophores. A very
abundant and prolific family; well-known British genera are
Plumularia, Antennularia and Aglaophenia.
10. Hydroceratinidae. — This family contains the single Australian
species Clathrozoon wilsoni Spencer, in which a massive hydrorhiza
154
HYDROMEDUSAE
[HYDROCORALLINAE
bears sessile hydrothecae, ('detaining hy^lranths each with a single
tentacle, and numerous nematophores. See W. B. Spencer [53].
II. Dendrograptidae, containing fossil (Silurian) genera, such as
Dendrograptus and Thamnograptus, of doubtful affinities.
Order III. Hydrocorallinae. — Metagenetic colony-forming
Hydromedusae, in which the polyp-colony forms a massive,
calcareous corallum into which the polyps can be retracted;
polyp-individuals always of two kinds, gastrozoids and dactylo-
zoids; gonosome either free medusae or sessile gonophores.
The trophosome consists of a mass
of coenosarcal tubes anastomosing
in all planes. The interspaces
between the tubes are filled up
by a solid mass of lime, consist-
ing chiefly of calcium carbonate,
which replaces the chitinous peri-
sarc of ordinary hydroids and forms
a stony corallum or coenosteum
(fig. 60). The surface of the
coenosteum is covered by a layer
of common ectoderm, containing
large nematocysts, and is per-
FIG. 60.— Portion of the forated bY Pores of two kinds>
calcareous corallum of Mille- gastropores and dactylopores,
pora nodosa, showing the giving exit to gastrozoids and
cyclical arrangement of the dactylozoids respectively, which
pores occupied by the per- , . , . .. ,
sons " or hydranths. Twice are lod£ed m vertical pore-canals
the natural size. (From °f wider calibre than the coeno-
Moseley.) sarcal canals of the general net-
•work. The coenosteum increases
in size by new growth at the surface; and in the deeper,
older portions of massive forms the tissues die off after a certain
time, only the superficial region retaining its vitality down to a
certain depth. The living tissues at the surface are cut off
from the underlying dead portions by horizontal partitions
termed tabulae, which are formed successively as the coenosteum
increases in age and size. If the coenosteum of Millepora be
broken across, each pore-canal (perhaps better termed a polyp-
canal) is seen to be interrupted by a series of transverse
partitions, representing successive periods of growth with
separation from the underlying dead portions.
Besides the wider vertical pore-canals and the narrower,
FIG. 61.— Enlarged view of the surface of a living Millepora,
showing five dactylozooids surrounding a central gastrozooid (From
Moseley.)
irregular coenosarcal canals, the coenosteum may contain, in its
superficial portion, chambers or ampullae, in which the repro-
ductive zoids (medusae or gonophores) are budded from the
coenosarc.
The gastropores and dactylopores are arranged in various
ways at the surface, a common pattern being the formation of a
cyclosystem_(fig. 60), in which a central gastrozoid is surrounded
by a ring of dactylozoids (fig. 61). In such a system the dactylo-
pores may be confluent with the gastropore, so that the entire
cyclosystem presents itself as a single aperture subdivided by
radiating partitions,
thus having a super-
ficial resemblance to
a madreporarian
coral with its radiat-
ing septa (figs. 62
and 63).
The gastrozoids
usually bear short
capitate tentacles,
four, six or twelve
in number; but in
Astylus (fig. 63) they
have no tentacles.
The dactylozoids
have no mouth; in
MUleporidae they
have short capitate
tentacles, but lack
tentacles in Styla-
sleridae.
Thegonosomecon- F,G 62._Diagrams inustrating the suc.
sists of free medusae cessive stages in the development of the
in MUleporidae, cyclosystems of the Stylasteridae. (After
Moseley.)
i, Sporadopora dicho-
toma.
s, Style.
dp, Dactylopore.
gp, Gastropore.
o, In fig. 6, inner
horseshoe-
shaped mouth
' of gastropore.
which are budded
from the apex of a
dactylozoid in Mille- 2> ^AUopora nobilis.
pora murrayi, but in 4, Allopora profunda.
other species from 5, Allopora miniacea.
the r o e n o <s a r r a 1 6' AstVlus subviridis.
1 7, Distichopora coccinea.
canals. The medusae
are produced by direct budding, without an entocodon in the
bud. They are liberated in a mature condition, and probably
live but a short time, merely sufficient to spread the species.
The manubrium bearing the gonads is
mouthless, and the umbrella is without
tentacles, sense-organs, velum or radial
canals. In the Stylasleridae sessile gono-
phores are formed, always by budding
from the coenosarc. In Dislichopora the
gonophores have radial canals, but in
other genera they are sporosacs with no
trace of medusoid structure.
Classification. — Two families are known : —
1. Milleporidae. — Coenosteum massive,
irregular in form; pores scattered irregu-
larly or in cyclosystems, without styles, with
transverse tabulae; free medusae. A single
genus, Millepora (figs. 60, 61).
2. Stylasteridae. — Coenosteum arbor-
escent, sometimes fanlike, with pores only
on one face, or on the lateral margins of the
branches; gastropores with tabulae only in
two genera, but with (except in Astylus) a
style, i.e. a conical, thorn-like projection
from the base of the pore, sometimes found
also in dactylopores; sessile gonophores.
Sporadopora has the pores scattered irregu-
larly. Distichopora has the pores arranged
in rows. Stylaster has cyclosystems. In
Allopora the cyclostems resemble the calyces
of Anthozoan corals. In Cryptohelia the
cyclosystem is covered by a cap or oper- FIG- 63. — Portion of
culum. In Astylus (fig. 63) styles are the corallum of A stylus
absent. subviridis (one of the
Affinities of the Hydrocorallinae. — There Stylasteridae), showing
can be no doubt that the forms comprised cyclosystems placed at
in this order bear a close relationship to the intervals on the
Hydroidea, especially the sub-order Gymno- branches, each with a
blastca, with which they should perhaps be central gastropore and
classed in a natural classification. A hydro- zone of slit-like dac-
coralline may be regarded as a form of tylopores. (After
hydroid colony in which the coenosarc Moseley.)
forms a felt-work ramifying in all planes, and in which the
chitinous perisarc is replaced by a massive calcareous skeleton. So
far as the trophosome is concerned, the step from an encrusting
•GRAPTOLITOIDEA]
HYDROMEDUSAE
155
hydroid such as Hydractinia to the hydrocoralline Millepora is not
great.
Hickson considers that the families Milleporidae and Stylasteridae
should stand quite apart from one another and should not be united
in one order. The nearest approach to the Stylasteridae is perhaps
to be found in Ceratella, with its arborescent trophosome formed of
anastomosing coenosarcal tubes supported by a thick perisarc and
covered by a common ectoderm. Ceratella stands in much the same
relation to the Stylasteridae that Hydractinia does to the Mille-
poridae, in both cases the chitinous perisarc being replaced by the
solid coenosteum to which the hydrocorallines owe the second half
of their name.
ORDER IV. Qraptolitoidea (Rhabdophora, Allman).— This
order has been constituted for a peculiar group of palaeozoic
fossils, which have been interpreted as the remains of the skeletons
of Hydrozoa of an extinct type.
A typical graptolite consists of an axis bearing a series of
tooth-like projections, like a saw. Each such projection is re-
garded as representing a cup or hydrotheca, similar to those borne
by a calyptoblastic hydroid, such as Sertularia. The supposed
hydrothecae may be present on one side of the axis only (mono-
prionid) or on both sides (diprionid); the first case may be
•conjectured to be the result of uniserial (helicoid) budding, the
second to be produced by biserial (scorpioid) budding. In one
division (Retiolitidae) the axis is reticulate. In addition to the
stems bearing cups, there are found vesicles associated with
them, which have been interpreted as gonothecae or as floats,
that is to say, aif-bladders, acting as hydrostatic organs for a
floating polyp-colony.
Since no graptolites are known living, or, indeed, since palaeo-
zoic times, the interpretation of their structure and affinities
must of necessity be extremely conjectural, and it is by no means
certain that they are Hydrozoa at all. It can only be said that
their organization, so far as the state of their preservation
permits it to be ascertained, offers closer analogies with the
Hydrozoa, especially the Calyptoblastea, than with any other
existing group of the animal kingdom.
See the treatise of Delage and Herouard (HYDROZOA, [4]), and the
article GRAPTOLITES.
ORDER V. Trachylinea. — Hydromedusae without alterna-
tion of generations, i.e. without a hydroid phase; the medusa
develops directly from the actinula larva, which may, however,
multiply by budding. Medusae with sense-organs represented
by otocysts derived from modified tentacles (tentaculocysts),
containing otoliths of endodermal origin, and innervated from
the ex-umbral nerve-ring.
This order, containing the typical oceanic medusae, is divided
into two sub-orders.
SUB-ORDER i. TRACHOMEDUSAE. — Tentacles given off from
the margin of the umbrella, which is entire, i.e. not lobed or
indented; tentaculocysts usually enclosed in vesicles; gonads
on the radial canals. The medusae of this order are characterized
by the tough, rigid consistence of the umbrella, due partly to
the dense nature of the mesogloea, partly to the presence of a
marginal rim of chondral tissue, consisting of thickened ectoderm
containing great numbers of nematocysts, and forming, as it
were, a cushion-tyre supporting the edge of the umbrella. Pro-
longations from the rim of chondral tissue may form clasps
or peronia supporting the tentacles. The tentacles are primarily
four in number, perradial, alternating with four interradial
tentaculocysts, but both tentacles and sense-organs may be
multiplied and the primary perradii may be six instead of four
{fig. 26). The tentacles are always solid, containing an axis
of endoderm-cells resembling notochordal tissue or plant-
parenchyma, and are but moderately flexible. The sense-organs
are tentaculocysts which are usually enclosed in vesicles and
may be sunk far below the surface. The gonads are on the
radial canals or on the stomach (Ptychogastridae), and each
gonad may be divided into two by a longitudinal sub-umbral
muscle-tract. The radial canals are four, six, eight or more,
and in some genera blindly-ending centripetal canals are present
(fig. 26). The stomach may be drawn out into the manubrium,
forming a proboscis (" Magenstiel ") of considerable length.
The development of the Trachomedusae, so far as it is known,
shows an actinula-stage which is either free (larval) or passed
over in the egg (foetal) as in Geryonia; in no case does there
appear to be a free planula-stage. The actinula, when free,
may multiply by larval budding, but in all cases both the original
actinula and all its descendants become converted into medusae,
so that there is no alter-
nation of generations.
In Gonionemus the acti-
nula becomes attached
and polyp-like and repro-
duces by budding.
The Trachomedusae are
divided into the following
families :
1. Petasidae (Petachni-
dae). — Four radial canals,
four gonads; stomach not
prolonged into the manu-
brium, which is relatively
short ; tentaculocysts free.
Pelasus and other genera
make up this family,
founded by Haeckel, but
no other naturalist has
ever seen them, and it is
probable that they are
simply immature forms of
other genera.
2. Olindiadae, with four
radial canals and four
gonads; manubrium
short; ring-canals giving
off blind centripetal
canals; tentaculocysts
enclosed. Olindias miilleri
(fig. 64) is a common
Mediterranean species.
Other genera are Aglau-
ropsis, Gossea and Goni-
onemus; the last named
bears adhesive suckers on
the tentacles. Some doubt
attaches to the position
of this family. It has
been asserted that the
tentaculocysts are entirely
ectodermal and that either
the family should be
placed amongst the Lepto-
medusae, or should form,
together with certain Leptomedusae, an entirely distinct order.
In Gonionemus, however, the concrement-cells are endodermal.
3. Trachynemidae. — Eight radial canals, eight gonads, stomach
not prolonged into manubrium; tenta-
culocysts enclosed. Rhopalonema,Trachy-
nema, &c.
4. Ptychogastridae (Pectyllidae). — As
in the preceding, but with suckers on
the tentacles. Ptychogastria Allman
( = Pectyllis), a deep-sea form.
5. Aglauridae. — Eight radial canals,
two, four or eight gonads; tentacles
numerous; tentaculocysts free; stomach
prolonged into manubrium. Aglaura,
Aglantha (fig. 65), &c., with eight gonads;
Stauraglaura with four ; Persa with two.
Amphogona, hermaphrodite, with male
and female gonads on alternating radial
canals.
6. Geryonidae. — Four or six radial
canals; gonads band-like; stomach
prolonged into a manubrium of great
length ; tentaculocysts enclosed. Liriope,
&c., with four radial canals; Geryonia,
Carmarina (fig. 26), &c., with six.
broad
After Haeckel, System drr Medusen, by per-
mission of Gustav Fischer.
FIG. 64. — Olindias mfdleri, twice
natural size.
After E. T. Browne, Proc. Zool.
7. Halicreidae.— Eight very broad Soc. o
radial canals; ex-umbrella often pro- pIG_ gj_ — Aglantha
vided with lateral outgrowths; tentacles rosea (Forbes), a British
differing in size, but in a single row. medusa, X5-
Halicreas.
SUB-ORDER 2. NARCOMEDUSAE. — Margin of the umbrella-
lobed, tentacles arising from the ex-umbrella at some distance
from the margin; tentaculocysts exposed, not enclosed in
vesicles; gonads on the sub-umbral floor of the stomach or of
the gastric pouches.
i56
HYDROMEDUSAE
[TRACHYLINEA
The Narcomedusae exhibit peculiarities of form and structure
which distinguish them at once from all other Hydromedusae.
The umbrella is shallow and has the margin supported by a
rim of thickened ectoderm, as in the Trachomedusae, but not
so strongly developed. The tentacles are not inserted on the
margin of the umbrella, but arise high up on the ex-umbral
surface, and the umbrella is prolonged into lobes corresponding
to the interspaces between the tentacles. The condition of
things can be imagined by supposing that in a medusa primitively
of normal build, with tentacles at the margin, the umbrella
has grown down past the insertion of the tentacles. As a result
of this extension of the umbrellar margin, all structures belonging
to this region, namely, the ring-canal, the nerve-rings, and the
rim of thickened ectoderm,
do not run an even course,
but are thrown into fes-
toons, caught up under
the insertion of each ten-
tacle in such a way that
the ring-canal and its ac-
companiments form in each
notch of the umbrellar
margin an inverted V, the
apex of which corresponds
FIG. 66. — Cunina rhododactyla, one
of the Narcomedusae. (After Haeckel.)
c, Circular canal.
' ' Otoporpae ' ' or centripetal process
of the marginal cartilaginous ring
connected with tentaculocyst.
of the
i,
k, Stomach.
/, Jelly of the disk.
r, Radiating canal (pouch of stomach).
tt, Tentacles.
tw, Tentacle root.
to the insertion
tentacle; in some cases
the limbs of the V may run
for some distance parallel
to one another, and may
be fused into one, giving a
figure better compared to
an inverted Y. Thus the
ectodermal rim runs
round the edge of each
lobe of the umbrella and then passes upwards towards
the base of the tentacle from the re-entering angle between
two adjacent lobes, to form with its fellow of the next
lobe a tentacle-clasp or peronium, i.e. a streak of thickened
ectoderm supporting the tentacle. Similarly the ring-canal
runs round the edge of the lobe as the so-called festoon-canal,
and then runs upwards under the peronium to the base of the
tentacle as one of a pair of peronial canals, the limbs of the V-like
figure already mentioned. The nerve-rings have a similar
course. The tentaculocysts are implanted round the margins
of the lobes of the umbrella and may be supported by prolonga-
tions of the ectodermal rim termed otoporpae (Gehorspangen).
The radial canals are represented by wide gastric pouches, and
may be absent, so that the tentacles arise directly from the
stomach (Solmaridae). The tentacles are always solid, as in
Trachomedusae.
The development of the Narcomedusae is in the main similar
to that of the Trachomedusae, but shows some remarkable
features. In Aeginopsis a planula is formed by multipolar
immigration. The two ends of the planula become greatly
lengthened and give rise to the two primary tentacles of the
actinula, of which the mouth arises from one side of the planula.
Hence the principal axis of the future medusa corresponds,
not to the longitudinal axis of the planula, but to a transverse
axis. This is in some degree parallel to the cases described
above, in which a planula gives rise to the hydrorhiza, and buds
a polyp laterally.
In Cunina and allied genera the actinula, formed in the manner
described, has a hypostome of great length, quite disproportionate
to the size of the body, and is further endowed with the power
of producing buds from a stolon arising from the aboral side of
the body. In these species the actinula is parasitic upon another
medusa; for instance, Cunoctantha oclonaria upon Turritopsis,
C. proboscidea upon Liriope or Geryonia. The parasite effects
a lodgment in the host either by invading it as a free-swimming
planula, or, apparently, in other cases, as a spore-embryo which is
captured and swallowed as food by the host. The parasitic actinula
is found attached to the proboscis of the medusa; it thrusts its
greatly elongated hypostome into the mouth of the medusa
and nourishes itself upon the food in the digestive cavity of
its host. At the same time it produces buds from an aboral
stolon. The buds become medusae by the direct method of
budding described above. In some cases the buds do not become
detached at once, but the stolon continues to grow and to produce
more buds, forming a "bud-spike" (Knospenahre) , which
consists of the axial stolon bearing medusa-buds in all stages
of development. In such cases the original parent-actinula
does not itself become a medusa, but remains arrested in develop-
ment and ultimately dies off, so that a true alternation of genera-
tions is brought about. It is in these parasitic forms that we
meet with the method of reproduction by sporogony described
above.
In other Narcomedusae, e.g. Cunoctantha fowleri Browne,
buds are formed from the sub-umbrella on the under side of the
stomach pouches, where later the gonads are developed.
Classification. — Three families of Narcomedusae are recognized
(see O. Maas [40]) :
1. Cunanthidae. — With broad gastric pouches which are simple,
i.e. undivided, and " pernemal," i.e. correspond in position with the
tentacles. Cunina (fig. 66)
with more than eight ten-
tacles; Cunoctantha with eight
tentacles, four perradial, four
interradial.
2. Aeginidae. — Radii a mul-
tiple of four, with radial gastric
pouches bifurcated or sub-
divided; the tentacles are
implanted in the notch between
the two subdivisions of each
(primary) gastric pouch, hence
the (secondary) gastric pouches
appear to be " internemal "
in position, i.e. to alternate in
position with the tentacles.
Aegina, with four tentacles and
eight pouches; Aeginura (fig.
25), with eight tentacles and
sixteen pouches; Solmundella
(fig. 67) , with two tentacles and
eight pouches ; A eginopsis
(fig. 23), with two or four
tentacles and sixteen pouches.
3. Solmaridae. — No gastric
pouches; the numerous ten-
tacles arise direct from the
stomach, into which also the
peronial canals open, so that
the ring-canal is cut up into separate festoons. Solmaris, Pegantha,
Polyxenia, &c. To this family should be referred, probably, the genus
Hydroctena, described by C. Dawydov [lla] and regarded by him
as intermediate between Hydromedusae and Ctenophora. See
O. Maas [35].
Appendix to the Trachylinae.
Of doubtful position, but commonly referred to the Trachylinae,
are the two genera of fresh-water medusae, Limnocodium and
Limnocnida.
Limnocodium sowerbyi was first discovered in the Victoria regia
tank in the Botanic Gardens, Regent's Park, London. Since then
it has been discovered in other botanic gardens in various parts of
Europe, its two most recent appearances being at Lyons (1901) and
Munich (1905), occurring always in tanks in which the Victoria regia
is cultivated, a fact which indicates that tropical South America is
its original habitat. In the same tanks a small hydroid, very similar
to Mtcrohydra, has been found, which bears medusa-buds and is
probably the stock from which the medusa is budded. It is a re-
markable fact that all specimens of Limnocodium hitherto seen have
been males ; it may be inferred from this either that only one polyp-
stock has been introduced into Europe, from which all the medusae
seen hitherto have been budded, or perhaps that the female medusa
is a sessile gonophore, as in Pennaria. The male gonads are carried on
the radial canals.
Limnocnida tanganyicae was discovered first in Lake Tanganyika,
but has since been discovered also in Lake Victoria and in the
river Niger. It differs from Limnocodium in having practically no
manubrium but a wide mouth two-thirds the diameter of the umbrella
across. It buds medusae from the margin of the mouth in May and
June, and in August and September the gonads are formed in the
place where the buds arose. The hydroid phase, if any, is not
known.
Both these medusae have sense-organs of a peculiar type, which
are said to contain an endodermal axis like the sense-organs of
Trachylinae, but the fact has recently been called in question for
After O. Maas, Craspedolen Medusen dtr
Sitoga Expedition, by permission of E. S.
Brill & Co.
FIG. 67. — Solmundella bitentaculata
(Quoy and Gaimard).
SIPHONOPHORA]
HYDROMEDUSAE
Limnocodium by S. Goto, who considers the genus to be allied to
Olindias. Allman, on the other hand, referred Limnocodium to the
Leptomedusae.
In this connexion must be mentioned, finally, the medusae budded
from the fresh-water polyp Microhydra. The polyp-stages of Limno-
codium and Microhydra are extremely similar in character. In both
cases the hydranth is extremely reduced and has no tentacles, and
the polyp forms a colony by budding from the base. In Limno-
codium the body secretes a gelatinous mucus to which adhere
particles of mud, &c., forming a protective covering. In Microhydra
no such protecting case is formed. In view of the great resemblance
between Microhydra and the polyp of Limnocodium, it might be
expected that the medusae to which they give origin would also be
similar. As yet, however, the medusa of Microhydra has only been
seen in an immature condition, but it shows some well-marked
differences from Limnocodium, especially in the 'structure of the
tentacles, which furnish useful characters for distinguishing species
amongst medusae. The possession of a polyp-stage by Limnocodium
and Microhydra furnishes an argument against placing them in the
Trachylinae. Their sense-organs require renewed investigations.
(Browne [10] and [100].)
ORDER VI. Siphonophora. — Pelagic floating Hydrozoa with
great differentiation of parts, each performing a special function;
generally regarded as colonies showing differentiation of in-
dividuals in correspondence with a physiological division of
labour.
A typical Siphonophore is a stock or cormus consisting of a
number of appendages placed in organic connexion with one
another by means of a coenosarc. The coenosarc does not
differ in structure from that already described in colonial
Hydrozoa. It consists of a hollow tube, or tubes, of which the
wall is made up of the two body-layers, ectoderm and endoderm,
and the cavity is a continua-
tion of the digestive cavities
of the nutritive and other
appendages, i.e. of the coel-
enteron. The coenosarc may
consist of a single elon-
gated tube or stolon, forming
the stem or axis of the
cormus on which, usually,
the appendages are arranged
in groups termed cormidia;
or it may take the form of a
compact mass of ramifying,
anastomosing tubes, in which
case the cormus as a whole
has a compact form and cor-
midia are not distinguish-
able. In the Disconectae the
coenosarc forms a spongy
mass, the " cenlradenia,"
which is partly hepatic in
function, forming the so-
called liver, and partly ex-
cretory.
The appendages show
various types of form and
structure corresponding to
different functions. The cor-
mus is always differentiated
into two parts; an upper
portion termed the nectosome,
in which the appendages are
FIG. 68. — Diagram showing pos-
sible modifications of medusiform
line represents endoderm, the thinner
line ectoderm. (After Allman.)
n, Pneumatocyst.
s^sjsssk ;°comotor ,°r hydrostatk in
Generative medusiform person, function, that is to say, serve
Palpon with attached palpacle, h. for swimming or floating;
Siphon with branched grappling anci a iower portion termed
g^ the siphosome, bearing ap-
pendages which are nutritive,
reproductive or simply protective in function.
Divergent views have been held by different authors both as
regards the nature of the cormus as a whole, and as regards
the homologies of the different types of appendages borne
by it.
The general theories of Siphonophoran morphology are discussed
ft
I,
i,
£<
e,
m,
below, but in enumerating the various types of appendages it is
convenient to discuss their morphological interpretation at the same
time.
In the nectosome one or more of the following types of appendage
occur: —
1. Swimming-bells, termed nectocalyces or nectophores (fig. 68, k),
absent in Chondrophorida and Cystophorida ; they are contractile and
resemble, both in appearance, structure and function, the umbrella
of a medusa, with radial canals, ring-canal and velum; but they
are without manubrium,
tentacles or sense-organs,
and are always bilaterally
symmetrical, a peculiarity
of form related with the
fact that they are attached
on one side to the stem.
A given cormus may bear
one or several necto-
calyces, and by their con-
tractions they propel the
colony slowly along, like
so many medusae har-
nessed together. In cases
where the cormus has no
pneumatophore the top-
most swimming bell may
contain an oil-reservoir or
oleocyst.
2. The pneumatophore
or air-bladder (fig. 68, »),
for passive
forming a
locomotion, Zoology.
float which
After A. Agassiz, from Lankester's Treatise on
FIG. 69. — Porpita, seen from above,
keeps the cormus at or showing the pneumatophore and ex-
near the surface of the panded palpons.
water. The pneumato-
phore arises from the ectoderm as a pit or invagination, part of
which forms a gas-secreting gland, while the rest gives rise to an
air-sack lined by ft chitinous cuticle. The orifice of invagination
forms a pore which may be closed up or may form a protruding
duct or funnel. As in the analogous swim-bladder of fishes, the
gas in the pneumatophore can be secreted or absorbed, whereby
the specific gravity of the body can be diminished or increased, so
as to cause it to float nearer the surface or at a deeper level.
Never more than one pneumatophore is found in a cormus, and
when present it is always situated at the highest point above the
swimming bells, if these are present also. In Velella the pneumato-
phore becomes of complex structure and sends air-tubes, lined by a
chitin and resembling tracheae, down into the compact coenosarc,
thus evidently serving a respiratory as well as a hydrostatic
function.
Divergent views have been held as to the morphological
significance of the pneumatophore. E. Haeckel regarded the
whole structure as a glandular ectodermal pit formed on the ex-
umbral surface of a medusa-person. C. Chun and, more recently, R.
Woltereck [59], on the other hand, have shown that the ectodermal
pit which gives rise to the pneumatophore represents an entocodon.
Hence the cavity of the air-sack is equivalent to a sub-umbral
cavity in which no manubrium is formed, and the pore or orifice of
invagination would represent the margin of the umbrella. In the
wall of the sack is a double layer of endoderm, the space between
which is a continuation of the coelenteron. By coalescence of the
endoderm-layers, the coelenteron may be reduced to vessels, usually
eight in number, opening into a ring-sinus surrounding the pore.
Thus the disposition of the endoderm-cavities is roughly comparable
to the gastrovascular system of a medusa.
The difference between the theories of Haeckel and Chun is con-
nected with a further divergence in the interpretation of the stem or
axis of the cormus. Haeckel regards it as the equivalent of the
manubrium, and as it is implanted on the blind end of the pneumato-
phore, such a view leads necessarily to the air-sack and gland being a
development on the ex-umbral surface of the medusa-person. Chun
and Woltereck, on the other hand, regard the stem as a stole prolifer
arising from the aboral pole, that is to say, from the ex-umbrella,
similar to that which grows out from the ex-umbral surface of the
embryo of the Narcomedusae and produces buds, a view which is
certainly supported by the embryological evidence to be adduced
shortly.
In the siphosome the following types of appendages occur: —
1. Siphons or nutritive appendages, from which the order takes its
name; never absent and usually present in great numbers (fig. 68, e).
Each is a tube dilated at or towards the base and containing a mouth
at its extremity, leading into a stomach placed in the dilatation
already mentioned. The siphons have been compared to the manu-
brium of a medusa-individual, or to polyps, and hence are sometimes,
termed gastrozoids.
2. Palpons (fig. 68, g), present in some genera, especially in
Physonectae ; similar to the siphons but without a mouth, and purely
tactile in function, hence sometimes termed dactylozoids. If a
distal pore or aperture is present, it is excretory in function; such,
varieties have been termed " cystons " by Haeckel.
i58
HYDROMEDUSAE
[SIPHONOPHORA
3. Tentacles (" Fangfdden "), always present, and implanted one
at the base of each siphon (fig. 68,/). The tentacles of siphonophores
may reach a great length and have a complex structure. They may
bear accessory filaments or tentilla (/'), covered thickly with batteries
of nematocysts, to which these organisms owe their great powers of
offence and defence.
4. Palpacles (" Tastfaden "), occurring together with palpons, one
implanted at the base of each palpon (fig. 68, h). Each palpacle is
a tactile filament, very extensile, without accessory filaments or
nematocysts.
5. Bracts (" hydrophyllia "), occur in Calycophorida and some
Physophorida as scale-like appendages protecting other parts (fig.
68, /). The mesogloea is greatly developed in them and they are
„ often of very tough consistency. By Haeckel they
are considered homologous with the umbrella of a
medusa.
6. Gonostyles, appendages which produce by budding
medusae or gonophores, like the blastostyles of a hydroid
colony. In their most primitive form they are seen in
Velella as " gonosiphons," which possess mouths like
the ordinary sterile siphons and bud free medusae. In
other forms they have no mouths. They may be
branched, so-called " gonodendra," and amongst them
may occur special forms of palpons, " gonopalpons."
The gonostyles have been compared to the blastostyles
of a hydroid colony, or to the manubrium of a
medusa which produces free or sessile medusa-buds.
7. Gonophores, produced either on the gonostyles
already mentioned or budded, as in hydrocorallines,
from the coenosarc, i.e. the stem (fig. 68, *'.). They
show every transition between free medusae and
sporosacs, as already described for hydroid colonies.
Thus in Velella free medusae are produced,
which have been described as an inde-
pendent genus of medusae, Chrysomitra.
In other types the medusae may be set
the appendages are arranged as regularly recurrent cormidia along it,
and the cormidia are then said to be " ordinate." In such cases the
oldest cormidia, that is to say, those furthest from the nectosome,
may become detached (like the segments
or proglottides of a tape-worm) and
swim off, each such detached cormidium
then becoming a small free cormus
which, in many cases, has been given an
independent generic name. A cormidium
may contain a single nutritive siphon
(" monogastric ") or several siphons
(" polygastric "). From G- H- Fowler, after G.
The following are some of the forms £uvier, Lankester's Treatise on
of cormidia that occur :—
1. The eudoxome (Calycophorida), con- FIG. 71. — Upper sur-
sisting of a bract, siphon, tentacle and face of Velella, showing
gonophore; when free it is known as pneumatophore and sail.
Eudoxia.
2. The ersaeome (Calycophorida), made up of the same appendages
as the preceding type but with the addition of a nectocalyx; when
free termed Ersaea.
3. The rhodalome of some Rhodalidae, consisting of siphon, tentacle
and one or more gonophores.
4. The athorome of Physophora, &c., consisting of siphon, tentacle,
one or more palpons with palpacles, and one or more gonophores.
5. The crystallpme of Anthemodes, &c., similar to the athorome but
with the addition of a
group of bracts.
Embryology of the
Siphonophora. — The fer-
tilized ovum gives rise
to a parenchymula, with
solid endoderm, which is
set free as a free-swim-
ming planula larva, in
the manner already de-
scribed (see HYDROZOA).
The planula has its two
extremities dissimilar
(Bipolaria-larva). The
subsequent development
is slightly different ac-
cording as the future
cormus is headed by a
pneumatophore (Physo-
phorida, Cystophorida)
or by a nectocalyx (Caly-
cophorida).
(i.) Physopho-
rida, for example
Halistemma (C.
Chun, HYDROZOA
i]). The planula
becomes elongated
and broader
towards one pole,
at which a pit or
invagination of the
ectoderm arises.
Next the pit closes
up to form a
vesicle with a pore,
and so gives rise
to the pneumato-
phore. From the
broader portion of
the planula an
From G. H. Fowler, after A. Agassiz, Lankester's Treatise on Zoology.
FIG. 70.— Diagram of the structure of Velella, showing the central and outgrowth arises
peripheral thirds of a half-section of the colony, the middle third being ^ lch becomes the
omitted. The ectoderm is indicated by close hatching, the endoderm by hLSt tentacle
light hatching, the mesogloea by thick black lines, the horny skeleton of j cormus.
the pneumatophore and sail by dotting. endoderm of
BL, Blastostyle. M, Medusoid gonophores. planula now ac-
C, Centradenia.
D, Palpon.
EC, Edge of colony prolonged be-
yond the pneumatophore.
G, Cavity of the large central
siphon.
free in a mature condition as the so-called " genital swimming
bells," comparable to the Globiceps of Pennaria. The most usual
condition, however, is that in which sessile medusoid gonophores or
sporosacs are produced.
The various types of appendages described' in the foregoing may
be arranged in groups termed cormidia. In forms with a compact
coenosarc such as Velella, Physalia, &c., the separate cormidia cannot
be sharply distinguished, and such a condition is described technic-
ally as one with r< scattered " cormidia. In forms in which, on the
other hand, the coenosarc forms an elongated, tubular axis or stem,
-n
MM
of FIG. 72. — A, Diphyes campanulala;
e B, a group of appendages (cormidium) of
the the same Diphyes. (After C. Gegenbaur.)
PN, Primary central chamber, and qulr,es
PN', concentric chamber of a
the pneumatophore, showing narr°wer
an opening to the exterior r
and a " trachea."
S, Sail.
a, Axis of the colony.
Nectocalyx.
Sub-umbral cavity
of nectocalyx.
Radial canals of
nectocalyx.
Orifice of
nectocalyx.
Bract.
Siphon.
Gonophore.
Tentacle.
a cavity,
at the?
pole a '
mouth is formed,
giving rise to the '
primary siphon.
Thus from the
original planula three appendages are, as it were, budded off, while
the planula itself mostly gives rise to coenosarc, just as in some
hydroids the planula is converted chiefly into hydrorhiza.
(ii.) Calycophorida, for ; example, Muggiaea. The planula develops,
on the whole, in a similar manner, but the ectodermal invagi-
nation arises, not at the pole of the planula, but on the side of its
broader portion, and gives rise, not to a pneumatophore, but to a
nectocalyx, the primary swimming bell or protocodon (" Fallschirm ")
which is later thrown off and replaced by secondary swimming bells,
metacodons, budded from the coenosarc.
SIPHONOPHORA]
HYDROMEDUSAE
'59
From a comparison of the two embryological types there can be no
doubt on two points; first, that the pneumatophore and the proto-
codon are strictly homologous, and, therefore if the nectocalyx is
comparable to the umbrella of a medusa, as seems obvious, the
pneumatophore must be so too; secondly, that the coenosarcal axis
arises from the ex-umbrella of the medusa and cannot be compared
to a manubrium, but is strictly comparable to the " bud-spike ' of a
Narcomedusan.
Theories of Siphonophore Morphology. — The many theories that
have been put forward as to the interpretation of the cormus
and the various parts are set forth and discussed in the
treatise of Y. Delage and E. H6rouard (HYDROZOA [4]) and more
recently by R. Woltereck [59], and only a brief analysis can be
given here.
In the first place the cormus has been regarded as a single indi-
vidual and its appendages as organs. This is the so-called " poly-
organ " theory, especially con-
nected with the name of Huxley;
but it must be borne in mind that
Huxley regarded all the forms
produced, in any animal, between
one egg-generation and the next,
as constituting in the lump one
single individual. Huxley, there-
fore, considered a hydroid colony,
for example, as a single individual,
and each separate polyp or medusa
budded from it as having the
value of an organ and not of an
individual. Hence Huxley's view
is not so different from those held
by other authors as it seems to
be at first sight.
In more recent years Woltereck
[59] has supported Huxley's view
of individuality, at the same time
drawing a fine distinction between
" individual "and" person." The
individual is the product of sexual
reproduction ; a person is an indi-
vidual of lower rank, which may
be produced asexually. A Sipho-
nophore is regarded as a single
individual composed of numerous
zoids, budded from the primary
zoid (siphon) produced from the
planula. Any given zoid is a
person-zoid if equivalent to the
primary zoid, an organ-zoid if
equivalent only to a part of it.
Woltereck considers the siphono-
phores most nearly allied to the
Narcomedusae, producing like
the buds from an aboral stolon,
the first bud being represented
by the pneumatophore or pro-
tocodon, in different cases.
Contrasting, in the second place,
with the polyorgan theory are the
various " poly person " theories
which interpret the Siphonophore
cormus as a colony composed of
FiG.73—Physophorahydrostatica.more Or fewer individuals in or-
After C. Gegenbaur.
a', Pneumatocyst.
t, Palpons.
a, Axis of the colony.
m, Nectocalyx.
0, Orifice of nectocalyx.
n, Siphon.
g, Gonophore.
1. Tentacle.
ganic union with one another. On
this interpretation there is still
room for considerable divergence
of opinion as regards detail. To
begin with, it is not necessary on
the polyperson theory to regard
each appendage as a distinct in-
dividual; it is still possible to
compare appendages with parts
of an individual which have become separated from one another
by a process of " dislocation of organs." Thus a bract may be
regarded, with Haeckel, as a modified umbrella of a medusa,
a siphon as its manubrium, and a tentacle as representing a
medusan tentacle shifted in attachment from the margin to the
sub-umbrella ; or a siphon may be compared with a polyp, of which
the single tentacle has become shifted so as to be attached to the
coenosarc and so on. Some authors prefer, on the other hand, to
regard every appendage as a separate individual, or at least as a
portion of an individual, of which other portions have been lost or
obliterated.
A further divergence of opinion arises from differences in the
interpretation of the persons composing the colony. It is possible to
regard the cormus (i) as a colony of medusa-persons, (2) as a colony
of polyp-persons, (3) as composed partly of one, partly of the other.
It is sufficient here to mention briefly the views put forward on this
point by C. Chun and E. Haeckel.
Chun (HYDROZOA [1]) maintains the older views of Leuckart and
Claus, according to which the cormus is to be compared to a floating
hydroid colony. It may be regarded as derived from floating polyps
similar to Nemopsis or Pelagohydra, which by budding produce a
colony of polyps and also form medusa-buds. The polyp-indi-
viduals form the nutritive siphosome or trophosome. The medusa-
buds are either fertile or sterile. If fertile they become free medusae
or sessile gonophores. If sterile they remain attached and loco-
motor in function, forming the nectosome, the pneumatophore
and swimming-bells.
Haeckel, on the other hand, is in accordance with Balfcur in
regarding a Siphonophore as a medusome, that is to say, as a colony
composed of medusoid persons or organs entirely. Haeckel con-
siders that the Siphonophores have two distinct ancestral lines of
evolution :
1. In the Disconanthae, i.e. in such forms as Velella, Porpita, &c.,
the ancestor was an eight-rayed medusa (Disconuld) which acquired a
pneumatophore as an ectodermal pit on the ex-umbrella, and in
which the organs (manubrium, tentacles, &c.) became secondarily
multiplied, just as they do in Gastroblasta as the result of incomplete
fission. The nearest living allies of the ancestral Disconula are to
be sought in the Pectyllidae.
2. In the Siphonanthae , i.e. in all other Siphonophores, the ances-
tral form was a Siphonula, a bilaterally symmetrical Anthomedusa
Alter Haeckel, from Lankester's Treatise on Zoology.
FIG. 74. — Stephalia corona, a young colony.
p, Pneumatophore. /, Aurophore. s, Siphon.
n, Nectocalyx. lo, Orifice of the aurophore. t, Tentacle.
with a single long tentacle (cf. Corymorpha), which became dis-
placed from the margin to the sub-umbrella. The Siphonula pro-
duced buds on the manubrium, as many Anthomedusae are known
to do, and these by reduction or dislocation of parts gave rise to
the various appendages of the colony. Thus the umbrella of the
Siphonula became the protocodon, and its manubrium, the axis or
stolon, which, by a process of dislocation of organs, escaped, as it
were, from the sub-umbrella through a cleft and became secondarily
attached to the ex-umbrella. It must be pointed out that, however
probable Haeckel's theory may be in other respects, there is not the
slightest evidence for any such cleft in the umbrella having been
present at any time, and that the embryological evidence, as already
pointed out, is all against any hpmology between the stem and a
manubrium, since the primary siphon does not become the stem,
which arises from the ex-umbral side of the protocodon and is
strictly comparable to a stolon.
Classification. — The Siphonophora may be divided, following
Delage and Herouard, into four sub-orders:
I. CHONDROPHORIDA (Disconeclae Haeckel, Tracheophysae
Chun). With an apical chambered pneumatophore, from which
tracheal tubes may take origin (fig. 70); no nectocalyces or
bracts; appendages all on the lower side of the pneumatophore
arising from a compact coenosarc, and consisting of a central
i6o
HYDROMEDUSAE
[BIBLIOGRAPHY
principal siphon, surrounded by gonosiphons, and these again
by tentacles.
Three families: (i) Discalidae, for Discalia and allied genera, deep-
sea forms not well known; (2) Porpitidae for the familiar genus
Porpita (fig. 69) and its allies ; and (3) Velellidae, represented by the
well-known genus Velella (figs. 70, 71), common in the Mediterranean
and other seas.
II. CALYCOPHORIDA (Cdyconectae, Haeckel). Without pneu-
matophore, with one, two, rarely more nectocalyces.
Three families: (i) Monophyidae, with a single nectocalyx;
examples Muggiaea, sometimes found in British seas, Sphaeronectes,
&c. ; (2) Diphyidae, with two nectocalyces; examples Diphyes (fig.
72), Praya, Abyla, &c. ; and (3) Polyphyidae, with numerous necto-
calyces ; example Hippupodius, Stephanophyes and other genera.
From O. H. Fowler, modified after G. CUVUT and E. Haeckel, Lankestcr's Treatise
on Zoology.
FIG. 75. — A. Physalia, general view, diagrammatic; B, cor-
midium of Physalia; D, palpon; T, palpacle; G, siphon; GP,
gonopalpon ; M <f , male gonophore ; M 9 , female gonophore, ulti-
mately set free.
III. PHYSOPHORIDA (Physonectae + Auronectae, Haeckel).
With an apical pneumatophore, not divided into chambers,
followed by a series of nectocalyces or bracts.
A great number of families and genera are referred to this group,
amongst which may be mentioned specially — (i) Agalmidae, con-
taining the genera Stephanomia, Agalma, Anthemodes, Halistemma,
&c. ; (2) Apolemidae, with the genus Apolemia and its allies;
(3) Forskalitdae, with Forskalia and allied forms; (4) Physophoridae,
for Physophora (fig. 73) and other genera, (5) Anthophysidae, for
Anthophysa, Athorybia, &c. ; and lastly the two families (6) Rhoda-
lidae and (7) Stephalidae (fig. 74), constituting the group Auronectae
of Haeckel. The Auronectae are peculiar deep-sea forms, little known
except from Haeckel's descriptions, in which the large pneumato-
phore has a peculiar duct, termed the aurophore, placed on its lower
side in the midst of a circle of swimming-bells.
IV. CYSTOPHORIDA (Cyslonectae, Haeckel). With a very large
pneumatophore not divided into chambers, but without necto-
calyces or bracts. Two sections can be distinguished, the
Rhizophysina, with long tubular coenosarc-bearing ordinate
cormidia, and Physalina, with compact coenosarc-bearing
scattered cormidia.
A type of the Rhizophysina is the genus Rhizophysa. The
Physalina comprise the families Physalidae and Epibulidae, of
which the types are Physalia (figs. 74, 75) and Epibulia, respectively.
Physalia, known commonly as the Portuguese man-of-war, is re-
markable for its great size, its brilliant colours, and its terrible sting-
ing powers.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — In addition to the works cited below, see the
general works cited in the article HYDROZOA, in some of which very
full bibliographies will be found.
1. G. J.Allman," A Monograph of the Gymnoblastic or Tubularian
Hydroids," Ray Society (1871-1872); 2. A. Brauer, "Uber die
Entwickelung von Hydra," Zeitschr.f. wiss. Zool. Iii. (1891), pp. 169-
216, pis. ix.-xii. ; 3. tJber die Entstehung der Geschlechtsprodukte
und die Entwickelung von Tubularia mesembryanthemum Allm.,"
i.e. pp. 551-579, pis. xxxiii.-xxxv.; 4. W. K. Brooks, "The Life-
History of the Hydromedusae: a discussion of the Origin of the
Medusae, and of the significance of Metagenesis," Mem. Boston Soc.
Nat. Hist. iii. (1886), pp. 259-430, pis. xxxvii.-xliv. ; 5. " The
Sensory Clubs of Cordyli of Laodice," Journ. Morphology, x. (1895),
pp. 287-304, pi. xvii.; 6. E. T. Browne, " On British Hydroids and
Medusae," Proc. Zool. Soc. (1896), pp. 459-500, pis. xvi., xvii., (1897),
pp. 816-835, pis. xlviii. xlix. 12 text-figs.; 7. " Biscayan Medusae,"
Trans. Linn. Soc. x. (1906), pp. 163-187, pi. xiii. ; 8. " Medusae " in
Herdman, Rep. Pearl Oyster Fisheries, Gulf of Manaar, iv. (1905),
pp. 131-166, 4 pis.; 9. "Hydromedusae with a Revision of the
Williadae and Petasidae," Fauna and Geogr. Maldive and Laccadive
Archipelagos, ii. (1904), pp. 722-749, pis. liv.-lvii.; 10. "On
the Freshwater Medusa liberated by Microhydra ryderi, Potts,
and a Comparison with Limnocodium," Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci. i
(1906), pp. 635, 645, pi. xxxvii.; lOa. " On the Freshwater Medusa
Limnocnida tanganicae " Budgett Memorial Volume (Cambridge,
1908, pp. 471-482, pi. xxviii.; 11. C. Claus, " Uber die Struktur der
Muskelzellen und uber den Korperbau von Mnestra parasites
Krohn," Verhandl. zoo/, hot. Ges. Wien, xxy. (1876), pp. 9-12, pi. i. ;
lla. C. Dawydov, " Hydroctena salenskii," Mem. Acad. Imp. St.
P6tersbourg (viii.) xiv. No. 9 (1903), 17 pp., I pi.; 12. A. Dendy,
" On a Free-swimming Hydroid, Pelagohydra mirabilis," n. gen. et
sp.. Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci. xlvi. (1903), pp. 1-24, pis. i. ii.; 13. H.
Driesch, " Tektonische Studien an Hydroidpolypen," (i) Jen.
Zeitschr., xxiv. (1890), pp. 189-226, 12 figs.; (2) I.e. pp. 657-688,
6 figs.; (3) ibid. xxv. (1891), pp. 467-479, 3 figs.; 14. G. Duplessis,
"On Campanularia_volubilis,' Soc. Vaud. Bull. 13 (Lausanne, : ~
-_,
1875); IS. J. W. Fewkes, "On Mnestra," Amer. Natural., xviii.
(1884), pp. 197-198, 3 figs.; 16. S. Goto, " Dendrocoryne Inaba,
Vertreterin einer neuen Familie der Hydromedusen," Annot. Zool.
Tokyo, i. (1897), pp. 93-104, pi. vi., figs. 106-113; 17. " The Craspe
dote Medusa Olindias and some of its Natural Allies," Mark Anni-
versary Volume (New York, 1903), pp. 1-22,3 pis.; 18. H. Grenadier,
" Uber die Nesselkapseln von Hydra," Zool. Anz. xviii. (1895),
PP- 310-321, 7 figs.; 19. R. T. Gilnther, "On the Structure and
Affinities of Mnestra parasites Krohn ; with a revision of the Classi-
fication of the Cladonemidae," Mitt. Stat. Neapel, xvi. (1903), pp.
35-62, pis. ii. iii.; 20. E. Haeckel, "Das System der Medusen,"
Denkschr. med.-nat.-wiss. Ges. (Jena, 1879-1881); 21. "Deep Sea
Medusae," in Reports of the Challenger Expedition, Zool. iv. pt. 2
(London, 1882); 22. P. Hallez, " Bougainvillia fruticosa Allm. est
le fades d'eau agitee du Bougainvillia ramosa Van Ben." C.-R. Acad.
Sci. Paris, cxl. (1905), pp. 457-459; 23. O. & R. Hertwig, Der
Organismus der Medusen (Jena, 1878), 70 pp., 3 pis.; 24. Das
Nervensystem und die Sinnesorgane der Medusen (Leipzig, 1878), 186
pp., 10 pis.; 25. S. J. Hickson, " The Medusae of Millepora," Proc.
Roy. Soc. Ixvi. (1899), pp. 6-10, 10 figs.; 26. T. Hincks, A History of
British Hydroid Zoophytes (2 vols., London, 1868); 27. N. Iwanzov,
" Uber den Bau, die Wirkungsweise und die Entwickelung der
Nesselkapseln von Coelenteraten," Bull. Soc. Imp. Natural. Moscou
(1896), pp. 323-355, 4 pis. ; 28. C. F. Jickeli, " Der Bau der Hydroid-
polypen, (i) Morph. Jahrbuch, viii. (1883), pp. 373-416, pis. xvi.-
Lang, " Gastroblasta Raffaelei. " "Eine" durch eine Art unvoll-
standiger Theilung entstehende Medusen-Kolonie," Jena Zeitschr.
xix. (1886), pp. 735-762, pis. xx., xxi.; 31. A. Linko, " Observations
sur les mdduses de la mer Blanche," Trav. Soc. Imp. Nat. St Pelers-
bourg, xxix. (1899); 32. " Uber den Bau der Augen bei den Hydro-
medusen," Zapiski Imp. Akad. Nauk (Mem. Acad. Imp. Set.) St
Petersburg (8) x. 3 (1900), 23 pp., 2 pis. ; 33. O. Maas, " Die craspe-
doten Medusen," in Ergebn. Plankton Expedition, ii. (Kiel and Leipzig,
1893), 107 pp., 8 pis., 3 figs.; 34. " Die Medusen," Mem. Mus.
Cpmp. Zool. Harvard, xxiii. (1897), i.; 35. "On Hydroctena," Zool.
. , ... 240-243; 36. "Revision des meduses
appartenant aux families des Cunanthidae et des Aeginidae, et
groupement nouveau des genres," Bull. Mus. Monaco, v. (1904),
8 pp.; 37. " Revision der Cannotiden Haeckels," SB. K. Bayer.
Akad. xxxiv. (1904), pp. 421-445; 38. "Meduses," Result. Camp.
HYDROMETER
161
Sci. Monaco, xxviii. (1904), 71 pp., 6 pis.; 39. " Die craspedoten
Medusen der Siboga-Expedition, Uitkomst. Siboga-Exped. x. (1905),
84 pp., 14 pis.; 40. " Die arktischen Medusen (ausschliesslich der
Polypomedusen)," Fauna arctica, iv. (1906), pp. 479-526; 41. C.
Mereschkowsky, " On a new Genus of Hydroids (Monobrachium)
from the White Sea, with a short description of other new Hydroids,"
Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (4) xx. (1877), pp. 220-229, pis. v. vi.; 42.
E. Metchmkoft, " Studien uber die Entwickelung der Medusen und
Siphonophoren," Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool. xxiv. (1874), pp. 15-83, pis.
i.-xii.; 43. " Vergleichend-embryologische Studien" (Geryoniden,
Cunina), ibid, xxxvi. (1882), pp. 433-458, pi. xxviii.; 44. Embryo-
logische Studien an Medusen (Vienna, 1886), 150 pp., 12 pis., 10 figs.;
45. " Medusologische Mittheilungen," Arb. zool. Inst. Wien, vi.
(1886), pp. 237-266, pis. xxii. xxiii. ; 46. L. Murbach, " Beitrage zur
Kenntnis der Anatomie und Entwickelung der Nesselorgane der
Hydroiden," Arch. f. Naturgesch. Ix. i. (1894), pp. 217-254, pi. xii. ;
47. " Preliminary Note on the Life-History of Uonionemus ,' Journ.
Morph. xi. (1895), pp. 493-496; 48. L. Murbach and C. Shearer,
" On Medusae from the Coast of British Columbia and Alaska,"
Proc. Zool. Soc. (1903), ii. pp. 164-191, pis. xvii.-xxii. ; 49. H. F.
Perkins, "The Development of Gonionema murbachii," Proc.Acad.
Nat. Sci. Philadelphia (1902), pp. 750-790, pis. xxxi-xxxiv.; 50.
F. Schaudinn, " Uber Haleremita cumulans, n. g. n. sp., einen
marinen Hydroidpolypen," SB. Ges. nalforsch. Freunde Berlin (1894),
pp. 226-234, 8 figs. ; 51. F. E. Schulze, " On the Structure and
Arrangement of the Soft Parts in Euplectella aspergtilum " (Amphi-
brachium), Tr. R. Soc. Edinburgh, xxix. (1880), pp. 661-673, pi.
xvii. ; 52. O. Seeliger, " Uber das Verhalten der Keimblatter bei
der Knospung der Colenteraten," Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool. Iviii. (1894),
pp. 152-188, pis. vii.-ix.; 53. W. B. Spencer, "A new Family of
Hydroidea (Clalhrozoon) , together with a description of the Structure
of a new Species of Plumularia," Trans. Roy. Soc. Victoria (1890),
pp. 121-140, 7 pis.; 54. M. Ussow, " A new Form of Fresh-water
Coelenterate " (P ply podium) , Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (5) xviii. (1886),
pp. 110-124, pi. iv. ; 55. E. Vanhoffen, " Versuch einer natiirlichen
Gruppierung der Anthomedusen," Zool. Anzeiger, xiv. (1891), pp.
439-446; 56. C. Viguier, " Etudes sur les animaux inferieurs de la
baie d'AIger " (Tetraplatia) , Arch. Zool. Exp. Gen. viii. (1890), pp.
101-142, pis. vii.-ix.; 57. J. Wagner, " Recherches sur I'orgamsa-
tion de Monobrachium parasiticum Merejk," Arch. biol. x. (1890),
pp. 273-309, pis. viii. ix.; 58. A. Weismann, Die Entstehung der
Sexualzellen bei den Hydromedusen (Jena, 1883); 59. R. Woltereck,
" Beitrage zur Ontogenie und Ableitungdes Siphonophorenstocks,"
Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool. Ixxxii. (1905), pp. 611-637, 21 text-figs.;
60. J. Wulfert, " Die EmbryonalentwickelunK von Gonothyraea
loveni Allm.," Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool. Ixxi. (1902), pp. 296-326, pis.
xvi.-xviii. (E. A. M.)
HYDROMETER (Gr. Mcop, water, and fjxrpov, a measure), an
instrument for determining the density of bodies, generally of
fluids, but in some cases of solids. When a body floats in a
fluid under the action of gravity, the weight of the body is equal
to that of the fluid which it displaces (see HYDROMECHANICS). It
is upon this principle that the hydrometer is constructed, and it
obviously admits of two modes of application in the case of fluids:
either we may compare the weights of floating bodies which are
capable of displacing the same volume of different fluids, or we
may compare the volumes of the different fluids which are dis-
placed by the same weight. In the latter case, the densities of
the fluids will be inversely proportional to the volumes thus
displaced.
The hydrometer is said by Synesius Cyreneus in his fifth letter
to have been invented by Hypatia at Alexandria,1 but appears
to have been neglected until it was reinvented by Robert Boyle,
whose " New Essay Instrument," as described in the Phil. Trans.
for June 1675, differs in no essential particular from Nicholson's
hydrometer. This instrument was devised for the purpose of
detecting counterfeit coin, especially guineas and half-guineas.
In the first section of the paper (Phil. Trans. No. 115, p. 329) the
author refers to a glass instrument exhibited by himself many
years before, and " consisting of a bubble furnished with a long
and slender stem, which was to be put into several liquors, to
compare and estimate their specific gravities." This seems to
be the first reference to the hydrometer in modern times.
In fig. i C represents the instrument used for guineas, the
circular plates A representing plates of lead, which are used as
ballast when lighter coins than guineas are examined. B
1 In Nicholson's Journal, iii. 89, Citizen Eusebe Salverte
calls attention to the poem " De Ponderibus et Mensuris " generally
ascribed to Rhemnius Fannius Palaemon, and consequently 300 years
older than Hypatia, in which the hydrometer is described and
attributed to Archimedes.
represents " a small glass instrument for estimating the specific
gravities of liquors," an account of which was promised by Boyle
in the following number of the Phil. Trans., but did not appear.
The instrument represented at B (fig. i), which is copied from
Robert Boyle's sketch in the Phil. Trans, for 1675, is generally
known as the common hydrometer.
It is usually made of glass, the lower
bulb being loaded with mercury or
small shot which serves as ballast,
causing the instrument to float with
the stem vertical. The quantity of
mercury or shot inserted depends upon
the density of the liquids for which
the hydrometer is to be employed, it
being essential that the whole of the
bulb should be immersed in the heaviest
liquid for which the instrument is used,
while the length and diameter of the
stem must be such that the hydro-
meter will float in the lightest liquid
for which it is required. The stem is
usually divided into a number of equal
parts, the divisions of the scale being
varied in different instruments, accord-
ing to the purposes for which they are
employed.
Let V denote the volume of the in-
strument immersed (i.e. of liquid dis-
placed) when the surface of the liquid in which the hydro-
meter floats coincides with the lowest division of the scale, A the
area of the transverse section of the stem, / the length of a scale
division, n the number of divisions on the stem, and W the weight
of the instrument. Suppose the successive divisions of the scale to
be numbered o, i, 2 . . . n starting with the lowest, and let wa,
Wi, Wi . . .wn be the weights of unit volume of the liquids in which
the hydrometer sinks to the divisions o, i , 2 . . . n respectively.
Then, by the principle of Archimedes,
W = Vit/o ; or Wo = W/V. Also
W = (V-MA)a/,; or «d =
wp = W/(V-H>/A),and
FIG. i. — Boyle's New
Essay Instrument.
or the densities of the several liquids vary inversely as the respective
volumes of the instrument immersed in them; and, since the
divisions of the scale correspond to equal increments of volume
immersed, it follows that the densities of the several liquids in
which the instrument sinks to the successive divisions form a
harmonic series.
If V = N/A then N expresses the ratio of the volume of the instru-
ment up to the zero of the scale to that of one of the scale-divisions.
If we suppose the lower part of the instrument replaced by a uniform
bar of the same sectional area as the stem and of volume V, the
indications of the instrument will be in no respect altered, and the
bottom of the bar will be at a distance of N scale-divisions below
the zero of the scale.
In this case we have wp = 'W/(N+p)lA; or the density of the
liquid varies inversely as N+p, that is, as the whole number of
scale-divisions between the bottom of the tube and the plane of
flotation.
If we wish the successive divisions of the scale to correspond to
equal increments in the density of the corresponding liquids, then
the volumes of the instrument, measured up to the successive
divisions of the scale, must form a series in harmonical progression,
the lengths of the divisions increasing as we go up the stem.
The greatest density of the liquid for which the instrument de-
scribed above can be employed is W/V, while the least density is
W/(V+n/A), or W/(V+r), where v represents the volume of the stem
between the extreme divisions of the scale. Now, by increasing »,
leaving W and V unchanged, we may increase the range of the instru-
ment indefinitely. But it is clear that if we increase A, the sectional
area of the stem, we shall diminish /, the length of a scale-division
corresponding to a given variation of density, and thereby pro-
portionately diminish the sensibility of the instrument, while
diminishing the section A will increase / and proportionately increase
the sensibility, but will diminish the range over which the instru-
ment can be employed, unless we increase the length of the stem in
the inverse ratio of the sectional area. Hence, to obtain great
sensibility along with a considerable range, we require very long
slender stems, and to these two objections apply in addition to the
question of portability; for, in the first place, an instrument with
a very long stem requires a very deep vessel of liquid for its complete
immersion, and, in the second place, when most of the stem is above
xiv. 6
162
HYDROMETER
the plane of flotation, the stability of the instrument when floating
will be diminished or destroyed. The various devices which have
been adopted to overcome this difficulty will be described in the
account given of the several hydrometers which have been hitherto
generally employed.
The plan commonly adopted to obviate the necessity of incon-
veniently long stems is to construct a number of hydrometers as
nearly alike as may be, but to load them differently, so that the scale-
divisions at the bottom of the stem of one hydrometer just overlap
those at the top of the stem of the preceding. By this means a set
of six hydrometers, each having a stem rather more than 5 in. long,
will be equivalent to a single hydrometer with a stem of 30 in.
But, instead of employing a number of instruments differing only in
the weights with which they are loaded, we may employ the same
instrument, and alter its weight either by adding mercury or shot to
the interior (if it ca'n be opened) or by attaching weights to the ex-
terior. These two operations are not quite equivalent, since a weight
added to the interior does not affect the volume of liquid displaced
when the instrument is immersed up to a given division of the scale,
while the addition of weights to the exterior increases the displace-
ment. This difficulty may be met, as in Keene's hydrometer, by
having all the weights of precisely the same volume but of different
masses, and never using the instrument except with one of these
weights attached.
The first hydrometer intended for the determination of the
densities of liquids, and furnished with a set of weights to be
attached when necessary, was that con-
structed by Mr Clarke (instrument-maker)
and described by J. T. Desaguliers in the
Philosophical Transactions for March and
April 1730, No. 413, p. 278. The following
is Desaguliers's account of the instrument
(fig. 2):-
" After having made several fruitless trials
with ivory, because it imbibes spirituous liquors,
and thereby alters its gravity, he (Mr Clarke)
at last made a copper hydrometer, represented
in fig. 2, having a brass wire of about I in. thick
going through, and soldered into the copper
all Bb. The upper part of this wire is filed flat
on one side, for the stem of the hydrometer,
with a mark at m, to which it sinks exactly in
proof spirits. There are two other marks, A and
B, at top and bottom of the stem, to show
whether the liquor be Ath above proof (as when
it sinks to A), or ^th under proof (as when it
emerges to B), when a brass weight such as C
has been screwed on to the bottom at c. There
are a great many such weights, of different sizes, and marked to be
screwed on instead of C, for liquors that differ more than j^th from
proof, so as to serve for the specific gravities in all such propor-
tions as relate to the mixture of spirituous liquors, in all the variety
made use of in trade. There are also other balls for showing the
specific gravities quite to common water, which make the instrument
perfect in its kind."
Clarke's hydrometer, as afterwards constructed for the purposes
of the excise, was provided with thirty-two weights to adapt it to
spirits of different specific gravities, and eleven smaller weights,
or " weather weights " as they were called, which were attached
to the instrument in order to correct for variations of temperature.
The weights were adjusted for successive intervals of 5° F., but
for degrees intermediate between these no additional correction
was applied. The correction for temperature thus afforded was
not sufficiently accurate for excise purposes, and William Speer
in his essay on the hydrometer (Tilloch's Phil. Mag., 1802, vol.
xiv.) mentions cases in which this imperfect compensation led
to the extra duty payable upon spirits which were more than 10%
over proof being demanded on spirits which were purposely
diluted to below 10% over proof in order to avoid the charge
Clarke's hydrometer, however, remained the standard instrument
for excise purposes from 1787 until it was displaced by that ol
Sikes.
Desaguliers himself constructed a hydrometer of the ordinary
type for comparing the specific gravities of different kinds ol
water (Desaguliers's Experimental Philosophy, ii. 234). In
order to give great sensibility to the instrument, the large glass
ball was made nearly 3 in. in diameter, while the stem consisted ol
a wire 10 in. in length and only tV in. in diameter. The instrument
weighed 4000 grains, and the addition of a grain caused it to
sink through an inch. By altering the quantity of shot in the
FIG. 2. — Clarke's
Hydrometer.
FIG. 3. — Nichol-
son's Hydrometer.
mall balls the instrument could be adapted for liquids other than
water.
To an instrument constructed for the same purpose, but on a
still larger scale than that of Desaguliers, A. Deparcieux added
a small dish on the top of the stem for the reception of the
weights necessary to sink the instrument to a convenient depth.
The effect of weights placed in such a dish or pan is of course
the same as if they were placed within the bulb of the instrument,
since they do not alter the volume of that part which is immersed.
The first important improvement in the hydrometer after
its reinvention by Boyle was introduced by G. D. Fahrenheit,
who adopted the second mode of construction above referred to,
arranging his instrument so as always to
displace the same volume of liquid, its
weight being varied accordingly. Instead of
a scale, only a single mark is placed upon the
stem, which is very slender, and bears at the
top a small scale pan into which weights are
placed until the instrument sinks to the mark
upon its stem. The volume of the displaced
liquid being then always the same, its density
will be proportional to the whole weight
supported, that is, to the weight of the
instrument together with the weights required
to be placed in the scale pan.
Nicholson's hydrometer (fig-3) combines the
characteristics of Fahrenheit's hydrometer and of Boyle's essay
instrument.1 The following is the description given of it by
W. Nicholson in the Manchester Memoirs, ii. 374: —
" AA represents a small scale. It may be taken off at D. Dia-
meter ii in., weight 44 grains.
" B a stem of hardened steel wire. Diameter TJ5 in.
" E a hollow copper globe. Diameter 2^ in. Weight with stem
369 grains.
FF a stirrup of wire screwed to the globe at C.
" G a small scale, serving likewise as a counterpoise. Diameter
in. Weight with stirrup 1634 grains.
" The other dimensions may be had from the drawing, which is
one-sixth of the linear magnitude of the instrument itself.
" In the construction it is assumed that the upper scale shall
constantly carry 1000 grains when the lower scale is empty, and the
instrument sunk in distilled water at the temperature of 60° Fahr.
to the middle of the wire or stem. The length of the stem is arbitrary ,
as is likewise the distance of the lower scale from the surface of the
globe. But, the length of the stem being settled, the lower scale may
be made lighter, and, consequently, the globe less, the greater its
distance is taken from the surface of the globe; and the contrary."
In comparing the densities of different liquids, it is clear that
this instrument is precisely equivalent to that of Fahrenheit,
and must be employed in the same manner, weights being placed
in the top scale only until the hydrometer sinks to the mark on the
wire, when the specific gravity of the liquid will be proportional
to the weight of the instrument together with the weights in the
scale.
In the subsequent portion of the paper above referred to,
Nicholson explains how the instrument may be employed as a
thermometer, since, fluids generally expanding more than the
solids of which the instrument is constructed, the instrument
will sink as the temperature rises.
To determine the density of solids heavier than water with this
instrument, let the solid be placed in the upper scale pan, and let
the weight now required to cause the instrument to sink in distilled
water at standard temperature to the mark B be denoted by w,.
while W denotes the weight required when the solid is not present.
Then W-w is the weight of the solid. Now let the solid be placed
in the lower pan, care being taken that no bubbles of air remain
attached to it, and let w, be the weight now required in the scale pan.
This weight will exceed w in consequence of the water displaced by
the solid, and the weight of the water thus displaced will be wt-w,
which is therefore the weight of a volume of water equal to that of
the solid. Hence, since the weight of the solid itself is W-w, its
density must be (W-ai)/(oii-aj).
The above example illustrates how Nicholson's or Fahrenheit's
hydrometer may be employed as a weighing machine for small
weights.
In all hydrometers in which a part only of the instrument
1 Nicholson's Journal, vol. i. p. ill, footnote.
HYDROMETER
163
is immersed, there is a liability to error in consequence of the
surface tension, or capillary action, as it is frequently called, along
the line of contact of the instrument and the surface of the liquid
(see CAPILLARY ACTION). This error diminishes as the diameter
of the stem is reduced, but is sensible in the case of the thinnest
stem which can be employed, and is the chief source of error in
the employment of Nicholson's hydrometer, which otherwise
would be an instrument of extreme delicacy and precision.
The following is Nicholson's statement on this point: —
" One of the greatest difficulties which attends hydrostadcal
experiments arises from the attraction or repulsion that obtains at
the surface of the water. After trying many experiments to obviate
the irregularities arising from this cause, I find reason to prefer the
simple one of carefully wiping the whole instrument, and especially
the stem, with a clean cloth. The weights in the dish must not be
esteemed accurate while there is either a cumulus or a cavity in the
water round the stem."
It is possible by applying a little oil to the upper part of the
bulb of a common or of a Sikes's hydrometer, and carefully
placing it in pure water, to cause it to float with the upper part
of the bulb and the whole of the stem
emerging as indicated in fig. 4, when it
ought properly to sink almost to the top
of the stem, the surface tension of the
water around the circumference of the
circle of contact, AA', providing the
additional support required.
The universal hydrometer of G. Atkins,
described in the Phil. Mag. for 1808,
xxxi. 254^ is merely Nicholson's hydro-
meter with the screw at C projecting
through the collar into which it is screwed^
and terminating in a sharp point above the
cup G. To this point soft bodies lighter
than water (which would float if placed in
the cup) could be attached, and thus com-
pletely immersed. Atkins's instrument was
constructed so as to weigh 700 grains, and
when immersed to the mark on the stem
in distilled water at 60° F. it carried 300
grains in the upper dish. The hydrometer
therefore displaced 1000 grains of distilled
water at 6o°F.and hence the specific gravity
of any other liquid was at once indicated
by adding 700 to the number of grains in the
pan required to make the instrument sink to
the mark on the stem. The small divisions on the scale corresponded
to differences of j'jth of a grain in the weight of the instrument.
The " Gravimeter," constructed by Citizen Guyton and described
in Nicholson's Journal, 410, i. no, differs from Nicholson's instru-
ment in being constructed of glass, and having a cylindrical bulb
about 21 centimetres in length and 22 millimetres in diameter.
Its weight is so adjusted that an additional weight of 5 grammes
must be placed in the upper pan to cause the instrument to sink
to the mark on the stem in distilled water at the standard temperature.
The instrument is provided with an additional piece, or " plongeur,"
the weight of which exceeds 5 grammes by the weight of water which
it displaces; that is to say, it is so constructed as to weigh 5 grammes
in water, and consists of a glass envelope filled with mercury. It is
clear that the effect of this " plongeur," when placed in the lower
pan, is exactly the same as that of the 5 gramme weight in the upper
pan. Without the extra 5 grammes the instrument weighs about 20
grammes, and therefore floats in a liquid of specific gravity -8.
Thus deprived of its additional weight it may be used for spirits.
To use the instrument for liquids of much greater density than
water additional weights must be placed in the upper pan, and the
" plongeur " is then placed in the lower pan for the purpose of giving
to the instrument the requisite stability.
Charles's balance areometer is similar to Nicholson's hydrometer,
except that the lower basin admits of inversion, thus enabling the
instrument to be employed for solids lighter than water, the in-
verted _ basin serving the same purpose as the pointed screw in
Atkins's modification of the instrument.
Adie's sliding hydrometer is of the ordinary form, but can be
adjusted for liquids of widely differing specific gravities by drawing
out a sliding tube, thus changing the volume of the hydrometer
while its weight remains constant.
The hydrometer of A. Baume', which has been extensively used in
France, consists of a common hydrometer graduated in the following
manner. Certain fixed points were first determined upon the stem
of the instrument. The first of these was found by immersing the
hydrometer in pure water, and marking the stem at the level of
the surface. This formed the zero of the scale. Fifteen standard
solutions of pure common salt in water were then prepared, contain-
FIG. 4.
ing respectively I, 2, 3, ... 15% (by weight) of dry salt. The
hydrometer was plunged in these solutions in order, and the stem
having been marked at the several surfaces, the degrees so obtained
were numbered 1,2,3, • • • I5- These degrees were, when necessary,
repeated along the stem by the employment of a pair of compasses
till 80 degrees were marked off. The instrument thus adapted to
the determination of densities exceeding that of water was called the
hydrometer for salts.
The hydrometer intended for densities less than that of water,
or the hydrometer for spirits, is constructed on a similar principle.
The instrument is so arranged that it floats in pure water with
most of the stem above the surface. A solution containing 10%
of pure salt is used to indicate the zero of the scale, and the point at
which the instrument floats when immersed in distilled water at
IO° R. (54J° F.) is numbered 10. Equal divisions are then marked
off upwards along the stem as far as the soth degree.
The densities corresponding to the several degrees of Baum^'s
hydrometer are given by Nicholson (Journal of Philosophy, i. 89) as
follows : —
Bounty's Hydrometer for Spirits. Temperature 10° R.
Degrees.
Density.
Degrees.
Density.
Degrees.
Density.
10
I -000
21
•922
3i
•861
ii
•990
22
•915
32
•856
12
•985
23
•909
33
•852
13
•977
24
•903
34
•847
H
•970
25
•897
35
•842
15
•963
26
•892
36
•837
16
•955
27
•886
37
•832
i?
•949
28
•880
38
•827
18
•943
29
•874
39
•822
19
•935
30
•867
40
•817
20
•928
Baum6's Hydrometer for Salts.
Degrees.
Density.
Degrees.
Density.
Degrees.
Density.
0
•ooo
27
•230
51
1-547
3
•020
30
•261
54
1-594
6
•040
33
•295
57
1-659
9
•064
36
•333
60
1-717
12
•089
39
•373
63
1-779
15
•114
42
•414
66
1-848
18
•140
45
•455
69
1-920
21
•170
48
•500
72
2-000
24
•200
Carder's hydrometer was very similar to that of Baume', Cartier
having been employed by the latter to construct his instruments for
the French revenue. The point at which the instrument floated in
distilled water was marked 10° by Cartier, and 30°
on Carder's scale corresponded to 32° on Bauml's.
Perhaps the main object for which hydrometers
have been constructed is the determination of the
value of spirituous liquors, chiefly for revenue
purposes. To this end an immense variety of
hydrometers have been devised, differing mainly
in the character of their scales.
In Speer's hydrometer the stem has the form
of an octagonal prism, and upon each of the eight
faces a scale is engraved, indicating the percentage
strength of the spirit corresponding to the several
divisions of the scale, the eight scales being
adapted respectively to the temperature 35°, 40°,
45°, 50°, 55 , 60°, 65° and 70° F. Four small pins,
which can be inserted into the counterpoise of the
instrument, serve to adapt the instrument to the
temperatures intermediate between those for which
the scales are constructed. William Speer was
supervisor and chief assayer of spirits in the port
of Dublin. For a more complete account of this
instrument see Tilloch's Phil. Mag., xiv. 151.
The hydrometer constructed by Tones, of Hoi-
born, consists of a spheroidal bulb with a rec-
tangular stem (fig. 5). Between the bulb and
counterpoise is placed a thermometer, which
serves to indicate the temperature of the liquid,
and the instrument is provided with three weights
which can be attached to the top of the stem. On
the four sides of the stem AD are engraved four
scales corresponding respectively to the unloaded FIG. 5. — Jones's
instrument, and to the instrument loaded with the Hydrometer,
respective weights. The instrument when unloaded
serves for the range from 74 to 47 over proof ; when loaded with the
first weight it indicates from 46 to 13 over proof, with the second
weight from 13 over proof to 29 under proof, and with the third
164
HYDROMETER
FIG. 6.
from 29 under proof to pure water, the graduation corresponding to
which is marked W at the bottom of the fourth scale. One side of the
stem AD is shown in fig. 5, the other three in fig. 6. The thermo-
meter is also provided with four scales corresponding to the scales
above mentioned. Each scale has its zero in the middle correspond-
ing to 60° F. If the mercury in the thermo-
meter stand above this zero the spirit must
be reckoned weaker than the hydrometer in-
dicates by the number on the thermometer
scale level with the top of the mercury, while
if the thermometer indicate a temperature
lower than the zero of the scale (60* F.) the
spirit must be reckoned stronger by the scale
reading. At the side of each of the four
scales on the stem of the hydrometer is en-
graved a set of small numbers indicating the
contraction in volume which would be experi-
enced if the requisite amount of water (or
spirit) were added to bring the sample tested
to the proof strength.
The hydrometer constructed by Dicas of
Liverpool is provided with a sliding scale which
can be adjusted for different temperatures, and
which also indicates the contraction in volume
incident on bringing the spirit to proof strength. It is provided
with thirty-six different weights which, with the ten divisions on the
stem, form a scale from o to 370. The employment of so many
weights renders the instrument ill-adapted for practical work where
speed is an object.
This instrument was adopted by the United States in 1790, but
was subsequently discarded by the Internal Revenue Service for
another type. In this latter form the observations have to be made
at the standard temperature of 60° F., at which the graduation 100
corresponds to proof spirit and 200 to absolute alcohol. The need
of adjustable weights is avoided by employing a set of five instru-
ments, graduated respectively o°- too °, 80 -120°, ioo°-i4O°, I3o°-I7o°,
i6o°-2OO°. The reading gives the volume of
proof spirit equivalent to the volume of liquor;
thus the readings 80° and 120° mean that 100
volumes of the test liquors contain the same
amount of absolute alcohol as 80 and 120
volumes of proof spirit respectively. Proof
spirit is defined in the United States as a
mixture of alcohol and water which contains
equal volumes of alcohol and water at 60° F.,
the alcohol having a specific gravity of 0-7939
at 60° as compared with water at its maximum
density. The specific gravity of proof spirit is
0-93353 at 60°; and 100 volumes of the
mixture is made from 50 volumes of absolute
alcohol and 53-71 volumes of water.
Quin's universal hydrometer is described in
the Transactions of the Society of Arts, viii.
98. It is provided with a sliding rule to adapt
it to different temperatures, and has four scales,
one of which is graduated for spirits and the
other three serve to show the strengths of
worts. The peculiarity of the instrument con-
sists in the pyramidal form given to the stem,
which renders the scale-divisions more nearly
equal in length than they would be on a pris-
matic stem.
Atkins's hydrometer, as originally constructed,
is described in Nicholson's Journal, 8vo, ii.
276. It is made of brass, and is provided
with a spheroidal bulb the axis of which is
2 in. in length, the conjugate diameter being ij
in. The whole length of the instrument is
8 in., the stem square of about i-in. side, and the
weight about 400 grains. It is provided with
four weights, marked i, 2, 3, 4, and weighing
respectively 20, 40, 61 and 84 grains, which can
be attached to the shank of the instrument at
C (fig. 7) and retained there by the fixed weight
B. The scale engraved upon one face of the
stem contains fifty-five divisions, the top and
bottom being marked o or zero and the alter-
nate intermediate divisions (of which there are
twenty-six) being marked with the letters of the alphabet in order.
The four weights are so adjusted that, if the instrument floats with
the stem emerging as far as the lower division o with one of the
weights attached, then replacing the weight by the next heavier
causes the instrument to sink through the whole length of the scale
to the upper division o, and the first weight produces the same effect
when applied to the naked instrument. The stem is thus virtually
extended to five times its length, and the number of divisions in-
creased practically to 272. When no weight is attached the instru-
ment indicates densities from -806 to -843; with No. i it registers
from -843 to -880, with No. 2 from -880 to -918, with No. 3 from -918
to -958, and with No. 4 from -958 to l-ooo, the temperature being
FIG. 7. — Atkins's
Hydrometer.
55° F. It will thus be seen that the whole length of the stem corre-
sponds to a difference of density of about -04, and one division to
about -00074, indicating a difference of little more than i % in the
strength of any sample of spirits.
The instrument is provided with a sliding rule, with scales corre-
sponding to the several weights, which indicate the specific gravity
corresponding to the several divisions of the hydrometer scale com-
pared with water at 55° F. The slider upon the rule serves to adjust
the scale for different temperatures, and then indicates the strength
of the spirit in percentages over or under proof. The slider is also
provided with scales, marked respectively Dicas and Clarke, which
serve to show the readings which would have been obtained had the
instruments of those makers been employed. The line on the scale
marked " concentration " indicates the diminution in volume
consequent upon reducing the sample to proof strength (if it is over
proof, O.P.) or upon reducing proof spirit to the strength of the
sample (if it is under proof, U.P.). By applying the several weights
in succession in addition to No. 4 the instrument can be employed for
liquids heavier than water; and graduations on the other three sides
of the stem, together with an additional slide rule, adapt the instru-
ment for the determination of the strength of worts.
Atkins subsequently modified the instrument (Nicholson's Journal,
8vo, iii. 50) by constructing the different weights of different
shapes, viz. circular, square, triangular and pentagonal, instead
of numbering them I, 2, 3 and 4 respectively, a figure of the
weight being stamped on the sliding rule opposite to every letter in
the series to which it belongs, thus diminishing the probability of
mistakes. He also replaced the letters on the stem by the corre-
sponding specific gravities referred to water as unity. Further
information concerning these instruments and the state of hydro-
metry in 1803 will be found in Atkins's pamphlet On the Relation
between the Specific Gravities and the Strength of Spirituous Liquors
(1803); or Phil. Mag. xvi. 26-33, 205-212, 305-312; xvii. 204-210
and 329-341.
In Gay-Lussac's alcoholometer the scale is divided into 100 parts
corresponding to the presence of I, 2,...% by volume of alcohol at
15° C., the highest division of the scale corresponding to the purest
alcohol he could obtain (density -7947) and the lowest division
corresponding to pure water. A table provides the necessary
corrections for other temperatures.
Tralles's hydrometer differs from Gay-Lussac's only in being
graduated at 4° C. instead of 15° C., and taking alcohol of density
•7939 at 15-5° C. for pure alcohol instead of -7947 as taken by Gay-
Lussac (Keene's Handbook of Hydrometry).
In Beck's hydrometer the zero of the scale corresponds to density
i -coo and the division 30 to density -850, and equal divisions on
the scale are continued as far as is required in both directions.
In the centesimal hydrometer of Francceur the volume of the
stem bet ween successive divisions of the scale isalwaysjJuth of the
whole volume immersed when the instrument floats ,_,
in water at 4° C. In order to graduate the stem
the instrument is first weighed, then immersed in
distilled water at 4° C., and the line of flotation
marked zero. The first degree is then found by
placing on the top of the stem a weight equal to
ftoth of the weight of the instrument, which in-
creases the volume immersed by l J0th of the original
volume. The addition to the top of the stem of
successive weights, each iJ0th of the weight of the
instrument itself, serves to determine the succes-
sive degrees. The length of too divisions of the
scale, or the length of the uniform stem the volume
of which would be equal to that of the hydrometer
up to the zero graduation, Francceur called the
" modulus " of the hydrometer. He constructed
his instruments of glass, using different instruments
for different portions of the scale (Francceur, TraM
d'areometrie, Paris, 1842).
Dr Bories of Montpellier constructed a hydro-
meter which was based upon the results of his
experiments on mixtures of alcohol and water.
The interval between the points corresponding to
pure alcohol and to pure water Bories divided
into 100 equal parts, though the stem was pro- FIG. 8. — Sikes's
longed so as to contain only 10 of these divisions, Hydrometer,
the other 90 being provided for by the addition of 9
weights to the bottom of the instrument as in Clarke's hydrometer.
The instrument which has no_w been exclusively used for revenue
purposes for nearly a century is that associated with the name of
Bartholomew Sikes, who was correspondent to the Board of Excise
from 1774 to 1783, and for some time collector of excise for Hertford-
shire.
Sikes's hydrometer, on account of its similarity to that of Bories,
appears to have been borrowed from that instrument. It is made
of gilded brass or silver, and consists of a spherical ball A (fie. 8),
1-5 in. in diameter, below which is a weight B connected with the
ball by a short conical stem C. The stem I) is rectangular in section
and about 3i in. in length. This is divided into ten equal parts, each
of which is subdivided into five. As in Borics's instrument, a series
of 9 weights, each of the form shown at E, serves to extend the scale
D
HYDROPATHY
165
to 100 principal divisions. In the centre of each weight is a hole
capable of admitting the lowest and thickest end of the conical stem
C, and a slot is cut into it just wide enough to allow the upper part
of the cone to pass. Each weight can thus be dropped on to the
lower stem so as to rest on the counterpoise B. The weights are
marked 10, 20, ... 90; and in using the instrument that weight
must be selected which will allow it to float in the liquid with a
portion only of the stem submerged. Then the reading of the scale
at the line of flotation, added to the number on the weight, gives the
reading required. A small supernumerary weight F is added, which
can be placed upon the top of the stem. F is so adjusted that when
the 60 weight is placed on the lower stem the instrument sinks to
the same point in distilled water when F is attached as in proof
spirit when F is removed. The best instruments are now constructed
for revenue purposes of silver, heavily gilded, because it was found
that saccharic acid contained in some spirits attacked brass behind
the gilding.
The following table gives the specific gravities corresponding to the
principal graduations on Sikes's hydrometer at 60° F. and 62° F.,
together with the corresponding strengths of spirits. The latter are
based upon the tables of Charles Gilpin, clerk to the Royal Society,
for which the reader is referred to the Phil. Trans, for 1794. GilpuVs
work is a model for its accuracy and thoroughness of detail, and his
results have scarcely been improved upon by more recent workers.
The merit of Sikes's system lies not so much in the hydrometer as in
the complete system of tables by which the readings of the instru-
ment are at once converted into percentage of proof-spirit.
Table showing the Densities corresponding to the Indications of
Sikes's Hydrometer.
Sikes's
Indications.
60° F.
62° F.
Sikes's
Indications. 1
60° F.
62° F.
Density
Proof
Spirit
per
cent.
Density.
Proof
Spirit
per
cent.
Density
froof
Spirit
per
cent.
Density
Proof
Spirit
per
cent.
0
•815297
167-0
815400
166-5
51
•905024
111-4
•905138
110-7
1
•816956
166-1
•817059
165-6
52
•906869
110-0
•906983
109-3
2
•818621
165-3
-818725
164-8
53
•908722
108-6
•908837
107-9
3
•820294
164-5
•830397
163-9
54
•910582
107-1
•910697
106-5
4
•821973
163-6
•822077
163-1
55
•912450
105-6
•912565
105-0
5
•823659
162-7
•823763
162-3
56
•914326
104-2
•914441
103-5
6
•825352
161-8
•825457
161-4
57
•916209
102-7
•916323
102-0
7
•827052
160-9
•827157
160-5
58
•918100
101-3
•918216
100-5
8
•828759
160-0
•828864
159-6
59
•919999
99-7
•920115
98-9
9
•S30473
159-1
•830578
158-7
60
•921906
98-1
•922022
97-4
10
•832195
158-2
•832300
157-8
mu
•921884
98-1
•922000
97-4
11
•S338SS
157-3
•833993
156-8
61
•923760
96-6
•923877
95-9
12
•835587
156-4
•835692
155-9
62
•925643
95-0
•925760
94-2
13
•837294
155-5
•837400
155-0
63
•927534
93-3
•927652
92-6
14
•839008
154-6
•839114
154-0
64
•929433
91-7
•929550
90-9
15
•840729
153-7
•840835
153-1
65
•931339
90-0
•931457
89-2
16
•842458
152-7
•842564
152-1
66
•933254
88-3
•933372
87-5
17
•844193
151-7
•844299
151-1
67
•935176
86-5
•935294
85-8
18
•84593(i
150-7
•846042
150-1
68
•937107
847
•937225
84-0
19
•847685
149-7
•847792
149-1
69
•939045
82-9
•939163
82-2
20
•849442
148-7
•849549
148-1
70
•940991
8M
•941110
80-3
20u
•849393
148-7
•849500
148-1
70fi
•940981
81-1
•941100
80-3
21
•851122
147-6
•851229
147-1
71
•942897
79-2
•943016
78-4
22
•852857
146-6
•852964
146-1
72
•944819
77-3
•944938
76-5
23
•854599
145-6
•854707
145-1
73
•946749
75-3
•946869
74-5
24
•856348
144-6
•856456
144-0
74
•948687
73-3
•948807
72-5
25
•858105
143-5
•858213
142-9
75
•950634
71-2
•950753
70-4
26
•859869
142-4
•859978
141-8
76
•952588
69-0
•952708
68-2
27
•861640
141-3
•861749
140-8
77
•954550
66'8
•954670
66-0
28
•863419
140-2
•863528
139-7
78
•956520
64'4
•956641
63-5
29
•805204
139-1
•865313
138-5
79
•958498
61'9
•958619
61-1
30
•866998
138-0
•867107
137-4
80
•960485
59-4
•960606
58-5
30s
•866991
138-0
•867100
137-4
80s
•960479
59-4
•960600
58-5
31
•868755
136-9
•868865
136-2
81
•962433
567
•962555
55-8
32
•S70526
135-7
•870636
135-1
82
•964395
53'9
•964517
53-0
33
•872305
134-5
•872415
133-9
83
•966366
50-9
•966488
50-0
34
•874090
133-4
•874200
132-8
84
•968344
47'8
•968466
47-0
35
•S75S83
132-2
•875994
131-6
85
•970331
44-5
•970453
43-8
3d
•877684
131-0
•877995
130-4
86
•972325
41'0
•972448
40-4
37
•879492
129-8
•879603
129-1
87
•974328
37-5
•974451
36-9
38
•881307
128-5
•881419
127-9
88
•976340
34'0
•976463
33-5
39
•883129
127-3
•883241
126-7
89
•978359
30-6
•978482
30-1
40
•884960
126-0
•8S5072
125-4
90
•980386
27'2
•980510
26-7
40s
•S84888
126-0
•8S5000
125-4
90s
•980376
27'2
•980500
26-7
41
•886689
124-8
•886801
124-2
91
•982371
23-9
•982490
23-6
42
•888497
123-5
-888609
122-9
92
•984374
20'8
•984498
20-5
43
•890312
122-2
•890425
121-6
93
•986385
177
•980510
17-4
44
•892135
120-9
•892248
120-3
94
•988404
14'8
•98852!)
14-5
45
•893965
119-6
•894078
119-0
95
•990431
12-0
•990,557
11-7
46
•895803
118-3
•895916
117-6
96
•992468
9-3
•992593
9-0
47
•897647
116-9
•897761
116-3
97
•994512
67
•994637
6-5
48
•899500
115-6
•899614
114-9
98
•996565
4'1
•996691
4-0
49
•901360
114-2
•901417
113-5
99
•998626
1-8
•998752
1-6
50
•903229
112-8
•903343
112-1
100
1-000696
o-o
1-000822
o-o
50n
•903186
112-8
-903300
112-1
In the above table for Sikes's hydrometer two densities are given
corresponding to each of the degrees 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80 and 90,
indicating that the successive weights belonging to the particular
instrument for which the table has been calculated do not quite
agree. The discrepancy, however, does not produce any sensible
error in the strength of the corresponding spirit.
A table which indicates the weight per gallon of spirituous liquors
for every degree of Sikes's hydrometer is printed in 23 and 24 Viet. c.
114, schedule B. This table differs slightly from that given above,
which has been abridged from the table given in Keene's Handbook
of Hydrometry, apparently on account of the equal divisions on
Sikes's scale having been taken as corresponding to equal increments
of density.
Sikes's hydrometer was established for the purpose of collecting
the revenue of the United Kingdom by Act of Parliament, 56 Geo.
III. c. 140, by which it was enacted that " all spirits shall be deemed
and taken to be of the degree of strength which the said hydrometers
called Sikes's hydrometers shall, upon trial by any officer or officers
of the customs or excise, denote such spirits to be." This act came
into force on January 5, 1817, and was to have remained in force until
August i, i8i8,but was repealed by 58 Geo. III. c. 28, which established
Sikes's hydrometer on a permanent footing. By 3 and 4 Will. IV.
c. 52, § 123, it was further enacted that the same instruments and
methods should be employed in determining the duty upon im-
ported spirits as should in virtue of any Act of Parliament be em-
ployed in the determination of the duty upon spirits distilled at
home. It is the practice of the officers of the inland revenue to adjust
Sikes's hydrometer at 62° F., that being the temperature at which the
imperial gallon is defined as containing 10 ft avoirdupois of distiljed
water. The specific gravity of any sample of spirits thus determined,
when multiplied by ten, gives the weight in pounds per imperial
gallon, and the weight of any bulk of spirits divided by this number
gives its volume at once in imperial gallons.
Mr (afterwards Colonel) J. B. Keene, of the Hydrometer Office,
London, has constructed an instrument after the model of Sikes's,
but provided with twelve weights of different masses but equal
volumes, and the instrument is never used without having one of
these attached. When loaded with either of the lightest two weights
the instrument is specifically lighter than Sikes's hydrometer when
unloaded, and it may thus be used for specific gravities as low as
that of absolute alcohol. The volume of each weight being the same,
the whole volume immersed is always the same when it floats at the
same mark whatever weight may be attached.
Besides the above, many hydrometers have been employed for
special purposes. Twaddell's hydrometer is adapted for densities
greater than that of water. The scale is so arranged that the reading
multiplied by 5 and added to 1000 gives the specific gravity with
reference to water as 1000. To avoid an inconveniently long stem,
different instruments are employed for different parts of the scale
as mentioned above.
The lactometer constructed by Dicas of Liverpool is adapted for
the determination of the quality of milk. It resembles Sikes's
hydrometer in other respects, but is provided with eight weights.
It is also provided with a thermometer and slide rule, to reduce the
readings to the standard temperature of 55° F. Any determination
of density can be taken only as affording prima facie evidence of the
quality of milk, as the removal of cream and the addition of water are
operations which tend to compensate each other in their influence on
the density of the liquid, so that the lactometer cannot be regarded
as a reliable instrument.
The marine hydrometers, as supplied by the British government
to the royal navy and the merchant marine, are glass instruments
with slender stems, and generally serve to indicate specific gravities
from l-ooo to 1-040. Before being issued they are compared
with a standard instrument, and their errors determined. They
are employed for taking observations of the density of sea-water.
The sahnometer is a hydrometer originally intended to indicate
the strength of the brine in marine boilers in which sea-water is
employed. Saunders's salinometer consists of a hydrometer which
floats in a chamber through which the water from the boiler is
allowed to flow in a gentle stream, at a temperature of 200° F.
The peculiarity of the instrument consists in the stream of water,
as it enters the hydrometer chamber, being made to impinge against
a disk of metal, by which it is broken into drops, thus liberating the
steam, which would otherwise disturb the instrument.
The use of Sikes's hydrometer necessitates the employment of a
considerable quantity of spirit. For the testing of spirits in bulk no
more convenient instrument has been devised, but where very small
quantities are available more suitable laboratory methods must be
adopted.
In England, the Finance Act 1907 (7 Ed. VII. c. 13), section 4,
provides as follows: (i) The Commissioners of Customs and the
Commissioners of Inland Revenue may jointly make regulations
authorizing the use of any means described in the regulations for
ascertaining for any purpose the strength or weight ofspirits. (2)
Where under any enactment Sykes's (sic) Hydrometer is directed to
be used or may be used for the purpose of ascertaining the strength
or weight of spirits, any means so authorized by regulations may be
used instead of Sykes's Hydrometer and references to Sykes's Hydro-
meter in any enactment shall be construed accordingly. (3) Any
regulations made under this section shall be published in the London,
Edinburgh and Dublin Gazette, and shall take effect from the date of
publication, or such later date as may be mentioned in the regulations
for the purpose. (4) The expression " spirits " in this section has the
same meaning as in the Spirits Act 1880. (W. G.)
HYDROPATHY, the name given, from the Greek, to the
" water-cure," or the treatment of disease by water, used
outwardly and inwardly. Like many descriptive names, the
word " hydropathy " is defective and even misleading, the active
agents in the treatment being heat and cold, of which water
i66
HYDROPATHY
is little more than the vehicle, and not the only one. Thermo-
therapeutics (or thermotherapy) is a term less open to objection.
Hydropathy, as a formal system, dates from about 1829,
when Vincenz Priessnitz (1801-1851), a farmer of Grafenberg
in Silesia, Austria, began his public career in the paternal
homestead, extended so as to accommodate the increasing
numbers attracted by the fame of his cures. Two English
works, however, on the medical uses of water had been translated
into German in the century preceding the rise of the movement
under Priessnitz. One of these was by Sir John Floyer (1649-
1734), a physician of Lichfield, who, struck by the remedial use
of certain springs by the neighbouring peasantry, investigated
the history of cold bathing, and published in 1702 his "tyvxpo-
\oucria, or the History of Cold Bathing, both Ancient and Modern."
The book ran through six editions within a few years, and the
translation was largely drawn upon by Dr J. S. Hahn of Silesia,
in a work published in 1738, On the Healing Virtues of Cold
Water, Inwardly and Outwardly applied, as proved by Experience.
The other work was that of Dr James Currie (1756-1805) of
Liverpool, entitled Medical Reports on the Effects of Water, Cold
and Warm, as a remedy in Fevers and other Diseases, published
in 1797, and soon after translated into German by Michaelis
(1801) and Hegewisch (1807). It was highly popular, and first
placed the subject on a scientific basis. Harm's writings had
meanwhile created much enthusiasm among his countrymen,
societies having been everywhere formed to promote the medicinal
and dietetic use of water; and in 1804 Professor Ortel of Ansbach
republished them and quickened the popular movement by
unqualified commendation of water drinking as a remedy for all
diseases. In him the rising Priessnitz found a zealous advocate,
and doubtless an instructor also.
At Grafenberg, to which the fame of Priessnitz drew people of
every rank and many countries, medical men were conspicuous
by their numbers, some being attracted by curiosity, others by
the desire of knowledge, but the majority by the hope of cure
for ailments which had as yet proved incurable. Many records
of experiences at Grafenberg were published, all more or less
favourable to the claims of Priessnitz, and some enthusiastic
in their estimate of his genius and penetration; Captain Claridge
introduced hydropathy into England in 1840, his writings and
lectures, and later those of Sir W. Erasmus Wilson (1809-1884),
James Manby Gully (1808-1883) and Edward Johnson, making
numerous converts, and filling the establishments opened soon
after at Malvern and elsewhere. In Germany, France and
America hydropathic establishments multiplied with great
rapidity. Antagonism ran high between the old practice and
the new. Unsparing condemnation was heaped by each on the
other; and a legal prosecution, leading to a royal commission
of inquiry, served but to make Priessnitz and his system stand
higher in public estimation.
Increasing popularity diminished before long that timidity
which had in great measure prevented trial of the new method
from being made on the weaker and more serious class of cases,
and had caused hydropathists to occupy themselves mainly with
a sturdy order of chronic invalids well able to bear a rigorous
regimen and the severities of unrestricted crisis. The need of a
radical adaptation to the former class was first adequately
recognized by John Smedley, a manufacturer of Derbyshire,
who, impressed in his own person with the severities as well as
the benefits of " the cold water cure," practised among his work-
people a milder form of hydropathy, and began about 1852 a
new era in its history, founding at Matlock a counterpart of the
establishment at Grafenberg.
Ernst Brand (1826-1897) of Berlin, Raljen and Theodorvon
Jurgensen of Kiel, and Karl Liebermeister (1833-1901) of
Basel, between 1860 and 1870, employed the cooling bath in
abdominal typhus with striking results, and led to its introduc-
tion to England by Dr Wilson Fox. In the Franco-German
war the cooling bath was largely employed, in conjunction
frequently with quinine; and it now holds a recognized position
in the treatment of hyperpyrexia. The wet sheet pack has
become part of medical practice; the Turkish bath, introduced
by David Urquhart (1805-1877) into England on his return from
the East, and ardently adopted by Dr Richard Barter (1802-
1870) of Cork, has become a public institution, and, with the
" morning tub " and the general practice of water drinking, is
the most noteworthy of the many contributions by hydropathy to
public health (see BATHS, ad fin.).
The appliances and arrangements by means of which heat and
cold are brought to bear on the economy are — (a) Packings, hot
and cold, general and local, sweating and cooling; (b) hot air and
steam baths; (c) general baths, of not water and cold; (d) sitz,
spinal, head and foot baths; (e) bandages (or compresses), wet and
dry; also (?) fomentations and poultices, hot and cold, sinapisms,
stupes, rubbings and water potations, hot and cold.
(a) Packings. — The full pack consists of a wet sheet enveloping
the body, with a number of dry blankets packed tightly over it, in-
cluding a macintosh covering or not. In an hour or less these are
removed and a general bath administered. The pack is a derivative,
sedative, sudorific and stimulator of cutaneous excretion. There
are numerous modifications of it, notably the cooling pack, where
the wrappings are loose and scanty, permitting evaporation, and
the application of indefinite duration, the sheet being rewetted as it
dries; this is of great value in protracted febrile conditions. There
are also local packs, to trunk, limbs or head separately, which are
derivative, soothing or stimulating, according to circumstance and
detail.
(b) Hot air baths, the chief of which is the Turkish (properly,
the Roman) bath, consisting of two or more chambers ranging in
temperature from 120° to 212° or higher, but mainly used at 150 for
curative purposes. Exposure is from twenty minutes up to two hours
according to the effect sought, and is followed by a general bath, and
occasionally by soaping and shampooing. It is stimulating, deriva-
tive, depurative, sudorific and alterative, powerfully promoting tissue
change by increase of the natural waste and repair. It determines
the blood to the surface, reducing internal congestions, is a potent
diaphoretic, and, through the extremes of heat and cold, is an effective
nervous and vascular stimulant and tonic. Morbid growths and
secretions, as also the uraemic, gouty and rheumatic diathesis, are
beneficially influenced by it. The full pack and Turkish bath have
between them usurped the place and bettered the function of the
once familiar hot bath. The Russian or steam bath and the lamp
bath are primitive and inferior varieties of the modern Turkish
bath, the atmosphere of which cannot be too dry and pure.
(c) General baths comprise the rain (or needle), spray (or rose),
shower, shallow, plunge, douche, wave and common morning
sponge baths, with the dripping sheet, and hot and cold spongings,
and are combinations, as a rule, of hot and cold water. They
are stimulating, tonic, derivative and detergent.
(d) Local baths comprise the sitz (or sitting), douche (or spouting),
spinal, foot and head baths, of hot or cold water, singly or in com-
bination, successive or alternate. The sitz, head and foot baths are
used " flowing " on occasion. The application of cold by " Letter's
tubes " is effective for reducing inflammation (e.g. in meningitis
and in sunstroke) ; in these a network of metal or indiarubber
tubing is fitted to the part affected, and cold water kept con-
tinuously flowing through them. Rapid alternations of hot and cold
water have a powerful effect in vascular stasis and lethargy of the
nervous system and absorbents, yielding valuable results in local
congestions and chronic inflammations.
(e) Bandages (or compresses) are of two kinds, — cooling, of wet
material left exposed for evaporation, used in local inflammations
and fevers; and heating, of the same, covered with waterproof
material, used in congestion, external or internal, for short or long
periods. Poultices, warm, of bread, linseed, bran, &c., changed but
twice in twenty-four hours, are identical in action with the heating
bandage, and superior only in the greater warmth and consequent
vital activity their closer application to the skin ensures.
(/) Fomentations and poultices, hot or cold, sinapisms, stupes,
rubefacients, irritants, frictions, kneadings, calisthenics, gymnastics,
electricity, &c., are adjuncts largely employed.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Among the numerous earlier works on hydro-
pathy, the following are worth mention: Balbirnie, Water Cure in
Consumption (1847), Hydropathic Aphorisms (1856) and A Plea for
the Turkish Bath (1862); Beni-Barde, Traite d' hydrotherapie (1874);
Claridge, Cold Water Cure, or Hydropathy (1841), Facts and Evidence
in Support of Hydropathy (1843) and Cold Water, Tepid Water and
Friction Cure (1849); Dunlop, Philosophy of the Bath (1873); Floyer,
Psychrolousia, or the History of Cold-Bathing, &c. (1702); J. S. Hahn
(Schweidnitz), Observations on the Healing Virtues of Cold Water
(1738); Hunter, Hydropathy for Home Use (1879); E. W. Lane,
Hydropathy, or the Natural System of Medical Treatment (1857);
R. J. Lane, Life at the Water Cure (1851) ; Shew, Hydropathic Family
Physician (1857) ; Smedley, Practical Hydropathy (1879) ; Smethurst,
Hydrotherapia, or the Water Cure (1843); Wainwright, Inquiry into
the Nature and Use of Baths (1737); Weiss, Handbook of Hydro-
pathy (1844); Wilson Principles and Practice of the Cold Water
Cure (1854) and The Water Cure (1859). A useful recent work
dealing comprehensively with the subject is Richard Metcalfe's
Rise and Progress of Hydropathy (1906).
HYDROPHOBIA
167
HYDROPHOBIA (Gr. iiSup, water, and <£6/3os, fear; so called
from the symptom of dread of water), or RABIES (Lat.for" mad-
ness "), an acute disease, occurring chiefly in certain of the lower
animals, particularly the canine species, and liable to be com-
municated by them to other animals and to man.
In Dogs, ffc. — The occurrence of rabies in the fox, wolf, hyaena,
jackal, raccoon, badger and skunk has been asserted; but there
is every probability that it is originally a disease of the dog.
It is communicated by inoculation to nearly all, if not all, warm-
blooded creatures. The transmission from one animal to another
only certainly takes place through inoculation with viruliferous
matters. The malady is generally characterized at a certain
stage by an irrepressible desire in the animal to act offensively
with its natural weapons — dogs and other carnivora attacking
with their teeth, herbivora with their hoofs or horns, and birds
with their beaks, when excited ever so slightly. In the absence
of excitement the malady may run its course without any fit of
fury or madness.
Symptoms. — The disease has been divided into three stages or
periods, and has also been described as appearing in at least two
forms, according to the peculiarities of the symptoms. But, as a
rule, one period of the disease does not pass suddenly into another,
the transition being almost imperceptible; and the forms do not
differ essentially from each other, but appear merely to constitute
varieties of the same disease, due to the natural disposition of the
animal, or other modifying circumstances. These forms have been
designated true or furious rabies (Fr. rage vrai ; Ger. rasende Wuth)
and dumb rabies (Fr. rage mue; Ger. stille Wuth).
The malady does not commence with fury and madness, but in a
strange and anomalous change in the habits of the dog: it becomes
dull, gloomy, and taciturn, and seeks to isolate itself in out-of-the-way
places, retiring beneath chairs and to odd corners. But in its retire-
ment it cannot rest: it is uneasy and fidgety, and no sooner has
it lain down than suddenly it jumps up in an agitated manner,
walks backwards and forwards several times, again lies down and
assumes a sleeping attitude, but has only maintained it for a few
minutes when it is once more moving about. Again it retires to its
corner, to the farthest recess it can find, and huddles itself up into
a heap, with its head concealed beneath its chest and fore-paws.
This state of continual agitation and inquietude is in striking contrast
with its ordinary habits, and should therefore receive attention.
Not unf requently there are a few moments when the creature appears
more lively than usual, and displays an extraordinary amount of
affection. Sometimes there is a disposition to gather up straw,
thread, bits of wood, &c., which are industriously carried away; a
tendency to lick anything cold, as iron, stones, &c., is also observed
in many instances; and there is also a desire evinced to lick other
animals. Sexual excitement is also frequently an early symptom.
At this period no disposition to bite is observed; the animal is docile
with its master and obeys his voice, though not so readily as before,
nor with the same pleased countenance. There is something strange
in the expression of its face, and the voice of its owner is scarcely able
to make it change from a sudden gloominess to its usual animated
aspect. These symptoms gradually become more marked; the
restlessness and agitation increase. If on straw the dog scatters and
pulls it about with its paws, and if in a room it scratches and tumbles
the cushions or rugs on which it usually lies. It is incessantly on
the move, rambling about, scratching the ground, sniffing in corners
and at the doors, as if on the scent or seeking for something. It
indulges in strange movements, as if affected by some mental in-
fluences or a prey to hallucinations. When not excited by any
external influence it will remain for a brief period perfectly still and
attentive, as if watching something, or following the movements of
some creature on the wall; then it will suddenly dart forward and
snap at the vacant air, as if pursuing an annoying object, or en-
deavouring to seize a fly. At another time it throws itself, yelling
and furious, against the wall, as if it heard threatening voices on the
other side, or was bent on attacking an enemy. Nevertheless, the
animal is still docile and submissive, for its master's voice will bring
it out of its frenzy. But the saliva is already virulent, and the ex-
cessive affection which it evinces at intervals, by licking the hands or
face of those it loves, renders the danger very great should there
be a wound or abrasion. Until a late period in the disease the
master's voice has a powerful influence over the animal. When
it has escaped from all control and wanders erratically abroad,
ferocious and restless, and haunted by horrid phantoms, the familiar
voice yet exerts its influence, and it is rare indeed that it attacks
its master.
There is no dread of water in the rabid dog; the animal is generally
thirsty, and if water be offered will lap it with avidity, and swallow
it at the commencement of the disease. And when, at a later period,
the constriction about the throat — symptomatic of the disease —
renders swallowing difficult, the dog will none the less endeavour to
drink, and the lappings are as frequent and prolonged when deglu-
tition becomes impossible. So little dread has the rabid dog of water
that it will ford streams and swim rivers; and when in the ferocious
stage it will even do this in order to attack other creatures on the
opposite side.
At the commencement of the disease the dog does not usually
refuse to eat, and some animals are voracious to an unusual degree.
But in a short time it becomes fastidious, only eating what it usually
has a special predilection for. Soon, however, this gives place to a
most characteristic symptom — either the taste becomes extremely
depraved or the dog has a fatal and imperious desire to bite and
ingest everything. The litter of its kennel, wool from cushions,
carpets, stockings, slippers, wood, grass, earth, stones, glass, horse-
dung, even its own faeces and urine, or whatever else may come in
its way, are devoured. On examination of the body of a dog which
has died of rabies it is so common to find in the stomach a quantity
of dissimilar and strange matters on which the teeth have been
exercised that, if there was nothing known of the animal's history,
there would be strong evidence of its having been affected with the
disease. When a dog, then, is observed to gnaw and eat suchlike
matters, though it exhibits no tendency to bite, it should be suspected.
The mad dog does not usually foam at the mouth to any great
extent at first. The mucus of the mouth is not much increased in
quantity, but it soon becomes thicker, viscid, and glutinous, and
adheres to the angles of the mouth, fauces and teeth. It is at this
period that the thirst is most ardent, and the dog sometimes furiously
attempts to detach the saliva with its paws; and if after a while
it loses its balance in these attempts and tumbles over, there can no
longer be any doubt as to the nature of the malady. There is another
symptom connected with the mouth in that form of the disease
named " dumb madness " which has frequently proved deceptive.
The lower jaw drops in consequence of paralysis of its muscles, and
the mouth remains open. The interior is dry from the air passing
continually over it, and assumes a deep red tint, somewhat masked
by patches of dust or earth, which more especially adhere to the upper
surface of the tongue and to the lips. The strange alteration produced
in the dog's physiognomy by its constantly open mouth and the dark
colour of the interior is rendered still more characteristic by the dull,
sad, or dead expression of the animal's eyes. In this condition the
creature is not very dangerous, because generally it could not bite if
it tried— indeed there does not appear to be much desire to bite in
dumb madness; but the saliva is none the less virulent, and acci-
dental inoculations with it, through imprudent handling, will prove
as fatal as in the furious form. The mouth should not be touched,
— numerous deaths having occurred through people thinking the
dog had some foreign substance lodged in its throat, and thrusting
their fingers down to remove it. The sensation of tightness which
seems to exist at the throat causes the dog to act as if a bone were
fixed between its teeth or towards the back of its mouth, and to
employ its fore-paws as if to dislodge it. This is a very deceptive
symptom, and may prove equally dangerous if caution be not ob-
served. Vomiting of blood or a chocolate-coloured fluid is witnessed
in some cases, and has been supposed to be due to the foreign sub-
stances in the stomach, which abrade the lining membrane; this,
however, is not correct, as it has been observed in man.
The voice of the rabid dog is very peculiar, and so characteristic
that to those acquainted with it nothing more is needed to prove
the presence of the disease. Those who have heard it once or twice
never forget its signification. Owing to the alterations taking place
in the larynx the voice becomes hoarse, cracked and stridulous, like
that of a child affected with croup — the " voixducoq," as the French
have it. A preliminary bark is made in a somewhat elevated tone
and with open mouth; this is immediately succeeded by five, six
or eight decreasing howls, emitted when the animal is sitting or
standing, and always with the nose elevated, which seem to come
from the depths of the throat, the jaws not coming together and
closing the mouth during such emission, as in the healthy bark.
This alteration in the voice is frequently the first observable indica-
tion of the malady, and should at once attract attention. In dumb
madness the voice is frequently lost from the very commencement
— hence the designation.
The sensibility of the mad dog appears to be considerably
diminished, and the animal appears to have lost the faculty of ex-
pressing the sensations it experiences: it is mute under the infliction
of pain, though there can be no doubt that it still has peripheral
sensation to some extent. Burning, beating and wounding produce
much less effect than in health, and the animal will even mutilate
itself with its teeth. Suspicion, therefore, should always strongly
attach to a dog which does not manifest a certain susceptibility to
painful impressions and receives punishment without any cry or
complaint. There is also reason for apprehension when a dog
bites itself persistently in any part of its body. A rabid dog is usually
stirred to fury at the sight of one of its own species; this test has
been resorted to by Henrie Marie Bouley (1814-1885) to dissipate
doubts as to the existence of the disease when the diagnosis is other-
wise uncertain. As soon as the suspected animal, if it is really rabid,
finds itself in the presence of another of its species it at once assumes
the aggressive, and, if allowed, will bite furiously. All rabid animals
indeed become excited, exasperated, and furious at the sight of a dog,
and attack it with their natural weapons, even the timid sheep
when rabid butts furiously at the enemy before which in health it
would have fled in terror. This inversion of sentiment is sometimes
i68
HYDROPHOBIA
valuable in diagnosing the malady; it is so common that it may be
said to be present in every case of rabies. When, therefore, a dog,
contrary to its habits and natural inclination, becomes suddenly
aggressive to other dogs, it is time to take precautions.
In the large majority of instances the dog is inoffensive in the
early period of the disease to those to whom it is familiar. It then
flies from its home and either dies, is killed as " mad," or returns in
a miserable plight, and in an advanced stage of the malady, when
the desire to bite is irresistible. It is in the early stage that sequestra-
tion and suppressive measures are most valuable. The dogs which
propagate the disease are usually those that have escaped from
their owners. After two or three days, frequently in about twelve
hours, more serious and alarming symptoms appear, ferocious
instincts are developed, and the desire to do injury is irrepressible.
The animal has an indefinable expression of sombre melancholy
and cruelty. The eyes have their pupils dilated, and emit flashes
of light when they are not dull and heavy; they always appear so
fierce as to produce terror in the beholder; they are red, and their
sensibility to light is increased; and wrinkles, which sometimes
appear on the forehead, add to the repulsive aspect of the animal.
If caged it flies at the spectator, emitting its characteristic howl or
bark, and seizing the iron bars with its teeth, and if a stick be thrust
before it this is grasped and gnawed. This fury is soon succeeded by
lassitude, when the animal remains insensible to every excitement.
Then all at once it rouses up again, and another paroxysm of fury
commences. The first paroxysm is usually the most intense, and the
fits vary in duration from some hours to a day, and even longer;
they are ordinarily briefer in trained and pet dogs than in those which
are less domesticated, but in all the remission is so complete after the
first paroxysm that the animals appear to be almost well, if not in
perfect health. During the paroxysms respiration is hurried and
laboured, but tranquil during the remissions. There is an increase of
temperature, and the pulse is quick and hard. When the animal is
kept in a dark place and not excited, the fits of fury are not observed.
Sometimes it is agitated and restless in the manner already described.
It never becomes really furious or aggressive unless excited by external
objects — the most potent of these, as has been said, being another
dog, which, however, if it be admitted to its cage, it may not at
once attack. The attacked animal rarely retaliates, but usually
responds to the bites by acute yells, which contrast strangely with
the silent anger of the aggressor, and tries to hide its head with
its paws or beneath the straw. These repeated paroxysms hurry
the course of the disease. The secretion and flowing of a large
quantity of saliva from the mouth are usually only witnessed in
cases in which swallowing has become impossible, the mouth being
generally dry. At times the tongue, nose and whole head appear
swollen. Other dogs frequently shun one which is rabid, as if aware
of their danger.
The rabid dog, if lodged in a room or kept in a house, is continually
endeavouring to escape; and when it makes its escape it goes freely
forward, as if impelled by some irresistible force. It travels con-
siderable distances in a short time, perhaps attacking every living
creature it meets — preferring dogs, however, to other animals, ana
these to mankind; cats, sheep, cattle and horses are particularly
liable to be injured. It attacks in silence, and never utters a snarl
or a cry of anger; should it chance to be hurt in return it emits
no cry or howl of pain. The degree of ferocity appears to be related
to natural disposition and training. Some dogs, for instance, will
only snap or give a slight bite in passing, wnile others will bite
furiously, tearing the objects presented to them, or which they
meet in their way, and sometimes with such violence as to injure
their mouth and break their teeth, or even their jaws. If chained,
they will in some cases gnaw the chain until their teeth are worn
away and the bones laid bare. The rabid dog does not continue
its progress very long. Exhausted by fatigue and the paroxysms
of madness excited in it by the objects it meets, as well as by hunger,
thirst, and also, no doubt, by the malady, its limbs soon become
feeble; the rate of travelling is lessened and the walk is unsteady,
while its drooping tail, head inclined towards the ground, open
mouth, and protruded tongue (of a leaden colour or covered with
dust) give the distressed creature a very striking and characteristic
physiognomy. In this condition, however, it is much less to be
dreaded than in its early fits of fury, since it is no longer capable
or desirous of altering its course or going out of its way to attack
an animal or a man not immediately in the path. It is very probable
that its fast-failing vision, deadened scent, and generally diminished
perception prevent its being so readily impressed or excited by
surrounding objects as it previously was. To each paroxysm,
which is always of short duration, there succeeds a degree of ex-
haustion as great as the fits have been violent and oft repeated.
This compels the animal to stop; then it shelters itself in obscure
places — frequently in ditches by the roadside — and lies there in a
somnolescent state for perhaps hours. There is great danger, never-
theless, in disturbing the dog at this period; for when roused from
its torpor it has sometimes sufficient strength to inflict a bite.
This period, which may be termed the second stage, is as variable
in its duration as the first, but it rarely exceeds three or four days.
The above-described phenomena gradually merge into those of the
third or last period, when symptoms of paralysis appear, which are
speedily followed by death. During the remission in the paroxysms
these paralytic symptoms are more particularly manifested in the
hind limbs, which appear as if unable to support the animal's weight,
and cause it to stagger about; or the lower jaw becomes more or
less drooping, leaving the parched mouth partially open. Emaciation
rapidly sets in, and the paroxysms diminish in intensity, while the
remissions become less marked. The physiognomy assumes a still
more sinister and repulsive aspect; the hair is dull and erect; the
flanks are retracted; the eyes lose their lustre and are buried in
the orbits, the pupil being dilated, and the cornea dull and semi-
opaque; very often, even at an early period, the eyes squint, and
this adds still more to the terrifying appearance of the poor dog.
The voice, if at all heard, is husky, tne breathing laborious, and the
pulse hurried and irregular. Gradually the paralysis increases, and
the posterior extremities are dragged as if the animal's back were
broken, until at length it becomes general; it" is then the prelude
to death. Or the dog remains lying in a state of stupor, and can
only raise itself with difficulty on the fore-limbs when greatly excited.
In this condition it may yet endeavour to bite at objects within its
reach. At times convulsions of a tetanic character appear in certain
muscles; at other times these are general. A comatose condition
ensues, and the rabid dog, if permitted to die naturally, perishes,
in the great majority of cases, from paralysis and asphyxia.
In dumb madness there is paralysis of the lower jaw, which im-
parts a curious and very characteristic physiognomy to the dog;
the voice is also lost, and the animal can neither eat nor drink.
In this condition the creature remains with its jaw pendent and
the mouth consequently wide open, showing the flaccid or swollen
tongue covered with brownish matter, and a stringy gelatinous-
looking saliva lying between it and the lower lip and coating the
fauces, which sometimes appear to be inflamed. Though the
animal is unable to swallow fluids, the desire to drink is neverthe-
less intense; for the creature will thrust its face into the vessel of
water in futile attempts to obtain relief, even until the approach
of death. Water may be poured down its throat without inducing
a paroxysm. The general physiognomy and demeanour of the poor
creature inspire the beholder with pity rather than fear. The
symptoms due to cerebral excitement are less marked than in the
furious form of the disease; the agitation is not so considerable,
and the restlessness, tendency to run away, and desire to bite are
nearly absent; generally the animal is quite passive. Not unfre-
quently one or both eyes squint, and it is only when very much
excitea that the dog may contrive to close its mouth. Sometimes
there is swelling about the pharynx and the neck ; when the tongue
shares in this complication it hangs out of the mouth. In certain
cases there is a catarrhal condition of the membrane lining the
nasal cavities, larynx, and bronchi; sometimes the animal testifies
to the existence of abdominal pain, and the faeces are then soft or
fluid. The other symptoms — such as the rapid exhaustion and
emaciation, paralysis of the posterior limbs towards the termination
of the disease, as well as the rapidity with which it runs its course —
are the same as in the furious form.
The simultaneous occurrence of furious and dumb madness has
frequently been observed in packs of fox-hounds. Dumb madness
differs, then, from the furious type in the paralysis of the lower
jaw, which hinders the dog from biting, save in very exceptional
circumstances; the ferocious instincts are also in abeyance; and
there is no tendency to aggression. It has been calculated that
from 15 to 20% of rabid dogs have this particular form of the
disease. Puppies and young dogs chiefly have furious rabies.
These are the symptoms of rabies in the dog; but it is not likely,
nor is it necessary, that they will all be present in every case. In
other species the symptoms differ more or less from those mani-
fested by the dog, but they are generally marked by a change in
the manner and habits of the creatures affected, with strong indica-
tions of nervous disturbance, in the majority of species amounting
to ferociousness and a desire to injure, timid creatures becoming
bold and aggressive.
In Human Beings. — The disease of hydrophobia has been
known from early times, and is alluded to in the works of Aristotle,
Xenophon, Plutarch, Virgil, Horace, Ovid and many others, as
well as in those of the early writers on medicine. Celsus gives
detailed instructions respecting the treatment of men who have
been bitten by rabid dogs, and dwells on the dangers attending
such wounds. After recommending suction of the bitten part
by means of a dry cupping glass, and thereafter the application
of the actual cautery or of strong caustics, and the employment
of baths and various internal remedies, he says: " Idque cum
ita per triduum factum est, tutus esse homo a periculo videtur.
Solet autem ex eo vulnere, ubi parum occursum est, aquae
timor nasci, v5po<j>ofila.v Graeci appellant. Miserrimum genus
morbi; in quo simul aeger et siti et aquae metu cruciatur;
quo oppressis in angusto spes est." Subsequently Galen de-
scribed minutely the phenomena of hydrophobia, and recom-
mended the excision of the wounded part as a protection against
HYDROPHOBIA
169
the disease. Throughout many succeeding centuries little or
nothing was added to the facts which the early physicians had
made known upon the subject. The malady was regarded with
universal horror and dread, and the unfortunate sufferers were
generally abandoned by all around them and left to their terrible
fate. In later times the investigations of Boerhaave, Gerard
van Swieten (1700-1772), John Hunter, Francois Magendie
(1783-1855), Gilbert Breschet (1784-1845), Virchow, Albert
Reder, as also of William Youatt (1776-1847), George Fleming,
Meynell, Karl Hertwig (1798-1881), and others, have fur-
nished important information; but all these were put into the
shade by the researches of Pasteur.
The disease is communicated by the secretions of the mouth
of the affected animal entering a wound or abrasion of the human
skin or mucous membrane. In the great majority of cases
(90%) this is due to the bite of a rabid dog, but bites of rabid
cats, wolves, foxes, jackals, &c., are occasionally the means of
conveying the disease. Numerous popular fallacies still prevail
on the subject of hydrophobia. Thus it is supposed that the bite
of an angry dog may produce the disease, and all the more if the
animal should subsequently develop symptoms of rabies. The
ground for this erroneous notion is the fact, which is unquestion-
able, that animals in whom rabies is in the stage of incubation,
during which there are few if any symptoms, may by their bites
convey the disease, though fortunately during this early stage
they are little disposed to bite. The bite of a non-rabid animal,
however enraged, cannot give rise to hydrophobia.
The period of incubation of the disease, or that time which
elapses between the introduction of the virus and the develop-
ment of the symptoms, appears to vary in a remarkable degree,
being in some cases as short as a fortnight, and in others as long
as several months or even years. On an average it seems to be
from about six weeks to three months, but it mainly depends
on the part bitten; bites on the head are the most dangerous.
The incubation period is also said to be shorter in children.
The rare instances of the appearance of hydrophobia many years
after the introduction of the poison are always more or less open
to question as to subsequent inoculation.
When the disease is about to declare itself it not unfrequently
happens that the wound, which had quickly and entirely healed
after the bite, begins to exhibit evidence of irritation or in-
flammatory action, or at least to be the seat of morbid sensations
such as numbness, tingling or itching. The symptoms character-
izing the premonitory stage are great mental depression and
disquietude, together with restlessness and a kind of indefinite
fear. There is an unusual tendency to talk, and the articulation
is abrupt and rapid. Although in some instances the patients
will not acknowledge that they have been previously bitten,
and deny it with great obstinacy, yet generally they are well
aware of the nature of their malady, and speak despairingly of
its consequences. There is in this early stage a certain amount
of constitutional disturbance showing itself by feverishness, loss
of appetite, sleeplessness, headache, great nervous excitability,
respiration of a peculiar sighing or sobbing character, and even
occasionally a noticeable aversion to liquids. These symptoms —
constituting what is termed the melancholic stage — continue in
general for one or two days, when they are succeeded by the
stage of excitement in which all the characteristic phenomena
of the malady are fully developed. Sometimes the disease first
shows itself in this stage, without antecedent symptoms.
The agitation of the sufferer now becomes greatly increased,
and the countenance exhibits anxiety and terror. There is
noticed a marked embarrassment of the breathing, but the most
striking and terrible features of this stage are the effects pro-
duced by attempts to swallow fluids. The patient suffers from
thirst and desires eagerly to drink, but on making the effort is
seized with a most violent suffocative paroxysm produced by
spasm of the muscles of swallowing and breathing, which con-
tinues for several seconds, and is succeeded by a feeling of
intense alarm and distress. With great caution and determina-
tion the attempt is renewed, but only to be followed with a
repetition of the seizure, until the unhappy sufferer ceases from
sheer dread to try to quench the thirst which torments him.
Indeed the very thought of doing so suffices to bring on a choking
paroxysm, as does also the sound of the running of water. The
patient is extremely sensitive to any kind of external impression;
a bright light, a loud noise, a breath of cool air, contact with
any one, are all apt to bring on one of these seizures. But
besides these suffocative attacks there also occur general con-
vulsions affecting the whole muscular system of the body, and
occasionally a condition of tetanic spasm. These various
paroxysms increase in frequency and severity with the advance
of the disease, but alternate with intervals of comparative
quiet, in which, however, there is intense anxiety and more or
less constant difficulty of breathing, accompanied with a peculiar
sonorous expiration, which has suggested the notion that the
patient barks like a dog. In many instances there is great
mental disturbance, with fits of maniacal excitement, in which
he strikes at every one about him, and accuses them of being
the cause of his sufferings— these attacks being succeeded by
calm intervals in which he expresses great regret for his violent
behaviour. During all this stage of the disease the patient is
tormented with a viscid secretion accumulating in his mouth,
which from dread of swallowing he is constantly spitting about
him. There may also be noticed snapping movements of the
jaws as if he were attempting to bite, but these are in reality
a manifestation of the spasmodic action which affects the
muscles generally. There is no great amount of fever, but there
is constipation, diminished flow of urine, and often sexual
excitement.
After two or three days of suffering of the most terrible
description the patient succumbs, death taking place either in a
paroxysm of choking, or on the other hand in a tranquil manner
from exhaustion, all the symptoms having abated, and the
power of swallowing returned before the end. The duration of
the disease from the first declaration of the symptoms is generally
from three to five days.
Apart from the inoculation method (see below) , the treatment
of most avail is that which is directed towards preventing the
absorption of the poison into the system. This may be accom-
plished by excision of the part involved in the bite of the rabid
animal, or, where this from its locality is impracticable, in the
application to the wound of some chemical agent which will
destroy the activity of the virus, such as potassa fusa, lunar
caustic (nitrate of silver), or the actual cautery in the form of a
red-hot wire. The part should be thoroughly acted on by these
agents, no matter what amount of temporary suffering this may
occasion. Such applications should be resorted to immediately
after the bite has been inflicted, or as soon thereafter as possible.
Further, even though many hours or days should elapse, these
local remedies should still be applied ; for if, as appears probable,
some at least of the virus remains for long at the injured part,
the removal or effectual destruction of this may prevent the dread
consequences of its absorption. Every effort should be made to
tranquillize and reassure the patient.
Two special points of interest have arisen in recent years in
connexion with this disease. One is the Pasteur treatment by
inoculation with rabic virus (see also PARASITIC DISEASES), and
the other was the attempt of the government to exterminate
rabies in the British Isles by muzzling dogs.
The Pasteur treatment was first applied to human beings in
1885 after prolonged investigation and experimental trial on
animals. It is based on the fact that a virus, capable
of giving rabies by inoculation, can be extracted
from the tissues of a rabid animal and then intensified
or attenuated at pleasure. It appears that the strength
oi the rabic virus, as determined by inoculation, is constant in
the same species of animal, but is modified by passing through
another species. For instance, the natural virus of dogs is always
of the same strength, but when inoculated.into monkeys it becomes
weakened, and the process of attenuation can be carried on by
passing the virus through a succession of monkeys, until it
loses the power of causing death. If this weakened virus is
then passed back through guinea-pigs, dogs or rabbits, it regains
xiv. 6 a
170
HYDROPHOBIA
its former strength. Again, if it be passed through a succession
of dogs it becomes intensified up to a maximum of strength
which is called the virus fixe. Pasteur further discovered that
the strength can be modified by temperature and by keeping
the dried tissues of a rabid animal containing the virus. Thus,
if the spinal cord of a rabid dog be preserved in a dry state, the
virus loses strength day by day. The system of treatment
consists in making an emulsion of the cord and graduating the
strength of the dose by using a succession of cords, which have
been kept for a progressively diminishing length of time. Those
which have been kept for fourteen days are used as a starting-
point, yielding virus.of a minimum strength. They are followed
by preparations of diminishing age and increasing strength,
day by day, up to the maximum, which is three days old. These
are successively injected into the circulatory system. The
principle is the artificial acquisition by the patient of resistance
to the rabic virus, which is presumed to be already in the system
but has not yet become active, by accustoming him gradually
to its toxic effect, beginning with a weak form and progressively
increasing the dose. It is not exactly treatment of the disease,
because it is useless or nearly so when the disease has commenced,
nor is it exactly preventive, for the patient has already been
bitten. It must be regarded as a kind of anticipatory cure.
The cords are cut into sections and preserved dry in sterilized
flasks plugged with cotton-wool. Another method of preparing
the inoculatory virus, which has been devised by Guido Tizzoni
and Eugenic Centanni, consists in subjecting the virus fixe to
peptic digestion by diluted gastric juice for varying periods of
time.
The first patient was treated by Pasteur's system in July
1885. He was successively inoculated with emulsions made from
cords that had been kept fourteen and ten days, then eleven
and eight days, then eight, seven, six days, and so on. Two
forms of treatment are now used — (i) the "simple," in which
the course from weak to strong virus is extended over nine days;
(2) the " intensive," in which the maximum is reached in seven
days. The latter is used in cases of very bad bites and those of
some standing, in which it is desirable to lose no time. Two
days are compressed into one at the commencement by making
injections morning and evening instead of once a day, so that the
fifth-day cord is reached in four days instead of six, as in the
" simple " treatment. When the maximum — the third-day
cord — is reached the injections are continued with fifth-, fourth-,
and third-day cords. The whole course is fifteen days in the
simple treatment and twenty-one in the intensive. The doses
injected range from i to 3 cubic centimetres. Injections are
made alternately into the right and left flanks. The following
table shows the number treated from 1886 to 1905, with the
mortality.
Year.
Patients
Treated.
Deaths.
Mortality
per cent.
1886
2671
25
•94
1887
1770
'4
•79
1888
1622
9
•55
1889
1830
7
1890
1540
5
•32
1891
1559
4
•25
1892
1790
4
•22
1893
1648
6
•36
1894
1387
7
'SO
1895
1520
5
'33
1896
1308
4
•30
1897
1521
6
'39
1898
1465
3
•20
1899
1614
4
•25
1900
1419
10
•7O
1901
1318
5
•37
1902
1105
2
•18
1903
630
4
•65
1904
757
5
•66
1905
727
4
•54
These figures do not include cases which develop hydrophobia
during treatment or within fifteen days after treatment is com-
pleted, for it is held that persons who die within that period
have their nervous centres invaded by virus before the cure has
time to act. The true mortality should therefore be considerably
higher. For instance, in 1898 three deaths came within this
category, which just doubles the mortality; and in 1899 the
additional deaths were six, bringing the mortality up to two-and-
a-half times that indicated in the table. When, however, the
additional deaths are included the results remain sufficiently
striking, if two assumptions are granted — (i) that all the persons
treated have been bitten by rabid animals; (2) that a large
proportion of persons so bitten usually have hydrophobia.
Unfortunately, both these assumptions lack proof, and therefore
the evidence of the efficacy of the treatment cannot be said to
satisfy a strictly scientific standard. With regard to the first point,
the patients are divided into three categories — (i) those bitten by
an animal the rabidity of which is proved by the development
of rabies in other animals bitten by it or inoculated from its
spinal cord; (2) those bitten by an animal pronounced rabid
on a veterinary examination; (3) those bitten by an animal
suspected of being rabid. The number of patients in each category
in 1898 was (i) 141, (2) 855, (3) 469; and in 1899 it was (i) 152,
(2) 1099, (3) 363. As might be expected, the vast majority came
under the second and third heads, in which the evidence of rabidity
is doubtful or altogether lacking. With regard to the second
point, the proportion of persons bitten by rabid animals who
ordinarily develop hydrophobia has only been " estimated "
from very inadequate data. Otto Bollinger from a series of
collected statistics states that before the introduction of the
Pasteur treatment, of patients bitten by dogs undoubtedly rabid
47% died, the rate being 33% in those whose wounds had been
cauterized and 83% when there had been no local treatment.
If the number of rabid dogs be compared with the deaths from
hydrophobia in any year or series of years, it can hardly be very
high. For instance, in 1893, 668 dogs, besides other animals,
were killed and certified to be rabid in England, and the deaths
from hydrophobia were twenty. Of course this proves nothing,
as the number of persons bitten is not known, but the difference
between the amount of rabies and of hydrophobia is suggestively
great in view of the marked propensity of rabid dogs to bite,
nor is it accounted for by the fact that some of the persons bitten
were treated at the Institut Pasteur. A comparison of the annual
mortality from hydrophobia in France before and after the intro-
duction of the treatment would afford decisive evidence as to
its efficacy; but unfortunately no such comparison can be made
for lack of vital statistics in that country. The experience of
the Paris hospitals, however, points to a decided diminution of
mortality. On the whole it must be said, in the absence of further
data, that the Pasteur treatment certainly diminishes the danger
of hydrophobia from the bites of rabid animals.
More recently treatment with an anti-rabic serum has been
suggested (see PARASITIC DISEASES). Victor Babes and Lepp
and later Guido Tizzoni and Eugenio Centanni have worked out
a method of serum treatment curative and protective. In this
method not the rabic poison itself, as in the Pasteur treatment,
but the protective substance formed is injected into the tissues.
The serum of a vaccinated animal is capable of neutralizing the
power of the virus of rabies not only when mixed with the virus
before injection but even when injected simultaneously or within
twenty-four hours after the introduction of the virus. These
authors showed that the serum of a rabbit protects a rabbit
better than does the serum of a dog, and vice versa. At the end
of twenty days' injections they found they could obtain such a
large quantity of anti-rabic substance in the serum of an animal,
that even i part of serum to 25,000 of the body weight would
protect an animal. This process differs from that of Pasteur
in so far as that in place of promoting the formation of the
antidote within the body of the patient, by a process of vaccina-
tion with progressively stronger and stronger virus, this part of
the process is carried on in an animal, Babes using the dog and
Centanni the sheep, the blood serum of which is injected. This
method of vaccination is useful as a protective to those in charge
of kennels.
HYDROSPHERE— HYDROZOA
171
The attempt to stamp out rabies in Great Britain was an
experiment undertaken by the government in the public interest.
The principal means adopted were the muzzling of
Muzzling (jogg m mfected areas, and prolonged quarantine for
imported animals. The efficacy of dog-muzzling
in checking the spread of rabies and diminishing its
prevalence has been repeatedly proved in various countries.
Liable as other animals may be to the disease, in England at
least the dog is pre-eminently the vehicle of contagion and the
great source of danger to human beings. There is a difference
of opinion on the way in which muzzling acts, though there can
be none as to the effect it produces in reducing rabies. Probably
it acts rather by securing the destruction of ownerless and stray —
which generally includes rabid — dogs than by preventing biting;
for though it may prevent snapping, even the wire-cage muzzle
does not prevent furious dogs from biting, and it is healthy, not
rabid, dogs that wear the muzzle. It has therefore been suggested
that a collar would have the same effect, if all collarless dogs
were seized; but the evidence goes to show that it has not,
perhaps because rabid dogs are more likely to stray from home
with their collars, which are constantly worn, than with muzzles
which are not, and so escape seizure. Moreover, it is much easier
for the police to see whether a dog is wearing a muzzle or not
than it is to make sure about the collar. However this may be,
the muzzle has proved more efficacious, but it was not applied
systematically in England until a late date. Sometimes the
regulations were in the hands of the government, and sometimes
they were left to local authorities; in either case they were
allowed to lapse as soon as rabies had died down. In April
1897 the Board of Agriculture entered on a systematic attempt
to exterminate rabies by the means indicated. The plan was to
enforce muzzling over large areas in which the disease existed,
and to maintain it for six months after the occurrence of the
last case. In spite of much opposition and criticism, this was
resolutely carried out under Mr Walter Long, the responsible
minister, and met with great success. By the spring of 1899 —
that is, in two years — the disease had disappeared in Great
Britain, except for one area in Wales; and, with this exception,
muzzling was everywhere relaxed in October 1899. It was taken
off in Wales also in the following May, no case having occurred
since November 1899. Rabies was then pronounced extinct.
During the summer of 1900, however, it reappeared in Wales, and
several counties were again placed under the order. The year
1901 was the third in succession in which no death from hydro-
phobia was registered in the United Kingdom. In the ten years
preceding 1899, 104 deaths were registered, the death-rate
reaching 30 in 1889 and averaging 29 annually. In 1902 two
deaths from hydrophobia were registered. From that date to
June 1909 (the latest available for the purpose of this article)
no death from hydrophobia was notified in the United Kingdom.
See Annales de llnstitut Pasteur, from 1886; Journal of the
Board of Agriculture, 1899; Makins, " Hydrophobia," in Treves's
System of Surgery; Woodhead, " Rabies, ' in Allbutt's System of
Medicine.
HYDROSPHERE (Gr. vSup, water, and o-^aipo, sphere), in
physical geography, a name given to the whole mass of the water
of the oceans, which fills the depressions in the earth's crust,
and covers nearly three-quarters of its surface. The name is
used in distinction from the atmosphere, the earth's envelope
of air, the lithosphere (Gr. AWos, rock) or solid crust of the earth,
and the centrosphere or interior mass within the crust. To
these " spheres " some writers add, by figurative usage, the
terms "biosphere," or life-sphere, to cover all living things,
both animals and plants, and " psychosphere," or mind-sphere,
covering all the products of human intelligence.
HYDROSTATICS (Gr. vowp, water, and the root <rra-, to cause
to stand), the branch of hydromechanics which discusses the
equilibrium of fluids (see HYDROMECHANICS).
HYDROXYLAMINE, NH2OH, or hydroxy-ammonia, a com-
pound prepared in 1865 by W. C. Lessen by the reduction of
ethyl nitrate with tin and hydrochloric acid. In 1870 E. Ludwig
and T. H. Hein (Chem. Centralbldtt, 1870, i, p. 340) obtained it
by passing nitric oxide through a series of bottles containing tin
and hydrochloric acid, to which a small quantity of platinum
tetrachloride has been added; the acid liquid is poured off
when the operation is completed, and sulphuretted hydrogen is
passed in; the tin sulphide is filtered off and the filtrate evapor-
ated. The residue is extracted by absolute alcohol, which dis-
solves the hydroxylamine hydrochloride and a little ammonium
chloride; this last substance is removed as ammonium platino-
chloride, and the residual hydroxylamine hydrochloride is
recrystallized. E. Divers obtains it by mixing cold saturated
solutions containing one molecular proportion of sodium nitrate,
and two molecular proportions of acid sodium sulphite, and
then adding a saturated solution of potassium chloride to the
mixture. After standing for twenty-four hours, hydroxylamine
potassium disulphonate crystallizes out. This is boiled for some
hours with water and the solution cooled, when potassium
sulphate separates first, and then hydroxylamine sulphate.
E. Tafel (Zeit. anorg. Chem., 1902, 31, p. 289) patented an electro-
lytic process, wherein 50% sulphuric acid is treated in a divided
cell provided with a cathode of amalgamated lead, 50% nitric
acid being gradually run into the cathode compartment. Pure
anhydrous .hydroxylamine has been obtained by C. A. Lobry de
Bruyn from the hydrochloride, by dissolving it in absolute
methyl alcohol and then adding sodium methylate. The pre-
cipitated sodium chloride is filtered, and the solution of hydroxyl-
amine distilled in order to remove methyl alcohol, and finally
fractionated under reduced pressure. The free base is a colourless,
odourless, crystalline solid, melting at about 30° C., and boiling
at 58° C. (under a pressure of 22 mm.). It deliquesces and
oxidizes on exposure, inflames in dry chlorine and is reduced to
ammonia by zinc dust. Its aqueous solution is strongly alkaline,
and with acids it forms well-defined stable salts. E. Ebler and
E. Schott (J. pr. Chem., 1908, 78, p. 289) regard it as acting with
the formula NH2-OH towards bases, and as NH3:O towards acids,
the salts in the latter case being of the oxonium type. It is a
strong reducing agent, giving a precipitate of cuprous oxide
from alkaline copper solutions at ordinary temperature, con-
verting mercuric chloride to mercurous chloride, and pre-
cipitating metallic silver from solutions of silver salts. With
aldehydes and ketones it forms oximes (q.v.). W. R. Dunstan
(Jour. Chem. Soc., 1899, 75, p. 792) found that the addition of
methyl iodide to a methyl alcohol solution of hydroxylamine
resulted in the formation of trimethyloxamine, N(CHa)3O.
Many substituted hydroxylamines are known, substitution taking
£ o
place either in the a or /3 position (NHz-OH). /3-phenylhydroxyl-
amine, CeHsNH-OH-, is obtained in the reduction of nitrobenzene
in neutral solution (e.g. by the action of the aluminium-mercury
couple and water), but better, according to C. Goldschmidt (Ber.,
1896, 29, p. 2307) by dissolving nitrobenzene in ten times its weight
of ether containing a few cubic centimetres of water, and heating
with excess of zinc dust and anhydrous calcium chloride for three
hours on a water bath. It also appears as an intermediate product
in the electrolytic reduction of nitrobenzene in sulphuric acid
solution. By gentle oxidation it yields nitrosobenzene. Derivatives
of the type R2N-OH result in the action of the Grignard reagent on
amyl nitrite. Dihydroxy-ammonia or nitroxyl, NH(OH)2, a very
unstable and highly reactive substance, has been especially studied
by A. Angeli (see A. W. Stewart, Recent Advances in Physical and
Inorganic Chemistry, 1909).
HYDROZOA, one of the most widely spread and prolific
groups of aquatic animals. They are for the most part marine
in habitat, but a familiar fresh-water form is the common Hydra
of ponds and ditches, which gives origin to the name of the class.
The Hydrozoa comprise the hydroids, so abundant on all shores,
most of which resemble vegetable organisms to the unassisted
eye; the hydrocorallines, which, as their name implies, have a
massive stony skeleton and resemble coral*; the jelly-fishes so
called; and the Siphonophora, of which the species best known
by repute is the so-called " Portuguese man-of-war " (Physalia),
dreaded by sailors on account of its terrible stinging powers.
In external form and appearance the Hydrozoa exhibit such
striking differences that there would seem at first sight to be
little in common between the more divergent members of the
group. Nevertheless there is no other class in the animal king-
dom with better marked characteristics, or with more uniform
HYDROZOA
morphological peculiarities underlying the utmost diversity of
superficial characters.
All Hydrozoa, in the first place, exhibit the three structural
features distinctive of the Coelentera (g.v.). (i) The body is built
up of two layers only, an external protective and sensory layer,
the ectoderm, and an internal digestive layer, the endoderm.
(2) The body contains but a single internal cavity, the coelenteron
or gastrovascular space, which may be greatly ramified, but is not
shut off into cavities distinct from the central digestive space.
(3) The generative cells are produced in either the ectoderm or
endoderm, and not in a third layer arising in the embryo, distinct
from the two primary layers; in other words, there is no mesoderm
or coelom.
To these three characters the Hydrozoa add a fourth which
is distinctive of the subdivision of the Coelenterata termed the
Cnidaria; that is to say, they always possess peculiar stinging
organs known as nettle-cells, or nematocysts (Cnidae), each
produced in a cell forming an integral part of the animal's
tissues. The Hydrozoa are thus shown to belong to the group
of Coelenterata Cnidaria, and it remains to consider more fully
their distinctive features, and in particular those which mark
them off from the other main division of the Cnidaria, the
Anthozoa (q.v.), comprising the corals and sea-anemones.
The great diversity, to which reference has already been made,
in the form and structure of the Hydrozoa is due to two principal
causes. In the first place, we find in this group two distinct
types of person or individual, the polyp and the medusa (qq.v.),
each capable of a wide range of variations; and when both
polyp and medusa occur in the life-cycle of the same species,
as is frequently the case, the result is an alternation of genera-
tions of a type peculiarly characteristic of the class. In the
second place, the power of non-sexual reproduction by budding
is practically of universal occurrence among the Hydrozoa, and
by the buds failing to separate from the parent stock, colonies are
produced, more or less complicated in structure and often of
great size. We find that polyps may either bud other polyps or
may produce medusae, and that medusae may bud medusae,
though never, apparently, polyps. Hence we have a primary
subdivision of the colonies of Hydrozoa into those produced by
budding of polyps and those produced by budding of medusae.
The former may contain polyp-persons and medusa-persons,
either one kind alone or both kinds combined; the latter will
contain only medusa-persons variously modified.
The morphology of the Hydrozoa reduces itself, therefore,
to a consideration of the morphology of the polyp, of the medusa
and of the colony. Putting aside the last-named, for a detailed
account of which see HYDROMEDUSAE, we can best deal with the
peculiarities of the polyp and medusa from a developmental
point of view.
In the development of the Hydrozoa, and indeed of the Cnidaria
generally, the egg usually gives rise to an oval larva which swims
about by means of a coating of cilia on the surface of the body.
This very characteristic larva is termed a planula, but though very
uniform externally, the planulae of different species, or of the same
species at different periods, do not always represent the same stage
of embryonic development internally. On examining more minutely
the course of the development, it is found that the ovum goes
through the usual process of cleavage, always total and regular in
this group, and so gives rise to a hollow sphere or ovoid with the
wall composed of a single layer of cells, and containing a spacious
cavity, the blastocoele or segmentation-cavity. This is the blastula
stage occurring universally in all Metazoa, probably representing
an ancestral Protozoan colony in phytogeny. Next the blastula
gives rise to an internal mass of cells (fig. I , hy) which come from the
wall either by immigration (fig. I, A) or by splitting off (delamina-
tlon). The formation of an inner cell-mass converts the single-
layered blastula (monoblastula) into a double-layered embryo
(diblastula) which may be termed a parenchymula, since at first
the inner cell-mass forms an irregular parenchyma which may
entirely fill up and obliterate the segmentation cavity (fig. I, B).
At a later stage, however, the cells ofthe inner mass arrange them-
selves in a definite layer surrounding an internal cavity (fig. I, C, a/),
which soon acquires an opening to the exterior at one pole, and so
forms the characteristic embryonic stage of all Enterozoa known as
the gastrula (fig. 2). In this stage the body is composed of two
layers, ectoderm (d) externally, and endoderm (c) internally, sur-
rounding a central cavity, the archenteron (b), which communicates
with the exterior by a pore (a), the blastopore.
Thus a planula larva may be a blastula, or but slightly advanced
beyond this stage, or it may be (and most usually is) a parenchymula ;
or in some cases (Scyphomedusae) it may be a gastrula. It should
be added that the process of development, the gastrulation as it is
termed, may be shortened by the immigration of cells taking place
From Balfour, after Kowalewsky.
FIG. I. — Formation of the Diblastula of Eucope (one of the
Calyptoblastic Hydromedusae) by immigration. A, B, C, three suc-
cessive stages, ep, Ectoderm ; hy, endoderm ; al, enteric cavity.
at one pole only, and in a connected layer with orderly arrangement,
so that the gastrula stage is reached at once from the blastula without
any intervening parenchymula stage. This is a process of gastrula-
tion by invagination which is found in all animals above the Coelen-
terata, but which is very rare in the Cnidaria, and is known only in
the Scyphomedusae amongst the Hydrozoa.
After the gastrula stage, which is found as a developmental stage
in all Enterozoa, the embryo of the Hydrozoa proceeds to develop
characters which are peculiar to the Coelen-
terata only. Round the blastopore hollow
outgrowths, variable in number, arise by the
evagination of the entire body-wall, both
ectoderm and endoderm. Each outgrowth con-
tains a prolongation of the archenteric cavity
(compare figs. 2 and 3, A). In this way is
formed a ring of tentacles, the most character-
istic organs of the Cnidaria. They surround
a region which is termed the peristome, and
which contains in the centre the blastopore,
which becomes the adult mouth. The arch-
enteron becomes the gastrovascular system
or coelenteron. Between the ectoderm and
endoderm a gelatinous supporting layer,
termed the mesogloea, makes its appearance.
The gastrula has now become an actinula,
which may be termed the distinctive larva of * IG/ Q hihU, t,l
the Cnidaria, and doubtless represents in a R1°' ,
transitory manner the common ancestor of ?' Arrher teric cavitv
the group. In no case known, however, does *' £ CJ^" r ™ V-
the actinula become the adult, sexually mature V £ n°°? ""'
individual, but always undergoes further "' h
modifications, whereby it develops into either a polyp or a medusa.
To become a polyp, the actinula (fig. 3, A) becomes attached to
some firm object by the pole farthest from the mouth, and its growth
preponderates in the direction of the principal axis, that is to say, the
axis passing through the mouth (fig. 3, a-b). As a result the body
becomes columnar in form (fig. 3, B), and without further change
passes into the characteristic polyp-form (see POLYP).
From Gegenbaur's He-
FIG. 3. — Diagram showing the change of the Actinula (A) into a
Polyp (B); 0-6, principal (vertical) axis; c-d, horizontal axis. The
endoderm is shaded, the ectoderm is left clear.
It is convenient to distinguish two types of polyp by the names
hydro polyp and anthopolyp, characteristic of the Hydrozoa and
HYENA
173
Anthozoa respectively. In the hydropolyp the body is typically
elongated, the height of the column being far greater than the
diameter. The peristome is relatively small and the mouth is generally
raised on a projecting spout or hypostome. The ectoderm loses entirely
the ciliation which it had in the planula and actinula stages and com-
monly secretes on its external surface a protective or supporting in-
vestment, the perisarc. Contrasting with this, the anthopolyp is
generally of squat form, the diameter often exceeding the height ;
the peristome is wide, a hypostome is lacking, and the ectoderm,
or so much of it as is exposed, i.e. not covered by secretion of skeletal
or other investment, retains its ciliation throughout life. The
internal structural differences are even more characteristic. In the
hydropolyp the blastopore of the embryo forms the adult mouth
situated at the extremity of the hypostome, and the ectoderm and
a. a.
R
FIG. 4. — Diagram showing the change of the Actinula into a
Medusa. A, Vertical section of the actinula ; a-b and c-d as in fig. 3, B,
transitional stage, showing preponderating growth in the horizontal
plane. C,C', D,D', two types of medusa organization; C and D are
composite sections, showing a radius (R) on one side, an interradius
(IR) on the other; C' and D' are plans; the mouth and manubrium
are indicated at the centre, leading into the gastral cavity subdivided
by the four areas of concrescence in each interradius (IR). /,
tentacle; g.p, gastric pouch; r.c, radial canal not present in C
and C'; c.c, circular or ring-canal; el, endoderm-lamella formed
by concrescence. For a more detailed diagram of medusa-structure
see article MEDUSA.
endoderm meet at this point. In the anthopolyp the blastopore is
carried inwards by an in-pushing of the body-wall of the region of
the peristome, so that the adult mouth is an opening leading into a
short ectodermal oesophagus or stomodaeum, at the bottom of
which is the blastopore. Further, in the hydropolyp the digestive
cavity either remains simple and undivided and circular in transverse
section, or may show ridges projecting internally, which in this case
are formed of endoderm alone, without any participation of the
mesogloea. In the anthopolyp, on the other hand, the digestive
cavity is always subdivided by so-called mesenteries, in-growths
of the endoderm containing vertical lamellae of mesogloea (see
ANTHOZOA). In short, the hydropolyp is characterized by a more
simple type of oreanization than the anthopolyp, and is in most
respects less modified from the actinula type of structure.
Returning now to the actinula, this form may, as already stated,
develop into a medusa, a type of individual found only in the
Hydrozoa, as here understood. To become a medusa, the actinula
grows scarcely at all in the direction of the principal axis, but greatly
along a plane at right angles to it. Thus the body becomes umbrella-
shaped, the concave side representing the peristome, and the convex
side the column, of the polyp. Hence the tentacles are found at the
edge of the umbrella, and the hypostome forms usually a projecting
tube, with the mouth at the extremity, forming the manubrium or
handle of the umbrella. The medusa has a pronounced radial sym-
metry, and the positions of the primary tentacles, usually four in
number, mark out the so-called radii, alternating with which are
four interradii. The ectoderm retains its ciliation only in the
sensory organs. The mesogloea becomes enormously increased in
quantity (hence the popular name " jelly-fish "), and in correlation
with this the endoderm-layer lining the coelenteron becomes pressed
together in the interradial areas and undergoes concrescence,
forming a more or less complicated gastrovascular system (see
MEDUSA). It is sufficient to state here that the medusa is usually a
free-swimming animal, floating mouth downwards on the open seas,
but in some cases it may be attached by its aboral pole, like a polyp,
to some firm basis, either temporarily or permanently.
Thus the development of the two types of individual seen in the
Hydrozoa may be summarized as follows : —
Egg
Bias tula
Free
Planula '
Stage
Parenchymula
Gastrula
Actinula
Polyp Medusa
This development, though probably representing the primitive
sequence of events, is never actually found in its full extent, but is
always abbreviated by omission or elimination of one or more of
the stages. We have already seen that the parenchymula stage is
passed over when the gastrulation is of the invaginate type. On the
other hand, the parenchymula may develop directly into the actinula
or even into the polyp, with suppression of the intervening steps.
Great apparent differences may also be brought about by variations
in the period at which the embryo is set free as a larva, and since two
free-swimming stages, planula and actinula, are unnecessary, one or
other of them is always suppressed. A good example of this is seen
in two common genera of British hydroids, Cordylophora and Tabu-
laria. In Cordylophora the embryo is set free at the parenchymula
stage as a planuja which fixes itself and develops into a pojyp, both
gastrula and actinula stages being suppressed. In Titbularia, on the
other hand, the parenchymula develops into an actinula within the
maternal tissues, and is then set free, creeps about for a time, and
after fixing itself, changes into a polyp; hence in this case the
planula-stage, as a free larva, is entirely suppressed.
The Hydrozoa may be defined, therefore, as Cnidaria in which
two types of individual, the polyp and the medusa, may be present,
each type developed along divergent lines from the primitive actinula
form. The polyp (hydropolyp) is of simple structure, and never has
an ectodermal oesophagus or mesenteries.1 The general ectoderm
loses its cilia, which persist only in the sensory cells, and it frequently
secretes external protective or supporting structures. An internal
mesogloeal skeleton is not found.
The class is divisible into two main divisions or sub-classes, Hydro-
medusae and Scyphomedusae, of which definitions and detailed
systematic accounts will be found under these headings.
GENERAL WORKS ON HYDROZOA. — C. Chun, " Coelenterata
(Hohlthiere)," Bronn's Klassen und Ordnungen des Thier-Reichs
ii. 2 (1889 et seq.); Y. Delage, and E. Herouard, Trails de zoologie
concrete, ii. part 2, Les Coelenteres (1901); G. H. Fowler, "The
Hydromedusae and Scyphomedusae " in E. R. Lankester's Treatise
on Zoology, ii. chapters iv. and v. (1900) ; S. J. Hickson, " Coelen-
terata and Ctenophora," Cambridge Natural History, i. chapters
x.-xv. (1906). (E. A. M.)
HYENA, a name applicable to all the representatives of the
mammalian family Hyaenidae, a group of Carnivora (q.v.) allied
to the civets. From all other large Carnivora except the African
hunting-dog, hyenas are distinguished by having only four toes
on each foot, and are further characterized by the length of the
fore-legs as compared with the hind pair, the non-retractile claws,
and the enormous strength of the jaws and teeth, which enables
them to break the hardest bones and to retain what they have
seized with unrelaxing grip.
1 See further under SCYPHOMEDUSAE.
174
HYERES
The striped hyena (Hyaena striata) is the most widely dis-
tributed species, being found throughout India, Persia, Asia
Minor, and North and East Africa, the East African form
constituting a distinct., race, H. striata schillingsi; while there
are also several distinct Asiatic races. The species resembles
a wolf in size, and is greyish-brown in colour, marked with
indistinct longitudinal stripes of a darker hue, while the legs are
transversely striped. The hairs on the body are long, especially
on the ridge of the neck and back, where they form a distinct
mane, which is continued along the tail. Nocturnal in habits,
FIG. I. — The Striped Hyena (Hyaena striata').
it prefers by day the gloom of caves and ruins, or of the burrows
which it occasionally forms, and issues forth at sunset, when it
commences its unearthly howling. When the animal is excited,
the howl changes into what has been compared to demoniac
laughter, whence the name of " laughing-hyena." These
creatures feed chiefly on carrion, and thus perform useful service
by devouring remains which might otherwise pollute the air.
Even human dead are not safe from their attacks, their powerful
claws enabling them to gain access to newly interred bodies in
cemeteries. Occasionally (writes Dr W. T. Blanford) sheep or
FIG. 2. — The Spotted Hyena (Hyaena crocuta).
goats, and more often dogs, are carried off, and the latter, at all
events, are often taken alive to the animal's den. This species
appears to be solitary in habits, and it is rare to meet with more
than two together. The cowardice of this hyena is proverbial;
despite its powerful teeth, it rarely attempts to defend itself.
A very different animal is the spotted hyena, Hyaena (Crocuta)
crocuta, which has the sectorial teeth of a more cat-like type,
and is marked by dark-brown spots on a yellowish ground, while
the mane is much less distinct. At the Cape it was formerly
common, and occasionally committed great havoc among the
cattle, while it did not hesitate to enter the Kaffir dwellings at
night and carry off children sleeping by their mothers. By
persistent trapping and shooting, its numbers have now been
considerably reduced, with the result, however, of making it
exceedingly wary, so that it is not readily caught in any trap
with which it has had an opportunity of becoming acquainted.
Its range extends from Abyssinia to the Cape. The Abyssinian
form has been regarded as a distinct species, under the name
of H . liontiewi, but this, like various more southern forms, is
but regarded as a local race. The brown hyena (H. brunnea)
is South African, ranging to Angola on the west and Kilimanjaro
on the east. In size it resembles the striped hyena, but differs
in appearance, owing to the fringe of long hair covering the neck
and fore part of the back. The general hue is ashy-brown, with
the hair lighter on the neck (forming a collar), chest and belly;
while the legs are banded with dark brown. This species is not
often seen, as it remains concealed during the day. Those
frequenting the coast feed on dead fish, crabs and an occasional
stranded whale, though they are also a danger to the sheep and
cattle kraal. Strand-wolf is the local name at the Cape.
Although hyenas are now confined to the warmer regions of the
Old World, fossil remains show that they had a more northerly
range during Tertiary times; the European cave-hyena being a
form of the spotted species, known as H . crocuta spelaea. Fossil
hyenas occur in the Lower Pliocene of Greece, China, India,
&c.; while remains indistinguishable from those of the striped
species have been found in the Upper Pliocene of England and
Italy.
HYERES, a town in the department of the Var in S.E. France,
ii m. by rail E. of Toulon. In 1906 the population of the com-
mune was 17,790, of the town 10,464; the population of the former
was more than doubled in the last decade of the igth century.
Hyeres is celebrated (as is also its fashionable suburb, Costebelle,
nearer the seashore) as a winter health resort. The town proper
is situated about 2^ m. from the seashore, and on the south-
western slope of a steep hill (669 ft., belonging to the Maurettes
chain, 961 ft.), which is one of the westernmost spurs of the
thickly wooded Montagnes des Maures. It is sheltered from the
north-east and east winds, but is exposed to the cold north-west
wind or mistral. Towards the south and south-east a fertile
plain, once famous for its orange groves, but now mainly covered
by vineyards and farms, stretches to the sea, while to the south-
west, across a narrow valley, rises a cluster of low hills, on which is
the suburb of Costebelle. The older portion of the town is still
surrounded, on the north and east, by its ancient, though
dilapidated medieval walls, and is a labyrinth of steep and dirty
streets. The more -modern quarter which has grown up at the
southern foot of the hill has handsome broad boulevards and
villas, many of them with beautiful gardens, filled with semi-
tropical plants. Among the objects of interest in the old town
are: the house (Rue Rabaton, 7) where J. B. Massillon (1663-
1742), the famous pulpit orator, was born; the parish church
of St Louis, built originally in the I3th century by the Cordelier
or Franciscan friars, but completely restored in the earlier part
of the igth century; and the site of the old chateau, on the
summit of the hill, now occupied by a villa. The plain between
the new town and the sea is occupied by large nurseries, an
excellent jardin d'acclimatalion, and many market gardens, which
supply Paris and London with early fruits and vegetables,
especially artichokes, as well as with roses in winter. There are
extensive salt beds (salines) both on the peninsula of Giens, S.
of the town, and also E. of the town. To the east of the Giens
peninsula is the fine natural harbour of Hyeres, as well as three
thinly populated islands (the Stoechades of the ancients),
Porquerolles, Port Cros and Le Levant, which are grouped
together under the common name of lies d 'Hyeres.
The town of Hyeres seems to have been founded in the loth
century, as a place of defence against pirates, and takes its name
from the aires (hierbo in the Provencal dialect), or threshing-
floors for corn, which then occupied its site. It passed from the
possession of the viscounts of Marseilles to Charles of Anjou,
count of Provence, and brother of St Louis (the latter landed
here in 1254, on his return from Egypt). The chateau was
HYGIEIA— HYKSOS
175
dismantled by Henri IV., but thanks to its walls, the town resisted
in 1707 an attack made by the duke of Savoy.
See Ch LentheVic, La Provence Maritime ancienne et moderne
(chap. 5) (Paris, 1880). (W. A. B. C.)
HYGIEIA, in Greek mythology, the goddess of health. It
seems probable that she was originally an abstraction, subse-
quently personified, rather than an independent divinity of very
ancient date. The question of the original home of her worship
has been much discussed. The oldest traces of it, so far as is
known at present, are to be found at Titane in the territory of
Sicyon, where she was worshipped together with Asclepius, to
whom she appears completely assimilated, not an independent
personality. Her cult was not introduced at Epidaurus till a
late date, and therefore, when in 420 B.C. the worship of Asclepius
was introduced at Athens coupled with that of Hygieia, it is not
to be inferred that she accompanied him from Epidaurus, or
that she is a Peloponnesian importation at all. If is most
probable that she was invented at the time of the introduction
of Asclepius, after the sufferings caused by the plague had
directed special attention to sanitary matters. The already
existing worship of Athena Hygieia had nothing to do with
Hygieia the goddess of health, but merely denoted the recognition
of the power of healing as one of the attributes of Athena, which
gradually became crystallized into a concrete personality.
At first no special relationship existed between Asclepius and
Hygieia, but gradually she came to be regarded as his daughter,
the place of his wife being already secured by Epione. Later
Orphic hymns, however, and Herodas iv. 1-9, make her the wife
of Asclepius. The cult of Hygieia then spread concurrently with
that of Asclepius, and was introduced at Rome from Epidaurus
in 293, by which time she may have been admitted (which was not
the case before) into the Epidaurian family of the god. Her
proper name as a Romanized Greek importation was Valetudo,
but she was gradually identified with Salus, an older genuine
Italian divinity, to whom a temple had already been erected in
302. While in classical times Asclepius and Hygieia are simply
the god and goddess of health, in the declining years of paganism
they are protecting divinities generally, who preserve mankind
not only from sickness but from all dangers on land and sea.
In works of art Hygieia is represented, together with Asclepius,
as a maiden of benevolent appearance, wearing the chiton and
giving food or drink to a serpent out of a dish.
See the article by H. Lechat in Daremberg and Saglio's Diction-
naire des antiquites, with full references to authorities; and E.
Thramer in Roscher's Lexikon der Mythologie, with a special section
on the modern theories of Hygieia.
HYGIENE (Fr. hygiene, from Gr. irfiaiveiv, to be healthy),
the science of preserving health, its practical aim being to render
" growth more perfect, decay less rapid, life more vigorous,
death more remote." The subject is thus a very wide one,
embracing all the agencies which affect the physical and mental
well-being of man, and it requires acquaintance with such
diverse sciences as physics, chemistry, geology, engineering,
architecture, meteorology, epidemiology, bacteriology and
statistics. On the personal or individual side it involves con-
sideration of the character and quality of food and of water
and other beverages; of clothing; of work, exercise and sleep;
of personal cleanliness, of special habits, such as the use of
tobacco, narcotics, &c. ; and of control of sexual and other
passions. In its more general and public aspects it must take
cognizance of meteorological conditions, roughly included under
the term climate; of the site or soil on which dwellings are
placed; of the character, materials and arrange'ment of dwellings,
whether regarded individually or in relation to other houses
among which they stand; of their heating and ventilation; of
the removal of excreta and other effete matters; of medical
knowledge relating to the incidence and prevention of disease;
and of the disposal of the dead.
These topics will be found treated in such articles as DIETETICS,
FOOD, FOOD-PRESERVATION, ADULTERATION, WATER, HEATING,
VENTILATION, SEWERAGE, BACTERIOLOGY, HOUSING, CREMATION,
&c. For legal enactments which concern the sanitary well-being
of the community, see PUBLIC HEALTH.
HYGINUS, eighth pope. It was during his pontificate (c.
137-140) that the gnostic heresies began to manifest themselves
at Rome.
HYGINUS (surnamed GROMATICUS, from gruma, a surveyor's
measuring-rod), Latin writer on land-surveying, flourished in
the reign of Trajan (A.D. 98-117). Fragments of a work on
legal boundaries attributed to him will be found in C. F. Lach-
mann, Gromatici Veteres, i. (1848).
A treatise on Castrametation (tie Munitionibus Castrorum), also
attributed to him, is probably of later date, about the 3rd century
A.D. (ed. W. Gemoll, 1879; A. von Domaszewski, 1887).
HYGINUS, GAIUS JULIUS, Latin author, a native of Spain
(or Alexandria), was a pupil of the famous Cornelius Alexander
Polyhistor and a freedman of Augustus, by whom he was made
superintendent of the Palatine library (Suetonius, De Gramma-
ticis, 20). He is said to have fallen into great poverty in his
old age, and to have been supported by the historian Clodius
Licinus. He was a voluminous author, and his works included
topographical and biographical treatises, commentaries on Helvius
Cinna and the poems of Virgil, and disquisitions on agriculture
and bee-keeping. All these are lost.
Under the name of Hyginus two school treatises on mythology are
extant: (l) Fabularum Liber, some 300 mythological legends and
celestial genealogies, valuable for the use made by the author of
the works of Greek tragedians now lost; (2) De Astronomia, usually
called Poetica Astronomica, containing an elementary treatise on
astronomy and the myths connected with the stars, chiefly based on
the KaToorepio-MoI of Eratosthenes. Both are 'abridgments and both
are by the same hand ; but the style and Latinity and the elementary
mistakes (especially in the rendering of the Greek originals) are held
to prove that they cannot have been the work of so distinguished
a scholar as C. Julius Hyginus. It is suggested that these treatises
are an abridgment (made in the latter half of the 2nd century) of
the Genealogiae of Hyginus by an unknown grammarian, who added
a complete treatise on mythology.
EDITIONS. — -Fabulae, by M. Schmidt (1872); De Astronomia, by
B. Bunte (1875) ; see also Bunte, De C. Julii Hygini, Augusti Liberti,
Vita et Scriptis (1846).
HYGROMETER (Gr. frypis, moist. jJerpov, a measure), an
instrument for measuring the absolute or relative amount of
moisture in the atmosphere; an instrument which only
qualitatively determines changes in the humidity is termed a
" hygroscope." The earlier instruments generally depended for
their action on the contraction or extension of substances when
exposed to varying degrees of moisture; catgut, hair, twisted
cords and wooden laths, all of which contract with an increase in
the humidity and vice versa, being the most favoured materials.
The familiar " weather house " exemplifies this property. This
toy consists of a house provided with two doors, through which
either a man or woman appears according as the weather is
about to be wet or fine. This action is effected by fixing a catgut
thread to the base on which the figures are mounted, in such
a manner that contraction of the thread rotates the figures so
that the man appears and extension so that the woman appears.
Many of the early forms are described in C. Hutton, Math, and
Phil. Dictionary (1815). The modern instruments, which utilize
other principles, are described in METEOROLOGY: II. Methods and
Apparatus.
HYKSOS, or " SHEPHERD KINGS," the name of the earliest
invaders of Egypt of whom we have definite evidence in tradition.
Josephus (c. Apion. i. 14), who identifies the Hyksos with the
Israelites, preserves a passage from the second book of Manetho
giving an account of them. (It may be that Josephus had it, not
direct from Manetho's writings, but through the garbled version
of some Alexandrine compiler.) In outline it is as follows. In
the days of a king of Egypt named Timaeus the land was suddenly
invaded from the east by men of ignoble race, who conquered
it without a struggle, destroyed cities and temples, and slew or
enslaved the inhabitants. At length they elected a king named
Salatis, who, residing at Memphis, made all Egypt tributary,
and established garrisons in different parts, especially eastwards,
fearing the Assyrians. He built also a great fortress at Avaris,
in the Sethroite nome, east of the Bubastite branch of the Nile.
Salatis was followed in succession by Beon, Apachnas, Apophis,
Jannas and Asses. These six kings reigned 198 years and 10
months, and all aimed at extirpating the Egyptians. Their
whole race was named Hyksos, i.e. " shepherd kings," and
176
HYLAS— HYMEN
some say they were Arabs (another explanation found by
Josephus is " captive shepherds "). When they and their
successors had held Egypt for 511 years, the kings of the Thebais
and other parts of Egypt rebelled, and a long and mighty war
began. Misphragmuthosis worsted the " Shepherds " and
shut them up in Avaris; and his son Thutmosis, failing to
capture the stronghold, allowed them to depart; whereupon
they went forth, 240,000 in number, established themselves
in Judea and built Jerusalem.
In Manetho's list of kings, the six above named (with many
variations in detail) form the XVth dynasty, and are called
" six foreign Phoenician kings." The XVIth dynasty is of
thirty-two " Hellenic (sic?) shepherd kings," the seventeenth
is of " shepherds and Theban kings " (reigning simultaneously).
The lists vary greatly in different versions, but the above seems
the most reasonable selection of readings to be made. For
" Hellenic " see below. The supposed connexion with the
Israelites has made the problem of the Hyksos attractive, but
light is coming upon it very slowly. In 1847 E. de Rouge
proved from a fragment of a story in the papyri of the British
Museum, that Apopi was one of the latest of the Hyksos kings,
corresponding to Aphobis; he was king of the " pest " and
suppressed the worship of the Egyptian gods, and endeavoured
to make the Egyptians worship his god Setekh or Seti; at
the same time an Egyptian named Seqenenre reigned in Thebes,
more or less subject to Aphobis. The city of Hawari (Avaris)
was also mentioned in the fragment.
In 1850 a record of the capture of this city from the Hyksos
by Ahmosi, the founder of the eighteenth dynasty, was discovered
by the same scholar. A large class of monuments was afterwards
attributed to the Hyksos, probably in error. Some statues
and sphinxes, found in 1861 by Mariette at Tanis (in the north-
east of the Delta), which had been usurped by later kings, had
peculiar " un-Egyptian " features. One of these bore the name
of Apopi engraved lightly on the shoulder; this was evidently
a usurper's mark, but from the whole circumstances it was
concluded that these, and others of the same type of features
found elsewhere, must have belonged to the Hyksos. This
view held the field until 1893, when Golenischeff produced an
inferior example bearing its original name, which showed that
in this case it represented Amenemhe III. In consequence
it is now generally believed that they all belong to the twelfth
dynasty. Meanwhile a headless statue of a king named Khyan,
found at Bubastis, was attributed on various grounds to the
Hyksos, the soundest arguments being his foreign name and
the boastful un-Egyptian epithet " beloved of his ka," where
" beloved of Ptah " or some other god was to be expected.
His name was immediately afterwards recognized on a lion
found as far away from Egypt as Bagdad. Flinders Petrie then
pointed out a group of kings named on scarabs of peculiar type,
which, including Khyan, he attributed to the period between
the Old Kingdom and the New, while others were in favour of
assigning them all to the Hyksos, whose appellation seemed
to be recognizable in the title Hek-khos, "ruler of the barbarians,"
borne by Khyan. The extraordinary importance of Khyan was
further shown by the discovery of his name on a jar-lid at Cnossus
in Crete. Semitic features were pointed out in the supposed
Hyksos names, and Petrie was convinced of their date by his
excavations of 1905-1906 in the eastern Delta. Avaris is generally
assigned to the region towards Pelusium on the strength of its
being located in the Sethroite nome by Josephus, but Petrie
thinks it was at Tell el-Yahudiyeh (Yehudia), where Hyksos
scarabs are common. From the remains of fortifications there
he argues that the Hyksos were uncivilized desert people,
skilled in the use of the bow, and must thus have destroyed
by their archery the Egyptian armies trained to fight hand-to-
hand; further., that their hordes were centered in Syria, but were
driven thence by a superior force in the East to take refuge
in the islands and became a sea-power — whence the strange
description " Hellenic " in Manetho, which most editors have
corrected to AXXoi, "others." Besides the statue of Khyan,
blocks of granite with the name of Apopi have been found in
Upper Egypt at Gebelen and in Lower Egypt at Bubastis. The
celebrated Rhind mathematical papyrus was copied in the
reign of an Apopi from an original of the time of Amenemhe III.
Large numbers of Hyksos scarabs are found in Upper and
Lower Egypt, and they are not unknown in Palestine. Khyan 's
monuments, inconspicuous as they are, actually extend over
a wider area — from Bagdad to Cnossus — than those of any other
Egyptian king.
It is certain that this mysterious people were Asiatic, for
they are called so by the Egyptians. Though Seth was an
Egyptian god, as god of the Hyksos he represents some Asiatic
deity. The possibility of a connexion between the Hyksos
and the Israelites is still admitted in some quarters. Hatred
of these impious foreigners, of which there is some trace in
more than one text, aroused amongst the Egyptians (as nothing
ever did before or since) that martial spirit which carried the
armies of Tethmosis to the Euphrates.
Besides the histories of Egypt, see J. H. Breasted, Ancient
Records of Egypt; Historical Documents ii. 4, 125; G. Maspero,
Conies populaires, 3me 6d. p. 236; W. M. F. Petrie, Hyksos
and Israelite Cities, p. 67; Golenischeff in RecueU de travaux,xv.
p. 131- (F. LL. G.)
HYLAS, in Greek legend, son of Theiodamas, king of the
Dryopians in Thessaly, the favourite of Heracles and his com-
panion on the Argonautic expedition. Having gone ashore at
Kios in Mysia to fetch water, he was carried off by the nymphs
of the spring in which he clipped his pitcher. Heracles sought
him in vain, and the answer of Hylas to his thrice-repeated cry
was lost in the depths of the water. Ever afterwards, in memory
of the threat of Heracles to ravage the land if Hylas were not
found, the inhabitants of Kios every year on a stated day roamed
the mountains, shouting aloud for Hylas (Apollonius Rhodius
i. 1207; Theocritus xiii.; Strabo xii. 564; Propertius i. 20;
Virgil, Eel. vi. 43). But, although the legend is first told in
Alexandrian times, the " cry of Hylas " occurs long before as
the " Mysian cry " in Aeschylus (Persae, 1054) , and in Aristo-
phanes (Plutus, 1127) " to cry Hylas " is used proverbially of
seeking something in vain. Hylas, like Adonis and Hyacinthus,
represents the fresh vegetation of spring, or the water of a foun-
tain, which dries up under the heat of summer. It is suggested
that Hylas was a harvest deity and that the ceremony gone
through by the Kians was a harvest festival, at which the figure
of a boy was thrown into the water, signifying the dying vegeta-
tion-spirit of the year.
See G. Tflrk in Breslauer Philologische Abhandlungen,v'ii. (1895) ;
W. Mannhardt, Mythologische Forschungen (1884).
HYLOZOISM (Gr. 6X77, matter, fco^, life), in philosophy, a
term applied to any system which explains all life, whether
physical or mental, as ultimately derived from matter (" cosmic
matter," Weldstojf). Such a view of existence has been common
throughout the history of thought, and especially among physical
scientists. Thus the Ionian school of philosophy, which began
with Thales, sought for the beginning of all things in various
material substances, water, air, fire (see IONIAN SCHOOL). These
substances were regarded as being in some sense alive, and
taking some active part in the development of being. This
primitive hylozoism reappeared in modified forms in medieval
and Renaissance thought, and in modern times the doctrine of
materialistic monism is its representative. Between modern
materialism and hylozoism proper there is, however, the dis-
tinction that the ancients, however vaguely, conceived the
elemental matter as being in some sense animate if not actually
conscious and conative.
HYMEN, or HYMENAEUS, originally the name of the song sung
at marriages among the Greeks. As usual the name gradually
produced the idea of an actual person whose adventures gave
rise to the custom of this song. He occurs often in association
with Linus and lalemus, who represent similar personifications,
and is generally called a son of Apollo and a Muse. As the son
of Dionysus and Aphrodite, he was regarded as a god of fruitful-
ness. In Attic legend he was a beautiful youth who, being in
love with a girl, followed her in a procession to Eleusis disguised
as a woman, and saved the whole band from pirates. As reward
HYMENOPTERA
177
he obtained the girl in marriage, and his happy married life
caused him ever afterwards to be invoked in marriage songs
(Servius on Virgil, Aen. i. 651). According to another story,
he was a youth who was killed by the fall of his house on his
wedding day; hence he was invoked to propitiate him and avert
a similar fate from others (Servius, loc. cit.). He is represented
in works of art as an effeminate-looking, winged youth, carrying
a bridal torch and wearing a nuptial veil. The marriage song
was sung, with musical accompaniment, during the procession
of the bride from her parents' house to that of the bridegroom,
Hymenaeus being invoked at the end of each portion.
See R. Schmidt, De Hymenaeo et Talasio (1886), and J.A. Hildin
Daremberg and Saglis's Dictionnaire des antiques.
HYMENOPTERA (Gr. vy^v, a membrane, and irrtptiv, a wing),
a term used in zoological classification for one of the most im-
portant orders of the class Hexapoda (q.v.) . The order was founded
by Linnaeus (Systema Naturae, 1735), and is still recognized by
a.
TEKZl.—.
After C. L. Marktt, Bur. Ent. Ball. 3, NS., U3. Dept. Agrit.
FIG. I. — A, Front of head of Sawfly (Pachynematus) ; a,
labrum; b, clypeus; c, vertex; d, d, antennal cavities. C and
D, Mandibles. E, First maxilla; a, cardo; 6, stipes; c, galea;
d, lacinia; e, palp. B, Second maxillae (Labium); a, mentum;
b, ligula (between the two galeae) ; c, c, palps. Magnified.
all naturalists in the sense proposed by him, to include
the sawflies, gall-flies, ichneumon-flies and their allies, ants,
wasps and bees. The relationship of the Hymenoptera to
other orders of insects is discussed in the article HEXAPODA,
but it may be men-
tioned here that in
structure the highest
members of the order
are remarkably special-
ized, and that in the
perfection of their in-
stincts they stand at
the head of all insects
and indeed of all inver-
tebrate animals. About
30,ooospeciesof Hymen-
optera are now known.
Characters. — In all
Hymenoptera the man-
dibles (fig. i, C, D) are
well developed, being
adapted, as in the more
lowly winged insects, such
as the Orthoptera, for
biting. The more general-
ized Hymenoptera have
the second maxillae but
FIG. 2. — Jaws of
Hive-bee (Apis
mellifica). Magni-
fied about 6| times,
o, mandible; 6, c,
palp and lacinia
of first maxilla ;
After C. Janet, Man.
Sac. Zool. France (1808).
Fig. 3. — Median
section through mid-
body of female Red
Ant (Myrmica rubra) .
H, Head; i, 2, 3,
the thoracic seg-
. ments; i., ii., the
d, e, g, h, mentum, first and second ab-
palp, fused laciniae dominal segments;
(ligula or "tongue") i., being the pro-
and galea of 2nd podeum.
maxillae.
slightly modified, their
inner lobes being fused to
form a ligula (fig. i , B, b).
I n the higher families this
structure becomes elongated (fig. 2, g) so as to form an elaborate
sucking-organ or " tongue." These insects are able, therefore, to
bite as well as to suck, whereas most insects which have acquired
the power of suction have lost that of biting. Both fore- and hind-
wings are usually present, both pairs being membranous, the hind-
wings small and not folded when at rest, each provided along the
costa with a row of curved hooks which catch on to a fold along the
dorsum of the adjacent fore-wing during flight. A large number of
Hymenoptera are, however, entirely wingless — at least as regards one
sex or form of the species. One of the most remarkable features is
the close union of the foremost abdominal segment (fig. 3, i.) with
the metathorax, of which it often seems to form a part, the apparent
first abdominal segment being, in such case, really the second (fig.
3, ii.). The true first segment, which undergoes a more or less com-
plete fusion with the thorax is known as the " median segment"
or propodeum. In female Hymenoptera the typical insectan
ovipositor with its three pairs 01 processes is well developed, and in
the higher families this organ becomes functional as a sting (fig. 5) —
used for offence and defence. As regards their life history, all
Hymenoptera undergo a " complete " metamorphosis. The larva
is soft-skinned (cruciform), being either a caterpillar (fig. 6, b) or a leg-
less grub (fig. 7, a), and the pupa is free (fig. J,c), i.e. with the append-
ages not fixed to the body, as is the case in the pupa of most moths.
Structure. — The head of a hymenopterous insect bears three simple
eyes (ocelli) on the front and vertex in addition to the large compound
,co
FIG. 4. — Fore- Wings of Hymenoptera.
Tenthredinidae (Hylotoma) —
i, marginal; 2, appendicu-
lar; 3, 4, 5, 6, radial or sub-
marginal; 7, 8, 9, median or
discoidal; 10, sub-costal;
n, 12, cubital or branchial;
and 13, anal or lanceolate
cellules; o, 6, c, submarginal
nervures; d, basal nervures;
e, f, recurrent nervures; st,
stigma; co, costa.
2. Cynipidae (Cynips).
3. Chalcididae (Perilantpus).
4. Proctotrypidae (Codrus).
5. Mymaridae (Mymar).
6. Braconidae (Bracon).
7. Ichneumonidae (Trogus).
8. Chrysididae (Cleptes). .
9. Formicidae (Formica).
10. Vespidae (Vespa).
11. Apidae (Apathus).
eyes. The feelers are generally simple in type, rarely showing serra-
tions or prominent appendages; but one or two basal segments
are frequently differentiated to form an elongate " scape," the
remaining segments — carried at an elbowed angle to the scape —
making up the " flagellum "; the segments of the flagellum often
bear complex sensory organs. The general characters of the jaws
have been mentioned above, and in detail there is great variation
in these organs among the different families. The sucking tongue
of the Hymenoptera has often been compared with the hypopharynx
of other insects. According to D. Sharp, however, the hypopharynx
is present in all Hymenoptera as a distinct structure at the base of
the " tongue," which must be regarded as representing the fused
laciniae of the second maxillae. In the thorax the pronotum and
prosternum are closely associated with the mesothorax, but the pleura
of the prothorax are usually shifted far forwards, so that the forelegs
are inserted just behind the head. A pair of small plates — the tegulae
— are very generally present at the ba_ses of the fore-wings. The
union of the first abdominal segment with the metathorax has been
i78
HYMENOPTERA
already mentioned. The second (so-called " first'') abdominal
segment is often very constricted, forming the " waist " so character-
istic of wasps and ants for example. The constriction of this segment
and its very perfect articulation with the propodeum give great
mobility to the abdomen, so that the ovipositor or sting can be used
with the greatest possible accuracy and effect.
Mention has already been made of the series of curved hooks along
the costa of the hind- wing; by means of this arrangement the two
wings of a side are firmly joined together during flight, which thus
becomes particularly accurate. The wings in the Hymenoptera show
a marked reduction in the number of nervures as compared with more
primitive insects. The main median nervure, and usually also
the sub-costal become united with the radial, while the branches of
radial, median and cubital nervures pursuing a_transverse or re-
current course across .the wing, divide its area into a number of
areolets or " cells," that are of importance in classification. Among
many of the smaller Hymenoptera we find that the wings are almost
destitute of nervures. In the hind-wings — on account of their reduced
size — the nervures are even more reduced than in the fore-wings.
The legs of Hymenoptera are of the typical insectan form, and
the foot is usually composed of five segments. In many families
the trochanter appears to be represented by two small segments,
there being thus an extra joint in the leg. It is almost certain that
the distal of these two segments really belongs to the thigh, but the
ordinary nomenclature will be used in the present article, as this
character is of great importance in discriminating families, and
the two segments in question are referred to the trochanter by most
systematic writers.
The typical insectan ovipositor, so well developed among the
Hymenoptera, consists of three pairs of processes (gonapophyses)
two of which belong to the ninth abdominal segment and one to
After C. Janet, Aiguillon de la Myrmica nibn (Paris, 1898).
FIG. 5. — Ovipositor or Sting of Red Ant (Myrmica rubra) Queen.
Magnified. The right sheath C (outer process of the ninth abdominal
segment — 9) is shown in connexion with the guide B formed by the
inner processes of the 9th segment. The stylet A (process of the
8th abdominal segment — 8) is turned over to show its groove a,
which works along the tongue or rail 6.
the eighth. The latter are the cutting or piercing stylets (fig. 5, A)
of the ovipositor, while the two outer processes of the ninth segment
are modified into sheaths or feelers (fig. 5, C) and the two inner
processes form a guide (fig. §, B) on which the stylets work, tongues
or rails on the " guide " fitting accurately into longitudinal grooves
on the stylet. In the different families of the Hymenoptera, there
are various modifications of the ovipositor, in accord with the
habits of the insects and the purposes to which the organ is put.
The sting of wasps, ants and bees is a modified ovipositor and is
used for egg-laying by the fertile females, as well as for defence.
Most male Hymenoptera have processes which form claspers or
genital armature. These processes are not altogether homologous
with those of the ovipositor, being formed by inner and outer lobes
of a pair of structures on the ninth abdominal segment.
Many points of interest are to be noted in the internal structure
of the Hymenoptera. The gullet leads into a moderate-sized crop,
and several pairs of salivary glands open into the mouth. The crop
is followed by a proventriculus which, in the higher Hymenoptera,
forms the so-called " honey stomach," by the contraction of whose
walls the solid and liquid food can be separated, passed on jnto the
digestive stomach, or held in the crop ready for regurgitation into
the mouth. Behind the digestive stomach are situated, as usual,
intestine and rectum, and the number of kidney (Malpighian) tubes
varies from only six to over a hundred, being usually great.
In the female, each ovary consists of a large number of ovarian
tubes, in which swollen chambers containing the egg-cells alternate
with smaller chambers enclosing nutrient materiaL In connexion
with the ovipositor are two poison-glands, one acid and the other
alkaline in its secretion. The acid gland consists of one, two or
more tubes, with a cellular coat of several layers, opening into a
reservoir whence the duct leads to the exterior. The alkaline gland
is an irregular tube with a single cellular layer, its duct opening
alongside that of the acid reservoir. These glands are most strongly
developed when the ovipositor is modified into a sting.
Development. — Parthenogenesis is of normal occurrence in the
life-cycle of many Hymenoptera. There are species of gall-fly in
which males are unknown, the unfertilized eggs always developing
into females. On the other hand, in certain saw-flies and among
the higher families, the unfertilized eggs, capable of development,
usually give rise to male insects (see BEE). The larvae of most saw-
flies feeding on the leaves of plants are caterpillars (fig. 6, b) with
numerous abdominal pro-legs, but in most families of Hymenoptera
the egg is laid in such a situation that an abundant food-supply is
assured without exertion on the part of the larva, which is conse-
quently a legless grub, usually white in colour, and with soft flexible
cuticle (fig. 7, a). The organs and instincts for egg-laying and food-
providing are perhaps the most remarkable features in the economy
of the Hymenoptera. Gall-fly grubs are provided with vegetable
food through the eggs being laid by the mother insect within plant
tissues. The ichneumon pierces the body of a caterpillar and lays
her eggs where the grubs will find abundant animal food. A digging-
wasp hunts for insect prey and buries it with the egg, while a true
wasp feeds her brood with captured insects, as a bird her fledglings.
Bees store honey and pollen to serve as food for their young. Thus
we find throughout the order a degree of care for offspring un-
reached by other insects, and this family-life has, in the best known
of the Hymenoptera — ants, wasps and bees — developed into an
elaborate social organization.
Social Life. — The development of a true insect society among
the Hymenoptera is dependent on a differentiation among
the females between individuals with well-developed ovaries
(" queens ") whose special function is reproduction; and in-
dividuals with reduced or aborted ovaries (" workers ") whose
duty is to build the nest, to gather food and to tend and feed
the larvae. Among the wasps the workers may only differ from
the queens in size, and individuals intermediate between the
two forms of female may be met with. Further, the queen wasp,
and also the queen humble-bee, commences unaided the work of
building and founding a new nest, being afterwards helped by
her daughters (the workers) when these have been developed.
In the hive-bee and among ants, on the other hand, there are
constant structural distinctions between queen and worker, and
the function of the queen bee in a hive is confined to egg-laying,
the labour of the community being entirely done by the workers.
Many ants possess several different forms of worker, adapted for
special duties. Details of this fascinating subject are given in the
special articles ANT, BEE and WASP (q.v.).
Habits and Distribution. — Reference has been already made to
the various methods of feeding practised by Hymenoptera in
the larval stage, and the care taken of or for the young through-
out the order leads in many cases to the gathering of such food
by the mother or nurse. Thus, wasps catch flies; worker ants
make raids and carry off weak insects of many kinds; bees
gather nectar from flowers and transform it into honey within
their stomachs — largely for the sake of feeding the larvae in
the nest. The feeding habits of the adult may agree with that
of the larva, or differ, as in the case of wasps which feed their
grubs on flies, but eat principally vegetable food themselves.
The nest-building habit is similarly variable. Digging wasps
make simple holes in the ground; many burrowing bees form
branching tunnels; other bees excavate timber or make their
brood-chambers in hollow plant-stems; wasps work up with
their saliva vegetable fibres bitten off tree-bark to make paper;
social bees produce from glands in their own bodies the wax
whence their nest-chambers are built. The inquiline habit
(" cuckoo-parasitism "), when one species makes use of the labour
of another by invading the nest and laying her eggs there, is of
frequent occurrence among Hymenoptera; and in some cases the
larva of the intruder is not content with taking the store of food
provided, but attacks and devours the larva of the host.
Most Hymenoptera are of moderate or small size, the giants
of the order — certain saw-flies and tropical digging-wasps —
never reach the bulk attained by the largest beetles, while the
wing-spread is narrow compared with that of many dragon-
flies and moths. On the other hand, there are thousands of
very small species, and the tiny " fairy-flies " (Mymaridae),
whose larvae live as parasites in the eggs of various insects, are
HYMENOPTERA
179
excessively minute for creatures of such complex organization.
Hymenoptera are probably less widely distributed than Aptera,
Coleoptera or Diptera, but they are to be found in all except the
most inhospitable regions of the globe. The order is, with few
exceptions, terrestrial or aerial in habit. Comparatively only a
few species are, for part of their lives, denizens of fresh water;
these, as larvae, are parasitic on the eggs or larvae of other
aquatic insects, the little hymenopteron, Polynema natans,
one of the " fairy-flies " — swims through the water by strokes
of her delicate wings in search of a dragon-fly's egg in which to
lay her own egg, while the rare Agriotypus dives after the case
of a caddis-worm. It is of interest that the waters have been
invaded by the parasitic group of the Hymenoptera, since in
number of species this is by far the largest of the order. No
group of terrestrial insects escapes their attacks — even larvae
boring in wood are detected by ichneumon flies with excessively
long ovipositors. Not a few cases are known in which a parasitic
larva is itself pierced by the ovipositor of a " hyperparasite,"
and even the offspring of the latter may itself fall a victim to the
attack of a " tertiary parasite."
Fossil History. — Very little is known of the history of the Hymeno-
ptera previous to the Tertiary epoch, early in which, as we know
from the evidence of many Oligocene and Miocene fossils, all the
more important families had been differentiated. Fragments of
wings from the Lias and Oolitic beds have been referred to ants and
bees, but the true nature of these remains is doubtful.
Classification. — Linnaeus divided the Hymenoptera into two
sections — the Terebrantia, whose females possess a cutting or
piercing ovipositor, and the Aculeata, in which the female organ
is modified into a sting. This nomenclature was adopted by
P. A. Latreille and has been in general use until the present day.
A closely similar division of the order results from T. Hartig's
character drawn from the trochanter — whether of two segments
or undivided — the groups being termed respectively Ditrocha
and Monotrocha. But the most natural division is obtained by
the separation of the saw-flies as a primitive sub-order, char-
acterized by the imperfect union of the first abdominal segment
with the thorax, and by the broad base of the abdomen, so that
there is no median constriction or " waist," and by the presence
of thoracic legs — usually also of abdominal pro-legs — in the larva.
All the other families of Hymenoptera, including the gall-flies,
ichneumons and aculeates, have the first abdominal segment
closely united with the thorax, the second abdominal segment
constricted so as to form a narrow stalk or " waist," and legless
larvae without a hinder outlet to the food-canal. These two sub-
orders are usually known as the Sessilivenira and Petioliventra
respectively, but the names Symphyta and Apocrita proposed in
1867 by C. Gerstaecker have priority, and should not be replaced.
Symphyta.
This sub-order, characterized by the " sessile," broad-based
abdomen, whose fiist segment is imperfectly united with the thorax,
and by the usually caterpillar-like larvae with legs, includes the
various groups of saw-flies. Three leading families may be
mentioned. The Cephidae, or stem saw-flies, have an elongate
pronotum, a compressed abdomen, and a single spine on the shin
of the fore-leg. The soft, white larvae have the thoracic legs very
small and feed in the stems of various plants. Cephus pygmaeus is
a well-known enemy of corn crops. The Siricidae (" wood-wasps ")
are large elongate insects also with one spine on each fore-shin, but
with the pronotum closely joined to the mesothorax. The ovipositor
is long and prominent, enabling the female insect to lay her eggs in
the wood of trees, where the white larvae, whose legs are excessively
short, tunnel and feed. These insects are adorned with bands of
black and yellow, or with bright metallic colours, and on account
of their large size and formidable ovipositors they often cause
needless alarm to persons unfamiliar with their habits. The
Tenthredinidae, or true saw-flies, are distinguished by two spines on
each fore-shin, while the larvae are usually caterpillars, with three
pairs of thoracic legs, and from six to eight pairs of abdominal pro-
legs, the latter not possessing the hooks found on the pro-legs of
lepidopterous caterpillars. Most saw-fly larvae devour leaves, and
the beautifully serrate processes of the ovipositor are well adapted
for egg-laying in plant tissues. Some saw-fly larvae are protected
by a slimy secretion (fig. 6, c) and a few live concealed in galls.
In the form of the feelers, the wing-neuration and minor structural
details there is much diversity among the saw-flies. They have
been usually regarded as a single family, but W. H. Ashmead has
lately differentiated eleven families of them.
Apocrita.
This sub-order includes the vast majority of the Hymenoptera,
characterized by the narrowly constricted waist in the adult and by
the legless condition of the larva. The trochanter is simple in some
genera and divided in others. With regard to the minor divisions
of this group, great difference of opinion has prevailed among
students. _ In his recent classification Ashmead (iQOi) recognizes
seventy-nine families arranged under eight " super-families." The
number of species included in this division is enormous, and the
multiplication of families is, to some extent, a natural result of
increasingly close study. But the distinctions between many of
these rest on comparatively slight characters, and it is likely that
d.
After Marlatt, Ent. Cm. 26, U.S. Dept. Agric.
FIG. 6. — a, Pear Saw-fly (Eriocampoides limacina) ; b, larva with-
out, and c, with its slimy protective coat; e, cocoon; /, larva
magnified 4 times; d, leaves with
pupa,
before pupation ; g
larvae, natural size,
the future discovery of new genera may abolish many among such
distinctions as may now be drawn. It seems advisable, therefore,
in the present article to retain the wider conception of the family
that has hitherto contented most writers on the Hymenoptera.
Ashmead's " super-families " have, however, been adopted as —
founded on definite structural characters— they probably indicate
relationship more nearly than the older divisions founded mostly
on habit. The Cynipoidea include the gall-flies and their parasitic
relations. In the Chalcidoidea, Ichneumonoidea and Proctotry-
poidea will be found nearly all the " parasitic Hymenoptera " of
older classifications. The Formicoidea are the ants. The group
of Fossores, or " digging- wasps," is divided by Ashmead, one section
forming the Sphecoidea, while the other, together with the Chrysidae
TERZI —
After Howard, Ent Tech. Bull. 5. U.S. Dept Agric.
FIG. 7. — Chalcid (Dibrachys boucheanus), a hyper-parasite.
a, Larva. b, Female fly.
d, Its head more highly magni- c, Pupa of male,
fied. e. Feeler.
and the true wasps, make up the Vespoidea. The Apoidea consists
of the bees only.
Cynipoidea. — In this division the ovipositor issues from the ventral
surface of the abdomen; the pronotum reaches back to the tegulae;
the trochanter has two segments; the fore- wing (fig. 4, 2) has no
stigma, but one or two areolets. The feelers with twelve to fifteen
segments are thread-like and straight. All the insects included in
this group are small and form two families — the Cynipidae and the
Figitidae. They are the " gall-flies," many of the species laying
eggs in various plant-tissues where the presence of the larva causes
the formation of a pathological growth or gall, always of a definite
form and characteristic of the species; the "oak-apple" and the
i8o
HYMENOPTERA
bedeguar of the rose are familiar examples. Other flies of this
group have the inquiline habit, laying their eggs in the galls of
other species, while others again pierce the cuticle of maggots or
aphids, in whose bodies their larvae live as parasites.
Chalcidoidea. — This division resembles the Cynipoidea in the
position of the ovipositor, and in the two segmented trochanters.
The fore-wing also has no stigma, and the whole wing is almost
destitute of nervures and areolets, while the pronotum does not
reach back to the tegulae, and the feelers are elbowed (fig. 7). The
vast majority of this group, including nearly 5000 known species,
are usually reckoned as a single family, the Chalcididae, comprising
small insects, often of bright metallic colours, whose larvae are
parasitic in insects of various orders. The " fig-insects," whose
presence in ripening figs is believed essential to the proper develop-
ment of the fruit, belong to Blastophaga and other genera of this
family. They are remarkable in having wingless males and winged
females. The " polyembryonic " development of an Encyrtus, as
studied by P. Marchal, is highly remarkable. The female lays her
egg in the egg of a small ermine moth (Hyponomeuta) and the egg
gives rise not to a single embryo but to a hundred, which develop
as the host-caterpillar develops, being found at a later stage within
the latter enveloped in a flexible tube.
The Mymaridae or " fairy-flies " are distinguished from the
Chalcididae by their narrow fringed wings (figs. 4, 5) and by the
situation of the ovipositor just in front of the tip of the abdomen.
They are among the most minute of all insects and their larvae are
probably all parasitic in insects' eggs.
Ichneumonoidea. — The ten thousand known species included in
this group agree with the Cynipoidea and Chalcidoidea in the
position of the ovipositor and in the jointed trochanters, but are
•distinguished by the fore-wing possessing a distinct stigma and
usually a typical series of nervures and areolets (figs. 4, 8). Many of
the species are of fair size. They lay their eggs (fig. 8) in the bodies
of insects and their larvae belonging to various orders. A few
small families such as the Evaniidae and the Stephanidae are in-
cluded here, but the vast majority of the group fall into two large
families, the Ichneumoni-
dae and the Braconidae,
the former distinguished
by the presence of two
median (or discoidal) cells
in the fore-wing (figs. 4, 7),
while the latter has only
one (figs. 4, 6). Not a few
of these insects, however,
are entirely wingless. On
account of their work in
destroying plant-eating
insects, the ichneumon-
flies are of great economic
importance.
Proctotrypoidea. — This
group may be distin-
guished from the pre-
ceding by the position
of the ovipositor at the extreme apex of the abdomen, and
from the groups that follow (with very few exceptions) by
the jointed trochanters of the legs. The pronotum reaches
back to the tegulae. The Pelecinidae — included here by Ash-
mead — are large insects with remarkably elongate abdomens
and undivided trochanters. All the other members of the group
may be regarded as forming a single family — the Proctotrypidae,
including an immense number of small parasitic Hymenoptera, not
a few of which are wingless. Of special interest are the transforma-
tions of Platygaster, belonging to this family, discovered by M.
Ganin, and familiarized to English readers through the writings of
Sir J. Lubbock (Lord Avebury). The first larva is broad in front
and tapers behind to a " tail " provided with two divergent pro-
cesses, so that it resembles a small crustacean. It lives in the grub
of a gall-midge and it ultimately becomes changed into the usual
white and fleshy hymenopterous larva. The four succeeding
sections, in which the ovipositor is modified into a sting (always
exserted from the tip of the abdomen) and the trochanters are with
few exceptions simple, form the Aculeata of Linnaeus.
Formicoidea. — The ants which form this group are readily dis-
tinguished by the differentiation of the females into winged " queens"
and wingless " workers." The pronotum extends back to the wing-
bases, and the " waist " is greatly constricted and marked by one or
two " nodes." The differentiation of the females leads to a complex
social life, the nesting habits of ants and the various industries that
they pursue being of surpassing interest (see ANT).
Vespoidea. — This section includes a number of families char-
acterized by the backward extension of the prothorax to the tegulae
and distinguished from the ants by the absence of " nodes " at the
base of the abdomen. The true wasps have the fore-wings folded
lengthwise when at rest and the fore-legs of normal build — not
specialized for digging. The Vespidae or social wasps have " queens "
and " workers " like the ants, but both these forms of female are
winged; the claws on their feet are simple. In the Eumenidae or
solitary wasps the female sex is undifferentiated, and the foot claws
After Riley and Howard, Insect Life, vol. i.
FIG. 8. — Ichneumon Fly (Rhyssa per-
suasoria) ovipositing.
are toothed. (For the habits of these insects see WASP.) The
Chrysididae or ruby wasps are small insects with a very hard cuticle
exhibiting brilliant metallic colours — blue, green and crimson.
Only three or four abdominal segments are visible, the hinder seg-
ments being slender and retracted to form a telescope-like tube in
which the ovipositor lies. When the ovipositor is brought into
use this tube is thrust out. The eggs are laid in the nests of various
bees and wasps, the chrysid larva living as a " cuckoo " parasite.
The Trigonalidae, a small family whose larvae are parasitic in
wasps' nests, also probably belong here.
The other families of the Vespoidea belong to the series of "Fos-
sores " or digging-wasps. In two of the families — the Mutillidae
and Thynnidae — the females are wingless and the larvae live as
parasites in the larvae of other insects; the female Mittitta enters
humble-bees' nests and lays her eggs in the bee-grubs. In the other
families both sexes are winged, and the instinct and industry of the
females are among the most wonderful in the Hymenoptera. They
make burrows wherein they place insects or spiders which they have
caught and stung, laying their eggs beside the victim so that the
young larvae find themselves in presence of an abundant and
appropriate food-supply. Valuable observations on the habits
of these insects are due to J. H. Fabre and G. W. and E. Peckham.
The prey is sometimes stung in the neighbourhood of the nerve
ganglia, so that it is paralysed but not killed, the grub of the fossorial
wasp devouring its victim alive; but this instinct varies in perfection,
and in many cases the larva flourishes equally whether its prey be
killed or not. The females have a wonderful power of finding their
burrows on returning from their hunting expeditions. Among the
Vespoid families of fossorial wasps, the Pompilidae are the most
important. They are recognizable by their slender and elongate
hind-legs; many of them provision their burrows with spiders.
The Sapygidae are parasitic on bees, while the Scoliidae are large,
robust and hairy insects, many of which prey upon the grubs of
chafers.
Sphecoidea. — In this division are included the rest of the " digging-
wasps," distinguished from the Vespoidea by the short pronotum
not reaching backward to the tegulae. They have usually been
reckoned as forming a single, very large family — the Sphegidae —
but ten or twelve subdivisions of the group are regarded as distinct
families by Ashmead and others. Great diversity is shown in the
details of structure, habits and nature of the prey. Species of
Sphex, studied by Fabre, provisioned their brood-chambers with
crickets. Pelopoeus hunts spiders, while Ammophila catches cater-
pillars for the benefit of her young. Fabre states that the last-
named insect uses a stone for the temporary closing of her burrow,
and the Peckhams have seen a female Ammophtla take a stone
between her mandibles and use it as a hammer for pounding down
the earth over her finished nest. The habits of Bembex are of especial
interest. The female, instead of provisioning her burrow with a
supply of food that will suffice the larva for its whole life, brings
fresh flies with which she regularly feeds her young. In this instinct
we have a correspondence with the habits of social wasps and bees.
Yet it may be thought that the usual instinct of the " digging-
wasps " to capture and store up food in an underground burrow for
the benefit of offspring which they will never see is even more sur-
prising. The habit of some genera is to catch the prey before making
their tunnel, but more frequently the insect digs her nest, and then
hunts for prey to put into it.
Apoidea. — The bees which make up this group agree with the
Sphecoidea in the short pronotum, but may be distinguished from
all other Hymenoptera by the widened first tarsal segment and the
plumose hairs on head and body. They are usually regarded as
forming a single family; — the Apidae — but there is very great
diversity in structural details, and Ashmead divides them into
fourteen families. The " tongue," for example, is short and obtuse
or emarginate in Colletes and Prosopis, while in all other bees it is
pointed at the tip. But in Andrena and its allies it is comparatively
short, while in the higher genera, such as Apis and Bombtis, it is
elongate and flexible, forming a most elaborate and perfect organ for
taking liquid food. Bees feed on honey and pollen. Most of the
genera are " solitary " in habit, the female sex being undifferenti-
ated; but among the humble-bees and hive-bees we find, as in
social wasps and ants, the occurrence of workers, and the consequent
elaboration of a wonderful insect-society. (See BEE.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The literature of several special families of the
Hymenoptera will be found under the articles ANT, BEE, ICHNEUMON-
FLY, WASP, &c., referred to above. Among earlier students on
structure may be mentioned P. A. Latreille, Families nalurelles du
regne animal (Paris, 1825), who recognized the nature of the
" median segment." C. Gerstaecker (Arch. /. Naturg. xx., 1867)
and F. Brauer (Sitzb. K. Akad. Wiss. Wien. Ixxxv., 1883) should
also be consulted on this subject. For internal anatomy, specially
the digestive organs, see L. Dufour, Mem. savants etrangers, vii.
(1841), and Ann. Sci. Nat. Zool. (4), i. 1854. For nervous system H.
Viallanes, Ann. Sci. Nat. Zool. (7), ii. iv. 1886-1887, and F. C.
Kenyon, Journ. Comp. Neural, vi., 1896. For poison and other
glands, see L. Bordas, Ann. Sci. Nat. Zool. (7) xix., 1895. For the
sting and ovipositor H. Dewitz, Zeits. wiss. Zool. xxv., 1874,
xxviii., 1877, and E. Zander, ib. Ixvi., 1899. For male genital
armature S. A. Peytoureau, Morphologic de I'armure genitale des
HYMETTUS— HYMNS
181
insectes (Bordeaux, 1895), and E. Zander, Zeits. wiss. Zool. Ixvii.
1900. The systematic student of Hymenoptera is greatly helpec
by C. G. de Dalla Torre's Catalogus Hymenopterorum (10 vols.
Leipzig, 1893-1902). For general classifications see F. W. Konow
Entom. Nachtr. (1897), and W. H. Ashmead, Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus
xxiii., 1901 ; the latter paper deals also especially with the Ichneu
monoidea of the globe. For habits and life histories of Hymenopten
see J. Lubbock (Lord Avebury), Ants, Bees and Wasps (gth ed.
London, 1889); C. Janet, Etudes sur les fourmis, les gutpes et le
abeilles (Paris, &c., 1893 and onwards); and G. W. and E. G
Peckham, Instincts and Habits of Solitary Wasps (Madison, Wis
U.S.A., 1898). Monographs of most of the families of Britisl
Hymenoptera have now been published. For saw-flies and gall
flies, see P. Cameron's British Phytophagous Hymenoptera (4 vols.
London, Ray Soc., 1882-1893). For Ichneumonoidea, C. Morley':
Ichneumons of Great Britain (Plymouth, 1903, &c.), and T. A
Marshall's " British Braconidae," Trans. Entom. Soc., 1885-1899
The smaller parasitic Hymenoptera have been neglected in this
European
For the Fossores, wasps, ants and bees see E. Saunders, Hymenoptera
Acukata of the British Islands (London, 1896). Exhaustive refer-
ences to general systematic works will be found in de Dalla Torre's
Catalogue mentioned above. Of special value to English students are
C. T. Bingham's Fauna of British India, " Hymenoptera " (London,
1897 and onwards), and P. Cameron's volumes on Hymenoptera ir
the Biologia Cenlrali- Americana. F. Smith's Catalogues of Hy-
menoptera in the British Museum (London, 1853-1859) are well
worthy of study. (G. H. C.)
HYMETTUS (Ital. Monte Matto, hence the modern name
Trello Vouni), a mountain in Attica, bounding the Athenian
plain on the S.E. Height, 3370 ft. It was famous in ancient
times for its bees, which gathered honey of peculiar flavour
from its aromatic herbs; their fame still persists. The spring
mentioned by Ovid (Ars Amat. iii. 687) is probably to be re-
cognized near the monastery of Syriani or Kaesariani on the
western slope. This may be identical with that known as KiiXXoi'
Hfipa, said to be a remedy for barrenness in women. The marble
of Hymettus, which often has a bluish tinge, was used extensively
for building in ancient Athens, and also, in early times, for
sculpture; but the white marble of Pentelicus was preferred
for both purposes.
See E. Dodwell, Classical and Topographical Tour(iSig), i. 483.
HYMNS.— i. Classical Hymnody.— The word " hymn "
(fyuvos) was employed by the ancient Greeks1 to signify a song
or poem composed in honour of gods, heroes or famous men,
or to be recited on some joyful, mournful or solemn occasion.
Polymnia was the name of their lyric muse. Homer makes
Alcinous entertain Odysseus with a " hymn " of the minstrel
Demodocus, on the capture of Troy by the wooden horse. The
Works and Days of Hesiod begins with an invocation to the Muses
to address hymns to Zeus, and in his Theogonia he speaks of
them as singing or inspiring " hymns " to all the divinities, and
•of the bard as " their servant, hymning the glories of' men of
old, and of the gods of Olympus." Pindar calls by this name odes,
like his own, in praise of conquerors at the public games of Greece.
The Athenian dramatists (Euripides most frequently) use the
word and its cognate verbs in a similar manner; they also
describe by them metrical oracles and apophthegms, martial,
festal and hymeneal songs, dirges and lamentations or incanta-
tions of woe.
Hellenic hymns, according to this conception of them, have
come down to us, some from a very early and others from a late
period of Greek classical literature. Those which passed by the
name of Homer 2 were already old in the time of Thucydides.
They are mythological poems (several of them long), in hexa-
meter verse — some very interesting. That to Apollo contains
a traditionary history of the origin and progress of the Delphic
worship; those on Hermes and on Dionysus are marked by
much liveliness and poetical fancy. Hymns of a like general
character, but of less interest (though these also embody some
fine poetical traditions of the Greek mythology, such as the story
'The history of the " hymn " naturally begins with Greece, but
it may be found in some form much earlier; Assyria and Egypt
have left specimens, while India has the Vedic hymns, and Confucius
•collected " praise songs " in China.
2 See GREEK LITERATURE.
of Teiresias, and that of the wanderings of Leto), were written
in the 3rd century before Christ, by Callimachus of Cyrene.
Cleanthes, the successor of Zeno, composed (also in hexameters)
an " excellent and devout hymn " (as it is justly called by
Cudworth, in his Intellectual System) to Zeus, which is preserved
in the Eclogae of Stobaeus, and from which Aratus borrowed
the words, " For we are also His offspring," quoted by St Paul
at Athens. The so-called Orphic hymns, in hexameter verse
styled reXerai, or hymns of initiation into the " mysteries "
of the Hellenic religion, are productions of the Alexandrian school,
— as to which learned men are not agreed whether they are
earlier or later than the Christian era.
The Romans did not adopt the word " hymn "; nor have we
many Latin poems of the classical age to which it can properly
be applied. There are, however, a few — such as the simple
and graceful " Dianae sumus in fide " (" Dian's votaries are we ")
of Catullus, and " Dianam tenerae dicite virgines " (" Sing to
Dian, gentle maidens ") of Horace — which approach much more
nearly than anything Hellenic to the form and character of
modern hymnody.
2. Hebrew Hymnody.— For the origin and idea of Christian
hymnody we must look, not to Gentile, but to Hebrew sources.
St Augustine's definition of a hymn, generally accepted by
Christian antiquity, may be summed up in the words, " praise
to God with song" ("cum cantico"); Bede understood the
" canticum " as properly requiring metre; though he thought
that what in its original language was a true hymn might retain
that character in an unmetrical translation. Modern use has
enlarged the definition; Roman Catholic writers extend it to
the praises of saints; and the word now comprehends rhythmical
prose as well as verse, and prayer and spiritual meditation as
well as praise.
The modern distinction between psalms and hymns is arbitrary
(see PSALMS). The former word was used by the LXX. as a
generic designation, probably because it implied an accompani-
ment by the psaltery (said by Eusebius to have been of very
ancient use in the East) or other instruments. The cognate
verb " psallere " has been constantly applied to hymns, both in
the Eastern and in the Western Church; and the same com-
positions which they described generically as " psalms " were
also called by the LXX. " odes " (i.e. songs) and " hymns."
The latter word occurs, e.g. in Ps. Ixxii. 20 ("the hymns of
David the son of Jesse "), in Ps. Ixv. i, and also in the Greek
titles of the 6th, S4th, ssth, 67th and 76th (this numbering of
the psalms being that of the English version, not of the LXX.).
The 44th chapter of Ecclesiasticus, " Let us now praise famous
men," &c., is entitled in the Greek irarfpuv v^vos, " The Fathers'
iymn." Bede speaks of the whole book of Psalms as called
' liber hymnorum," by the universal consent of Hebrews,
"reeks and Latins.
In the New Testament we find our Lord and His apostles
inging a hymn (vnvfio-avTts i^fj\6ov), after the institution of
he Lord's Supper; St Paul and Silas doing the same (vpvovv
•dv 6eov) in their prison at Philippi; St James recommending
)salm-singing (i/-aXXero>), and St Paul "psalms and hymns
and spiritual songs " (^aX/iots Kal Vfivois KCU tjiScus irvevno.TiKo.ls)
St Paul also, in the I4th chapter of the first epistle to the Corin-
hians, speaks of singing (\f/a>£>) and of every man's psalm
e/caoroj i>n£iv ^aX/j6y «x«0, in a context which plainly has refer-
nce to the assemblies of the Corinthian Christians for common
vorship. All the words thus used were applied by the LXX.
o the Davidical psalms; it is therefore possible that these only
may be intended, in the different places to which we have
eferred. But there are in St Paul's epistles several passages
Eph. v. 14; i Tim. iii. 16; i Tim. vi. 15, 16; 2 Tim. ii. 11,12)
vhich have so much of the form and character of later Oriental
ymnody as to have been supposed by Michaelis and others to
te extracts from original hymns of the Apostolic age. Two of
hem are apparently introduced as quotations, though not
ound elsewhere in the Scriptures. A third has not only rhythm,
ut rhyme. The thanksgiving prayer of the assembled disciples,
ecorded in Acts iv., is both in substance and in manner poetical;
182
HYMNS
and in the canticles, " Magnificat," " Benedictus," &c., which
manifestly followed the form and style of Hebrew poetry, hymns
or songs, proper for liturgical use, have always been recognized
by the church.
3. Eastern Church Hymnody. — The hymn of our Lord, the
precepts of the apostles, the angelic song at the nativity, and
" Benedicite omnia opera " are referred to in a curious metrical
prologue to the hymnary of the Mozarabic Breviary as preced-
ents for the practice of the Western Church. In this respect,
however, the Western Church followed the Eastern, in which
hymnody prevailed from the earliest times.
Philo describes the Theraputae (q.v.) of the neighbourhood of
Alexandria as composers of original hymns, which (as well as
old) were sung at their great reh'gious festivals — the
peutae. people listening in silence till they came to the closing
strains, or refrains, at the end of a hymn or stanza (the
" acroteleutia " and " ephymnia "), in which all, women as well
as men, heartily joined. These songs, he says, were in various
metres (for which he uses a number of technical terms) ; some
were choral, some not; and they were divided into variously
constructed strophes or stanzas. Eusebius, who thought that
the Theraputae were communities of Christians, says that the
Christian practice of his own day was in exact accordance
with this description.
The practice, not only of singing hymns, but of singing them
antiphonally, appears, from the well-known letter of Pliny to
Trajan, to have been established in the Bithynian
Anii' churches at the beginning of the 2nd century. They
Ringing were accustomed " stato die ante lucem convenire,
carmenque Christo, quasi Deo, dicere secum invicem."
This agrees well, in point of time, with the tradition recorded
by the historian Socrates, that Ignatius (who suffered martyr-
dom about A.D. 107) was led by a vision or dream of angels
singing hymns in that manner to the Holy Trinity to introduce
antiphonal singing into the church of Antioch, from which it
quickly spread to other churches. There seems to be an allusion
to choral singing in the epistle of Ignatius himself to the Romans,
where he exhorts them," xopbsyev6ij.ei>oi " (" having formed them-
selves into a choir "), to " sing praise to the Father in Christ
Jesus." A statement of Theodoret has sometimes been supposed
to refer the origin of antiphonal singing to a much later date;
but this seems to relate only to the singing of Old Testament
Psalms (rriv AauiSui?!' pt\i?5ia.v) , the alternate chanting of
which, by a choir divided into two parts, was (according to that
statement) first introduced into the church of Antioch by two
monks famous in the history of their time, Flavianus and Dio-
dorus, under the emperor Constantius II.
Other evidence of the use of hymns in the 2nd century is
contained in a fragment of Caius, preserved by Eusebius, which
refers to " all the psalms and odes written by faithful
brethren from the beginning," as " hymning Christ, the
Word of God, as God." Tertullian also, in his descrip-
tion of the " Agapae," or love-feasts, of his day, says that, after
washing hands and bringing in lights, each man was invited to
come forward and sing to God's praise something either taken
from the Scriptures or of his own composition (" ut quisque de
Sacris Scripturis vel proprio ingenio potest "). George Bull,
bishop of St David's, believed one of those primitive compositions
to be the hymn appended by Clement of Alexandria to his
Paedagogus; and Archbishop Ussher considered the ancient
morning and evening hymns, of which the use was enjoined by
the Apostolical Constitutions, and which are also mentioned in
the " Tract on Virginity " printed with the works of St Athan-
asius, and in St Basil's treatise upon the Holy Spirit, to belong
to the same family. Clement's hymn, in a short anapaestic
metre, beginning arofjuav ircoXcov adauv (or, according to some
editions, 0a<Ti\fv ayiuv, 'Mye iro.voo.tia.Tuip — translated by the
Rev. A. Chatfield, " O Thou, the King of Saints, all-conquering
Word"), is rapid, spirited and well-adapted for singing. The
Greek " Morning Hymn " (which, as divided into verses by
Archbishop Ussher in his treatise De Symbolis, has a majestic
rhythm, resembling a choric or dithyrambic strophe) is the
2nd
century,
3rd
century.
original form of "Gloria in Excelsis," still said or sung, with
some variations, in all branches of the church which have not
relinquished the use of liturgies. The Latin form of this hymn
(of which that in the English communion office is an exact
translation) is said, by Bede and other ancient writers, to have
been brought into use at Rome by Pope Telesphorus, as early as
the time of the emperor Hadrian. A third, the Vesper or " Lamp-
lighting " hymn (" <£& IXapov aylas 66|rjs " — translated by
Canon Bright " Light of Gladness, Beam Divine "), holds its
place to this day in the services of the Greek rite.
In the 3rd century Origen seems to have had in his
mind the words of some other hymns or hymn of like
character, when he says (in his treatise Against Celsus): " We
glorify in hymns God and His only begotten Son; as do also the
Sun, the Moon, the Stars and all the host of heaven. All these,
in one Divine chorus, with the just among men, glorify in hymns
God who is over all, and His only begotten Son." So highly
were these compositions esteemed in the Syrian churches that
the council which deposed Paul of Samosata from the see of
Antioch in the time of Aurelian justified that act, in its synodical
letter to the bishops of Rome and Alexandria, on this ground
(among others) that he had prohibited the use of hymns of that
kind, by uninspired writers, addressed to Christ.
After the conversion of Constantine, the progress of hymnody
became closely connected with church controversies. There
had been in Edessa, at the end of the 2nd or early in the 3rd
century, a Gnostic writer of conspicuous ability, named Barde-
sanes, who was succeeded, as the head of his sect or school, by
his son Harmonius. Both father and son wrote hymns, and set
them to agreeable melodies, which acquired, and in the 4th
century still retained, much local popularity. Ephraem Syrus,
the first voluminous hymn-writer whose works remain to us,
thinking that the same melodies might be made useful to the
faith, if adapted to more orthodox words, composed to them a
large number of hymns in the Syriac language, principally in
tetrasyllable, pentasyllable and heptasyllabic metres, divided
into strophes of from 4 to 12,16 and even 20 lines each. When
a strophe contained five lines, the fifth was generally an
" ephymnium," detached in sense, and consisting of a prayer,
invocation, doxology or the like, to be sung antiphonally, either
in full chorus or by a separate part of the choir. The Syriac
Chrestomathy of August Hahn (Leipzig, 1825), and the third
volume of H. A. Daniel's Thesaurus Hymnologicus (Leipzig,
1841-1856), contain specimens of these hymns. Some of them
have been translated into (unmetrical) English by the Rev.
Henry Burgess (Select Metrical Hymns of Ephrem Syrus, &c.,
1853). A considerable number of those so translated are on
subjects connected with death, resurrection, judgment, &c.,
and display not only Christian faith and hope, but much sim-
plicity and tenderness of natural feeling. Theodoret speaks
of the spiritual songs of Ephraem as very sweet and profitable,
and as adding much, in his (Theodoret's) time, to the brightness
of the commemorations of martyrs in the Syrian Church.
The Greek hymnody contemporary with Ephraem followed,
with some licence, classical models. One of its favourite metres
was the Anacreontic; but it also made use of the short
anapaestic, Ionic, iambic and other lyrical measures, as well as
the hexameter and pentameter. Its principal authors were
Methodius, bishop of Olympus, who died about A.D. 311, Synesius,
who became bishop of Ptolemais in Cyrenaica in 410, and
Gregory Nazianzen, for a short time (380-381) patriarch of
Constantinople. The merits of these writers have been perhaps
too much depreciated by the admirers of the later Greek
" Melodists." They have found an able English translator in
the Rev. Allen Chatfield (Songs and Hymns of Earliest Greek
Christian Poets, London, 1876). Among the most striking of
their works are pvuito Xpiark ("Lord Jesus, think of me"), by
Synesius; alrbv afflirov /j.ov&pxnv (" O Thou, the One Supreme")
andrlooi fleXeis yevtaQai ("O soul of mine, repining"), byGregory;
also &vd>8ev irap6fvoi. (" The Bridegroom cometh "), by Methodius.
There continued to be Greek metrical hymn-writers, in a similar
style, till a much later date. Sophronius, patriarch of Jerusalem
HYMNS
183
'
in the 7th century, wrote seven Anacreontic hymns; and St
John Damascene, one of the most copious of the second school
of " Melodists," was also the author of some long compositions
in trimeter iambics.
An important development of hymnody at Constantinople
arose out of the Arian controversy. Early in the 4th century
Period Athanasius had rebuked, not only the doctrine of Arius,
ofAriaa but the light character of certain hymns by which he
contra- endeavoured to make that doctrine popular. When,
towards the close of that century (398), St John
Chrysostom was raised to the metropolitan see, the Arians,
who were still numerous at Constantinople, had no places of
worship within the walls; but they were in the habit of coming
into the city at sunset on Saturdays, Sundays and the' greater
festivals, and congregating in the porticoes and other places of
public resort, where they sung, all night through, antiphonal
songs, with " acroteleutia " (closing strains, or refrains), ex-
pressive of Arian doctrine, often accompanied by taunts and
insults to the orthodox. Chrysostom was apprehensive that this
music might draw some of the simpler church people to the Arian
side; he therefore organized, in opposition to it, under the
patronage and at the cost of Eudoxia, the empress of Arcadius
(then his friend), a system of nightly processional hymn-singing,
with silver crosses, wax-lights and other circumstances of
ceremonial pomp. Riots followed, with bloodshed on both sides,
and with some personal injury to the empress's chief eunuch,
who seems to have officiated as conductor or director of the
church musicians. This led to the suppression, by an imperial
edict, of all public Arian singing; while in the church the
practice of nocturnal hymn-singing on certain solemn occasions,
thus first introduced, remained an established institution.
It is not improbable that some rudiments of the peculiar
system of hymnody which now prevails throughout the Greek
communion, and whose affinities are rather to the
Hebrew and Syriac than to the classical forms, may
y. nave existed in the church of Constantinople, even
at that time. Anatolius, patriarch of Constantinople
in the middle of the sth century, was the precursor of that
system; but the reputation of being its proper founder belongs
to Romanos, of whom little more is known than that he wrote
hymns still extant, and lived towards the end of that century.
The importance of that system in the services of the Greek
church may be understood from the fact that Dr J. M. Neale
computed four-fifths of the whole space (about 5000 pages)
contained in the different service-books of that church to be
occupied by hymnody, all in a language or dialect which has
ceased to be anywhere spoken.
The system has a peculiar technical terminology, in which the
words " troparion," " ode," " canon " and " hirmus " (elp^os) chiefly
require explanation.
The troparion is the unit of the system, being a strophe or stanza,
seen, when analysed, to be divisible into verses or clauses, with
regulated caesuras, but printed in the books as a single prose sentence,
without marking any divisions. The following (turned into English,
from a " canon ' by John Mauropus) may be taken as an example:
" The never-sleeping Guardian, | the patron of my soul, | the guide
of my life, | allotted me by God, | I hymn thee, Divine Angel | of
Almighty God." Dr Neale and most other writers regard all these
" tropana " as rhythmical or modulated prose. Cardinal J. B.
Pitra, on the other hand, who in 1867 and 1876 published two
learned works on this subject, maintains that they are really metrical,
and governed by definite rules of prosody, of which he lays down
sixteen. According to him, each " troparion " contains from three
to thirty-three verses; each verse varies from two to thirteen
syllables, often in a continuous series, uniform, alternate or recip-
rocal, the metre being always syllabic, and depending, not on the
quantity of vowels or the position of consonants, but on an harmonic
series of accents.
In various parts of the services solitary troparia are sung, under
various names, " contacion," " oecos," " cathisma," &c., which mark
distinctions either in their character or in their use.
An ode is a song or hymn compounded of several similar "troparia,"
— usually three, four or five. To these is always prefixed a typical
or standard " troparion," called the hirmus, by which the syllabic
measure, the periodic series of accents, and in fact the whole structure
and rhythm of the stanzas which follow it are regulated. Each
succeeding " troparion " in the same " ode " contains the same
number of verses, and of syllables in each verse, and similar accents
on the same or equivalent syllables. The " hirmus " may either
form the first stanza of the " ode " itself, or (as is more frequently
the case) may be taken from some other piece; and, when so taken,
it is often indicated by initial words only, without being printed at
length. It is generally printed within commas, after the proper
rubric of the " ode." A hymn in irregular " stichera " or stanzas,
without a " hirmus," is called " idiomelon." A system of three or
four odes is " triodion " or " tetraodion."
A canon is a system of eight (theoretically nine) connected odes,
the second being always suppressed. Various pauses, relieved by
the interposition of other short chants or readings, occur during
the singing of a whole " canon." The final " troparion " in each
ode of the series is not unfrequently detached in sense (like the
" ephymnia " of Ephraem Syrus), particularly when it is in the (very
common) form of a " theotokion," or ascription of praise to the
mother of our Lord, and when it is a recurring refrain or burden.
There were two principal periods of Greek hymnography
constructed on these principles — the first that of Romanos and
his followers, extending over the 6th and 7th centuries, the
second that of the schools which arose during the Iconoclastic
controversy in the Sth century, and which continued for some
centuries afterwards, until the art itself died out.
The works of the writers of the former period were collected
in Tropologia, or church hymn-books, which were held in high
esteem till the loth century, when they ceased to be
regarded as church-books, and so fell into neglect.
They are now preserved only in a very small number
of manuscripts. From three of these, belonging to public
libraries at Moscow, Turin and Rome, Cardinal Pitra has printed,
in his Analecta, a number of interesting examples, the existence
of which appears to have been unknown to Dr Neale, and which,
in the cardinal's estimation, are in many respects superior to
the " canons," &c., of the modern Greek service-books, from
which all Neale's translations (except some from Anatolius)
are taken. Cardinal Pitra's selections include twenty-nine works
by Romanos, and some by Sergius, and nine other known, as
well as some unknown, authors. He describes them as having
generally a more dramatic character than the " melodies "
of the later period, and a much more animated style; and he
supposes that they may have been originally sung with dramatic
accompaniments, by way of substitution for the theatrical
performances of Pagan times. As an instance of their peculiar
character, he mentions a Christmas or Epiphany hymn by
Romanos, in twenty-five long strophes, in which there is, first,
an account of the Nativity and its accompanying wonders, and
then a dialogue between the wise men, the Virgin mother and
Joseph. The magi arrive, are admitted, describe the moral
and religious condition of Persia and the East, and the cause
and adventures of their journey, and then offer their gifts. The
Virgin intercedes for them with her Son, instructs them in some
parts of Jewish history, and ends with a prayer for the salvation
of the world.
The controversies and persecutions of the Sth and succeeding
centuries turned the thoughts of the " melodists " of the great
monasteries of the Studium at Constantinople and Melodlsts
St Saba in Palestine and their followers, and those of
the adherents of the Greek rite in Sicily and South Italy
(who suffered much from the Saracens and the Normans), into
a less picturesque but more strictly theological course; and the
influence of those controversies, in which the final success of the
cause of " Icons " was largely due to the hymns, as well as to
the courage and sufferings, of these confessors, was probably the
cause of their supplanting, as they did, the works of the older
school. Cardinal Pitra gives them the praise of having discovered
a graver and more solemn style of chant, and of having done
much to fix the dogmatic theology of their church upon its
present lines of near approach to the Roman.
Among the " melodists " of this latter Greek school there
were many saints of the Greek church, several patriarchs
and two emperors — Leo the Philosopher, and Constantine
Porphyrogenitus, his son. Their greatest poets were Theodore
and Joseph of the Studium, and Cosmas and John (called
Damascene) of St Saba. Neale translated into English verse
several selected portions, or centoes, from the works of these
and others, together with four selections from earlier works by
1 84
HYMNS
Anatolius. Some of his translations — particularly " The day is
past and over," from Anatolius, and " Christian, dost thou see
them," from Andrew of Crete — have been adopted into hymn-
books used in many English churches; and the hymn " Art thou
weary," which is rather founded upon than translated from
one by Stephen the Sabaite, has obtained still more general
popularity.
4. Western Church Hymnody. — It was not till the 4th century
that Greek hymnody was imitated in the West, where its intro-
duction was due to two great lights of the Latin Church — St
Hilary of Poitiers and St Ambrose of Milan.
Hilary was banished from his see of Poitiers in 356, and was
absent from it for about four years, which he spent in Asia
Minor, taking part during that time in one of the councils of
the Eastern Church. He thus had full opportunity of becoming
acquainted with the Greek church music of that day; and he
wrote (as St Jerome, who was thirty years old when Hilary died,
and who was well acquainted with his acts and writings, and spent
some time in or near his diocese, informs us) a " book of hymns,"
to one of which Jerome particularly refers, in the preface to the
second book of his own commentary on the epistle to the
Galatians. Isidore, archbishop of Seville, who presided over
the fourth council of Toledo, in his book on the offices of
the church, speaks of Hilary as the first Latin hymn-
writer; that council itself, in its I3th canon, and the prologue
to the Mozarabic hymnary (which is little more than a
versification of the canon), associate his name, in this respect,
with that of Ambrose. A tradition, ancient and widely
spread, ascribed Lto him the authorship of the remarkable
" Hymnum dicat turba fratrum, hymnum cantus personet "
(" Band of brethren, raise the hymn, let your song the
hymn resound "), which is a succinct narrative, in hymnal
form, of the whole gospel history; and is perhaps the earliest
example of a strictly didactic hymn. Both Bede and Hincmar
much admired this composition, though the former does not
mention, in connexion with it, the name of Hilary. The private
use of hymns of such a character by Christians in the West may
probably have preceded their ecclesiastical use; for Jerome
says that in his day those who went into the fields might hear
" the ploughman at his hallelujahs, the mower at his hymns,
and the vine-dresser singing David's psalms." Besides this,
seven shorter metrical hymns attributed to Hilary are still extant.
Of the part taken by Ambrose, not long after Hilary's death,
in bringing the use of hymns into the church of Milan, we have
a contemporary account from his convert, St Augustine.
Justina, mother of the emperor Valentinian, favoured
the Arians, and desired to remove Ambrose from his see. The
" devout people," of whom Augustine's mother, Monica, was one,
combined to protect him, and kept guard in the church. " Then,"
says Augustine, " it was first appointed that, after the manner
of the Eastern churches, hymns and psalms should be sung,
lest the people should grow weary and faint through sorrow;
which custom has ever since been retained, and has been followed
by almost all congregations in other parts of the world." He
describes himself as moved to tears by the sweetness of these
" hymns and canticles ": — " The voices flowed into my ears;
the truth distilled into my heart; I overflowed with devout
affections, and was happy." To this time, according to an
uncertain but not improbable tradition which ascribed the
composition of the " Te Deum " to Ambrose, and connected
it with the conversion of Augustine, is to be referred the com-
mencement of the use in the church of that sublime unmetrical
hymn.
It is not, however, to be assumed that the hymnody thus
introduced by Ambrose was from the first used according to the
precise order and method of the later Western ritual. To bring
it into (substantially) that order and method appears to have been
the work of St Benedict. Walafrid Strabo, the earliest ecclesi-
astical writer on this subject (who lived at the beginning of the
9th century), says that Benedict, on the constitution of the
religious order known by his name (about 530), appointed
the Ambrosian hymns to be regularly sung in his offices for the
canonical hours. Hence probably originated the practice of
the Italian churches, and of others which followed their example,
to sing certain hymns (Ambrosian, or by the early successors of
the Ambrosian school) daily throughout the week, at " Vespers,"
" Lauds " and " Nocturns," and on some days at " Compline "
also — varying them with the different ecclesiastical seasons
and festivals, commemorations of saints and martyrs and other
special offices. Different dioceses and religious houses had their
own peculiarities of ritual, including such hymns as were approved
by their several bishops or ecclesiastical superiors, varying in
detail, but all following the same general method. The national
rituals, which were first reduced into a form substantially like
that which has since prevailed, were probably those of Lom-
bardy and of Spain, now known as the " Ambrosian " and the
" Mozarabic." The age and origin of the Spanish ritual are
uncertain, but it is mentioned in the yth century by Isidore,
bishop of Seville. It contained a copious hymnary, the original
form of which may be regarded as canonically approved by the
fourth council of Toledo (633). By the i3th canon of that council,
an opinion (which even then found advocates) against the use in
churches of any hymns not taken from the Scriptures — apparently
the same opinion which had been held by Paul of Samosata —
was censured; and it was ordered that such hymns should be
used in the Spanish as well as in the Gallican churches, the penalty
of excommunication being denounced against all who might
presume to reject them.
The hymns of which the use was thus established and
authorized were those which entered into the daily and other
offices of the church, afterwards collected in the " Breviaries ";
in which the hymns "proper" for "the week," and for "the
season," continued for many centuries, with very few exceptions,
to be derived from the earliest epoch of Latin Church poetry —
reckoning that epoch as extending from Hilary and Ambrose
to the end of the pontificate of Gregory the Great. The
" Ambrosian " music, to which those hymns were generally
sung down to the time of Gregory, was more popular and con-
gregational than the " Gregorian," which then came into use,
and afterwards prevailed. In the service of the mass it was
not the general practice, before the invention of sequences in
the pth century, to sing any hymns, except some from the
Scriptures esteemed canonical, such as the " Song of the Three
Children " (" Benedicite omnia opera "). But to this rule
there were, according to Walafrid Strabo, some occasional
exceptions; particularly in the case of Paulinus, patriarch
of Aquileia under Charlemagne, himself a hymn-writer, who
frequently used hymns, composed by himself or others, in the
eucharistic office, especially in private masses.
Some of the hymns called " Ambrosian " (nearly 100 in
number) are beyond all question by Ambrose himself, and the
rest probably belong to his time or to the following century.
Four, those beginning " Aeterne rerum conditor " (" Dread
Framer of the earth and sky "), " Deus Creator omnium "
(" Maker of all things, glorious God "), " Veni Redemptor
Gentium " (" Redeemer of the nations, come ") and " Jam
surgit hora tertia " (" Christ at this hour was crucified "), are
quoted as works of Ambrose by Augustine. These, and others
by the hand of the same master, have the qualities most valuable
in hymns intended for congregational use. They are short
and complete in themselves; easy, and at the same time elevated
in their expression and rhythm; terse and masculine in thought
and language; and (though sometimes criticized as deficient
in theological precision) simple, pure and not technical in their
rendering of the great facts and doctrines of Christianity, which
they present in an objective and not a subjective manner. They
have exercised a powerful influence, direct or indirect, upon
many of the best works of the same kind in all succeeding
generations. With the Ambrosian hymns are properly classed
those of Hilary, and the contemporary works of Pope Damasus I.
(who wrote two hymns in commemoration of saints), and of
Prudentius, from whose Calhemerina (" Daily Devotions ")
and Perislephana (" Crown-songs for Martyrs "), all poems of
considerable, some of great length — about twenty-eight hymns,
HYMNS
185
found in various Breviaries, were derived. Prudentius was a
layman, a native of Saragossa, and it was in the Spanish ritual
that his hymns were most largely used. In the Mozarabic
Breviary almost the whole of one of his finest poems (from which
most churches took one part only, beginning " Corde natus
ex parentis ") was appointed to be sung between Easter and
Ascension-Day, being divided into eight or nine hymns; and
on some of the commemorations of Spanish saints long poems
from his Peristephana were recited or sung at large. He is
entitled to a high rank among Christian poets, many of the hymns
taken from his works being full of fervour and sweetness, and
by no means deficient in dignity or strength.
These writers were followed in the 5th and early in the 6th
century by the priest Sedulius, whose reputation perhaps
exceeded his merit; Elpis, a noble Roman lady
«'A attd (considered, by an erroneous tradition, to have been
centuries. tne wiffi °f the philosophic statesman Boetius);
Pope Gelasius I.; and Ennodius, bishop of Pavia.
Sedulius and Elpis wrote very little from which hymns could be
extracted; but the small number taken from their compositions
obtained wide popularity, and have since held their ground.
Gelasius was of no great account as a hymn-writer; and the
works of Ennodius appear to have been known only in Italy
and Spain. The latter part of the 6th century produced Pope
Gregory the Great and Venantius Fortunatus, an Italian poet,
the friend of Gregory, and the favourite of Radegunda, queen of
the Franks, who died (609) bishop of Poitiers. Eleven hymns
of Gregory, and twelve or thirteen (mostly taken from longer
poems) by Fortunatus, came into general use in the Italian,
Gallican and British churches. Those of Gregory are in a style
hardly distinguishable from the Ambrosian; those of Fortunatus
are graceful, and sometimes vigorous. He does not, however,
deserve the praise given to him by Dr Neale, of having struck
out a new path in Latin hymnody. On the contrary, he may
more justly be described as a disciple of the school of Prudentius,
and as having affected the classical style, at least as much as
any of his predecessors.
The poets of this primitive epoch, which closed with the 6th
century, wrote in the old classical metres, and made use of a con-
siderable variety of them — anapaestic, anacreontic, hendecasyllabic,
asclepiad, hexameters and pentameters and others. Gregory and
some of the Ambrosian authors occasionally wrote in sapphics;
but the most frequent measure was the iambic dimeter, and, next
to that, the trochaic. The full alcaic stanza does not appear to
have been used for church purposes before the 1 6th century, though
some of its elements were. In the greater number of these works,
a general intention to conform to the rules of Roman prosody is
manifest; but even those writers (like Prudentius) in whom that
conformity was most decided allowed themselves much liberty of
deviation from it. Other works, including some of the very earliest,
and some of conspicuous merit, were of the kind described by Bede
as not metrical but " rhythmical " — i.e.(as he explains the term
" rhythm "), " modulated to the ear in imitation of different metres."
It would be more correct to call them metrical — (e.g. still trochaic
or iambic, &c., but, according to new laws of syllabic quantity, de-
pending entirely on accent, and not on the power of vowels or the
position of consonants) — laws by which the future prosody of all
modern European nations was to be governed. There are also, in
the hymns of the primitive period (even in those of Ambrose),
anticipations — irregular indeed and inconstant, but certainly not
accidental — of another great innovation, destined to receive im-
portant developments, that of assonance or rhyme, in the final
letters or syllables of verses. Archbishop Trench, in the intro-
duction to his Sacred Latin Poetry, has traced the whole course of the
transition from the ancient to the modern forms of versification,
ascribing it to natural and necessary causes, which made such
changes needful for the due development of the new forms of spiritual
and intellectual life, consequent upon the conversion of the Latin-
speaking nations to Christianity.
From the 6th century downwards we see this transformation
making continual progress, each nation of Western Christendom
6th adding, from time to time, to the earlier hymns in its
service-books others of more recent and frequently
of iocai origin. For these additions, the commemora-
tions of saints, &c., as to which the devotion of one
place often differed from that of another, offered especial op-
portunities. This process, while it promoted the development
of a medieval as distinct from the primitive style, led also to much
century
down-
s°
deterioration in the quality of hymns, of which, perhaps, some of
the. strongest examples may be found in a volume published in
1865 by the Irish Archaeological Society from a manuscript in the
library of Trinity College, Dublin. It contains a number of
hymns by Irish saints of the 6th, 7th and 8th centuries — in
several instances fully rhymed, and in one mixing Erse and Latin
barbarously together, as was not uncommon, at a much later date,
in semi-vernacular hymns of other countries. The Mozarabic
Breviary, and the collection of hymns used in the Anglo-Saxon
churches, published in 1851 by the Surtees Society (chiefly from
a Benedictine MS. in the college library of Durham, supplemented
by other MSS. in the British Museum), supply many further illus-
trations of the same decline of taste: — such sapphics, e.g., as
the " Festum insigne prodiit coruscum " of Isidore, and the
" O veneranda Trinitas laudanda " of the Anglo-Saxon books.
The early medieval period, however, from the time of Gregory
the Great to that of Hildebrand, was far from deficient in the pro-
duction of good hymns, wherever learning flourished. Bede
in England, and Paul " the Deacon " — the author of a fairly
classical sapphic ode on St John the Baptist — in Italy, were
successful followers of the Ambrosian and Gregorian styles.
Eleven metrical hymns are attributed to Bede by Cassander;
and there are also in one of Bede's works (Collectanea el flares)
two rhythmical hymns of considerable length on the Day of
Judgment, with the refrains " In tremendo die " and " Attende
homo," both irregularly rhymed, and, in parts, not unworthy
of comparison with the " Dies Irae." Paulinus, patriarch of
Aquileia, contemporary with Paul, wrote rhythmical trimeter
iambics in a manner peculiar to himself. Theodulph, bishop of
Orleans (793-835), author of the famous processional hymn for
Palm Sunday in hexameters and pentameters, " Gloria, laus, et
honor tibi sit, Rex Christe Redemptor " (" Glory and honour and
laud be to Thee, King Christ the Redeemer "), and Hrabanus
Maurus, archbishop of Mainz, the pupil of Alcuin, and the most
learned theologian of his day, enriched the church with some
excellent works. Among the anonymous hymns of the same
period there are three of great beauty, of which the influence may
be traced in most, if not all, of the " New Jerusalem " hymns of
later generations,including those of Germany and Great Britain: —
" Urbs beata Hierusalem " (" Blessed city, heavenly Salem ");
" Alleluia piis edite laudibus " (" Alleluias sound ye in strains
of holy praise " — called, from its burden, " Alleluia perenne ");
and " Alleluia dulce carmen " (" Alleluia, song of sweetness "),
which, being found in Anglo-Saxon hymnaries certainly older
than the Conquest, cannot be of the late date assigned to it, in
his Mediaeval Hymns and Sequences, by Neale. These were
followed by the " Chorus novae Hierusalem " (" Ye Choirs of
New Jerusalem ") of Fulbert, bishop of Chartres. This group of
hymns is remarkable for an attractive union of melody, imagina-
tion, poetical colouring and faith. It represents, perhaps, the
best and highest type of the middle school, between the severe
Ambrosian simplicity and the florid luxuriance of later times.
Another celebrated hymn, which belongs to the first medieval
period, is the " Veni Creator Spiritus " (" Come, Holy Ghost,
our souls inspire "). The earliest recorded occasion of
its use is that of a translation (898) of the relics of St
Marcellus, mentioned in the Annals of the Benedictine
order. It has since been constantly sung throughout Western
Christendom (as versions of it still are in the Church of England),
as part of the appointed offices for the coronation of kings, the
consecration and ordination of bishops and priests, the assembling
of synods and other great ecclesiastical solemnities. It has been
attributed — probably in consequence of certain corruptions in
the text of Ekkehard's Life ofNotker (a work of the i3th century)
—to Charlemagne. Ekkehard wrote in the Benedictine monastery
of St Gall, to which Notker belonged, with full access
to its records; and an ignorant interpolator, regardless Notter-
of chronology, added, at some later date, the word " Great " to
the name of " the emperor Charles," wherever it was mentioned
in that work. The biographer relates that Notker — a man of a
gentle, contemplative nature, observant of all around him, and
accustomed to find spiritual and poetical suggestions in common
i86
HYMNS
sights and sounds — was moved by the sound of a mill-wheel to
compose his " sequence " on the Holy Spirit, " Sancti Spiritus
adsit nobis gratia " (" Present with us ever be the Holy Spirit's
grace"); and that, when finished, he sent it as a present to
" the emperor Charles," who in return sent him back, " by the
same messenger," the hymn " Veni Creator," which (says Ekke-
hard) the same " Spirit had inspired him to write " (" Sibi idem
Spiritus inspiraverat "). If this story is to be credited — and,
from its circumstantial and almost dramatic character, it has an
air of truth — the author of " Veni Creator " was not Charlemagne,
but his grandson the emperor Charles the Bald. Notker himself
long survived that emperor, and died in 912.
The invention of •" sequences " by Notker may be regarded
as the beginning of the later medieval epoch of Latin hymnody.
In the eucharistic service, in which (as has been stated)
Sequences. jjymns were not generauv used, it had been the practice,
except at certain seasons, to sing " laud," or " Alleluia,"
between the epistle and the gospel, and to fill up what would
otherwise have been a long pause, by extending the cadence
upon the two final vowels of the " Alleluia " into a protracted
strain of music. It occurred to Notker that, while preserving
the spirit of that part of the service, the monotony of the interval
might be relieved by introducing at that point a chant of praise
specially composed for the purpose. With that view he produced
the peculiar species of rhythmical composition which obtained
the name of " sequentia " (probably from following after the
close of the " Alleluia "), and also that of " prosa," because its
structure was originally irregular and unmetrical, resembling in
this respect the Greek " troparia," and the " Te Deum," " Bene-
dicite " and canticles. That it was in some measure suggested
by the forms of the later Greek hymnody seems probable, both
from the intercourse (at that time frequent) between the Eastern
and Western churches, and from the application by Ekkehard,
in his biography and elsewhere (e.g. in Lynd wood's Provinciate),
of some technical terms, borrowed from the Greek terminology,
to works of Notker and his school and to books containing them.
Dr Neale, in a learned dissertation prefixed to his collection of
sequences from medieval Missals, and enlarged in a Latin letter to
H. A. Daniel (printed in the fifth volume of Daniel's Thesaurus
hymnologicus), investigated the laws of caesura and modulation which
are discoverable in these works. Those first brought into use were
sent by their author to Pope Nicholas I., who authorized their use,
and that of others composed after the same model by other brethren
of St Gall, in all churches of the West.
Although the sequences of Notker and his school, which then
rapidly passed into most German, French and British Missals,
were not metrical, the art of " assonance " was much practised in
them. Many of those in the Sarum and French Missals have every
verse, and even every clause or division of a verse, ending with the
same vowel " a " — perhaps with some reference to the terminal
letter of " Alleluia." Artifices such as these naturally led the way
to the adaptation of the same kind of composition to regular metre
and fully developed rhyme. Neale's full and large collection, and
the second volume of Daniel's Thesaurus, contain numerous examples,
both of the " proses," properly so called, of the Notkerian type, and
of those of the later school, which (from the religious house to
which its chief writer belonged) has been called " Victprine." Most
Missals appear to have contained some of both kinds. In the
majority of those from which Neale's specimens are taken, the
metrical kind largely prevailed; but in some (e.g. those of Sarum
and Liege) the greater number were Notkerian.
Of the sequence on the Holy Ghost, sent by Notker (according
to Ekkehard) to Charles the Bald, Neale says that it " was in
use all over Europe, even in those countries, like Italy and Spain,
which usually rejected sequences "; and that, " in the Missal
of Palencia, the priest was ordered to hold a white dove in his
hands, while intoning the first syllables, and then to let it go."
Another of the most remarkable of Notker's sequences, beginning
" Media in vita " (" In the midst of life we are in death "), is
said to have been suggested to him while observing some workmen
engaged in the construction of a bridge over a torrent near his
monastery. Catherine Winkworth (Christian Singers of Germany,
1869) states that this was long used as a battle-song, until the
custom was forbidden, on account of its being supposed to
exercise a magical influence. A translation of it (" Mitten
wir im Leben sind ") is one of Luther's funeral hymns; and
all but the opening sentence of that part of the burial service
Dies Irae.
of the Church of England which is directed to be " said or sung "
at the grave, " while the corpse is made ready to be laid into
the earth," is taken from it.
The " Golden Sequence," " Veni, sancte Spiritus " (" Holy
Spirit, Lord of Light "), is an early example of the transition
of sequences from a simply rhythmical to a metrical form. Arch-
bishop Trench, who esteemed it " the loveliest of all the hymns
in the whole circle of Latin sacred poetry," inclined to give
credit to a tradition which ascribes its authorship to Robert II.,
king of France, son of Hugh Capet. Others have assigned to
it a later date — some attributing it to Pope Innocent III.,
and some to Stephen Langton, archbishop of Canterbury. Many
translations, in German, English and other languages, attest
its merit. Berengarius of Tours, St Bernard of Clairvaux
and Abelard, in the nth century and early in the I2th, followed
in the same track; and the art of the Victorine school was
carried to its greatest perfection by Adam of St Victor (who
died between 1173 and 1194) — " the most fertile, and " (in the
concurrent judgment of Archbishop Trench and Neale) " the
greatest of the Latin hymnographers of the Middle Ages."
The archbishop's selection contains many excellent specimens,
of his works.
But the two most widely celebrated of all this class of com-
positions— works which have exercised the talents of the
greatest musical composers, and of innumerable
translators in almost all languages — are the " Dies
Irae " (" That day of wrath, that dreadful day "), by Thomas
of Celano, the companion and biographer of St Francis of Assisi,
and the " Stabat Mater dolorosa " (" By the cross
sad vigil keeping ") of Jacopone, or Jacobus de
Benedictis, a Franciscan humorist and reformer,
who was persecuted by Pope Boniface VIII. for his satires on
the prelacy of the time, and died in 1306. Besides these, the i3th
century produced the famous sequence " Lauda Sion salvatorem "
(" Sion, lift thy voice and sing "), and the four other well-known
sacramental hymns of St Thomas Aquinas, viz. " Pange lingua
gloriosi corporis mysterium " (" Sing, my tongue,
the Saviour's glory "), " Verbum supernum prodiens " *" '
(" The Word, descending from above " — not to be confounded
with the Ambrosian hymn from which it borrowed the first
line), " Sacris solemniis juncta sint gaudia " (" Let us with
hearts renewed our grateful homage pay "), and " Adoro Te
devote, latcns Deitas " (" O Godhead hid, devoutly I adore
Thee ") — a group of remarkable compositions, written by him
for the then new festival of Corpus Christi, of which he induced
Pope Urban IV. (1261-1265) to decree the observance. In
these (of which all but " Adoro Te devote " passed rapidly into
breviaries and missals) the doctrine of transubstantiation is
set forth with a wonderful degree of scholastic precision; and
they exercised, probably, a not unimportant influence upon the
general reception of that dogma. They are undoubtedly works
of genius, powerful in thought, feeling and expression.
These and other medieval hymn-writers of the i2th and I3th
centuries may be described, generally, as poet-schoolmen.
Their tone is contemplative, didactic, theological;
they are especially fertile and ingenious in the field
of mystical interpretation. Two great monasteries
in the East had, in the 8th and gth centuries, been the principal
centres of Greek hymnology; and, in the West, three monasteries
— St Gall, near Constance (which was long the especial seat of
German religious literature), Cluny in Burgundy and St Victor,
near Paris — obtained a similar distinction. St Gall produced,
besides Notker, several distinguished sequence writers, probably
his pupils — Hartmann, Hermann and Gottschalk — to the last
of whom Neale ascribes the " Alleluiatic Sequence " (" Cantemus
cuncti melodum nunc Alleluia "), well known in England through
his translation, " The strain upraise of joy and praise." The
chief poets of Cluny were two of its abbots, Odo and Peter the
Venerable (1122-1156), and one of Peter's monks, Bernard
of Morlaix, who wrote the remarkable poem on " Contempt
of the World " in about 3000 long rolling " leonine-dactylic "
verses, from parts of which Neale's popular hymns, " Jerusalem
HYMNS
187
the golden," &c., are taken. The abbey of St Victor, besides
Adam and his follower Pistor, was destined afterwards to produce
the most popular church poet of the iyth century.
There were other distinguished Latin hymn-writers of the
later medieval period besides those already mentioned. The
name of St Bernard of Clairvaux cannot be passed
Ber"frd over with the mere mention of the fact that he was the
vaur. author of some metrical sequences. He was, in truth,
the father, in Latin hymnody, of that warm and
passionate form of devotion which some may consider to apply
too freely to Divine Objects the language of human affection,
but which has, nevertheless, been popular with many devout
persons, in Protestant as well as Roman Catholic churches.
F. von Spee, " Angelus Silesius," Madame Guyon, Bishop Ken,
Count Zinzendorf and Frederick William Faber may be regarded
as disciples in this school. Many hymns, in various languages,
have been founded upon St Bernard's " Jesu dulcis memoria "
(" Jesu, the very thought of Thee "), " Jesu dulcedo cordium "
(" Jesu, Thou joy of loving hearts ") and " Jesu Rex admirabilis "
(" O Jesu, King most wonderful. ") — three portions of one
poem, nearly 200 lines long. Pietro Damiani, the friend of
Pope Gregory VII., Marbode, bishop of Rennes, in the nth,
Hildebert, archbishop of Tours, in the i2th, and St Bonaventura
in the i3th centuries, are other eminent men who added poetical
fame as hymnographers to high public distinction.
Before the time of the Reformation, the multiplication of
sequences (often as unedifying in matter as unpoetical in style)
had done much to degrade the common conception of hymnody.
In some parts of France, Portugal, Sardinia and Bohemia,
their use in the vernacular language had been allowed. In
Germany also there were vernacular sequences as early as the
1 2th century, specimens of which may be seen in the third
chapter of C. Winkworth's Christian Singers of Germany.
Scoffing parodies upon sequences are said to have been among
the means used in Scotland to discredit the old church services.
After the I5th century they were discouraged at Rome. They
retained for a time some of their old popularity among German
Protestants, and were only gradually relinquished in France.
A new " prose," in honour of St Maxentia, is among the composi-
tions of Jean Baptiste Santeul; and Dr Daniel's second volume
closes with one written in 1855 upon the dogma of the Immaculate
Conception.
The taste of the Renaissance was offended by all deviations from
classical prosody and Latinity. Pope Leo X. directed the whole
„ body of the hymns in use at Rome to be reformed; and
! . . ' the Hymni novi ecclesiastici juxta veram metri et Latinitatis
h mas normam, prepared by Zacharie Ferreri (1479-1530), a
Benedictine of Monte Cassino, afterwards a Carthusian
and bishop of Guardia, to whom Leo had committed that task,
appeared at Rome in 1525, with the sanction of a later pope, Clement
VII. The next step was to revise the whole Roman Breviary.
That undertaking, after passing through several stages under
different popes (particularly Pius V. and Clement VIII.), was at last
brought to a conclusion by Urban VIII., in 1631. From this revised
Breviary a large number of medieval hymns, both of the earlier
and the later periods, were excluded ; and in their places many new
hymns, including some by Pope Urban himself, and some by Cardinal
Bellarmine and another cardinal (Silvius Antonianus) were intro-
duced. The hymns of the primitive epoch, from Hilary to Gregory
the Great, for the most part retained their places (especially in the
offices for every day of the week); and there remained altogether
from seventy to eighty of earlier date than the nth century.
Those, however, which were so retained were freely altered, and by
no means generally improved. The revisers appointed by Pope
Urban (three learned Jesuits — Strada, Gallucci and Petrucci)
professed to have made " as few changes as possible " in the works
of Ambrose, Gregory, Prudentius, Sedulius, Fortunatus and other
" poets of great name." But some changes, even in those works,
were made with considerable boldness; and the pope, in the " con-
stitution " by which his new book was promulgated, boasted that,
" with the exception of a very small number (' perpaucis '), which
were either prose or merely rhythmical, all the hymns had been made
conformable to the laws of prosody and Latinity, those which could
not be corrected by any milder method being entirely rewritten."
The latter fate befel, among others, the beautiful Urbs beata
Hierusalem," which now assumed the form (to many, perhaps,
better known), of " Caelestis urbs Jerusalem." Of the very few "
which were spared, the chief were " Ave maris Stella " (" Gentle star
of ocean "), " Dies Irae," " Stabat Mater dolorosa," the hymns of
Thomas Aquinas, two of St Bernard and one Ambrosian hymn,
"Jesu nostra Redemptio" (" O Jesu, our Redemption"), which
approaches nearer than others to the tone of St Bernard. A then
recent hymn of St Francis Xavier, with scarcely enough merit of
any kind to atone for its neglect of prosody, " O Deus, ego amp Te"
(" O God, I love Thee, not because "), was at the same time intro-
duced without change. This hymnary of Pope Urban VIII. is now
in general use throughout the Roman Communion.
The Parisian hymnary underwent three revisions — the first in
1527, when a new " Psaltery with hymns " was issued. In this
such changes only were made as the revisers thought „ ^
justifiable upon the principle of correcting supposed
corruptions of the original text. Of these, the transposi-
tion, " Urbs Jerusalem beata," instead of " Urbs beata Hierusalem,"
may be taken as a typical example. The next revision was in 1670-
1680, under Cardinal PeV^fixe, preceptor of Louis XIV., and Francis
Harlay, successively archbishops of Paris, who employed for this
purpose Claude Santeul, of the monastery of St Magloire, and,
through him, obtained the assistance of other French scholars, in-
cluding his more celebrated brother, Jean Baptiste Santeul, of the
abbey of St Victor — better known as " Santolius Victorinus."
The third and final revision was completed in 1735, under the
primacy of Cardinal Archbishop de Vintimille, who engaged for it
the services of Charles Coffin, then rector of the university of Paris.
Many old hymns were omitted in Archbishop Harlay's Breviary, and
a large number of new compositions, by the Santeuls and others, was
introduced. It still, however, retained in their old places (without
further changes than had been made in 1527) about seventy of
earlier date than the nth century — including thirty-one Ambrosian,
one by Hilary, eight by Prudentius, seven by Fortunatus, three by
Paul the Deacon, two each by Sedulius, Elpis, Gregory and Hrabanus
Maurus, " Veni Creator " and "Urbs Jerusalem beata." Most of
these disappeared in 1735, although Cardinal Vintimille, in his
preface, professed to have still admitted the old hymns, except when
the new were better — (" veteribus hymnis locus datus est, nisi
quibus, ob sententiarum vim, elegantiam verborum, et teneriores
pietatis sensus, recentiores anteponi satius visum est "). The number
of the new was, at the same time, very largely increased. Only
twenty-one more ancient than the 1 6th century remained, of which
those belonging to the primitive epoch were but eight, viz. four
Ambrosian, two by Fortunatus and one each by Prudentius and
Gregory. The number of Jean Baptiste Santeul's hymns rose to
eighty-nine; those by Coffin — including some old hymns, e.g.
" Jam lucis orto sidere " (" Once more the sun is beaming bright "),
which he substantially re-wrote — were eighty-three ; those of other
modern French writers, ninety-seven. Whatever opinion may be
entertained of the principles on which these Roman and Parisian
revisions proceeded, it would be unjust to deny very high praise as
hymn-writers to several of their poets, especially to Coffin and Jean
Baptiste Santeul. The noble hymn by Coffin, beginning —
" O luce qui mortalibus " O Thou who in the light dost dwell,
Lates inaccessa, Deus, To mortals unapproachable,
Praesente quo sancti tremunt Where angels veil them from Thy rays,
Nubuntque vultus angeli," And tremble as they gaze,"
and several others of his works, breathe the true Ambrosian spirit;
and though Santeul (generally esteemed the better poet of the two)
delighted in alcaics, and did not greatly affect the primitive manner,
there can be no question as to the excellence of such hymns as his
" Fnmant Sabaeis templa vaporibus " (" Sweet incense breathes
around "), " Stupete gentes, fit Deus hostia " (" Tremble, ye Gentile
lands "), " Hymnis dum resonat curia caelitum " (" Ye in the house
of heavenly morn "), and " Templi sacratas pande, Sion, fores "
(" O Sion, open wide thy gates "). It is a striking testimony to the
merits of those writers that such accomplished translators as the
Rev. Isaac Williams and the Rev. John Chandler appear (from the
title-page of the latter, and the prefaces of both) to have supposed
their hymns to be " ancient " and " primitive." Among the other
authors associated with them, perhaps the first place is due to the
Abb6 Besnault, of Sens, who contributed to the book of 1735 the
" Urbs beata vera pacis Visio Jerusalem," in the opinion of Neale
" much superior " to the " Caelestis urbs Jerusalem of the Roman
Breviary. This stood side by side with the " Urbs Jerusalem beata "
of 1527 (in the office for the dedication of churches) till 1822, when the
older form was at last finally excluded by Archbishop de Quelen.
The Parisian Breviary of 1735 remained in use till the national
French service-books were superseded (as they have lately been,
generally, if not universally) by the Roman. Almost all French
dioceses followed, not indeed the Breviary, but the example, of
Paris; and before the end of the l8th century the ancient Latin
hymnody was all but banished from France.
In some parts of Germany, after the Reformation, Latin hymns
continued to be used even by Protestants. This was the case at
Halberstadt until quite a recent date. In England, a feware
still occasionally used in the older universities and colleges.
Some, also, have been composed in both countries since hvmns
the Reformation. The " Carmina lyrica " of Johann
Jakob Balde, a native of Alsace, and a Jesuit priest in Bavaria, have
received high commendation from very eminent German critics,
particularly Herder and Augustus Schlegel. Some of the Latin
hymns of William Alard (1572-1645), a Protestant refugee from
...
i88
HYMNS
Belgium, and pastor in Holstein, have been thought worthy of a place
in Archbishop Trench's selection. Two by W. Petersen (printed
at the end of Haberkorn's supplement to Jacobi's Psalmodia Cer-
manica) are good in different ways — one, " Jesu dulcis amor meus "
(" Jesus, Thee my soul doth love ), being a gentle melody of spiritual
devotion, and the other, entitled Spes Sionis, violently controversial
against Rome. An English hymn of the 1 7th century, in the
Ambrosian style, " Te Deum Patrem colimus " (" Almighty Father,
just and good "), is sung on every May- Day morning by the choristers
of Magdalen College, Oxford, from the top of the tower of their chapel ;
and another in the style of the Renaissance, of about the same date,
" Te de profundis, summe Rex " (" Thee from the depths, Almighty
King), long formed part of a grace formerly sung by the scholars of
Winchester College.
5. German Hymnody. — Luther was a proficient in and a lover
of music. He desired (as he says in the preface to his hymn-book
Luther. °f J54S) ^at this " beautiful ornament " might " in
a right manner serve the great Creator and His Christian
people." The persecuted Bohemian or Hussite Church, then
settled on the borders of Moravia under the name of " United
Brethren," had sent to him, on a mission in 1522, Michael Weiss,
who not long afterwards published a number of German trans-
lations from old Bohemian hymns (known as those of the
" Bohemian Brethren "), with some of his own. These Luther
highly approved and recommended. He himself, in 1522,
published a small volume of eight hymns, which was enlarged
1063 in 1527, and to 125 in 1545. He had formed what he called
a " house choir " of musical friends, to select such old and
popular tunes (whether secular or ecclesiastical) as might be
found suitable, and to compose new melodies, for church use.
His fellow labourers in this field (besides Weiss) were Justus
Jonas, his own especial colleague; Paul Eber, the disciple and
friend of Melanchthon ; John Walther, choirmaster successively
to several German princes, and professor of arts, &c., at Witten-
berg; Nicholas Decius, who from a monk became a Protestant
teacher in Brunswick, and translated the " Gloria in Excelsis,"
&c.; and Paul Speratus, chaplain to Duke Albert of Prussia
in 1525. Some of their works are still popular in Germany.
Weiss's " Funeral Hymn," " Nun lasst uns den Leib begraben "
("Now lay we calmly in the grave"); Eber's " Herr Jesu
Christ, wahr Mensch und Gott " (" Lord Jesus Christ, true Man
and God "), and " Wenn wir in hb'chsten Nothen sein " (" When
in the hour of utmost need ") ; Walther's " New Heavens and
new Earth" ("Now fain my joyous heart would sing");
Decius's " To God on high be thanks and praise "; and Speratus's
" Salvation now has come for all," are among those which
at the time produced the greatest effect, and are still best
remembered.
Luther's own hymns, thirty-seven" in number (of which about
twelve are translations or adaptations from Latin originals),
are for the principal Christian seasons; on the sacraments,
the church, grace, death, &c. ; and paraphrases of seven psalms,
of a passage in Isaiah, and of the Lord's Prayer, Ten Command-
ments, Creed, Litany and " Te Deum." There is also a very
touching and stirring song on the martyrdom of two youths
by fire at Brussels, in 1523-1524. Homely and sometimes
rugged in form, and for the most part objective in tone, they are
full of fire, manly simplicity and strong faith. Three rise above
the rest. One for Christmas, " Vom Himmel hoch da komm
ich her " (" From Heaven above to earth I come "), has a
reverent tenderness, the influence of which may be traced in
many later productions on the same subject. That on salvation
through Christ, of a didactic character, " Nun freuet euch,
lieben Christen g'mein " (" Dear Christian people, now rejoice "),
is said to have made many conversions, and to have been once
taken up by a large congregation to silence a Roman Catholic
preacher in the cathedral of Frankfort. Pre-eminent above all
is the celebrated paraphrase of the 46th Psalm: " Ein' feste
Burg ist unser Gott " (" A sure stronghold our God is He ")—
" the production " (as Ranke says) " of the moment in which
Luther, engaged in a conflict with a world of foes, sought strength
in the consciousness that he was defending a divine cause which
could never perish." Carlyle compares it to " a sound of Alpine
avalanches, or the first murmur of earthquakes." Heine called
it " the Marseillaise of the Reformation."
Luther spent several years in teaching his people at Wittenberg
to sing these hymns, which soon spread over Germany. Without
adopting the hyperbolical saying of Coleridge, that " Luther
did as much for the Reformation by his hymns as by his transla-
tion of the Bible," it may truly be affirmed that, among the
secondary means by which the success of the Reformation was
promoted, none was more powerful. They were sung every-
where— in the streets and fields as well as the churches, in the
workshop and the palace, " by children in the cottage and by
martyrs on the scaffold." It was by them that a congregational
character was given to the new Protestant worship. This success
they owed partly to their metrical structure, which, though
sometimes complex, was recommended to the people by its
ease and variety; and partly to the tunes and melodies (many of
them already well known and popular) to which they were set.
They were used as direct instruments of teaching, and were
therefore, in a large measure, didactic and theological; and it
may be partly owing to this cause that German hymnody came
to deviate, so soon and so generally as it did, from the simple
idea expressed in the ancient Augustinian definition, and to
comprehend large classes of compositions which, in most other
countries, would be thought hardly suitable for church use.
The principal hymn-writers of the Lutheran school, in the
latter part of the i6th century, were Nikolaus Selnecker, Herman
and Hans Sachs, the shoemaker of Nuremberg, also
known in other branches of literature. All these
wrote some good hymns. They were succeeded by
men of another sort, to whom F. A. Cunz gives the
name of " master-singers," as having raised both the poetical
and the musical standard of German hymnody: — Bartholomaus
Ringwaldt,LudwigHelmbold, Johannes Pappus, Martin Schalling,
Rutilius and Sigismund Weingartner. The principal topics
of their hymns (as if with some foretaste of the calamities
which were soon to follow) were the vanity of earthly things,
resignation to the Divine will, and preparation for death
and judgment. The well-known English hymn, " Great God,
what do I see and hear," is founded upon one by Ringwaldt.
Of a quite different character were two of great beauty and
universal popularity, composed by Philip Nicolai, a Westphalian
pastor, during a pestilence in 1597, and published by him,
with fine chorales, two years afterwards. One of these (the
" Sleepers wake! a voice is calling," of Mendelssohn's oratorio,
St Paid) belongs to the family of Advent or New Jerusalem
hymns. The other, a " Song of the believing soul concerning the
Heavenly Bridegroom " (" Wie schon leucht't uns der Morgen-
stern " — " O morning Star, how fair and bright "), became the
favourite marriage hymn of Germany.
The hymns produced during the Thirty Years' War are char-
acteristic of that unhappy time, which (as Miss Winkworth says)
" caused religious men to look away from this world," pfcrtorf „/
and made their songs more and more expressive of Thirty
personal feelings. In point of refinement and graces **"»'
of style, the hymn-writers of this period excelled
their predecessors. Their taste was chiefly formed by the in-
fluence of Martin Opitz, the founder of what has been called
the " first Silesian school " of German poetry, who died com-
paratively young in 1639, and who, though not of any great
original genius, exercised much power as a critic. Some of the
best of these works were by men who wrote little. In the famous
battle-song of Gustavus Adolphus, published (1631) after the
victory of Breitenfeld, for the use of his army, " Verzage nicht
du Hauflein klein " (" Fear not, O little flock, the foe "), we have
almost certainly a composition of the hero-king himself, the
versification corrected by his chaplain Jakob Fabricius (1593-
1654) and the music composed by Michael Altenburg, whose
name has been given to the hymn. This, with Luther's para-
phrase of the 67th Psalm, was sung by Gustavus and his soldiers
Before the battle of Ltitzen in 1632. Two very fine hymns,
one of prayer for deliverance and peace, the other of trust in
jod under calamities, were written about the same time by
Vlatthaus Lowenstern, a saddler's son, poet, musician and
statesman, who was ennobled after the peace by the emperor
HYMNS
189
Ferdinand III. Martin Rinckhart, in 1636, wrote the " Chorus
of God's faithful children " (" Nun danket alle Gott "— " Now
thank we all our God "), introduced by Mendelssohn in his
" Lobgesang," which has been called the ",Te Deum " of Germany,
being usually sung on occasions of public thanksgiving. Weissel,
in 1635, composed a beautiful Advent hymn (" Lift up your heads,
ye mighty gates "), and J. M. Meyfart, professor of theology at
Erfurt, in 1642, a fine adaptation of the ancient " Urbs beata
Hierusalem." The hymn of trust in Providence by George
Neumark, librarian to that duke of Weimar (" Wer nur den
lieben Gott lasst walten " — " Leave God to order all thy ways "),
is scarcely, if at all, inferior to that of Paul Gerhardt on the same
theme. Paul Flemming, a great traveller and lover of nature,
who died in 1639, also wrote excellent compositions, coloured
by the same tone of feeling; and some, of great merit, were
composed, soon after the close of the war, by Louisa Henrietta,
electress of Brandenburg, granddaughter of the famous admiral
Coligny, and mother of the first king of Prussia. With these
may be classed (though of later date) a few striking hymns of
faith and prayer under mental anxiety, by Anton Ulrich, duke
of Brunswick.
The most copious, and in their day most esteemed, hymn-
writers of the first half of the i7th century, were Johann Heer-
Qlst mann and Johann Rist. Heermann, a pastor in Silesia,
the theatre (in a peculiar degree) of war and persecu-
tion, experienced in his own person a very large share of the
miseries of the time, and several times narrowly escaped a
violent death. His Devoti musica cordis, published in 1630,
reflects the feelings natural under such circumstances. With a
correct style and good versification, his tone is subjective, and
the burden of his hymns is not praise, but prayer. Among his
works (which enter largely into most German hymn-books),
two of the best are the " Song of Tears " and the " Song of
Comfort," translated by Miss Winkworth in her Christian
Singers of Germany. Rist published about 600 hymns, " pressed
out of him," as he said, " by the cross." He was a pastor, and
son of a pastor, in Holstein, and lived after the peace to enjoy
many years of prosperity, being appointed poet-laureate to the
emperor and finally ennobled. The bulk of his hymns, like those
of other copious writers, are of inferior quality; but some,
particularly those for Advent, Epiphany, Easter Eve and on
Angels, are very good. They are more objective than those of
Heermann, and written, upon the whole, in a more manly spirit.
Dach. Next to Heermann and Rist in fertility of production,
and above them in poetical genius, was Simon Dach,
professor of poetry at Konigsberg, who died in 1659. Miss
Winkworth ranks him high among German poets, " for the
sweetness of form and depth of tender contemplative emotion
to be found in his verses."
The fame of all these writers was eclipsed in the latter part of
the same century by three of the greatest hymnographers whom
Oerhardt Germany has produced — Paul Gerhardt (1604-1676),
Johann Franck (1618-1677) and Johann Scheffler
(1624-1677), the founder of the " second Silesian school," who
assumed the name of " Angelus Silesius." Gerhardt is by uni-
versal consent the prince of Lutheran poets. His compositions,
which may be compared, in many respects, to those of the
Christian Year, are lyric poems, of considerable length, rather
than hymns, though many hymns have been taken from them.
They are, with few exceptions, subjective, and speak the language
of individual experience. They occupy a middle ground between
the masculine simplicity of the old Lutheran style and the highly
wrought religious emotion of the later pietists, towards whom
they on the whole incline. Being nearly all excellent, it is not
easy to distinguish among the 123 those which are entitled
to the highest praise. Two, which were written one during the
war and the other after the conclusion of peace, " Zeuch ein zu
deinen Thoren " (" Come to Thy temple here on earth "), and
" Gottlob, nun ist erschollen " (" Thank God, it hath re-
sounded "), are historically interesting. Of the rest, one is well
known and highly appreciated in English through Wesley's
translation, " Commit thou all thy ways "; and the evening
and spring-tide hymns (" Now all the woods are sleeping " and
" Go forth, my heart, and seek delight ") show an exquisite
feeling for nature; while nothing can be more tender and
pathetic than " Du bist zwar mein und bleibest mein " (" Thou'rt
mine, yes, still thou art mine own "), on the death of Fnack
his son. Franck, who was burgomaster of Guben in
Lusatia, has been considered by some second only to Gerhardt.
If so, it is with a great distance between them. His approach to
the later pietists is closer than that of Gerhardt. His hymns
were published, under the title of Geislliche und weltliche Gedichte,
in 1674, some of them being founded on Ambrosian and other
Latin originals. Miss Winkworth gives them the praise of a.
condensed and polished style and fervid and impassioned thought.
It was after his conversion to Roman Catholicism that scbeffler
Scheffler adopted the name of " Angelus Silesius,"
and published in 1657 his hymns, under a fantastic title, and with
a still more fantastic preface. Their keynote is divine love;,
they are enthusiastic, intense, exuberant in their sweetness,
like those of St Bernard among medieval poets. An adaptation,
of one of them, by Wesley, "Thee will I love, my Strength, my
Tower," is familiar to English readers. Those for the first
Sunday after Epiphany, for Sexagesima Sunday and for Trinity
Sunday, in Lyra Germanica, are good examples of his excellences,
with few of his defects. His hymns are generally so free from
the expression, or even the indirect suggestion, of Roman
Catholic doctrine, that it has been supposed they were written
before his conversion, though published afterwards. The evan-
gelical churches of Germany found no difficulty in admitting,
them to that prominent place in their services which they have
ever since retained.
Towards the end of the I7th century, a new religious school
arose, to which the name of " Pietists " was given, and of which
Philipp Jakob Spener was esteemed the founder. pietists
He and his pupils and successors, August Hermann
Francke and Anastasius Freylinghausen, all wrote hymns.
Spener's hymns are not remarkable, and Francke's are not
numerous. Freylinghausen was their chief singer; his rhythm,
is lively, his music florid; but, though his book attained ex-
traordinary popularity, he was surpassed in solid merit by other
less fertile writers of the same school. The " Auf hinauf zu
deiner Freude " (" Up, yes, upward to thy gladness ") of Schade
may recall to an English reader a hymn by Seagrave, and more
than one by Lyte; the "Malabarian hymn"(as it was called by
Jacobi) of Johann Schiitz, " All glory to the Sovereign Good,"
has been popular in England as well as Germany; and one of
the most exquisite strains of pious resignation ever written is.
" Whate'er my God ordains is right," by Samuel Rodigast.
Joachim Neander, a schoolmaster at Dusseldorf, and a friend
of Spener and Schiitz (who died before the full development of
the " Pietistic " school), was the first man of eminence Bander
in the" Reformed " or Calvinistic Church who imitated
Lutheran hymnody. This he did, while suffering persecution
from the elders of his own church for some other religious,
practices, which he had also learnt from Spener's example. As
a poet, he is sometimes deficient in art; but there is feeling,
warmth and sweetness in many of his " Bundeslieder " or
" Songs of the Covenant," and they obtained general favour,
both in the Reformed and in Lutheran congregations. The
Summer Hymn (" O Thou true God alone ") and that on the
glory of God in creation (" Lo, heaven and earth and sea and air ").
are instances of his best style.
With the " Pietists " may be classed Benjamin Schmolke and
Dessler, representatives of the " Orthodox " division of Spener's
school; Philipp Friedrich Hiller, their leading poet in gchmolke
South Germany; Gottfried Arnold and Gerhard
Tersteegen, who were practically independent of ecclesiastical
organization, though connected, one with the " Orthodox "
and the other with the " Reformed " churches; and Nikolaus.
Ludwig, Graf von Zinzendorf. Schmolke, a pastor in Silesia,
called the Silesian Rist (1672-1737), was perhaps the most
voluminous of all German hymn-writers. He wrote 1188
religious poems and hymns, a large proportion of which do not
HYMNS
Terstee-
rise above mediocrity. His style, if less refined, is also less
subjective and more simple than that of most of his con-
temporaries. Among his best and most attractive works, which
indeed, it would be difficult to praise too highly, are the
" Hosianna David's Sohn," for Palm Sunday — much resembling
a shorter hymn by Jeremy Taylor; and the Ascension, Whit-
suntide and Sabbath hymns — " Heavenward doth our journey
tend," " Come deck our feast to-day," and " Light of light,
Dessier enlighten me." Dessler was a greater poet than
Schmolke. Few hymns, of the subjective kind, are
better than his " I will not let Thee go, Thou Help in time of
need," " O Friend of souls, how well is me," and " Now, the
Miller. pearly gates unfold." Hiller (1699-1769), was a pastor
in Wurttemberg who, falling into ill-health during the
latter part of his ministry, published a Geistliche Liederhostlein in a
didactic vein, with more taste than power, but(as Miss Winkworth
says) in a tone of " deep, thoughtful, practical piety." They
were so well adapted to the wants of his people that to this day
Killer's Casket is prized, next to their Bibles, by the peasantry of
Wurttemberg; and the numerous emigrants from that part of
Germany to America and other foreign countries generally
Arnold ta'ie ^ w't^1 tnem wherever they go. Arnold, a
professor at Giessen, and afterwards a pastor in
Brandenburg, was a man of strong will, uncompromising
character and austere views of life, intolerant and controversial
towards those whose doctrine or practice he disapproved, and
more indifferent to separatism and sectarianism than the
" orthodox " generally thought right. His hymns, like those
of Augustus M. Toplady, whom in these respects he resembled,
unite with considerable strength more gentleness and breadth
of sympathy than might be expected from a man of such a
character. Tersteegen ( 1 697- 1 769) , who never formally
separated himself from the " Reformed " communion,
in which he was brought up, but whose sympathies
were with the Moravians and with Zinzendorf, was, of all the more
copious German hymn-writers after Luther, perhaps the most
remarkable man. Pietist, mystic and missionary, he was also a
great religious poet. His in hymns were published in 1731, in
a volume called Geistlicher Blumengarttein inniger Seelen.
They are intensely individual, meditative and subjective.
Wesley's adaptations of two — " Lo! God is here; let us adore,"
and " Thou hidden Love of God, whose source " — are well known.
Among those translated by Miss Winkworth, " O God, O Spirit,
Light of all that live," and " Come, brethren, let us go," are
specimens which exhibit favourably his manner and power.
Miss Cox speaks of him as " a gentle heaven-inspired soul,
whose hymns are the reflection of a heavenly, happy life, his mind
being full of a child-like simplicity "; and his own poem on
the child-character, which Miss Winkworth has appropriately
connected with Innocents' day (" Dear Soul, couldst thou
become a child ") — one of his best compositions, exquisitely
conceived and expressed — shows that this was in truth the
ideal which he sought to realize. The hymns of Zinzendorf
are often disfigured by excess in the application of the
dorf." language and imagery of human affections to divine
objects; and this blemish is also found in many
later Moravian hymns. But one hymn, at least, of Zinzendorf
may be mentioned with unqualified praise, as uniting the merits
of force, simplicity and brevity — " Jesu, geh voran " (" Jesus,
lead the way "), which is taught to most children of religious
parents in Germany. Wesley's "Jesus, Thy blood and righteous-
ness " is a translation from Zinzendorf.
The transition from Tersteegen and Zinzendorf to Gellert
and Klopstock marks strongly the reaction against Pietism
Oettert which took place towards the middle of the i8th
century. The Geisllichen Oden und Lieder of Christian
F. Gellert were published in 1757, and are said to have been
received with an enthusiasm almost like that which " greeted
Luther's hymns on their first appearance." It is a proof of the
moderation both of the author and of his times that they were
largely used, not only by Protestant congregations, but in
those German Roman Catholic churches in which vernacular
services had been established through the influence of the
emperor Joseph II. They became the model which was followed
by most succeeding hymn-writers, and exceeded all others
in popularity till the close of the century, when a new wave of
thought was generated by the movement which produced the
French Revolution. Since that time they have been, perhaps,
too much depreciated. They are, indeed, cold and didactic, as
compared with Scheffler or Tersteegen; but there is nevertheless
in them a spirit of genuine practical piety; and, if not marked
by genius, they are pure in taste, and often terse, vigorous and
graceful.
Klopstock, the author of the Messiah, cannot be considered
great as a hymn-writer, though his " Sabbath Hymn " (of
which there is a version in Hymns from the Land Khpstock
of Luther) is simple and good. Generally his hymns
(ten of which are translated in Sheppard's Foreign Sacred
Lyre) are artificial and much too elaborate.
Of the " romantic " school, which came in with the French
Revolution, the two leading writers are Friedrich Leopold von
Hardenberg, called " Novalis," and Friedrich de la Motte
Fouque, the celebrated author of Undine and Sintram — both
romance-writers, as well as poets. The genius of Novalis was
early lost to the world; he died in 1801, not thirty years old.
Some of his hymns are very beautiful; but even in such works
as " Though all to Thee were faithless," and " If only He is
mine," there is a feeling of insulation and of despondency as to
good in the actual world, which was perhaps inseparable from his
ecclesiastical idealism. Fouque survived till 1843. Pou u^
In his hymns there is the same deep flow of feeling,
richness of imagery and charm of expression which distinguishes
his prose works. The two missionary hymns — " Thou, solemn
Ocean, rollest to the strand," and " In our sails all soft and
sweetly " — and the exquisite composition which finds its motive
in the gospel narrative of blind Bartimeus, " Was du vor tausend
Jahren " (finely translated both by Miss Winkworth and by Miss
Cox), are among the best examples.
The later German hymn- writers of the igth century belong,
generally, to the revived " Pietistic " school. Some of the best,
Johann Baptist von Albertini, Friedrich Adolf s /fta>
Krummacher, and especially Karl Johann Philipp Spitta
(1801-1859) have produced works not unworthy of the fame of
their nation. Mr Massie, the able translator of Spitta's Psalter
und Harfe (Leipzig, 1833), speaks of it as having " obtained for
him in Germany a popularity only second to that of Paul Ger-
hardt." In Spitta's poems (for such they generally are, rather
than hymns) the subjective and meditative tone is tempered,
not ungracefully, with a didactic element; and they are not
disfigured by exaggerated sentiment, or by a too florid and
rhetorical style.
6. British Hymnody. — After the Reformation, the develop-
ment of hymnody was retarded, in both parts of GreatBritain,
by the example and influence of Geneva. Archbishop Cranmer
appears at one time to have been disposed to follow Luther's
course, and to present to the people, in an English dress, some at
least of the hymns of the ancient church. In a letter to King
Henry VIII. (October 7, 1544), among some new " processions "
which he had himself translated into English, he mentions the
Easter hymn, " Salve, festa dies, toto memorabilis aevo "
(" Hail, glad day, to be joyfully kept through all generations "),
of Fortunatus. In the " Primer " of 1535 (by Marshall) and the
one of 1 539 (by Bishop Hilsey of Rochester, published by order
of the vicar-general Cromwell) there had been several rude
English hymns, none of them taken from ancient sources. King
Henry's " Primer " of 1545 (commanded by his injunction of the
6th of May 1545 to be used throughout his dominions) was formed
on the model of the daily offices of the Breviary; and it contains
English metrical translations from some of the best-known
Ambrosian and other early hymns. But in the succeeding reign
different views prevailed. A new direction had been given to the
taste of the " Reformed " congregations in France and Switzerland
by the French metrical translation of the Old Testament Psalms,
which appeared about 1540. This was the joint work of Clement
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191
Marot, valet or groom of the chamber to Francis I., and Theodore
Beza, then a mere youth, fresh from his studies at Orleans.
Marot's psalms were dedicated to the French king and the
ladies of France, and, being set to popular airs, became fashion-
able. They were sung by Francis himself, the queen,
Psalms *ne Prmcesses and tne courtiers, upon all sorts of secular
occasions, and also, more seriously and religiously, by
the citizens and the common people. They were soon perceived
to be a power on the side of the Reformation. Calvin, who
had settled at Geneva in the year of Marot's return to Paris,
was then organizing his ecclesiastical system. He rejected the
hymnody of the breviaries and missals, and fell back upon the
idea, anciently held by Paul of Samosata, and condemned by the
fourth council of Toledo, that whatever was sung in churches
ought to be taken out of the Scriptures. Marot's Psalter, appear-
ing thus opportunely, was introduced into his new system of
worship, and appended to his catechism. On the other hand,
it was interdicted by the Roman Catholic priesthood. Thus it
became a badge to the one party of the " reformed " profession,
and to the other of heresy.
The example thus set produced in England the translation
commonly known as the " Old Version " of the Psalms. It was
begun by Thomas Sternhold, whose position in the
hold "and household of Henry VIII., and afterwards of Edward
Hopkins, VI., was similar to that of Marot with Francis I., and
whose services to the former of those kings were re-
warded by a substantial legacy under his will. Sternhold pub-
lished versions of nineteen Psalms, with a dedication to King
Edward, and died soon afterwards. A second edition appeared
in 1551, with eighteen more Psalms added, of Sternhold's trans-
lating, and seven others by John Hopkins, a Suffolk clergyman.
The work was continued during Queen Mary's reign by British
refugees at Geneva, the chief of whom were William Whitting-
ham, afterwards dean of Durham, who succeeded John Knox as
minister of the English congregation there, and William Kethe
or Keith, said by Strype to have been a Scotsman. They
published at Geneva in 1556 a service-book, containing fifty-one
English metrical psalms, which number was increased, in later
editions, to eighty-seven. On the accession of Queen Elizabeth,
this Genevan Psalmody was at once brought into use in England
— first (according to a letter of Bishop Jewell to Peter Martyr,
dated sth March 1560) in one London church, from which it
quickly spread to others both in London and in other cities.
Jewell describes the effect produced by large congregations, of
as many as 6000 persons, young and old, women and children,
singing it after the sermons at St Paul's Cross — adding, " Id
sacrifices et diabolum aegre habet ; vident enim sacras conciones
hoc pacto profundius descendere in hominum animos." The
first edition of the completed " Old Version " (containing forty
Psalms by Sternhold, sixty-seven by Hopkins, fifteen by Whit-
tingham, six by Kethe and the rest by Thomas Norton the
dramatist, Robert Wisdom, John Marckant and Thomas Church-
yard) appeared in 1562.
In the meantime, the Books of Common Prayer, of 1549, 1552
and 1559, had been successively established as law by the acts of
uniformity of Edward VI. and Queen Elizabeth. In these no
provision was made for the use of any metrical psalm or hymn on
any occasion whatever, except at the consecration of bishops and
the ordination of priests, in which offices (first added in 1552) an
English version of " Veni Creator " (the longer of the two now in use)
was appointed to be " said or sung." The canticles, " Te Deum,"
" Benedicite," the Nicene and Athanasian Creeds, the " Gloria in
Excelsis," and some other parts of the communion and other special
offices were also directed to be " said or sung "; and, by general
rubrics, the chanting of the whole service was allowed.
The silence, however, of the rubrics in these books as to any other
singing was not meant to exclude the use of psalms not expressly
appointed, when they could be used without interfering with the
prescribed order of any service. It was expressly provided by
King Edward's first act of uniformity (by later acts made applicable
to the later books) that it should be lawful " for all men, as well in
churches, chapels, oratories or other places, to use openly any
psalms or prayers taken out of the Bible, at any due time, not letting
or omitting thereby the service, or any part thereof, mentioned in
the book." And Queen Elizabeth, by one of the injunctions issued
in the first year of her reign, declared her desire that the provision
made, " in divers collegiate and also some parish churches, for
singing in the church, so as to promote the laudable service of music,"
shoulcl continue. After allowing the use of " a modest and distinct
song in all parts of the common prayers of the church, so that the
same may be as plainly understanded as if it were read without
singing," the injunction proceeded thus — " And yet, nevertheless,
for the comforting of such that delight in music, it may be permitted
that in the beginning or in the end of the Common Prayer, either at
morning or evening, there may be sung an hymn, or such like song
to the praise of Almighty God, in the best sort of melody and music
that may be conveniently devised, having respect that the sentence "
(i.e. sense) " of hymn may be understanded and perceived."
The " Old Version," when published (by John Daye, for the
Stationers' Company, " cum gratia et privilegio Regiae Majestatis "),
bore upon the face of it that it was " newly set forth, and allowed
to be sung of the people in churches, before and after morning and
evening prayer, as also before and after the sermon." The question
of its authority has been at different times much debated, chiefly by
Peter Heylyn and Thomas Warton on one side (both of whom disliked
and disparaged it), and by William Beveridge, bishop of St Asaph,
and the Rev. H. J. Todd on the other. Heylyn says, it was " per-
mitted rather than allowed," which seems to be a distinction without
much difference. "Allowance," which is all that the book claimed
for itself, is authorization by way of permission, not of command-
ment. Its publication in that form could hardly have been licensed,
nor could it have passed into use as it did without question, through-
out the churches of England, unless it had been " allowed " by some
authority then esteemed to be sufficient. Whether that authority
was royal or ecclesiastical does not appear, nor (considering the
proviso in King Edward's act of uniformity, and Queen Elizabeth's
injunctions) is it very important. No inference can justly be drawn
from the inability of inquirers, in Heylyn's time or since, to discover
any public record bearing upon this subject, many public documents
of that period having been lost.
In this book, as published in 1362, and for many years after-
wards, there were (besides the versified Psalms) eleven metrical
versions of the " Te Deum," canticles, Lord's Prayer (the best
of which is that of the " Benedicite "); and also " Da pacem,
Domine," a hymn suitable to the times, rendered into English
from Luther; two original hymns of praise, to be sung before
morning and evening prayer; two penitential hymns (one of
them the "humble lamentation of a sinner"); and a hymn
of faith, beginning, " Lord, in Thee is all my trust." In these
respects, and also in the tunes which accompanied the words
(stated by Dr Charles Burney, in his History of Music, to be
German, and not French), there was a departure from the
Genevan platform. Some of these hymns, and some of the psalms
also (e.g. those by Robert Wisdom, being alternative versions),
were omitted at a later period; and many alterations and
supposed amendments were from time to time made by un-
known hands in the psalms which remained, so that the text, as
now printed, is in many places different from that of 1562.
In Scotland, the General Assembly of the kirk caused to be
printed at Edinburgh in 1564, and enjoined the use of, a book
entitled The Form of Prayers and Ministry of the
Sacraments used in the English Church at Geneva,
approved and received by the Church of Scotland;
whereto, besides that was in the former books, are also added sundry
other prayers, with the whole Psalms of David in English metre.
This contained, from the " Old Version," translations of forty
Psalms by Sternhold, fifteen by Whittingham, twenty-six by
Kethe and thirty-five by Hopkins. Of the remainder two were
by John Pulleyn (one of the Genevan refugees, who became
archdeacon of Colchester) ; six by Robert Pont, Knox's son-in-
law, who was a minister of the kirk, and also a lord of session ;
and fourteen signed with the initials I. C., supposed to be John
Craig; one was anonymous, eight were attributed to N., two to
M. and one to T. N. respectively.
So matters continued in both churches until the Civil War.
During the interval, King James I. conceived the project of
himself making a new version of the Psalms, and appears to have
translated thirty-one of them — the correction of which, together
with the translation of the rest, he entrusted to Sir William
Alexander, afterwards earl of Stirling. Sir William having
completed his task, King Charles I. had it examined and approved
by several archbishops and bishops of England, Scotland and
Ireland, and caused it to be printed in 1631 at the Oxford Uni-
versity Press, as the work of King James; and, by an order
192
HYMNS
under the royal sign manual, recommended its use in all churches
of his dominions. In 1634 he enjoined the Privy Council of
Scotland not to suffer any other psalms, " of any edition what-
ever," to be printed in or imported into that kingdom. In 1636
it was republished, and was attached to the famous Scottish
service-book, with which the troubles began in 1637. It need
hardly be added that the king did not succeed in bringing this
Psalter into use in either kingdom.
When the Long Parliament undertook, in 1642, the task of
altering the liturgy, its attention was at the same time directed
to psalmody. It had to judge between two rival translations
of the Psalms — one by Francis Rouse, a member of the House
of Commons, afterwards one of Cromwell's councillors and
finally provost of Eton; the other by William Barton, a clergy-
man of Leicester. The House of Lords favoured Barton, the
House of Commons Rouse, who had made much use of the labours
of Sir William Alexander. Both versions were printed by order
of parliament, and were referred for consideration to the West-
minster Assembly. They decided in favour of Rouse. His
version, as finally amended, was published in 1646, under an
order of the House of Commons dated i4th November 1645.
In the following year it was recommended by the parliament
to the General Assembly at Edinburgh, who appointed a com-
mittee, with large powers, to prepare a revised Psalter, recom-
mending to their consideration not only Rouse's book but that
of 1564, and two other versions (by Zachary Boyd and Sir
William Mure of Rowallan), then lately executed in Scotland.
The result of the labours of this committee was the " Paraphrase "
of the Psalms, which, in 1640-1650, by the concurrent authority
of the General Assembly and the committee of estates, was
ordered to be exclusively used throughout the church of Scotland.
Some use was made in the preparation of this book of the versions
to which the attention of the revisers had been directed, and
also of Barton's; but its basis was that of Rouse. It was
received in Scotland with great favour, which it has ever since
retained; and it is fairly entitled to the praise of striking a
tolerable medium between the rude homeliness of the " Old,"
and the artificial modernism of the " New " English versions —
perhaps as great a success as was possible for such an undertaking.
Sir Walter Scott is said to have dissuaded any attempt to alter
it, and to have pronounced it, " with all its acknowledged
occasional harshness, so beautiful, that any alterations must
•eventually prove only so many blemishes." No further step
towards any authorized hymnody was taken by the kirk of
•Scotland till the following century.
In England, two changes bearing on church hymnody were
made upon the revision of the prayer-book after the Restoration,
in 1661-1662. One was the addition, in the offices for con-
secrating bishops and ordaining priests, of the shorter version
of "Veni Creator" ("Come, Holy Ghost, our souls inspire"),
as an alternative form. The other, and more important, was
the insertion of the rubric after the third collect, at morning
and evening prayer: " In quires and places where they sing,
here followeth the anthem." By this rubric synodical and
parliamentary authority was given for the interruption, at that
point, of the prescribed order of the service by singing an anthem,
the choice of which was left to the discretion of the minister.
Those actually used, under this authority, were for some time
only unmetrical passages of scripture, set to music by Blow,
Purcell and other composers, of the same kind with the
anthems still generally sung in cathedral and collegiate
churches. But the word " anthem " had no technical significa-
tion which could be an obstacle to the use under this rubric of
metrical hymns.
The " New Version " of the Psalms, by Dr Nicholas Brady and
the poet-laureate NahumTate (both Irishmen), appeared in 1696,
under the sanction of an order in council of William
UI-i " allowing and permitting " its use " in all such
churches, chapels and congregations as should think fit
to receive it." Dr Compton, bishop of London, recommended it
to his diocese. No hymns were then appended to it; but the
authors added a " supplement " in 1703, which received an
exactly similar sanction from an order in council of Queen
Anne. In that supplement there were several new versions
of the canticles, and of the " Veni Creator "; a variation of the
old " humble lamentation of a sinner " ; six hymns for Christn'"' *,
Easter and Holy Communion (all versions or paraphrases of
scripture), which are still usually printed at the end of the
prayer-books containing the new version; and a hymn " on
the divine use of music " — all accompanied by tunes. The
authors also reprinted, with very good taste, the excellent
version of the " Benedicite " which appeared in the book of
1562. Of the hymns in this "supplement," one ("While
shepherds watched their flocks by night ") greatly exceeded
the rest in merit. It has been ascribed to Tate, but it has a
character of simplicity unlike the rest of his works.
The relative merits of the " Old " and " New " versions
have been very variously estimated. Competent judges have
given the old the praise, which certainly cannot be QU aad
accorded to the new, of fidelity to the Hebrew. In new
both, it must be admitted, that those parts which versions
have poetical merit are few and far between; but comPared-
a reverent taste is likely to be more offended by the frequent
sacrifice, in the new, of depth of tone and accuracy of sense
to a fluent commonplace correctness of versification and
diction, than by any excessive homeliness in the old. In both,
however, some psalms, or portions of psalms, are well
enough rendered to entitle them to a permanent place in
the hymn-books — especially the 8th, and parts of the i8th
Psalm, by Sternhold; the 5 7th, 84th and icoth, by Hopkins;
the 23rd, 34th and 36th, and part of the I48th, by Tate and
Brady.
The judgment which a fastidious critic might be disposed
to pass upon both these books may perhaps be considerably
mitigated by comparing them with the works of other
labourers in the same field, of whom Holland, in his interesting
volumes entitled Psalmists of Great Britain, enumerates above
150. Some of them have been real poets — the celebrated earl
of Surrey, Sir Philip Sidney and his sister the countess of
Pembroke, George Sandys, George Wither, John Milton and
John Keble. In their versions, as might be expected, there
are occasional gleams of power and beauty, exceeding anything
to be found in Sternhold and Hopkins, or Tate and Brady;
but even in the best these are rare, and chiefly occur where the
strict idea of translation has been most widely departed from.
In all of them, as a rule, the life and spirit, which in prose versions
of the psalms are so wonderfully preserved, have disappeared.
The conclusion practically suggested by so many failures is
that the difficulties of metrical translation, always great,
are in this case insuperable; and that, while the psalms like
other parts of scripture are abundantly suggestive of motive
and material for hymnographers, it is by assimilation and
adaptation, and not by any attempt to transform their exact
sense into modern poetry, that they may be best used for this
purpose.
The order in council of 1703 is the latest act of any public authority
by which an express sanction has been given to the use of psalms
or hymns in the Church of England. At the end, indeed, of many
Prayer-books, till about the middle of the igth century, there were
commonly found, besides some of the hymns sanctioned by that
order in council, or of those contained in the book of 1562, a sacra-
mental and a Christmas hymn by Doddridge; a Christmas hymn
(varied by Martin Madan) from Charles Wesley; an Easter hymn
of the 1 8th century, beginning "Jesus Christ has risen to-day ";
and abridgments of Bishop Ken's Morning and Evening Hymns.
These additions first began to be made in or about 1791, in London
editions of the Prayer-book and Psalter, at the mere will and
pleasure (so far as appears) of the printers. They had no sort of
authority.
In the state of authority, opinion and practice disclosed by
the preceding narrative may be found the true explanation of
the fact that, in the country of Chaucer, Spenser, gagn3i,
Shakespeare and Milton, and notwithstanding the coogre-
example of Germany, no native congregational g*tionai
hymnody worthy of the name arose till after the com- ym
mencement of the i8th century. Yet there was no want of
HYMNS
appreciation of the power and value of congregational church
music. Milton could write, before 1645: —
" There let the pealing organ blow
To the full-voiced quire below
In service high, and anthems clear,
As may with sweetness through mine ear
Dissolve me into ecstasies,
And bring all Heaven before mine eyes."
Thomas Mace, in his Music's Monument (1676), thus described
the effect of psalm-singing before sermons by the congregation
in York Minster on Sundays, during the siege of 1644: " When
that vast concording unity of the whole congregational chorus
came thundering in, even so as it made the very ground shake
under us, oh, the unutterable ravishing soul's delight! in the
which I was so transported and wrapt up in high contemplations
that there was no room left in my whole man, body, soul and
spirit, for anything below divine and heavenly raptures; nor
could there possibly be anything to which that very singing
might be truly compared, except the right apprehension or
conceiving of that glorious and miraculous quire, recorded in
the scriptures at the dedication of the temple." Nor was there
any want of men well qualified, and by the turn of their minds
predisposed, to shine in this branch of literature. Some (like
Sandys, Boyd and Barton) devoted themselves altogether to
paraphrases of other scriptures as well as the psalms. Others
(like George Herbert, and Francis and John Quarles) moralized,
meditated, soliloquized and allegorized in verse. Without
reckoning these, there were a few, even before the Restoration,
who came very near to the ideal of hymnody.
First in time is the Scottish poet John Wedderburn, who
translated several of Luther's hymns, and in his Compendious
Book of Godly and Spiritual Songs added others of his
own (°r k*s brothers') composition. Some of these
poems, published before 1560, are of uncommon
excellence, uniting ease and melody of rhythm, and structural
skill, with grace of expression, and simplicity, warmth and reality
of religious feeling. Those entitled " Give me thy heart,"
" Go, heart," and " Leave me not," which will be found in a
collection of 1860 called Sacred Songs of Scotland, require little,
beyond the change of some archaisms of language, to adapt them
for church or domestic use at the present day.
Next come the two hymns of " The new Jerusalem," by an
English Roman Catholic priest signing himself F. B. P. (supposed
*° ^e " Francis Baker, Presbyter "), and by another
Scottish poet, David Dickson, of which the history
is given by Dr Bonar in his edition of Dickson's work. This
(Dickson's), which begins " O mother dear, Jerusalem," and
has long been popular in Scotland, is a variation and amplification
by the addition of a large number of new stanzas of the English
original, beginning " Jerusalem, my happy home," written in
Queen Elizabeth's time, and printed (as appears by a copy in
the British Museum) about 1616, when Dickson was still young.
Both have an easy natural flow, and a simple happy rendering of
the beautiful scriptural imagery upon the subject, with a spirit
of primitive devotion uncorrupted by medieval peculiarities.
The English hymn of which some stanzas are now often sung
in churches is the true parent of the several shorter forms, —
all of more than common merit, — which, in modern hymn-
books, begin with the same first line, but afterwards deviate from
the original. Kindred to these is the very fine and faithful
translation, by Dickson's contemporary Drummond of Haw-
thornden of the ancient " Urbsbeata Hierusalem " (" Jerusalem,
that place divine "). Other ancient hymns (two of Thomas
Aquinas, and the " Dies Irae ") were also well translated, in
1646, by Richard Crashaw, after he had become a Roman
Catholic and had been deprived by the parliament of his fellow-
ship at Cambridge.
Conspicuous among the sacred poets of the first two Stuart
reigns in England was George Wither. His Hymnes and Songs
°f l^e Church appeared in 1622-1623, under a patent
of King James I., by which they were declared " worthy
and profitable to be inserted, in convenient manner and due
place, into every English Psalm-book to metre." His Hallelujah
Dicks a
Wither.
Cos/a.
Milton.
(in which some of the former Hymnes and Songs were repeated)
followed in 1641. Some of the Hymnes and Songs were set to
music by Orlando Gibbons, and those in both books were written
to be sung, though there is no evidence that the author con-
templated the use of any of them in churches. They included
hymns for every day in the week (founded, as those contributed
nearly a century afterwards by Charles Coffin to the Parisian
Breviary also were, upon the successive works of the days of
creation) ; hymns for all the church seasons and festivals, including
saints' days; hymns for various public occasions; and hymns
of prayer, meditation and instruction, for all sorts and conditions
of men, under a great variety of circumstances — being at once
a " Christian Year " and a manual of practical piety. Many
of them rise to a very high point of excellence, — particularly
the " general invitation to praise God " (" Come, O come, in
pious lays "), with which Hallelujah opens; the thanksgivings
for peace and for victory, the -Coronation Hymn, a Christmas,
an Epiphany, and an Easter Hymn, and one for St Bartholomew's
day (Hymns i, 74, 75, and 84 in part i., and 26, 29, 36 and 54
in part ii. of Hallelujah).
John Cosin, afterwards bishop of Durham, published in 1627
a volume of " Private Devotions," for the canonical hours and
other occasions. In this there are seven or eight
hymns of considerable merit, — among them a very good
version of the Ambrosian " Jam lucis orto sidere," and the
shorter version of the " Veni Creator," which was introduced
after the Restoration into the consecration and ordination
services of the Church of England.
The hymns of Milton (on the Nativity, Passion, Circumcision
and " at a Solemn Music "), written about 1629, in
his" early manhood, were probably not intended for
singing; but they are odes full of characteristic beauty and
power.
During the Commonwealth, in 1654, Jeremy Taylor published
at the end of his Golden Grove, twenty-one hymns, described
by himself as " celebrating the mysteries and chief
festivals of the year, according to the manner of the J"re™y
ancient church, fitted to the fancy and devotion of
the younger and pious persons, apt for memory, and to be joined
to their other prayers." Of these, his accomplished editor,
Bishop Heber, justly says: —
" They are in themselves, and on their own account, very interest-
ing compositions. Their metre, indeed, which is that species of
spurious Pindaric which was fashionable with his contemporaries,
is an obstacle, and must always have been one, to their introduction
into public or private psalmody; and the mixture of that alloy of
conceits and quibbles which was an equally frequent and still greater
defilement of some of the finest poetry of the I7th century will
materially diminish their effect as devotional or descriptive odes.
Yet, with all these faults, they are powerful, affecting, and often
harmonious; there are many passages of which Cowley need not
have been ashamed, and some which remind us, not disadvantage-
ously, of the corresponding productions of Milton."
He mentions particularly the advent hymn (" Lord, come
away "), part of the hymn " On heaven," and (as " more regular
in metre, and in words more appli cable to public devotion ")
the " Prayer for Charity " (" Full of mercy, full of love ").
The epoch of the Restoration produced in 1664 Samuel
Grossman's Young Man's Calling, with a few " Divine Medita-
tions " in verse attached to it; in 1668 John Austin's
Devotions in the ancient way of offices, with psalms,
hymns and prayers for every day in the week and every period.
holyday in the year; and in 1681 Richard Baxter's
Poetical Fragments. In these books there are altogether seven
or eight hymns, the whole or parts of which are extremely good :
Grossman's " New Jerusalem " (" Sweet place, sweet place
alone "), one of the best of that class, and " My life's a shade,
my days "; Austin's " Hark, my soul, how everything," " Fain
would my thoughts fly up to Thee," " Lord, now the time
returns," " Wake ah1 my hopes, lift up your eyes "; and Baxter's
" My whole, though broken heart, O Lord," and " Ye holy
angels bright." Austin's Offices (he was a Roman Catholic)
seem to have attracted much attention. Theophilus Dorrington,
in 1686, published variations of them under the title of Reformed
xiv. 7
194
HYMNS
Devotions; George Hickes, the non-juror, wrote one of his
numerous recommendatory prefaces to S. Hopton's edition;
and the Wesleys, in their earliest hymn-book, adopted hymns
from them, with little alteration. These writers were followed
by John Mason in 1683, and Thomas Shepherd in 1692, — the
former, a country clergyman, much esteemed by Baxter and other
Nonconformists; the latter himself a Nonconformist, who
finally emigrated to America. Between these two men there was
a close alliance, Shepherd's Penitential Cries being published
as an addition to the Spiritual Songs of Mason. Their hymns
came into early use in several Nonconformist congregations;
but, with the exception of one by Mason (" There is a stream
which issues forth'"), they are not suitable for public singing.
In those of Mason there is often a very fine vein of poetry;
and later authors have, by extracts or centoes from different
parts of his works (where they were not disfigured by his general
quaintness), constructed several hymns of more than average
excellence.
Three other eminent names of the I7th century remain to be
mentioned, John Dryden, Bishop Ken and Bishop Simon
Patrick; with which may be associated that of Addison, though
he wrote in the i8th century.
Dryden's translation of " Veni Creator " a cold and laboured
performance, is to be met with in many hymn-books. Abridg-
dea ments of Ken's morning and evening hymns are in all.
Kea. " These, with the midnight hymn, which is not inferior
to them, first appeared in 1697, appended to the third
edition of the author's Manual of Prayers for Winchester Scholars.
Between these and a large number of other hymns (on the
attributes of God, and for the festivals of the church) published
by Bishop Ken after 1703 the contrast is remarkable. The
universal acceptance of the morning and evening hymns is due
to their transparent simplicity, warm but not overstrained
devotion, and extremely popular style. Those afterwards
published have no such qualities. They are mystical, florid, stiff,
didactic and seldom poetical, and deserve the neglect
into which they have fallen. Bishop Patrick's hymns
were chiefly translations from the Latin, most of them from
Prudentius. The best is a version of " Alleluia duke carmen."
^ tne ^ve attributed to Addison, not more than three
are adapted to public singing; one (" The spacious
firmament on high ") is a very perfect and finished composition,
taking rank among the best hymns in the English language.1
From the preface to Simon Browne's hymns, published in
1720, we learn that down to the time of Dr Watts the only
hymns known to be " in common use, either in private families
or in Christian assemblies," were those of Barton, Mason and
Shepherd, together with " an attempt to turn some of George
Herbert's poems into common metre," and a few sacramental
hymns by authors now forgotten, named Joseph Boyse (1660-
1728) and Joseph Stennett. Of the 1410 authors of original
British hymns enumerated in Daniel Sedgwick's catalogue,
published in 1863, 1213 are of later date than 1707; and, if any
correct enumeration could be made of the total number of hymns
of all kinds published in Great Britain before and after that date,
the proportion subsequent to 1 707 would be very much larger.
1 The authorship of this and of one other, " When all thy mercies,
O my God," has been made a subject of controversy, — being claimed
for Andrew Maryell (who died in 1678), in the preface to Captain E.
Thompson's edition (1776) of Marvell's Works. But this claim does
not appear to be substantiated. The editor did not give his readers
the means of judging as to the real age, character or value of a manu-
script to which he referred ; he did not say that these portions of it
were in Marvell's handwriting; he did not even himself include
them among Marvell's poems, as published in the body of his edition ;
and he advanced a like claim on like grounds to two other poems, in
very different styles, which had been published as their own by
Tickell and Mallet. It is certain that all the five hymns were first
made public in 1 7 1 2 , in papers contributed by Addison to the Spectator
(Nos. 441, 453, 465, 489, 513), in which they were introduced in a
way which might have been expected if they were by the hand
which wrote those papers, but which would have been improbable,
and unworthy of Addison, if they were unpublished works of a writer
of so much genius, and such note in his day, as Marvell. They are
all printed as Addison's in Dr Johnson's British Poets.
Patrick.
Add/son
Watts.
The English Independents, as represented by Dr Isaac Watts,
have a just claim to be considered the real founders of modern
English hymnody. Watts was the first to understand the nature
of the want, and, by the publication of his Hymns in 1707-1709,
and Psalms (not translations, but hymns founded on psalms)
in 1709, he led the way in providing for it. His immediate
followers were Simon Browne and Philip Doddridge. Later in
the i8th century, Joseph Hart, Thomas Gibbons, Miss Anne
Steele, Samuel Medley, Samuel Stennett, John Ryland, Benjamin
Beddome and Joseph Swain succeeded to them.
Among these writers, most of whom produced some hymns of
merit, and several are extremely voluminous, Isaac Watts and
Philip Doddridge are pre-eminent. It has been the
fashion with some to disparage Watts, as if he had
never risen above the level of his Hymns for Little Children. No
doubt his taste is often faulty, and his style very unequal, but,
looking to the good, and disregarding the large quantity of inferior
matter, it is probable that more hymns which approach to a very
high standard of excellence, and are at the same time suitable
for congregational use, .may be found in his works than in those
of any other English writer. Such are " When I survey the
wondrous cross," "Jesus shall reign where'er the sun" (and also
another adaptation of the same 72nd Psalm), " Before Jehovah's
awful throne " (first line of which, however, is not his, but
Wesley's), " Joy to the world, the Lord is come," " My soul,
repeat His praise," " Why do we mourn departing friends,"
" There is a land of pure delight," " Our God, our help in ages
past," " Up to the hills I lift mine eyes," and many more. It
is true that in some of these cases dross is found in the original
poems mixed with gold; but the process of separation, by selec-
tion without change, is not difficult. As long as pure nervous
English, unaffected fervour, strong simplicity and liquid yet
manly sweetness are admitted to be characteristics of a good
hymn, works such as these must command admiration.
Doddridge is, generally, much more laboured and artificial;
but his place also as a hymn-writer ought to be determined, not
by his failures, but by his successes, of which the Doddrld
number is not inconsiderable. In his better works
he is distinguished by a graceful and pointed, sometimes even
a noble style. His " Hark, the glad sound, the Saviour comes "
(which is, indeed, his masterpiece), is as sweet, vigorous and
perfect a composition as can anywhere be found. Two other
hymns, " How gentle God's commands," and that which, in
a form slightly varied, became the " O God of Bethel, by whose
hand," of the Scottish " Paraphrases," well represent his softer
manner.
Of the other followers in the school of Watts, Miss Anne Steele
(1717-1778) is the most popular and perhaps the best. Her
hymn beginning " Far from these narrow scenes of night "
deserves high praise, even by the side of other good performances
on the same subject.
The influence of Watts was felt in Scotland, and among the
first whom it reached there was Ralph Erskine. This seems
to have been after the publication of Erskine's Gospel Sonnets,
which appeared in 1732, five years before he joined his brother
Ebenezer in the Secession Church. The Gospel Sonnets became,
as some have said, a " people's classic "; but there is in them
very little which belongs to the category of hymnody. More
than nineteen-twentieths of this very curious book are occupied
with what are, in fact, theological treatises and catechisms,
mystical meditations on Christ as a bridegroom or husband,
and spiritual enigmas, paradoxes, and antithetical conceits,
versified, it is true, but of a quality of which such lines as —
" Faith's certain by fiducial acts,
Sense by its evidential facts,"
may be taken as a sample. The grains of poetry scattered
through this large mass of Calvinistic divinity are very few;
yet in one short passage of seven stanzas (" O send me down a
draught of love "), the fire burns with a brightness so remarkable
as to justify a strong feeling of regret that the gift which this
writer evidently had in him was not more often cultivated.
Another passage, not so well sustained, but of considerable
HYMNS
beauty (part of the last piece under the title " The believer's
soliloquy "), became afterwards, in the hands of John Berridge,
the foundation of a very striking hymn (" O happy saints, who
walk in light ").
After his secession, Ralph Erskine published two paraphrases
of the " Song of Solomon," and a number of other " Scripture
songs," paraphrased, in like manner, from the Old and New
Testaments. In these the influence of Watts became very
apparent, not only by a change in the writer's general style, but
by the direct appropriation of no small quantity of matter from
Dr Watts's hymns, with variations which were not always
improvements. His paraphrases of i Cor. i. 24; Gal. vi. 14; Heb.
vi. 17-19; Rev. v. n, 12, vii. 10-17, and xii. 7-12 are little else
than Watts transformed. One of these (Rev. vii. 10-17) is
interesting as a variation and improvement, intermediate
between the original and the form which it ultimately assumed
as the 66th " Paraphrase " of the Church of Scotland, of Watts's
" What happy men or angels these," and " These glorious
minds, how bright they shine." No one can compare it with
its ultimate product, " How bright these glorious spirits shine,"
without perceiving that William Cameron followed Erskine, and
only added finish and grace to his work, — both excelling Watts,
in this instance, in simplicity as well as in conciseness.
Of the contributions to the authorized " Paraphrases " (with
the settlement of which committees of the General Assembly of
the Church of Scotland were occupied from 1745, or
Scottish earijer> till 1781), the most noteworthy, besides the
pArases. two already mentioned, were those of John Morrison
and those claimed for Michael Bruce. The obligations of
these " Paraphrases " to English hymnody, already traced in
some instances (to which may be added the adoption from
Addison of three out of the five " hymns " appended to them),
are perceptible in the vividness and force with which these
writers, while adhering with a severe simplicity to the sense of
the passages of Scripture which they undertook to render,
fulfilled the conception of a good original hymn. Morrison's
" The race that long in darkness pined " and " Come, let us to
the Lord our God," and Bruce's " Where high the heavenly
temple stands " (if this was really his), are well entitled to that
praise. The advocates of Bruce in the controversy, not yet
closed, as to the poems said to have been entrusted by him to
John Logan, and published by Logan in his own name, also
claim for him the credit of having varied the paraphrase " Behold,
the mountain of the Lord," from its original form, as printed
by the committee of the 'General Assembly in 1745, by some
excellent touches.
Attention must now be directed to the hymns produced
by the " Methodist " movement, which began about 1738,
and which afterwards became divided, between those
hymns * esteemed Arminian, under John Wesley, those who
adhered to the Moravians, when the original alliance
between that body and the founders of Methodism was dissolved,
and the Calvinists, of whom Whitfield was the leader, and Selina,
countess of Huntingdon, the patroness. Each of these sections
had its own hymn-writers, some of whom did, and others did not,
secede from the Church of England. The Wesleyans had Charles
Wesley, Robert Seagrave and Thomas Olivers; the Moravians,
John Cennick, with whom, perhaps, may be classed John Byrom,
who imbibed the mystical ideas of some of the German schools;
the Calvinists, Augustus Montague Toplady, John Berridge,
William Williams, Martin Madan, Thomas Haweis, Rowland Hill,
John Newton and William Cowper.
Among all these writers, the palm undoubtedly belongs to
Charles Wesley. In the first volume of hymns published by the
two brothers are several good translations from the
German, believed to be by John Wesley, who, although
he translated and adapted, is not supposed to have
written any original hymns; and the influence of German
hymnody, particularly of the works of Paul Gerhardt, Scheffler,
Tersteegen and Zinzendorf, may be traced in a large proportion of
Charles Wesley's works. He is more subjective and meditative
than Watts and his school; there is a didactic turn, even in his
Wesley.
most objective pieces, as, for example, in his Christmas and
Easter hymns; most of his works are supplicatory, and his faults
are connected with the same habit of mind. He is apt to repeat
the same thoughts, and to lose force by redundancy — he runs
sometimes even to a tedious length; his hymns are not always
symmetrically constructed, or well balanced and finished off.
But he has great truth, depth and variety of feeling; his diction
is manly and always to the point; never florid, though sometimes
passionate and not free from exaggeration; often vivid and
picturesque. Of his spirited style there are few better examples
than " 0 for a thousand tongues to sing," " Blow ye the trumpet,
blow," " Rejoice, the Lord is King " and " Come, let us join our
friends above "; of his more tender vein, " Happy soul, thy days
are ended "; and of his fervid contemplative style (without
going beyond hymns fit for general use), " O Thou who earnest
from above," " Forth in Thy name, O Lord, I go " and " Eternal
beam of light divine." With those whose taste is for hymns in
which warm religious feelings are warmly and demonstratively ex-
pressed, " Jesus, lover of my soul," is as popular as any of these.
Of the other Wesleyan hymn-writers, Olivers, originally a
Welsh shoemaker and afterwards a preacher, is the most re-
markable. He is the author of only two works, both „
odes, in a stately metre, and from their length unfit for
congregational singing, but one of them, " The God of Abraham
praise," an ode of singular power and beauty.
The Moravian Methodists produced few hymns now available
for general use. The best are Cennick's " Children of the heavenly
King " and Hammond's " Awake and sing the song of ceaakk,
Moses and the Lamb," the former of which (abridged), Ham-
and the latter as varied by Madan, are found in many mood,
hymn-books, and are deservedly esteemed. John By">m-
Byrom, whose name we have thought it convenient to
connect with these, though he did not belong to the Moravian
community, was the author of a Christmas hymn (" Christians
awake, salute the happy morn ") which enjoys great popularity;
and also of a short subjective hymn, very fine both in feeling and
in expression, " My spirit longeth for Thee within my troubled
breast."
The contributions of the Calvinistic Methodists to English
hymnody are of greater extent and value. Few writers of hymns
had higher gifts than Toplady, author of " Rock of Tg Jad
ages," by some esteemed the finest in the English
language. He was a man of ardent temperament, enthusiastic
zeal, strong convictions and great energy of character. " He
had," says one of his biographers, " the courage of a lion, but his
frame was brittle as glass." Between him and John Wesley
there was a violent opposition of opinion, and much acrimonious
controversy; but the same fervour and zeal which made him
an intemperate theologian gave warmth, richness and spirituality
to his hymns. In some of them, particularly those which, like
" Deathless principle, arise," are meditations after the German
manner, and not without direct obligation to German originals,
the setting is somewhat too artificial; but his art is never in-
consistent with a genuine flow of real feeling. Others (e.g.
" When languor and disease invade " and " Your harps, ye
trembling saints ") fail to sustain to the end the beauty with
which they began, and would have been better for abridgment.
But in all these, and in most of his other works, there is great
force and sweetness, both of thought and language, and an easy
and harmonious versification.
Berridge, William Williams (1717-1791) and Rowland Hill, all
men remarkable for eccentricity, activity and the devotion of
their lives to the special work of missionary preaching, Berridge,
though not the authors of [many good hymns, composed, Williams
or adapted from earlier compositions, some of great and
merit. One of Berridge, adapted from Erskine, has * Mia'
been already mentioned; another, adapted from Watts, is
" Jesus, cast a look on me." Williams, a Welshman, who wrote
" Guide me, O Thou great Jehovah," was especially an apostle of
Calvinistic Methodism in his own country, and his hymns are
still much used in the principality. Rowland Hill wrote the
popular hymn beginning " Exalted high at God's right hand."
196
HYMNS
If, however, the number as well as the quality of good hymns
available for general use is to be regarded, the authors of the
Olney Hymns are entitled to be placed at the head of
Cow-per ajj the wrjters of this Calvinistic school. The greater
Newton. number of the Olney Hymns are, no doubt, homely
and didactic; but to the best of them, and they are
no inconsiderable proportion, the tenderness of Cowper and the
manliness of John Newton (1725-1807) give the interest of
contrast, as well as that of sustained reality. If Newton carried
to some excess the sound principle laid down by him, that
" perspicuity, simplicity and ease should be chiefly attended to,
and the imagery and colouring of poetry, if admitted at all,
should be indulged very sparingly and with great judgment,"
if he is often dry and colloquial, he rises at other times into
" soul-animating strains," such as " Glorious things of thee are
spoken, Zion, city of our God " ; and sometimes (as in " Approach,
my soul, the mercy seat ") rivals Cowper himself in depth of
feeling. Cowper's hymns in this book are, almost without
exception, worthy of his name. Among them are " Hark, my
soul, it is the Lord," " There is a fountain filled with blood,"
" Far from the world, O Lord, I flee," " God moves in a mys-
terious way " and " Sometimes a light surprises." Some,
perhaps, even of these, and others of equal excellence (such as
" O for a closer walk with God "), speak the language of a
special experience, which, in Cowper's case, was only too real,
but which could not, without a degree of unreality not desirable
in exercises of public worship, be applied to themselves by all
ordinary Christians.
During the first quarter of the igth century there were not
many indications of the tendency, which afterwards became
manifest, to enlarge the boundaries of British hymnody.
'ceniu The Remains °f Henry Kirke White, published by
aymas. Southey in 1807, contained a series of hymns, some of
which are still in use ; and a few of Bishop Heber's hymns
and those of Sir Robert Grant, which, though offending rather
R Grant to° much against John Newton's canon, are well
known and popular, appeared between 1811 and 1816,
in the Christian Observer. In John Bowdler's Remains, published
soon after his death in 1815, there are a few more of
the same, perhaps too scholarlike, character. But
the chief hymn-writers of that period were two clergymen of
the Established Church — one in Ireland, Thomas Kelly, and
the other in England, William Hum — who both became Non-
conformists, and the Moravian poet, James Montgomery (1771-
1854), a native of Scotland.
Kelly was the son of an Irish judge, and in 1804 published
a small volume of ninety-six hymns, which grew in successive
editions till, in the last before his death in 1854, they
amounted to 765. There is, as might be expected,
in this great number a large preponderance of the didactic
and commonplace. But not a few very excellent hymns may
be gathered from them. Simple and natural, without the vivacity
and terseness of Watts or the severity of Newton, Kelly has
some points in common with both those writers, and he is less
subjective than most of the " Methodist " school. His hymns
beginning " Lo ! He comes, let all adore Him," and " Through
the day Thy love hath spared us," have a rich, melodious move-
ment; and another, " We sing the praise of Him who died,"
is distinguished by a calm , subdued power, rising gradually from
a rather low to a very high key.
Hum published in 1813 a volume of 370 hymns, which were
afterwards increased to 420. There is little in them which
deserves to be saved from oblivion; but one at least,
" There is a river deep and broad," may bear com-
parison with the best of those which have been produced upon
the same, and it is rather a favourite, theme.
The Psalms and Hymns of James Montgomery were published
in 1822 and 1825, though written earlier. More cultivated
an(* art'st'c tnan Kelly, he is less simple and natural.
His " Hail to the Lord's Anointed, " " Songs of praise
the angels sang " and " Mercy alone can meet my
case " are among his most successful efforts.
Bawdier.
Kelly.
Hum.
Moat-
During this period, the collections of miscellaneous hymns
for congregational use, of which the example was set by the
Wesleys, Whitfield, Toplady and Lady Huntingdon,
had greatly multiplied; and with them the practice
(for which, indeed, too many precedents existed in aymas-
the history of Latin and German hymnody) of every
collector altering the compositions of other men without scruple,
to suit his own doctrine or taste; with the effect, too generally,
of patching and disfiguring, spoiling and emasculating the
works so altered, substituting neutral tints for natural colouring,
and a dead for a living sense. In the Church of England the
use of these collections had become frequent in churches and
chapels, principally in cities and towns, where the sentiments
of the clergy approximated to those of the Nonconformists.
In rural parishes, when the clergy were not of the " Evangelical "
school, they were generally held in disfavour; for which, even
if doctrinal prepossessions had not entered into the question, the
great want of taste and judgment often manifested in their
compilation, and perhaps also the prevailing mediocrity of
the bulk of the original compositions from which most of them
were derived, would be enough to account. In addition to this,
the idea that no hymns ought to be used in any services of the
Church of England, except prose anthems after the third collect,
without express royal or ecclesiastical authority, continued
down to that time largely to prevail among high churchmen.
Two publications, which appeared almost simultaneously
in 1827 — Bishop Heber's Hymns, with a few added by Dean
Milman, and John Keble's Christian Fear (not a hymn-
book, but one from which several admirable hymns "nnm'aa
have been taken, and the well-spring of many streams Kebie. '
of thought and feeling by which good hymns have
since been produced) — introduced a new epoch, breaking down
the barrier as to hymnody which had till then existed between
the different theological schools of the Church of England.
In this movement Richard Mant, bishop of Down,
was also one of the first to co-operate. It soon received
a great additional impulse from the increased attention which,
about the same time, began to be paid to ancient hymnody,
and from the publication in 1833 of Bunsen's Gesangbuch.
Among its earliest fruits was the Lyra apostolica, containing
hymns, sonnets and other devotional poems, most of them
originally contributed by some of the leading authors of the
Tracts for the Times to the British Magazine; the finest
of which is the pathetic " Lead, kindly Light, amid th' en-
circling gloom," by Cardinal Newman — well known, and uni-
versally admired. From that time hymns and hymn- ,
... ... .. , . .~..J , T-, •; Newmaa.
writers rapidly multiplied in the Church of England,
and in Scotland also. Nearly 600 authors whose publications
were later than 1827 are enumerated in Sedgwick's catalogue of
1863, and about half a million hymns are now in existence.
Works, critical and historical, upon the subject of hymns, have
also multiplied; and collections for church use have become
innumerable — several of the various religious denominations,
and many of the leading ecclesiastical and religious societies,
having issued hymn-books of their own, in addition to those
compiled for particular dioceses, churches and chapels, and to
books (like Hymns Ancient and Modern, published 1861, supple-
mented 1889, revised edition, 1905) which have become
popular without any sanction from authority. To mention
all the authors of good hymns since the commencement of this
new epoch would be impossible; but probably no names could
be chosen more fairly representative of its characteristic merits,
and perhaps also of some of its defects, than those of Josiah
Conder and James Edmeston among English Nonconformists;
Henry Francis Lyte and Charlotte Elliott among evangelicals in
the Church of England; John Mason Neale and Christopher
Wordsworth, bishop of Lincoln, among English churchmen
of the higher school; Arthur Penrhyn Stanley, Edward H.
Plumptre, Frances Ridley Havergal; and in Scotland, Dr
Horatius Bonar, Dr Norman Macleod and Dr George Matheson.
American hymn-writers belong to the same schools, and have
been affected by the same influences. Some of them have
HYMNS
197
enjoyed a just reputation on both sides of the Atlantic. Among
those best known are John Greenleaf Whittier, Bishop Doane,
Dr W. A. Muhlenberg and Thomas Hastings; and it is difficult
to praise too highly such works as the Christmas hymn, " It came
upon the midnight clear," by Edmund H. Sears; the Ascension
hymn, " Thou, who didst stoop below," by Mrs S. E. Miles;
two by Dr Ray Palmer, " My faith looks up to Thee, Thou
Lamb of Calvary," and "Jesus, Thou joy of loving hearts,"
the latter of which is the best among several good English
versions of "Jesu, dulcedo, cordium"; and "Lord of all being,
throned afar," by Oliver Wendell Holmes.
The more modern " Moody and Saakey " hymns (see MOODY,
D. L.) popularized a new Evangelical type, and the Salvation
Army has carried this still farther.
7. Conclusion.— The object aimed at in this article has been
to trace the general history of the principal schools of ancient
and modern hymnody, and especially the history of its use in
the Christian church. For this purpose it has not been thought
necessary to give any account of the hymns of Racine, Madame
Guyon and others, who can hardly be classed with any school,
nor of the works of Caesar Malan of Geneva (1787-1864) and
other quite modern hymn-writers of the Reformed churches in
Switzerland and France.
On a general view of the whole subject, hymnody is seen to
have been a not inconsiderable factor in religious worship.
It has been sometimes employed to disseminate and popularize
particular views, but its spirit and influence has been, on the whole,
catholic. It has embodied the faith, trust and hope, and no
small part of the inward experience, of generation after genera-
tion of men, in many different countries and climates, of many
different nations, and in many varieties of circumstances and
condition. Coloured, indeed, by these differences, and also
by the various modes in which the same truths have been
apprehended by different minds and sometimes reflecting
partial and imperfect conceptions of them, and errors with which
they have been associated in particular churches, times and
places, its testimony is, nevertheless, generally the same. It
has upon it a stamp of genuineness which cannot be mistaken.
It bears witness to the force of a central attraction more powerful
than all causes of difference, which binds together times
ancient and modern, nations of various race and language,
churchmen and nonconformists, churches reformed and unre-
formed; to a true fundamental unity among good Christians;
and to a substantial identity in their moral and spiritual
experience. (S.)
The regular practice of hymnody in English musical history
dates from the beginning of the i6th century. Luther's verses
were adapted sometimes to ancient church melodies, sometimes to
tunes of secular songs, and sometimes had music composed for them
by himself and others. Many rhyming Latin hymns are of earlier
date whose tunes are identified with them, some of which tunes,
with the subject of their Latin text, are among the Reformer's
appropriations; but it was he who put the words of praise and
prayer into the popular mouth, associated with rhythmical music
which aided to imprint the words upon the memory and to enforce
their enunciation. In conjunction with his friend Johann Walther,
Luther issued a collection of poems for choral singing in 1524, which
was followed by many others in North Germany. The English
versions of the Psalms by Sternhold and Hopkins and their prede-
cessors, and the French version by Clement Marot and Theodore
Beza, were written with the same purpose of fitting sacred minstrelsy
to the voice of the multitude. Goudimel in 1566 and Claudin le
Jeune in 1607 printed harmonizations of tunes that had (then become
standard for the Psalms, and in England several such publications
appeared, culminating in Thomas Ravenscroft's famous collection,
The Whole Book of Psalms (1621); in all of these the arrangements
of the tunes were by various masters. The English practice of
hymn-singing was much strengthened on the return of the exiled
reformers from Frankfort and Geneva, when it became so general
that, according to Bishop Jewell, thousands of the populace who
assembled at Paul's Cross to hear the preaching would join in the
singing of psalms before and after the sermon.
The placing of the choral song of the church within the lips of
the people had great religious and moral influence; it has had also
its great effect upon art, shown in the productions of the North
German musicians ever since the first days of the Reformation,
which abound in exercises of scholarship and imagination wrought
upon the tunes of established acceptance. Some of these are accom-
paniments to the tunes with interludes between the several strains,
and some are compositions for the organ or for orchestral instru-
ments that consist of such elaboration of the themes as is displayed
in accompaniments to voices, but of far more complicated and ex-
tended character. A special art-form that was developed to a very
high degree, but has passed into comparative disuse, was the
structure of all varieties of counterpoint extemporaneously upon
the known hymn-tunes (chorals), and several masters acquired
great fame by success in its practice, of whom J. A. Reinken (1623-
1722), Johann Pachelbel (1653-1706), Georg Boehm and the
great J. S. Bach are specially memorable. The hymnody of North
Germany has for artistic treatment a strong advantage which is
unpossessed by that of England, in that for the most part the same
verses are associated with the same tunes, so that, whenever the
text or the music is heard, either prompts recollection of the other,
whereas in England tunes were always and are now often composed
to metres and not to poems; any tune in a given metre is available
for every poem in the same, and hence there are various tunes to
one poem, and various poems to one tune.1 In England a tune
is named generally after some place^-as " York," " Windsor,"
" Dundee," — or by some other unsignifying word; in North Ger-
many a tune is mostly named by the initial words of the verses to
which it is allied, and consequently, whenever it is heard, whether
with words or without, it necessarily suggests to the nearer the
whole subject of that hymn of which it is the musical moiety un-
divorceable from the literary half. Manifold as they are, knowledge
of the choral tunes is included in the earliest schooling of every
Lutheran and every Calvinist in Germany, which thus enables all
to take part in performance of the tunes, and hence expressly the
definition of " choral." Compositions grounded on the standard
tune are then not merely school exercises, but works of art which
link the sympathies of the writer and the listener, and aim at ex-
pressing the feeling prompted by the hymn under treatment.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: I. Ancient. — George Cassander, Hymni ecclesi-
astici (Cologne, 1556); Georgius Fabricius, Poetarum veterum
ecclesiasticorum (Frankfort, 1578) ; Cardinal J. M. Thomasius,
Hymnarium in Opera, ii. 351 seq. (Rome, 1747); A. J. Ram-
bach, Anthologie chrisllicher Gesange (Altona, 1817); H. A. Daniel,
Thesaurus hymnologicus (Leipzig, 5 vols., 1841-1856); J. M.
Neale, Hymni ecclesiae et sequential (London, 1851-1852); and
Hymns of the Eastern Church (1863). The dissertation prefixed to the
second volume of the Acta sanctorum of the Bollandists; Cardinal J.
B. Pitra, Hymnographie de Veglise grecque (1867), Analecta sacra
(1876); W. Christ and M. Paranikas, Anthologia Graeca carminum
Christianorum (Leipzig, 1 87 1 ) ; F. A. March, Latin Hymns with English
Notes (New York, 1875) ; R. C. Trench, Sacred Latin Poetry (London,
4th ed., 1874); J. Pauly, Hymni breviarii Romani (Aix-la-Chapelle,
3 vols., 1868-1870) ; Pimont, Les Hymnes du breviaire remain
(vols. 1-3, 1874-1884, unfinished); A. W. F. Fischer, Kirchenlieder-
Lexicon (Gotna, 1878-1879); J. Kayser, B'eitrdge zur Geschichte der
altesten Kirchenhymnen (1881); M. Manitius, Geschichte der christ-
lichen lateinischen Poesie (Stuttgart, 1891); John Julian, Dictionary
of Hymnology (1892, new ed. 1907). For criticisms of metre, see
also Huemer, Untersuchungen uber die altesten christlichen Rhythmen
(1879); E. Bouvy, Poetes et melodes (Nimes, 1886); C. Krumbacher,
Geschichte der byzantinischen Literatur (Munich, 1897, p. 700 seq.);
J. M. Neale, Latin dissertation prefixed to Daniel's Thesaurus, vol. 5 ;
and D. J. Donahoe, Early Christian Hymns (London, 1909).
II. Medieval. — Walafrid Strabo's treatise, ch. 25, De hymnis, &c.;
Radulph of Tongres, De psaltario obseroando (l4th century);
Clichtavaens, EluMatorium ecclesiasticum (Paris, 1556); Faustinas
Arevalus, Hymnodia Hispanica (Rome, 1786); E. du MeYil, Poesies
populaireslatinesanterieuresauXIII°siecle(Pa.ns,\i 843); J.Stevenson,
Latin Hymns of the Anglo-Saxon Church (Surtees Society, Durham,
1851); Norman, Hymnarium Sarisburiense (London, 1851); J. D.
Chambers, Psalter, &c., according to the Sarum use (1852); F. J.
Mone, Lateinische Hymnen des Mittelalters (Freiburg, 3 vols., 1853-
1855); Ph. Wackernagel, Das deutsche Kirchenlied yon der altesten
Zeit bis zum Anfang des 17. Jahrhunderts, vol. i. (Leipzig, 1864); E.
Dummler, Poetae latini aevi Carolini (1881-1890); the Hymnolo-
gische Beitrage: Quellen und Forschungen zur Geschichte der lateini-
schen Hymnendichtnng, edited by C. Blume and G. M. Dreves (Leip-
zig, 1897); G. C. F. Mohnike, Hymnologische Forschungen; Klem-
ming, Hymni et sequential in regno Sueciae (Stockholm, 4 vols.,
1885-1887); Das katholische^ deutsche Kirchenlied (vol. i. by K.
Severin Meister, 1862, vol. ii. by W. Baumker, 1883); the " Hym-
nodia Hiberica," Spanische Hymnen des Mittelalters, vol. xvi.
(1894); the "Hymnodia Gotica," Mozarabische Hymnen des
altspanischen Ritus, vol. xxvii. (1897); J. Danko, Vetus hymnarium
ecclesiasticae Hungarian (Budapest, 1893); J. H. Bernard and R.
Atkinson, The Irish Liber Hymnorum (2 vols., London, 1898);
C. A. J. Chevalier, Poesie liturgique du moyen age (Paris, 1893).
III. Modern. — J. C. Jacobi, Psalmodia Germanica (1722-1725
and 1732, with supplement added by J. Haberkorn, 1765) ; F. A.
Cunz, Geschichte des deutschen Kirchenliedes (Leipzig, 1855); Baron
von Bunsen, Versuch eines attgemeinen Gesang- und Gebetbuches
1 The old tune for the looth Psalm and Croft's tune for the iO4th
are almost the only exceptions, unless " God save the King " may be
classed under " hymnody." In Scotland also the tune for the I24th
Psalm is associated with its proper text.
198
HYPAETHROS— HYPATIA
(1833) and Allgemeines evangelisches Gesang- und Gebetbuch (1846);
Catherine Winkworth, Christian Singers of Germany (1869) and
Lyra Germanica (1855); Catherine H. Dunn, Hymns from the
German (1857); Frances E. Cox, Sacred Hymns from the German
(London, 1841); Massie, Lyra domestica (1860); Appendix on
Scottish Psalmody in D. Lame's edition of Baillie's Letters and
Journals (1841-1842); J. and C. Wesley, Collection of Psalms and
Hymns (1741); Josiah Miller, Our Hymns, their Authors and Origin
(1866); John Gadsby, Memoirs of the Principal Hymn-writers
(3rd ed., 1861); L. C. Biggs, Annotations to Hymns Ancient and
Modern (1867) ; Daniel Sedgwick, Comprehensive Index of Names
of Original Authors of Hymns (2nd ed., 1863); R. E. Prothero, The
Psalms in Human Life (1907); C. J. Brandt and L. Helweg, Den
danske Psalmedigtning (Copenhagen, 1846-1847); J. N. Skaar,
Norsk Salmehistorie (Bergen, 1879-1880); H. Schttck, Svensk
Literaturhistoria (Stockholm, 1890) ; Rudolf Wolkan, Geschichte der
deutschen Literatur in Bohmen, 246-256, and Das deutsche Kirchenlied
der bohm. Briider (Prague, 1891); Zahn, Die geistlichen Lieder der
Bruder in Bohmen, Mdhren u. Polen (Nuremberg, 1875); and J.
Miiller, " Bohemian Brethren's Hymnody," in J. Julian's Dictionary
of Hymnology.
For account of hymn-tunes, &c., see W. Cowan and James Love,
Music of the Church Hymnody and the Psalter in Metre (London,
1901); and Dickinson, Music in the History of the Western Church
(New York, 1902) ; S. Kiimmerle, Encyklopadie der evangelischen
Kirchenmusik (4 vols., 1888-1895); Chr. Palmer, Evangelische
Hymnologie (Stuttgart, 1865); and P. Utto Kornmiiller, Lexikon
der kirchlichen Tonkunst (1891).
HYPAETHROS (Gr. wraitfpos, beneath the sky, in the open
air, wro, beneath, and aldrjp, air), the Greek term quoted by
Vitruvius (iii. 2) for the opening in the middle of the roof of
decastyle temples, of which " there was no example in Rome,
but one in Athens in the temple of Jupiter Olympius, which is
octastyle." But at the time he wrote (c. 25 B.C.) the cella of this
temple was unroofed, because the columns which had been pro-
vided to carry, at all events, part of the ceiling and roof had been
taken away by Sulla in 80 B.C. The decastyle temple of Apollo
Didymaeus near Miletus was, according to Strabo (c. 50 B.C.),
unroofed, on account of the vastness of its cella, in which precious
groves of laurel bushes were planted. Apart from these two
examples, the references in various writers to an opening of
some kind in the roofs of temples dedicated to particular deities,
and the statement of Vitruvius, which was doubtless based on
the writings of Greek authors, that in decastyle or large temples
the centre was open to the sky and without a roof (medium autem
sub diw est sine tecto), render the existence of the hypaethros
probable in some cases; and therefore C. R. Cockerell's discovery
in the temple at Aegina of two fragments of a coping-stone, in
which there were sinkings on one side to receive the tiles and
covering tiles, has been of great importance in the discussion
of this subject. In the conjectural restoration of the opaion
or opening in the roof shown in Cockerell's drawing, it has been
made needlessly large, having an area of about one quarter of
the superficial area of the cella between the columns, and since
in the Pantheon at Rome the relative proportions of the central
opening in the dome and the area of the Rotunda are i: 22,
and the light there is ample, in the clearer atmosphere of Greece
it might have been less. The larger the opening the more con-
spicuous would be the notch in the roof which is so greatly objected
to; in this respect T. J. Hittorff would seem to be nearer the
truth when, in his conjectural restoration of Temple R. at Selinus,
he shows an opaion about half the relative size shown in Cockerell's
of that at Aegina, the coping on the side elevation being much
less noticeable. The problem was apparently solved in another
way at Bassae, where, in the excavations of the temple of Apollo
by Cockerell and Baron Haller von Hallerstein, three marble
tiles were found with pierced openings in them about 18 in. by
10 in.; five of these pierced tiles on either side would have amply
lighted the interior of the cella, and the amount of rain passing
through (a serious element to be considered in a country where
torrential rains occasionally fall) would not be very great or
more than could be retained to dry up in the cella sunk pavement.
In favour of both these methods of lighting the interior of the
cella, the sarcophagus tomb at Cyrene, about 20 ft. long, carved
in imitation of a temple, has been adduced, because, on the top
of the roof and in its centre, there is a raised coping, and a similar
feature is found on a tomb found near Delos; an example from
Crete now in the British Museum shows a pierced tile on each
side of the roof, and a large number of pierced tiles have been
found in Pompeii, some of them surrounded with a rim identical
with that of the marble tiles at Bassae. On the other hand,
there are many authorities, among them Dr W. Dorpfeld, who
have adhered to their original opinion that it was only through
the open doorway that light was ever admitted into the cella,
and with the clear atmosphere of Greece and the reflections
from the marble pavement such lighting would be quite sufficient.
There remains still another source of light to be considered,
that passing through the Parian marble tiles of the roof; the
superior translucency of Parian to any other marble may have
suggested its employment for the roofs of temples, and if, in the
framed ceilings carried over the cella, openings were left, some
light from the Parian tile roof might have been obtained. It
is possibly to this that Plutarch refers when describing the ceiling
and roof of the temple of Demeter at Eleusis, where the columns
in the interior of the temple carried a ceiling, probably constructed
of timbers crossing one another at right angles, and one or more
of the spaces was left open, which Xenocles surmounted by a
roof formed of tiles.
James Fergusson put forward many years ago a conjectural
restoration in which he adopted a clerestory above the super-
imposed columns inside the cella; in order to provide the light
for these windows he indicated two trenches in the roof, one on each
side, and pointed out that the great Hall of Columns at Karnak was
lighted in this way with clerestory windows; but in the first place
the light in the latter was obtained over the flat roofs covering lower
portions of the hall, and in the second place, as it rarely rains in
Thebes, there could be no difficulty about the drainage, while in
Greece, with the torrential rains and snow, these trenches would be
deluged with water, and with all the appliances of the present day
it would be impossible to keep these clerestory windows water-
tight. There is, however, still another objection to Fergusson's
theory; the water collecting in these trenches on the roof would
have to be discharged, for which Fergusson's suggestions are quite
inadequate, and the gargoyles shown in the cella wall would make
the peristyle insupportable just at the time when it was required
for shelter. No drainage otherwise of any kind has eyer been found
in any Greek temple, which is fatal to Fergusson's view. Nor is it
in accordance with the definition " open to the sky." English
cathedrals and churches are all lighted by clerestory windows, but
no one has described them as open to the sky, and although Vitru-
vius's statements are sometimes confusing, his description is far too
clear to leave any misunderstanding as to the lighting of temples
(where it was necessary on account of great length) through an
opening in the roof.
There is one other theory which has been put forward, but which
can only apply to non-peristylar temples, — that light and air was
admitted through the metopes, the apertures between the beams
crossing the cella, — and it has been assumed that because Orestes
was advised in one of the Greek plays to climb up and look through
the metopes of the temple, these were left open ; but if Orestes could
look in, so could the birds, and the statue of the god would be
defiled. The metopes were probably filled in with shutters of
some kind which Orestes knew how to open. (R.P.S.)
HYPALLAGE (Gr. wraXXo/yij, interchange or exchange), a
rhetorical figure, in which the proper relation between two words
according to the rules of syntax are inverted. The stock instance
is that in Virgil, Aen. iii. 61, where dare classibus austros, to
give winds to the fleet, is put for dare classes austris, to give the
fleet to the winds. The term is also loosely applied to figures
of speech properly known as " metonymy " and, generally, to
any striking turn of expression.
HYPATIA ("IfyaTta) (c. A.D. 37(5-415) mathematician and
philosopher, born in Alexandria, was the daughter of Theon,
also a mathematician and philosopher, author of scholia on
Euclid and a commentary on the Almagest, in which it is suggested
that he was assisted by Hypatia (on the 3rd book). After
lecturing in her native city, Hypatia ultimately became the
recognized head of the Neoplatonic school there (c. 400). Her
great eloquence and rare modesty and beauty, combined with
her remarkable intellectual gifts, attracted to her class-room a
large number of pupils. Among these was Synesius, afterwards
(c. 410) bishop of Ptolema'is, several of whose letters to her,
full of chivalrous admiration and reverence, are still extant.
Suidas, misled by an incomplete excerpt in Photius from the life
of Isidorus (the Neoplatonist) by Damascius, states that Hypatia
HYPERBATON— HYPERBOREANS
199
was the wife of Isidorus; but this is chronologically impossible,
since Isidorus could not have been born before 434 (see Hoche in
Philologus) . Shortly after the accession of Cyril to the patriarch-
ate of Alexandria in 412, owing to her intimacy with Orestes,
the pagan prefect of the city, Hypatia was barbarously murdered
by the Nitrian monks and the fanatical Christian mob (March
415). Socrates has related how she was torn from her chariot,
dragged to the Caesareum (then a Christian church), stripped
naked, done to death with oyster-shells (oorpaKois dmXov,
perhaps " cut her throat ") and finally burnt piecemeal. Most
prominent among the actual perpetrators of the crime was one
Peter, a reader; but there seems little reason to doubt Cyril's
complicity (see CYRIL OF ALEXANDRIA).
Hypatia, according to Suidas, was the author of commentaries
on the Arithmetica of Diophantus of Alexandria, on the Conies
of Apollonius of Perga and on the astronomical canon (of
Ptolemy). These works are lost; but their titles, combined with
expressions in the letters of Synesius, who consulted her about
the construction of an astrolabe and a hydroscope, indicate that
she devoted herself specially to astronomy and mathematics.
Little is known of her philosophical opinions, but she appears
to have embraced the intellectual rather than the mystical side
of Neoplatonism, and to have been a follower of Plotinus rather
than of Porphyry and lamblichus. Zeller, however, in his
Outlines of Greek Philosophy (1886, Eng. trans, p. 347), states
that " she appears to have taught the Neoplatonic doctrine in the
form in which lamblichus had stated it." A Latin letter to
Cyril on behalf of Nestorius, printed in the Collectio nova con-
ciliorum, i. (1623), by Stephanus Baluzius (Etienue Baluze, q.v.),
and sometimes attributed to her, is undoubtedly spurious. The
story of Hypatia appears in a considerably disguised yet still
recognizable form in the legend of St Catherine as recorded in
the Roman Breviary (November 25), and still more fully in the
Martyrologies (see A.B. Jameson, Sacred and Legendary Art (1867)
ii. 467.
The chief source for the little we know about Hypatia is the account
given by Socrates (Hist, ecdesiastica, vii. 15). She is the subject of an
epigram by Palladas in the Greek Anthology (ix. 400). See Fabricius,
Bibliotheca Graeca (ed. Harles), ix. 187; John Toland, Tetradymus
(1720); R. Hoche in Philologus (1860), xv. 435; monographs by
Stephan Wolf (Czernowitz, 1879), H. Ligier (Dijon, 1880) and W. A.
Meyer (Heidelberg, 1885), who devotes attention to the relation ol
Hypatia to the chief representatives of Neoplatonism; J. B. Bury,
Hist, of the Later Roman Empire (1889), i. 208,317 ; A. Guldenpenning,
Geschichte des ostrontischen Reiches unter Arcadius und Theodpsius II.
(Halle, 1885), p. 230; Wetzer and Welte, Kirchenlexikon, vi
(1889), from a Catholic standpoint. The story of Hypatia also forms
the basis of the well-known historical romance by Charles Kingsley
(1853).
HYPERBATON (Gr. VTrtpfiarov, a stepping over), the name of a
figure of speech, consisting of a transposition of words from their
natural order, such as the placing of the object before instead o:
after the verb. It is a common method of securing emphasis.
HYPERBOLA, a conic section, consisting of two open branches
each extending to infinity. It may be defined in several ways
The in solido definition as the section of a cone by a plane at a
less inclination to the axis than the generator brings out tfo
existence of the two infinite branches if we imagine the con<
to be double and to extend to infinity. The in piano definition
i.e. as the conic having an eccentricity greater than unity, is a
convenient starting-point for the Euclidian investigation. In
projective geometry it may be defined as the conic which inter
sects the line at infinity in two real points, or to which it is possibli
to draw two real tangents from the centre. Analytically, it i
defined by an equation of the second degree, of which the highes
terms have real roots (see CONIC SECTION).
While resembling the parabola in extending to infinity, the curve
has closest affinities to the ellipse. Thus it has a real centre, two
foci, two directrices and two vertices; the transverse axis, joining
the vertices, corresponds to the major axis of the ellipse, and thi
line through the centre and perpendicular to this axis is called th<
conjugate axis, and corresponds to the minor axis of the ellipse
about these axes the curve is symmetrical. The curve does no
appear to intersect the conjugate axis, but the introduction o
imaginaries permits us to regard it as cutting this axis in two unrea
points. Calling the foci S, S', the real vertices A, A', the extremitie
f the conjugate axis B, B' and the centre C, the positions of B, B'
re given by AB = AB' = CS. If a rectangle be constructed about
AA' and BB', the diagonals of this figure are the " asymptotes "
f the curve; they are the tangents from the centre, and hence
ouch the curve at infinity. These two lines may be pictured in the
n solido definition as the section of a cone by a plane through its
/ertex and parallel to the plane generating the hyperbola. If the
asymptotes be perpendicular, or, in other words, the principal axes
e equal, the curve is called the rectangular hyperbola. The hyper-
ola which has for its transverse and conjugate axes the transverse
and conjugate axes of another hyperbola is said to be the conjugate
lyperbola.
Some properties of the curve will be briefly stated : If PN be the
irdinate of the point P on the curve, AA' the vertices, X the meet of
he directrix and axis and C the centre, then PN2: AN.NA': :
>X2 : AX.A'X, i.e. PN2 is to AN.NA' in a constant ratio. The circle
>n AA' as diameter is called the auxiliarly circle; obviously AN.NA'
equals the square of the tangent to this circle from N, and hence the
ratio of PN to the tangent to the auxiliarly circle from N equals the
ratio of the conjugate axis to the transverse. We may observe
that the asymptotes intersect this circle in the same points as the
directrices. An important property is: the difference of the focal
distances of any point on the curve equals the transverse axis.
The tangent at any point bisects the angle between the focal dis-
tances of the point, and the normal is equally inclined to the focal
distances. Also the auxiliarly circle is the locus of the feet of the per-
pendiculars from the foci on any tangent. Two tangents from any
joint are equally inclined to the focal distance of the point. If the
:angent at P meet the conjugate axis in /, and the transverse in N,
then Ct. PN = BC2; similarly if g and G be the corresponding inter-
sections of the normal, PG : Pg : : BC2 : AC2. A diameter is a line
through the centre and terminated by the curve : it bisects all chords
parallel to the tangents at its extremities; the diameter parallel to
these chords is its conjugate diameter. Any diameter is a mean
proportional between the transverse axis and the focal chord parallel
to the diameter. Any line cuts off equal distances between the curve
and the asymptotes. If the tangent at P meets the asymptotes in
R, R', then CR.CR' = CS2. The geometry of the rectangular hyper-
bola is simplified by the fact that its principal axes are equal.
Analytically the hyperbola is given by ax* -\-zhxy -\-b-f -\-2gx-\-
2/y+c = o wherein ab>W-. Referred to the centre this becomes
Ax2+2H»y+By2-|-C=o; and if the axes of coordinates be the
principal axes of the curve, the equation is further simplified to
Ax2-By2 = C, or if the semi-transverse axis be a, and the semi-
conjugate 6, 3c2/a2-y2/62 = I . This is the most commonly used form.
In the rectangular hyperbola a = b; hence its equation is it2— y = o.
The equations to the asymptotes are x/a= =fcy/6 and x= <*=y respec-
tively. Referred to the asymptotes as axes the general equation
becomes xy = Ki; obviously the axes are oblique in the general
hyperbola and rectangular in the rectangular hyperbola. The values
of the constant kj are f(a2+62) and Ja2 respectively. (See
GEOMETRY: Analytical; Projective.)
HYPERBOLE (from Gr. wrep/SaXXeiv, to throw beyond), a
figure of rhetoric whereby the speaker expresses more than
the truth, in order to produce a vivid impression; hence, an
exaggeration.
HYPERBOREANS ('T7rep/36peot, "Tireppopeioi.) , a mythical
people intimately connected with the worship of Apollo. Their
name does not occur in the Iliad or the Odyssey, but Herodotus
(iv. 32) states that they were mentioned in Hesiod and in the
Epigoni, an epic of the Theban cycle. According to Herodotus,
two maidens, Opis and Arge, and later two others, Hyperoche
and Laodice, escorted by five men, called by the Delians Per-
pherees, were sent by the Hyperboreans with certain offerings
to Delos. Finding that their messengers did not return, the
Hyperboreans adopted the plan of wrapping the offerings in
wheat-straw and requested their neighbours to hand them on
to the next nation, and so on, till they finally reached Delos.
The theory of H. L. Ahrens, that Hyperboreans and Perpherees
are identical, is now widely accepted. In some of the dialects
of northern Greece (especially Macedonia and Delphi) <t> had a
tendency to become /3. The original form of Ilep^epees was
vwepfapfTiu, or vweptfiopoi (" those who carry over "), which
becoming inrtp^opoi gave rise to the popular derivation from
/3opeas (" dwellers beyond the north wind "). The Hyper-
boreans were thus the bearers of the sacrificial gifts to Apollo
over land and sea, irrespective of their home, the name being
given to Delphians, Thessalians, Athenians and Delians. It is
objected by 0. Schroder that the form IIep<£ep««s requires a passive
meaning, " those who are carried round the altar," perhaps
dancers like the whirling dervishes; distinguishing them from
the Hyperboreans, he explains the latter as those who live " above
200
HYPEREIDES— HYPERTROPHY
the mountains," that is, in heaven. Under the influence of the
derivation from /3op£os, the home of the Hyperboreans was
placed in a region beyond the north wind, a paradise like the
Elysian plains, inaccessible by land or sea, whither Apollo could
remove those mortals who had lived a life of piety. It was a
land of perpetual sunshine and great fertility; its inhabitants
were free from disease and war. The duration of their life was
1000 years, but if any desired to shorten it, he decked himself
with garlands and threw himself from a rock into the sea. The
close connexion of the Hyperboreans with the cult of Apollo
may be seen by comparing the Hyperborean myths, the characters
of which by their names mostly recall Apollo or Artemis (Agyieus,
Opis, Hecaergos, Loxo), with the ceremonial of the Apolline
worship. No meat was eaten at the Pyanepsia; the Hyper-
boreans were vegetarians. At the festival of Apollo at Leucas
a victim flung himself from a rock into the sea, like the Hyper-
borean who was tired of life. According to an Athenian decree
(380 B.C.) asses were sacrificed to Apollo at Delphi, and Pindar
(Pythia, x. 33) speaks of " hecatombs of asses " being offered to
him by the Hyperboreans. As the latter conveyed sacrificial
gifts to Delos hidden in wheat-straw, so at the Thargelia a sheaf
of corn was carried round in procession, concealing a symbol of
the god (for other resemblances see Crusius's article). Although
the Hyperborean legends are mainly connected with Delphi and
Delos, traces of them are found in Argos (the stories of Heracles,
Perseus, lo), Attica, Macedonia, Thrace, Sicily and Italy (which
Niebuhr indeed considers their original home). In modern times
the name has been applied to a group of races, which includes the
Chukchis, Koryaks, Yukaghirs, Ainus, Gilyaks and Kamcha-
dales, inhabiting the arctic regions of Asia and America. But if
ever ethnically one, the Asiatic and American branches are now
as far apart from each other as they both are from the Mongolo-
Tatar stock.
i
See O. Crusius in Roscher's Lexikon der Mythplogie; O. Schroder
in Archiv fur Religionswissenschaft (1904), viii. 69; W. Mann-
hardt, Wold- und Feldkttlte (1905) ; L. R. Farnell, Cults of the Greek
Slates (1907), iv. 100.
HYPEREIDES (c. 390-322 B.C.), one of the ten Attic orators,
was the son of Glaucippus, of the deme of Collytus. Having
studied under Isocrates, he began life as a writer of speeches
for the courts, and in 360 he prosecuted Autocles, a general
charged with treason in Thrace (frags. 55-65, Blass). At the
time of the so-called " Social War " (358-355) he accused
Aristophon, then one of the most influential men at Athens,
of malpractices (frags. 40-44, Blass), and impeached Philocrates
(343) for high treason. From the peace of 346 to 324 Hypereides
supported Demosthenes in the struggle against Macedon; but
in the affair of Harpalus he was one of the ten public prosecutors
of Demosthenes, and on the exile of his former leader he became
the head of the patriotic party (324). After the death of
Alexander, he was the chief promoter of the Lamian war against
Antipater and Craterus. After the decisive defeat at Crannon
(322), Hypereides and the other orators, whose surrender was
demanded by Antipater, were condemned to death by the
Athenian partisans of Macedonia. Hypereides fled to Aegina,
but Antipater's emissaries dragged him from the temple of
Aeacus, where he had taken refuge, and put him to death;
according to others, he was taken before Antipater at Athens
or Cleonae. His body was afterwards removed to Athens for
burial.
Hypereides was an ardent pursuer of " the beautiful," which
in his time generally meant pleasure and luxury. His temper
was easy-going and humorous; and hence, though in his develop-
ment of the periodic sentence he followed Isocrates, the essential
tendencies of his style are those of Lysias, whom he surpassed,
however, in the richness of his vocabulary and in the variety of
his powers. His diction was plain and forcible, though he
occasionally indulged in long compound words probably borrowed
from the Middle Comedy, with which, and with the everyday
life of his time, he was in full sympathy. His composition was
simple. He was specially distinguished for subtlety of expression,
grace and wit, as well as for tact in approaching his case and
handling his subject matter. Sir R. C. Jebb sums up the criticism
of pseudo-Longinus (De sublimitate, 34) in the phrase —
" Hypereides was the Sheridan of Athens."
Seventy-seven speeches were attributed to Hypereides, of which
twenty-five were regarded as spurious even by ancient critics.
It is said that a MS. of most of the speeches was in existence in the
l6th century in the library of Matthias Corvinus, king of Hungary,
at Ofen, but was destroyed at the capture of the city by the Turks
in 1526. Only a few fragments were known until comparatively
recent times. In 1847 large fragments of his speeches Against
Demosthenes (see above) and For Lycophron (incidentally interesting
as elucidating the order of marriage processions and other details
of Athenian life, and the Athenian government of Lemnos), and the
whole of the For Euxenippus (c. 330, a locus classicus on Acayy (\laior
state prosecutions), were found in a tomb at Thebes in Egypt, and
in 1 856 a considerable portion of a X6-yos ttrtT&<t>u>s, a Funeral Oration
over Leosthenes and his comrades who had fallen in the Lamian war,
the best extant specimen of epideictic oratory (see BABINGTON,
CHURCHILL). Towards the end of the century further discoveries
were made of the conclusion of the speech Against Philippides
(dealing with a 7po#i) *apav&nav, or indictment for the proposal of
an unconstitutional measure, arising out of the disputes of the
Macedonian and anti-Macedonian parties at Athens) , and of the whole
of the Against Athenogenes (a perfumer accused of fraud in the sale
of his business). These have been edited by F. G. Kenyon (1893).
An important speech that is lost is the Deliacus (frags. 67-75, Blass)
on the presidency of the Delian temple claimed by both Athens and
Delos, which was adjudged by the Amphictyons to Athens.
On Hypereides generally see pseudo-Plutarch, Decem oratorum
vitae; F. Blass, Altische Beredsamkeit, Hi. ; R. C. Jebb, Attic
Orators, ii. 381. A full list of editions and articles is given in F.
Blass, Hyperidis orationes sex cum ceterarum fragments (1894,
Teubner series), to which may be added I. Bassi, Le Quattro Orazioni
di Iperide (introduction and notes, 1888), and I. E. Sandys in
Classical Review (January 1895) (a review of the editions of Kenyon
and Blass). For the discourse against Athenogenes see H. Weil,
Etudes sur I'antiquile grecque (1900).
HYPERION, in Greek mythology, one of the Titans, son of
Uranus and Gaea and father of Helios, the sun-god (Hesiod,
Theog. 134, 371; Apollodorus i. i. 2). In the well-known
passage in Shakespeare (Hamlet, i. 2: "Hyperion to a satyr,"
where as in other poets the vowel -i- though really long, is
shortened for metrical reasons) Hyperion is used for Apollo as
expressive of the idea of beauty. The name is often used as
an epithet of Helios, who is himself sometimes called simply
Hyperion. It is explained as (i) he who moves above (inr(p-u>iv) ,
but the quantity of the vowel is against this; (2) he who is
above (wrepi-a>c). Others take it to be a patronymic in form,
like Kpojowv, MoXuoi'.
HYPERSTHENE, a rock-forming mineral belonging to the
group of orthorhombic pyroxenes. It differs from the other
members (enstatite [q.v.] and bronzite) of this group in containing
a considerable amount of iron replacing magnesium: the
chemical formula is (Mg,Fe)SiOj. Distinctly developed crystals
are rare, the mineral being usually found as foliated masses
embedded in those igneous rocks — norite, hypersthene-andesite,
&c. — of which it forms an essential constituent. The coarsely
grained labradorite-hypersthene-rock (norite) of the island of
St Paul off the coast of Labrador has furnished the most typical
material; and for this reason the mineral has been known as
" Labrador hornblende " or paulite. The colour is brownish-
black, and the pleochrism strong; the hardness is 6, and the
specific gravity 3-4-3-5. On certain surfaces it displays a brilliant
copper-red metallic sheen or schiller, which has the same origin
as the bronzy sheen of bronzite (q.v.) , but is even more pronounced.
Like bronzite, it is sometimes cut and polished for ornamental
purposes. (L. J. S.)
HYPERTROPHY (Gr. wrep, over, and rpo^, nourishment),
a term in medicine employed to designate an abnormal increase
in bulk of one or more of the organs or component tissues of the
body (see PATHOLOGY). In its strict sense this term can only
be applied where the increase affects the natural textures of a
part, and is not applicable where the enlargement is due to the
presence of some extraneous morbid formation. Hypertrophy
of a part may manifest itself either by simply an increase in
the size of its constituents, or by this combined with an increase
in their number (hyperplasia). In many instances both are
associated.
HYPNOTISM
201
The conditions giving rise to hypertrophy are the reverse
of those described as producing ATROPHY (q.v.). They are
concisely stated by Sir James Paget as being chiefly or only
three, namely: (i) the increased exercise of a part in its healthy
functions; (2) an increased accumulation in the blood of the
particular materials which a part appropriates to its nutrition
or in secretion; and (3) an increased afflux of healthy blood.
Illustrations are furnished of the first of these conditions by
the high development of muscular tissue under habitual active
exercise; of the second in the case of obesity, which is an hyper-
trophy of the fatty tissues, the elements of which are furnished
by the blood; and of the third in the occasional overgrowth of
hair in the neighbourhood of parts which are the seat of inflam-
mation. Obviously therefore, in many instances, hypertrophy
cannot be regarded as a deviation from health, but rather on
the contrary as indicative of a high degree of nutrition and
physical power. Even in those cases where it is found associated
with disease, it is often produced as a salutary effort of nature
to compensate for obstructions or other difficulties which have
arisen in the system, and thus to ward off evil consequences.
No better example of this can be seen than in the case of certain
forms of heart disease, where from defect at some of the natural
orifices of that organ the onward flow of the blood is interfered
with, and would soon give rise to serious embarrassment to the
circulation, were it not that behind the seat of obstruction
the heart gradually becomes hypertrophied, and thus acquires
greater propelling power to overcome the resistance in front.
Again, it has been noticed, in the case of certain double organs
such as the kidneys, that when one has been destroyed by disease
the other has become hypertrophied to such a degree as enables
it to discharge the functions of both.
Hypertrophy may, however, in certain circumstances con-
stitute a disease, as in goitre and elephantiasis (?.».), and also
in the case of certain tumours and growths (such as cutaneous
excrescences, fatty tumours, mucous polypi, &c.), which are
simply enlargements of normal textures. Hypertrophy does
not in all cases involve an increase in bulk; for, just as in
atrophy there may be no diminution in the size of the affected
organ, so in hypertrophy there may be no increase. This is
apt to be the case where certain only of the elements of an organ
undergo increase, while the others remain unaffected or are
actually atrophied by the pressure of the hypertrophied tissue,
as is seen in the disease known as cirrhosis of the liver.
A spurious hypertrophy is observed in the rare disease to which
G. B. Duchenne applied the name of pseudo-hypertrophic paralysis.
This ailment, which appears to be confined to children, consists
essentially of a progressive loss of power accompanied with a
remarkable enlargement of certain muscles or groups of muscles,
more rarely of the whole muscular system. This increase of
bulk is, however, not a true hypertrophy, but rather an excessive
development of connective tissue in the substance of the muscles,
the proper texture of which tends in consequence to undergo
atrophy or degeneration. The appearance presented by a child
suffering from this disease is striking. The attitude and gait
are remarkably altered, the child standing with shoulders thrown
back, small of the back deeply curved inwards, and legs wide
apart, while walking is accompanied with a peculiar swinging
or rocking movement. The calves of the legs, the buttocks,
the muscles of the back, and occasionally other muscles, are
seen to be unduly enlarged, and contrast strangely with the
general feebleness. The progress of the disease is marked by
increasing failure of locomotory power, and ultimately by com-
plete paralysis of the limbs. The malady is little amenable to
treatment, and, although often prolonged for years, generally
proves fatal before the period of maturity.
HYPNOTISM, a term now in general use as covering all that
pertains to the art of inducing the hypnotic state, or hypnosis,
and to the study of that state, its conditions, peculiarities and
effects. Hypnosis is a condition, allied to normal sleep (Gr.
wires), which can be induced in a large majority of normal
persons. Its most characteristic and constant symptom is
the increased suggestibility of the subject (see SUGGESTION).
Other symptoms are very varied and differ widely in different
subjects and in the same subject at different times. There can
be no doubt that the increased suggestibility and all the other
symptoms of hypnosis imply some abnormal condition of the
brain of a temporary and harmless nature. It would seem
that in all ages and in almost all countries individuals have
occasionally fallen into abnormal states of mind more or less
closely resembling the hypnotic state, and have thereby excited
the superstitious wonder of their fellows. In some cases the
state has been deliberately induced, in others it has appeared
spontaneously, generally under the influence of some emotional
excitement. The most familiar of these allied states is the
somnambulism or sleep-walking to which some persons seem to
be hereditarily disposed. Of a rather different type are the
states of ecstasy into which religious enthusiasts have occasion-
ally fallen and which were especially frequent among the peoples
of Europe during the middle ages. While in this condition
individuals have appeared to be insensitive to all impressions
made on their sense-organs, even to such as would excite acute
pain in normal persons, have been capable of maintaining rigid
postures for long periods of time, have experienced vivid
hallucinations, and have produced, through the power of the
imagination, extraordinary organic changes in the body, such
as the bloody stigmata on the hands and feet in several well-
attested instances. It has been proved in recent years that
effects of all these kinds may be produced by hypnotic suggestion.
Different again, but closely paralleled by some subjects in hyp-
nosis, is the state of latah into which a certain proportion of
persons of the Malay race are liable to fall. These persons, if
their attention is suddenly and forcibly drawn to any other
person, will begin to imitate his every action and attitude, and
may do so in spite of their best efforts to restrain their imitative
movements. Among the half-bred French-Canadians of the
forest regions of Canada occur individuals, known as " jumpers,"
who are liable to fall suddenly into a similar state of abject
imitativeness, and the same peculiar behaviour has been observed
among some of the remote tribes of Siberia.
The deliberate induction of states identical with, or closely
allied to, hypnosis is practised by many barbarous and savage
peoples, generally for ceremonial purposes. Thus, certain
dervishes of Algiers are said to induce in themselves, by the aid
of the sound of drums, monotonous songs and movements, a
state in which they are insensitive to pain, and a similar practice
of religious devotees is reported from Tibet. Perhaps the most
marvellous achievement among well-attested cases of this sort
is that of certain yogis of Hindustan; by long training and
practice they seem to acquire the power of arresting almost
completely all their vital functions. An intense effort of abstrac-
tion from the impressions of the outer world, a prolonged fixation
of the eyes upon the nose or in some other strained position and
a power of greatly slowing the respiration, these seem to be
important features of their procedure for the attainment of their
abnormal states.
In spite of the wide distribution in time and space, and the
not very infrequent occurrence, of these instances of states
identical with or allied to hypnosis, some three centuries of
enthusiastic investigation and of bitter controversy were required
to establish the occurrence of the hypnotic state among the facts
accepted by the world of European science. Scientific interest
in them may be traced back at least as far as the end of the i6th
century. Paracelsus had founded the " sympathetic system "
of medicine, according to which the stars and other bodies,
especially magnets, influence men by means of a subtle emanation
or fluid that pervades all space. J. B. van Helmont, a dis-
tinguished man of science of the latter part of the i6th century,
extended this doctrine by teaching that a similar magnetic fluid
radiates from men, and that it can be guided by their wills to
influence directly the minds and bodies of others. In the middle
of the 1 7th century there appeared in England several persons
who claimed to have the power of curing diseases by stroking
with the hand. Notable amongst these was Valentine Greatrakes,
of Affane, in the county of Waterford, Ireland, who was born in
xiv. ja
202
HYPNOTISM
February 1628, and who attracted great attention in England
by his supposed power of curing the king's evil, or scrofula.
Many of the most distinguished scientific and theological men
fOi the day, such as Robert Boyle and R. Cudworth, witnessed
and attested the cures supposed to be effected by Greatrakes,
and thousands of sufferers crowded to him from all parts of
the kingdom. About the middle of the i8th century John Joseph
Gassner, a Roman Catholic priest in Swabia, took up the notion
that the majority of diseases arose from demoniacal possession,
and could only be cured by exorcism. His method was un-
doubtedly similar to that afterwards followed by Mesmer and
others, and he had an extraordinary influence over the nervous
systems of his patients. Gassner, however, believed his power
to be altogether supernatural.
But it was not until the latter part of the i8th century that
the doctrine of a magnetic fluid excited great popular interest
and became the subject of fierce controversy in the scientific
world. F. A. Mesmer (<?.».), a physician of Vienna, was largely
instrumental in bringing the doctrine into prominence. He
developed it by postulating a specialized variety of magnetic
fluid which he called animal magnetism; and he claimed to be
able to cure many diseases by means of this animal magnetism,
teaching, also, that it may be imparted to and stored up in inert
objects, which are thereby rendered potent to cure disease.
It would seem that Mesmer himself was not acquainted with
the artificial somnambulism which for nearly a century was called
mesmeric or magnetic sleep, and which is now familiar as hypnosis
of a well-marked degree. It was observed and described about
the year 1780 by the marquis de Puysegur, a disciple of Mesmer,
who showed that, while subjects were in this state, not only could
some of their diseases be cured, but also their movements could
be controlled by the " magnetizer," and that they usually
remembered nothing of the events of the period of sleep when
restored to normal consciousness. These are three of the most
important features of hypnosis, and the modern study of hypnot-
ism may therefore be said to have been initiated at this date by
Puysegur. For, though it is probable that this state had often
been induced by the earlier magnetists, they had not recognized
that the peculiar behaviour of their patients resulted from their
being plunged into this artificial sleep, but had attributed all
the symptoms they observed to the direct physical action of
external agents upon the patients.
1 The success of Mesmer and his disciples, especially great in
the fashionable world, led to the appointment in Paris of a
royal commission for the investigation of their claims. The
commission, which included men of great eminence, notably
A. L. Lavoisier and Benjamin Franklin, reported in the year
1784 that it could not accept the evidence for the existence of
the magnetic fluid; but it did not express an opinion as to the
reality of the cures said to be effected by its means, nor as to the
nature of the magnetic sleep. This report and the social up-
heavals of the following years seem to have abolished the public
interest in " animal magnetism " for the space of one generation;
after which Alexandre Bertrand, a Parisian physician, revived
it by his acute investigations and interpretations of the pheno-
mena. Bertrand was the first to give an explanation of the facts
of the kind that is now generally accepted. He exhibited the
affinity of the " magnetic sleep " to ordinary somnambulism, and
he taught that the peculiar effects are to be regarded as due to the
suggestions of the operator working themselves out in the mind
and body of the " magnetized " subject, i.e. he regarded the
influence of the magnetizer as exerted in the first instance on
the mind of the subject and only indirectly through the mind
upon the body. Shortly after this revival of public interest,
namely in the year 1831, a committee of the Academy of Medicine
of Paris reported favourably upon " magnetism " as a thera-
peutic agency, and before many years had elapsed it was
extensively practised by the physicians of all European countries,
with few exceptions, of which England was the most notable.
Most of the practitioners of this period adhered to the doctrine
of the magnetic fluid emanating from the operator to his patient,
and the acceptance of this doctrine was commonly combined
with belief in phrenology, astrology and the influence of metals
and magnets, externally applied, in curing disease and in pro-
ducing a variety of strange sensations and other affections of the
mind. These beliefs, claiming to rest upon carefully observed
facts, were given a new elaboration and a more imposing claim
to be scientifically established by the doctrine of odylic force
propounded by Baron Karl von Reichenbach. In this mass
of ill-based assertion and belief the valuable truths of " animal
magnetism " and the psychological explanations of them given
by Bertrand were swamped and well-nigh lost sight of. For it
was this seemingly inseparable association between the facts of
hypnotism and these bizarre practices and baseless beliefs that
blinded the larger and more sober part of the scientific world,
and led them persistently to assert that all this group of alleged
phenomena was a mass of quackery, fraud and superstition.
And the fact that magnetism was practised for pecuniary gain,
often in a shameless manner, by exponents who claimed to cure
by its means every conceivable ill, rendered this attitude on the
part of the medical profession inevitable and perhaps excusable,
though not justifiable. It was owing to this baleful association
that John Elliotson, one of the leading London physicians of that
time, who became an ardent advocate of " magnetism " and who
founded and edited the Zoist in the interests of the subject,
was driven out of the profession. This association may perhaps
be held, also, to excuse the hostile attitude of the medical
profession towards James Esdaile, a surgeon, who, practising
in a government hospital in Calcutta among the natives of India,
performed many major operations, such as the amputation of
limbs, painlessly and with the most excellent results by aid of
the " magnetic " sleep. For both Elliotson and Esdaile, though
honourable practitioners, accepted the doctrine of the " magnetic"
fluid and many of the erroneous beliefs that commonly were
bound up with it.
In 1841 James Braid, a surgeon of Manchester, rediscovered
independently Bertrand's physiological and psychological ex-
planations of the facts, carried them further, and placed
" hypnotism," as he named the study, on a sound basis. Braid
showed that subjects in " magnetic " sleep, far from being in a
profoundly insensitive condition, are often abnormally susceptible
to impressions on the senses, and showed that many of the
peculiarities of their behaviour were due to suggestions, made
verbally or otherwise, but unintentionally, by the operator or
by onlookers.
It seems, on looking back on the history of hypnotism, that at
this time it was in a fair way to secure general recognition as a
most interesting subject of psychological study and a valuable
addition to the resources of the physician. But it was destined
once more to be denied its rights by official science and to fall
back into disrepute. This was due to the coincidence about the
year 1848 of two events of some importance, namely — the dis-
covery of the anaesthetic properties of chloroform and the sudden
rise of modern spiritualism. The former afforded a very con-
venient substitute for the most obvious practical application
of hypnotism, the production of anaesthesia during surgical
operations; the latter involved it once more in a mass of fraud
and superstition, and, for the popular mind, drove it back to the
region of the marvellous, the supernatural and the dangerous,
made it, in fact, once more a branch of the black art.
From this time onward there took place a gradual differentia-
tion of the " animal magnetism " of the i8th century into two
diverging branches, hypnotism and spiritualism, two branches
which, however, are not yet entirely separated and, perhaps,
never will be. At the same time the original system of " animal
magnetism " has lived on in an enfeebled condition and is now
very nearly, though not quite, extinct.
In the development of hypnotism since the time of Braid we
may distinguish three lines, the physiological, the psychological
and the pathological. The last may be dismissed in a few words.
Its principal representative was J. M. Charcot, who taught at
the Salpe'triere in Paris that hypnosis is essentially a symptom
of a morbid condition of hysteria or hystero-epilepsy. This
doctrine, which, owing to the great repute enjoyed by Charcot,
HYPNOTISM
203
has done much to retard the application of hypnotism, is now
completely discredited. The workers of the physiological party
attached special importance to the fixation of the eyes, or to
other forms of long continued and monotonous, or violent, sensory
stimulation in the induction of hypnosis. They believed that by
acting on the senses in these ways they induced a peculiar con-
dition of the nervous system, which consisted in the temporary
abolition of the cerebral functions and the consequent reduction
of the subject to machine-like unconscious automatism. The
leading exponent of this view was R. Heidenhain, professor of
physiology at Breslau, whose experimental investigations played
a large part in convincing the scientific world of the genuineness
of the leading symptoms of hypnosis. The purely psychological
doctrine of hypnosis puts aside all physical and physiological in-
fluences and effects as of but little or no importance, and seeks
a psychological explanation of the induction of hypnosis and of
all the phenomena. This dates from 1884, when H. Bernheim,
professor of medicine at Nancy, published his work De la Sugges-
tion (republished in 1887 with a second part on the therapeutics
of hypnotism). Bernheim was led to the study of hypnotism
by A. A. Liebeault, who for twenty years had used it very
largely and successfully in his general practice among the poor
of Nancy. Liebeault rediscovered independently, and Bernheim
made known to the world the truths, twice previously discovered
and twice lost sight of, that expectation is a most important
factor in the induction of hypnosis, that increased suggestibility
is its essential symptom, and that in general the operator works
upon his patient by mental influences. Although they went too far
in the direction of ignoring the peculiarity of the state of the brain
in hypnosis and the predisposing effect of monotonous sensory
stimulation, and in seeking to identify hypnosis with normal
sleep, the views of the Nancy investigators have prevailed, and
are now in the main generally accepted. Their methods of verbal
suggestion have been adopted by leading physicians in almost
all civilized countries and have been proved to be efficacious
in the relief of many disorders; and as a method of psychological
investigation hypnotism has proved, especially in the hands of
the late Ed. Gurney, of Dr Pierre Janet and of other investigators,
capable of throwing much light on the constitution of the mind,
has opened up a number of problems of the deepest interest,
and has done more than any other of the many branches of
modern psychology to show the limitations and comparative
barrenness of the old psychology that relied on introspection
alone and figured as a department of general philosophy. In
England, " always the last to enter into the general movement
of the European mind," the prejudice, incredulity and ignorant
misrepresentation with which hypnotism has everywhere
been received have resisted its progress more stubbornly than
elsewhere; but even in England its reality and its value as a
therapeutic agent have at last been officially recognized. In
1892, just fifty years after Braid clearly demonstrated the facts
and published explanations of them almost identical with those
now accepted, a committee of the British Medical Association
reported favourably upon hypnotism after a searching investiga-
tion; it is now regularly employed by a number of physicians of
high standing, and the formation in 1907 of "The Medical Society
for the Study of Suggestive Therapeutics " shows that the footing
it has gained is likely to be made good.
Induction of Hypnosis. — It has now been abundantly proved
that hypnosis can be induced in the great majority of normal
persons, provided that they willingly submit themselves to the
process. Several of the most experienced operators have suc-
ceeded in hypnotizing more than 90% of the cases they have
attempted, and most of them are agreed that failure to induce
hypnosis in any case is due either to lack of skill and tact on
the part of the operator, or to some unfavourable mental con-
dition of the subject. It has often been said that some races or
peoples are by nature more readily hypnotizable than others;
of the French people especially this has been maintained. But
there is no sufficient ground for this statement. The differences
that undoubtedly obtain between populations of different
regions in respect to the ease or difficulty with which a large
proportion of all persons can be hypnotized are sufficiently
explained by the differences of the attitude of the public towards
hypnotism; in France, e.g., and especially in Nancy, hypnotism
has been made known to the public chiefly as a recognized
auxiliary to the better known methods of medical treatment,
whereas in England the medical profession has allowed the public
to make acquaintance with hypnotism through the medium of
disgusting stage-performances whose only object was to raise a
laugh, and has, with few exceptions, joined in the general chorus
of condemnation and mistrust. Hence in France patients
submit themselves with confidence and goodwill to hypnotic
treatment, whereas in England it is still necessary in most cases
to remove an ill-based prejudice before the treatment can be
undertaken with hope of success. For the confidence and good-
will of the patient are almost essential to success, and even after
hypnosis has been induced on several occasions a patient may
be so influenced by injudicious friends that he cannot again
be hypnotized or, if hypnotized, is much less amenable to the
power of suggestion. Various methods of hypnotization are
current, but most practitioners combine the methods of Braid
and of Bernheim. After asking the patient to resign himself
passively into their hands, and after seating him in a comfort-
able arm-chair, they direct him to fix his eyes upon some small
object held generally in such a position that some slight muscular
strain is involved in maintaining the fixation; they then suggest
to him verbally the idea or expectation of sleep and the sensa-
tions that normally accompany the oncoming of sleep, the heavi-
ness of the eyes, the slackness of the limbs and so forth; and
when the eyes show signs of fatigue, they either close them
by gentle pressure or tell the subject to close them. Many also
pass their hands slowly and regularly over the face, with or
without contact. The old magnetizers attached great importance
to such " passes," believing that by them the " magnetic fluid "
was imparted to the patient; but it seems clear that, in so far
as they contribute to induce hypnosis, it is in their character
merely of gentle, monotonous, sensory stimulations. A well-
disposed subject soon falls into a drowsy state and tends to pass
into natural sleep; but by speech, by passes, or by manipulating
his limbs the operator keeps in touch with him, keeps his waning
attention open to the impressions he himself makes. Most sub-
jects then find it difficult or impossible to open their eyes or to
make any other movement which is forbidden or said to be
impossible by the operator, although they may be fully conscious
of all that goes on about them and may have the conviction that
if they did but make an effort they could break the spell. This
is a light stage of hypnosis beyond which some subjects can
hardly be induced to pass and beyond which few pass at the first
attempt. But on successive occasions, or even on the first
occasion, a favourable subject passes into deeper stages of
hypnosis. Many attempts have been made to distinguish clearly
marked and constantly occurring stages. But it seems now clear
that the complex of symptoms displayed varies in all cases with
the idiosyncrasies of the subject and with the methods adopted
by the operator. In many subjects a waxy rigidity of the limbs
appears spontaneously or can be induced by suggestion; the
limbs then retain for long periods without fatigue any position
given them by the operator. The most susceptible subjects
pass into the stage known as artificial somnambulism. In this
condition they continue to respond to all suggestions made by
the operator, but seem as insensitive to all other impressions as a
person in profound sleep or in coma; and on awaking from this
condition they are usually oblivious of all that they have heard,
said or done during the somnambulistic period. When in this
last condition patients are usually more profoundly influenced by
suggestions, especially post-hypnotic suggestions, than when in
the lighter stages; but the lighter stages suffice for the pro-
duction of many therapeutic effects. When a patient is com-
pletely hypnotized, his movements, his senses, his ideas and, to
some extent, even the organic processes over which he has no
voluntary control become more or less completely subject to
the suggestions of the operator; and usually he is responsive
to the operator alone (rapport) unless he is instructed by the
204
HYPNOTISM
latter to respond also to the suggestions of other persons. If
left to himself the hypnotized subject will usually awake to his
normal state after a period which is longer in proportion to the
depth of hypnosis; and the deeper stages seem to pass over into
normal sleep. The subject can in almost every case be brought
quickly back to the normal state by the verbal command of the
operator.
The Principal Effects produced by Suggestion during Hypnosis. —
The subject may not only be rendered incapable of contracting
any of the muscles of the voluntary system, but may also be
made to use them with extraordinarily great or sustained force
(though by no means in all cases). He can with difficulty refrain
from performing any action commanded by the operator, and
usually carries out any simple command without hesitation.
Any one of the sense-organs, or any sensory region such as the
skin or deep tissues of one limb may be rendered anaesthetic by
verbal suggestion, aided perhaps by some gentle manipulation
of the part. On this fact depends the surgical application of
hypnotism. Sceptical observers are always inclined to doubt the
genuineness of the anaesthesia produced by a mere word of
command, but the number of surgical operations performed under
hypnotic anaesthesia suffices to put its reality beyond all ques-
tion. A convincing experiment may, however, be made on
almost any good subject. Anaesthesia of one eye may be
suggested and its reality tested in the following way. Anaesthesia
of the left eye may be suggested, and the subject be instructed to
fix his gaze on a distant point and to give some signal as soon
as he sees the operator's finger in the peripheral field of
view. The operator then brings his finger slowly from behind
and to the right forwards towards the subject's line of sight.
The subject signals as soon as it crosses the normal temporal
boundary of the field of view of the right eye. The operator then
brings his finger forward from a point behind and to the left of
the subject's head. The subject allows it to cross the monocular
field of the left eye and signals only when the finger enters the
field of vision of the right eye across its nasal boundary. Since
few persons, other than physiologists or medical men, are aware
of the relations of the boundaries of the monocular and binocular
fields of vision, the success of this experiment affords proof that
the finger remains invisible to the subject during its passage
across the monocular field of the left eye. The abolition of pain,
especially of neuralgias, the pain of rheumatic and other in-
flammations, which is one of the most valuable applications of
hypnotism, is an effect closely allied to the production of such
anaesthesia.
It has often been stated that in hypnosis the senses may be
rendered extraordinarily acute or hyperaesthetic, so that im-
pressions too faint to affect the senses of the normal person
may be perceived by the hypnotized subject; but in view of the
fact that most observers are ignorant of the normal limits of
sensitivity and discrimination, all such statements must be
received with caution, until we have more convincing evidence
than has yet been brought forward.
Positive and Negative Hallucinations are among the most
striking effects of hypnotic suggestion. A good subject may be
made to experience an hallucinatory perception of almost any
object, the more easily the less unusual and out of harmony
with the surroundings is the suggested object. He may, e.g.,
be given a blank card and asked if he thinks it a good photograph
of himself. He may then assent and describe the photograph in
some detail, and, what is more astonishing, he may pick out the
card as the one bearing the photograph, after it has been mixed
with other similar blank cards. This seems to be due to the part
played by points de repere, insignificant details of surface or
texture, which serve as an objective basis around which the
hallucinatory image is constructed by the pictorial imagination
of the subject. A negative hallucination may be induced by
telling the subject that a certain object or person is no longer
present, when he ignores in every way that object or person.
This is more puzzling than the positive hallucination and will be
referred to again in discussing the theory of hypnosis. Both
kinds of hallucination tend to be systematically and logically
developed; if, e.g., the subject is told that a certain person is no
longer visible, he may become insensitive to impressions made on
any sense by that person.
Delusions, or false beliefs as to their present situation or
past experiences may be induced in many subjects. On being
assured that he is some other person, or that he is in some
strange situation, the subject may accept the suggestion and
adapt his behaviour with great histrionic skill to the induced
delusion. It is probable that many, perhaps all, subjects are
vaguely aware, as we sometimes are in dreams, that the delusions
and hallucinations they experience are of an unreal nature.
In the lighter stages of hypnosis a subject usually remembers
the events of his waking life, but in the deeper stages he is apt,
while remembering the events of previous hypnotic periods, to be
incapable of recalling his normal life; but in this respect, as also
in respect to the extent to which on awaking he remembers the
events of the hypnotic period, the suggestions of the operator
usually play a determining part.
Among the organic changes that have been produced by
hypnotic suggestion are slowing or acceleration of the cardiac and
respiratory rhythms; rise and fall of body -temperature through
two or three degrees; local erythema and even inflammation
of the skin with vesication or exudation of small drops of blood;
evacuation of the bowel and vomiting; modifications of the
secretory activity of glands, especially of the sweat-glands.
Post-hypnotic Effects. — Most subjects in whom any appreciable
degree of hypnosis can be induced show some susceptibility to
post-hypnotic suggestion, i.e.ihey may continue to be influenced,
when restored to the fully waking state, by suggestions made
during hypnosis, more especially if the operator suggests that
this shall be the case ; as a rule, the deeper the stage of hypnosis
reached, the more effective are post-hypnotic suggestions. The
therapeutic applications of hypnotism depend in the main upon
this post-hypnotic continuance of the working of suggestions.
If a subject is told that on awaking, or on a certain signal, or
after the lapse of a given interval of time from the moment of
awaking, he will perform a certain action, he usually feels some
inclination to carry out the suggestion at the appropriate moment.
If he remembers that the action has been suggested to him he
may refuse to perform it, and if it is one repugnant to his moral
nature, or merely one that would make him appear ridiculous,
he may persist in his refusal. But if the action is of a simple
and ordinary nature he will usually perform it, remarking that
he cannot be comfortable till it is done. If the subject was deeply
hypnotized and remembers nothing of the hypnotic period, he
will carry out the post-hypnotic suggestion in almost every case,
no matter how complicated or absurd it may be, so long as it is
not one from which his normal self would be extremely averse;
and he will respond appropriately to the suggested signals,
although he is not conscious of their having been named; he
will often perform the action in a very natural way, and will,
if questioned, give some more or less adequate reason for it.
Such actions, determined by post-hypnotic suggestions of which
no conscious memory remains, may be carried out even after the
lapse of many weeks or even months. Inhibitions of movement,
anaesthesia, positive and negative hallucinations, and delusions
may also be made to persist for brief periods after the termination
of hypnosis; and organic effects, such as the action of the
bowels, the oncoming of sleep and the cessation of pain, may be
determined by post-hypnotic suggestion. In short, it may be said
that in a good subject all the kinds of suggestion which will
take effect during hypnosis will also be effective if given as post-
hypnotic suggestions.
Theory of the Hypnotic State. — Very many so called theories
of hypnosis have been propounded, but few of them demand
serious consideration. One author ascribes all the symptoms
to cerebral anaemia, another to cerebral congestion, a third to
temporary suppression of the functions of the cerebrum, a fourth
to abnormal cerebral excitability, a fifth to the independent
functioning of one hemisphere. Another seeks to explain all the
facts by saying that in hypnosis our normal consciousness dis-
appears and is replaced by a dream-consciousness; and yet
HYPNOTISM
205
another by the assumption that every human organism com-
prises two mental selves or personalities, a normal one and one
which only comes into activity during sleep and hypnosis.
Most of these "theories" would, even if true, carry us but a
little way towards a complete understanding of the facts. There
is, however, one theory or principle of explanation which is
now gradually taking shape under the hands of a number of the
more penetrating workers in this field, and which does seem to
render intelligible many of the principle facts. This is the
theory of mental dissociation.
It is clear that a theory of hypnosis must attempt to give
some account of the peculiar condition of the brain which is
undoubtedly present as an essential feature of the state. It is
therefore not enough to say with Bernheim that hypnosis is a
state of abnormally increased suggestibility produced by sugges-
tion; nor is it enough, though it is partially true, to say that it
is a state of mono-ideism or one of abnormally great concentra-
tion of attention. Any theory must be stated in terms of
physiological psychology, it must take account of both the
psychical and the nervous peculiarities of the hypnotic state;
it must exhibit the physiological condition as in some degree
similar to that obtaining in normal sleep; but principally it
must account for that abnormally great receptivity for ideas,
and that abnormally intense and effective operation of ideas so
received, which constitute abnormally great suggestibility.
The theory of mental dissociation may be stated in purely
mental terms, or primarily in terms of nervous structure and
function; and the latter mode of statement is probably the
more profitable at the present time. The increased effectiveness
of ideas might be due to one of two conditions: (i) it might
be that certain tracts of the brain or the whole brain were in a
condition of abnormally great excitability; or (2) an idea
might operate more effectively in the mind and on the body,
not because it, or the underlying brain-process was more intense
than normally, but because it worked out its effects free from
the interference of contrary or irrelevant ideas that might
weaken its force. It is along this second line that the theory
of mental dissociation attempts to explain the increased suggest-
ibility of hypnosis. To understand the theory we must bear
in mind the nature of mental process in general and of its nervous
concomitants. Mental process consists in the interplay, not
merely of ideas, but rather of complex dispositions which are
the more or less enduring conditions of the rise of ideas to con-
sciousness. Each such disposition seems capable of remaining
inactive or quiescent for long periods, and of being excited in
various degrees, either by impressions made upon the sense-
organs or by the spread of excitement from other dispositions.
When its excitement rises above a certain pitch of intensity,
the corresponding idea rises to the focus of consciousness.
These dispositions are essential factors of all mental process,
the essential conditions of all mental retention. They may be
called simply mental dispositions, their nature being left un-
defined; but for our present purpose it is advantageous to regard
them as neural dispositions, complex functional groups of nervous
elements or neurones. The neurones of each such group must
be conceived as being so intimately connected with one another
that the excitement of any part of the group at once spreads
through the whole group or disposition, so that it always functions
as a unit. The whole cerebrum must be conceived as consisting
of a great number of such dispositions, inextricably interwoven,
but interconnected in orderly fashion with very various degrees
of intimacy; groups of dispositions are very intimately connected
to form neural systems, so that the excitement of any one member
of such a system tends to spread in succession to all the other
members. On the other hand, it is a peculiarity of the reciprocal
relations of all such dispositions and systems that the excitement
of any one to such a degree that the corresponding idea rises
to consciousness prevents or inhibits the excitement of others,
i.e. all of them are in relations of reciprocal inhibition with
one another (see MUSCLE AND NERVE). The excitement of dis-
positions associated together to form a system tends towards
some end which, either immediately or remotely, is an action,
a bodily movement, in many cases a movement of the organs
of speech only. Now we know from many exact experiments
that the neural dispositions act and react upon one another to
some extent, even when they are excited only in so feeble a
degree that the corresponding ideas do not rise to consciousness.
In the normal state of the brain, then, when any idea is present
to consciousness, the corresponding neural disposition is in a
state of dominant excitement, but the intensity of that excite-
ment is moderated, depressed or partially inhibited by the
sub-excitement of many rival or competing dispositions of
other systems with which it is connected. Suppose now that
all the nervous connexions between the multitudinous dis-
positions of the cerebrum are by some means rendered less
effective, that the association-paths are partially blocked or
functionally depressed; the result will be that, while the most
intimate connexions, those between dispositions of any one
system remain functional or permeable, the weaker less intimate
connexions, those between dispositions belonging to different
systems will be practically abolished for the time being; each
system of dispositions will then function more or less as an
isolated system, and its activity will no longer be subject to the
depressing or inhibiting influence of other systems; therefore
each system, on being excited in any way, will tend to its end
with more than normal force, being freed from all interferences;
that is to say, each idea or system of ideas will tend to work
itself out and to realize itself in action immediately, without
suffering the opposition of antagonistic ideas which, in the
normal state of the brain, might altogether prevent its realiza-
tion in action.
The theory of mental dissociation assumes that the abnormal
state of the brain that obtains during hypnosis is of this kind,
a temporary functional depression of all, or of many of the
associations or nervous links between the neural dispositions;
that is, it regards hypnosis as a state of relative dissociation.
The lighter the stage of hypnosis the slighter is the degree of
dissociation, the deeper the stage the more nearly complete
is the dissociation.
It is not essential that the theory should explain in what
change this stage of dissociation consists, but a view compatible
with all that we know of the functions of the central nervous
system may be suggested. The connexions between neural
dispositions involve synapses or cell-junctions, and these seem
to i>e the places of variable resistance which demarcate the dis-
positions and systems; and there is good reason to think that
their resistances vary with the state of the neurones which they
connect, being lowered when these are excited and raised when
their excitement ebbs. Now, in the waking state, the varied
stimuli, which constantly rain upon all the sense-organs, maintain
the whole cerebrum in a state of sub-excitement, keep all the
cerebral neurones partially charged with free nervous energy.
When the subject lies down to sleep or submits himself to the
hypnotizer he arrests as far as possible the flow of his thoughts,
and the sensory stimuli are diminished in number and intensity.
Under these conditions the general cerebral activity tends to
subside, the free energy with which the cerebral neurones are
charged ebbs away, and the synaptic resistances rise propor-
tionally; then the effect of sensory impressions tends to be
confined to the lower nervous level, and the brain tends to
come to rest. If this takes place the condition of normal sleep
is realized. But in inducing hypnosis the operator, by means
of his words and manipulations, keeps one system of ideas
and the corresponding neural system in activity, namely, the
ideas connected with himself; thus he keeps open one channel
of entry to the brain and mind, and through this one open
channel he can introduce whatever ideas he pleases; and the
ideas so introduced then operate with abnormally great effect
because they work in a free field, unchecked by rival ideas and
tendencies.
This theory of relative dissociation has two great merits:
in the first place it goes far towards enabling us to understand
in some degree most of the phenomena of hypnosis; secondly,
we have good evidence that dissociation really occurs in deep
206
HYPNOTISM
hypnosis and in some allied states. Any one may readily work
out for himself the application of the theory to the explanation
of the power of the operator's suggestions to control movement,
to induce anaesthesia, hallucinations and delusions, and to
exert on the organic processes an influence greater than can
be exerted by mental processes in the normal state of the brain.
But the positive evidence of the occurrence of dissociation is
a matter of great psychological interest and its nature must
be briefly indicated. The phenomena of automatic speech
and writing afford the best evidence of cerebral dissociation.
Many persons can, while in an apparently normal or but very
slightly abnormal condition, produce automatic writing, i.e.
intelligibly written .sentences, in some cases long connected
passages, of whose import they have no knowledge, their self-
conscious intelligence being continuously directed to some
other task. The carrying out of post-hypnotic suggestions
affords in many cases similar evidence. Thus a subject may be
told that after waking he will perform some action when a
given signal, such as a cough, is repeated for the fifth time.
In the post-hypnotic state he remains unaware of his instructions,
is not conscious of noting the signals, and yet carries out the
suggestion at the fifth signal, thereby proving that the signals
have been in some sense noted and counted. Many interesting
varieties of this experiment have been made, some of much
greater complexity; but all agreeing in indicating that the
suggested action is prepared for and determined by cerebral
processes that do not affect the consciousness of the subject,
but seem to occur as a system of processes detached from the
main stream of cerebral activity; that is to say, they imply
the operation of relatively dissociated neural systems.
Many authorities go further than this; they argue that,
since actions of the kind described are determined by processes
which involve operations, such as counting, that we are
accustomed to regard as distinctly mental in character and that
normally involve conscious activity, we must believe that in
these cases also consciousness or psychical activity is involved,
but that it remains as a separate system or stream of conscious-
ness concurrent with the normal or personal consciousness.
In recent years the study of various abnormal mental states,
especially the investigations by French physicians of severe forms
of hysteria, have brought to light many facts which seem to
justify this assumption of a secondary stream of consciousness,
a co- or sub-consciousness coexistent with the personal conscious-
ness; although, from the nature of the case, an absolute proof
of such co-consciousness can hardly be obtained. The co-
consciousness seems to vary in degree of complexity and coherence
from a mere succession of fragmentary sensations to an organized
stream of mental activity, which may rival in all respects the
primary consciousness; and in cases of the latter type it is usual
to speak of the presence of a secondary personality. The co-
consciousness seems in the simpler cases, e.g. in cases of hysterical
or hypnotic anaesthesia, to consist of elements split off from the
normal primary consciousness, which remains correspondingly
poorer; and the assumption is usually made that such a stream
of co-consciousness is the psychical correlate of groups and
systems of neurones dissociated from the main mass of cerebral
neurones. If, in spite of serious objections, we entertain this
conception, we find that it helps us to give some account of various
hypnotic phenomena that otherwise remain quite inexplicable;
some such conception seems to be required more particularly
by the facts of negative hallucination and the execution of
post-hypnotic suggestions involving such operations as counting
and exact discrimination without primary consciousness.
Supernormal Hypnotic Phenomena. — The facts hitherto con-
sidered, strange and perplexing as many of them are, do not
seem to demand for their explanation any principles of action
fundamentally different from those operative in the normal
human mind. But much of the interest that has centred in
hypnotism in recent years has been due to the fact that some
of its manifestations seem to go beyond all such principles of
explanation, and to suggest the reality of modes of influence
and action that science has not hitherto recognized. Of these
by far the best attested are the post-hypnotic unconscious
reckoning of time and telepathy or " thought-transference "
(for the latter see TELEPATHY). The post-hypnotic reckoning
and noting of the lapse of time seems in some instances to have
been carried out, in the absence of all extraneous aids and with
complete unconsciousness on the part of the normal personality,
with such extreme precision that the achievement cannot be
accounted for by any intensification of any faculty that we at
present recognize or understand. Thus, Dr Milne Bramwell
has reported the case of a patient who, when commanded in
hypnosis to perform some simple action after the lapse of many
thousands of minutes, would carry out the suggestion punctually
to the minute, without any means of knowing the exact time
of day at which the suggestion was given or the time of day at
the moment its performance fell due; more recently a similar
case, even more striking in some respects, has been carefully
observed and described by Dr T. W. Mitchell. Other reported
phenomena, such as telaesthesia or clairvoyance, and telekinesia,
are hardly sufficiently well attested to demand serious considera-
tion in this place.
Medical Applications of Hypnotism. — The study and practice
of hypnotism is not yet, and probably never will be, regarded
as a normal part of the work of the general practitioner. Its
successful application demands so much time, tact, and special
experience, that it will probably remain, as it is now, and as it
is perhaps desirable that it should remain, a specialized branch
of medical practice. In England it is only in recent years that
it has been possible for a medical man to apply it in his practice
without incurring professional odium and some risk of loss of
reputation. That, in certain classes of cases, it may effect a cure
or bring relief when all other modes of treatment are of no avail
is now rapidly becoming recognized; but it is less generally
recognized that it may be used with great advantage as a supple-
ment to other modes of treatment in relieving symptoms that
are accentuated by nervous irritability or mental disturbance.
A third wide field of usefulness lies before it in the cure of un-
desirable habits of many kinds. Under the first heading may
be put insomnia, neuralgia, neurasthenia, hysteria in almost all
its many forms; under the second, inflammations such as that of
chronic rheumatism, contractures and paralyses resulting from
gross lesion of the brain, epilepsy, dyspepsia, menstrual ir-
regularities, sea-sickness; under the third, inebriety, the morphia
and other drug habits, nail-biting, enuresis nocturna, masturba-
tion, constipation, facial and other twitchings. In pronounced
mental diseases hypnotism seems to be almost useless; for in
general terms it may be said that it can be applied most effectively
where the brain, the instrument through which it works, is sound
and vigorous. The widespread prejudice against the use of
hypnotism is no doubt largely due to the marvellous and (to
most minds) mysterious character of the effects producible by
its means; and this prejudice may be expected to diminish as
our insight into the mode of its operation deepens. The more
purely bodily results achieved by hypnotic suggestion become
in some degree intelligible if we regard it as a powerful means of
diverting nervous energy from one channel or organ to others,
so as to give physiological rest to an overworked organ or tissue,
or so as to lead to the atrophy of one nervous habit and the re-
placement of it by a more desirable habit. And in the cure of
those disorders which involve a large mental element the essential
part played by it is to drive out some habitually recurrent idea
and to replace it by some idea, expectation or conviction of
healthy tendency.
It seems clear that the various systems of "mind-curing"
in the hands of persons lacking all medical training, which are
now so frequently the cause of distressing and needless disasters,
owe their rapid spread to the fact that the medical profession
has hitherto neglected to attach sufficient importance to the
mental factor in the causation and cure of disease; and it seems
clear, too, that a more general and more intelligent appreciation
of the possibilities of hypnotic treatment would constitute the
best means at the disposal of the profession for combating this
growing evil.
HYPOCAUST— HYPOSTASIS
207
The Dangers of Hypnotism. — Much has been written on this
head of late years, and some of the enthusiastic advocates of
hypnotic treatment have done harm to their cause by ignoring
or denying in a too thoroughgoing manner the possibility of
undesirable results of the spread of the knowledge and practice
of hypnotism. Like all powerful agencies, chloroform or morphia,
dynamite or strong electric currents, hypnotic suggestion can
only be safely used by those who have special knowledge and
experience, and, like them, it is liable to abuse. There is little
doubt that, if a subject is repeatedly hypnotized and made to
entertain all kinds of absurd delusions and to carry out very
frequently posthypnotic suggestions, he may be liable to some
ill-defined harm; also, that an unprincipled hypnotizer might
secure an undue influence over a naturally weak subject.
But there is no ground for the belief that hypnotic treatment,
.applied with good intentions and reasonable care and judgment,
does or can produce deleterious effects, such as weakening of the
will or liability to fall spontaneously into hypnosis. All physicians
of large experience in hypnotic practice are in agreement in respect
to this point. But some difference of opinion exists as to the
possibility of deliberately inducing a subject to commit improper
or criminal actions during hypnosis or by posthypnotic sugges-
tion. There is, however, no doubt that subjects retain even in
deep hypnosis a very considerable power of resistance to any
suggestion that is repugnant to their moral nature; and it has
been shown that, on some cases in which a subject in hypnosis
is made to perform some ostensibly criminal action, such as
firing an unloaded pistol at a bystander or putting poison into a
cup for him to drink, he is aware, however obscurely, of the unreal
nature of the situation. Nevertheless it must be admitted that
a person lacking in moral sentiments might be induced to commit
actions from which in the normal state he would abstain, if only
from fear of punishment; and it is probable that a skilful and
evil-intentioned operator could in some cases so deceive a well-
disposed subject as to lead him into wrong-doing. The proper
precaution against such dangers is legislative regulation of the
practice of hypnotism such as is already enforced in some
countries.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The literature of hypnotism has increased in
volume at a rapid rate during recent years. Of recent writings the
following may be mentioned as among the most important : — Treat-
ment by Hypnotism and Suggestion by C. Lloyd Tuckey,M.D.(5th ed.,
London, 1907) ; Hypnotism, its History, Practice and Theory, by
J. Milne Bramwell, M.B. (2nd ed., London, 1906); Hypnotism, by
AlbertMoll (sthed., London, 1901). All these three books give good
general accounts of hypnotism, the first being the most strictly
medical, the last the most general in its treatment. See also Hypnot-
ism: or Suggestion in Psycho-Therapy, by August Forel (translated
from the 5th German ed. by G. H. W. Armit, London, 1906) ; a
number of papers by Ed. Gurney, and by Ed. Gurney and F.W.H.
Myers in Proc. of the Soc. for Psychical Research, especially " The
Stages of Hypnotism," in vol. ii. ; also some more recent papers in
the same journal by other hands; chapter on Hypnotism in Human
Personality and its Survival of bodily Death, by F. W. H. Myers
(London, 1903) ; The Psychology of Suggestion, by Boris Sidis, Ph.D.
(New York, 1898); " Zur Psychologic der Suggestion," by Prof.
Th. Lipp, and other papers in the Zeilschrift fur Hypnotismus. Of
special historical interest are the following: — £tude sur le zoo-
magnetisme, par A. A. Liebeault (Paris, 1883); Hypnolisme, sugges-
tion, psycho-therapie, par Prof. Bernheim (Paris, 1891); Braid on
Hypnotism (a new issue of James Braid's Neurypnology ) , edited by
A. E. Waite (London, 1899); Traits du somnambulisme, by A.
Bertrand (Paris. 1826). A full bibliography is appended to Dr
Milne Bramwell's Hypnotism. (W. McD.)
HYPOCAUST (Gr. WTOKCIUOTOI' : wro, beneath, and Kavdv,
to burn), the term given to the chamber formed under the floors
of the Roman baths, through which the hot air from the furnace
passed, sometimes to a single flue, as in the case of the tepidarium,
but in the calidarium and sweating-room to a series of flues
placed side by side forming the lining of the walls. The floor
of the hot-air chamber consisted of tiles, 2 ft. square, laid on a
bed of concrete; on this a series of dwarf piers 2 ft. high were
built of 8-in. square tiles placed about 16 in. apart, which carried
the floor of the hall or room; this floor was formed of a bed of
concrete covered with layers of pounded bricks and marble
cement, on which the marble pavement in slabs or tesserae was
laid. In colder countries, as for instance in Germany and
England, the living rooms were all heated in a similar way, and
round Treves (Trier) both systems have been found in two or
three Roman villas, with the one flue for the ordinary rooms and
several wall flues for the hot baths. In England these hypo-
causts are found in every Roman settlement, and the chief
interest in these is centred in the magnificent mosaic pavements
with which the principal rooms were laid. Many of the pave-
ments found in London and elsewhere have been preserved in the
British or the Guildhall museums; and in some of the provincial
towns, such as Leicester and Lincoln, they remain in situ many
feet below the present level of the town.
HYPOCHONDRIASIS (synonyms— "the spleen," "the
vapours "), a medical term (from TO \nro\bvt) ptav, TO. inroxovdpia,
the soft part of the body immediately under the xbvdpos or cartilage
of the breast-bone)given by the ancients,and indeed by physicians
down to the time of William Cullen, to diseases or derangements
of one or more of the abdominal viscera. Cullen (Clinical
Lectures, 1777) classified it amongst nervous diseases, and Jean
Pierre Falret (1794-1870) more fully described it as a morbid
condition of the nervous system characterized by depression of
feeling and false beliefs as to an impaired state of the health.
The subjects of hypochondriasis are for the most part members
of families in which hereditary predisposition to degradation of
the nervous system is strong, or those who have suffered from
morbid influences affecting this system during the earlier years of
life. It may be dependent on depressing disease affecting the
general system, but under such circumstances it is generally
so complicated with the symptoms of hysteria as to render
differentiation difficult (see HYSTERIA). Hypochondriasis is
often handed down from one generation to another in its in-
dividual form, but it is also not unfrequently to be met with in
an individual as the sole manifestation in him of a family tendency
to insanity. In its most common form it is manifested by simple
false belief as to the state of the health, the intellect being other-
wise unaffected. We may instance the " vapourish " woman or
the " splenetic " as terms society has applied to its milder
manifestations. Such persons are constantly asserting a weak
state of health although no palpable cause can be discovered.
In its more definite phases pain or uneasy sensations are referred
by the patient to some particular region, generally the abdomen,
the heart or the head. That these are subjective is apparent
from the fact that the general health is good: all the functions of
the various systems are duly performed; the patient eats and
sleeps well; and, when any circumstance temporarily overrides
the false belief, he is happy and comfortable. No appeal to the
reason is of any avail, and the hypochondriac idea so dominates
his existence as to render him unable to perform the ordinary
duties of life. In its most aggravated form hypochondriasis
amounts to actual insanity, delusions arising as to the existence
of living creatures in the intestines or brain, or to the effect
that the body is materially changed; e.g. into glass, wood, &c.
The symptoms of this condition may be remittent; they may
even disappear for years, and only return on the advent of some
exciting cause. Suicide is occasionally committed in order to
escape from the constant misery. Recovery can only be looked
for by placing the patient under such morally hygienic con-
ditions as may help to turn his mind to other matters. (See also
NEUROPATHOLOGY.)
HYPOCRISY, pretence, or false assumption of a high character,
especially in regard to religious belief or practice. The Greek
wo/cpuns, from which the word is derived through the Old
French, meant primarily the acting of a part on the stage, from
VTToKpivtadai, to give an answer, to speak dialogue, play a part
on the stage, hence to practice dissimulation.
HYPOSTASIS, in theology, a term frequently occurring in the
Trinitarian controversies of the 4th and 5th centuries. According
to Irenaeus (i. 5, 4) it was introduced into theology by Gnostic
writers, and in earliest ecclesiastical usage appears, as among
the Stoics, to have been synonymous with ovala. Thus Dionysius
of Rome (cf. Routh, Rel. Sacr. iii. 373) condemns the attempt
to sever the Godhead into three separate hypostases and three
deities, and the Nicene Creed in the anathemas speaks of
208
HYPOSTYLE— HYPOTRACHELIUM
k!-hkpas wroordo-aos TJ ova-Las. Alongside, however, of this per-
sistent interchange there was a desire to distinguish between the
terms, and to confine wbaraaa to the Divine persons. This
tendency arose in Alexandria, and its progress may be seen in
comparing the early and later writings of Athanasius. That
writer, in view of the Arian trouble, felt that it was better to
speak of owria as " the common undifferentiated substance of
Deity," and wroorcuns as " Deity existing in a personal mode,
the substance of Deity with certain special properties " (oiiaia.
faera ruxav ISuanaroiv). At the council of Alexandria in 362 the
phrase rpets wroorcums was permitted, and the work of this
council was supplemented by Basil, Gregory of Nazianzus and
Gregory of Nyssa in the formula fiia oMa, rpets woorao-eis or
ula oiiaio. kv rpuriv VKoaraGeaiv.
The results arrived at by these Cappadocian fathers were stated
in a later age by John of Damascus (De orth. fid. iii. 6), quoted in
R. L. Ottley, The Doctrine of the Incarnation, u. 257.
HYPOSTYLE, in architecture, the term applied to a hall,
the flat ceiling of which is supported by columns, as in the Hall
of Columns at Karnak. In this case the columns flanking the
central avenue are of greater height than those of the side aisles,
and this admits of openings in the wall above the smaller columns,
through which light is admitted over the aisle roof, through
clerestory windows.
HYPOSULPHITE OF SODA, the name originally given to
the substance known in chemistry as sodium thiosulphate,
NajS2O3 ; the earlier name is still commonly used, especially by
photographers, who employ this chemical as a fixer. In system-
atic chemistry, sodium hyposulphite is a salt of hyposulphurous
acid, to which Schutzenberger gave the formula H2SO2, but
which Bernthsen showed to be H2S2O4. (See SULPHUR.)
HYPOTHEC (Lat. hypotheca, Gr. wro^wj), in Roman law,
the most advanced form of the contract of pledge. A specific
thing may be given absolutely to a creditor on the understanding
that it is to be given back when the creditor's debt is paid;
or the property in the thing may be assigned to the creditor
while the debtor is allowed to remain in possession, the creditor
as owner being able to take possession if his debt is not dis-
charged. Here we have the kind of security known as pledge
and mortgage respectively. In the hypotheca, the property
does not pass to the creditor, nor does he get possession, but he
acquires a preferential right to have his debt paid out of the
hypothecated property; that is, he can sell it and pay himself
out of the proceeds, or in default of a purchaser he can become
the owner himself. The name and the principle have passed
into the law of Scotland, which distinguishes between conventional
hypothecs, as bottomry and respondentia, and tacit hypothecs
established by law. Of the latter the most important is the
landlord's hypothec for rent (corresponding to distress in the law
of England), which extends over the produce of the land and the
cattle and sheep fed on it, and over stock and horses used in
husbandry. The law of agricultural hypothec long caused much
discontent in Scotland; its operation was restricted by the
Hypothec Amendment (Scotland) Act 1867, and finally by the
Hypothec Abolition (Scotland) Act 1880 it was enacted that
the " landlord's right of hypothec for the rent of land, including
the rent of any buildings thereon, exceeding two acres in extent,
let for agriculture or pasture, shall cease and determine." By
the same act and by the Agricultural Holdings (Scotland) Act
1883 other rights and remedies for rent, where the right of
hypothec had ceased, were given to the landlord.
HYPOTHESIS (from Gr. vwortBivai, to put under; cf.
Lat. suppositio, from sub-ponere), in ordinary language, an
explanation, supposition or assumption, which is put forward
in the absence of ascertained facts or causes. Both in ordinary
life and in the acquisition of scientific knowledge hypothesis
is all-important. A detective's work consists largely in forming
and testing hypothesis. If an astronomer is confronted by some
phenomenon which has no obvious explanation he may postulate
some set of conditions which from his general knowledge of the
subject would or might give rise to the phenomenon in question;
he then tests his hypothesis until he discovers whether it does
or does not conflict with the facts. An example of this process
is that of the discovery of the planet Neptune: certain perturba-
tions of the orbit of Uranus had been observed, and it was seen
that these could be explained on the hypothesis of the existence
of a then unknown planet, and this hypothesis was verified
by actual observation. The progress of inductive knowledge is
by the formation of successive hypotheses, and it frequently
happens that the demolition of one or even many hypotheses
is the direct road to a new and accurate hypothesis, i.e. to fresh
knowledge. A hypothesis may, therefore, turn out to be entirely
wrong, yet it may be of the greatest practical use.
The recognition of the importance of hypotheses has led to
various attempts at drawing up exact rules for their formation,
but logicians are generally agreed that only very elementary
principles can be laid down. Thus a hypothesis must contain
nothing which is at variance with known facts or principles:
it should not postulate conditions which cannot be verified
empirically. J. S. Mill (Logic III. xiv. 4) laid down the principle
that a hypothesis is not " genuinely scientific " if it is " destined
always to remain a hypothesis ": it must " be of such a nature
as to be either proved or disproved by comparison with observed
facts": in the same spirit Bacon said that in searching for
causes in nature " Deum semper excipimus." Mill's principle,
though sound in the abstract, has, except in a few cases, little
practical value in determining the admissibility of hypotheses,
and in practice any rule which tends to discourage hypothesis
is in general undesirable. The most satisfactory check on
hypothesis is expert knowledge in the particular field of research
by which rigorous tests may be applied. This test is roughly
of two kinds, first by the ultimate principles or presuppositions
on which a particular branch of knowledge rests, and second
by the comparison of correlative facts. Useful light is shed on
this distinction by Lotze, who contrasts (Logic, § 273) postulates
(" absolutely necessary assumptions without which the content
of the observation with which we are dealing would contradict
the laws of our thought ") with hypotheses, which he defines
as conjectures, which seek " to fill up the postulate thus ab-
stractly stated by specifying the concrete causes, forces or pro-
cesses, out of which the given phenomenon really arose in this
particular case, while in other cases maybe the same postulate
is to be satisfied by utterly different though equivalent combina-
tions of forces or active elements." Thus a hypothesis may be
ruled out by principles or postulates without any reference to
the concrete facts which belong to that division of the subject
to explain which the hypothesis is formulated. A true hypothesis,
therefore, seeks not merely to connect or colligate two separate
facts, but to do this in the light of and subject to certain funda-
mental principles. Various attempts have been made to classify
hypotheses and to distinguish " hypothesis " from a " theory "
or a mere " conjecture ": none of these have any great practical
importance, the differences being only in degree, not in kind.
The adjective " hypothetical " is used in the same sense,
both loosely in contradistinction to " real " or " actual," and
technically in the phrases " hypothetical judgment " and
" hypothetical syllogism." (See LOGIC and SYLLOGISM.)
See Naville, La Logique de I'hypothkse (1880), and textbooks of
logic, e.g. those of Jevons, Bosanquet, Joseph; Liebmann, Der
Klimax d. Theorien.
HYPOTRACHELIUM (Gr. worpaxijXwi', the lower part of
the neck, Tp&xn^os), in classical architecture, the space between
the annulet of the echinus and the upper bed of the shafts,
including, according to C. R. Cockerell, the three grooves or
sinkings found in some of the older examples, as in the temple
of Neptune at Paestum and the temple of Aphaea at Aegina;
there being only one groove in the Parthenon, the Theseum and
later examples. In the temple of Ceres and the so-called Basilica
at Paestum the hypotrachelium consists of a concave sinking
carved with vertical lines suggestive of leaves, the tops of which
project forward. A similar decoration is found in the capital
of the columns flanking the tomb of Agamemnon at Mycenae,
but here the hypotrachelium projects forward with a cavetto
moulding, and is carved with triple leaves like the buds of a
HYPSOMETER— HYRACOIDEA
209
rose. In the Roman Doric Order the term was sometimes
applied to that which is generally known as the " necking,"
the space between the fillet and the annulet.
HYPSOMETER (Gr. ft/w, height, p.krpov, a measure), an
instrument for measuring heights which employs the principles
that the boiling-point of a liquid is lowered by diminishing
the pressure, and that the barometric pressure varies with the
height of the point of observation. The instrument consists
of a cylindrical vessel in which the liquid, usually water, is boiled,
surmounted by a jacketed column, in the outer partitions of
which the vapour circulates, while in the central one a ther-
mometer is placed. To deduce the height of the station from
the observed boiling-point, it is necessary to know the relation
existing between the boiling-point and pressure, and also between
the pressure and height of the atmosphere.
HYRACOIOEA, a suborder of ungulate mammals represented
at the present day only by the Syrian hyrax (Procavia syriaca),
the " coney " of the Bible, and its numerous African relatives,
all of which may be included in the single genus Procavia (or
Hyrax), and consequently in the family Procaviidae. These
creatures have no proper English name, and are generally known
as hyraxes, from the scientific term (Hyrax) by which they were
for many years designated — a term which has unfortunately
had to give place to the earlier Procavia. In size these animals
may be compared roughly to rabbits and hares; and they have
rodent-like habits, hunching up their backs after the fashion of
some foreign members of the hare-family, more especially the
Liu-Kiu rabbit. In the matter of nomenclature these animals
have been singularly unfortunate. In the title " hyrax " they
have, for instance, usurped the Greek name for the shrew-mouse;
while in the Bible they have been given the old English name
for the rabbit. Perhaps rock-rabbit would be the best name.
At the Cape they are known to the Dutch as doss (badger),
which has been anglicized into " dassie."
As regards the recent forms, the dentition in the fully adult animal
consists only of incisors and cheek-teeth, the formula being i. J,
(•• ?> P- f > m- f • There is, however, a minute upper canine developed
at first, which is early shed; and in extinct forms this tooth was
FIG. i. — The Cape Hyrax (Procavia capensis).
functional and molar-like. The upper incisors have persistent
pulps, and are curved longitudinally, forming a semicircle as in
rodents; they are, however, not flattened from before backwards
as in that order, but prismatic, with an antero-external, an antero-
internal and a posterior surface, the first two only being covered
with enamel; their tips are consequently not chisel-shaped, but
sharp-pointed._ They are preceded by functional, rooted milk-teeth.
The lower incisors have long tapering roots, but not of persistent
growth; and are straight, directed somewhat forwards, with awl-
shaped, tri-lobed crowns. Behind the incisors is a considerable gap,
followed by the cheek-teeth, which are all contiguous, and formed
almost exactly on the pattern of some of the perissodactyle un-
gulates. The milk-dentition includes three pairs of incisors and
one of canines in each jaw. The hyoid arch is unlike that of any
known mammal. The dorsal and lumbar vertebrae are very numer-
ous, 28 to 30, of which 21 or 22 bear ribs. The tail is extremely
short. There are no clavicles. In the fore foot, the three middle
toes are subequally developed, the fifth is present, but smaller, and
the first is rudimentary, although, in one species at least, all its
normal bones are present. The terminal phalanges of the four
outer digits are small, somewhat conical and flattened in form.
The carpus has a distinct os centrale. There is a slight ridge on the
femur in the place of a third trochanter. The fibula is complete,
thickest at its upper end, where it generally unites with the tibia.
The articulation between the tibia and astragalus is more complex
than in other mammals, the end of the malleolus entering into it.
The hind-foot is very like that of a rhinoceros, having three well-
developed toes. There is no trace of a first toe, and the fifth meta-
tarsal is represented by a small nodule. The terminal phalange of
the inner (or second) digit is deeply cleft, and has a peculiar long
curved claw, the others having short broad nails. The stomach is
formed upon much the same principle as that of the horse or rhino-
ceros, but is more elongated transversely and divided by a constriction
into two cavities — a large left cul de sac, lined by a very dense white
epithelium, and a right pyloric cavity, with a thick, soft, vascular
lining. The intestinal canal is long, and has, in addition to the
ordinary short, but capacious and sacculated caecum at the com-
mencement of the colon, lower down, a pair of large, conical, pointed
caeca. The liver is much subdivided, and there is no gall-bladder.
The brain resembles that of typical ungulates far more than that
of rodents. The testes are permanently abdominal. The ureters
open into the fundus of the bladder as in some Rodents. The
FIG. 2. — Skull and Dentition of Tree-Hyrax(Proca»ia dorsalis) Xf •
female has six teats, of which four are inguinal and two axillary,
and the placenta is zonary and deciduous. There is a gland on the
back.
The more typical members of the genus are terrestrial in their
habits, and their cheek-teeth have nearly the same pattern as in
rhinoceroses; while the interval between the upper incisors is
less than the width of the teeth; and the lower incisors are only
slightly notched at the cutting edge. Vertebrae: C. 7, D. 22, L. 8,
S. 6, C. 6. Of this form the earliest known species, P. capensis, is
the type; but there are many other species, as P. syriaca, and P.
brucei from Syria and eastern Africa. They inhabit mountainous
and rocky regions, and live on the ground. In a second section the
molar teeth have the same pattern as in Palaeotherium (except that
the third lower molar has but two lobes) ; the interval between the
upper incisors exceeds the width of the teeth; and the lower incisors
have distinctly trilobed crowns. Vertebrae: C. 7, D. 21, L. 7, S. 5,
C. 10. The members of this section frequent the trunks and large
branches of trees, sleeping in holes. There are several species from
Western and South Africa, as P. arboreus and P. dorsalis. The
members of both groups appear to have a power like that possessed
by geckos of clinging to vertical surfaces of rocks and trees by the
soles of their feet.
Extinct Hyracoids. — For many years extinct representatives
of the Hyracoidea were unknown, partly owing to the fact that
certain fossils were not recognized as really belonging to that group.
The longest known of these was originally named Leptodon graecus,
but, on account of the preoccupation of the generic title, the designa-
tion has been changed to Pliohyrax graecus. This animal, whose
remains occur in the Lower Pliocene of both Attica and Samos, was
about the size of a donkey, and possessed three pairs of upper incisor
teeth, of which the innermost were large and trihedral, recalling
those of the existing g_enus. On the other hand, the two outer
pairs of incisors were in contact with one another and with the
canines, so as to form on each side a series continuous with the
cheek-teeth.
The next representatives of the group occur in the Upper Eocene
beds of the Fayum district of Egypt, where the genera Saghatherium
and Megalohyrax occur. These are regarded as representing a
distinct family, the Saghatheriidae, characterized by the possession
of the full series of twenty-two teeth in the upper jaw, among
which the first pair of incisors was modified to form trihedral rootless
tusks, while the two remaining pairs were separated from one
another and from the teeth in front by gaps. The canine was like
a premolar, and in contact with the first tooth of that series; and
the cheek-teeth were short-crowned, with the premolar simpler than
the molars, and a third lobe to the last lower tooth of the latter
2IO
HYRCANIA— HYSSOP
series. The members of this genus were small or medium-sized
ungulates with single-rooted incisors. On the other hand, the
representatives of the contemporary genus Megalohyrax were ap-
proximately as large as Pliohyrax, and in some instances had double
roots to the second and third incisors.
It is now possible to define the suborder Hyracoidea as including
ungulates with a centrale in the carpus, plantigrade feet, in which
the first and fifth toes are reduced in greater or less degree, and
clavicles and a foramen in the lower end of the humerus are absent.
The femur has a small third trochanter, the radius and ulna and
tibia and fibula are respectively separate, at least in the young, and
the fibula articulates with the astragalus. The earlier forms had the
full series of 44 teeth, with the premolars simpler than the molars;
but in the later types the canines and some of the incisors disappear,
and at least the hinder premolars become molar-like. In all cases
the first upper incisors are large and rootless.
That the group originated in Africa there can be no reasonable
doubt ; and it is remarkable that so early as the Upper Eocene the
types in existence differed comparatively little in structure from the
modern forms. In fact the hyraxes were then almost as distinct
from other mammals as they are at the present day.
See also C. W. Andrews, Descriptive Catalogue of the Tertiary
Vertebrata of the Fayum, British Museum (1906). (R. L.*)
HYRCANIA. (i) An ancient district of Asia, south of the
Caspian Sea, and bounded on the E. by the river Oxus, called
Virkana, or " Wolf's Land," in Old Persian. It was a wide and
indefinite tract. Its chief city is called Tape by Strabo, Zadra-
carta by Arrian (probably the modern Astarabad). The latter
is evidently the same as Carta, mentioned by Strabo as an
important city. Little is known of the history of the country.
Xenophon says it was subdued by the Assyrians; Curtius that
6000 Hyrcanians were in the army of Darius III. (2) Two
towns named Hyrcania are mentioned, one in Hyrcania, the
other in Lydia. The latter is said to have derived its name from a
colony of Hyrcanians, transported thither by the Persians.
HYRCANUS ('Tp/caws), a Greek surname, of unknown origin,
borne by several Jews of the Maccabaean period.
JOHN HYRCANUS I., high priest of the Jews from 135 to 105 B.C.,
was the youngest son of Simon Maccabaeus. In 137 B.C. he,
along with his brother Judas, commanded the force which
repelled the invasion of Judaea led by Cendebeus, the general
of Antiochus VII. Sidetes. On the assassination of his father
and two elder brothers by Ptolemy, governor of Jericho, his
brother-in-law, in February 135, he succeeded to the high priest-
hood and the supreme authority in Judaea. While still engaged
in the struggle with Ptolemy, he was attacked by Antiochus
with a large army (134), and compelled to shut himself up in
Jerusalem; after a severe siege peace was at last secured only
on condition of a Jewish disarmament, and the payment of an
indemnity and an annual tribute, for which hostages were taken.
In 129 he accompanied Antiochus as a vassal prince on his ill-
fated Parthian expedition; returning, however, to Judaea
before winter, he escaped the final disaster. By the judicious
mission of an embassy to Rome he now obtained confirmation
of the alliance which his father had previously made with the
growing western power; at the same time he availed himself
of the weakened state of the Syrian monarchy under Demetrius
II. to overrun Samaria, and also to invade Idumaea, which he
completely subdued, compelling its inhabitants to receive
circumcision and accept the Jewish faith. After a long period
of rest he directed his arms against the town of Samaria, which,
in spite of the intervention of Antiochus, his sons Antigonus and
Aristobulus ultimately took, and by his orders razed to the ground
(c. 109 B.C.). He died in 105, and was succeeded by Aristobulus,
the eldest of his five sons. The external policy of Hyrcanus
was marked by considerable energy and tact, and, aided as it "was
by favouring circumstances, was so successful as to leave the
Jewish nation in a position of independence and of influence such
as it had not known since the days of Solomon. During its
later years his reign was much distrubed, however, by the con-
tentions for ascendancy which arose between the Pharisees and
Sadducees, the two rival sects or parties which then for the first
time (under those names at least) came into prominence.
Josephus has related the curious circumstances under which he
ultimately transferred his personal support from the former to the
latter.
JOHN HYRCANUS II., high priest from 78 to 40 B.C., was the
eldest son of Alexander Jannaeus by his wife Alexandra, and
was thus a grandson of the preceding. When his father died in
78, he was by his mother forthwith appointed high priest, and
on her death in 69 he claimed the succession to the supreme civil
authority also; but, after a brief and troubled reign of three
months, he was compelled to abdicate both kingly and priestly
dignities in favour of his more energetic and ambitious younger
brother Aristobulus II. In 63 it suited the policy of Pompey
that he should be restored to the high priesthood, with some
semblance of supreme command, but of much of this semblance
even he was soon again deprived by the arrangement of the
pro-consul Gabinius, according to which Palestine was in 57 B.C.
divided into five separate circles (o-vvodoi, o-vvedpta) . For services
rendered to Caesar after the battle of Pharsalia, he was again
rewarded with the sovereignty (irpoo-raaia TOV Wvovs, Jos. Ant.
xx. 10) in 47 B.C., Antipater of Idumaea, however, being at the
same time made procurator of Judaea. In 41 B.C. he was
practically superseded by Antony's appointment of Herod and
Phasael to be tetrarchs of Judaea; and in the following year he
was taken prisoner by the Parthians, deprived of his ears that
he might be permanently disqualified for priestly office, and
carried to Babylon. He was permitted in 33 B.C. to return to
Jerusalem, where on a charge of treasonable correspondence
with Malchus, king of Arabia, he was put to death in 30 B.C.
See Josephus (Ant. xiii. 8-10; xiv. 5-13; Bell. Jud. i. 2; i. 8-13).
Also MACCABEES, History. (J. H. A. H.)
HYSSOP (Hyssopus officinalis), a garden herb belonging to the
natural order Labiatae, formerly cultivated for use in domestic
medicine. It is a small perennial plant about 2 ft. high, with
slender, quadrangular, woody stems; narrowly elliptical,
pointed, entire, dotted leaves, about i in. long and J in. wide,
growing in pairs on the stem; and long terminal, erect, half-
whorled, leafy spikes of small violet-blue flowers, which are in
blossom from June to September. Varieties of the plant occur
in gardens with red and white flowers, also one having variegated
leaves. The leaves have a warm, aromatic, bitter taste, and are
believed to owe their properties to a volatile oil which is present
in the proportion of J to i %. Hyssop is a native of the south
of Europe, its range extending eastward to central Asia. A strong
tea made of the leaves, and sweetened with honey, was formerly
used in pulmonary and catarrhal affections, and externally as an
application to bruises and indolent swellings.
The hedge hyssop (Gratiola officinalis) belongs to the natural
order Scrophulariaceae, and is a native of marshy lands in the
south of Europe, whence it was introduced into Britain more
than 300 years ago. Like Hyssopus officinalis, it has smooth
opposite entire leaves, but the stems are cylindrical, the leaves
twice the size, and the flowers solitary in the axils of the leaves
and having a yellowish-red veined tube and bluish-white limb,
while the capsules are oval and many-seeded. The herb has
a bitter, nauseous taste, but is almost odourless. In small
quantities it acts as a purgative, diuretic and emetic when taken
internally. It was formerly official in the Edinburgh Pharma-
copoeia, being esteemed as a remedy for dropsy. It is said to
have formed the basis of a celebrated nostrum for gout, called
Eau mfdicina'e, and in former times was called Gratia Dei.
When growing in abundance, as it does in some damp pastures
in Switzerland, it becomes dangerous to cattle. G. peruviana
is known to possess similar properties.
The hyssop ('ezob) of Scripture (Ex. xii. 22; Lev. xiv. 4, 6;
Numb. xix. 6, 18; I Kings v. 13 (iv. 33); Ps. li. 9 (7); John xix.
29), a wall-growing plant adapted for sprinkling purposes, has long
been the subject of learned disputation, the only point on which
all have agreed being that it is not to be identified with the Hys-
sopus officinalis, which is not a native of Palestine. No fewer than
eighteen plants have been supposed by various authors to answer
the conditions, and Celsius has devoted more than forty pages to
the discussion of their several claims. By Tristram (Oxford Bible
for Teachers, 1880) and others the caper plant (Capparis spinosa)
is supposed to be meant; but, apart from other difficulties, this
identification is open to the objection that the caper seems to be,
at least in one passage (Eccl. xii. O, otherwise designated (abiy-
yonah). Thenius (on i Kings v. 13) suggests Orthotnchum saxatile.
HYSTASPES— HYSTERIA
211
The most probable opinion would seem to be that found in Maimo-
nides and many later writers, according to which the Hebrew 'ezob
is to be identified with the Arabic sa'atar, now understood to be
Satureja Thymus, a plant of very frequent occurrence in Syria and
Palestine, with which Thymus Serpyllum, or wild thyme, and
Satureja Thymbra are closely allied. Its smell, taste and medicinal
properties are similar to those of H. officinalis._ In Morocco the
sa'atar of the Arabs is Origanum compactum ; and it appears probable
that several plants of the genera Thymus, Origanum and others
nearly allied in form and habit, and found in similar localities, were
used under the name of hyssop.
HYSTASPES (the Greek form of the Persian Vishtaspa).
(1) A semi-legendary king (kava), praised by Zoroaster as his
protector and a true believer, son of Aurvataspa (Lohrasp).
The later tradition and the Shahname of Firdousi makes him
(in the modern form Kai Gushtasp) king of Iran. As Zoroaster
probably preached his religion in eastern Iran, Vishtaspa must
have been a dynast in Bactria or Sogdiana. The Zoroastrian
religion was already dominant in Media in the time of the
Assyrian king Sargon (c. 715 B.C.), and had been propagated
here probably in much earlier times (cf. PERSIA); the time
of Zoroaster and Vishtaspa may therefore be put at c. 1000 B.C.
(2) A Persian, father of Darius I., under whose reign he was
governor of Parthia, as Darius himself mentions in the Behistun
inscription (2. 65). By Ammianus Marcellinus, xxiii. 6. 32, and
by many modern authors he has been identified with the protector
of Zoroaster, which is equally impossible for chronological and
historical reasons, and from the evidence of the development of
Zoroastrianism itself (see PERSIA: Ancient History). (Eo. M.)
HYSTERESIS (Gr. wreprjiris, from wrkptiv, to lag behind),
a term added to the vocabulary of physical science by J. A.
Ewing, who defines it as follows: When there are two qualities
M and N such that cyclic variations of N cause cyclic variations
of M, then if the changes of M lag behind those of N, we may
say that there is hysteresis in the relation of M to N (Phil. Trans.,
1885, 176, p. 524). The phenomenon is best known in connexion
with magnetism. If an iron bar is subjected to a magnetic
force which is first gradually increased to a maximum and then
gradually diminished, the resulting magnetization of the bar
for any given value of the magnetic force will be greater when
the force is decreasing than when it is increasing; the iron
always tends to retain the magnetic condition which it has
previously acquired, and changes of its magnetization conse-
quently lag behind changes of the magnetic force. Thus there
is hysteresis in the relation of magnetization to magnetic force.
In consequence of hysteresis the process of magnetizing a piece
of iron to a certain intensity and then restoring it to its original
condition, or of effecting a double reversal of its magnetization,
involves the expenditure of energy, which is dissipated as heat
in the iron. Electrical generators and transformers often
contain pieces of iron the magnetization of which is reversed
many times in a second, and in order to economize power and
to avoid undue heating it is essential that hysteresis should
in such cases be as small as possible. Iron and mild steels
showing remarkably little hysteresis are now specially manu-
factured for use in the construction of electrical machinery.
(See MAGNETISM.)
HYSTERIA, a term applied to an affection which may manifest
itself by a variety of symptoms, and which depends upon a
disordered condition of the highest nervous centres. It is charac-
terized by psychical peculiarities, while in addition there is often
derangement of the functions subserved by the lower cerebral
and spinal centres. Histological examination of the nervous
system has failed to disclose associated structural alterations.
By the ancients and by modern physicians down to the time
of Sydenham the symptoms of hysteria were supposed to be
directly due to disturbances of the uterus (Gr. wrepa, whence the
name). This view is now universally recognized to be erroneous.
The term " functional " is often used by English neurologists
as synonymous with hysterical, a nomenclature which is tenta-
tively advantageous since it is at least non-committal. P. J.
Mobius has defined hysteria as " a state in which ideas control
the body and produce morbid changes in its functions." P.
Janet, who has done much to popularize the psychical origin
of the affection, holds that there is " a limitation of the field
of consciousness " comparable to the contraction of the visual
fields met with in the disease. The hysterical subject, according
to this view, is incapable of taking into the field of consciousness
all the impressions of which the normal individual is conscious.
Strong momentary impressions are no longer controlled so
efficiently because of the" defective simultaneous impressions
of previous memories. Hence the readiness with which the im-
pulse of the moment is obeyed, the loss of emotional control
and the increased susceptibility to external suggestion, which
are so characteristic. A secondary subconscious mental state
is engendered by the relegation of less prominent impressions
to a lower sphere. The dual personality which is typically ex-
emplified in somnambulism and in the hypnotic state is thus
induced. The explanation of hysterical symptoms which are
independent of the will, and of the existence of which the indi-
vidual may be unaware, is to be found in a relative preponder-
ance of this secondary subconscious state as compared with the
primary conscious personality. An elaboration of this theory
affords an explanation of hysterical symptoms dependent
upon a " fixed idea." The following definition of hysteria has
recently been advanced by J. F. F. Babinski: " Hysteria is a
psychical condition manifesting itself principally by signs
that may be termed primary, and in an accessory sense others
that we may call secondary. The characteristic of the primary
signs is that they may be exactly reproduced in certain subjects
by suggestion and dispelled by persuasion. The characteristic
of the secondary signs is that they are closely related to the
primary phenomena."
The causes of hysteria may be divided into (a) the predisposing,
such as hereditary predisposition to nervous disease, sex, age
and national idiosyncrasy; and (b) the immediate, such as
mental and physical exhaustion, fright and other emotional
influences, pregnancy, the puerperal condition, diseases of the
uterus and its appendages, and the depressing influence of injury
or general disease. Perhaps, taken over all, hereditary pre-
disposition to nerve-instability may be asserted as the most
prolific cause. There is frequently direct inheritance, and cases
of epilepsy and insanity or other form of nervous disease are
rarely wanting when the family history is carefully enquired
into. As regards age, the condition is apt to appear at the
evolution periods of life — puberty, pregnancy and the climacteric
— without any further assignable cause except that first spoken
of. It is rare in young children, but very frequent in girls
between the ages of fifteen and twenty-five, while it sometimes
manifests itself in women at the menopause. It is much more
common in the female than in the male — in the proportion of
20 to i. Certain races are more liable to the disease than others;
thus the Latin races are much more prone to hysteria than are
those who come of a Teutonic stock, and in more aggravated
and complex forms. In England it has been asserted that an
undue proportion of cases occur among Jews. Occupation,
or be it rather said want of occupation, Is a prolific cause. This
is noticeable more especially in the higher classes of society.
An hysterical attack may occur as an immediate sequel to an
epileptic fit. If the patient suffers only from petit mal (see
EPILEPSY), unaccompanied by true epileptic fits, the significance
of the hysterical seizure, which is really a post-epileptic pheno-
menon, may remain unrecognized.
It is convenient to group the very varied symptoms of hysteria
into paroxysmal and chronic. The popular term " hysterics "
is applied to an explosion of emotionalism, generally the result
of mental excitement, on which convulsive fits may supervene.
The characters of these vary, and may closely resemble epilepsy.
The hysterical fit is generally preceded by an aura or warning.
This sometimes takes the form of a sensation as of a lump in the
throat (globus hystericus). The patient may fall, but very rarely
is injured in so doing. The eyes are often tightly closed, the
body and limbs become rigid, and the back may become so arched
that the patient rests on her heels and head (opisthotonos) . This
stage is usually followed by violent struggling movements. There
is no loss of consciousness. The attack may last for half-an-hour
212
HYSTERON-PROTERON— HYTHE
or even longer. Hysterical fits in their fully-developed form are
rarely seen in England, though common in France. In the
chronic condition we find an extraordinary complexity of symp-
toms, both physical and mental. The physical symptoms are
extremely diverse. There may be a paralysis of one or more
limbs associated with rigidity, which may persist for weeks,
months or years. In some cases, the patient is unable to walk;
in others there are peculiarities of the gait quite unlike anything
met with in organic disease. Perversions of sensation are usually
present; a common instance is the sensation of a nail being
driven through the vertex of the head (clavus hystericus) . The
region of the spine is a very frequent seat of hysterical pain.
Loss of sensation (anaesthesia), of which the patient may be un-
aware, is of common occurrence. Very of ten this sensory loss is
limited exactly to one-half of the body, including the leg, arm and
face on that side (hemianaesthesia). Sensation to touch, pain,
heat and cold, and electrical stimuli may have completely dis-
appeared in the anaesthetic region. In other cases, the anaes-
thesia is relative or it may be partial, certain forms of sensation
remaining intact. Anaesthesia is almost always accompanied by
an inability to recognize the exact position of the affected limb
when the eyes are closed. When hemianaesthesia is present,
sight, hearing, taste and smell are usually impaired on that side
of the body. Often there is loss of voice (hysterical aphonia).
It is to such cases of hysterical paralysis and sensory disturbance
that the wonderful cures effected by quacks and charlatans may
be referred. The mental symptoms have not the same tendency
to pass away suddenly. They may be spoken of as inter-
paroxysmal and paroxysmal. The chief characteristics of the
former are extreme emotionalism combined with obstructiveness,
a desire to be an object of interest and a constant craving for
sympathy which is often procured at an immense sacrifice of
personal comfort. Obstructiveness is the invariable symptom.
Hysteria may pass into absolute insanity.
The treatment of hysteria demands great tact and firmness
on the part of the physician. The affection is a definite entity
and has to be clearly distinguished from malingering, with which
it is so often erroneously regarded as synonymous. Drugs are
of little value. The moral treatment is all-important. In severe
cases, removal from home surroundings and isolation, either in
a hospital ward or nursing home, are essential, in order that full
benefit may be derived from psychotherapeutic measures.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Charcot, Lemons sur Us maladies du systlme
nerveuse (1877) ; S. Weir Mitchell, Lectures on Diseases of the Nervous
System especially in Women (1885); Buzzard, Simulation of tiysteria
by Organic Nervous Disease (1891); Pitres, Lemons cliniques sur
I'hysterie et I'hypnotisme (1891); Richer, £.tudes cliniques sur la
grande hysterie (1891); Gilles de la Tourette, TraM clinique et
Mrapeutique de I'hysterie (1891); Bastian, Hysterical or Functional
Paralysis (1893); Ormerod, Art. "Hysteria," in Clifford Allbutt's
System of Medicine (1899); Camus and Pagnez, Isolement et Psy-
chotherapie (1904). Q. B. T.; E. BRA.)
HYSTERON-PROTERON (Gr. fonpov, latter, and irplntpov,
former), a figure of speech, in which the order of words or phrases
is inverted, and that which should logically or naturally come
last is put first, to secure emphasis for the principal idea; the
classical example is Virgil's " moriamur el in media arma
ruamus," " let us die and charge into the thick of the fight "
(Aen. ii. 358). The term is also applied to any inversion in
order of events, arguments, &c.
HYTHE, a market town and watering-place, one of the Cinque
Ports, and a municipal and parliamentary borough of Kent,
England, 67 m. S.E. by E. of London on a branch of the South
Eastern & Chatham railway. Pop. (1001) 5557. It is beauti-
fully situated at the foot of a steep hill near the eastern extremity
of Romney Marsh, about half a mile from the sea, and consists
principally of one long street running parallel with the shore,
with which it is connected by a straight avenue of wych elms.
On account of its fine situation and picturesque and interesting
neighbourhood, it is a favourite watering-place. A sea-wall
and parade extend eastward to Sandgate, a distance of 3 m.
There is communication with Sandgate by means of a tramway
along the front. On the slope of the hill above the town stands
the fine church of St Leonard, partly Late Norman, with a very
beautiful Early English chancel. The tower was rebuilt about
1750. In a vault under the chancel there is a collection of
human skulls and bones supposed to be the remains of men killed
in a battle near Hythe in 456. Lionel Lukin (1742-1834),
inventor of the life-boat, is buried in the churchyard. Hythe
possesses a guildhall founded in 1794 and two hospitals, that
of St Bartholomew founded by Haimo, bishop of Rochester,
in 1336, and that of St John (rebuilt in 1802), of still greater
antiquity but unknown date, founded originally for the reception
of lepers. A government school of musketry, in which instructors
for the army are trained, was established in 1854, and has been
extended since, and the Shorncliffe military camp is within
2j m. of the town.
Lympne, which is now 3 m. inland, is thought to have been the
original harbour which gave Hythe a place among the Cinque
Ports. The course of the ancient estuary may be distinctly
traced from here along the road to Hythe, the sea-sand lying
on the surface and colouring the soil. Here are remains of a
Roman fortress, and excavations have brought to light many
remains of the Roman Portus Lemanis. Large portions of the
fortress walls are standing. At the south-west corner is one of
the circular towers which occurred along the line of wall. The
site is now occupied by the fine old castellated mansion of
Studfall castle, formerly a residence of the archdeacons of
Canterbury. The name denotes a fallen place, and is not
infrequently thus applied to ancient remains. The church at
Lympne is Early English, with a Norman tower built by Arch-
bishop Lanfranc, and Roman material may be traced in the
walls. A short distance east is Shipway or Shepway Cross,
where some of the great assemblies relating to the Cinque Ports
were held. A mile north from Hythe is Saltwood Castle, of very
ancient origin, but rebuilt in the time of Richard II. The castle
was granted to the see of Canterbury in 1026, but escheated
to the crown in the time of Henry II., when the murder of Thomas
a Beckett is said to have been concerted here, and having been
restored to the archbishops by King John remained a residence
of theirs until the time of Henry VIII. It was restored as a
residence in 1882. About 2 m. N.W. of Saltwood are remains
of the fortified 14th-century manor-house of Westenhanger. It
is quadrangular and surrounded by a moat, and of the nine
towers (alternately square and round) by which the walls were
defended, three remain.
The parliamentary borough of Hythe, which includes Folke-
stone, Sandgate and a number of neighbouring villages, returns
one member. The town is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen
and 12 councillors. Area 2617 acres.
Hythe (Heda, Heya, Hethe, Hithe, i.e. landing-place) was
known as a port in Saxon times, and was granted by Halfden,
a Saxon thegn, to Christ Church, Canterbury. In the Domesday
Survey the borough is entered among the archbishop's lands as
appurtenant to his manor of Saltwood, and the bailiff of the
town was appointed by the archbishop. Hythe was evidently
a Cinque Port before the Conquest, as King John in 1205
confirmed the liberties, viz. freedom from toll, the right to be
impleaded only at the Shepway court, &c., which the townsmen
had under Edward the Confessor. The liberties of the Cinque
Ports were confirmed in Magna Carta and later by Edward I.
in a general charter, which was confirmed, often with additions,
by subsequent kings down to James II. John's charter to
Hythe was confirmed by Henry IV., Henry V. and Henry VI.
These charters were granted to the Cinque Ports in return for the
fifty-seven ships which they supplied for the royal service, of which
five were contributed by Hythe. The ports were first represented
in the parliament of 1365,10 which they each sent four members.
Hythe was governed by twelve jurats until 1574, when it was
incorporated by Elizabeth under the title of the mayor, jurats
and commonalty of Hythe; a fair for the sale of fish, &c., was
also granted, to be held on the feast of St Peter and St Paul.
As the sea gradually retreated from Hythe and the harbour
became choked up with sand, the town suffered the fate of other
places near it, and lost its old importance.
I— IAMBLICHUS
213
I the ninth letter of the English and Latin alphabet, the tenth
in the Greek and Phoenician, because in these the symbol
Teth (the Greek 6) preceded it. Teth was not included in
the Latin alphabet because that language had no sound
corresponding to the Greek 0, but the symbol was metamorphosed
and utilized as the numeral C = 100, which took this form through
the influence of the initial letter of the Latin centum. The name
of I in the Phoenician alphabet was Yod. Though in form it
seems the simplest of letters it was originally much more complex.
In Phoenician it takes the form "\, which is found also in the
earliest Syriac and Palestinian inscriptions with little modifica-
tion. Ultimately in Hebrew it became reduced to a very small
symbol, whence comes its use as a term of contempt for things
of no importance as in " not one jot or tittle " (Matthew v. 18).
The name passed from Phoenician to Greek, and thence to the
Latin of the vulgate as iota, and from the Latin the English
word is derived. Amongst the Greeks of Asia it appears only
as the simple upright I, but in some of the oldest alphabets
elsewhere, as Crete, Thera, Attica, Achaia and its colonies in
lower Italy, it takes the form J or S, while at Corinth and
Corcyra it appears first in a form closely resembling the later
Greek sigma S. It had originally no cross-stroke at top and
bottom, I being not i but z. The Phoenician alphabet having
no vowel symbols, the value of yod was that of the English y.
In Greek, where the consonant sound had disappeared or been
converted into h, I is regularly used as a vowel. Occasionally,
as in Pamphylian, it is used dialectically as a glide between i and
another vowel, as in the proper name AajuaTpuus. In Latin I
was used alike for both vowel and consonant, as in iugum (yoke).
The sound represented by it was approximately that still assigned
to i on the continent. Neither Greek nor Latin made any
distinction in writing between short and long i, though in the
Latin of the Empire the long sound was occasionally represented
by a longer form of the symbol I. The dot over the i begins in
the sth or 6th century A.D. In pronunciation the English
short i is a more open sound than that of most languages, and
does not correspond to the Greek and Latin sound. Nor are
the English short and long i of the same quality. The short i
in Sweet's terminology is a high-front-wide vowel, the long i,
in English often spelt ee in words like seed, is diphthonged,
beginning like the short vowel but becoming higher as it proceeds.
The Latin short i, however, in final syllables was open and
ultimately became e, e.g. in the neuter of i-stems as utile from
ulili-s. Medially both the short and the long sounds are very
common in syllables which were originally unaccented, because
in such positions many other sounds passed into i: officio but
{ado, redimo but emo, quidlibet but lubet (libet is later) ; collide
but laedo, fido from an older feido, istis (dative plural) from an
earlier istois. (P. Gi.)
IAMBIC, the term employed in prosody to denote a succession
of verses, each consisting of a foot or metre called an iambus
(Za;u/3os) , formed of two syllables, of which the first is short and
the second long («— ). After the dactylic hexameter, the iambic
trimeter was the most popular metre of ancient Greece. Archi-
lochus is said to have been the inventor of this iambic verse, the
r piper pos consisting of three iambic feet. In the Greek tragedians
an iambic line is formed of six feet arranged in obedience to the
following scheme: —
Much of the beauty of the verse depends on the caesura, which is
usually in the middle of the third foot, and far less frequently
in the middle of the fourth. The English language runs more
naturally in the iambic metre than in any other. The normal
blank verse in English is founded upon an iambic basis, and
Milton's line —
And swims | or sinks | or wades | or creeps | or flies | -
exhibits it in its primitive form. The ordinary alexandrine of
French literature is a hexapod iambic, but in all questions of
quantity in modern prosody great care has to be exercised to
recollect that all ascriptions of classic names to modern forms of
rhymed or blank verse are merely approximate. The octosyllabic,
or four-foot iambic metre, has found great favour in English verse
'ounded on old romances. Decasyllabic iambic lines rhyming
together form an " heroic " metre.
IAMBLICHUS (d. c. A.D. 330), the chief representative of Syrian
Neoplatonism, is only imperfectly known to us in the events
of his life and the details of his creed. We learn, however,
from Suidas, and from his biographer Eunapius, that he was born
at Chalcis in Coele-Syria, the scion of a rich and illustrious family,
that he studied under Anatolius and afterwards under Porphyry,
the pupil of Plotinus, that he himself gathered together a large
number of disciples of different nations with whom he lived on
terms of genial friendship, that he wrote " various philosophical
books," and that he died during the reign of Constantine, —
according to Fabricius, before A.D. 333. His residence (probably)
at his native town of Chalcis was varied by a yearly visit with
his pupils to the baths of Gadara. Of the books referred to by
Suidas only a fraction has been preserved. His commentaries
on Plato and Aristotle, and works on the Chaldaean theology
and on the soul, are lost. For our knowledge of his system we
are indebted partly to the fragments of these writings preserved
by Stobaeus and others, and to the notices of his successors,
especially Proclus, partly to his five extant books, the sections
of a great work on the Pythagorean philosophy. Besides these,
Proclus (412-485) seems to have ascribed to him1 the authorship
of the celebrated book On the Egyptian Mysteries (so-called),
and although its differences in style and in some points of doctrine
from the writings just mentioned make it improbable that the
work was by lamblichus himself, it certainly emanated from his
school, and in its systematic attempt to give a speculative
justification of the polytheistic cultus of the day, marks the
turning-point in the history of thought at which lamblichus
stood.
As a speculative theory Neoplatonism (q.v.) had received its
highest development from Plotinus. The modifications intro-
duced by lamblichus were the elaboration in greater detail of
its formal divisions, the more systematic application of the
Pythagorean number-symbolism, and chiefly, under the influence
of Oriental systems, the thorough-going mythic interpretation of
what the previous philosophy had still regarded as notional.
It is on the last account, probably, that lamblichus was looked
upon with such extravagant veneration. As a philosopher he had
learning indeed, but little originality. His aim was to give a
philosophical rendering of the popular religion. By his con-
temporaries he was accredited with miraculous powers (which he,
however, disclaimed), and by his followers in the decline of Greek
philosophy, and his admirers on its revival in the isth and i6th
centuries, his name was scarcely mentioned without the epithet
" divine " or " most divine," while, not content with the more
modest eulogy of Eunapius that he was inferior to Porphyry only
in style, the emperor Julian regarded him as not even second
to Plato, and said that he would give all the gold of Lydia for one
epistle of lamblichus.
Theoretically, the philosophy of Plotinus was an attempt
to harmonize the principles of the various Greek schools. At
the head of his system he placed the transcendent incommunicable
one (&> dij.kQeK.rov}, whose first-begotten is intellect (vovs), from
which proceeds soul (^vx'n), which in turn gives birth to <£wr«, the
1 Besides the anonymous testimony prefixed to an ancient MS. of
Proclus, De Myst. viii. 3 seems to be quoted by the latter as lambli-
chus's. Cf. Meiners, "Judicium de libro qui de Myst. Aeg. m-
scribitur," in Comment. Soc. Reg. Sci. Gott., vol. iv., 1781, p. 77.
214
IAMBLICHUS
realm of nature. Immediately after the absolute one, lamblichus
introduced a second superexistent unity to stand between it and
the many as the producer of intellect, and made the three succeed-
ing moments of the development (intellect, soul and nature)
undergo various modifications. He speaks of them as in-
tellectual (deoi voepoi), supramundane (vxepKocrfuoC), and mun-
dane gods (ejKoo-iJuoi). The first of these — which Plotinus
represented under the three stages of (objective) being (6V),
(subjective) life (fuij), and (realized) intellect (vovs) — is distin-
guished by him into spheres of intelligible gods (deal vorjroi) and
of intellectual gods (deal voepoi), each subdivided into triads, the
latter sphere being the place of ideas, the former of the archetypes
of these ideas. Between these two worlds, at once separat-
ing and uniting them, some scholars think there was inserted
by lamblichus, as afterwards by Proclus, a third sphere partaking
of the nature of both (6eoi vorjToi Kal voepoi). But this sup-
position depends on a merely conjectural emendation of the text.
We read, however, that " in the intellectual hebdomad he
assigned the third rank among the fathers to the Demiurge."
The Demiurge, Zeus, or world-creating potency, is thus identified
with the perfected vovs, the intellectual triad being increased to
a hebdomad, probably (as Zeller supposes) through the sub-
division of its first two members. As in Plotinus vovs produced
nature by mediation of ^IOCT, so here the intelligible gods are
followed by a triad of psychic gods. The first of these is incom-
municable and supramundane, while the other two seem to be
mundane though rational. In the third class, or mundane
gods (Oeoi tyKOffijuai), there is a still greater wealth of divinities,
of various local position, function, and rank. We read of gods,
angels, demons and heroes, of twelve heavenly gods whose
number is increased to thirty-six or three hundred and sixty,
and of seventy-two other gods proceeding from them, of twenty-
one chiefs (riyepoves) and forty-two nature-gods (Oeol yeveatovp-
yoi), besides guardian divinities, of particular individuals and
nations. The world is thus peopled by a crowd of superhuman
beings influencing natural events, possessing and communicating
knowledge of the future, and not inaccessible to prayers and
offerings.
The whole of this complex theory is ruled by a mathematical
formulism of triad, hebdomad, &c., while the first principle is
identified with the monad, vovs with the dyad, and ^ux^ with
the triad, symbolic meanings being also assigned to the other
numbers. " The theorems of mathematics," he says, " apply
absolutely to all things," from things divine to original matter
(OXr;). But though he thus subjects all things to number, he
holds elsewhere that numbers are independent existences, and
occupy a middle place between the limited and unlimited.
Another difficulty of the system is the account given of nature.
It is said to be " bound by the indissoluble chains of necessity
which men call fate," as distinguished from divine things which
are not subject to fate. Yet, being itself the result of higher
powers becoming corporeal, a continual stream of elevating
influence flows from them to it, interfering with its necessary
laws and turning to good ends the imperfect and evil. Of evil
no satisfactory account is given ; it is said to have been generated
accidentally.
In his doctrine of man lamblichus retains for the soul the
middle place between intellect and nature which it occupies
in the universal order. He rejects the passionless and purely
intellectual character ascribed to the human soul by Plotinus,
distinguishing it sharply both from those above and those below
it. He maintains that it moves between the higher and lower
spheres, that it descends by a necessary law (not solely for trial
or punishment) into the body, and, passing perhaps from one
human body to another, returns again to the supersensible.
This return is effected by the virtuous activities which the soul
performs through its own power of free will, and by the assistance
of the gods. These virtues were classified by Porphyry as
political, purifying (KaBapriKal}, theoretical, and paradigmatic;
and to these lamblichus adds a fifth class of priestly virtues
(ltpa.Ti.Kai AperaO, in which the divinest part of the soul raises
itself above intellect to absolute being.
lamblichus does not seem ever to have attained to that
ecstatic communion with and absorption in deity which was the
aim of earlier Neoplatonism, and which Plotinus enjoyed four
times in his life, Porphyry once. Indeed his tendency was not so
much to raise man to God as to bring the gods down to men —
a tendency shown still more plainly in the " Answer of Abamon
the master to Porphyry's letter to Anebo and solutions of the
doubts therein expressed," afterwards entitled the Liber de
mysteriis, and ascribed to lamblichus.
In answer to questions raised and doubts expressed by
Porphyry, the writer of this treatise appeals to the innate idea
all men have of the gods as testifying to the existence of divinities
countless in number and various in rank (to the correct arrange-
ment of which he, like lamblichus, attaches the greatest import-
ance). He holds with the latter that above all principles of
being and intelligence stands the absolute one, from whom the
first god and king spontaneously proceeds; while after these
follow the ethereal, empyrean, and heavenly gods, and the
various orders of archangels, angels, demons, and heroes dis-
tinguished in nature, power, and activity, and in greater pro-
fusion than even the imagination of lamblichus had conceived.
He says that all the gods are good (though he in another place
admits the existence of evil demons who must be propitiated),
and traces the source of evil to matter; rebuts the objection
that their answering prayer implies passivity on the part of gods
or demons; defends divination, soothsaying, and theurgic
practices as manifestations of the divine activity; describes the
appearances of the different sorts of divinities; discusses the
various kinds of sacrifice, which he says must be suitable to the
different natures of the gods, material and immaterial, and to the
double condition of the sacrificer as bound to the body or free
from it (differing thus in his psychology from lamblichus) ; and,
in conclusion, states that the only way to happiness is through
knowledge of and union with the gods, and that theurgic practices
alone prepare the mind for this union — again going beyond
his master, who held assiduous contemplation of divine things
to be sufficient. It is the passionless nature of the soul which
permits it to be thus united to divine beings, — knowledge of
this mystic union and of the worship associated with it having
been derived from the Egyptian priests, who learnt it from
Hermes.
On one point only does the author of the De mysteriis seem
not to go so far as lamblichus in thus making philosophy sub-
servient to priestcraft. He condemns as folly and impiety the
worship of images of the gods, though his master held that these
simulacra were filled with divine power, whether made byj"the
hand of man or (as he believed) fallen from heaven. But images
could easily be dispensed with from the point of view of the
writer, who not only held that all things were full of gods (irdfra
•tr\ripriOeS>v, as Thales said), but thought that each man had a
special divinity of his own — an Bios daifuav — as his guard and
companion.
The following are the extant works of lamblichus: (i) On the
Pythagorean (Life n«pJ rou IltOa-yopiKoO ftlov), ed. T. Kiessling
(1815), A. Nauck (St Petersburg, 1884); for a discussion of the
authorities used see E. Rohde in Rheimsches Museum, xxvi., xxvii.
(1871, 1872); Eng. trans, by Thomas Taylor (1818). (2) TheExhorta-
tion to Philosophy (AA-yos irpOTptwruiAt ets (pi\ocro<t>ia.v) , ed. T. Kiessling
(1813); H. Piselli (1888). (3) The treatise On the General Science
of Mathematics (Qtpl TTJS KOUTJJ iiaSitii.a.-rui^ ITTKTT^TJS) , ed. J. G. Friis
(Copenhagen, 1790), N. Festa (Leipzig, 1891). (4) The book On the
Arithmetic of Nicomachus (Htpl rrjs NutojuAxou 4pi0M'P'tirijs daayayfji) ,
along with fragments on fate (Uepl duapnivrjt) and prayer (Ilepi
«6x7Js).ed. S. Tennulius (1688), the Arithmetic by H. Pistelli (1894).
(5) The Theological Principles of Arithmetic (Qeo\o~rol>nfi>a. T»JJ
4piflMfT«?s) — the seventh book of the series — by F. Ast (Leipzig,
1817). Two lost books, treating of the physical and ethical significa-
tion of numbers, stood fifth and sixth, while books on music, geometry
and astronomy followed. The emperor Julian had a great admiration
for lamblichus, whom he considered " intellectually not inferior
to Plato "; but the Letters to lamblicus the Philosopher which bear
his name are now generally considered spurious.
The so-called Liber de mysteriis was first edited, with Latin
translation and notes, by T. Gale (Oxford, 1678), and more
recently by G. Parthey (Berlin, 1857); Eng. trans, by Thomaa
Taylor (1821).
IAMBLICHUS— IBADAN
215
There is a monograph on lamblichus by G. E. Hebenstreit (De
lamblichi, philosophi Syri, doctrina, Leipzig, 1764), and one of the
De myst. by Harless (Das Buck v. d. agypt. Myst., Munich, 1858).
The best accounts of lamblichus are those of Zeller, Phil. d. Griechen,
iii. 2, pp. 613 sq., 2nd ed. ; E. Vacherot, Hist, de I'ecole d'Alexandrie
(1846), ii. 57 sq. ; J. Simon, Hist, de I'ecole d'Alexandrie (1845) ; A. E.
Chaignet, Histoire de la psychologic des Grecs (Paris, 1893) v. 67-108;
T. Whittaker, The Neo-Platonists (Cambridge, 1901). (W. R. So.)
IAMBLICHUS, of Syria, the earliest of the Greek romance
writers, flourished in the 2nd century A.D. He was the author
of Ba@v\iavia.Ka., the loves of Rhodanes and Sinonis, of which an
epitome is preserved in Photius (cod. 94). Garmus, a legendary
king of Babylon, forces Sinonis to marry him and throws Rhodanes
into prison. The lovers manage to escape, and after many
singular adventures, in which magic plays a considerable part,
Garmus is overthrown by Rhodanes, who becomes king of
Babylon. According to Suidas, lamblichus was a freedman,
and a scholiast's note on Photius further informs us that he
was a native Syrian (not descended from Greek settlers) ; that
he borrowed the material for his romance from a love story told
him by his Babylonian tutor, and that he subsequently applied
himself with great success to the study of Greek. A MS. of the
original in the library of the Escorial is said to have been
destroyed by fire in 1670. Only a few fragments have been
preserved, in addition to Photius's epitome.
See Scriptures erotici, ed. A. Hirschig (1856) and R. Hercher
(1858); A. Mai, Scriptorum veterum nova collectio, ii. ; E. Rohde,
Der griechische Roman (1900).
IANNINA (i.e. "the city of St John"; Gr. loannina; Turk
Yanid; also written Janina, Jannina, and, according to its
Albanian pronunciation, Yanina), the capital of the vilayet of
lannina, Albania, European Turkey. Pop. (1905) about 22,000.
The largest ethnical groups in the population are the Albanian and
Greek; the purest form of colloquial Greek is spoken here among
the wealthy and highly educated merchant families. The position
of lannina is strikingly picturesque. At the foot of the grey
limestone mass of Mount Mitzekeli (1500 ft.), which forms part of
the fine range of hills running north from the Gulf of Arta, there
lies a valley (the Hellopia of antiquity) partly occupied by a lake;
and the city is built on the slopes of a slight eminence, stretching
down to the western shore. It has greatly declined from the state
of barbaric prosperity which it enjoyed from 1788 to 1822, when
it was the seat of Ali Pasha (q.v.), and was estimated to have
from 30,000 to 50,000 inhabitants. The fortress — Demir Kule
or Iron Castle, which, like the principal seraglio, was built on a
promontory jutting into the lake — is now in ruins. But the city
is the seat of a Greek archbishop, and still possesses many
mosques and churches, besides synagogues, a Greek college
(gymnasium) , a library and a hospital. Sayades (opposite Corfu)
and Arta are the places through which it receives its imports.
The rich gold and silver embroidery for which the city has long
been famous is still one of the notable articles in its bazaar; but
the commercial importance of lannina has notably declined since
the cession of Arta and Thessaly to Greece in 1881. lannina had
previously been one of the chief centres of the Thessalian grain
trade; it now exports little except cheese, hides, bitumen and
sheepskins to the annual value of about £120,000; the imports,
which supply only the local demand for provisions, textile goods,
hardware, &c., are worth about double that sum.
The lake of lannina (perhaps to be identified with the Pambotus
or Pambotis of antiquity) is 6 m. long, and has an area of 24 sq. m. ,
with an extreme depth of less than 35 ft. In time of flood it is
united with the smaller lake of Labchistas to the north. There
are no affluents of any considerable size, and the only outlets are
underground passages or kalawthra extending for many miles
through the calcareous rocks.
The theory supported by W. M. Leake (Northern Greece,
London, 1835) that the citadel of lannina is to be identified with
Dodona, is now generally abandoned in favour of the claims of a
more 'southern site. As Anna Comnena, in describing the capture
of the town (TO. 'loavviva) by Bohemond in 1082, speaks of the
walls as being dilapidated, it may be supposed that the place
existed before the nth century. It is mentioned from time to
time in the Byzantine annals, and on the establishment of the
lordship of Epirus by Michael Angelus Comnenus Ducas, it
became his capital. In the middle ages it was successively
attacked by Serbs, Macedonians and Albanians; but it was in
possession of the successors of Michael when the forces of the
Sultan Murad appeared before it in 1430 (cf. Hahn, Alban.
Studien, Jena [1854], pp. 310-322). Since 1431 it has continued
under Turkish rule.
Descriptions of lannina will be found in Holland's Travels (1815);
Hughes, Travels in Greece, &c. (1830); H. F. Tozer, Researches in
the Highlands of Turkey (London, 1869). See also ALBANIA and the
authorities there cited.
IAPETUS, in Greek mythology, son of Uranus and Gaea, one
of the Titans, father of Atlas, Prometheus, Epimetheus and
Menoetius, the personifications of certain human qualities
(Hesiod, Theog. 507). As a punishment for having revolted
against Zeus, he was imprisoned in Tartarus (Homer, Iliad, viii.
479) or underneath the island of Inarime off the coast of Cam-
pania (Silius Italicus xii. 148). Hyginus makes him the son of
Tartarus and Gaea, and one of the giants. lapetus was con-
sidered the original ancestor of the human race, as the father of
Prometheus and grandfather of Deucalion. The name is probably
identical with Japhet (Japheth), and the son of Noah in the
Greek legend of the flood becomes the ancestor of (Noah) Deu-
calion, lapetus as the representative of an obsolete order of
things is described as warring against the new order under Zeus,
and is naturally relegated to Tartarus.
See F. G. Welcker, Griechische Gotterlehre, i. (1857) ; C. H. Volcker,
Die Mythologie des lapetischen Geschlechtes (1824); M. Mayer,
Giganten und Titanen (1887).
IAPYDES, or IAPODES, one of the three chief peoples of Roman
Illyria. They occupied the interior of the country on the north
between the Arsia (Arsa) and Tedanius (perhaps the Zermanja),
which separated them from the Liburnians. Their territory
formed part of the modern Croatia. They are described by
Strabo as a mixed race of Celts and Illyrians, who used Celtic
weapons, tattooed themselves, and lived chiefly on spelt and
millet. They were a warlike race, addicted to plundering
expeditions. In 129 B.C. C. Sempronius Tuditanus celebrated
a triumph over them, and in 34 B.C. they were finally crushed
by Augustus. They appear to have had a foedus with Rome,
but subsequently rebelled.
See Strabo iv. 207, vii. 313-315; Dio Cassius xlix. 35; Appian,
Illyrica, 10, 14, 16; Livy, Epit. fix. 131; Tibullus iv. I. 108; Cicero,
Pro Balbo, 14.
IATROCHEMISTRY (coined from Gr. iarp6$, a physician, and
" chemistry "), a stage in the history of chemistry, during
which the object of this science was held to be " not to make
gold but to prepare medicines." This doctrine dominated
chemical thought during the i6th century, its foremost sup-
porters being Paracelsus, van Helmont and de la Boe Sylvius.
But it gave way to the new definition formulated by Boyle,
viz. that the proper domain of chemistry was " to determine
the composition of substances." (See CHEMISTRY: I. History;
MEDICINE.)
IAZYGES, a tribe of Sarmatians first heard of on the Maeotis,
where they were among the allies of Mithradates the Great.
Moving westward across Scythia, and hence called Metanastae,
they were on the lower Danube by the time of Ovid, and about
A.D. 50 occupied the plains east of the Theiss. Here, under the
general name of Sarmatae, they were a perpetual trouble to
the Roman province of Dacia. They were divided into freemen
and serfs (Sarmatae Limigantes) , the latter of whom had a
different manner of life and were probably an older settled
population enslaved by nomad masters. They rose against them
in A.D. 334, but were repressed by foreign aid. Nothing is
heard of lazyges or Sarmatae after the Hunnish invasions.
Graves at Keszthely and elsewhere in the Theiss valley, shown
by their contents to belong to nomads of the first centuries A.D.,
are referred to the lazyges. (E. H. M.)
IBADAN, a town of British West Africa, in Yorubaland,
Southern Nigeria, 123 m. by rail N.E. of Lagos, and about 50 m.
N.E. of Abeokuta. Pop. (1910 estimated at 150,000. The
town occupies the slope of a hill, and stretches into the valley
2l6
IBAGUE— IBERIANS
through which the river Ona flows. It is enclosed by mud walls,
which have a circuit of 18 m., and is encompassed by cultivated
land 5 or 6 m. in breadth. The native houses are all low, thatched
structures, enclosing a square court, and the only break in the
mud wall is the door. There are numerous mosques, orishas
(idol-houses) and open spaces shaded with trees. There are a
few buildings in the European style. Most of the inhabitants are
engaged in agriculture ; but a great variety of handicrafts is
also carried on. Ibadan is the capital of one of the Yoruba
states and enjoys a large measure of autonomy. Nominally
the state is subject to the alafin (ruler) of Oyo; but it is virtually
independent. The administration is in the hands of two chiefs,
a civil and a military, the bale and the balogun; these together
form the highest court of appeal. There is also an iyaloda or
mother of the town, to whom are submitted all the disputes of
the women. Ibadan long had a feud with Abeokuta, but on
the establishment of the British protectorate the intertribal
wars were stopped. In 1862 the people of Ibadan destroyed
Ijaya, a neighbouring town of 60,000 inhabitants. A British
resident and a detachment of Hausa troops are stationed at
Ibadan.
See also YORUBAS, ABEOKUTA and LAGOS.
IBAGUfi, or SAN BONIFACIO DE IBAGUE, a city of Colombia,
and capital of the department of Tolima, about 60 m.W. of
Bogota and 18 m. N.W. of the Nevado de Tolima. Pop. (1900,
estimate) 13,000. Ibagu6 is built on a beautiful plain between
the Chipalo and Combeima, small affluents of the Cuello, a
western tributary of the Magdalena. Its elevation, 4300 ft.
above the sea, gives it a mild, subtropical climate. The plain
and the neighbouring valleys produce cacao, tobacco, rice and
sugar-cane. There are two thermal springs in the vicinity, and
undeveloped mines of sulphur and silver. The city has an
endowed college. It is an important commercial centre, being
on the road which crosses the Quindio pass, or paramo, into the
Cauca valley. Ibague was founded in 1550 and was the capital
of the republic for a short time in 1854.
IBARRA, a city of Ecuador and capital of the province of
Imbabura, about 50 m. N.N.E. of Quito, on a small fertile plain
at the northern foot of Imbabura volcano, 7300 ft. above sea-
level. Pop. (1900, estimate) 5000. It stands on the left bank
of the Tahuando, a small stream whose waters flow north and
west to the Pacific through the Mira, and is separated from
the higher plateau of Quito by an elevated transverse ridge of
which the Imbabura and Mojanda volcanoes form a part. The
surrounding country is mountainous, the valleys being very
fertile. Ibarra itself has a mild, humid climate, and is set in the
midst of orchards and gardens. It is the see of a bishop and
has a large number of churches and convents, and many sub-
stantial residences. Ibarra has manufactures of cotton and
woollen fabrics, hats, sandals (alpar gates), sacks and rope from
cabulla fibre, laces, sugar and various kinds of distilled spirits and
cordials made from the sugar-cane grown in the vicinity. Mules
are bred for the Colombian markets of Pasto and Popayan.
Ibarra was founded in 1597 by Alvaro de Ibarra, the president
of Quito. It has suffered from the eruptions of Imbabura, and
more severely from earthquakes, that of 1859 causing great
damage to its public buildings, and the greater one of the i6th
of August 1868 almost completely destroyed the town and
killed a large number of its inhabitants. The village of Carranqui,
ij m. from Ibarra, is the birthplace of Atahualpa, the Inca
sovereign executed by Pizarro, and close by is the small lake
called Yaguarcocha where the army of Huaynacapac, the father
of Atahualpa, inflicted a bloody defeat on the Carranquis.
Another aboriginal battle-field is that of Hatuntaqui, near Ibarra,
where Huaynacapac won a decisive victory and added the greater
part of Ecuador to his realm. The whole region is full of tolas,
or Indian burial mounds.
IBERIANS (Iberi, "Iftnpts), an ancient people inhabiting
parts of the Spanish peninsula. Their ethnic affinities are not
known, and our knowledge of their history is comparatively
slight. It is almost impossible to make any statement in regard
to them which will meet with general agreement. At the same
time, the general lines of Iberian controversy are clear enough.
The principal sources of information about the Iberians are
(i) historical, (2) numismatic, (3) linguistic, (4) anthropological.
1. Historical. — The name seems to have been applied by the
earlier Greek navigators to the peoples who inhabited the eastern
coast of Spain; probably it originally meant those who dwelt
by the river Iberus (mod. Ebro). It is possible (Boudard,
Etudes sur I'alphabet ibdrien (Paris, 1852) that the river-name
itself represents the Basque phrase ibay-erri " the country of the
river." On the other hand, even in older Greek usage (as in
Thuc. vi. i) the term Iberia is said to have embraced the country
as far east as the Rhone (see Herodorus of Heraclea, Fragm.
Hist. Gr. ii. 34), and by the time of Strabo it was the common
Greek name for the Spanish peninsula. Iberians thus meant
sometimes the . population of the peninsula in general and
sometimes, it would appear, the peoples of some definite race
(ytvos) which formed one element in that population. Of the
tribal distribution of this race, of its linguistic, social and political
characteristics, and of the history of its relation to the other
peoples of Spain, we have only the most general, fragmentary
and contradictory accounts. On the whole, the historical
evidence indicates that in Spain, when it first became known
to the Greeks and Romans there existed many separate and
variously civilized tribes connected by at least apparent identity
of race, and by similarity (but not identity) of language, and
sufficiently distinguished by their general characteristics from
Phoenicians, Romans and Celts. The statement of Diodorus
Siculus that the mingling of these Iberians with the immigrant
Celts gave rise to the Celtiberians is in itself probable. Varro
and Dionysius Afer proposed to identify the Iberians of Spain
with the Iberians of the Caucasus, the one regarding the eastern,
and other the western, settlements as the earlier.
2. Numismatic. — Knowledge of ancient Iberian language and
history is mainly derived from a variety of coins, found widely
distributed in the peninsula,1 and also in the neighbourhood of
Narbonne. They are inscribed in an alphabet which has many
points of similarity with the western Greek alphabets, and some
with the Punic alphabet; but which seems to retain a few
characters from an older script akin to those of Minoan Crete
and Roman Libya.2 The same Iberian alphabet is found also
rarely in inscriptions. The coinage began before the Roman
conquest was completed; the monetary system resembles that of
the Roman republic, with values analogous to denarii and
quinarii. The coin inscriptions usually give only the name of
the town, e.g. PLPLIS (Bilbilis), KLAQRIQS (Calagurris), SEQBRICS
(Segobriga) ,TMANiAv(Dumania) . The types show late Greek and
perhaps also late Punic influence, but approximate later to
Roman models. The commonest reverse type, a charging
horseman, reappears on the Roman coins of Bilbilis, Osca,
Segobriga and other places. Another common type is one man
leading two horses or brandishing a sword or a bow. The obverse
has usually a male head, sometimes inscribed with what appears
to be a native name.
3. Linguistic. — The survival of the non- Aryan language
among the Basques around the west Pyrenees has suggested
the attempt to interpret by its means a large class of similar-
sounding place-names of ancient Spain, some of which are
authenticated by their occurrence on the inscribed coins, and to
link it with other traces of non-Aryan speech round the shores
of the Western Mediterranean and on the Atlantic seaboard
of Europe. This phase of Iberian theory opens with K. W.
Humboldt (Prufung der Untersuchungen iiber die Urbewohner
Hispaniens vermittelst der waskischen Sprache, Berlin, 1821),
1 For the prehistoric civilization of the peninsula as a whole
see SPAIN.
1 P. A. Boudard's Etudes sur I'alphabet Mrien (Paris, 1852),
and Numismatique iberienne (B6ziers, 1859); Aloiss Heiss, Notes
sur les monnaies celtiberiennes (Paris, 1865), and Description generate
des monnaies antiques de I'Espagne (Paris, 1870); Phillips, Uoer das
iberische Alphabet (Vienna, 1870), Die Einwanderung der Iberer in
die pyren. Halbinsel (Vienna, 1870); W. M. Flinders Petrie, Journ.
Anthr. Inst. xxix. (1899) 204, and above all E. Httbner, Monumenta
linguae Ibericae.
IBEX
217
who contended that there existed once a single great Iberian
people, speaking a distinct language of their own; that an
essentially " Iberian " population was to be found in Sicily,
Sardinia and Corsica, in southern France, and even in the British
Isles; and that the Basques of the present day were remnants
of this race, which had elsewhere been expelled or absorbed.
This last was the central and the seminal idea of the work, and
it has been the point round which the battle of scholarship has
mainly raged. The principal evidence which Humboldt adduced
in its support was the possibility of explaining a vast number of
the ancient topographical names of Spain, and of other asserted
Iberian districts, by the forms and significations of Basque.
In reply, Graslin (De I'Iberie, Paris, 1839), maintained that the
name Iberia was nothing but a Greek misnomer of Spain, and
that there was no proof that the Basque people had ever
occupied a wider area than at present; and Blade (Origine des
Basques, Paris, 1869) took the same line of argument, holding
that Iberia is a purely geographical term, that there was no
proper Iberian race, that the Basques were always shut in by
alien races, that their affinity is still to seek, and that the whole
Basque-Iberian theory is a figment. His main contention has met
with some acceptance,1 but the great current of ethnographical
speculation still flows in the direction indicated by Humboldt.
4. Anthropological. — Humboldt's " Iberian theory " depended
partly on linguistic comparisons, but partly on his observation
of widespread similarity of physical type among the population
of south-western Europe. Since his time the anthropological
researches of Broca, Thurnam and Davis, Huxley, Busk, Beddoe,
Virchow, Tubino and others have proved the existence in Europe,
from Neolithic times, of a race, small of stature, with long or
oval skulls, and accustomed to bury their dead in tombs. Their
remains have been found in Belgium and France, in Britain,
Germany and Denmark, as well as in Spain; and they bear a
close resemblance to a type which is common among the Basques
as well as all over the Iberian peninsula. This Neolithic race
has consequently been nicknamed " Iberians," and it is now
common to speak of the " Iberian " ancestry of the people of
Britain, recognizing the racial characteristics of " Iberians "
in the" small swarthy Welshman," the " small dark Highlander,"
and the " Black Celts to the west of the Shannon," as well as
in the typical inhabitants of Aquitania and Brittany.2 Later
investigators went further. M. d'Arbois de Jubainville, for
example (Les Premiers habitants de I' Europe, Paris, 1877),
maintained that besides possessing Spain, Gaul, Italy and the
British Isles, " Iberian " peoples penetrated into the Balkan
peninsula, and occupied a part of northern Africa, Corsica and
Sardinia; and it is now generally accepted that a race with
fairly uniform characteristics was at one time in possession of
the south of France (or at least of Aquitania), the whole of Spain
from the Pyrenees to the straits, the Canary Islands (the
Guanches) a part of northern Africa and Corsica. Whether
this type is more conveniently designated by the word Iberian,
or by some other name (" Eur-african," " Mediterranean," &c.)
is a matter of comparative indifference, provided that there is
no misunderstanding as to the steps by which the term Iberian
attained its meaning in modern anthropology.
AUTHORITIES.— K. W. von Humboldt, " t)ber die cantabrische
oder baskische Sprache " in Adelung, Mithridates iv. (1817), and
Priifung d. Untersuchungen it. die Urbewohner Hispaniens vermittelst
der wasktschen Sprache (Berlin, 1821); L. F. Graslin, De I'Iberie
(Paris, 1838) ; T. B. G. M. Bory de St Vincent, Essai geologique sur
le genre humain (1838) ; G. Lagneau, " Sur 1'ethnologie des peuples
ib<5riens," in Bull. soc. anthrop. (1867), pp. 146-161 ; J. F. Blad6,
Etudes sur I'origine des Basques (Paris, 1869), Defense des etudes, &c.
(Paris, 1870) ; Phillips, Die Einwanderung der Iberer in die pyren.
Halbinsel (Vienna, 1870), Uber das iberische Alphabet (Vienna, 1870);
W. Boyd Dawkins, " The Northern Range of the Basques," in
' W. van Eys, for example, " La Langue ib6rienne et la langue
basque," in Revue de linguistique, goes against Humboldt; but
Prince Napoleon and to a considerable extent A. Luchaire maintain
the justice of his method and the value of many of his results. See
Luchaire, Les Origines linguistiques de VAquitaine (Paris, 1877).
1 Compare the interesting re'sume' of the whole question in Boyd
Dawkins's Early Man in Britain (London, 1880).
Fortnightly Rev. N.S. xvi. 323-337 (1874); W. T. van Eys, "La
Langue iWrienne et la langue basque," in Revue de linguistique,
PP- 3-15 (1874) ; W. Webster, " The Basque and the Kelt," in Journ.
Anthrop. Inst. v. 5-29 (1875) ; F. M. Tubino, Los Aborigines ibericos
o los Berberos en la peninsula (Madrid, 1876); A. Luchaire, Les
Origines linguistiques de VAquitaine (Paris, 1877) ; W. Boyd Dawkins,
Early Man in Britain (London, 1880); A. Castaing, " Les Origines
des Aquitains," Mem. Soc. Eth. N.S. I, pp. 183-328 (1884) ; G. C. C.
Gerland, " Die Basken und die Iberer " in Grober, Grundnss d. roman.
PhUologie, i, pp. 313-334 (1888); M. H. d'Arbois de Jubainville,
Les Premiers habitants de I'Europe (1889-1894); J. F. Blade", Les
Vascons avant leur etablissement en Novempopulame, Agen. (1891);
W. Webster, " The Celt-iberians," Academy xl. 268-269 (and con-
sequent correspondence) (1891); J. Rhys, "The Inscriptions and
Language of the Northern Picts," Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot. xxvi. 263-351
(1892); F. Fita, "El Vascuence en las inscripciones ogmicas,"
Bol. Real. Acad. Hist. Madrid (June 1893), xxii. 579-587; G. v. d.
Gabelentz, " Baskisch u._Berberisch," Sitz. k. preuss. Akad. Wiss.
celtique, xiv. 357-395 (1894); G. Buschan, " Uber die iberische
Rasse, Ausland, Ixvi. 342-344 (1894); F. Oloriz y Aguilera, Dis-
tribution geografica del indice cefahco en Espana (Madrid, 1894),
" La Talla humana en Espafia " in Discursos R. Acad. Medicina
xxxvi. 389 (Madrid, 1896); R. Collignon, "La Race basque,"
L'Anthropologie, v. 276-287 (1894); T. de Aranzadi, " Le Peuple
basque, re"sume" " Bull. soc. d'anth. 510-520 (1894), " Consideraciones
acerca de la raza basca " Euskel-Erria xxxv. 33, 65, 97, 129 (1896);
H. Schuchhardt, Baskische Studien, i. " Uber die Enistehung der
Bezugsformen des baskischen Zeit worts"; Denkschriften der K.
Akad. der Wiss., Phil.-Hist., Classe, Bd. 42, Abh. 3. (Wien, 1893);
Ph. Salmon, Rev. mens. EC. d'anthr. v. 155-181, 214-220(1895);
R. Collignon, " Anthr. du S.-O. de la France," Mem. Soc. Anthr.
§ 3. i. 4. p. 1-129 (1895), Ann. de geogr. v. 156-166 (1896), and with
J. Deniker, " Les Maures de S6n6gal," L' Anthr. vii. 57-69 (1897);
G. Herv6, Rev. mens. EC. d'anthr. vi. 97-109 (1896); G. Sergi,
Africa: Anthropologia delta slirpe Camitica (Turin, 1897), Arii ed
Italici (1898); L. de Hoyos Sainz, "L'Anthropologie et la pr6-
historique en Espagne et en Portugal en 1897, L'Anthropologie,
ix- 37-51 (1898) ; J. Deniker (see Collignon) " Les Races de I'Europe,"
L'Anthropologie, ix. 113-133 (1898) ; M. Geze, " De quelques rapports
entre les langues berbere et basque," Mem. soc. arch, du Midi de
la France, xiii. See also the works quoted in the footnotes; and the
bibliography under BASQUES. (J. L. M.)
IBEX, one of the names of the Alpine wild goat, otherwise
known as the steinbok and bouquetin, and scientifically as Capra
ibex. Formerly the ibex was common on the mountain-ranges
of Germany, Switzerland and Tirol, but is now confined to the
Alps which separate Valais from Piedmont, and to the lofty
peaks of Savoy, where its existence is mainly due to game-laws.
The ibex is a handsome animal, measuring about 45 ft. in length
and standing about 40 in. at the shoulder. The skin is covered
in summer with a short fur of an ashy-grey colour, and in winter
with much longer yellowish-brown hair concealing a dense fur
beneath. The horns of the male rise from the crest of the skull,
and after bending gradually backwards terminate in smooth
tips; the front surface of the remainder carrying bold transverse
ridges or knots. About i yd. is the maximum recorded length
of ibex-horns. The fact that the fore-legs are somewhat shorter
than those behind enables the ibex to ascend mountain slopes
with more facility than it can descend, while its hoofs are as
hard as steel, rough underneath and when walking over a flat
surface capable of being spread out. These, together with its
powerful sinews, enable it to take prodigious leaps, to balance
itself on the smallest foothold and to scale almost perpendicular
rocks. Ibex live habitually at a greater height than chamois
or any other Alpine mammals, their vertical limit being the line
of perpetual snow. There they rest in sunny nooks during the
day, descending at night to the highest woods to graze. Ibex
are gregarious, feeding in herds of ten to fifteen individuals;
but the old males generally live apart from, and usually at
greater elevations than, the females and young. They utter
a sharp whistling sound not unlike that of the chamois, but when
greatly irritated or frightened make a peculiar snorting noise.
The period of gestation in the female is ninety days, after which
she produces — usually at the end of June — a single young one
which is able at once to follow its mother. Kids when caught
young and fed on goat's milk can be readily tamed; and in the
i6th century young tamed ibex were frequently driven to the
2l8
IBIS
mountains along with the goats, in whose company they would
afterwards return. Even wild ibex have been known to stray
among the herds of goats, although they shun the society of
chamois. Its flesh is said to resemble mutton, but has a flavour
of game.
By naturalists the name " ibex " has been extended tp embrace
all the kindred species of wild goats, while by sportsmen it is
used in a still more elastic sense, to include not only the
true wild goat (known in India as the Sind ibex) but even the
short-horned Hemitragus hylocrius of the Nilgiris. Dealing
only with species zoologically known as ibex, the one nearest
akin to the European kind is the Asiatic or Siberian ibex (Capra
The Ibex (Capra ibex).
sibirica), which, with several local phases, extends from the
northern side of Kashmir over an enormous area in Central
Asia. These ibex, especially the race from the Thian Shan, are
incomparably finer than the European species, their bold knotted
horns sometimes attaining a length of close on 60 in. The
Arabian, or Nubian, ibex (C. nubiana) is characterized by the
more slender type of h6rn, in which the front edge is much
narrower; while the Simien ibex (C. volt) of Central Abyssinia
is a very large and dark-coloured animal, with the horns black
instead of brownish, and bearing only slightly marked front
ridges. The Caucasian ibex (C. caucasica), or tur, is a wholly
fox-coloured animal, in which the horns are still flatter in front,
and thus depart yet further from the ibex type. In the Spanish
ibex (C. pyrenaica) the horns jare flattened, with ill-defined
knobs, and a spiral twist. (SEE GOAT.) (W. H. F.; R. L.*)
IBIS, one of the sacred birds of the ancient Egyptians. James
Bruce identified this bird with the Abu-Hannes or " Father
John " of the Abyssinians, and in 1790 it received from Latham
(Index ornithologicus, p. 706) the name of Tantalus aethiopicus.
This determination was placed beyond question by Cuvier (Ann.
du Musium, iv. 116-135) and Savigny (Hist. nat. et mythol.
de I'ibis) in 1805. They, however, removed it from the Linnaean
genus Tantalus and, Lacepede having some years before founded
a genus Ibis, it was transferred thither, and is now generally
known as /. aethiopica, though some speak of it as 7. religiosa.
No attempt can here be made to treat the ibis from a mythological
or antiquarian point of view. Savigny's memoir contains a great
deal of matter on the subject. Wilkinson ( A ncient Egyptians, ser.
2, vol. ii. pp. 217-224) added some of the results of later research,
and Renouf in his Hibbert Lectures explains the origin of the
myth.
The ibis is chiefly an inhabitant of the Nile basin from Dongola
southward, as well as of Kordofan and Sennar; whence about
midsummer it moves northwards to Egypt.1 In Lower Egypt it
bears the name of Abu-mengel, or " father of the sickle," from
the form of its bill, but it does not stay long in that country,
disappearing when the Nile has subsided. Hence most travellers
have failed to meet with it there2 (since their acquaintance with
the birds of Egypt is limited to those which frequent the country
in winter), and writers have denied generally to this species a
place in its modern fauna (cf. Shelley, Birds of Egypt, p. 261).
However, in 1864, von Heuglin (Journ. fur Ornithologie, 1865,
p. 100) saw a young bird which had been shot in the Delta, and
E. C. Taylor (Ibis, 1878, p. 372) saw an adult which had been
killed near Lake Menzal in 1877. The story told to Herodotus
of its destroying snakes is, according to Savigny, devoid of
truth, but Cuvier states that he discovered partly digested
remains of a snake in the stomach of a mummied ibis.
The ibis is somewhat larger than a curlew, Numenius arquata,
which bird it resembles, with a much stouter bill and stouter
legs. The head and greater part of the neck are bare and black.
The plumage is white, except the primaries, which are black,
and a black plume, formed by the secondaries, tertials and lower
scapulars, and richly glossed with bronze, blue and green, which
curves gracefully over the hind-quarters. The bill and feet are
also black. The young lack the ornamental plume, and in them
the head and neck are clothed with short black feathers, while
the bill is yellow. The nest is placed in bushes or high trees,
the bird generally building in companies, and in the middle of
August von Heuglin (Orn. Nord-Ost-Afrikas, p. 1138) found that
it had from two to four young or much incubated eggs.3 These
are of a dingy white, splashed, spotted and speckled with
reddish-brown.
Congeneric with the typical ibis are two or three other species,
the 7. melanocephala of India, the /. molucca or /. strictipennis,
of Australia, and the /. bernieri of Madagascar, all of which
closely resemble 7. aethiopica; while many other forms not very
far removed from it, though placed by authors in distinct genera,4
are known. Among these are several beautiful species such as
the Japanese Geronticus nippon, the Lopholibis cristala of
Madagascar, and the scarlet ibis,6 Eudocimus ruber, of America.
The glossy ibis, Plegadis falcinellus, found throughout the West
Indies, Central and the south-eastern part of North America, as
well as in many parts of Europe (whence it not unfrequently
strays to the British Islands), Africa, Asia and Australia. This
bird, believed to be the second kind of ibis spoken of by Hero-
dotus, is rather smaller than the sacred ibis, and mostly of a
dark chestnut colour with brilliant green and purple reflections
on the upper parts, exhibiting, however, when young none of
the rufous hue. This species lays eggs of a deep sea-green colour,
having wholly the character of heron's eggs, and it often breeds
in company with herons, while the eggs of all other ibises
whose eggs are known resemble those of the sacred ibis. Though
ibises resemble the curlews externally, there is no affinity between
them. The Ibididae are more nearly related to the storks,
Ciconiidae, and still more to the spoonbills, Plataleidae, with
which latter many systematists consider them to form one
group, the Hemiglottides of Nitzsch. Together these groups
form the sub-order Ciconiae of the order Ciconiiformes. The
true ibises are also to be clearly separated from the wood-ibises,
Tantalidae, of which there are four or five species, by several
not unimportant structural characters. Fossil remains of a true
1 It has been said to occur occasionally in Europe (Greece and
southern Russia).
1 E. C. Taylor remarked (Ibis, 1859, p. 51), that the buff-backed
heron, Ardea bubulcus, was made by the tourists' dragomans to do
duty for the "sacred ibis," and this seems to be no novel practice,
since by it, or something like it, Hasselqvist was misled, and through
him Linnaeus.
3 The ibis has more than once nested in the gardens of the Zoologi-
cal Society in London, and even reared its young there.
4 For some account of these may be consulted Dr Reichenow's
paper in Journ. fur Ornithologie (1877), pp. 143-156; Elliot's jn
Proc. Zool. Society (1877), pp. 477-510; and that of Oustalet in
Nouv. Arch, du Mus&um, ser. 2, vols. i. pp. 167-184.
1 It is a popular error — especially among painters — that this bird
was the sacred ibis of the Egyptians.
IBLIS— IBN BATUTA
219
ibis, /. pagana, have been found in considerable numbers in the
middle Tertiary beds of France.1 (A. N.)
IBLIS, or EBLIS, in Moslem mythology the counterpart of the
Christian and Jewish devil. He figures oftener in the Koran
under the name Shaitan, Iblis being mentioned u times,
whereas Shaitan appears in 87 passages. He is chief of the
spirits of evil, and his personality is adapted to that of his Jewish
prototype. Iblis rebelled against Allah and was expelled from
Paradise. The Koranic legend is that his fall was a punishment
for his refusal to worship Adam. Condemned to death he was
afterwards respited till the judgment day (Koran vii. 13).
See Gustav Weil, The Bible, the Koran and the Talmud (London,
1846).
IBN 'ABD RABBIHI [Abu 'Umar Ahmad ibn Mahommed
ibn 'Abd Rabbihi] (860-940), Arabian poet, was born in Cordova
and descended from a freed slave of Hisham, the second Spanish
Omayyad caliph. He enjoyed a great reputation for learning
and eloquence. No diwan of his is extant, but many selections
from his poems are given in the Yatlmat ud-Dahr, \.
412-436 (Damascus, 1887). More widely known than his poetry
is his great anthology, the *Iqd ul-Farld (" The Precious Neck-
lace "), a work divided into twenty-five sections, the thirteenth
being named the middle jewel of the necklace, the chapters on
either side of this being named after other jewels. It is an adab
book (see ARABIA: Literature, section " Belles Lettres ") resem-
bling Ibn Qutaiba's 'Uyun ul-Akhbar, from which it borrows
largely. It has been printed several times in Cairo (1876,
1886, &c.). (G.W.T.)
IBN 'ARABl [Muhyiuddm Abu 'Abdallah ibn ul-'Arabl]
(1165-1240), Moslem theologian and mystic, was born in Murcia
and educated in Seville. When thirty-eight he travelled in
Egypt, Arabia, Bagdad, Mosul and Asia Minor, after which he
lived in Damascus for the rest of his life. In law he was a
Zahirite, in theology a mystic of the extreme order, though
professing orthodox Ash'arite theology and combating in many
points the Indo-Persian mysticism (pantheism). He claims to
have had conversations with all the prophets past and future,
and reports conversations with God himself. Of his numerous
works about 150 still exist. The most extensive is the twelve-
volume Futuhat ul-Makkiyat (" Meccan Revelations "), a general
encyclopaedia of Sufic beliefs and doctrines. Numerous extracts
from this work are contained in Sha'rani's (d. 1565) manual of
Sufic dogma (Yawaqit) published several times in Cairo. A
short account of these works is given in A. von Kremer's
Geschichte der herrschenden Ideen des Islams, pp. 102-109
(Leipzig, 1868). Another characteristic and more accessible
work of Ibn 'Arabi is the Fu$us ul-IJikam, on the nature and
importance of the twenty-seven chief prophets, written in 1230
(ed. Bulaq, 1837) and with the Commentary (Cairo, 1891) of
Qashani (d. 1350); cf. analysis by M. Schreiner in Journal of
German Oriental Society, lii. 516-525.
Of some 289 works said to have been written by Ibn 'Arabi 150
are mentioned in C. Brockelmann's Gesch. der arabischen Litteratur,
vol. i. (Weimar, 1898), pp. 441-448. See also R. A. Nicholson,
A Literary History of the Arabs, pp. 399-404 (London, 1907).
(G. W. T.)
IBN ATHIR, the family name of three brothers, all famous
in Arabian literature, born at Jazirat ibn 'Umar in Kurdistan.
The eldest brother, known as MAJD uD-DiN (1149-1210), was
long in the service of the amir of Mosul, and was an earnest
student of tradition and language. His dictionary of traditions
(Kitab un-Nihaya) was published at Cairo (1893), and his
dictionary of family names (Kitab ul-Murassa*) has been edited
by Seybold (Weimar, 1896). The youngest brother, known as
DIYA uo-DiN (1163-1239), served Saladin from 1191 on, then
his son, al-Malik ul-Afdal, and was afterwards in Egypt,
Samosata, Aleppo, Mosul and Bagdad. He was one of the most
famous aesthetic'and stylistic critics in Arabian literature. His
Kitab ul-Mathal, published in Bulaq in 1865 (cf. Journal of
the German ^Oriental Society, xxxv. 148, and Goldziher's
1 The name " Ibis '' was selected as the title of an ornithological
magazine, frequently referred to in this and other articles, which
made its first appearance in 1859.
Abhandlungen, i. 161 sqq.), contains some very independent
criticism of ancient and modern Arabic verse. Some of his
letters have been published by D. S. Margoliouth " On the Royal
Correspondence of Diya ed-Din el-Jazari " in the Actes du
dixieme congres international des orientalistes, sect. 3, pp. 7-21.
The brother best known by the simple name of Ibn Athir
was ABU-L-HASAN "IZZUDDIN MAHOMMED IBN UL-ATHIR (1160-
1234), who devoted himself to the study of history and tradition.
At the age of twenty-one he settled with his father in Mosul and
continued his studies there. In the service of the amir for many
years, he visited Bagdad and Jerusalem and later Aleppo and
Damascus. He died in Mosul. His great history, the Kamil,
extends to the year 1231; it has been edited by C. J. Tornberg,
Ibn al-Athiri Chronicon quod perfeclissimum inscribitur (14 vols.,
Leiden, 1851-1876), and has been published in 12 vols. in Cairo
(1873 and 1886). The first part of this work up to A.H. 310
(A.D. 923) is an abbreviation of the work of Tabari (q.v.) with
additions. Ibn Athir also wrote a history of the Atabegs of
Mosul, published in the Recueil des hisloriens des croisades (vol.
ii., Paris); a work (Usd ul-Ghaba}, giving an account of 7500
companions of Mahomet (5 vols., Cairo, 1863), and a compendium
(the Lubdb) of Sam'ani's Kitab ul-Ansab (cf. F. Wiistenfeld's
Specimen el-Lobabi, Gottingen, 1835). (G. W. T.)
IBN BATUTA, i.e. ABU ABDULLAH MAHOMMED, surnamed IBN
BATUTA (1304-1378), the greatest of Moslem travellers, was born
at Tangier in 1304. He entered on his travels at twenty-one
(1325) and closed them in 1355. He began by traversing the
coast of the Mediterranean from Tangier to Alexandria, finding
time to marry two wives on the road. After some stay at Cairo,
then probably the greatest city in the world (excluding China),
and an unsuccessful attempt to reach Mecca from Aidhab on the
west coast of the Red Sea, he visited Palestine, Aleppo and
Damascus. He then made the pilgrimage to Mecca and Medina,
and visited the shrine of Ali at Mashhad-Ali, travelling thence
to Basra, and across the mountains of Khuzistan to Isfahan,
thence to Shiraz and back to Kufa and Bagdad. After an
excursion to Mosul and Diarbekr, he made the haj a second time,
staying at Mecca three years. He next sailed down the Red Sea
to Aden (then a place of great trade), the singular position of
which he describes, noticing its dependence for water-supply upon
the great cisterns restored in modern times. He continued his
voyage down the African coast, visiting, among other places,
Mombasa and Quiloa (Kilwa). Returning north he passed by
the chief cities of Oman to New Ormuz (Hurmuz), which had
about 15 years before, c. 1315, been transferred to its famous
island-site from the mainland (Old Ormuz). After visiting other
parts of the gulf he crossed the breadth of Arabia to Mecca,
making the haj for the third time. Crossing the Red Sea, he made
a journey of great hardship to Syene, and thence along the Nile
to Cairo. After this, travelling through Syria, he made a circuit
among the petty Turkish states into which Asia Minor was divided
after the fall of the kingdom of Rum (Iconium). He now
crossed the Black Sea to Kaffa, then mainly occupied by the
Genoese, and apparently the first Christian city he had seen,
for he was much perturbed by the bell-ringing. He next
travelled into Kipchak (the Mongol khanate of Russia), and
joined the camp of the reigning khan Mahommed Uzbeg, from
whom the great and heterogeneous Uzbeg race is perhaps named.
Among other places in this empire he travelled to Bolghar
(54° 54' N.) in order to witness the shortness of the summer
night, and desired to continue his travels north into the " Land
of Darkness " (in the extreme north of Russia), of which wonder-
ful things were told, but was obliged to forego this. Returning
to the khan's camp he joined the cortege of one of the Khatuns,
who was a Greek princess by birth (probably illegitimate) and in
her train travelled to Constantinople, where he had an interview
with the emperor Andronikos III. the Younger (1328-1341).
He tells how, as he passed the city gates, he heard the guards
muttering Sarakinu. Returning to the court of Uzbeg, at Sarai
on the Volga, he crossed the steppes to Khwarizm and Bokhara;
thence through Khorasan and Kabul, and over the Hindu Kush
(to which he gives that name, its first occurrence). He reached
220
IBN DURAID— IBN FARID
the Indus, on his own statement, in September, 1333. This
closes the first part of his narrative.
From Sind, which he traversed to the sea and back again, he
proceeded to Multan, and eventually, on the invitation of
Mahommed Tughlak, the reigning sovereign, to Delhi. Mahommed
was a singular character, full of pretence at least to many
accomplishments and virtues, the founder of public charities, and
a profuse patron of scholars, but a parricide, a fratricide, and as
madly capricious, bloodthirsty and unjust as Caligula. " No
day did his palace gate fail to witness the elevation of some abject
to affluence and the torture and murder of some living soul."
He appointed the traveller to be kazi of Delhi, with a present of
12,000 silver dinars {rupees), and an annual salary of the same
amount, besides an assignment of village lands. In the sultan's
service Ibn Batuta remained eight years; but his good fortune
stimulated his natural extravagance, and his debts soon amounted
to four or five times his salary. At last he fell into disfavour and
retired from court, only to be summoned again on a congenial
duty. The emperor of China, last of the Mongol dynasty, had
sent a mission to Delhi, and the Moor was to accompany the
return embassy (1342). The party travelled through central
India to Cambay and thence sailed to Calicut, classed by the
traveller with the neighbouring Kaulam (Quilon), Alexandria,
Sudak in the Crimea, and Zayton (Amoy harbour) in China, as
one of the greatest trading havens in the world — an interesting
enumeration from one who had seen them all. The mission
party was to embark in Chinese junks (the word used) and smaller
vessels, but that carrying the other envoys and the presents,
which started before Ibn Batuta was ready, was wrecked totally;
the vessel that he had engaged went off with his property, and he
was left on the beach of Calicut. Not daring to return to Delhi,
he remained about Honore and other cities of the western coast,
taking part in various adventures, among others the capture of
Sindabur (Goa), and visiting the Maldive Islands, where he
became kazi, and married four wives, and of which he has left the
best medieval account, hardly surpassed by any modern. In
August 1344 he left the Maldives for Ceylon; here he made the
pilgrimage to the " Footmark of our Father Adam." Thence he
betook himself to Maabar (the Coromandel coast), where he
joined a Mussulman adventurer, residing at Madura, who had
made himself master of much of that region. After once more
visiting Malabar, Canara and the Maldives, he departed for
Bengal, a voyage of forty-three days, landing at Sadkawan
(Chittagong). In Bengal he visited the famous Moslem saint
Shaykh Jalaluddin, whose shrine (Shah Jalal at Silhet) is still
maintained. Returning to the delta, he took ship at Sunarganw
(near Dacca) on a junk bound for Java (i.e. Java Minor of Marco
Polo, or Sumatra). Touching the coast of Arakan or Burma, he
reached Sumatra in forty days, and was provided with a junk for
China by Malik al Dhahir, a zealous disciple of Islam, which had
recently spread among the states on the northern coast of that
island. Calling (apparently) at Cambodia on his way, Ibn
Batuta reached China at Zayton (Amoy harbour), famous from
Marco Polo; he also visited Sin Kalan or Canton, and professes
to have been in Khansa (Kinsay of Marco Polo, i.e. Hangchau),
and Khanbalik (Cambaluc or Peking). The truth of his visit to
these two cities, and especially to the last, has been questioned.
The traveller's history, not least in China, singularly illustrates
the free masonry of Islam, and its power of carrying a Moslem
doctor over the known world of Asia and Africa. On his way
home he saw the great bird Rukh (evidently, from his description,
an island lifted by refraction); revisited Sumatra, Malabar,
Oman, Persia, Bagdad, and crossed the great desert to Palmyra
and Damascus, where he got his first news of home, and heard of
his father's death fifteen years before. Diverging to Hamath and
Aleppo, on his return to Damascus, he found the Black Death
raging, so that two thousand four hundred died in one day.
Revisiting Jerusalem and Cairo he made the haj a fourth time,
and finally reappeared at Fez (visiting Sardinia en route) on
the 8th of November 1349, after twenty-four years' absence.
Morocco, he felt, was, after all, the best of countries. " The
dirhems of the West are but little; but then you get more for
them." After going home to Tangier, Ibn Batuta crossed into
Spain and made the round of Andalusia, including Gibraltar,
which had just then stood a siege from the " Roman tyrant
Adfunus " (Alphonso XI. of Castile, 1312-1350). In 1352 the
restless man started for Central Africa, passing by the oases of
the Sahara (where the houses were built of rock-salt, as Herodotus
tells, and roofed with camel skins) to Timbuktu and Gogo on the
Niger, a river which he calls the Nile, believing it to flow down into
Egypt, an opinion maintained by some up to the date of Lander's
discovery. Being then recalled by his own king, he returned to
Fez (early in 1354) via Takadda, Haggar and Tuat. Thus ended
his twenty-eight years ' wanderings which in their main lines alone
exceeded 75,000 m. By royal order he dictated his narrative to
Mahommed Ibn Juzai, who concludes the work, 1 3th of December
!3S5 (A.D.) with the declaration: " This Shaykh is the traveller of
our age; and he who should call him the traveller of the whole
body of Islam would not exceed the truth." Ibn Batuta died in
1378, aged seventy-three.
Ibn Batuta's travels have only been known in Europe during the
1 9th century; at first merely by Arabic abridgments in the Gotha
and Cambridge libraries. Notices or extracts had been published
by Seetzen (c. 1808), Kosegarten (1818), Apetz (1819), and Burck-
hardt (1819), when in 1829 Dr S. Lee published for the Oriental
Translation Fund a version from the abridged MSS. at Cambridge,
which attracted much interest. The French capture of Constantina
afforded MSS. of the complete work, one of them the autograph of
Ibn Juzai. And from these, after versions of fragments by various
French scholars, was derived at last (1858-1859) the standard edition
and translation of the whole by M. Defr6mery and Dr Sanguinetti,
in 4 vols. See also Sir Henry Yule, Cathay, ii. 397-526 ; C. Raymond
Beazley, Dawn of Modern Geography, iii. 535-538. Though there
are some singular chronological difficulties in the narrative, and a
good many cursory inaccuracies and exaggerations, there is no part
of it except, perhaps, certain portions of the journeys in north China,
which is open to doubt. The accounts of the Maldive Islands, and of
the Negro countries on the Niger, are replete with interesting and
accurate particulars. The former agrees surprisingly with that given
by the only other foreign resident we know of, Pyrard de la Val,
two hundred and fifty years later. Ibn Batuta's statements and
anecdotes regarding the showy virtues and solid vices of Sultan
Muhammad Tughlak are in entire agreement with Indian historians,
and add many fresh details. (H. Y. ; C. R. B.)
IBN DURAID [Abu Bakr Mahommed ibn ul-Hasan ibn
Duraid ul-Azdl] (837-934), Arabian poet and philologist, was
born at Basra of south Arabian stock. At his native place he was
trained under various teachers, but fled in 871 to Oman at the
time Basra was attacked by the negroes, known as the Zanj,
under Muhallabl. After living twelve years in Oman he went to
Persia, and, under the protection of the governor, 'Abdallah ibn
Mahommed ibn Mlkal, and his son, Isma'll, wrote his chief works.
In 920 he went to Bagdad, where he received a pension from the
caliph Moqtadir.
The Maqsura, a poem in praise of Ibn Mikal and his son, has been
edited by A. Haitsma (1773) E. Scheidius (1786) and N. Boyesen
(1828). Various commentaries on the poem exist in MS. (cf. C.
Brockelmann, Gesch. der ar. Lit., i. 211 ff., Weimar, 1898).
The Jamhara fi-l-Lugha is a large dictionary written in Persian but
not printed. Another work is the Kitab ul-Ishtiqaq (" Book of
Etymology"), edited by F. Wustenfeld (Gottingen, 1854); it was
written in opposition to the anti- Arabian party to show the etymo-
logical connexion of the Arabian tribal names. (G. W. T.)
IBN FARADl [Abu-1-Walid 'Abdallah ibn ul-Faradi] (962-
1012), Arabian historian, was born at Cordova and studied law
and tradition. In 992 he made the pilgrimage and proceeded to
Egypt and Kairawan, studying in these places. After his return
in 1009 he became cadi in Valencia, and was killed at Cordova
when the Berbers took the city.
His chief work is the History of the Learned Men of Andalusia,
edited by F. Codera (Madrid, 1891-1892). He wrote also a history
of the poets of Andalusia. (G. W. T.)
IBN FARID [Abu-1-Q.asim 'Umar ibn ul-Farid] (1181-1235),
Arabian poet, was born in Cairo, lived for some time in Mecca and
died in Cairo. His poetry is entirely Sufic, and he was esteemed
the greatest mystic poet of the Arabs. Some of his poems are said
to have been written in ecstasies. His diwan has been published
with commentary at Beirut, 1887, &c.; with the commentaries of
Burlni (d. 1615) and 'Abdul-Gham (d. 1730) at Marseilles, 1853,
and at Cairo; and with the commentary of Rushayyid Ghalib
IBN GABIROL— IBN HAZM
221
(ipth century) at Cairo, 1893. One of the separate poems was
edited by J. von Hammer Purgstall as Das arabische hohe Lied der
Liebe (Vienna, 1854).
See R. A. Nicholson, A Literary History of the Arabs (London,
1907), PP- 394-398. (G. W. T.)
IBN GABIROL [SOLOMON BEN JUDAH], Jewish poet and
philosopher, was born at Malaga, probably about 1021. The
early part of his troublous life was spent at Saragossa, but few
personal details of it are recorded. His parents died while he
was a child and he was under the protection first of a certain
Jekuthiel, who died in 1039, and afterwards of Samuel ha-Nagid,
the well-known patron of learning. His passionate disposition,
however, embittered no doubt by his misfortunes, involved him
in frequent difficulties and led to his quarrelling with Samuel.
It is generally agreed that he died young, although the date is
uncertain. Al Harizi 1 says at the age of twenty-nine, and
Moses b. Ezra2 about thirty, but Abraham Zaccuto3 states that
he died (at Valencia) in 1070. M. Steinschneider 4 accepts the
date 1058.
His literary activity began early. He is said to have composed
poems at the age of sixteen, and elegies by him are extant on
Hai Gaon (died in 1038) and Jekuthiel (died in 1039), each of
which was written probably soon after the death of the person
commemorated. About the same time he also wrote his 'Anaq,
a poem on grammar, of which only 97 lines out of 400 are pre-
served. Moses ben Ezra says of him that he imitated Moslem
models, and was the first to open to Jewish poets the door of
versification,5 meaning that he first popularized the use of Arabic
metres in Hebrew. It is as a poet that he has been known to
the Jews to the present day, and admired for the youthful
freshness and beauty of his work, in which he may be compared
to the romantic school in France and England in the early igth
century. Besides his lyrical and satirical poems, he contributed
many of the finest compositions to the liturgy (some of them
with the acrostic " Shelomoh ha-qaton "), which are widely
different from the artificial manner of the earlier payyetanim.
The best known of his longer liturgical compositions are the
philosophical Kether Malkuth (for the Day of Atonement) and
the Azharoth, on the 613 precepts (for Shebhu'dth). Owing to his
pure biblical style he had an abiding influence on subsequent
liturgical writers.
Outside the Jewish community he was known as the philo-
sopher Avicebron (Avencebrol, Avicebrol, &c.) The credit of
identifying this name as a medieval corruption of Ibn Gabirol
is due to S. Munk, who showed that selections made by Shem
Tobh Palqera (or Falqera) from the Meqor Hayyim (the Hebrew
translation of an Arabic original) by Ibn Gabirol, corresponded
to the Latin Fans Vitae of Avicebron. The Latin version, made
by Johannes Hispalensis and Gundisalvi about one hundred years
after the author's death, had at once become known among the
Schoolmen of the I2th century and exerted a powerful influence
upon them, although so little was known of the author that it
was doubted whether he was a Christian or a Moslem. The
teaching of the Fans Vitae was entirely new to the country of
its origin, and being drawn largely from Neoplatonic sources
could not be expected to find favour with Jewish thinkers. Its
distinctive doctrines are: (i) that all created beings, spiritual or
corporeal, are composed of matter and form, the various species
of matter being but varieties of the universal matter, and
similarly all forms being contained in one universal form; (2)
that between the primal One and the intellect (the vovs of
Plotinus) there is interposed the divine Will, which is itself
divine and above the distinction of form and matter, but is the
cause of their union in the being next to itself, the intellect,
in which Avicebron holds that the distinction does exist. The
1 Jud. Har. MacamcE, ed. Lagarde (Gottingen, 1883), p. 89, 1. 61.
2 See the passage quoted by Munk, Melanges de philosophie arabe
etjuive (Paris, 1859), pp. 264 and 517.
3 Liber Juchassin, ed. Filipowski (London, 1857), p. 217.
'Hebr. Vbersetzungen (Berlin, 1893), § 219, note 70; cf. Kaufmann,
Studien uber Sal.-ibn Gabirol (Budapest, 1899), p. 79, note 2.
5 See Munk, op. cit. pp. 515-516, transl. on pp. 263-264. Metre
had been already used by Dunash.
doctrine that there is a material, as well as a formal, element in
all created beings was explicitly adopted from Avicebron by
Duns Scotus (as against the view of Albertus Magnus and Thomas
Aquinas), and perhaps his exaltation of the will above the
intellect is due to the same influence. Avicebron develops his
philosophical system throughout quite independently of his
religious views — a practice wholly foreign to Jewish teachers,
and one which could not be acceptable to them. Indeed, this
charge is expressly brought against him by Abraham ben David
of Toledo (died in 1180). It is doubtless this non-religious
attitude which accounts for the small attention paid to the Fans
Vitae by the Jews, as compared with the wide influence of the
philosophy of Maimonides.
The other important work of Ibn Gabirol is Islah al-akhlaq (the
improvement of character), a popular work in Arabic, translated
into Hebrew (Tiqqun middoth ha-nephesh) by Judah ibn Tibbon.
It is widely different in treatment from the Fans, being intended
as a practical not a speculative work.
The collection of moral maxims, compiled in Arabic but best
known (in the Hebrew translation of Judah ibn Tibbon) as
Mibhar ha-peninim, is generally ascribed to Ibn Gabirol, though
on less certain grounds.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Texts of the liturgical poems are to be found
in the prayer-books: others in Dukes and Edelmann, Treasures
of Oxford (Oxford, 1850); Dukes, Shire Shelomoh (Hanover, 1858);
S. Sachs, Shir ha-shirim asher li-Shelomoh (Paris, 1868, incomplete);
Brody, Die weltlichen Gedichte des . . . Gabirol^ (Berlin, 1897, &c.).
" Avencebrolis Fons Vitae " (Latin text) in Clemens Baumker's
Beitrage zur Gesch. d. Philosophie, Bd. i. Hefte 2-4 (Munster, 1892) ;
The Improvement of the Moral Qualities [Arabic and English] ed. by
S. S. Wise (New York, 1901); A Choice of Pearls [Hebrew and
English] ed. by Ascher (London, 1859).
On the philosophy in general: S. Munk, Melanges (quoted above) ;
Guttmann, Die Philosophie des Sal.-ibn Gabirol (Gottingen, 1889);
D. Kaufmann, Studien uber Sal.-ibn Gabirol (Budapest, 1899);
S. Horovitz, " Die Psychologic Ibn Gabirols," in the Jahresbericht
des jud. theol. Seminars Franckel'scher Stiftung (Breslau, 1900);
Wittmann, " Zur Stellung Avencebrols ... (in Baumker's
Beilrage, Bd. v. Heft i, Munster, 1905). (A. CY.)
IBN HAUKAL, strictly IBN HAUQAL, a loth century Arabian
geographer. Nothing is known of his life. His work on geo-
graphy, written in 977, is only a revision and extension of the
Masalik ul-Mamdlik of al-Istakhrl, who wrote in 951. This
itself was a revised edition of the Kitab ul-Ashkal or §uwar
ul-Aqalim of Abu Zaid ul-Balkhi, who wrote about 921. Ibn
Haukal's work was published by M. J. de Goeje (Leiden, 1873).
An anonymous epitome of the book was written in 1233.
See M. J. de Goeje, " Die Istahri-Balhi Frage," in the Zeitschrift
der deutschen Morgenlandischen Gesellschaft, xxv. 42 sqq.
IBN flAZM [Abu Mahommed 'All ibn Ahmad ibn Hazm]
(994-1064), Moslem theologian, was born in a suburb of Cordova.
He studied history, law and theology, and became a vizier as his
father had been before him, but was deposed for heresy, and
spent the rest of his life quietly in the country. In legal matters
he belonged first to the Shafi'ite school, but came to adopt the
views of the Zahirites, who admitted only the external sense of
the Koran and tradition, disallowing the use of analogy (Qiyas)
and Taqlid (appeal to the authority of an imam), and objecting
altogether to the use of individual opinion (Ra'y). Every
sentence of the Koran was to be interpreted in a general and
universal sense; the special application to the circumstances
of the time it was written was denied. Every word of the Koran
was to be taken in a literal sense, but that sense was to be learned
from other uses in the Koran itself, not from the meaning in
other literature of the time. The special feature of Ibn Hazm's
teaching was that he extended the application of these principles
from the study of law to that of dogmatic theology. He thus
found himself in opposition at one time to the Mo'tazilites, at
another to the Ash'arites. He did not, however, succeed in
forming a school. His chief work is the Kilab ul-Milal ivan-
Nihal, or " Book of Sects " (published in Cairo, 1899).
For his teaching cf. I. Goldziher, Die Zahiriten, pp. 116-172
(Leipzig, (1884), and M. Schreiner in the Journal of the German
Oriental Society, Hi. 464-486. For a list of his other works
see C. Brockelmann's Geschichte der arabischen Literatur, vol. i
(Weimar, 1898), p. 400. (G. W. T.)
222
IBN HISHAN— IBN QUTAIBA
IBN HISHAM [Abfl Mahommed 'Abdulmalik ibn Hisham ibn
Ayyub ul-Himyari] (d. 834), Arabian biographer, studied in
Kufa but lived afterwards in Fostat (old Cairo), where he gained
a name as a grammarian and student of language and history.
His chief work is his edition of Ibn Ishaq's (q.v.) Life of the
Apostle of God, which has been edited by F. Wustenfeld (Got-
tingen, 1858-1860). An abridged German translation has
been made by G. Weil (Stuttgart, 1864; cf. P. Bronnle, Die
Commentator en des Ibn Ishaq und ihre Scholien, Halle, 1895).
Ibn Hisham is said to have written a work explaining the
difficult words which occur in poems on the life of the Apostle,
and another on the genealogies of the Himyarites and their
princes. (G. W. T.)
IBN ISHAQ [Mahommed ibn Ishaq Abu 'Abdallah] (d. 768),
Arabic historian, lived in Medina, where he interested himself
to such an extent in the details of the Prophet's life that he was
attacked by those to whom his work seemed to have a rational-
istic tendency. He consequently left Medina in 733, and went
to Alexandria, then to Kufa and Hira, and finally to Bagdad,
where the caliph Mansur provided him with the means of
writing his great work. This was the Life of the Apostle of God,
which is now lost and is known to us only in the recension of
Ibn Hisham (q.v.). The work has been attacked by Arabian
writers (as in the Fihrist) as untrustworthy, and it seems clear
that he introduced forged verses (cf. Journal of the German
Oriental Society, xiv. 288 sqq.). It remains, however, one of the
most important works of the age. (G. W. T.)
IBN JUBAIR [Abu-1 Husain Mahommed ibn Ahmad ibn
Jubair] (1145-1217), Arabian geographer, was born in Valencia.
At Granada he studied the Koran, tradition, law and literature,
and later became secretary to the Mohad governor of that city.
During this time he composed many poems. In 1183 he left
the court and travelled to Alexandria, Jerusalem, Medina,
Mecca, Damascus, Mosul and Bagdad, returning in 1185 by
way of Sicily.
The Travels of Ibn Jubair were edited by W. Wright (Leiden,
1852) ; and a new edition of this text, revised by M. J. de Goeje,
was published by the Gibb Trustees (London, 1907). The part
relating to Sicily was published, with French translation and notes,
by M. Amari in the Journal asiatique (1845-1846) and a French
translation alone of the same part by G. Crolla in Museon, vi.
123-132. (G. W. T.)
IBN KHALDUN [Abu Zaid ibn Mahommed ibn Mahommed ibn
Khaldun] (1332-1406), Arabic historian, was born at Tunis. He
studied the various branches of Arabic learning with great success.
la 1352 he obtained employment under the Marinid sultan Abu
Inan (Fans I.) at Fez. In the beginning of 1356, his integrity
having been suspected, he was thrown into prison until the death
of Abu Inan in 1358, when the vizier al-Hasan ibn Omar set him
at liberty and reinstated him in his rank and offices. He here
continued to render great service to Abu Salem (Ibrahim III.),
Abu Inan's successor, but, having offended the prime minister,
he obtained permission to emigrate to Spain, where, at Granada,
he was received with great cordiality by Ibn al Ahmar, who had
been greatly indebted to his good offices when an exile at the
court of Abu Salem. The favours he received from the sovereign
excited the jealousy of the vizier, and he was driven back to
Africa (1364), where he was received with great cordiality by the
sultan of Bougie, Abu Abdallah, who had been formerly his
companion in prison. On the fall of Abu Abdallah Ibn Khaldun
raised a large force amongst the desert Arabs, and entered the
service of the sultan of Tlemjen. A few years later he was taken
prisoner by Abdalaziz ('Abd ul "Aziz), who had defeated the
sultan of Tlemcen and seized the throne. He then entered a
monastic establishment, and occupied himself with scholastic
duties, until in 1370 he was sent for to Tlemcen by the new
sultan. After the death of 'Abd ul 'Aziz he resided at Fez,
enjoying the patronage and confidence of the regent. After
some further vicissitudes in 1378 he entered the service of the
sultan of his native town of Tunis, where he devoted himself
almost exclusively to his studies and wrote his history of the
Berbers. Having received permission to make the pilgrimage
to Mecca, he reached Cairo, where he was presented to the sultan,
al-Malik udh-DhahirBarkuk, who insisted on his remaining there,
and in the year 1384 made him grand cadi of the Malikite rite
for Cairo. This office he filled with great prudence and probity,
removing many abuses in the administration of justice in Egypt.
At this time the ship in which his wife and family, with all his
property, were coming to join him, was wrecked, and every
one on board lost. He endeavoured to find consolation in the
completion of his history of the Arabs of Spain. At the same
time he was removed from his office of cadi, which gave him
more leisure for his work. Three years later he made the pilgrim-
age to Mecca, and on his return lived in retirement in the Fayum
until 1399, when he was again called upon to resume his functions
as cadi. He was removed and reinstated in the office no fewer
than five times.
In 1400 he was sent to Damascus, in connexion with the
expedition intended to oppose Timur or Tamerlane. When
Timur had become master of the situation, Ibn Khaldun let
himself down from the walls of the city by a rope, and presented
himself before the conqueror, who permitted him to return to
Egypt. Ibn Khaldun died on the i6th of March 1406, at the
age of sixty-four.
The great work by which he is known is a " Universal History,"
but it deals more particularly with the history of the Arabs of Spain
and Africa. Its Arabic title is Kitab ul'Ibar, wa diwan el Mublada
wa'l Khabar,fi ayyamtil'Arab wa'l'Ajam iva'l Berber; that is, " The
Book of Examples and the Collection of Origins and Information
respecting the History of the Arabs, Foreigners and Berbers." It
consists of three books, an introduction and an autobiography.
Book i. treats of the influence of civilization upon man ; book ii. of
the history of the Arabs and other peoples from the remotest antiquity
until the author's own times; book iii. of the history of the Berber
tribes and of the kingdoms founded by that race in North Africa.
The introduction is an elaborate treatise on the science of history
and the development of society, and the autobiography contains
the history, not only of the author himself, but of his family and of
the dynasties which ruled in Fez, Tunis and Tlemcen during his
lifetime. An edition of the Arabic text has been printed at Bulaq,
(7 vols., 1867) and a part of the work has been translated by the late
Baron McG. de Slane under the title of Histoire des Berberes (Algiers,
1852-1856); it contains an admirable account of the author and
analysisof his work. Vol. i., the Muqaddama (preface), was published
by M. Quatrem&re (3 vols., Paris, 1858), often republished in the
East, and a French translation was made by McG. de Slane (3 vols.,
Paris, 1862-1868). The parts of the history referring to the expedi-
tions of the Franks into Moslem lands were edited by C. J. Tornberg
(Upsala, 1840), and the parts treating of the Banu-1 Ahmar kings
of Granada were translated into French by M. Gaudefroy-Demom-
bynes in the Journal asiatique, ser. 9, vol. xiii. The Autobiography
of Ibn Khaldun was translated into French by de Slane in the
Journal asiatique, ser. 4, vol. iii. For an English appreciation of the
philosophical spirit of Ibn Khaldun see R. Flint's History of the
Philosophy of History (Edinburgh, 1893), pp. 157-170.
(E. H. P.;G. W. T.)
IBN KHALLIKAN [Abu-1 'Abbas Ahmad ibn Khallikan]
(1211-1282), Arabian biographer, was born at Arbela, the son
of a professor reputed to be ascended from the Barmecides of
the court of Harun al-Rashid. When eighteen he went to Aleppo,
where he studied for six years, then to Damascus, and in 1238
to Alexandria and Cairo. In 1252 he married and became
chief cadi of Syria in Damascus in 1261. Having held this office
for ten years, he was professor in Cairo until 1278, when he again
took office in Damascus for three years. In 1281 he accepted
a professorship in the same city, but died in the following year.
His great work is the Kitab Wafayat ul-A'yan," The Obituaries
of Eminent Men." It contains in alphabetical order the lives of the
most celebrated persons of Moslem history and literature, except
those of Mahomet, the four caliphs and the companions of Mahomet
and their followers (the Tabiun). The work is anecdotal and con-
tains many brief extracts from the poetry of the writers. It was
published by F. Wustenfeld (Gottingen, 1835-1843), in part by McG.
de Slane (Paris, 1838-1842), and also in Cairo (1859 and 1882).
An English translation by McG. de Slane was published for the
Oriental Translation Fund in 4 vols. (London, 1842-1871). Thirteen
extra biographies from a manuscript in Amsterdam were published
by Pijnappel (Amsterdam, 1845). A Persian translation exists in
manuscript, and various extracts from the work are known. Several
supplements to the book have been written, the best known being
that of Mahommed ibn Shakir (d. 1362), published at Cairo 1882.
A collection of poems by Ibn Khallikan is also extant. (G. W. T.)
IBN QUTAIBA, or KOTAIBA [Abu Mahommed ibn Muslim ibn
Qutaiba] (828-889), Arabian writer, was born at Bagdad or
IBN SA'D— IBRAHIM PASHA
223
Kufa, and was of Iranian descent, his father belonging to Merv.
Having studied tradition and philology he became cadi in
Dinawar and afterwards teacher in Bagdad, where he died.
He was the first representative of the eclectic school of Bagdad
philologists that succeeded the schools of Kufa and Basra (see
ARABIA: Literature, section " Grammar "). Although engaged
also in theological polemic (cf. I. Goldziher, Muhammedanische
Studien, ii. 136, Halle, 1890), his chief works were directed
to the training of the ideal secretary. Of these five may be said
to form a series. The Adah ul-Katib (" Training of the Secretary ")
contains instruction in writing and is a compendium of Arabic
style. It has been edited by Max Griinert (Leiden, 1900).
The Kitab ush-Sharab is still in manuscript. The Kitab ul-
Maarif has been edited by F. Wustenfeld as the Handbuch der
Geschichte 1 (Gottingen, 1850); the . Kitab ush-Shir wash-
Shu arai (" Book of Poetry and Poets ") edited by M. J. de Goeje
(Leiden, I9O4).2 The fifth and most important is the 'Uyun ul-
Akhbar, which deals in ten books with lordship, war, nobility,
character, science and eloquence, asceticism, friendship, requests,
foods and women, with many illustrations from history, poetry
and proverb (ed. C. Brockelmann, Leiden, 1900 sqq.).
For other works (which were much quoted by later Arabian
writers) see C. Brockelmann, Gesch. der arabischen Literatur, vol. i.
(Weimar, 1898), pp. 120-122. (G. W. T.)
IBN §A'D [Abu 'Abdallah Mahommed ibn Sa'd ibn Mani'
uz-Zuhri, often called Katib ul-Waqidi (" secretary of Waqidi ")
of Basra] (d. 845), Arabian biographer, received his training
in tradition from Waqidi and other celebrated teachers. He
lived for the most part in Bagdad, and had the reputation of
being both trustworthy and accurate in his writings, which,
in consequence, were much used by later writers. His work,
the Kitab ul-Tabaqat ul-Kablr (15 vols.) contains the lives of
Mahomet, his Companions and Helpers (including those who
fought at Badr as a special class) and of the following generation
(the Followers) who received their traditions from the personal
friends of the Prophet.
This work has been edited under the superintendence of E.
Sachau (Leiden, 1904 sqq.) ; cf. O. Loth, Das Classenbuch des Ibn
Sa'd (Leipzig, 1869). (G. W. T.)
IBN TIBBON, a family of Jewish translators, who flourished
in Provence in the I2th and I3th centuries. They all made
original contributions to philosophical and scientific literature,
but their permanent fame is based on their translations. Between
them they rendered into Hebrew all the chief Jewish writings
of the middle ages. These Hebrew translations were, in their
turn, rendered into Latin (by Buxtorf and others) and in this
form the works of Jewish authors found their way into the learned
circles of Europe. The chief members of the Ibn Tibbon family
were (i) JUDAH BEN SAUL (1120-1190), who was born in Spain
but settled in Lunel. He translated the works of Bahya, Halevi,
Saadiah and the grammatical treatises of Janah. (2) His son,
SAMUEL (1150-1230), translated the Guide of the Perplexed
by Maimonides. He justly termed his father " the father of
the Translators," but Samuel's own method surpassed his
father's in lucidity and fidelity to the original. (3) Son of
Samuel, MOSES (died 1283). He translated into Hebrew a
large number of Arabic books (including the Arabic form of
Euclid). The Ibn Tibbon family thus rendered conspicuous
services to European culture, and did much to further among
Jews who did not understand Arabic the study of science and
philosophy. (I. A.)
IBN TUFAIL, or TOFAIL [Abu Bakr Mahommed ibn 'Abd-ul-
Malik ibn Tufail ul-Qaisi] (d. 1185), Moslem philosopher, was
born at Guadix near Granada. There he received a good training
in philosophy and medicine, and is said to have been a pupil of
Avempace (?.!>.). He became secretary to the governor of
Granada, and later physician and vizier to the Mohad caliph,
Abu Ya'qub Yusuf. He died at Morocco.
1 Summary in E. G. Browne, A Literary History of Persia (London,
1902), pp. 387 f.
The preface was translated into German by Theodor Noldeke
in his Beitrdge (Hanover, 1864), pp. 1-51.
His chief work is a philosophical romance, in which he describes
the awakening and growth of intellect in a child removed from the
influences of ordinary life. Its Arabic title is Risalat Hayy ibn Yaqzan;
it was edited by E. Pococke as Philosophus autpdidactus (Oxford,
1671 ; 2nd ed., 1700), and with a French translation by L. Gauthier
(Algiers, 1900). An English translation by S. Ockley was published
in 1708 and has been reprinted since. A Spanish translation by
F. Pons Boigues was published at Saragossa (1900). Another work
of Ibn Tufail, the Kitab Asrar ul- Ifikma ul-mashraqlyya ("Secrets
of Eastern Science,"), was published at Bulaq (1882); cf. S. Munk,
Melanges (1859), pp. 410 sqq., and T. J. de Boer, Geschichte der Philo-
sophieimlslam (Stuttgart, i9Oi),pp. i6osqq. (also an English transla-
tion). (G. W. T.)
IBN USAIBI'A [Muwaffaquddin Abu-l-'Abbas Ahmad ibn
ul-Qasim ibn Abi Usaibi'a] (1203-1270), Arabian physician, was
born at Damascus, the son of an oculist, and studied medicine
at Damascus and Cairo. In 1236 he was appointed by Saladin
physician to a new hospital in Cairo, but surrendered the ap-
pointment the following year to take up a post given him by
the amir of Damascus in Salkhad near that city. There he
lived and died. He wrote 'Uyun ul-Anba'fi fabaqat ul-Atibba'
or "Lives of the Physicians," which in its first edition (1245-1246)
was dedicated to the vizier of Damascus. This he enlarged,
though it is uncertain whether the new edition was made public
in the lifetime of the author.
Edition by A. Miiller (Konigsberg, 1884). (G. W. T.)
IBO, a district of British West Africa, on the lower Niger
immediately above the delta, and mainly on the eastern bank
of the river. The chief town, frequently called by the same
name (more correctly Abo or Aboh), lies on a creek which falls
into the main stream about 150 m. from its mouth and contains
from 6000 to 8000 inhabitants. The Ibo are a strong well-built
Negro race. Their women are distinguished by their embon-
point. The language of the Ibo is one of the most widely spoken
on the lower Niger. The Rev. J. F. Schon began its reduction
in 1841, and in 1861 he published a grammar (Oku Ibo Gram-
matical Elements, London, Church Miss. Soc.). (See NIGERIA.)
IBRAHIM AL-MAUSILI (742-804), Arabian singer, was born
of Persian parents settled in Kufa. In his early years his parents
died and he was trained by an uncle. Singing, not study,
attracted him, and at the age of twenty-three he fled to Mosul,
where he joined a band of wild youths. After a year he went to
Rai (Rei, Rhagae), where he met an ambassador of the caliph
Mansur, who enabled him to come to Basra and take singing
lessons. His fame as a singer spread, and the caliph Mahdi
brought him to the court. There he remained a favourite under
Hadl, while Harun al-Rashid kept him always with him until
his death, when he ordered his son (Ma'mun) to say the prayer
over his corpse. Ibrahim, as might be expected, was no strict
Moslem. Two or three times he was knouted and imprisoned
for excess in wine-drinking, but was always taken into favour
again. His powers of song were far beyond anything else known
at the time. Two of his pupils, his son Ishaq and Muhariq,
attained celebrity after him.
See the Preface to W. Ahlwardt's Abu Nowas (Greifswald, 1861),
pp. 13-18, and the many stories of his life in the Kitab ul-Aghani,
v. 2-49. (G. W. T.)
IBRAHIM PASHA (1789-1848), Egyptian general, is some-
times spoken of as the adopted son of Mehemet Ali, pasha of
Egypt. He is also and more commonly called his son. He was
born in his father's native town, Kavala in Thrace. During
his father's struggle to establish himself in Egypt, Ibrahim,
then sixteen years of age, was sent as a hostage to the
Ottoman capitan pasha (admiral), but when Mehemet Ali was
recognized as pasha, and had defeated the English expedition
under General A. M. Fraser, he was allowed to return to Egypt.
When Mehemet Ali went to Arabia to prosecute the war against
the Wahhabis in 1813, Ibrahim was left in command in Upper
Egypt. He continued the war with the broken power of the
Mamelukes, whom he suppressed. In 1816 he succeeded his
brother Tusun in command of the Egyptian forces in Arabia.
Mehemet Ali had already begun to introduce European discipline
into his army, and Ibrahim had probably received some training,
but his first campaign was conducted more in the old Asiatic
224
IBSEN
style than his later operations. The campaign lasted two years,
and terminated in the destruction of the Wahhabis as a political
power. Ibrahim landed at Yembo, the port of Medina, on the
30th of September 1816. The holy cities had been recovered
from the Wahhabis, and Ibrahim's task was to follow them into
the desert of Nejd and destroy their fortresses. Such training
as the Egyptian troops had received, and their artillery, gave
them a marked superiority in the open field. But the difficulty
of crossing- the desert to the Wahhabi stronghold of Deraiya,
some 400 m. east of Medina, and the courage of their opponents,
made the conquest a very arduous one. Ibrahim displayed
great energy and tenacity, sharing all the hardships of his army,
and never allowing himself to be discouraged by failure. By the
end of September 1818 he had forced the Wahhabi leader to
surrender, and had taken Deraiya, which he ruined. On the
nth of December 1819 he made a triumphal entry into Cairo.
After his return he gave effective support to the Frenchman,
Colonel Seve (Suleiman Pasha), who was employed to drill
the army on the European model. Ibrahim set an example
by submitting to be drilled as a recruit. When in 1824 Mehemet
Ali was appointed governor of the Morea by the sultan, who
desired his help against the insurgent Greeks, he sent Ibrahim
with a squadron and an army of 17,000 men. The expedition
sailed on the loth of July 1824, but was for some months unable
to do more than come and go between Rhodes and Crete. The
fear of the Greek fire ships stopped his way to the Morea. When
the Greek sailors mutinied from want of pay, he was able to
land at Modon on the 26th of February 1825. He remained
in the Morea till the capitulation of the ist of October 1828
was forced on him by the intervention of the Western powers.
Ibrahim's operations in the Morea were energetic and ferocious.
He easily defeated the Greeks in the open field, and though the
siege of Missolonghi proved costly to his own troops and to the
Turks who operated with him, he brought it to a successful
termination on the 24th of April 1826. The Greek guerrilla
bands harassed his army, and in revenge he desolated the country
and sent thousands of the inhabitants into slavery in Egypt.
These measures of repression aroused great indignation in Europe,
and led first to the intervention of the English, French and
Russian squadrons (see NAVARINO, BATTLE OF), and then to
the landing of a French expeditionary force. By the terms of
the capitulation of the ist of October 1828, Ibrahim evacuated
the country. It is fairly certain that the Turkish government,
jealous of his power, had laid a plot to prevent him and his
troops from returning to Egypt. English officers who saw him
at Navarino describe him as short, grossly fat and deeply marked
with smallpox. His "obesity did not cause any abatement of
activity when next he took the field. In 1831, his father's
quarrel with the Porte having become flagrant, Ibrahim was
sent to conquer Syria. He carried out his task with truly remark-
able energy. He took Acre after a severe siege on the 27th of
May 1832, occupied Damascus, defeated a Turkish army at
Horns on the 8th of July, defeated another Turkish army at
Beilan on the 2gth of July, invaded Asia Minor, and finally
routed the grand vizier at Konia on the 2 ist of December. The
convention of Kutaiah on the 6th of May left Syria for a time
in the hands of Mehemet Ali. Ibrahim was undoubtedly helped
by Colonel Seve and the European officers in his army, but his
intelligent docility to their advice, as well as his personal hardi-
hood and energy, compare most favourably with the sloth,
ignorance and arrogant conceit of the Turkish generals opposed
to him. He is entitled to full credit for the diplomatic judgment
and tact he showed in securing the support of .the inhabitants,
whom he protected and whose rivalries he utilized. After the
campaign of 1832 and 1833 Ibrahim remained as governor in
Syria. He might perhaps have administered successfully, but
the exactions he was compelled to enforce by his father soon
ruined the popularity of his government and provoked revolts. In
1838 the Porte felt strong enough to renew the struggle, and war
broke out once more. Ibrahim won his last victory for his
father at Nezib on the 24th of June 1839. But Great Britain
and Austria intervened to preserve the integrity of Turkey.
Their squadrons cut his communications by sea with Egypt, a
general revolt isolated him in Syria, and he was finally compelled
to evacuate the country in February 1841. Ibrahim spent the
rest of his life in peace, but his health was ruined. In 1846 he
paid a visit to western Europe, where he was received with
some respect and a great deal of curiosity. When his father
became imbecile in 1848 he held the regency till his own death
on the loth of November 1848.
See Edouard Gouin, L'&gypte au XIX' siMe (Paris, 1847); Aim6
Vingtrinier, Soliman-Pasha (Colonel Seve) (Paris, 1886). A great
deal of unpublished material of the highest interest with regard to
Ibrahim's personality and his system in Syria is preserved in the
British Foreign Office archives; for references to these see Cambridge
Mod. Hist. x. 852, bibliography to chap. xvii.
IBSEN, HENRIK (1828-1906), Norwegian dramatic and
lyric poet, eldest son of Knud Henriksen Ibsen, a merchant,
and of his wife Marichen Cornelia Altenburg, was born at Skien
on the 2oth of March 1828. For five generations the family had
consisted on the father's side of a blending of the Danish, German
and Scottish races, with no intermixture of pure Norwegian.
In 1836 Knud Ibsen became insolvent, and the family withdrew,
in great poverty, to a cottage in the outskirts of the town. After
brief schooling at Skien, Ibsen was, towards the close of 1843,
apprenticed to an apothecary in Grimstad; here he remained
through seven dreary years of drudgery, which set their mark
upon his spirit. In 1847, in his nineteenth year, he began to
write poetry. He made a gloomy and almost sinister impression
upon persons who met him at this time, and one of his associates
of those days has recorded that Ibsen " walked about Grimstad
like a mystery sealed with seven seals." He had continued, by"
assiduous reading, his self -education, and in 1850 he contrived
to come up as a student to Christiania. In the same year he
published his first work, the blank-verse tragedy of Catilina,
under the pseudonym Brynjolf Bjarme. A second drama,
The Viking's Barrow, was acted (but not printed) a few months
later; Ibsen was at this time entirely under the influence of the
Danish poet Oehlenschlager. During the next year or two he
made a very precarious livelihood in Christiania as a journalist,
but in November 1851 he had the good fortune to be appointed
" stage-poet " at the little theatre of Bergen, with a small but
regular salary. He was practically manager at this house, and
he also received a travelling stipend. In 1852, therefore, he
went for five months to study the stage, to Copenhagen and to
D resden. Among many dramatic experiments which Ibsen made
in Bergen, the most considerable and most satisfactory is the
saga-drama of Mistress Inger at Ostraat, which was produced in
1855; and printed at Christiania in 1857; here are already
perceptible some qualities of his mature character. Much less
significant, although at the time more successful, is The Feast at
Solhaug, a tragedy produced in Bergen in 1856; here for a
moment Ibsen abandoned his own nascent manner for an
imitation of the popular romantic dramatist of Denmark, Henrik
Hertz. It is noticeable that Ibsen, by far the most original of
modern writers for the stage, was remarkably slow in discovering
the true bent of his genius. His next dramatic work was the
romantic tragedy of Olaf Liljekrans, performed in 1857, but
unprinted until 1898. This was the last play Ibsen wrote in
Bergen. In the summer of the former year his five years'
appointment came to an end, and he returned to Christiania.
Almost immediately he began the composition of a work which
showed an extraordinary advance on all that he had written
before, the beautiful saga-drama of The Warriors in Helgeland,
in which he threw off completely the influence of the Danish
romantic tragedians, and took his material directly from the
ancient Icelandic sources. This play marks an epoch in the
development of Norwegian literature. It was received by the
managers, both in Christiania and Copenhagen, with con-
temptuous disapproval, and in the autumn of 1857 Ibsen could
not contrive to produce it even at the new theatre of which he
was now the manager. The Warriors was printed at Christiania
in 1858, but was not acted anywhere until 1861. During these
years Ibsen suffered many reverses and humiliations, but he
persisted in his own line in art. Some of his finest short poems,
IBSEN
225
among others the admirable seafaring romance, Terje Vigen,
belong to the year 1860. The annoyances which Ibsen suffered,
and the retrograde and ignorant conditions which he felt around
him in Norway, developed the ironic qualities in his genius, and
he became an acid satirist. The brilliant rhymed drama, Love's
Comedy, a masterpiece of lyric wit and incisive vivacity, was
published in 1862. This was a protest against the convention-
ality which deadens the beauty of all the formal relations between
men and women, and against the pettiness, the publicity, and
the prosiness of betrothed and married life among the middle
classes in Norway; it showed how society murders the poetry
of love. For some time past Ibsen had been meditating another
saga-drama in prose, and in 1864 this appeared, Kongsemnerne
(The Pretenders). These works, however, now so universally
admired, contained an element of strangeness which was not
welcome when they were new. Ibsen's position in Christiania
grew more and more disagreeable, and he had positive misfortunes
which added to his embarrassment. In 1862 his theatre became
bankrupt, and he was glad to accept the poorly-paid post of
" aesthetic adviser " at the other house. An attempt to obtain
a poet's pension (digtergage) was unsuccessful; the Storthing,
which had just voted one to Bjb'rnson, refused to do the same for
Ibsen. His cup was full of disillusion and bitterness, and in
April 1864 he started, by Berlin and Trieste, ultimately to settle
in Rome. His anger and scorn gave point to the satirical arrows
which he shot back to his thankless fatherland from Italy in the
splendid poem of Brand, published in Copenhagen in 1866, a
fierce attack on the Laodicean state of religious and moral
sentiment in the Norway of that day; the central figure, the
stern priest Brand, who attempts to live like Christ and is
snubbed and hounded away by his latitudinarian companions,
is one of the finest conceptions of a modern poet. Ibsen had
scarcely closed Brand before he started a third lyrico-dramatic
satire, Peer Gynt (1867), which remains, in a technical sense,
the most highly finished of all his metrical works. In Brand
the hero had denounced certain weaknesses which Ibsen saw in
the Norwegian character, but these and other faults are
personified in the hero of Peer Gynt; or rather, in this figure the
poet pictured, in a type, the Norwegian nation in all the egotism,
vacillation, and lukewarmness which he believed to be character-
istic of it. Ibsen, however, acted better than he preached, and
he soon forgot his abstraction in the portrait of Peer Gynt as
a human individual. In this magnificent work modern Nor-
wegian literature first rises to a level with the finest European
poetry of the century. In 1869 Ibsen wrote the earliest of his
prose dramas, the political comedy, The Young Men's League,
in which for the first time he exercised his extraordinary gift
for perfectly natural and yet pregnant dialogue. Ibsen was in
Egypt, in October 1869, when his comedy was put on the stage
in Christiania, amid violent expressions of hostility; on hearing
the news, he wrote his brilliant little poem of defiance, called
At Port Said. By this time, however, he had become a successful
author; Brand sold largely, and has continued to be the most
popular of Ibsen's writings. In 1866, moreover, the Storthing
had been persuaded to vote him a " poet's pension," and there
was now an end of Ibsen's long struggle with poverty. In 1868
he left Rome, and settled in Dresden until 1874, when he returned
to Norway. But after a short visit he went back to Germany,
and lived first at Dresden, afterwards at Munich, and did not
finally settle in Christiania until 1891. His shorter lyrical poems
were collected in 1871, and in that year his name and certain of
his writings were for the first time mentioned to the English
public. At this time he was revising his old works, which were
out of print, and which he would not resign again to the reading
world until he had subjected them to what in some instances
(for example, Mistress Inger at Ostraat) amounted to practical
recomposition. In 1873 he published a double drama, each part
of which was of unusual bulk, the whole forming the tragedy of
Emperor and Galilean; this, Ibsen's latest historical play, has
for subject the unsuccessful struggle of Julian the Apostate to
hold the world against the rising tide of Christianity. The work
is of an experimental kind, and takes its place between the early
poetry and the later prose of the author. Compared with the
series of plays which Ibsen had already inaugurated with The
Young Men's League, Emperor and Galilean preserves a colour
of idealism and even of mysticism which was for many years to
be absent from Ibsen's writings, but to reappear in his old age
with The Master-builder. There is some foundation for the
charge that Ibsen has made his romantic Greek emperor need-
lessly squalid, and that he has robbed him, at last, too roughly
of all that made him a sympathetic exponent of Hellenism.
Ibsen was now greatly occupied by the political spectacle of
Germany at war first in Denmark, then in France, and he believed
that all things were conspiring to start a new epoch of individu-
alism. He was therefore deeply disgusted by the Paris com-
mune, and disappointed by the conservative reaction which
succeeded it. This disillusion in political matters had a very
direct influence upon Ibsen's literary work. It persuaded
him that nothing could be expected in the way of reform
from democracies, from large blind masses of men moved
capriciously in any direction, but that the sole hope for the
future must lie in the study of personality, in the development
of individual character. He set himself to diagnose the conditions
of society, which he had convinced himself lay sick unto death.
Hitherto Ibsen had usually employed rhymed verse for his
dramatic compositions, or, in the case of his saga-plays, a studied
and artificial prose. Now, in spite of the surprising achievements
of his poetry, he determined to abandon versification, and to
write only in the language of everyday conversation. In the first
drama of this his new period, The Pillars of Society (1877), he
dealt with the problem of hypocrisy in a small commercial centre
of industry, and he drew in the Bernick family a marvellous
picture of social egotism in a prosperous seaport town. There
was a certain similarity between this piece and A Doll's House
(1879), although the latter was much the more successful in
awakening curiosity. Indeed, no production of Ibsen's has been
so widely discussed as this, which is nevertheless not the most
coherently conceived of his plays. Here also social hypocrisy,
was the object of the playwright's satire, but this time mainly
in relation to marriage. In A Doll's House Ibsen first developed
his views with regard to the individualism of woman. In his
previous writings he had depicted woman as a devoted and
willing sacrifice to man; here he begins to explain that she
has no less a duty to herself, and must keep alive her own con-
ception of honour and of responsibility. The conclusion of A
Doll's House was violently and continuously discussed through
the length and breadth of Europe, and to the situation of Nora
Helmer is probably due more than to anything else the long
tradition that Ibsen is " immoral." He braved convention still
more audaciously in Ghosts (1881), perhaps the most powerful
of the series of plays in which Ibsen diagnoses the diseases
of modern society. It was received in Norway with a tumult
of ill-will, and the author was attacked no less venomously than
he had been twenty years before. Ibsen was astonished and
indignant at the reception given to Ghosts, and at the insolent
indifferentism of the majority to all ideas of social reform.
He wrote, more as a pamphlet than as a play, what is yet one of
the most effective of his comedies, An Enemy of the People
(1882). Dr Stockmann, the hero of that piece, discovers that
the drainage system of the bathing-station on which the little
town depends is faulty, and the water impure and dangerous.
He supposes that the corporation will be grateful to have these
deficiencies pointed out; on the contrary, they hound him out
of their midst as an " enemy of the people." In this play occurs
Ibsen's famous and typical saying, " a minority may be right —
a majority is always wrong." This polemical comedy seemed
at first to be somewhat weakened by the personal indignation
which runs through it, but it has held the stage. Ibsen's next
drama, The Wild Duck (1884), was written in singular contrast
with the zest and fire which had inspired An Enemy of the
People. Here he is squalid and pessimistic to a degree elsewhere
unparalleled in his writings; it is not quite certain that he is
not here guilty of a touch of parody of himself. The main
figure of the play is an unhealthy, unlucky enthusiast, who goes
xiv. 8
226
IBYCUS— ICE
about making hopeless mischief by exposing weak places in
the sordid subterfuges of others. This drama contains a figure,
Hjalmar Ekdal, who claims the bad pre-eminence of being the
meanest scoundrel in all drama. The Wild Duck is the darkest,
the least relieved, of Ibsen's studies of social life, and his object
in composing it is not obvious. With Rosmersholm (1886) he
rose to the height of his genius again; this is a mournful, but
neither a pessimistic nor a cynical play. The fates which hang
round the contrasted lives of Rosmer and Rebecca, the weak-
willed scrupulous man and the strong-willed unshrinking woman,
the old culture and the new, the sickly conscience and the robust
one, create a splendid dramatic antithesis. Ibsen then began
to compose a series pf dramas, of a more and more symbolical
and poetic character; the earliest of these was the mystical
The Lady from the Sea (1888). At Christmas 1890 he brought
out Hedda Gabler; two years later The Master-builder (Bygmester
Solnaes), in which many critics see the highest attainment of
his genius; at the close of 1894 Little Eyolf; in 1896 John
Gabriel Borkman; and in 1900 When We Dead Awaken. On
the occasion of his seventieth birthday (1898) Ibsen was the
recipient of the highest honours from his own country and of
congratulations and gifts from all parts of the world. A colossal
bronze statue of him was erected outside the new National
Theatre, Christiania, in September 1899. In 1901 his health
began to decline, and he was ordered by the physician to abandon
every species of mental effort. The evil advanced, and he
became unconscious of the passage of events. After lingering
in this sad condition he died, without suffering, on the 23rd of
May 1906, and was accorded a public funeral, with the highest
national honours.
No recent writer belonging to the smaller countries of Europe
has had so widely spread a fame as that of Ibsen, and although
the value of his dramatic work is still contested, it has received
the compliment of vivacious discussion in every part of the
world. There would, perhaps, have been less violence in this
discussion if it had been perceived that the author does not
pose as a moral teacher, but as an imaginative investigator.
He often and with much heat insisted that he was not called
upon as a poet to suggest a remedy for the diseases of society,
but to diagnose them. In this he was diametrically opposed
to Tolstoi, who admitted that he wrote his books for the healing
of the nations. If the subjects which Ibsen treats, or some of
them, are open to controversy, we are at least on firm ground
in doing homage to the splendour of his art as a playwright.
He reintroduced into modern dramatic literature something
of the velocity and inevitability of Greek tragic intrigue. It is
very rarely that any technical fault can be found with the archi-
tecture of his plots, and his dialogue is the most lifelike that the
modern stage has seen. His long apprenticeship to the theatre
was of immense service to him in this respect. In every country,
though least perhaps in England, the influence of Ibsen has been
marked in the theatrical productions of the younger school.
Even in England, on the rare occasions when his dramas are
acted, they awaken great interest among intelligent playgoers.
The editions of Ibsen's works are numerous, but the final text is
included in the Samlede Vaerker, with a bibliography by J. B.
Halvorsen, published in Copenhagen, in 10 vols. (1898-1902). They
have been translated into the principal European languages, and
into Japanese. The study of Ibsen in English was begun by Mr
Gosse in 1872, and continued by Mr William Archer, whose version of
Ibsen's prose dramas appeared in 5 vols. (1890, 1891; new and
revised edition, 1906). Other translators have been Mr C. Herford,
Mr R. A. Streatfield, Miss Frances Lord and Mr Adie. His Corre-
spondence was edited, in 2 vols., under the supervision of his son,
Sigurd Ibsen, in 1904 (Eng. trans., 1905). Critical studies on the
writings and position of Ibsen are innumerable, and only those
which were influential in guiding opinion, during the early part
of his career, in the various countries, can be mentioned here:
Georg Brandes Aesthetiske Studier (Copenhagen, 1868) ; Les Quesnel,
Poesie scandinave (Paris 1874); Valfrid Valsenius, Henrik Ibsen
(Helsingfors, 1879); Edmund Gosse, Studies in Northern Literature
(London, 1879); L. Passarge, Henrik Ibsen (Leipzig, 1883); G.
Brandes, Bjornson och Ibsen (Stockholm, 1882); Henrik Jaeger,.
Henrik Ibsen 1828-1888 (Copenhagen, 1888; Eng. trans., 1890);
T. Terwey, Henrik Ibsen (Amsterdam, 1882); G. Bernard Shaw,
The Quintessence of Ibsen (London, 1892). In France Count Moritz
Prozor carried on an ardent propaganda in favour of Ibsen from
1885, and Jules Lemaitre's articles in his Les Contemporains and
Impressions de thedtre did much to encourage discussion. W. Archer
forwarded the cause in England from 1878 onwards. In Germany
Ibsen began to be known in 1866, when John Grieg, P. F. Siebold
and Adolf Strodtmann successively drew attention to his early
dramas; but his real popularity among the Germans dates from
1880. (E. G.)
IBYCUS, of RhegiunTin Italy, Greek lyric poet, contemporary
of Anacreon, flourished in the 6th century B.C. Notwithstanding
his good position at home, he lived a wandering life, and spent
a considerable time at the court of Polycrates, tyrant of Samos.
The story of his death is thus related: While in the neighbour-
hood of Corinth, the poet was mortally wounded by robbers.
As he lay dying he saw a flock of cranes flying overhead, and
called upon them to avenge his death. The murderers betook
themselves to Corinth, and soon after, while sitting in the theatre,
saw the cranes hovering above. One of them, either in alarm or
jest, ejaculated, " Behold the avengers of Ibycus," and thus
gave the clue to the detection of the crime (Plutarch, De Garru-
litate, xiv.). The phrase, " the cranes of Ibycus," passed
into a proverb among the Greeks for the discovery of crime
through divine intervention. ' According to Suidas, Ibycus
wrote seven books of lyrics, to some extent mythical and heroic,
but mainly erotic (Cicero, Tusc. Disp. iv. 33), celebrating the
charms of beautiful youths and girls. F. G. Welcker suggests
that they were sung by choruses of boys at the " beauty com-
petitions " held at Lesbos. Although the metre and dialect are
Dorian, the poems breathe the spirit of Aeolian melic poetry.
The best editions of the fragments are by F. W. Schneidewin
(1833) and Bergk, Poetae lyrici Craeci.
ICA (YcA, or ECCA), a city of southern Peru and the capital
of a department of the same name, 170 m. S.S.E. of Lima, and
46 m. by rail S.E. of Pisco; its port on the Pacific coast. Pop.
(1906, official estimate) 6000. It lies in a valley of the foothills
of the Cordillera Occidental, which is watered by the Rio de
lea, is made highly fertile by irrigation, and is filled with vine-
yards and cotton fields; between this valley and the coast is
a desert. The original town was founded in 1563, 4 m.
E. of its present site, but it was destroyed by the earthquake
of 1571, and again by that of 1664, after which the present town
was laid out near the ruins. In 1882 a Chilean marauding
expedition inflicted great damage to private property in the
town and vicinity. These repeated disasters give the place a
partially ruined appearance, but it has considerable commercial
and industrial prosperity. It has a large cotton factory and
there are some smaller industries. Wine-making is one of the
principal industries of the valley, and much brandy, called
pisco, is exported from Pisco. A new industry is that of drying
the fruits for which this region is celebrated. lea is the seat of
a national college.
The department of ICA lies between the Western Cordillera
and the Pacific coast, and extends from the department of Lima
S.E. to that of Arequipa. Pop. (1906, official estimate) 68,220;
area 8721 sq. m. lea is in the rainless region of Peru, and the
greater part of its surface is barren. It is crossed by the rivers
Pisco, lea and Grande, whose tributaries drain the western
slope of the Cordillera, and whose valleys are fertile and highly
cultivated. The valley of the Nasca, a tributary of the Grande,
is celebrated for an extensive irrigating system constructed by
the natives before the discovery of America. The principal
products of the department are cotton, grapes, wine, spirits,
sugar and fruit. These are two good ports on the northern
coast, Tambo de Mora and Pisco, the latter being connected
with the capital by a railway across the desert, 46 m. long.
ICE (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Eis),
the solid crystalline form which water assumes when exposed
to a sufficiently low temperature. It is a colourless crystalline
substance, assuming forms belonging to the hexagonal system,
and distinguished by a well-marked habit of twinning, which
occasions the beautiful " ice flowers " displayed by hoar-frost.
It is frequently precipitated as hoar-frost, snow or hail; and
in the glaciers and snows of lofty mountain systems or of regions
ICEBERG— ICELAND
227
Density of ice at
water at
of high latitude it exists on a gigantic scale, being especially
characteristic of the seas and lands around the poles. In various
regions, especially in France and Italy, great quantities of ice
form in caves, which, in virtue of their depth below the earth's
surface, their height above the sea-level, or their exposure to
suitable winds, or to two or more of these conditions in com-
bination, are unaffected by ordinary climatic changes, so that
the mean annual temperature is sufficiently low to ensure the
permanency of the ice. The temperature at which water
freezes, and also at which ice melts, is so readily determined
that it is employed as one of the standard temperatures in the
graduation of ordinary thermometer scales, this temperature
being the zero of the Centigrade and Reaumur scales, and 32°
of the Fahrenheit (see THERMOMETRY) . In the act of freezing,
water, though its temperature remains unchanged, undergoes
a remarkable expansion so that ice at o° C. is less dense than
water — a fact demonstrated by its power of floating. The
sub-aqueous retention of " ground-ice " or " anchor-ice,"
which forms in certain circumstances at the bottom of streams
or pools in which there are many eddies, is due to the cohesion
between it and the stones or rocks which compose the bed of
the streams or pools. As water expands on freezing, so con-
versely ice contracts on melting; and the ice-cold water thus
formed continues to contract when heated until it has reached
its point of maximum density, the temperature at which this
occurs being about 39° Fahr. or 4° C. Above this point water
continuously expands, and at no temperature is it less dense
than ice as is shown by the following table : —
o°C.= -9175
o°C. = -99988
4°C. = 1-00000
„ ,, io°C. = -99976
ioo°C.= -95866
Under the influence of heat, ice itself behaves as most solids
do, contracting when cooled, expanding when heated. Accord-
ing to Pliicker, the coefficient of cubical dilatation at moderately
low temperatures is 0-0001585. From a series of elaborate
experiments, Person deduced 0-505 as the specific heat of ice,
or about half that of water.
Though no rise of temperature accompanies the melting of
ice, there is yet a definite quantity of heat absorbed, namely,
about 80 calories per gram; this is called the latent heat of
fusion of water (see FUSION). The same amount of heat is
evolved when water becomes ice. That ice can be melted by
increase of pressure was first pointed out by James Thomson
in 1849. He showed that, since water expands on freezing,
the laws of thermodynamics require that its freezing-point
must be lowered by increase of pressure; and he calculated
that for every additional atmosphere of pressure the freezing-
point of water was lowered by 0-0075°. This result was verified
by his brother, Sir William Thomson (Lord Kelvin), in 1850.
The Thomsons and H. L. F. Helmholtz successfully applied
this behaviour of ice under pressure to the explanation of many
properties of the substance. When two blocks of ice at o° C.
are pressed together or even simply laid in contact, they gradually
unite along their touching surfaces till they form one block.
This " regelation " is due to the increased pressure at the various
points of contact causing the ice there to melt and cool. The
water so formed tends to escape, thus relieving the pressure
for an instant, refreezing and returning to the original tempera-
ture. This succession of melting and freezing, with their accom-
panying thermal effects, goes on until the two blocks are cemented
into one.
Ice forms over fresh water if the temperature of the air has
been for a sufficient time at or below the freezing-point; but
not until the whole mass of water has been cooled down to its
point of maximum density, so that the subsequent cooling
of the surface can give rise to no convection currents, is freezing
possible. Sea-water, in the most favourable circumstances,
does not freeze till its temperature is reduced to about -2° C.;
and the ice, when formed, is found to have rejected four-fifths
of the salt which was originally present. In the upper provinces
of India water is made to freeze during cold clear nights by
leaving it overnight in porous vessels, or in bottles which are
enwrapped in moistened cloth. The water then freezes in virtue
of the cold produced by its own evaporation or by the drying
of the moistened wrapper. In Bengal the natives resort to a
still more elaborate forcing of the conditions. Pits are dug
about 2 ft. deep and filled three-quarters full with dry straw,
on which are set flat porous pans containing the water to be
frozen. Exposed overnight to a cool dry gentle wind from the
north-west, the water evaporates at the expense of its own
heat, and the consequent cooling takes place with sufficient
rapidity to overbalance the slow influx of heat from above
through the cooled dense air or from below through the badly
conducting straw.
See WATER, and for the manufacture of ice see REFRIGERATING.
ICEBERG (from ice and Berg, Ger. for hill, mountain), a
floating mass of ice broken from the end of a glacier or from an
ice-sheet. The word is sometimes, but rarely, applied to the
arch of an Arctic glacier viewed from the sea. It is more com-
monly used to describe huge floating masses of ice that drift
from polar regions into navigable waters. They are occasionally
encountered far beyond the polar regions, rising into beautiful
forms with breakers roaring into their caves and streams of
water pouring from their pinnacles in the warmer air. When,
however, they rest in comparatively warm water, melting takes
place most rapidly at the base and they frequently overturn.
Only one-ninth of the mass of ice is seen above water. When
a glacier descends to the sea, as in Alaska, and " advances
into water, the depth of which approaches its thickness, the
ends are broken off and the detached masses float away as
icebergs. Many of the bergs are overturned, or at least tilted,
as they set sail. If this does not happen at once it is likely to
occur later as the result of the wave-cutting and melting which
disturb their equilibrium " (T. C. Chamberlin and R. D. Salisbury,
Geology: Processes and their Results, 1905). These bergs carry
a load of debris from the glacier and gradually strew their load
upon the sea floor. They do not travel far before losing all
stony and earthy debris, but glacial material found in dredgings
shows that icebergs occasionally carry their load far from land.
The structure of the iceberg varies with its origin and is always
that of the glacier or ice-sheet from which it was broken. The
breaking off of the ice-sheet from a Greenland glacier is called
locally the " calving " of the glacier^ The constantly renewed
material from which the icebergs are formed is brought down
by the motion of the glacier. The ice-sheet cracks at the end,
and masses break off, owing to the upward pressure of the water
upon the lighter ice which is pushed into it. This is accomplished
with considerable violence. The disintegration of an Arctic ice-
sheet is a simpler matter, as the ice is already floating.
ICELAND (Dan. Island), an island in the North Atlantic
Ocean, belonging to Denmark. Its extreme northerly point
is touched by the Arctic Circle; it lies between 13° 22' and 24°
35' W., and between 63° 12' and 66° 33' N., and has an area of
40,437 sq. m. Its length is 298 m. and its breadth 194 m., the
shape being a rough oval, broken at the north-west, where a
peninsula, diversified by a great number of fjords, projects
from the main portion of the island. The total length of the
coast-line is about 3730 m., of which approximately one-third
belongs to the north-western peninsula. Iceland is a plateau
or tableland, built up of volcanic rocks of older and younger
formation, and pierced on all sides by fjords and valleys. Com-
pared with the tableland, the lowlands have a relatively small
area, namely, one-fourteenth of the whole; but these lowlands
are almost the only parts of the island which are inhabited.
In consequence of the rigour of its climate, the central tableland
is absolutely uninhabitable. At the outside, not more than one-
fourth of the area of Iceland is inhabited; the rest consists of
elevated deserts, lava streams and glaciers. The north-west
peninsula is separated from the main mass of the island by the
bays Hunafloi and BreiSifjorSr, so that there are really two
tablelands, a larger and a smaller. The isthmus which connects
the two is only 4^ m. across, but has an altitude of 748 ft. The
228
ICELAND
mean elevation of the north-west peninsula is 2000 ft. The
fjords and glens which cut into it are shut in by precipitous walls
of basalt, which plainly shows that they have been formed
by erosion through the mass of the plateau. The surface of
this tableland is also bare and desolate, being covered with gravel
and fragments of rock. Here and there are large straggling
snowfields, the largest being Glamu and Drangajokull,1 on the
culminating points of the plateau. The only inhabited districts
are the shores of the fjords, where grass grows capable of support-
ing sheep; but a large proportion of the population gain their
livelihood by fishing. The other and larger tableland, which
constitutes the substantial part of Iceland, reaches its culminating
point in the south-east, in the gigantic snowfield of Vatnajokull,
which covers 3300 sq. m. The axis of highest elevation of Iceland
stretches from north-west to south-east, from the head of
HvammsfjorSr to HornafjorSr, and from this water-parting the
rivers descend on both sides. The crest of the water-parting
is crowned by a chain of snow-capped
mountains, separated by broad patches of
lower ground. They are really a chain of
minor plateaus which rise 450x3 to 6250 ft.
above sea-level and 2000 to 3000 ft. above
the tableland itself. In the extreme east is
Vatnajokull, which is separated from Tungna-
fellsjokull by Vonarskard (3300 ft.). Between
Tungnafellsjokull and Hofsjokull lies the broad-
depression of Sprengisandr (2130 ft.). Continue
ing north-west, between Hofsjokull and the
next snow-capped mountain, Langjokull, lies
Kjolur (2000 ft.); and between Langjokull
and Eiriksjokull, Flosaskard (2630 ft.). To
the north of the joklar last mentioned there
are a number of lakes, all well stocked with
fish. Numerous valleys or glens penetrate into
the tableland, especially on the north and east,
and between them long mountain spurs, sections
of the tableland which have resisted the action
of erosion, thrust themselves towards the sea.
Of these the most considerable is the mass
crowned by Myrdalsjokull, which stretches
towards the south. The interior of the table-
land consists for the most part of barren,
grassless deserts, the surface being covered
by gravel, loose fragments of rock, lava, driftsand, volcanic
ashes and glacial detritus.
Save the lower parts of the larger glens, there are no lowlands
on the north and east. The south coast is flat next the sea;
but immediately underneath Vatnajokull there is a strip of
gravel and sand, brought down and deposited by the glacial
streams. The largest low-lying plain of Iceland, lying between
Myrdalsjokull and Reykjanes, has an area of about 1530 sq. m.
In its lowest parts this plain barely keeps above sea-level,
but it rises gradually towards the interior, terminating in a
ramification of valleys. Its maximum altitude is attained
at 381 ft. near Geysir. On the west of Mount Hekla this plain
connects by a regular slope directly with the tableland, to the
great injury of its inhabited districts, which are thus exposed to
the clouds of pumice dust and driftsand that cover large areas
of the interior. Nevertheless the greater part of this lowland
plain produces good grass, and is relatively well inhabited. The
plain is drained by three rivers — Markarfijot, Thjorsa and
Oelfusa — all of large volume, and numerous smaller streams^
Towards the west there exist a number of warm springs. There
is another lowland plain around the head of Faxafl6i, nearly
400 sq. m. in extent. As a rule the surface of this second plain
is very marshy. Several dales or glens penetrate the central
tableland; the eastern part of this lowland is called Borgar-
fjorSr, the western part M£rar.
The great bays on the west of the island (Faxafl6i and BreiSi-
fjor5r),! as well as the many bays on the north, which are
1 Jokull, plural joklar, Icel. snowfield, glacier.
1 Floi, ba.y;fjorSr, fjord.
separated from one another by rocky promontories, appear to
owe their origin to subsidences of the surface; whereas the
fjords of the north-west peninsula, which make excellent harbours,
and those of the east coast seem to be the result chiefly of erosion.
Glaciers. — An area of 5170 sq. m. is covered with snowfields
and glaciers. This extraordinary development of ice and snow
is due to the raw, moist climate, the large rainfall and the low
summer temperature. The snow-line varies greatly in different
parts of the island, its range being from 1300 to 4250 ft. It is
highest on the'tableland, on the north side of Vatnajokull, and
lowest on the north-west peninsula, to the south of North Cape.
Without exception the great n6v6s of Iceland belong to the interior
tableland. They consist of slightly rounded domes or billowy
snowfields of vast thickness. In external appearance they bear
a closer resemblance to the glaciers of the Polar regions than
to those of the Alps. The largest snowfields are Vatnajokull
(3280 sq. m.), Hofsjokull (520) Langjokull (500) and Myrdals-
ICELAND
Scale 1:5.250,000
FnirlisUMilos
12
jokull (390). The glaciers which stream off from these snowfields
are often of vast extent, i.g. the largest glacier of Vatnajokull
has an area of 150 to 200 sq. m., but the greater number are
small. Altogether, more thaa 120 glaciers are known in Iceland.
It is on the south side of Vatnajokull that they descend lowest;
the lower end of Breidamerkurjokull was in the year 1894 only
30 ft. above sea-level. The glaciers of the north-west peninsula
also descend nearly to sea-level. The great number of streams
of large volume is due to the moist climate and the abundance
of glaciers, and the milky white or yellowish-brown colour of
their waters (whence the common name Hvfta, white) is due to
the glacial clays. The majority of them change their courses
very often, and vary greatly in volume; frequently they are
impetuous torrents, forming numerous waterfalls. Iceland also
possesses a great number of lakes, the largest being Thing-
vallavatn * and Thorisvatn, each about 27 sq. m. in area.
Myvatn, in the north, is well known from the natural beauty of
its surroundings. Above its surface tower a great number of
volcanoes and several craters, and its waters are alive with
water-fowl, a multitude of ducks of various species breeding
on its islands. The lakes of Iceland owe their origin to different
causes, some being due to glacial erosion, others to volcanic
subsidence. Myvatn fills a depression between lava streams,
and has a depth of not more than 8J ft. The group of lakes
called Fiskivotn (or Veidivotn), which lie in a desolate region
to the west of Vatnajokull, consist for the most part of crater
lakes. The groups of lakes which lie north-west from Langjokull
occupy basins formed between ridges of glacial gravel; and in
3 Vain, lake.
ICELAND
229
the valleys numerous lakes are found at the backs of the old
moraines.
Volcanoes. — Iceland is one of the most volcanic regions of
the earth; volcanic activity has gone on continuously from
the formation of the island in the Tertiary period down to the
present time. So far as is known, there have in historic times
been eruptions from twenty-five volcanic vents. Altogether
107 volcanoes are known to exist in Iceland, with thousands of
craters, great and small. The lava-streams which have flowed
from them since the Glacial epoch now cover an area of 4650
sq. m. They are grouped in dense masses round the volcanoes
from which they have flowed, the bulk of the lava dating from
outbreaks which occurred in prehistoric times. The largest
volume of lava which has issued at one outflow within historic
times is the stream which came from the craters of Laki at
Skapta. This belongs to the year 1783, and covers an area of
218 sq. m., and amounts to a volume represented by a cube each
of whose sides measures 75 m. The largest unbroken lava-field
in Iceland is OdaSahraun (Lava of Evil Deeds), upon the table-
land north from Vatnajokull (2000 to 4000 ft. above sea-level).
It is the accretion of countless eruptions from over twenty
volcanoes, and covers an area of 1300 sq.m. (or, including all
its ramifications and minor detached streams, 1700 sq. m.), and
its volume would fill a cube measuring 13-4 m. in every direction.
As regards their superficies, the lava-streams differ greatly.
Sometimes they are very uneven and jagged (apalhraun) , con-
sisting of blocks of lava loosely flung together in the utmost
confusion. The great lava-fields, however, are composed of
vast sheets of lava, ruptured and riven in divers ways (hellu-
hraun) . The smooth surface of the viscous billowy lava is further
diversified by long twisted " ropes," curving backwards and
forwards up and down the undulations. Moreover, there are
gigantic fissures, running for several miles, caused by subsidences
of the underlying sections. The best-known fissure of this
character is Almannagja at Thingvellir. On the occasion of
outbreaks the fine ashes are scattered over a large portion of
the island, and sometimes carried far across the Atlantic. After
the eruption of Katla in 1625 the ashes were blown as far as
Bergen in Norway, and when Askja was in eruption in 1875
a rain of ashes fell on the west coast of Norway n hours 40
minutes, and at Stockholm 15 hours, afterwards. The volcanic
ash frequently proves extremely harmful, destroying the pastures
so that the sheep and cattle die of hunger and disease. The
outbreak of Laki in 1783 occasioned the loss of 11,500 cattle,
28,000 horses and 190,500 sheep — that is to say, 53% of the
cattle in the island, 77% of the horses and 82% of the sheep.
After that the island was visited by a famine, which destroyed
9500 people, or one-fifth of the total population.
The Icelandic volcanoes may be divided into three classes:
(i) cone-shaped, like Vesuvius, built up of alternate layers
of ashes, scoriae and lava; (2) cupola-shaped, with an easy
slope and a vast crater opening at the top — these shield-shaped
cupolas are composed entirely of layers of lava, and their inclina-
tion is seldom steeper than 7°-8° ; (3) chains of craters running
close alongside a fissure in the ground. For the most part the
individual craters are low, generally not exceeding 300 to 500 ft.
These crater chains are both very common and often very long.
The chain of Laki, which was formed in 1783, extends 20 m.,
and embraces about one hundred separate craters. Sometimes,
however, the lava-streams are vomited straight out of gigantic
fissures in the earth without any crater being formed. Many
of the Icelandic volcanoes during their periods of quiescence
are covered with snow and ice. Then when an outbreak occurs
the snow and ice melt, and in that way they sometimes give
rise to serious catastrophes (jokulhlaup), through large areas
being suddenly inundated by great floods of water, which bear
masses of ice floating on their surface. Katla caused very
serious destruction in this way by converting several cultivated
districts into barren wastes. In the same way in the year
1362 Oerzfajokull, the loftiest mountain in Iceland (6424 ft.),
swept forty farms, together with their inhabitants and live
stock, bodily into the ocean. The best-known volcano is Hekla
(5108 ftf.), which was in eruption eighteen Vimes within the
historic period down to 1845. Katla during the same period
was active thirteen times down to 1860. The largest volcano
is Askja, situated in the middle of the lava-field of OdaSahraun.
Its crater measures 34 sq. m. in area. At Myvatn there are
several volcanoes, which were particularly active in the years
1724-1730. On several occasions there have been volcanic out-
breaks under the sea outside the peninsula of Reykjanes, islands
appearing and afterwards disappearing again. The crater
chain of Laki has only been in eruption once in historic times,
namely, the violent and disastrous outbreak of 1783. Iceland,
however, possesses no constantly active volcano. There are
often long intervals between the successive outbreaks, and many
of the volcanoes (and this is especially true of the chains of
craters) have only vented themselves in a solitary outburst.
Earthquakes are frequent, especially in the districts which
are peculiarly volcanic. Historical evidence goes to show
that they are closely associated with three naturally defined
regions: (i) the region between Skjalfandi and AxarfjorSr
in the north, where violent earth tremblings are extremely
common; (2) at Faxafloi, where minor vibrations are frequent;
(3) the southern lowlands, between Reykjanes and Myrdals-
jokull, have frequently been devastated by violent earthquake
shocks, with great loss of property and life, e.g. on the I4th-
i6th of August 1784, when 92 farmsteads were totally destroyed,
and 372 farmsteads and n churches were seriously damaged;
and again in August and September 1896, when another terrible
earthquake destroyed 161 farmsteads and damaged 155 others.
Hot springs are found in every part of Iceland, both singly
and in groups; they are particularly numerous in the western
portion of the southern lowlands, where amongst others is the
famous Geyser (?.».). Sulphur springs and boiling mud lakes
are also general in the volcanic districts; and in places there
are carbonic acid springs, these more especially on the peninsula
of Snsefellsnes, north of Faxafloi.
Geology. — Iceland is built up almost entirely of volcanic rocks,
none of them older, however, than the middle of the Tertiary period.
The earlier flows were probably contemporaneous with those of Green-
land, the Faeroes, the western islands of Scotland and the north-east
of Ireland. The principal varieties are basalt and palagonitic
breccias, the former covering two-thirds of the entire area, the latter
the remaining one-third. Compared with these two systems, all
other formations have an insignificant development. The palagonitic
breccias, which stretch in an irregular belt across the island, are
younger than the basalt. In the north-west, north and east the coasts
are formed of basalt, and rise in steep, gloomy walls of rock to alti-
tudes of 3000 ft. and more above sea-level. Deposits of clay, with
remains of plants of the Tertiary period, lignite and tree-trunks
pressed flat, which the Icelanders call surtarbrandur, occur in places
in the heart of the basalt formation. These fossiliferous strata are
developed in greatest thickness in the north-west peninsula. Indeed,
in some few places well-marked impressions of leaves and fruit have
been discovered, proving that in Tertiary times Iceland possessed
extensive forests, and its annual mean temperature must have been
at least 48° Fahr., whereas the present mean is 35-6°. The palagonitic
breccias, which attain their greatest development in the south of the
island and on the tableland, consist of reddish, brown or yellowish
rocks, tuffs and breccias, belonging to several different groups or
divisions, the youngest of which seems to be of a date subsequent
to the Glacial epoch. All over Iceland, in both the basalt and breccia
formations, there occur small intrusive beds and dikes of liparite,
and as this rock is of a lighter colour than the basalt, it is visible
from a distance. In the south-east of the island, in the parish of
Lon, thnre exist a few mountains of gabbro, a rock which does not
occur in any other part of Iceland. Near Husavik in the north there
have bei-n found marine deposits containing a number of marine
shells; they belong to the Red Crag division of the Pliocene. In
the middle of Iceland, where the geological foundation is tuff and
breccias, large areas are buried under ancient outflows of lava, which
bear evidences of glacial scratching. These lava streams, which are
of a doleritic character, flowed before the Glacial age, or during its
continuance, out of lava cones with gigantic crater openings, such as
may be seen at the present day. During the Glacial epoch the whole
of Iceland was covered by a vast sheet of inland ice, except for a
few small isolated peaks rising along its outer margins. This ice-cap
had on the tableland a thickness of 2300 to 2600 ft. Rocks scored
by glacial ice and showing plain indications of striation, together with
thousands of erratic blocks, are found scattered all over Iceland.
Signs of elevation subsequent to the Glacial epoch are common all
round the island, especially on the north-west peninsula. There are
found strikingly developed marine terraces of gravel, shore lines and
230
ICELAND
surf beaches marked on the solid rock. In several places there are
traces of shells; and sometimes skeletal remains of whales and
walruses, as well as ancient driftwood, have been discovered at
tolerable distances from the present coast. The ancient shore-lines
occur at two different altitudes. Along the higher, 230 to 260 ft. above
the existing sea-level, shells have been found which are character-
istic of high Arctic latitudes and no longer exist in Iceland ; whereas
on the lower shore-line, 100 to 130 ft., the shells belong to species
which occur amongst the coast fauna of the present day.
The geysers and other hot springs are due to the same causes as
the active volcanoes, and the earthquakes are probably manifesta-
tions of the same forces. A feature of special interest to geologists in
the present conditions of the island is the great power of the wind
both as a transporting and denuding agent. The rock sculpture is
often very similar to that of a tropical desert.1
Climate. — Considering its high latitude and situation, Iceland
has a relatively mild climate. The meteorological conditions
vary greatly, however, in different parts of the island. In the
south and east the weather is generally changeable, stormy
and moist; whilst on the north the rainfall is less. The climate
of the interior tableland approximates to the continental type
and is often extremely cold. The mean annual temperature is
37-2° F. in Stykkisholmr on BreiSifjorSr, 38-3° at Eyrarbakki in
the south of Iceland, 41° at Vestmannaeyjar, 36° at Akureyri in
the north, 36-7° on Berufjoror in the east, and 30-6° at Modrudalr
on the central tableland. The range is great not only from year
to year, but also from month to month. For instance, at
Stykkisholmr the highest annual mean for March was 39-7°,
and the lowest 8°, during a period of thirty-eight years. Iceland
lies contiguous to that part of the north Atlantic in which the
shifting areas of low pressure prevail, so that storms are frequent
and the barometer is seldom firm. The barometric pressure
at sea-level in the south-west of Iceland during the period 1878-
1900 varied between 30-8 and 27-1 in. The climate of the coasts
is relatively mild in summer, but tolerably cold in winter. The
winter means of the north and east coasts average 31-7° and
31-3° F. respectively; the summer means, 42-8° and 44-6°;
and the means of the year, 33-1° and 35-6°. The winter means
of the south and west coasts average 32° and 31-7° respectively;
the summer means, 48-2° and 5°°; the annual means, 37-4° and
39-2°. The rainfall on the so'uth and east coasts is considerable,
e.g. at Vestmannsyjar, 49-4 in. in the year; at BerufjorSr,
43-6 in. On the west coast it is less, e.g. 24-3 in. at Stykkisholmr;
but least of all on the north coast, being only 14-6 in. on the
island of Grimsey, which lies off that coast. Mist is commonly
prevalent on the east coast; at BerufjorSr there is mist on
no fewer than 212 days in the year. The south and west coasts
are washed by the Gulf Stream, and the north coast by an Arctic
current, which frequently brings with it a quantity of drift-ice,
and thus exercises a considerable effect upon the climate of
the island; sometimes it blocks the north coast in the summer
months. On the whole, during the igth century, the north
coast was free from ice on an average of one year in every four
or five. The clearness of the atmosphere has been frequently
remarked. Thunderstorms occur mostly in winter.
Flora. — The vegetation presents the characteristics of an Arctic
European type, and is tolerably uniform throughout the island,
the differences even on the tableland being slight. At present 435
species of phanerogams and vascular cryptogams are known; the
lower orders have been little investigated. The grasses are of the
greatest importance to the inhabitants, for upon them they are
dependent for the keep of their live stock. Heather covers large
tracts, and also affords pasture for sheep. The development of
forest trees is insignificant. Birch woods exist in a good many places,
especially in the warmer valleys; but the trees are very short,
scarcely attaining more than 3 to 10 ft. in height. In a few places,
however, they reach 13 to 20 ft. and occasionally more. A few
mountain ash or rowan trees (Sorbus aucuparia) are found singly
here and there, and attain to 30 ft. in height. Willows are also
pretty general, the highest in growth being Salix phyllicifolia, 7 to
10 ft. The wild flora of Iceland is small and delicate, with bright
bloom, the heaths being especially admired. Wild crowberries and
bilberries are the only fruit found in the island.
Fauna. — The Icelandic fauna is of a sub-Arctic type. But while
the species are few, the individuals are often numerous. The land
1 See Th. Thoroddsen, " Explorations in Iceland during the years
1881-1898," Geographical Journal, vol. xiii. (1899), pp. 251-274,
480-513, with map.
mammals are very poorly represented; and it is doubtful whether
any species is indigenous. The polar bear is an occasional visitant,
being brought to the coast by the Greenland drift-ice. Foxes are
common, both the white and the blue occurring; mice and the brown
rat have been introduced, though one variety of mouse is possibly
indigenous. Reindeer were introduced in 1770. The marine
mammalia are numerous. The walrus is now seldom seen, although
in prehistoric times it was common. There are numerous species of
seals; and the seas abound in whales. Of birds there are over 100
species, more than one-half being aquatic. In the interior the
whistling swan is common, and numerous varieties of ducks are found
in the lakes. The eider duck, which breeds on the islands of BreiSi-
fjorSr, is a source of livelihood to the inhabitants, as are also the
many kinds of sea-fowl which breed on the sea-cliffs. Iceland
possesses neither reptiles nor batrachians. The fish fauna is abundant
m individuals, some sixty-eight species being found off the coasts.
The cod fisheries are amongst the most important in the world.
Large quantities of herring, plaice and halibut are also taken.
Many of the rivers abound in salmon, and trout are plentiful in the
lakes and streams.
Population and Towns. — The census of 1890 gave a total
population of 70,927, and this number had increased by 1901
to 78,489. The increase during the igth century was 27,000,
while at least 15,600 Icelanders emigrated to America, chiefly
to Manitoba, from 1872 to the close of the century. The largest
town is Reykjavik on Faxafloi, with 6700 inhabitants, the
capital of the island, and the place of residence of the governor-
general and the bishop. Here the Althing meets; and here,
further, are the principal public institutions of the island (library,
schools, &c.). The town possesses a statue to Thorvaldsen,
the famous sculptor, who was of Icelandic descent. The re-
maining towns include Isafjoror (pop. 1000) on the north-west
peninsula, Akureyri (1000) on the north and SeydisfjorSr (800)
in the east.
Industries. — The principal occupation of the Icelanders is
cattle-breeding, and more particularly sheep-breeding, although
the fishing industries have come rapidly to the front in modern
times. In 1850, 82% of the population were dependent upon
cattle-breeding and 7% upon fishing; in 1890 the numbers
were 64% and 18% respectively. The culture of grain is not
practised in Iceland; all bread-stuffs are imported. In ancient
times barley was grown in some places, but it never paid for the
cost of cultivation. Cattle-breeding has declined in importance,
while the number of sheep has increased. Formerly gardening
was of no importance, but considerable progress has been made
in this branch in modern times, as also in the cultivation of
potatoes and turnips. Fruit-trees will not thrive; but black
and red currants and rhubarb are grown, the last-named doing
excellently. Iceland possesses four agricultural schools, one
agricultural society, and small agricultural associations in nearly
every district. The fisheries give employment to about 12,000
people. For the most part the fishing is carried on from open
boats, notwithstanding the dangers of so stormy a coast. But
larger decked vessels have come into increasing use. In summer
the waters are visited by a great number of foreign fishermen,
inclusive of about 300 fishing-boats from French ports, as well
as by fishing-boats from the Faeroes and Norway, and steam
trawlers from England. Excellent profit is made in certain
parts of the island from the herring fishery; this is especially
the case on the east coast. There are marine insurance societies
and a school of navigation at Reykjavik. The export of fish and
fish products has greatly increased. In 1849 to 1855 the annual
average exported was 1480 tons; whereas at the close of the
century (in 1899) it amounted to 11,339 tons and 68,079 barrels
of oil, valued at £276,596.
Commerce. — From the first colonization of the island down
to the I4th century the trade was in the hands of native Icelanders
and Norsemen; in the isth century it was chiefly in the hands
of the English, in the i6th of Germans from the Hanse towns.
From 1602 to 1786 commerce was a monopoly of the Danish
government; in the latter year it was declared free to all Danish
subjects and in 1854 free to all nations. Since 1874, when Iceland
obtained her own administration, commerce has increased
considerably. Thus the total value of the imports and exports
together in 1849 did not exceed £170,000; while in 1891-1895
the imports averaged £356,000 and the exports £340,000. In
ICELAND
231
1902 imports were valued at £596,193 and exports at £511,083.
Trade is almost entirely with Denmark, the United Kingdom,
and Norway and Sweden, in this order according to value. The
principal native products exported are live sheep, horses, salt
meat, wool and hides, to which must be added the fish products —
cod, train-oil, herring and salmon — eiderdown and woollen
wares. The spinning, weaving and knitting of wool is a wide-
spread industry, and the native tweed (vaftmal) is the principal
material for the clothing of the inhabitants. The imports consist
principally of cereals and flour, coffee, sugar, ale, wines and
spirits, tobacco, manufactured wares, iron and metal wares,
timber, salt, coal, &c. The money, weights and measures
in use are the same as in Denmark. The Islands Bank in Reyk-
javik (1904) is authorized to issue bank-notes up to £133,900
in total value.
Communications. — All land journeys are made on horseback,
and in the remoter parts all goods have to be transported by
the same means. Throughout the greater part of the island
there exist no proper roads even in the inhabited districts, but
only bridle-paths, and in the uninhabited districts not even
these. Nevertheless much has been done to improve such paths
as there are, and several miles of driving roads have been made,
more particularly in the south. Since 1888 many bridges have
been built; previous to that year there was none. The larger
rivers have been spanned by iron swing-bridges, and the Blanda
is crossed by a fixed iron bridge. Postal connexion is maintained
with Denmark by steamers, which sail from Copenhagen and
call at Leith. Besides, steamers go round the island, touching
at nearly every port.
Religion. — The Icelanders are Lutherans. For ecclesiastical
purposes the island is divided into 20 deaneries and 142 parishes,
and the affairs of each ecclesiastical parish are administered
by a parish council, and in each deanery by a district (hjeraff)
council. When a living falls vacant, the governor-general of
the island, after consultation with the bishop, selects three
candidates, and from these the congregation chooses one, the
election being subsequently confirmed by the governor-general.
In the case of certain livings, however, the election requires
confirmation by the crown. In 1847 a theological seminary
was founded at Reykjavik, and there the majority of the Ice-
landic ministry are educated; some, however, are graduates
of the university of Copenhagen.
Health. — The public health has greatly improved in modern
times; the death-rate of young children has especially diminished.
This improvement is due to greater cleanliness, better dwellings,
better nourishment, and the increase in the number of doctors.
There are now doctors in all parts of the country, whereas
formerly there were hardly any in the island. There is a modern
asylum for leprosy at Laugarnes near Reykjavik, and a medical
school at Reykjavik, opened in 1876. The general sanitary
affairs of the island are under the control of a chief surgeon
(national physician) who lives in Reykjavik, and has super-
intendence over the doctors and the medical school.
Government. — According to the constitution granted to Iceland
in 1874, the king of Denmark shares the legislative power with
the Althing, an assembly of 36 members, 30 of whom are elected
by household suffrage, and 6 nominated by the king. The
Althing meets every second year, and sits in two divisions, the
upper and the lower. The upper division consists of the 6
members nominated by the king and 6 elected by the repre-
sentatives of the people out of their own body. The lower
division consists of the remaining 24 representative members.
The minister for Iceland, who resided in Copenhagen until
1903, when his office was transferred to Reykjavik, is responsible
to the king and the Althing for the maintenance of the constitu-
tion, and he submits to the king for confirmation the legislative
measures proposed by the Althing. The king appoints a gover-
nor-general (landshSfiStngi) who is resident in the island and
carries on the government on the responsibility of the minister.
Formerly Iceland was divided into four quarters, the east, the
south, the west and north. Now the north and the east are
united under one governor, and the south and the west under
another. The island is further divided into 18 syslur (counties),
and these again into 169 hreppur (rapes) or poor-law districts.
Responsible to the governors are the sheriffs (syslumenn), who
act as tax gatherers, notaries public and judges of first instance;
the sheriff has in every hreppur an assistant, called hreppstjdri.
In every hreppur there is also a representative committee, who
administer the poor laws, and look after the general concerns
of the hreppur. These committees are controlled by the com-
mittees of the syslur (county boards), and these again are under
the control of the amtsrdft (quarter board), consisting of three
members. From the sheriff courts appeals lie to the superior
court at Reykjavik, consisting of three judges. Appeals may
be taken in all criminal cases and most civil cases to the supreme
court at Copenhagen.
Iceland has her own budget, the Althing having, by the con-
stitution of 1 874, the right to vote its own supplies. As the Althing
only meets every other year, the budget is passed for two years
at once. The total income and expenditure are each about
£70,000 per financial period. There is a national reserve fund
of about £60,000, but no public debt ; nor is there any contribu-
tion for either military or naval purposes. Iceland has her own
customs service, but the only import duties levied are upon
spirits, tobacco, coffee and sugar, and in each case the duties
are fairly low.
Education. — Education is pretty widespread amongst the
people. In the towns and fishing villages there are a few ele-
mentary schools, but often the children are instructed at home;
in some places by peripatetic teachers. It is incumbent upon
the clergy to see that all children are taught reading, writing
and arithmetic. The people are great readers; considering the
number of the inhabitants, books and periodicals have a very
extensive circulation. Eighteen newspapers are issued (once and
twice a week), besides several journals, and Iceland has always
been distinguished for her native literature. At Reykjavik
there are a Latin school, a medical school and a theological
school; at Modruvellir and HafnarfjorSr, modern high schools
(Realschulen) ; and in addition to these there are four agricultural
schools, a school of navigation, and three girls' schools. The
national library at Reykjavik contains some 40,000 volumes
and 3000 MSS. At the same place there is also a valuable
archaeological collection. Amongst the learned societies are
the Icelandic Literary Society (Bokmentafjelag), the society
of the Friends of the People, and the Archaeological Society of
Reykjavik.
AUTHORITIES. — Among numerous works of Dr Thorvald
Thoroddsen, see Geschichte der Islands Geographic (Leipzig, 1898);
and the following articles in Geografisk Tidskrift (Copenhagen) :
" Om Islands geografiske og geologiske Undersogelse " (1893);
" Islandske Fjorde og Bugter " (1901); " Geog. og geol. Unders.
ved den sydlige Del af Faxafloi paa Island " (1903); " Lavaorkener
og Vulkaner paa Islands Hojland " (1905). See also C. S. Forbes,
Iceland (London, 1860); S. Baring-Gould, Iceland, its Scenes and
Sagas (London, 1863); Sir R. F. Burton, Ultima Thule (Edinburgh,
1875); W. T. McCormick, A Ride across Iceland (London, 1892);
T. Coles, Summer Travelling in Iceland (London, 1882); H. J.
Johnston Lavis, " Notes on the Geography, Geology, Agriculture
and Economics of Iceland," Scott. Geog. Mag. xi. (1895) ; W. Bisiker,
Across Iceland (London, 1902); J. Hann, " Die Anomalien der
Witterung auf Island in dem Zeitraume 1851-1900, &c.," Sitzungs-
berichte, Vienna Acad. Sci. (1904) ; P. Hermann, Island in Vergangen-
heit und Gegenwart (Leipzig, 1907). Also Geografisk Tidskrift, and
the Geographical Journal (London), passim. (Tn. T.)
HISTORY
Shortly after the discovery of Iceland by the Scandinavian,
c. 850 (it had long been inhabited by a small colony of Irish
Culdees), a stream of immigration set in towards it, which lasted
for sixty years, and resulted in the establishment of some 4000
homesteads. In this immigration three distinct streams can be
traced, (i) About 870-890 four great noblemen from Norway,
Ingolf, Ketil Haeng, Skalla-Grim and Thorolf, settled with their
dependants in the south-west of the new found land. (2) In
890-900 there came from the western Islands Queen Aud, widow
of Olaf the White, king of Dublin, preceded and followed by a
number of her kinsmen and relations (many like herself being
232
ICELAND
Table of Icelandic Literature and History.
Heroic Age.
Saga Telling.
The Literary
Age.
Continental
Influence
chiefly Norse.
Dark Age.
Reformation.
Renaissance.
Gradual
Decay.
Recovery of
Iceland.
8 70- 93°
930- 9*o
980—1030
IO3O-HOO
iioo-iiso
II50-I22O
I22O-I248
1248-1284
[I284-I32O
1320-1390
I390-I4I3
I4I3-IS30
I530-.I575
i 1575-1040
; 1640-1700
11700-1730
1730-1768
1768-1800
1800-1850
' 1850-1874
1.1874
Poetry of Western Islands.
Early Icelandic poets, chiefly abroad.
Icelandic poets abroad.
First era oj phonetic change.
ARI and his school — THORODD— ^Vernacular writing begins.
SAGA-WRITERS — Second generation of historians.
SNOKRI and his school — Biographers.
STORLA — Second era of phonetic change.
I. The Commonwealth. 400 years.
Settlement of colonists from Western Isles and Norway.
Constitution worked out — Events of earlier sages take place.
Christianity comes in — Events of later sagas take place.
Peace — Ecclesiastical organization.
Collecting and editing — Foreign romances.
Annalists — Copyists — New Medieval poetry begins.
Death of old traditions, &c.
Only Medieval poetry flourishes.
ODD — Printing — Third era of phonetic change.
First antiquarians.
HALLGRDI — Paper copies taken.
TON VIDALTN — Ami Magnusson — MSS. taken abroad.
Eggert Olafsson.
Finn Jonsson — Icelandic scholars abroad.
Rationalistic movement — European influences first felt.
Modern thought and learning — Icelandic scholars abroad.
First civil wars — 1208-22 — Rise of Sturlungs.
Second civil wars, 1226-58 — Kail of Great Houses.
Change of law, 1271 — Submission to Norwegian kings.
II. Medievalism. 250 years.
Foreign influence through Norway.
Great eruptions, 1362 and 1389 — Epidemics — Danish rule, 1380.
Epidemics— Norse trade — Close of intercourse with Norway.
Isolation from Continent — English trade.
III. Reformation — Absolute Rule — Decay. 320 years.
Religious struggle — New organization — Hanse trade.
Danish monopoly — Pirates' ravages.
f Smallpox kills one-third population, 1707.
I Great famine, 10,000 die, 1759— Sheep plague, 1762— Eruption,
1765-
« | Great eruption, 1783.
,
Beginnings of recovery — Travellers make known island to Europe
I — Free constitution in Denmark, 1848.
IV. Modern Iceland.
Increasing wealth and population — Free trade, 1854— Jon Sigurdsson and
home rule struggle.
Home rule granted.
Christians), Helgi JJiolan, Biorn the Eastern, Helgi the Lean,
Ketil the Foolish, &c., who settled the best land in the island
(west, north-west and north), and founded families who long
swayed its destinies. There also came from the Western Islands'a
fellowship of vikings seeking a free home in the north. They had
colonized the west in the viking times; they had " fought
at Hafursfirth," helping their stay-at-home kinsmen against
the centralization of the great head-king, who, when he had
crushed opposition in Norway, followed up his victory by com-
pelling them to flee or bow to his rule. Such were Ingimund
the Old, Geirmund Hellskin, Thord Beardie (who had wed
St Edmund's granddaughter,) Audun Shackle, Bryniulf the
Old, Uni, to whom Harold promised the earldom of the new
land if he could make the settlers acknowledge him as king
(a hopeless project), and others by whom the north-west, north
and east were almost completely " claimed." (3) In 90x3-930
a few more incomers direct from Norway completed the settle-
ment of the south, north-east and south-east. Among them were
Earl Hrollaug (half-brother of Hrolf Ganger and of the first
earl of Orkney), Hialti, Hrafnkell Prey's priest, and the sons of
Asbiorn. Fully three-quarters of the land was settled from the
west, and among these immigrants there was no small proportion
of Irish blood. In noo there were 4500 franklins, i.e. about
50,000 souls.
The unit of Icelandic politics was the homestead with its
franklin-owner (buendi) its primal organization the hundred-
moot (thing) , its tie the go5or5(godar) or chieftainship.
The cnief wno nad kd a band of kinsmen and depend-
ants to the new land, taken a " claim " there, and
parcelled it out among them, naturally became their leader,
presiding as priest at the temple feasts and sacrifices of heathen
times, acting as speaker of their moot, and as their representative
towards the neighbouring chiefs. He was not a feudal lord nor
a local sheriff, for any franklin could change his go<5or<5 when
he would, and the rights of " judgment by peers " were in full
use; moreover, the office could be bequeathed, sold, divided
or pledged by the possessor; still the go5i had considerable
power as long as the commonwealth lasted.
Disputes between neighbouring chiefs and their clients,
and uncertainty as to the law, brought about the Constitution
of Ulfliot (c. 930), which appointed a central moot for the whole
island, the Althing, and a speaker to speak a single " law "
(principally that followed by the Gula-moot in Norway) ; the
Reforms of Thord Gellir (964), settling a fixed number of moots
and chieftaincies, dividing the island into four quarters (thus
characterized by An: north, thickest settled, most famous;
east, first completely settled; south, best land and greatest
chiefs; west, remarkable for noble families), to each of which
a head-court, the " quarter-court," was assigned; and the
Innovations of Skapti (ascribed in the saga to Nial) the Law-
ti?a" '
Speaker (d. 1030), who set up a "fifth court " as the ultimate
tribunal in criminal matters, and strengthened the community
against the chiefs. But here constitutional growth ceased:
the law-making body made few and unimportant modifications
of custom ; the courts were too weak for the chiefs who misused
and defied them; the speaker's power was not sufficiently sup-
ported; even the ecclesiastical innovations, while they secured
peace for a time, provoked in the end the struggles which put
an end to the commonwealth.
Christianity was introduced c. 1000 from Norway. Tithes
were established in 1096, and an ecclesiastical code made c. 1125.
The first disputes about the jurisdiction of the clergy were
moved by Gudmund in the I3th century, bringing on a civil
war, while the questions of patronage and rights over glebe
and mortmainland occupied Bishop Arni and his adversaries
fifty years afterwards, when the land was under Norwegian
viceroys and Norwegian law. For the civil wars broke down the
great nouses who had monopolized the chieftaincies; and after
violent struggles (in which the Sturlungs of the first generation
perished at Orlygstad, 1238, and Reykiaholt, 1241, while of
the second generation Thord Kakali was called away by the
king in 1250, and Thorgils Skardi slain in 1258) the submission
of the island to Norway quarter after quarter took place in
1262-1264, under Gizur's auspices, and the old Common Law
was replaced by the New Norse Code " Ironside " in 1271.
The political life and law of the old days is abundantly illus-
trated in the sagas (especially Eyrbyggia, Hensa-Thori, Reyk-
dxla, Hrafnkell and Niala), the two collections of law-scrolls
(Codex Regius, c. 1235, and Stadarhol's Book, c. 1271), the
Libellus, the Liberfragments, and the Landnamabok of Ari,
and the Diplomatarium. K. Maurer has made the subject
his own in his Beitrdge, Island, Grdgas, &c.
The medieval Icelandic church had two bishoprics, Skalholt
(S., W. and E.) 1056, and Holar (N.) 1106, and about 175
parishes (two-thirds of which belonged to the southern bishopric).
They belonged to the metropolitan see of Bremen, then to Lund,
lastly to Nidaros, 1237. There were several religious founda-
tions: Thingore (founded 1133), Thwera (1155), Hitardale
(c. 1166), Kirkby Nunnery (1184), Stad Nunnery (1296) and
Saurby (c. 1200) were Benedictine, while Ver (1168), Flatey
after Holyfell (1172), Videy (1226), Madderfield Priory (1296)
and Skrid Priory (i4th century) were Augustinian. The bishops,
elected by the people at the Althing till 1237, enjoyed con-
siderable power; two, Thorlak of Skalholt and John of Holar,
were publicly voted saints at the Althing, and one, Gudmund,
received the title of " Good " by decree of the bishop and
chapter. Full details as to ecclesiastical history will be found
in the Biskupasogur (edited by Dr. Vigfusson).
Iceland was not agricultural but pastoral, depending upon
flocks and herds for subsistence, for, though rye and other grain
ICELAND
233
Mode of
life.
Effects
of the
Union.
would grow in favoured localities, the hay, self-sown, was the
only regular crop. In some districts the fisheries and fowling
were of importance, but nine-tenths of the population
lived by their sheep and cattle. Life on each home-
stead was regularly portioned out: out door occu-
pations— fishing, shepherding, fowling, and the hay-making
and fuel-gathering — occupying the summer; while in door
business — weaving, tool-making, &c. — filled up the long winter.
The year was broken by the spring feasts and moots, the great
Althing meeting at midsummer, the marriage and arval gather-
ings after the summer, and the long yule feasts at midwinter.
There were but two degrees of men, free and unfree, though
only the franklins had any political power; and, from the nature
of the life, social intercourse was unrestrained and unfettered;
go5i and thrall lived the same lives, ate the same food, spoke
the same tongue, and differed little in clothing or habits. The
thrall had a house of his own and was rather villein or serf
than slave, having rights and a legal price by law. During the
heathen days many great chiefs passed part of their lives in
Norway at the king's court, but after the establishment of Chris-
tianity in Iceland they kept more at home, visiting the continent,
however, for purposes of state, suits with clergy, &c. Trade was
from the first almost entirely in foreign (Norse) hands.
The introduction of a church system brought little change.
The great families puttheirmembersintoorders,andsocontinued
to enjoy the profits of the land which they had given to the
church; the priests married and otherwise behaved like the
franklins around them in everyday matters, farming, trading,
going to law like laymen.
Life in the commonwealth was turbulent and anarchic, but
free and varied; it produced men of mark, and fostered bravery,
adventure and progress. But on the union with
Norway all this ceased, and there was left but a low
dead level of poor peasant proprietors careless of all
save how to live by as little labour as possible, and
pay as few taxes as they could to their foreign rulers. The
island received a foreign governor (Earl, Hirdstjori or Stiptamts-
madr as he was successively called), and was parcelled out into
counties (syslur), administered by sheriffs (syslumadr) appointed
by the king. A royal court took the place of the Althing courts;
the local business of the local things was carried out by the
(hreppstjori) bailiff, a subordinate of the sheriff; and the goSorS,
things, quarter-courts, trial by jury, &c., were swept away by
these innovations. The power of the crown was increased by
the confiscation of the great Sturlung estates, which were under-
leased to farmers, while the early falling off of the Norse trade
threatened to deprive the island of the means of existence;
for the great epidemics and eruptions of the I4th century had
gravely attacked its pastoral wealth and ruined much of its
pasture and fishery.
The union of the Three Crowns transferred the practical
rule of Iceland to Denmark in 1280, and the old Treaty of Union,
by which the island had reserved its essential rights, was dis-
regarded by the absolute Danish monarchs; but, though new
taxation was imposed, it was rather their careless neglect than
their too active interference that damaged Iceland's interests.
But for an English trade, which sprang up out of the half-
smuggling, half-buccaneering enterprise of the Bristol merchants,
the island would have fared badly, for during the whole of the
iSth century their trade with England, exporting sulphur,
eiderdown (of which the English taught them the value),
wool, and salt stock-fish, and importing as before wood, iron,
honey, wine, grain and flax goods, was their only link with the
outer world. This period of Iceland's existence is eventless:
she had got peace but with few of its blessings; all spirit seemed
to have died with the commonwealth; even shepherding and
such agriculture as there had been sank to a lower stage;
wagons, ploughs and carts went out of use and knowledge;
architecture in timber became a lost art, and the fine carved
and painted halls of the heathen days were replaced by turf-
walled barns half sunk in the earth; the large decked luggers
of the old days gave way to small undecked fishing-boats.
The Reformation in Iceland wakened men's minds, but it
left their circumstances little changed. Though the fires of
martyrdom were never lighted in Iceland, the story
of the easily accepted Reformation is not altogether fomaaon.
a pleasant one. When it was accomplished, the
little knot of able men who came to the front did much in
preserving the records of the past, while Odd and Hallgrim
exhibit the noblest impulses of their time. While there was
this revolution in religion a social and political revolution
never came to Iceland. The Hanse trade replaced the English
for the worse; and the Danish monopoly which succeeded it
when the Danish kings began to act again with vigour was
still less profitable. The glebes and hospital lands were a
fresh power in the hands of the crown, and the subservient
Lutheran clergy became the most powerful class in the island,
while the system of under-leasing at rackrent and short lease
with unsecured tenant right extended over at least a quarter
of the better land.
A new plague, that of the English, Gascon and Algerine
pirates, marked the close of the i6th century and opening of
the 1 7th, causing widespread panic and some devasta-
tion in 1579, 1613-1616 and 1627. Nothing points
more to the helplessness of the natives' condition than
their powerlessness against these foes. But the i8th century
is the most gloomy in Iceland's annals. Smallpox, famine,
sheep disease, and the eruptions of 1765 and 1783 follow each
other in terrible succession. Against such visitations, which
reduced the population by about a fourth, little could be done.
The few literary men, whose work was done and whose books
were published abroad, were only concerned with the past, and
Jon Vidalin is the one man of mark, beside Eggert Olafsson,
who worked and wrote for his own generation.1
Gradually the ideas which were agitating Europe spread
through Scandinavia into Iceland, and its claims were more
respectfully listened to. The continental system,
which, by its leading to the blockade of Denmark,
threatened to starve Iceland,was neutralized by special
action of the British government. Trade and fishery grew a
little brisker, and at length the turn came.
The rationalistic movement, headed by Magnus Stephenson,
a patriotic, narrow-minded lawyer, did little good as far as
church reform went, but was accompanied by a more successful
effort to educate the people. A Useful Knowledge Society
was formed and did some honest work. Newspapers and
periodicals were published, and the very stir which the ecclesi-
astical disputes encouraged did good. When free trade came,
and when the free constitution of Denmark had produced its
legitimate effects, the endeavours of a few patriots such as
Jon Sigurdsson were able to push on the next generation a step
further. Questions of a modern political complexion arose;
the cattle export controversy and the great home rule struggle
began. After thirty years' agitation home rule was conceded
in 1874 (see above, Government). (F. Y. P.)
ANCIENT LITERATURE \
Poetry. — Iceland has always borne a high renown for song,
but has never produced a poet of the highest order, the qualities
which in other lands were most sought for and admired in
poetry being in Iceland lavished on the saga, a prose epic, while
Icelandic poetry is to be rated very high for the one quality
which its authors have ever aimed at— melody of sound. To
these generalizations there are few exceptions, though Icelandic
literature includes a group of poems which possess qualities of
high imagination, deep pathos, fresh love of nature, passionate
dramatic power, and noble simplicity of language which Ice-
landic poetry lacks. The solution is that these poems do not
belong to Iceland at all. They are the poetry of the " Western
Islands."
It was among the Scandinavian colonists of the British coasts
that in the first generations after the colonization of Iceland
1 For the periods succeeding the union, Danish state papers and
the History of Finn Jonsson are the best authority.
xiv. 8a
234
ICELAND
therefrom a magnificent school of poetry arose, to which we owe
works that for power and beauty can be paralleled in no Teutonic
language till centuries after their date. To this school, which
is totally distinct from the Icelandic, ran its own course apart
and perished before the i3th century, the following works belong
(of their authors we have scarcely a name or two; their dates
can be rarely exactly fixed, but they lie between the beginning
of the gth and the end of the loth centuries), classified into
groups: —
(a) The Helgi trilogy (last third lost save a few verses, but pre-
served in prose in Hromund Grips son's Saga), the Raising of A nganty
and Death of Hialmar (in Hervarar Saga), the fragments of a Volsung
Lay (VolsungakiraSa) (part interpolated in earlier poems, part under-
lying the prose in Volsunga Saga), all by one poet, to whom Dr
Vigfusson would also ascribe Voluspd, VegtamskvtfSa, prymskviSa,
Grotta Song and VolundarkviSa.
(b) The Dramatic Poems: — Flyting of Loki, the For Skirnis, the
HarbafSslidS and several fragments, all one man's work, to whose
school belong, probably, the Lay underlying the story of Ivar's
death in Skioldunga Saga.
(c) The Didactic Poetry : — Grimnismdl, VafpruSnismdl, AMssmal,
&c.
(d) The Genealogical and Mytho|ogical Poems: — HyndluljoS,
written for one of the Haurda-Kari family, so famous in the Orkneys;
Ynglingatal and Hausttong, by Thiodolf of Hvin ; Rig's Thul, &c.
(e) The Dirges and Battle Songs — such as that on Hafur-firth
Ba.tt\eHrafnsmal, by Thiodolf of Hvin or Thorbjorn Horn klofi, shortly
after 870; Eirik's Dirge (Eiriksmdl) between 950 and 969; the Dart-
Lay on Clontarf Battle (1014); Biarka-mal (fragments of which we
have, and paraphrase of more is found in Hrolf Kraki's Saga and in
Saxo).
There are also fragments of poems in Halfs Saga, Asmund Kappa-
Bana's Saga, in the Latin verses of Saxo, and the Shield Lays
(Ragnarsdrapa) by Bragi, &c., of this school, which closes with the
Sun-Song, a powerful Christian Dantesque poem, recalling some of
the early compositions of the Irish Church, and with the 12th-century
Lay of Ragnar, Lay of Starkad, The Proverb Song (Havamal) and
Krakumal, to which we may add those singular Gloss-poems, the
Pulur, which also belong to the Western Isles.
To Greenland, Iceland's farthest colony, founded in the loth
century, we owe the two Lays of Atli, and probably HymiskviSa,
which, though of a weirder, harsher cast, yet belong to the Western
Isles school and not to Iceland.
In form all these poems belong to two or three classes: — kviSa,
an epic " cantilena "; Idl, a genealogical poem; drapa, songs
of praise, &c., written in modifications of the old* Teutonic
metre which we know in Beowulf; galdr and lokkr, spell and
charm songs in a more lyric measure; and m&l, a dialogue
poem, and Hod, a lay, in elegiac measure suited to the subject.
The characteristics of this Western school are no doubt the
result of the contact of Scandinavian colonists of the viking-tide,
living lives of the wildest adventure, with an imaginative and
civilized race, that exercised upon them a very strong and lasting
influence (the effects of which were also felt in Iceland, but in
a different way). The frequent intermarriages which mingled
the best families of either race are sufficient proof of the close
communion of Northmen and Celts in the gth and loth centuries,
while there are in the poems themselves traces of Celtic mythology,
language and manners.1
When one turns to the early poetry of the Scandinavian
continent, preserved in the rune-staves on the memorial stones
of Sweden, Norway and Denmark, in the didactic Havamal,
the Great Volsung Lay (i.e. Sigurd II., Fafnis's Lay, Sigrdrifa's
Lay) and Hamdismal, all continental, and all entirely consonant
to the remains of Old English poetry in metre, feeling and treat-
ment, one can see that it is with this school that the Icelandic
" makers " are in sympathy, and that from it their verse naturally
descends. While shrewdness, plain straightforwardness, and
a certain stern way of looking at life are common to both,
the Icelandic school adds a complexity of structure and orna-
ment, an elaborate mythological and enigmatical phraseology,
and a regularity of rhyme, assonance, luxuriance, quantity
1 Many of these poems were Englished in prose by the translator
of Mallet, by B. Thorpe in his Scemund's Edda, and two or three
by Messrs Morris and Magnussen, as appendices to their translation
of Volsunga Saga. Earlier translations in verse are those in Dryden's
Miscellany (vol. vi), A. Cottle's Edda, Mathias's Translations, and
W. Herbert's Old Icelandic Poetry. Gray's versions of Darradar-liod
and VegtamskvifSa are well known.
and syllabification, which it caught from the Latin and Celtic
poets, and adapted with exquisite ingenuity to its own main
object, that of securing the greatest possible beauty of sound.
The first generations of Icelandic poets resemble in many
ways the later troubadours; the books of the kings and the
sagas are full of their strange lives. Men of good birth (nearly
always, too, of Celtic blood on one side at least), they leave
Iceland young and attach themselves to the kings and earls
of the north, living in their courts as their henchmen, sharing
their adventures in weal and woe, praising their victories, and
hymning their deaths if they did not fall by their sides — men of
quick passion, unhappy in their loves, jealous of rival poets
and of their own fame, ever ready to answer criticism with a
satire or with a sword-thrust, but clinging through all to their
art, in which they attained most marvellous skill.
Such men were Egil, the foe of Eirik Bloodaxe and the
friend of jEthelstan; Kormak, the hot-headed champion;
Eyvind, King Haakon's poet, called Skaldaspillir, because
he copied in his dirge over that king the older and finer Eiriks-
mal; Gunnlaug, who sang at j<£thelred's court, and fell at the
hands of a brother bard, Hrafn; Hallfred, Olaf Tryggvason's
poet, who lies in lona by the side of Macbeth; Sighvat, Saint
Olaf's henchman, most prolific of all his comrades; Thormod,
Coalbrow's poet, who died singing after Sticklestad battle;
Ref, Ottar the Black, Arnor the earls' poet, and, of those whose
poetry was almost confined to Iceland, Gretti, Biorn the Hitdale
champion, and the two model Icelandic masters, Einar Skulason
and Markus the Lawman, both of the i2th century.
It is impossible to do more here than mention the names of
the most famous of the long roll of poets which are noted in the
works of Snorri and in the two Skalda-tal. They range from the
rough and noble pathos of Egil, the mystic obscurity of Kormak,
the pride and grief of Hallfred, and the marvellous fluency of
Sighvat, to the florid intricacy of Einar and Markus.
The art of poetry stood to the Icelanders in lieu of music;
scarcely any prominent man but knew how to turn a mocking
or laudatory stanza, and down to the fall of the commonwealth
the accomplishment was in high request. In the literary age
the chief poets belong to the great Sturlung family, Snorri
and his two nephews, Sturla and Olaf, the White Poet, being the
most famous " makers " of their day. Indeed, it is in Snorri's
Edda, a poetic grammar of a very perfect kind, that the best
examples of the whole of northern poetry are to be found. The
last part, Hattatal, a treatise on metre, was written for Earl
Skuli about 1222, in imitation of Earl Rognvald and Hall's
Hattalykill (Claws melrica) of 1150. The second part, Skald-
skapar-mal, a gradus of synonyms and epithets, which contains
over 240 quotations from 65 poets, and 10 anonymous lays —
a treasury of verse — was composed c. 1230. The first part,
an exquisite sketch of northern mythology, Gylfa-ginning, was
probably prefixed to the whole later. There is some of Sturla's
poetry in his Islendinga Saga, and verses of Snorri occur in the
Grammatical Treatise on figures of speech, &c., of Olaf, which
contains about one hundred and forty quotations from various
authors, and was written about 1250.
Besides those sources, the Kings' Lives of Snorri and later
authors contain a great deal of verse by Icelandic poets. King
Harold Sigurdsson, who fell at Stamford Bridge 1066, was both
a good critic and composed himself. Many tales are told of him
and his poet visitors and henchmen. The Icelandic sagas also
comprise much verse which is partly genuine, partly the work
of the 1 2th and I3th century editors. Thus there are genuine
pieces in Nial's Saga (chaps. 34, 78, 103, 126, 146), in Eyrbyggia,
Laxdiela, Egil's Saga (part only), Grettla (two and a half stanzas,
cf. Landndmabdk), Biorn' s Saga, Gunnlaug' s Saga, Hazard's
Saga, Kormak's Saga, Viga-Glum's Saga, Erik the Red's Saga
and Fostbradra Saga. In Nial's, Gisli's and Droplaug's Sons'
Sagas there is good verse of a later poet, and in many sagas
worthless rubbish foisted in as ornamental.
To these may be added two or three works of a semi-literary
kind, composed by learned men, not by heroes and warriors.
Such are Konunga-tal, Hugsvinnsmdl (a paraphrase of Cato's
ICELAND
235
Distichs), Merlin's Prophecy (paraphrased from Geoffrey of
Monmouth by Gunnlaug the monk), Jomsvikinga-drapa (by
Bishop Ketil), and the Islendinga-drapa, which has preserved
brief notices of several lost sagas concerning Icelandic worthies,
with which Gudmundar-drapa, though of the I4th century,
may be also placed.
Just as the change of law gave the death-blow to an already
perishing commonwealth, so the rush of medieval influence,
which followed the union with Norway, completed a process
which had been in force since the end of the nth century, when
it overthrew the old Icelandic poetry in favour of the rimur.
The introduction of the danz, ballads (or fornkvizdi, as they
are now called) for singing, with a burden, usually relating
to a love-tale, which were immensely popular with the people
and performed by whole companies at weddings, yule feasts
and the like, had relegated 'the regular Icelandic poetry to more
serious events or to the more cultivated of the chiefs. But
these " jigs," as the Elizabethans would have called them,
dissatisfied the popular ear in one way: they were, like old
English ballads, which they closely resembled, in rhyme, but
void of alliteration, and accordingly they were modified and
replaced by the " rimur," the staple literary product of the i5th
century. These were rhymed but also alliterative, in regular
form, with prologue or mansong (often the prettiest part of the
whole), main portion telling the tale (mostly derived in early
days from the French romances of the Carlovingian, Arthurian
or Alexandrian cycles, or from the mythic or skrok-sogur), and
epilogue. Their chief value to us lies in their having preserved
versions of several French poems now lost, and in their evidence
as to the feeh'ngs and bent of Icelanders in the " Dark Age "
of the island's history. The ring and melody which they all
possess is their chief beauty.
Of the earliest, Olafsrima, by Einar Gilsson (c. 1350), and the
best, the Aristophanic Skida-rima (c. 1430), by Einar Fostri,
the names may be given. Rimur on sacred subjects was called
" diktur "; of these, on the legends of the saints' lives, many
remain. The most notable of its class is the Lilia of Eystein
Asgrimsson, a monk of Holyfell (c. 1350), a most " sweet sound-
ing song." Later the poems of the famous Jon Arason (b.
1484), last Catholic bishop of Holar (c. 1530), Liomr (" gleam ")
and Pislargrdtr (" passion-tears "), deserve mention. Arason
is also celebrated as having introduced printing into Iceland.
Taste has sunk since the old days; but still this rimur poetry
is popular and genuine. Moreover, the very prosaic and artificial
verse of Sturla and the last of the old school deserved the oblivion
which came over them, as a casual perusal of the stanzas scattered
through Islendinga will prove. It is interesting to notice that
a certain number of kenningar (poetical paraphrases) have
survived from the old school even to the present day, though
the mass of them have happily perished. The change in the
phonesis of the language is well illustrated by the new metres
as compared with the old Icelandic drotl-kvadi in its varied
forms. Most of the older rimur and.diktur are as yet unprinted.
Many of thefornkvadi are printed in a volume of theoldNordiske
Litleratur-Samfund.
The effects of the Reformation was deeply felt in Icelandic
literature, both prose and verse. The name of Hallgrim Petursson,
whose Passion-hymns, " the flower of all Icelandic poetry,"
have been the most popular composition in the language, is
foremost of all writers since the second change of faith. The
gentle sweetness of thought, and the exquisite harmony of word-
ing in his poems, more than justify the popular verdict. His
Hymns were finished in 1660 and published in 1666, two great
Protestant poets thus being contemporaries. A collection of
Reformation hymns, adapted, many of them, from the German,
the Holar-book, had preceded them in 1619. There was a good
deal of verse- writing of a secular kind, far inferior in every way,
during this period. In spite of the many physical distresses
that weighed upon the island, ballads (fornkvcedi) were still
written, ceasing about 1750, rimur composed, and more elaborate
compositions published.
The most notable names are those of the improvisatore
Stephen the Blind; Thorlak Gudbrandsson, author of Ulfar-
Rimur, d. 1707; John Magnusson, who wrote Hristafla, a
didactic poem; Stefan Olafsson, composer of psalms, rimur,
&c., d. 1688; Gunnar Palsson, the author of Gunnarslag, often
printed with the Eddie poems, c. 1791; and Eggert Olafsson,
traveller, naturalist and patriot, whose untimely death in
1768 was a great loss to his country. His Bunadar-balkr, a
Georgic written, like Tusser's Points, with a practical view of
raising the state of agriculture, has always been much prized.
Paul Vidalin's ditties are very naive and clever.
Of later poets, down to more recent times, perhaps the best
was Sigurd of Broadfirth, many of whose prettiest poems were
composed in Greenland like those of Jon Biarnisson before
him, c. 1750; John Thorlaksson's translation of Milton's great
epic into Eddie verse is praiseworthy in intention, but, as
may be imagined, falls far short of its aim. He also turned
Pope's Essay on Man and Klopstock's Messiah into Icelandic.
Benedikt Grondal tried the same experiment with Homer in
his Ilion's Kvadi, c. 1825. There is a fine prose translation
of the Odyssey by Sweinbjorn Egillson, the lexicographer, both
faithful and poetic in high degree.
Sagas. — The real strength of ancient Icelandic literature is
shown in its most indigenous growth, the " Saga " (see also
SAGA). This is, in its purest form, the life of a hero, composed
in regular form, governed by fixed rules, and intended for oral
recitation. It bears the strongest likeness to the epic in all
save its unversified form; in both are found, as fixed essentials,
simplicity of plot, chronological order of events, set phrases used
even in describing the restless play of emotion or the changeful
fortunes of a fight or a storm, while in both the absence of digres-
sion, comment or intrusion of the narrator's person is invariably
maintained. The saga grew up in the quieter days which followed
the change of faith (1002), when the deeds of the great families'
heroes were still cherished by their descendants, and the exploits
of the great kings of Norway and Denmark handed down with
reverence. Telling of stories was a recognized form of entertain-
ment at all feasts and gatherings, and it was the necessity of
the reciter which gradually worked them into a regular form,
by which the memory was relieved and the artistic features
of the story allowed to be more carefully elaborated. That
this form was so perfect must be attributed to Irish influence,
without which indeed there would have been a saga, but not
the same saga. It is to the west that the best sagas belong;
it is to the west that nearly every classic writer whose name
we know belongs; and it is precisely in the west that the ad-
mixture of Irish blood is greatest. In comparing the Irish tales
with the saga, there will be felt deep divergencies in matter,
style and taste, the richness of one contrasting with the chastened
simplicity of the other; the one's half-comic, half-earnest
bombast is wholly unlike the other's grim humour; the marvel-
lous, so unearthly in the one, is almost credible in the other;
but in both are the keen grasp of character, the biting phrase,
the love of action and the delight in blood which almost assumes
the garb of a religious passion.
When the saga had been fixed by a generation or two of oral
reciters, it was written down; and this stereotyped the form,
so that afterwards when literary works were composed by
learned men (such as Abbot Karl's Swerri's Saga and Sturla's
Islendinga) the same style was adopted.
Taking first the sagas relating to Icelanders, of which some
thirty-five or forty remain out of thrice that number, they
were first written down between 1140 and 1220, in
the generation which succeeded An and felt the
impulse his books had given to writing, on separate
scrolls, no doubt mainly for the reciter's convenience; they then
went through the different phases which such popular com-
positions have to pass in all lands — editing and compounding
(1220-1260), padding and amplifying (1260-1300), and finally
collection in large MSS. (i4th century). Sagas exist showing
all these phases, some primitive and rough, some refined and
beautified, some diluted and weakened, according as their copyists
have been faithful, artistic or foolish; for the first generation
Icelandic
sagas.
236
ICELAND
of MSS. have all perished. We have also complex sagas put
together in the i3th century out of the scrolls relating to a given
locality, such a group as still exists untouched in V 'apnfirdinga
being fused into such a saga as Niala or Laxdala. Of the authors
nothing is known; we can only guess that some belong to the
Sturlung school. According to subject they fall into two classes,
those relating to the older generation before Christianity and
those telling of St Olaf's contemporaries; only two fall into a
third generation.
Beginning with the sagas of the west, most perfect in style
and form, the earliest in subject is that of Gold-Thori (c. 930),
whose adventurous career it relates; Hensa-\)orissaga tells of
the burning of Blund-Ketil, a noble chief, an event which led
to Thord Gelli's reforms next year (c. 964); Gislasaga (960-980)
tells of the career and death of that ill-fated outlaw; it is beauti-
fully written, and the verses by the editor (i3th century) are
good and appropriate; Hord's Saga (980) is the life of a band
of outlaws on Whalesfirth, and especially of their leader Hord.
Of later subject are the sagas of Havard and his revenge for his
son, murdered by a neighbouring chief (997-1002); of the
HetSarirgasaga (990-1014), a typical tale of a great blood feud,
written in the most primitive prose; of Gunnlaug and Hrafn
(Gunnlaugssaga Ormstungu, 980-1008), the rival poets and their
ill-starred love. The verse in this saga is important and interest-
ing. To the west also belong the three great complex sagas
Egla, Eyrbyggia and Laxdcela. The first (870-980), after
noticing the migration of the father and grandfather of the hero
poet Egil, and the origin of the feud between them and the kings
of Norway, treats fully of Egil's career, his enmity with Eirik
Bloodaxe, his service with ^Ethelstan, and finally, after many
adventures abroad, of his latter days in Iceland at Borg, illustrat-
ing very clearly what manner of men those great settlers and
their descendants were, and the feelings of pride and freedom
which led them to Iceland. The style is that of Snorri, who
had himself dwelt at Borg. Eyrbyggia (890-1031) is the saga
of politics, the most loosely woven of all the compound stories.
It includes a mass of information on the law, religion, traditions,
&c., of the heathen days in Iceland, and the lives of Eric, the
real discoverer of Greenland, Biorn of Broadwick, a famous
chief, and Snorri, the greatest statesman of his day. Dr Vigfusson
would ascribe its editing and completion to Sturla the Lawman,
c. 1250. Laxdeela (910-1026) is the saga of Romance. Its
heroine Gudrun is the most famous of all Icelandic ladies. Her
love for Kiartan the poet, and his career abroad, his betrayal
by his friend Bolli, the sad death of Kiartan at his hands, the
revenge taken for him on Bolli, whose slayers are themselves
afterwards put to death, and the end of Gudrun, who becomes
an anchorite after her stormy life, make up the pith of the
story. The contrast of the characters, the rich style and fine
dialogue which are so remarkable in this saga, have much in
common with the best works of the Sturlung school.
Of the north there are the sagas of Kormak (930-960), most
primitive of all, a tale of a wild poet's love and feuds, containing
many notices of the heathen times; of V ' alzdalasaga (890-980),
relating to the settlement and the chief family in Waterdale;
of Hallfred the poet (996-1014), narrating his fortune at King
Olaf's court, his love affairs in Iceland, and finally his death
and burial at lona; of Reyk-d<ela (990), which preserves the
lives of Askell and his son Viga-Skuti; of Svarf-dala (980-990),
a cruel, coarse story of the old days, with some good scenes in
it, unfortunately imperfect, chapters i-io being forged; of Viga-
Glum (970-990), a fine story of a heathen hero, brave, crafty
and cruel. To the north also belong the sagas of Gretti the
Strong (1010-1031), the life and death of the most famous of
Icelandic outlaws, the real story of whose career is mixed up
with the mythical adventures of Beowulf, here put down to Gretti,
and with late romantic episodes and fabulous folk-tales (Dr
Vigfusson would ascribe the best parts of this saga to Sturla;
its last editor, whose additions would be better away, must
have touched it up about 1300), and the stories of the Ljosvetnin-
gasaga (1009-1060). Gudmund the Mighty and his family and
neighbours are the heroes of these tales, which form a little
cycle. The Banda-manna saga (1050-1060), the only comedy
among the sagas, is also a northern tale; it relates the struggles
of a plebeian who gets a chieftancy against the old families of
the neighbourhood, whom he successfully outwits; Ol-kofra
Pattr is a later imitation of it in the same humorous strain. The
sagas of the north are rougher and coarser than those of the
west, but have a good deal of individual character.
Of tales relating to the east there survive the Weapon-firth
cycle — the tales of Thor stein the White (c. goo), of Thar stein the
Staffsmitten (c. 985), of Gunnar Thidrand's Bane (1000-1008)
and of the Weapon-firth Men (975-990), all relating to the family
of Hof and their friends and kin for several generations — and
the story of Hrafnkell Prey's Priest (c. 960), the most idyllic
of sagas and best of the eastern tales. Of later times there are
Droplaug's Sons' Saga (997-1007), written probably about mo,
and preserved in the uncouth style ef the original (a brother's
revenge for his brother's death is the substance of it; Brand-
krossa \)atlr is an appendix to it), and the tales of Thor stein
Hall of Side's Son (c. 1014) and his brother Thidrandi (c. 996),
which belong to the cycle of Hall o' Side's Saga, unhappily lost;
they are weird tales of bloodshed and magic, with idyllic and
pathetic episodes.
The sagas of the south are either lost or absorbed in that of
Nial (970-1014), a long and complex story into which are woven
the tales of Gunnar Nial, and parts of others, as Brian Boroimhe,
Hall o' Side, &c. It is, whether we look at style, contents or
legal and historical weight, the foremost of all sagas. It deals
especially with law, and contains the pith and the moral of all
early Icelandic history. Its hero Nial, type of the good lawyer,
is contrasted with its villain Mord, the ensample of cunning,
chicane, and legal wrong doing; and a great part of the saga
is taken up with the three cases and suits of the divorce, the
death of Hoskuld and the burning of Nial, which are given
with great minuteness. The number and variety of its dramatis
personae give it the liveliest interest throughout. The women
Hallgerda, Bergthora and Ragnhild are as sharply contrasted
as the men Gunnar, Skarphedin, Flosi and Kari. The pathos
of such tragedies as the death of Gunnar and Hoskuld and the
burning is interrupted by the humour of the Althing scenes
and the intellectual interest of the legal proceedings. The plot
dealing first with the life and death of Gunnar, type of the
chivalry of his day, then with the burning of Nial by Flosi,
and how it came about, and lastly with Kari's revenge on the
burners, is the ideal saga-plot. The author must have been of
the east, a good lawyer and genealogist, and have composed it
about 1250, to judge from internal evidence. It has been
overworked by a later editor, c. 1300, who inserted many spurious
verses.
Relating partly to Iceland, but mostly to Greenland and
Vinland (N. America), are the Floamannasaga (985-990), a
good story of the adventures of Thorgils and of the otOnea-
struggles of shipwrecked colonists in Greenland, a land and
graphic and terrible picture; and Eirikssaga rauSa Nortl>
(990-1000), two versions, one northern (Flatey-book), Amerlca-
one western, the better (in Hawk's Book, and AM. 557), the story
of the discovery of Greenland and Vinland (America) by the
Icelanders at the end of the gth century. Later is the Fostbra-
drasaga (1015-1030), a very interesting story, told in a quaint
romantic style, of Thorgeir, the reckless henchman of King
Olaf , and how his death was revenged in Greenland by his sworn
brother the true-hearted Thormod Coalbrow's poet, who after-
ward dies at Sticklestad. The tale of Einar Sookisson (c. 1125)
may also be noticed. The lost saga of Poet Helgi, of which only
fragments remain, was also laid in Greenland.
Besides complete sagas there are embedded in the Heims-
kringla numerous small pattir or episodes, small tales of Ice-
landers' adventures, often relating to poets and their lives at
the kings' courts; one or two of these seem to be fragments of
sagas now lost. Among the more notable are those of Orm
Storolfsson, Ogmund Dijtt, Hattdor Snorrason, Thorstein Oxfoot,
Hromund Halt, Thoruoald Tasaldi, Svadi and Arnor Herlingar-nef.
Audnnn of Westfirlh, Sneglu-Halli, Hrafn of Hrutfiord, Hreidar
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237
Heimski, Gisli Illugison, Ivar the poet, Gull-jEsu Thord, Einar
Skulason the poet, Mani the poet, &c.
The forged Icelandic sagas appear as early as the i3th century.
They are very poor, and either worked up on hints given in
genuine stories or altogether apocryphal.
History. — About the year of the battle of Hastings was born
Ari FroSi Thorgilsson (1067-1148), one of the blood of Queen
Aud, who founded the famous historical school of Iceland, and
himself produced its greatest monument in a work which can
be compared for value with the English Domesday Book.
Nearly all that we know of the heathen commonwealth may
be traced to the collections of Ari. It was he too that fixed
the style in which history should be composed in Iceland. It
was he that secured and put into order the vast mass of frag-
mentary tradition that was already dying out in his day. And
perhaps it is the highest praise of all to him that he wrote in
his own " Danish tongue," and so ensured the use of that tongue
by the cultured of after generations. Ari's great works are
Konungabdk, or The Book of Kings, relating the history of the
kings of Norway from the rise of the Yngling dynasty down to
the death of Harald Sigurdsson in the year of his own birth.
This book he composed from the dictation of old men such as
Odd Kolsson, from the genealogical poems, and from the
various dirges, battle-songs and eulogia of the poets. It is
most probable that he also compiled shorter Kings' Books
relating to Denmark and perhaps to England. The Konungabdk
is preserved under the Heimskringla of Snorri Sturloson, parts
of it almost as they came from Ari's hands, for example Ynglinga
and Harald Fairhair's Saga, and the prefaces stating the plan
and critical foundations of the work, parts of it only used as a
framework for the magnificent superstructure of the lives of
the two Olafs, and of Harald Hardrada and his nephew Magnus
the Good. The best text of Ari's Konungabdk (Ynglinga, and
the sagas down to but not including Olaf Tryggvason's) is that
of Frisbdk. > - 1
The Book of Settlements (Landnamabdk) is a wonderful per-
formance, both in its scheme and carrying out. It is divided
into five parts, the first of which contains a brief account of
the discovery of the island; the other four, one by one taking
a quarter of the land, describe the name, pedigree and history
of each settler in geographical order, notice the most important
facts in the history of his descendants, the names of their home-
steads, their courts and temples, thus including mention of 4000
persons, one-third of whom are women, and 2000 places. The
mass of information contained in so small a space, the clearness
and accuracy of the details, the immense amount of life which
is breathed into the whole, astonish the reader, when he reflects'
that this colossal task was accomplished by one man, for his
collaborator Kolsegg merely filled up his plan with regard to
part of the east coast, a district with which Ari in his- western
home at Stad was little familiar. LandnamabSk has reached us
in two complete editions, one edited by Sturla, who brought
down the genealogies to his own grandfather and grandmother,
Sturla and Gudny, and one by Hawk, who traces the pedigrees
still later to himself.
Ari also wrote a Book of Icelanders (Islendingabdk, c. 1127),
which has perished as a whole, but fragments of it are embedded
in many sagas and Kings' Lives; it seems to have been a com-
plete epitome of his earlier works, together with an account of
the constitutional history, ecclesiastical and civil, of Iceland.
An abridgment of the latter part of it, the little Libellus Islan-
dorum (to which the title of the bigger Liber — Islendingabdk —
is often given), was made by the historian for his friends Bishops
Ketil and Thorlak, for whom he wrote the Liber (c. 1137). This
charming little book is, with the much later collections of laws,
our sole authority for the Icelandic constitution of the common-
wealth, but, " much as it tells, the lost Liber would have been
of still greater importance." Kristni-Saga, the story of the
christening of Iceland, is also a work of Ari's, " overlaid " by
a later editor, but often preserving Ari's very words. This
saga, together with several scattered tales of early Christians
in Iceland before the change of faith (1002), may have made up
a section of the lost Liber. Of the author of these works little
is known. He lived in quiet days a quiet life; but he shows
himself in his works, as Snorri describes him, " a man wise,
of good memory and a speaker of the truth." If Thucydides
is justly accounted the first political historian, Ari may be fitly
styled the first of scientific historians.
A famous contemporary and friend of Ari is Sasmund (1056-
1131), a great churchman, whose learning so impressed his age
that he got the reputation of a magician. He was the friend of
Bishop John, the founder of the great Odd-Verjar family, and
the author of a Book of Kings from Harald Fairhair to Magnus
the Good, in which he seems to have fixed the exact chronology
of each reign. It is most probable that he wrote in Latin. The
idea that he had anything to do with the poetic Edda in general,
or the Sun's Song in particular, is unfounded.
The flame which Ari had kindled was fed by his successors
in the i2th century. Eirik Oddsson (c. 1150) wrote the lives
of Sigurd Evil-deacon and the sons of Harold Gille, in his
Hryggiar-Stykki (Sheldrake), of which parts remain in the MSS.
collections of Kings' Lives, Morkin-skinna, &c. Karl Jonsson,
abbot of Thingore, the Benedictine minister, wrote (c. 1184)
Sverrissaga from the lips of that great king, a fine racy biography,
with a style and spirit of its own. Boglunga-Sogur tell the
story of the civil wars which followed Sverri's death. They are
probably by a contemporary.
The Latin Lives of St Olaf, Odd's in Latin (c. 1175), compiled
from original authorities, and the Legendary Life, by another
monk whose name is lost, are of the medieval Latin school of
Ssmund to which Gunnlaug belonged.
Snorri Sturlason (q.v.) was known to his contemporaries as
a statesman and poet; to us he is above all an historian. Snorri
(1170-1241) wrote the Lives of the Kings (Heimskringla), from
Olaf Tryggvason to Sigurd the Crusader inclusive; and we
have them substantially as they came from his hand in the
Great King Olafs Saga; St Olafs Saga, as in Heimskringla and
the Stockholm MS.; and the succeeding Kings' Lives, as in
Hulda and Hrokkinskinna, in which, however, a few episodes
have been inserted.
These works were indebted for their facts to Ari's labours, and
to sagas written since Ari's death; but the style and treatment
of them are Snorri's own. The fine Thucydidean speeches,
the dramatic power of grasping character, and the pathos and
poetry that run through the stories, along with a humour such
as is shown in the Edda, and a varied grace of style that never
flags or palls, make Snorri one of the greatest of historians.
Here it should be noticed that Heimskringla and its class
of MSS. (Eirspennil, Jofraskinna, Gullinskinna, Fris-bok and
Kringla) do not give the full text of Snorri's works. They are
abridgments made in Norway by Icelanders for their Norwegian
patrons, the Life of St Olaf alone being preserved intact, for the
great interest of the Norwegians lay in him, but all the other
Kings' Lives being more or less mutilated, so that they cannot
be trusted for historic purposes; nor do they give a fair idea
of Snorri's style.
Agrip is a 12th-century compendium of the Kings' Lives from
Harald Fairhair to Sverri, by a scholastic writer of the school of
Sajmund. As the only Icelandic abridgment of Norwegian
history taken not from Snorri but sources now lost, it is of worth.
Its real title is Konunga-lal.
Noregs Konunga-tal, now called Fagrskinna, is a Norse com-
pendium of the Kings' Lives from Halfdan the Black to Sverri's
accession, probably written for King Haakon, to whom it was
read on his death-bed. It is an original work, and contains
much not found elsewhere. As non-Icelandic it is only noticed
here for completeness.
Styrmi Karason, a contemporary of Snorri's, dying in 1245,
was a distinguished churchman (lawman twice) and scholar.
He wrote a Life of St Olaf, now lost; his authority is cited.
He also copied out Landnamabdk and Sverri's Life from his
MSS., of which surviving copies were taken.
Sturla, Snorri's nephew, wrote the Hakonssaga andMagnussaga
at the request of King Magnus, finishing the first c. 1265, the
ICELAND
latter c. 1280. King Haakon's Life is preserved in full; of the
other only fragments remain. These are the last of the series
of historic works which Ari's labours began, from which the
history of Norway for 500 years must be gathered.
A few books relating the history of other Scandinavian realms
will complete this survey. In Skioldunga-bok was told the
history of the early kings of Denmark, perhaps derived from
Ari's collections, and running parallel to Ynglinga. The earlier
part of it has perished save a fragment Sogu-brot, and citations
and paraphrases in Saxo, and the mythical Ragnar Lodbrok's
and Gongu-Hrolf's Sagas; the latter part, Lives of Harold Blue-
tooth and the Kings down to Sveyn II., is still in existence and
known as Skioldunga. •
The Knutssaga is of later origin and separate authorships,
parallel to Snorri's Heimskringla, but earlier in date. The
Lives of King Valdemar and his Son, written c. 1185, by a
contemporary of Abbot Karl's, are the last of this series. The
whole were edited and compiled into one book, often quoted
as Skioldunga, by a 13th-century editor, possibly Olaf, the
White Poet, Sturla's brother, guest and friend of King Valdemar
II. Jomsvikinga Saga, the history of the pirates of Jom, down
to Knut the Great's days, also relates to Danish history.
The complex work now known as Orkneyinga is made up of
the Earls' Saga, lives of the first great earls, Turf-Einar, Thor-
finn, &c.; the Life of Si Magnus, founded partly on Abbot
Robert's Latin life of him (c. 1150) an Orkney work, partly on
Norse or Icelandic biographies; a Mirade-book of the same saint;
the Lives of Earl Rognivald and Sveyn, the last of the vikings,
and a few episodes such as the Burning of Bishop Adam. A
scholastic sketch of the rise of the Scandinavian empire, the
Foundation of Norway, dating c. 1 1 20, is prefixed to the whole.
Ftereyinga tells the tale of the conversion of the Fsreys
or Faroes, and the lives of its chiefs Sigmund and Leif, com-
posed in the I3th century from their separate sagas by an
Icelander of the Sturlung school.
Biographies. — The saga has already been shown in two forms,
its original epic shape and its later development applied to the
lives of Norwegian and Danish kings and earls, as heroic but
deeper and broader subjects than before. In the i3th century
it is put to a third use, to tell the plain story of men's lives
for their contemporaries, after satisfying which demand it dies
away for ever.
These biographies are more literary and medieval and less
poetic than the Icelandic sagas and king's lives; their simplicity,
truth, realism and purity of style are the same. They run in
two parallel streams, some being concerned with chiefs and
champions, some with bishops. The former are mostly found
embedded in the complex mass of stories known as Sturlunga,
from which Dr Vigfusson has extricated them, and for the first
time set them in order. Among them are the sagas of Thorgils
and Haflidi (1118-1121), the feud and peacemaking of two great
chiefs, contemporaries of Ari; of Sturla (1150-1183), the founder
of the great Sturlung family, down to the settlement of his
great lawsuit by Jon Loptsson, who thereupon took his son
Snorri the historian to fosterage, — a humorous story but with
traces of the decadence about it, and glimpses of the evil days
that were to come; of the Onundar-brennusaga (1185-1200), a
tale of feud and fire-raising in the north of the island, the hero
of which, Gudmund Dyri, goes at last into a cloister; of Hrafn
Sveinbiornsson (1190-1213), the noblest Icelander of his day,
warrior, leech, seaman, craftsman, poet and chief, whose life
at home, travels and pilgrimages abroad (Hrafn was one of the
first to visit Becket's shrine), and death at the hands of a foe
whom he had twice spared, are recounted by a loving friend
in pious memory of his virtues, c. 1220; of Aron Hiorleijsson
(1200-1255), a man whose strength, courage and adventures
befit rather a henchman of Olaf Tryggvason than one of King
Haakon's thanes (the beginning of the feuds that rise round
Bishop Gudmund are told here), of the Svinefell-men (1248-
1252), a pitiful story of a family feud in the far east of Iceland.
But the most important works of this class are the Islendinga
Saga and Thorgils Saga of Lawman Sturla. Sturla and his
brother Olaf were the sons of Thord Sturlason and his mistress
Thora. Sturla was born and brought up in prosperous times,
but his manhood was passed in the midst of strife, in which his
family fell one by one, and he himself, though a peaceful man
who cared little for politics, was more than once forced to fly
for his life. While in refuge with King Magnus, in Norway,
he wrote his two sagas of that king and his father. After his
first stay in Norway he came back in 1271, with the new Norse
law-book, and served a second time as lawman. The Islendinga
must have been the work of his later years, composed at Fairey
in Broadfirth, where he died, 3oth July 1 284, aged about seventy
years. The saga of Thorgils Skardi (1252-1261) seems to have
been the first of his works on Icelandic contemporary history;
it deals with the life of his own nephew, especially his career
in Iceland from 1252 to 1258. The second part of Islendinga
(1242-1262), which relates to the second part of the civil war,
telling of the careers of Thord Kakali, Kolbein the Young, Earl
Gizur and Hrafn Oddsson. The end is imperfect, there being
a blank of some years before the fragmentary ending to which
an editor has affixed a notice of the author's death. The first
part of Islendinga (1202-1242) tells of the beginning and first
part of the civil wars, the lives of Snorri and Sighvat, Sturla's
uncles, of his cousin and namesake Sturla Sighvatsson, of
Bishop Gudmund, and Thorwald Gizursson, — the fall of the
Sturlungs, and with them the last hopes of the great houses
to maintain the commonwealth, being the climax of the story.
Sturla's power lies in his faithfulness to nature, minute
observance of detail and purity of style. The great extent
of his subject, and the difficulty of dealing with it in the saga
form, are most skilfully overcome; nor does he allow prejudice
or favour to stand in the way of the truth. He ranks below Ari
in value and below Snorri in power; but no one else can dispute
his place in the first rank of Icelandic writers.
Of the ecclesiastical biographers, an anonymous Skalholt
clerk is the best. He wrote Hungrvaka, lives of the first five
bishops of Skalholt, and biographies of his patron Bishop Paul
(Pdlssaga) and also of St Thorlak (Thorlakssaga). They are
full of interesting notices of social and church life. Thorlak
was a learned man, and had studied at Paris and Lincoln, which
he left in 1161. These lives cover the years 1056-1193. The
life of St John, a great reformer, a contemporary of Thorodd,
whom he employed to build a church for him, is by another
author (1052-1121). The life of Gudmund (Gudmundar Saga
Coda), as priest, recounts the early life of this Icelandic Becket
till his election as bishop (1160-1202); his after career must
be sought out in Islendinga. It is written by a friend and
contemporary. A later life by Arngrim, abbot of Thingore,
written c. 1350, as evidence of his subject's sanctity, tells a good
deal about Icelandic life, &c. The lives of Bishops Arni and
Lawrence bring down our knowledge of Icelandic history into
the i4th century. The former work, Arna Saga Biskups, is
imperfect; it is the record of the struggles of church and state
over patronage rights and glebes, written c. 1315; it now covers
only the years 1269-1291; a great many documents are given
in it, after the modern fashion. The latter, Laurentius Saga
Biskups, by his disciple, priest Einar Haflidason, is a charming
biography of a good and pious man, whose chequered career
in Norway and Iceland is picturesquely told (1324-1331). It
is the last of the sagas. Bishop Jon's Table-Talk (1325-1339)
is also worth noticing; it contains many popular stories which
the good bishop, who had studied at Bologna and Paris, was
wont to tell to his friends.
Annals. — The Annals are now almost the sole material for
Icelandic history; they had begun earlier, but after 1331 they
got fuller and richer, till they end in 1430. The best are A nnales
Regii, ending 1306, Einar Haflidason's Annals, known as " Law-
man's Annals," reaching to 1392, and preserved with others
in Flatey-book, and the New Annals, last of all. The Diploma-
tarium Islandicum, edited by Jon Sigurdsson, contains what
remains of deeds, inventories, letters, &c., from the old days,
completing our scanty material for this dark period of the
island's history.
ICELAND
239
Literature of Foreign Origin. — After the union with Norway
• and change of law genuine tradition died out with the great
houses. The ordinary medieval literature reached Iceland
through Norway, and every one began to put it into a vernacular
dress, so neglecting their own classics that but for a few collectors
like Lawman Hauk they would have perished entirely.
The Norwegian kings, Haakon Haakonson (c. 1 2 2 5) , and Haakon
V. (c. 1305), employed Icelanders at their courts in translating
the French romances of the Alexander, Arthur and Charlemagne
cycles. Some forty or fifty of these Riddara-Sogur (Romances
of Chivalry) remain. They reached Iceland and were eagerly
read, many Rimur being founded on them. Norse versions of
Mary of Brittany's Lays, the stories of Brutus and of Troy, and
part of the Pharsalia translated are also found. The Speculum
Regale, with its interesting geographical and social information,
is also Norse, written c. 1240, by a Halogalander. The com-
putistic and arithmetical treatises of Stiorn-Odd, Biarni the
Number-skilled (d. 1173), and Hauk Erlendsson the Lawman
(d. 1334), and the geography of Ivar Bardsson, a Norwegian
(c. 1 340) , are of course of foreign origin. A few tracts on geography,
&c., in Hauk's book, and a Guide to the Holy Land, by Nicholas,
abbot of Thwera (d. 1158), complete the list of scientific works.
The stories which contain the last lees of the old mythology
and pre-history seem to be also non-Icelandic, but amplified
by Icelandic editors, who probably got the plots from the Western
Islands. Volsunga Saga and Hervarar Saga contain quotations
and paraphrases of lays by the Helgi poet, and Half's, Ragnar's
and Asmund Kappabana's Sagas all have bits of Western poetry
in them. Hrolf Kraki's Saga paraphrases part of Biarkamal ;
Hromund Gripsson's gives the story of Helgi and Kara (the lost
third of the Helgi trilogy); Gautrek's Arrow Odd's, Frithiof's
Sagas, &c., contain shreds of true tradition amidst a mass of
later fictitious matter of no worth. With the Riddara-Sogur
they enjoyed great popularity in the i5th century, and gave
matter for many Rimur. Thidrek's Saga, a late version of the
Volsung story, is of Norse composition (c. 1230), from North
German sources.
The medieval religious literature of Western Europe also
influenced Iceland, and the Homilies (like the Laws) were,
according to Thorodd, the earliest books written in the vernacu-
lar, antedating even Ari's histories. The lives of the Virgin,
the Apostles and the Saints fill many MSS. (edited in four large
volumes by Professor Unger), and are the works of many authors,
chiefly of the i3th and i4th centuries; amongst them are the
lives of SS. Edward the Confessor, Oswald of Northumbria,
Dunstan and Thomas of Canterbury. Of the authors we know
Priest Berg Gunsteinsson (d. 1211); Kygri-Biorn, bishop-elect (d.
1237); Bishop Brand (d. 1264); Abbot Runolf (d. 1307); Bishop
Lawrence's son Arni (c. 1330); Abbot Berg (c. 1340), &c. A
paraphrase of the historical books of the Bible was made by
Bishop Brand (d. 1264), called Gydinga Sogur. About 1310
King Haakon V. ordered a commentary on the Bible to be made,
which was completed down to Exodus xix. To this Brand's
work was afterwards affixed, and the whole is known as Stiorn.
The Norse version of the famous Barlaam and Josaphal, made
for Prince Haakon (c. 1240), must not be forgotten. •.
Post-classical Literature. — The post-classical literature falls
chiefly under three heads — religious, literary and scientific.
Under the first comes foremost the noble translation of the New
Testament by Odd Gottskalksson, son of the bishop of Holar.
Brought up in Norway, he travelled in Denmark and Germany,
and took upon him the new faith before he returned to Iceland,
where he became secretary to Bishop Ogmund of Skalholt. Here
he began by translating the Gospel of Matthew into his mother-
tongue in secret. Having finished the remainder of the New
Testament at his own house at Gives, he took it to Denmark,
where it was printed at Roskild in 1540. Odd afterwards
translated the Psalms, and several devotional works of the day,
Corvinus's Epistles, &c. He was made lawman of the north
and west, and died from a fall in the Laxa in Kios, June 1556.
Three years after his death the first press was set up'in Iceland
by John Matthewson, at Breidabolstad, in Hunafloe, and a
Gospel and Epistle Book, according to Odd's version, issued from
it in 1562. In 1584 Bishop Gudbrand, who had brought over a
splendid fount of type from Denmark in 1575 (which he com-
pleted with his own hands), printed a translation of the whole
Bible at H61ar, incorporating Odd's versions and some books
(Proverbs and the Son of Sirach, 1580) translated by Bishop
Gizar, but supplying most of the Old Testament himself. This
fine volume was the basis of every Bible issued for Iceland till
1826, when it was replaced by a bad modern version. For
beauty of language and faithful simplicity of style the finer
parts of this version, especially the New Testament, have never
been surpassed.
The most notable theological work Iceland ever produced is
the Postill-Book of Bishop John Vidalin (1666-1720), whose
bold homely style and stirring eloquence made " John's Book,"
as it is lovingly called, a favourite in every household, till in the
igth century it was replaced for the worse by the more senti-
mental and polished Danish tracts and sermons. Theological
literature is very popular, and many works on this subject,
chiefly translations, will be found in the lists of Icelandic biblio-
graphers.
The first modern scientific work is the Her per patriam of
Eggert Olafsson and Biarni Paulsson, which gives an account
of the physical peculiarities — fauna, flora, &c. — of the island
as far as could be done at the date of its appearance, 1772.
The island was first made known to " the world " by this book
and by the sketch of Unno von Troil, a Swede, who accompanied
Sir Joseph Banks to Iceland in 1772, and afterwards wrote
a series of " letters " on the land and its literature, &c. This
tour was the forerunner of an endless series of " travels," of which
those of Sir W. J. Hooker, Sir G. S. Mackenzie (1810), Ebenezer
Henderson (1818), Joseph Paul Gaimard (1838-1843), Paijkull
(1867) and, lastly, that of Sir Richard Burton, an excellent
account of the land and people, crammed with information of
every kind (1875), are the best.
Iceland is emphatically a land of proverbs, while of folk-tales,
those other keys to the poeple's heart, there is plentiful store.
Early work in this direction was done by Jon Gudmundsson,
Olaf the Old and John Olafsson in the I7th century, who all
put traditions on paper, and their labours were completed by
the magnificent collection of Jon Arnason (1862-1864), who
was inspired by the example of the Grimms. Many tales are
but weak echoes of the sagas; many were family legends,
many are old fairy tales in a garb suited to their new northern
home; but, besides all these, there are a number of traditions
and superstitions of indigenous origin.
The Renaissance of Iceland dates from the beginning of the
1 7th century, when a school of antiquaries arose. Arngrim
Jonsson's Brews Commentarius (1593), and Crymogaea (1609),
were the first-fruits of this movement, of which Bishops Odd,
Thorlak and Bryniulf (worthy parallels to Parker and Laud)
were the wise and earnest supporters. The first (d. 1 630) collected
much material for church history. The second (d. 1656) saved
Sturlunga and the Bishops' Lives, encouraged John Egilsson to
write his New Hungerwaker, lives of the bishops of the Dark
Ages and Reformation, and helped Biorn of Skardsa (d. 1655),
a bold and patriotic antiquary (whose Annals continue Einar's),
in his researches. The last (d. 1675) collected a fine library of
MSS., and employed the famous copyist John Erlendsson,
to whom and the bishop's brother, John Gizurarsson (d. 1648),
we are indebted for transcripts of many lost MSS.
Torfaeus (1636-1719) and Bartholin, a Dane (d. 1690), roused
the taste for northern literature in Europe, a taste which has
never since flagged; and soon after them Arni Magnusson
(1663-1730) transferred all that remained of vellum and good
paper MSS. in Iceland to Denmark, and laid the foundations
of the famous library and bequest , for which all Icelandic students
are so much beholden. For over forty years Arni stuck to his
task, rescuing every scrap he could lay hands on from the
risks of the Icelandic climate and carelessness, and when he
died only one good MSS. remained in the island. Besides his
magnificent collection, there are a few MSS. of great value at
240
ICELAND
Upsala, at Stockholm, and in the old royal collection at Copen-
hagen. Those in the university library in the latter city perished
in the fire of 1 7 28. Sagas were printed at Upsala and Copenhagen
in the lyth century, and the Arna-Magnaean fund has been work-
ing since 1772. In that year appeared also the first volume
of Bishop Finn Jonsson's Historia Ecclesiastica Islandiae, a work
of high value and much erudition, containing not only ecclesi-
astical but civil and literary history, illustrated by a well-chosen
mass of documents, 870-1740. It has been continued by
Bishop P. Peterson to modern times, 1740-1840. The results,
however, of modern observers and scholars must be sought for
in the periodicals, Safn, Felagsrit, Ny Felagsrit and others. John
Espolin's Arbaskr is very good up to its date, 1821.
A brilliant sketch of Icelandic classic literature is given by Dr
Gudbrandr Vigfusson in the Prolegomena to Sturlunga Saga (Oxford,
1879). It replaces much earlier work, especially the Sciagraphia
of Halfdan Einarsson (1777), and the Saga-Bibliotek of Muller.
The numerous editions of the classics by the Icelandic societies,
the Danish Soci6t6 des Antiquit^s, Nordiske Litteratur Samfund,
and the new Gammel Nordisk Litteratur Samfund, the splendid
Norwegian editions of Unger, the labours of the Icelanders Sigurdsson
and Gislason, and of those foreign scholars in Scandinavia and
Germany who have thrown themselves into the work of illustrating,
publishing and editing the sagas and poems (men like P. A. Munch,
S. Bugge, F. W. Bergmann, Th. Mobius and K. von Maurer, to name
only a few), can only be referred to here. See also Finnur Jonsson,
Den Oldnorske og Oldislanske Lilteraturs Historic (Copenhagen,
1893-1900); R. B. Anderson's translation (Chicago, 1884) of Winkel
Horn's History of the Literature of the Scandinavian North; and W.
Morris and E. Magnusson's Saga Library. (F. Y. P.)
RECENT LITERATURE
The recent literature of Iceland has been in a more flourishing
state than ever before since the I3th century. Lyrical poetry is
by far the largest and the most interesting portion of it. The
great influence of Jonas Hallgrimsson (1807-1845) is still felt,
and his school was the reigning one up to the end of the igth
century, although then a change seemed to be in sight. The
most successful poet of this school is Steingrimr Thorsteinsson
(b. 1830). He is specially famous for his splendid descriptions
of scenery (The Song of Gilsbakki), his love-songs and his
sarcastic epigrams. As a translator he has enriched the literature
with The Arabian Nights, Sakuntala, King Lear and several
other masterpieces of foreign literature. Equal in fame is
Matthias Jochumsson (b. 1835), who, following another of
Jonas Hallgrimsson's many ways, has successfully revived the
old metres of the classical Icelandic poets, whom he resembles
in his majestic, but sometimes too gorgeous, language. He is
as an artist inferior to Steingrimr Thorsteinsson, but surpasses
him in bold flight of imagination. He has successfully treated
subjects from Icelandic history GrettisljdS, a series of poems
about the famous outlaw Grettir). His chief fault is a certain
carelessness in writing; he can never write a bad poem, but
rarely a poem absolutely flawless. He has translated Tegner's
Frilhiofs Saga, several plays of Shakespeare and some other
foreign masterpieces. The great religious poet of Iceland,
Hallgrimr Petursson, has found a worthy successor in Valdemar
Briem (b. 1848), whose Songs of the Bible are deservedly
popular. He is like Matthias Jochumsson in the copious flow
of his rhetoric; some of his poems are perfect both as regards
form and contents, but he sometimes neglects the latter while
polishing the former. An interesting position is occupied by
Benedict Grondal (b. 1826), whose travesties of the old
romantic stories,1 and his Aristophanic drama GandreiSin
(" The Magic Ride ") about contemporary events, are among
the best satirical and humorous productions of Icelandic
literature.
Influenced by J6nas Hallgrimsson with regard to language
and poetic diction, but keeping unbroken the traditions of
Icelandic medieval poetry maintained by SigurSr BreioTjoro"
(1798-1846), is another school of poets, very unlike the first.
In the middle of the igth century this school was best represented
by Hjalmar Jonsson from Bola (1796-1875), a poor farmer
1 E.g. " The Battle of the Plains of Death," a burlesque on the
battle of Solferino.
with little education, but endowed with great poetical talents,
and the author of satirical verses not inferior to those of Juvenal
both in force and coarseness. In the last decades of the igth
century this school produced two poets of a very high order,
both distinctly original and Icelandic. One is Pall Olafsson
(b. 1827). His songs are mostly written in the medieval
quatrains (ferskeytla) , and are generally of a humorous and
satirical character; his convivial songs are known by heart
by every modern Icelander; and although some of the poets
of the present day are more admired, there is none who is
more loved by the people. The other is porsteinn Erlingsson
(b. 1858). His exquisite satirical songs, in an easy and elegant
but still manly and splendid language, have raised much dis-
cussion. Of his poems may be mentioned The Oath, a series
of most beautiful ballads, with a tragical love-story of the i7th
century as their base, but with many and happy satirical allusions
to modern life; Jorundr, a long poem about the convict king,
the Danish pirate Jorgensen, who nearly succeeded in making
himself the master of Iceland, and The Fate of the Gods and The
Men of the West (the Americans), two poems which, with their
anti-clerical and half-socialistic tendencies, have caused strong
protests from orthodox Lutheran clergy. Near to this school,
but still standing apart, is Grimur Thomsen (b. 1820).
In the beginning of the 'eighties a new school arose — having
its origin in the colony of Icelandic students at the University
of Copenhagen. They had all attended the lectures of Georg
Brandes, the great reformer of Scandinavian literature, and,
influenced by his literary theories, they chose their models in
the realistic school. This school is very dissimilar from the
half -romantic school of Jonas Hallgrimsson; it is nearer the
national Icelandic school represented by Pall Olafsson and
Porsteinn Erlingsson, but differs from those writers by intro-
ducing foreign elements hitherto unknown in Icelandic literature,
and — especially in the case of the prose-writers — by imitating
closely the style and manner of some of the great Norwegian
novelists. Their influence brought the Icelandic literature into
new roads, and it is interesting to see how the tough Icelandic
element gradually assimilates the foreign. Of the lyrical poets,
Hannes Hafsteinn (b. 1861) is by far the most important.
In his splendid ballad, The Death of Skarphedinn, and in his
beautiful series of songs describing a voyage through some of
the most picturesque parts of Iceland, he is entirely original;
but in his love-songs, beautiful as many of them are, a strong
foreign influence can be observed. Among the innovations
of this poet we may note a predilection for new metres, sometimes
adopted from foreign languages, sometimes invented by himself,
a thing practised rarely and generally with small success by
the Icelandic poets.
No Icelandic novelist has as yet equalled Jon Th6roddsen
(1810-1868). The influence of the realistic school has of late
been predominant. The most distinguished writer of that
school has been Gestur Palsson (1852-1891), whose short stories
with their sharp and biting satire have produced many imitations
in Iceland. The best are A Home of Love and Captain Sigurd.
Jonas Jonasson (b. 1856), a clergyman of northern Iceland,
has, in a series of novels and short stories, given accurate, but
somewhat dry, descriptions of the more gloomy sides of Icelandic
country life. His best novel is Randtdr from Hvassafell, an
historical novel of the middle ages. Besides these we may
mention Torfhildur Holm, one of the few women who have
distinguished themselves in Icelandic literature. Her novels
are mostly historical. The last decade of the I9th century
saw the establishment of a permanent theatre at Reykjavik.
The poet Matthias Jochumsson has written several dramas,
but their chief merits are lyrical. The most successful of Icelandic
dramatists as yet is IndriSi Einarsson, whose plays, chiefly
historical, in spite of excessive rhetoric, are very interesting
and possess a true dramatic spirit.
In geography and geology porvaldr Thoroddsen has acquired
a European fame for his researches and travels in Iceland,
especially in the rarely-visited interior. Of his numerous
writings in Icelandic, Danish and German, the History of
ICELAND MOSS— ICE-YACHTING
241
i
!
Icelandic Geography is a monumental work. In history Pill
MelsteS's (b. 1812) chief work, the large History of the World,
belongs to this period, and its pure style has had a beneficial
influence upon modern Icelandic prose.
Of the younger historians we may mention porkell Bjarnason
(History of the Reformation in Iceland). Jon porkelsson (b.
1822), inspector of the archives of Iceland, has rendered great
services to the study of Icelandic history and literature by his
editions of the Diplomatarium Islandicum and Obituarium
Islandicum, and by his Icelandic Poetry in the i$th and i6th
Century, written in Danish, an indispensable work for any student
of that period. A leading position among Icelandic lexicographers
is occupied by Jon Porkelsson, formerly head of the Latin school
at Reykjavik, whose Supplement til islandske OrdbQger, an
Icelandic-Danish vocabulary (three separate collections), has
hardly been equalled in learning and accuracy. Other dis-
tinguished philologists are his successor as head of the Latin
school, Bjorn Magnusson Olsen (Researches on Sturlunga, Ari
the Wise, The Runes in the Old Icelandic Literature — the last
two works in Danish); Finnur Jonsson, professor at the Uni-
versity of Copenhagen (History of the Old Norwegian and Ice-
landic Literature, in Danish, and excellent editions of many old
Icelandic classical works); and Valtyr GuSmundsson, lecturer
at the University of Copenhagen (several works on the old archi-
tecture of Scandinavia) and editor of the influential Icelandic
literary and political review, EimretSin (" The Locomotive ").
See J. C. Poestion, Islandische Dichter der Neuzeit (Leipzig, 1897) ;
C. Kuchler, Geschichte der isldndischen Dichtung der Neuzeit (Leipzig,
1896); Ph. Schweitzer, Island; Land und Leute (Leipzig, 1885);
Alexander Baumgartner, Island und die Faroer (Freiburg im Breisgau,
1889). (S. BL.)
ICELAND MOSS, a lichen (Cetraria islandica) whose erect or
ascending foliaceous habit gives it something of the appearance
of a moss, whence probably the name. It is often of a pale
chestnut colour, but varies considerably, being sometimes almost
entirely greyish white; and grows to a height of from 3 to 4
in., the branches being channelled or rolled into tubes, which
terminate in flattened lobes with fringed edges. It grows
abundantly in the mountainous regions of northern countries,
and it is specially characteristic of the lava slopes and plains
of the west and north of Iceland. It is found on the mountains
of north Wales, north England, Scotland and south-west
Ireland. As met with in commerce it is a light-grey harsh
cartilaginous body, almost destitute of colour, and having a
slightly bitter taste. It contains about 70% of lichenin or
lichen-starch, a body isomeric with common starch, but wanting
any appearance of structure. It also yields a peculiar modifica-
tion of chlorophyll, called thallochlor, fumaric acid, licheno-
stearic acid and cetraric acid, to which last it owes its bitter
taste. It forms a nutritious and easily digested amylaceous
food, being used in place of starch in some preparations of
cocoa. It is not, however, in great request, and even in Iceland
it is only habitually resorted to in seasons of scarcity. Cetraric
acid or cetrarin, a white micro-crystalline powder with a bitter
taste, is readily soluble in alcohol, and slightly soluble in water
and ether. It has been recommended for medicinal use, in doses
of 2 to 4 grains, as a bitter tonic and aperient.
ICE-PLANT, the popular name for Mesembryanthemum
crystallinum, a hardy annual most effective for rockwork. It
is a low-growing spreading herbaceous plant with the fleshy
stem and leaves covered with large glittering papillae which
give it the appearance of being coated with ice. It is a dry-
country plant,a native of Greece and other parts of the Mediter-
ranean region, the Canary Islands, South Africa and California.
Mesembryanthemum is a large genus (containing about 300
species) of erect or prostrate fleshy herbs or low shrubs, mostly
natives of South Africa, and rarely hardy in the British Isles
where they are mostly grown as greenhouse plants. They bear
conspicuous white, yellow or red flowers with many petals inserted
in the calyx-tube. The thick fleshy leaves are very variable
in shape, and often have spiny rigid hairs on the margin. They
are essentially sun-loving plants. The best-known member of
the genus is M. cordifolium, var. variegatum, with heart-shaped
green and silvery leaves and bright rosy-purple flowers. It is
extensively used for edging flower-beds and borders during the
summer months.
ICE-YACHTING, the sport of sailing and racing ice-boats.
It is practised in Great Britain, Norway and Sweden, to some
extent, and is very popular in Holland and on the Gulf of Finland,
but its highest development is in the United States and Canada.
The Dutch ice-yacht is a flat-bottomed boat resting crossways
upon a planking about three feet wide and sixteen long, to which
are affixed four steel runners, one each at bow, stern and each end
of the planking. The rudder is a fifth runner fixed to a tiller.
Heavy mainsails and jibs are generally used and the boat is
built more for safety than for speed. The ice-boat of the Gulf
of Finland is a V-shaped frame with a heavy plank running
from bow to stern, in which the mast is stepped. The stern or
steering runner is worked by a tiller or wheel. The sail is a
large lug and the boom and gaff are attached to the mast by
travellers. The passengers sit upon planks or rope netting.
The Russian boats are faster than the Dutch.
In 1790 ice-yachting was in vogue on the Hudson river, its
headquarters being at Poughkeepsie, New York. The type was a
square box on three runners, the two forward ones being nailed
to the box and the third acting as a rudder operated by a tiller.
The sail was a flatheaded sprit. This primitive style generally
obtained until 1853, when triangular frames with " boxes " for
the crew aft and jib and mainsail rig were introduced. A heavy,
hard-riding type soon developed, with short gaffs, low sails,
large jibs and booms extending far over the stern. It was over-
canvassed and the mast was stepped directly over the runner-
plank, bringing the centre of sail-balance so far aft that the boats
were apt to run away, and the over-canvassing frequently caused
the windward runner to swing up into the air to a dangerous
height. The largest and fastest example of this type, which
prevailed until 1879, was Commodore J. A. Roosevelt's first
" Icicle," which measured 69 ft. over all and carried 1070 sq. ft.
of canvas. In 1879 Mr H. Relyea buik the " Robert Scott, "
which had a single backbone and wire guy-ropes, and it became
the model for all Hudson river ice-yachts. Masts were now
stepped farther forward, jibs were shortened, booms cut down,
and the centre of sail-balance was brought more inboard and
higher up, causing the centres of effort and resistance to come
more in harmony. The shallow steering-box became elliptical.
In 1881 occurred the first race for the American Challenge
Pennant,which represents the championship of the Hudson river,
the clubs competing including the Hudson river, North Shrews-
bury, Orange lake, Newburgh and Carthage Ice- Yacht Clubs.
The races are usually sailed five times round a triangle of which
each leg measures one mile, at least two of the legs being to
windward. Ice-yachts are divided into four classes, carrying
respectively 600 sq. ft. of canvas or more, between 450 and
600, between 300 and 450, and less than 300 sq. ft. Ice-yachting
is very popular on the Great Lakes, both in the United States
and Canada, the Kingston (Ontario) Club having a fleet of over
25 sail. Other important centres of the sport are Lakes Minne-
tonka and White Bear in Minnesota, Lakes Winnebago and
Pepin in Wisconsin, Bar Harbor lake in Maine, the St Lawrence
river, Quinte Bay and Lake Champlain.
A modern ice-yacht is made of a single-piece backbone
the entire length of the boat, and a runner-plank upon which
it rests at right angles, the two forming a kite-shaped frame.
The best woods for these pieces are basswood, butternut and
pine. They are cut from the log in such a way that the heart of
the timber expands, giving the planks a permanent curve, which,
in the finished boat, is turned upward. The two forward runners,
usually made of soft cast iron and about 2 ft. 7 in. long and 25
in. high, are set into oak frames a little over 5 ft. long and
5 in. high. The runners have a cutting edge of 90%, though a
V-shaped edge is often preferred for racing. The rudder is a
runner about 3 ft. 7 in. long, worked by a tiller, sometimes made
very long, 75 ft. not being uncommon. This enables the helms-
man to lie in the box at full length and steer with his feet,
leaving his hands free to tend the sheet. Masts and spars are
24-2
I-CHCANG— ICHNEUMON-FLY
generally made hollow for racing-yachts and the rigging is
pliable steel wire. The sails are of lo-oz. duck for a boat
carrying 400 sq. ft. of canvas. They have very high peaks,
short hoists and long booms. The mainsail and jib rig is general,
but a double-masted lateen rig has been found advantageous.
The foremost ice-yacht builder of America is G. E. Buckhout
of Poughkeepsie.
An ice-yacht about 40 ft. in length will carry 6 or 7 passengers
or crew, who are distributed in such a manner as to preserve the
balance of the boat. In a good breeze the crew lie out on the
windward side of the runner-plank to balance the boat and
reduce the pressure on the leeward runner. A course of 20 m.
with many turns has been sailed on the Hudson in less than
48 minutes, the record for a measured mile with flying start
being at the rate of about 72 m. an hour. In a high wind,
however, ice-yachts often move at the rate of 85 and even 90 m.
an hour.
Several of the laws of ice navigation seem marvellous to the
uninitiated. Commodore Irving Grinnell, who has made a
scientific study of the sport, says: " The two marked pecu-
liarities of ice-yachting which cause it to differ materially from
yachting on the sea are: (i) Sailing faster than the wind.
(2) Sheets flat aft under all circumstances." Mr H. A. Buck,
in the " Badminton Library," Skating, Curling, Tobogganing,
&c., thus explains these paradoxes. An ice-boat sails faster
than the wind because she invariably sails at some angle to it.
The momentum is increased by every puff of wind striking
the sails obliquely, until it is finally equalled by the increase
of friction engendered. Thus the continued bursts of wind
against the sails cause a greater accumulation of speed in the
ice-yacht than is possessed by the wind itself. When the boat
sails directly before the wind she is, like a balloon, at its mercy,
and thus does not sail faster than the wind. The ice-yacht
always sails with its sheets flat aft, because the greater speed
of the boat changes the angle at which the wind strikes the sail
from that at which it would strike if the yacht were stationary
to such a degree that, in whatever direction the yacht is sailing,
the result is always the same as if the yacht were close-hauled
to the wind. It follows that the yacht is actually overhauling
the wind, and her canvas shivers as if in the wind's eye. When
eased off her momentum becomes less and less until it drops
to the velocity of the wind, when she can readily be stopped
by being spun round and brought head to the wind. The
latter method is one way of " coming to," instead of luffing
up in the usual way from a beam wind. In beating to windward
an ice-boat is handled like a water yacht, though she points
more closely.
On the bays near New York a peculiar kind of ice-boat has
developed, called scooter, which may be described as a toboggan
with a sail. A typical scooter is about 1 5 f t. long with an extreme
beam of 5 ft., perfectly oval in form and flat. It has mainsail
and jib carried on a mast 9 or 10 ft. long and set well aft, and is
provided with two long parallel metal runners. There is no
rudder, the scooter being steered entirely by trimming the sails,
particularly the jib. As the craft is flat and buoyant it sails
well in water, and can thus be used on very thin ice without
danger. A speed of 50 m. an hour has been attained by a scooter
(see Outing for March 1905).
See Ice Sports, in the " Isthmian Library " ; Skating, Curling,
Tobogganing, 6fc. in the " Badminton Library."
I-CH'ANG (YI-CH'ANG, anciently known as Yi-ling), a town
of China in the province of Hu-peh, one of the four ports opened
to foreign trade by treaty in 1877. It is situated in 30° 42' N.
and (approximately) 111° 20' E., on the Yangtsze-Kiang, 1000 m.
from Shanghai. Built on the left bank of the river where it
escapes from the ravines and gorges which for 350 m. have
imprisoned its channel, I-ch'ang is exposed to considerable
risk of floods; in 1870 the waters rose 20 ft. in one day, and
the town had many of its houses and about half of its wall swept
away. The first English vessels to ascend the river as far as
I-ch'ang were those of Admiral Sir James Hope's expedition
in 1861. All cargo to or from Szech'uen is here transhipped
from steamer to junk, or vice versd7 About 10 m. above I-ch'ang
the famed scenery of the Yangtsze gorges begins. Through
these the great river runs in a series of rapids, which make
navigation by vessels of any size extremely difficult. A very
large trade, nevertheless, is carried on by this route between
Chungking and I-ch'ang. As a local centre of distribution this
port is of no great consequence, the transhipment trade with
Szech'uen being almost its sole business. The population is
estimated at 35,000. The number of foreign residents is very
small, trade being carried on by Chinese agents. Before the
anti-opium campaign of 1906 (see CHINA) opium was much
grown. The trade of the port amounted in 1899 to £531,229,
and in 1904 to £424,442, the principal import being cotton
yarn and the principal export opium.
ICHNEUMON (Gr. Ixvevnuv, from ixvtueiv, to track out),
the common name of the North African representative of a
number of small weasel-shaped mammals belonging to the
carnivorous family Viverridae; the Indian representatives
of the group being known as mongooses. A large number of
species of the type genus are known, and range over southern
Asia and all Africa, the typical Herpestesichneu man also occurring
in the south of Spain. The latter is an inhabitant of Egypt
and the north of Africa, where it is known to foreign residents
as " Pharaoh's rat." It is covered with long harsh fur of a tawny-
grey colour, darker on the head and along the middle of the
back, its legs reddish and its feet and tail black. It lives largely
on rats and mice, birds and reptiles, and for this reason it is
domesticated. It is, however, fond of poultry and their eggs,
and its depredations among fowls detract from its merits as a
vermin-killer. During the inundations of the Nile it is said
to approach the habitations of man, but at other seasons
it keeps to the fields and to the banks of the river. The Indian
mongoose (H. mungo) is considerably smaller than the Egyptian
animal, with fur of a
pale-grey colour, the
hairs being largely
white -ringed, while
the cheeks and
throat are more or
less reddish. Like .
the former it is fre- ESvPtlan Ichneumon (Herpestes ichneumon).
quently domesticated. It is especially serviceable in India as a
serpent-killer, destroying not only the eggs and young of these
creatures, but killing the most venomous adult snakes. The
fact that it survives those encounters has led to the belief
that it either enjoys immunity from the effects of snake
poison, or that after being bitten it has recourse, as the
Hindus maintain, to the root of a plant as an antidote.
It has been found, however, that when actually bitten
it falls a victim to the poison as rapidly as other mammals,
while there is no evidence of its seeking a vegetable antidote. The
truth seems to be that the mongoose, by its exceeding agility
and quickness of eye, avoids the fangs of the snake while fixing
its own teeth in the back of the reptile's neck. Moreover,
when excited, the mongoose erects its long stiff hair, and it
must be very difficult for a snake to drive its fangs through
this and the thick skin which all the members of the genus possess.
The mongoose never hesitates to attack a snake; the moment
he sees his enemy, " his whole nature," writes a spectator of one
of those fights, " appears to be changed. His fur stands on end,
and he presents the incarnation of intense rage. The snake
invariably attempts to escape, but, finding it impossible to evade
the rapid onslaught of the mongoose, raises his crest and lashes
out fiercely at his little persecutor, who seems to delight in dodg-
ing out of the way just in time. This goes on until the mongoose
sees his opportunity, when like lightning he rushes in and
seizes the snake with his teeth by the back of the neck close
to the head, shaking him as a terrier does a rat. These tactics
are repeated until the snake is killed." The mongoose is equally
dexterous in killing rats and other four-footed vermin.
ICHNEUMON-FLY, a general name applied to parasitic
insects of the section Ichneumonoidea (or Entomophaga) , order
ICHNOGRAPHY— ICHTHYOLOGY
243
Hymenoplera, from the typical genus Ichneumon, belonging to
the chief family of that section — itself fancifully so called
after the Egyptian mammal (Herpestes). The species of the
families (Ichneumonidae, Braconidae, Euaniidae, Proctotrypidae,
and Chalcididae are often indiscriminately called " Ichneumons. "
but the " super-family " of the Ichneumonoidea in the classifica-
tion of W. H. Ashmead contains only the Evaniidae, the Steph-
anidae, and the large assemblage of insects usually included
in the two families of the Ichneumonidae and the Braconidae,
which are respectively equivalent to the Ichneumones genuini
and /. adsciti of older naturalists, chiefly differing in the former
having two recurrent nerves to the anterior wing, whilst the latter
has only one such nerve. The Ichneumonidae proper are one
of the most extensive groups of insects. Gravenhorst described
some 1650 European species, to which considerable subsequent
additions have been made. There are 6 sub-families of the
Ichneumonidae, viz. the Ichneumoninae, Cryptinae, Agriolypinae,
Ophioninae, Tryphoninae and Pimplinae, differing considerably
in size and facies, but united in the common attribute of being,
in their earlier stages, parasitic upon other insects. They have
all long narrow bodies; a small free head with long filiform
or setaceous antennae, which are never elbowed, and have
always more than sixteen joints; the abdomen attached to the
thorax at its hinder extremity between the base of the posterior
coxae, and provided in the female with a straight ovipositor
often exserted and very long; and the wings veined, with perfect
cells on the disk of the front pair. Ashmead proposes to separate
the Agriotypidae (which are remarkable for their aquatic habit,
being parasitic on caddis-worms) from the Ichneumonidae on
account of their firm ventral abdominal segments and spined
scutellum. He also separates from the Braconidae the Alysiidae
as a distinct family; they have peculiar mandibles with out-
turned tips.
Their parasitic habits render these flies of great importance
in the economy of nature, as they serve to check any inordinate
increase in the numbers of injurious insects. Without their
aid it would in many cases be impossible for the agriculturist
to hold his own against the ravages of his minute insect foes,
whose habits are not sufficiently known to render artificial
checks or destroying agents available. The females of all the
species are constantly on the alert to discover the proper living
food for their own larvae, which are hatched from the eggs they
deposit in or on the eggs, larvae or pupae of other insects of all
orders, chiefly Lepidoptera, the caterpillars of butterflies and
moths being specially attacked (as also are spiders). Any one
who has watched insect life during the summer can hardly have
failed to notice the busy way in which the parent ichneumon,
a small four-winged fly, with constantly vibrating antennae,
searches for her prey; and the clusters of minute cocoons round
the remains of some cabbage-butterfly caterpillar must also
have been observed by many. This is the work of Apanteles
(or Microgaster) glomeratus, one of the Braconidae, which in
days past was a source of disquietude to naturalists, who believed
that the life of the one defunct larva had transmigrated into
the numerous smaller flies reared from it. Ichneumon-flies
which attack external feeders have a short ovipositor, but those
attached to wood-feeding insects have that organ of great length,
for the purpose of reaching the haunts of their concealed prey.
Thus a species from Japan (Bracon penetrator) has its ovipositor
nine times the length of the body; and the large species of
Rhyssa and Ephialtes, parasitic on Sirex and large wood-boring
beetles in temperate Europe, have very long instruments (with
which when handled they will endeavour to sting, sometimes
penetrating the skin), in order to get at their secreted victims.
A common reddish-coloured species of Ophion (0. obscurum),
with a sabre-shaped abdomen, is noteworthy from the fact of
its eggs being attached by stalks outside the body of the
caterpillar of the puss-moth (Cerura vinula). Lepidopterists
wishing to breed the latter cut off the eggs of the parasite with
scissors.
The larvae of the ichneumon-flies are white, fleshy, cylindrical,
footless grubs; the majority of them spin silk cocoons before
pupating, often in a mass (sometimes almost geometrically),
and sometimes in layers of different colours and texture.
AUTHORITIES. — Among the older works on Ichneumonoidea may
be specially mentioned J. L. K. Gravenhorst, Ichneumonologia
Europaea (Breslau, 1829); A. H. Haliday (Entom. Mag. i.-v., 1833-
1838), and A. Forster (Verhandl. Naturhist. Ver. Rheinl. u. Westph.
xix., xxv., 1862, 1868). Full reference to the systematic literature
of the group will be found in C. G. de Dalla Torre's Catalogus
hymenopterorum, vols. iii., iv. (Leipzig, 1898-1902), and a compre-
hensive summary in W. H. Ashmead s recent memoir (Proc. U.S.
Nat. Mus. xxiii., 1901). For the British species consult C. Morley,
Ichneumons of Great Britain (Plymouth, 1903), and T. A. Marshall
(Trans. Entom. Soc., 1885-1899). (G. H. C.)
ICHNOGRAPHY (Gr. ix.vos, a trace, and ypa<t>ri, description),
in architecture, a term defined by Vitruvius (i.2) as "the ground-
plan of the work," i.e. the geometrical projection or horizontal
section representing the plan of any building, taken at such a
level as to show the outer walls, with the doorways, windows,
fireplaces, &c., and the correct thickness of the walls; the
position of piers, columns or pilasters, courtyards and other
features which constitute the design.
ICHTHYOLOGY (from Gr. IxOvs, fish, and Xo7os, doctrine or
treatise), the branch of zoology which treats of the internal
and external structure of fishes, their mode of life, and their
distribution in space and time. According to the views now gener-
ally adopted, all those vertebrate animals are referred to the
class of fishes which combine the following characteristics:
they live in water, and by means of gills or branchiae breathe
air dissolved in water; the heart consists of a single ventricle
and single atrium; the limbs, if present, are modified into fins,
supplemented by unpaired median fins; and the skin is either
naked or covered with scales or with osseous plates or bucklers.
With few exceptions fishes are oviparous. There are, however,
not a few members of this class which show a modification of
one or more of these characteristics, and which, nevertheless,
cannot be separated from it.
I. HISTORY AND LITERATURE DOWN TO 1880
The commencement of the history of ichthyology coincides
with that of zoology generally. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) had a
perfect knowledge of the general structure of fishes, which he
clearly discriminates both from the aquatic animals with lungs
and mammae, i.e. Cetaceans, and from the various groups of
aquatic invertebrates. According to him: " the special charac-
teristics of the true fishes consist in the branchiae and fins, the
majority having four fins, but those of an elongate form, as the
eels, having two only. Some, as the Muraena, lack the fins
altogether. The rays swim with their whole body, which is
spread out. The branchiae are sometimes furnished with an
operculum, sometimes they are without one, as in the cartila-
ginous fishes. . . . No fish has hairs or feathers; most are
covered with scales, but some have only a rough or a smooth
skin. The tongue is hard, often toothed, and sometimes so much
adherent that it seems to be wanting. The eyes have no lids,
nor are any ears or nostrils visible, for what takes the place
of nostrils is a blind cavity; nevertheless they have the senses
of tasting, smelling and hearing. All have blood. All scaly
fishes are oviparous, but the cartilaginous fishes (with the excep-
tion of the sea-devil, which Aristotle places along with them)
are viviparous. All have a heart, liver and gall-bladder; but
kidneys and urinary bladder are absent. They vary much
in the structure of their intestines: for, whilst the mullet has
a fleshy stomach like a bird, others have no stomachic dilatation.
Pyloric caeca are close to the stomach, and vary in number;
:here are even some, like the majority of the cartilaginous fishes,
which have none whatever. Two bodies are situated along
he spine, which have the function of testicles; they open
towards the vent, and are much enlarged in the spawning
season. The scales become harder with age. Not being pro-
vided with lungs, fishes have no voice, but several can emit
runting sounds. They sleep like other animals. In most
cases the females exceed the males in size; and in the rays
and sharks the male is distinguished by an appendage on each
side of the' vent."
244
ICHTHYOLOGY
[HISTORY TO 1880
Aristotle's information on the habits of fishes, their migrations,
mode and time of propagation, and economic uses is, so far
as it has been tested, surprisingly correct. Unfortunately, we
too often lack the means of recognizing the species of which
he gives a description. His ideas of specific distinction were
as vague as those of the fishermen whose nomenclature he
adopted; it never occurred to him that vernacular names
are subject to change, or may be entirely lost in course of time,
and the difficulty of identifying his species is further increased
by the circumstance that sometimes several popular names
are applied by him to the same fish, or different stages of growth
are designated by distinct names. The number of fishes known
to Aristotle seems to have been about one hundred and fifteen,
all of which are inhabitants of the Aegean Sea.
That one man should have laid so sure a basis for future
progress in zoology is less surprising than that for about eighteen
centuries a science which seemed to offer particular attractions
to men gifted with power of observation was no further advanced.
Yet such is the case. Aristotle's successors remained satisfied
to be his copiers or commentators, and to collect fabulous stories
or vague notions. With few exceptions (such as Ausonius,
who wrote a small poem, in which he describes from his own
observations the fishes of the Moselle) authors abstained from
original research; and it was not until about the middle of the
1 6th century that ichthyology made a new step in advance
by the appearance of Belon, Rondelet and Salviani, who almost
simultaneously published their great works, by which the idea
of species was established.
P. Belon travelled in the countries bordering on the eastern
part of the Mediterranean in the years 1547-1550; he collected
Belon r*ch st°reP °f positive knowledge, which he embodied
in several works. The one most important for the
progress of ichthyology is that entitled De aquatilibus libri duo
(Paris, 1553). Belon knew about one hundred and ten fishes,
of which he gives rude but generally recognizable figures.
Although Belon rarely gives definitions of the terms used by him,
it is not generally very difficult to ascertain the limits which
he intended to assign to each division of aquatic animals. He
very properly divides them into such as are provided with blood
and those without it — two divisions corresponding in modern
language to vertebrate and invertebrate aquatic animals. The
former are classified by him according to size, the further sub-
divisions being based on the structure of the skeleton, mode of
propagation, number of limbs, form of the body and physical
character of the habitat.
The work of the Roman ichthyologist H. Salviani (1514-1572),
bears evidence of the high social position which the author
Salviani. held as physician to three popes. Its title is A quatilium
animalium historic. (Rome, 1554-1557, fol.). It treats
exclusively of the fishes of Italy. Ninety-two species are figured
on seventy-six plates, which, as regards artistic execution, are
masterpieces of that period, although those specific characteristics
which nowadays constitute the value of a zoological drawing
were overlooked by the author or artist. No attempt is made
at a natural classification, but the allied forms are generally
placed in close proximity. The descriptions are equal to those
given by Belon, entering much into the details of the economy
and uses of the several species, and were evidently composed
with the view of collecting in a readable form all that might
prove of interest to the class of society in which the author
moved. Salviani's work is of a high order. It could not fail
to render ichthyology popular in the country to the fauna of
which it was devoted, but it was not fitted to advance ichthy-
ology as a science generally; in this respect Salviani is not to
be compared with Rondelet or Belon.
G. Rondelet (1507-1557) had the great advantage over Belon
of having received a medical education at Paris, and especially
Konddct. °f having gone through a complete course of instruction
in anatomy as a pupil of Guentherus of Andernach.
This is conspicuous throughout his works — Libri de piscibus
marinis (Lyons, 1554); and Universae aqualilium historiae
pars dllera (Lyons, 1555). Nevertheless they cannot be regarded
as more than considerably enlarged editions of Belon's work.
For, although he worked independently of the latter, the system
adopted by him is characterized by the same absence of the true
principles of classification. His work is almost entirely limited
to European and chiefly to Mediterranean forms, and comprises
no fewer than one hundred and ninety-seven marine and forty-
seven fresh-water fishes. His descriptions are more complete
and his figures much more accurate than those of Belon; and the
specific account is preceded by introductory chapters, in which
he treats in a general manner of the distinctions, the external
and internal parts, and the economy of fishes. Like Belon, he had
no conception of the various categories of classification — con-
founding throughout his work the terms " genus " and " species,"
but he had an intuitive notion of what his successors called a
" species," and his principal object was to give as much informa-
tion as possible regarding such species.
For nearly a century the works of Belon and Rondelet con-
tinued to be the standard works on ichthyology; but the
science did not remain stationary during that period. The
attention of naturalists was now directed to the fauna of foreign
countries, especially of the Spanish and Dutch possessions in the
New World; and in Europe the establishment of anatomical
schools and academies led to careful investigation of the internal
anatomy of the most remarkable European forms. Limited as
these efforts were as to their scope, they were sufficiently numerous
to enlarge the views of naturalists, and to destroy that fatal
dependence on preceding authorities which had kept in bonds
even Rondelet and Belon. The most noteworthy of those
engaged in these inquiries in tropical countries were W. Piso
and G. Marcgrave, who accompanied as physicians the Dutch
governor, Count Maurice of Nassau, to Brazil (1630-1644).
Of the men who left records of their anatomical researches,
we may mention Borelli (1608-1679), who wrote a work De motu
animalium (Rome, 1680, 4to), in which he explained the mechan-
ism of swimming and the function of the air-bladder; M.
Malpighi (1628-1694), who examined the optic nerve of the
sword-fish; the celebrated J. Swammerdam (1637-1680), who
described the intestines of numerous fishes; and J. Duverney
(1648-1730), who investigated in detail the organs of respiration.
A new era in the history of ichthyology commences with Ray,
Willughby and Artedi, who were the first to recognize the true
principles by which the natural affinities of animals should be
determined. Their labours stand in so intimate a connexion
with each other that they represent but one great step in the
progress of this science.
J. Ray (1628-1705) was the friend and guide of F. Willughby
(1635-1672). They found that a thorough reform in the method
of treating the vegetable and animal kingdoms had
become necessary; that the only way of bringing ^«..a"d
order into the existing chaos was by arranging the lughby.
various forms according to their structure. They
therefore substituted facts for speculation, and one of the first
results of this change, perhaps the most important, was that,
having recognized "species" as such, they defined the term and
fixed it as the starting-point of all sound zoological knowledge.
Although they had divided their work so that Ray attended
to the plants principally, and Willughby to the animals, the
Historia piscium (Oxf., 1686), which bears Willughby's name
on the title-page and was edited by Ray, is their joint production.
A great part of the observations contained in it were collected
during the journeys they made together in Great Britain and in
the various countries of Europe.
By the definition of fishes as animals with blood, breathing
by gills, provided with a single ventricle of the heart, and either
covered with scales or naked, the Cetaceans are excluded. The
fishes proper are arranged primarily according to the cartilaginous
or the osseous nature of the skeleton, and then subdivided
according to the general form of the body, the presence or the
absence of ventral fins, the soft or the spinous structure of the
dorsal rays, the number of dorsal fins, &c. No fewer than four
hundred and twenty species are thus arranged and described,
of which about one hundred and eighty were known to the
HISTORY TO 1880]
ICHTHYOLOGY
245
authors from personal examination — a comparatively small
proportion, but descriptions and figures still formed in great
measure the substitute for our modern collections and museums.
With the increasing accumulation of forms, the want of a fixed
nomenclature had become more and more felt.
Peter Artedi ( 1 705-1 734) would have been a great ichthyologist
if Ray or Willughby had not preceded him. But he was fully
Artedi conscious of the fact that both had prepared the way
for him, and therefore he did not fail to reap every
possible advantage from their labours. His work, edited by
Linnaeus, is divided as follows: —
(i) In the Bibliotheca ichthyologica Artedi gives a very complete
list of all preceding authors who had written on fishes, with a critical
analysis of their works. (2) The Philosophia ichthyologica is devoted
to a description of the external and internal parts ol fishes; Artedi
fixes a precise terminology for all the various modifications of the
organs, distinguishing between those characters which determine a
genus and such as indicate a species or merely a variety; in fact
he establishes the method and principles which subsequently have
guided every systematic ichthyologist. (3) The Genera piscium
contains well-defined diagnoses of forty-five genera, for which he
has fixed an unchangeable nomenclature. (4) In the Species piscium
descriptions of seventy-two species, examined by himself, are given —
descriptions which even now are models of exactitude and method.
(5) Finally, in the Synonymia piscium references to all previous
authors are arranged for every species, very much in the manner
which is adopted in the systematic works of the present day.
Artedi has been justly called the father of ichthyology. So
admirable was his treatment of the subject, that even Linnaeus
could only modify and add to it. Indeed, so far as
Linnaeus, , J J
ichthyology is concerned, Linnaeus has scarcely
done anything beyond applying binominal terms to the species
properly described and classified by Artedi. His classification
of the genera appears in the I2th edition of the Systema thus: —
A. Amphibia nantia. — Spiraculis compositis. — Petromyzon, Raia,
Squalus, Chimaera. Spiraculis solitariis. — Lophius, Acipenser,
Cyclopterus, Baiistes, Ostracion, Tetrodon, Diodon, Centriscus,
Syngnathus, Pegasus.
B. Pisces apodes. — Muraena, Gymnotus, Trichiurus, Anarrhichas,
Ammodytes, Ophidium, Stromateus, Xiphias.
C. Pisces jugulares. — Callionymus, Uranoscopus, Trachinus,
Gadus, Blennius.
D. Pisces ttioracici. — Cepola, Echeneis, Coryphaena, Gobius,
Cottus, Scorpaena, Zeus, Pleuronectes, Chaetodon, Sparus, Labrus,
Sciaena, Perca, Gasterosteus, Scomber, Mullus, Trigla.
E. Pisces abdominales. — Cobitis, Amia, Silurus, Teuthis, Lori-
caria, Salmo, Fistularia, Esox, Elops, Argentina, Atherina, Mugil,
Mormyrus, Exocoetus, Polynemus, Clupea, Cyprinus.
Two contemporaries of Linnaeus, L. T. Gronow and J. T.
Klein, attempted a systematic arrangement of fishes.
The works of Artedi and Linnaeus led to an activity of research,
especially in Scandinavia, Holland, Germany and England,
such as has never been equalled in the history of biological
science. Whilst some of the pupils and followers of Linnaeus
devoted themselves to the examination and study of the fauna
of their native countries, others proceeded on voyages of discovery
to foreign and distant lands. Of these latter the following
may be especially mentioned: O. Fabricius worked out the
fauna of Greenland; Peter Kalm collected in North America,
F. Hasselquist in Egypt and Palestine, M. T. Briinnich in the
Mediterranean, Osbeck in Java and China, K. P. Thunberg in
Japan; Forskal examined and described the fishes of the Red
Sea; G. W. Steller, P. S. Pallas, S. G. Gmelin, and A. J.
Giildenstadt traversed nearly the whole of the Russian empire
in Europe and Asia. Others attached themselves as naturalists
to celebrated navigators, such as the two Forsters (father and
son) and Solander, who accompanied Cook; P. Commerson,
who travelled with Bougainville; and Pierre Sonnerat. Of
those who studied the fishes of their native countries, the most
celebrated were Pennant(Great Britain), O. F. Miiller (Denmark),
Duhamel du Monceau (France), C. von Meidinger (Austria),
J. Cornide (Spain), and A. Parra (Cuba).
The mass of materials brought together was so great that,
not long after the death of Linnaeus, the necessity made itself
felt for collecting them in a compendious form. Several compilers
undertook this task; they embodied the recent discoveries in
new editions of the classical works of Artedi and Linnaeus, but,
they only succeeded in burying those noble monuments under a
chaotic mass of rubbish. For ichthyology it was fortunate
that two men at least, Bloch and Lacepede, made it a subject
of prolonged original research.
Mark Eliezer Bloch (1723-1799), a physician of Berlin, had
reached the age of fifty-six when he began to write on ichthyo-
logical subjects. His work consists of two divisions: — Bloch
(i) Oeconomische Nalurgeschichte der Fische Deutsch-
lands (BerL, 1782-1784); (2) Naturgeschichle der ausliindischen
Fische (Berl., 1785-1795). The first division, which is devoted
to a description of the fishes of Germany, is entirely original.
His descriptions as well as figures were made from nature, and
are, with few exceptions, still serviceable; indeed many continue
to be the best existing in literature. Bloch was less fortunate,
and is much less trustworthy, in his natural history of foreign
fishes. For many of the species he had to trust to more or less
incorrect drawings and descriptions by travellers; frequently,
also, he was deceived as to the origin of specimens which he
purchased. Hence his accounts contain numerous errors,
which it would have been difficult to correct had not nearly
the whole of the materials on which his work is based been
preserved in the collections at Berlin.
After the completion of his great work Bloch prepared a general
system of fishes, in which he arranged not only those previously
described, but also those with which he had afterwards become
acquainted. The work was ably edited and published after
Bloch's death by a philologist, J. G. Schneider, under the title
M. E. Blochii Systema ichthyologiae iconibus ex. illustratum
(BerL, 1801). The number of species enumerated amounts to
1519. The system is based upon the number of the fins, the
various orders being termed Hendecapterygii, Decaplerygii, &c.
An artificial method like this led to the most unnatural
combinations and distinctions.
Bloch's Naturgeschichte remained for many years the standard
work. But as regards originality of thought Bloch was far
surpassed by his contemporary, B. G. E. de Lacepede, born at
Agen, in France, in 1756, who became professor at the museum
of natural history in Paris, where he died in 1825.
Lacepede had to contend with great difficulties in the prepara-
tions of his Histoire des poissons (Paris, 1798-1803, 5 vols.),
which was written during the most disturbed period
of the French Revolution. A great part of it was
composed whilst the author was separated from collections and
books, and had to rely on his notes and manuscripts only. Even
the works of Bloch and other contemporaneous authors remained
unknown or inaccessible to him for a long time. His work,
therefore, abounds in the kind of errors into which a compiler
is liable to fall. Thus the influence of Lacepede on the progress
of ichthyology was vastly less than that of his fellow-labourer;
and the labour laid on his successors in correcting numerous
errors probably outweighed the assistance which they derived
from his work.
The work of the principal students of ichthyology in the period
between Ray and Lacepede was chiefly systematizing and
describing; but the internal organization of fishes also received
attention from more than one great anatomist. Albrecht von
Haller, Peter Camper and John Hunter examined the nervous
system and the organs of sense; and Alexander Monro, secundus,
published a classical work, The Structure and Physiology of
Fishes Explained and Compared with those of Man and other
Animals (Edin., 1785). The electric organs of fishes (Torpedo
and Gymnotus) were examined by Reaumur, J. N. S. Allamand,
E. Bancroft, John Walsh, and still more exactly by J. Hunter.
The mystery of the propagation of the eel called forth a large
number of essays, and even the artificial propagation of Sal-
monidae was known and practised by J. G. Gleditsch (1764).
Bloch and Lacepede's works were almost immediately suc-
ceeded by the labours of Cuvier, but his early publications were
tentative, preliminary and fragmentary, so that some little
time elapsed before the spirit infused into ichthyology by this
great anatomist could exercise its influence on all the workers
in this field.
246
ICHTHYOLOGY
[HISTORY TO 1880
The Descriptions and Figures of Two Hundred Fishes collected at
Vizagapatam on the Coast of Coromandel (Lond., 1803, 2 vols.)
by Patrick Russel, and An Account of the Fishes found in the River
Ganges and its Branches (Edin., 1822, 2 vols.) by F. Hamilton
(formerly Buchanan), were works distinguished by greater accuracy
of the drawings (especially the latter) than was ever attained before.
A Natural History of British Fishes was published by E. Donovan
(Lond., 1802-1808); and the Mediterranean fauna formed the study
of the lifetime of A. Risso, Ichthyologie de Nice_ (Paris, 1810); and
Histoire naturelle de VEurope meridionale (Paris, 1827). A slight
beginning in the description of the fishes of the United States was
made by Samuel Latnam Mitchill (1764-1831), who published,
besides various papers, a Memoir on the Ichthyology of New York,
in 1815.
G. Cuvier (1769-1832) devoted himself to the study of fishes
with particular predilection. The investigation of their anatomy,
and especially of their skeleton, was continued until
he had succeeded in completing so perfect a frame-
work of the system of the whole class that his immediate
successors required only to fill up those details for which their
master had had no leisure. He ascertained the natural affinities
of the infinite variety of forms, and accurately denned the
divisions, orders, families and genera of the class, as they
appear in the various editions of the Regne Animal. His
industry equalled his genius; he formed connections with
almost every accessible part of the globe; and for many years
the museum of the Jardin des Plantes was the centre where
all ichthyological treasures were deposited. Thus Cuvier
brought together a collection which, as it contains all the materials
on which his labours were based, must still be considered as
the most important. Soon after the year 1820, Cuvier, assisted
by one of his pupils, A. Valenciennes, commenced
^'s great work on fishes, Historic naturelle des Poissons,
of which the first volume appeared in 1828. After
Cuvier's death in 1832 the work was left entirely in the hands
of Valenciennes, whose energy and interest gradually slackened,
rising to their former pitch in some parts only, as, for instance,
in the treatise, on the herring. He left the work unfinished
with the twenty-second volume (1848), which treats of the
Salmonoids. Yet, incomplete as it is, it is indispensable to the
student.
The system finally adopted by Cuvier is the following: —
A. POISSONS OSSEUX.
I. A BRANCHIES EN PEIGNES ou EN LAMES.
i. A Machoire Superieure Libre.
a. Acanthoplerygiens.
Percoides. Sparoi'des. Branchies labyrinthiques.
Polynemes. Cheiodonoi'des. Lophioi'des.
Mulles. Scomb6ro'ides. Gobioi'des.
Joues cuirassees Muges. Labroi'des.
Sci^noides.
b. Malacoptirygiens.
Abdominaux. Subbrachiens. Apodes.
cleaaes.
Gado'ides.
Pleuronectes.
Discoboles.
Mur6no'ides.
Cyprinoi'des.
Siluro'ides.
Salmonoi'des.
Clupeoi'des.
Lucioides.
2. A Machoire Superieure Fixee.
Seldrodermes. Gymnodontes.
II. A BRANCHIES EN FORME DE HOUPPES.
Lophobranches.
B. CARTILAGINEUX OU CHONDROPTERYGIENS.
Sturioniens. Plagiostomes. Cyclostomes.
We have only to compare this system with that of Linnaeus
if we wish to measure the gigantic stride made by ichthyology
during the intervening period of seventy years. The various
characters employed for classification have been examined
throughout the whole class, and their relative importance has
been duly weighed and understood. The important category
of " family " appears now in Cuvier's system fully estab-
lished as intermediate between genus and order. Important
changes in Cuvier's system have been made and proposed
by his successors, but in the main it is still that of the present
day.
Cuvier had extended his researches beyond the living forms,
into the field of palaeontology; he was the first to observe the
close resemblance of the scales of the fossil Palaeoniscus to those
of the living Polypterus and Lepidosteus, the prolongation and
identity of structure of the upper caudal lobe in Palaeoniscus
and the sturgeons, the presence of peculiar " fulcra " on the
anterior margin of the dorsal fin in Palaeoniscus and Lepidosteus,
and inferred from these facts that the fossil genus was allied
either to the sturgeons or to Lepidosteus. But it did not
occur to him that there was a close relationship between those
recent fishes. Lepidosteus and, with it, the fossil genus
remained in his system a member of the order of Malacopterygii
abdominales.
It was left to L. Agassiz (1807-1873) to point out the importance
of the structure of the scales as a characteristic, and to open a
path towards the knowledge of a whole new subclass
of fishes, the Ganoidei. Impressed with the fact that gai
the peculiar scales of Polypterus and Lepidosteus are common
to all fossil osseous fishes down to the Chalk, he takes the structure
of the scales generally as the base for an ichthyological system,
and distinguishes four orders: —
i. Plocoids. — Without scales proper, but with scales of enamel,
sometimes large, sometimes small, and reduced to mere points (Rays,
Sharks and Cyclostomi, with the fossil Hybodontes). 2. Ganoids. —
With angular bony scales, covered with a thick stratum of enamel :
to this order belong the fossil Lepidoides, Sauroides, Pycnodontes
and Coelacanthi; the recent Polypterus, Lepidosteus, Sclerodermi,
Gymnodontes, Lophobranches and Siluroides; also the Sturgeons.
3. Ctenoids. — With rough scales, which have their free margins
denticulated: Chaetodontidae, Pleuronectidae, Percidae, Poly-
acanthi, Sciaenidae, Sparidae, Scorpaenidae, Aulostomi. 4. Cycloids.
— With smooth scales, the hind margin of which lacks denticulation :
Labridae, Mugilidae, Scombridae, Gadoidei, Gobiidae, Muraenidae,
Lucioidei, Salmonidae, Clupeidae, Cyprinidae.
If Agassiz had had an opportunity of acquiring a more
extensive and intimate knowledge of existing fishes before his
energies were absorbed in the study of fossil remains, he would
doubtless have recognized the artificial character of his classi-
fication. The distinctions between cycloid and ctenoid scales,
between placoid and ganoid fishes, are vague, and can hardly
be maintained. So far as the living and post-Cretacean forms
are concerned, he abandoned the vantage-ground gained by
Cuvier; and therefore his system could never supersede that
of his predecessor, and finally shared the fate of every classifica-
tion based on the modifications of one organ only. But Agassiz
opened an immense new field of research by his study of the
infinite variety of fossil forms. In his principal work, Recherches
sur les poissons fossiles, Neuchatel, 1833-1843, 4to, atlas in
fol., he placed them before the world arranged in a methodical
manner, with excellent descriptions and illustrations. His
power of discernment and penetration in determining even the
most fragmentary remains is astonishing; and, if his order
of Ganoids is an assemblage of forms very different from what
is now understood by that term, he was the first who recognized
that such an order of fishes exists.
The discoverer of the Ganoidei was succeeded by their explorer
Johannes Miiller (1801-1858). In his classical memoir fiber
den Bau und die Grenzen der Ganoiden (Berl., 1846) he showed
that the Ganoids differ from all the other osseous fishes, and
agree with the Plagiostomes, in the structure of the heart. By
this primary character, all heterogeneous elements, as Siluroids,
Osteoglossidae, &c., were eliminated from the order as understood
by Agassiz. On the other hand, he did not recognize the affinity
of Lepidosiren to the Ganoids, but established for it a distinct
subclass, Dipnoi, which he placed at the opposite end of the
system. By his researches into the anatomy of the lampreys
and Amphioxus, their typical distinctness from other carti-
laginous fishes was proved; they became the types of two other
subclasses, Cyclostomi and Leptocardii.
Miiller proposed several other modifications of the Cuvierian
system; and, although all cannot be maintained as the most
natural arrangements, yet his researches have given us a much
more complete knowledge of the organization of the Teleostean
fishes, and later inquiries have shown that, on the whole, the
combinations proposed by him require only some further
modification and another definition to render them perfectly
natural.
HISTORY FROM 1880]
ICHTHYOLOGY
247
The discovery (in the year 1871) of a living representative
of a genus hitherto believed to be long extinct, Ceralodus, threw
a new light on the affinities of fishes. The writer of the present
article, who had the good fortune to examine this fish, was enabled
to show that, on the one hand, it was a form most closely allied
to Lepidosiren, and, on the other, that it could not be separated
from the Ganoid fishes, and therefore that Lepidosiren also was
a Ganoid, — a relation already indicated by Huxley in a previous
paper on " Devonian Fishes."
Having followed the development of the ichthyological
system down to this period, we now enumerate the most
important contributions to ichthyology which appeared contem-
poraneously with or subsequently to the publication of the great
work of Cuvier and Valenciennes. For the sake of convenience
we may arrange these works under two heads.
I. VOYAGES, CONTAINING GENERAL ACCOUNTS OF ZOOLOGICAL
COLLECTIONS
A. French.— -i. Voyage autour du monde sur les corvettes de S. M.
I'Uranie et la Physicienne, sous le commandement de M. Freycinet,
" Zoologie — Poissons," par Quoy et Gaimard (Paris, 1824). 2.
Voyage de la Coquille, " Zoologie," par Lesson (Paris, 1826-1830).
3. Voyage de I' Astrolabe, sous le commandement de M. J. Dumont
d' Urville, " Poissons," par Quoy et Gaimard (Paris, 1834). 4.
Voyage au Pole Sud par M. J. Dumont d' Urville, " Poissons," par
Hombron et Jacquinot (Paris, 1853-1854).
B. English. — i. Voyage of H.M.S. Sulphur, "Fishes," by J.
Richardson (Lond., 1844-1845). 2. Voyage of H.M.SS. Erebus and
Terror, " Fishes," by J. Richardson (Lond., 1846). 3. Voyage
of H.M.S. Beagle, " Fishes," by L. Jenyns (Lond., 1842).
C. German. — i. Reise der osterreichischen Fregatte Novara,
" Fische," von R. Kner (Vienna, 1865).
II. FAUNAE
A. Great Britain. — i. R. Parnell, The Natural History of the Fishes
of the Firth of Forth (Edin., 1838). 2. W. Yarrell, A History
of British Fishes (3rd ed., Lond., 1859). 3. J. Couch, History
of the Fishes of the British Islands (Lond., 1862-1865).
B. Denmark and Scandinavia. — I. H. Kroyer, Danmark's Fiske
(Copenhagen, 1838-1853). 2. S. Nilsson, Skandinavisk Fauna,
vol. iv. " Fiskarna " (Lund, 1855). 3. Fries och Ekstrom, Skandi-
naviens Fiskar (Stockh., 1836).
C. Russia. — i. Nordmann, " Ichthyologie ppntique," in Demi-
doff's Voyage dans la Russie meridionale, tome iii. (Paris, 1840).
D. Germany — I. Heckel und Kner, Die Susswasserfische der
osterreichischen Monarchic (Leipz., 1858). 2. C. T. E. Siebold, Die
Susswasserfische von Mitteleuropa (Leipz., 1863).
E. Italy and Mediterranean. — I. Bonaparte, Iconografia della
fauna italica, torn iii., " Pesci " (Rome, 1832-1841). 2. Costa,
Fauna del regno di Napoli, " Pesci " (Naples, about 1850).
F. France. — i. E. Blanchard, Les Poissons des eaux douces de la
France (Paris, 1866).
G. Spanish Peninsula. — The fresh-water fish fauna of Spain and
Portugal was almost unknown, until F. Steindachner paid some
visits to those countries for the purpose of exploring the principal
rivers. His discoveries are described in several papers in the Sitzungs-
berichte der Akademie zu Wien. B. du Bocage and F. de B. Capello
made contributions to our knowledge of the marine fishes on the
coast of Portugal (Jorn. Scienc. Acad. Lisb.).
H. North America. — I. T. Richardson, Fauna Boreali-Americana,
part iii., " Fishes " (Lond., 1836). The species described in this
work are nearly all from the British possessions in the north. 2.
Dekay, Zoology of New York, part iv., Fishes " (New York, 1842).
3. Reports of the United States Commission of Fish and Fisheries
(5 vols., Washington, 1873-1879) contain much valuable information.
Besides these works, numerous descriptions of North American
fresh-water fishes have been published in the reports of the various
U.S. Government expeditions, and in North American scientific
journals, by D. H. Storer, S. F. Baird, C. Girard, W. O. Ayres, E.
D. Cope, D. S. Jordan, G. Brown Goode, &c.
I. Japan. — i. Fauna Japonica, " Poissons," par H. Schlegel,
(Leiden, 1850).
J. East Indies; Tropical parts of the Indian and Pacific Oceans. —
1. E. Ruppell, Atlas zu der Reise imnordlichen Afrika (Frankf., 1828).
2. E. Ruppell, Neue Wirbelthiere, " Fische " (Frankf., 1837). 3.
R. L. Playfair and A. Gunther, The Fishes of Zanzibar (Lond.,
1876). 4. C. B. Klunzinger, Synopsis der Fische des Rothen Meers
(Vienna, 1870-1871). 5. F. Day, The Fishes of India (Lond.,
1865, 410) contains an account of the fresh- water and marine
species. 6. A. Gunther, Die Fische der Sudsee (Hamburg, 4to), from
1873 (in progress). 7. Unsurpassed in activity, as regards the
exploration of the fish fauna of the East Indian archipelago, is
P. Bleeker (1819-1878), a surgeon in the service of the Dutch East
Indian Government, who, from the year 1840, for nearly thirty years,
amassed immense collections of the fishes of the various islands,
and described them in extremely numerous papers, published chiefly
in the journals of the Batavian Society. Soon after his return to
Europe (1860) Bleeker commenced to collect the final results of his
labours in a grand work, illustrated by coloured plates, Atlas ich-
thyologique des Indes Orientales Neerlandaises (Amsterd., fol.,
1862), the publication of which was interrupted by the author's
death in 1878.
K. Africa. — i. A. Gunther, " The Fishes of the Nile," in Pethe-
rick's Travels in Central Africa (Lond., 1869). 2. W. Peters,
Naturwissenschaftliche Reise nach Mossambique, iv., " Flussfische "
(Berl., 1868, 410).
L. West Indies and South America. — i. L. Agassiz, Selecta genera
et species piscium, quae in itinere per Brasiliam collegit J. B. de Spix
(Munich, 1829, fol.). 2. F. de Castelnau, Animaux nouveaux ou rares,
recueillis pendant V expedition dans les parties centrales de I'Amerique
du Sud, Poissons " (Paris, 1855). 3. L. Vaillant and F. Bocourt,
Mission scientifique au Mexique et dans I'Amerique centrale,
" Poissons " (Paris, 1874). 4. F. Poey, the celebrated naturalist
of Havana, devoted many years of study to the fishes of Cuba.
His papers and memoirs are published partly in two periodicals,
issued by himself, under the title of Memorias sobre la historia
natural de la isla de Cuba (from 1851), and Repertorio fisico-natural
de la isla de Cuba (from 1865), partly in North American scientific
journals. And, finally, F. Steindachner and A. Gunther have pub-
lished many contributions, accompanied by excellent figures, to
our knowledge of the fishes of Central and South America.
M. New Zealand. — I. F. W. Hutton and J. Hector, Fishes of
New Zealand (Wellington, 1872).
_N. Arctic Regions. — i. C. Liitken, " A Revised Catalogue of the
Fishes of Greenland," in Manual of the Natural History, Geology
and Physics of Greenland (Lond., 1875, 8vo). 2. The fishes of
Spitzbergen were examined by A. J. Malmgren (1865). (A. C. G.)
II. HISTORY AND LITERATURE FROM 1880
In the systematic account which followed the above chapter
in the gth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, the following
classification, which is the same as that given in the author's
Introduction to the Study of Fishes (London, 1880) was adopted
by Albert Gunther: —
Subclass I. : PALAEICHTHYES.
Order I. : Chondropterygii.
With two suborders : Plagiostomata and Holocephala.
Order II. : Ganoidei.
With eight suborders : Placpdermi, Acanthpdini, Dipnoi,
Chondrostei, Pplypteroidei, Pycnodontoidei, Lepido-
steoidei, Amioidei.
Subclass II. : TELEOSTEI.
Order I. : Acanthopterygii.
With the divisions Perciformes, Berycifprmes, Kurtiformes,
Polynemiformes, Sciaeniformes, Xiphiiformes, Trichiuri-
formes, Cotto-Scombrifprmes, Gobiifprmes, Blenniformes,
Mugiliformes.Gastrosteiformes, Centriscifprmes, Gobiesoci-
formes, Channiformes, Labyrinthibranchii, Lophotiformes,
Taeniiformes and Notacanthiformes.
Order II. : Acanthopterygii Pharyngognathi.
Order III. : Anacanthini.
With two divisions : Gadoidei and Pleuronectoidei.
Order IV. : Physostomi.
Order V. : Lophobranchii.
Order VI. : Plectognathi.
Subclass III. : CYCLOSTOMATA.
Subclass IV. : LEPTOCARDII.
It was an artificial system, in which the most obvious relation-
ships of the higher groups were lost sight of, and the results
of the already fairly advanced study of the fossil forms to a great
extent discarded. This system gave rise to much adverse
criticism; as T. H. Huxley forcibly put it in a paper published
soon after (1883), opposing the division of the main groups into
Palaeichthyes and Teleostei: " Assuredly, if there is any such
distinction to be drawn on the basis of our present knowledge
among the higher fishes, it is between the Ganoids and the
Plagiostomes, and not between the Ganoids and the Teleos-
teans "; at the same time expressing his conviction, "first,
that there are no two large groups of animals for which the
evidence of a direct genetic connexion is better than in the case
of the Ganoids and the Teleosteans; and secondly, that the
proposal to separate the Elasmobranchii (Chondropterygii
of Gunther), Ganoidei and Dipnoi of Miiller into a group apart
from, and equivalent to, the Teleostei appears to be inconsistent
with the plainest relations of these fishes." This verdict has
been endorsed by all subsequent workers at the classification
of fishes.
Giinther's classification would have been vastly improved
248
ICHTHYOLOGY
[HISTORY FROM 1880
had he made use of a contribution published as early as 1871,
but not referred to by him. As not even a passing allusion
is made to it in the previous chapter, we must retrace our steps
to make good this striking omission. Edward Drinker Cope
(1840-1897) was a worker of great originality and relentless
energy, who, in the sixties of the last century, inspired by the
doctrine of evolution, was one of the first to apply its principles
to the classification of vertebrates. Equally versed in recent
and fossil zoology, and endowed with a marvellous gift, or
" instinct " for perceiving the relationship of animals, he has
done a great deal for the advance of our knowledge of
mammals, reptiles and fishes. Although often careless in the
working out of details and occasionally a little too bold in his
deductions, Cope occupies a high rank among the zoologists of
the 1 9th century, and much of his work has stood the test of
time.
The following was Cope's classification, 1871 (Tr. Amer.
Phttos. Soc. xiv. 449).
Subclass I. Holocephali.
„ II. Selachii.
„ III. Dipnoi.
„ IV. Crossopterygia, with two orders :
Haplistia and Cladistia.
„ V. Actinopteri.
The latter is subdivided in the following manner: —
Tribe I. : Chondrostei.
Two orders : Selachostomi and Glaniostomi.
Tribe II.: Physostomi.
Twelve orders: Ginglymodi, Halecomor^hi, Nematognathi,
Scyphophori, Plectospondyli, Isospondyli, Haplomi, Glanen-
cheli,Ichthyocephali,Holostomi,Enchelycephali,Colocephali.
Tribe III. : Physoclysti.
Ten orders : Opisthomi, Percesoces, Synentognathi, Herai-
branchii, Lopnobranchii, Pediculati, Heterosomata, Plecto-
gnathi, Percomorphi, Pharyngognathi.
Alongside with so much that is good in this classification,
there are many suggestions which cannot be regarded as im-
provements on the views of previous workers. Attaching too
great an importance to the mode of suspension of the mandible,
Cope separated the Holocephali from the Selachii and the
Dipnoi from the Crossopterygii, thus obscuring the general
agreement which binds these groups to each other, whilst there
is an evident want of proportion in the five subclasses. The
exclusion from the class Pisces of the Leptocardii, or lancelets,
as first advocated by E. Haeckel, was a step in the right direction,
whilst that of the Cyclostomes does not seem called for to
such an authority as R. H. Traquair, with whom the writer
of this review entirely concurs.
The group of Crossopterygians, first separated as a family
from the other Ganoids by Huxley, constituted a fortunate
innovation, and so was its division into two minor groups,
by which the existing forms (Polypteroidef) were separated as
Cladistia. The divisions of the Actinopteri, which includes all
Teleostomes other than the Dipneusti and Crossopterygii also
showed, on the whole, a correct appreciation of their relation-
ships, the Chondrostei being well separated from the other
Ganoids with which they were generally associated. In the
groupings of the minor divisions, which Cope termed orders,
we had a decided improvement on the Cuvierian-Miillerian
classification, the author having utilized many suggestions
of his fellow countrymen Theodore Gill, who has done much
towards a better understanding of their relationships. In the
association of the Characinids with the Cyprinids (Plectospondyli)
in the separation of the flat-fishes from the Ganoids, in the ap-
proximation of the Lophobranchs to the sticklebacks and of
the Plectognaths to the Acanthopterygians, and in many
other points, Cope was in advance of his time, and it is to be
regretted that his contemporaries did not more readily take
up many of his excellent suggestions for the improvement of
their systems.
In the subsequent period of his very active scientific life,
Cope made many alterations to his system, the latest scheme
published by him being the following (" Synopsis of the families
of Vertebrata," Amer. Nalur., 1889, p. 849): —
Class : Agnatha.
I. Subclass
Orders
II. Subclass
Orders
Class : Pisces.
I. Subclass
II. Subclass
III. Subclass
Orders
IV. Subclass
OSTRACODERMI.
Arrhina, Diplorrhina.
MARSIPOBRANCHII.
Hyperotreti, Hyperoarti.
HOLOCEPHALI.
DIPNOI.
ELASMOBRANCHII.
Ichthyotomi, Selachii.
TELEOSTOMI.
(i.) Superorder: Rhipidopterygia.
Orders : Rhipidistia, Actinistia.
(ii.) Superorder : Crossopterygia.
Orders : Placodermi, Haplistia, Taxistia, Cladistia.
(iii.) Superorder : Podopterygia (Chondrostei).
(iv.) Superorder : Actinopterygia.
Orders : Physostomi, Physoclysti.
This classification is that followed, with many emendations,
by A. S. Woodward in his epoch-making Catalogue of Fossil
Fishes (4 vols., London, 1889-1901), and in his most useful
Outlines of Vertebrate Paleontology (Cambridge, 1898), and was
adopted by Gunther in the loth edition of the Encyclopaedia
Britannica: —
Class : Agnatha.
I. Subclass : CYCLOSTOMI.
With three orders : (a) Hyperoartia (Lampreys); (i)
Hyperotreti (Myxinoids) ; (c) Cycliae (Palaeospondylus).
II. Subclass : OSTRACODERMI. \
With four orders : (a) Heterostraci (Coelolepidae, Psam-
mosteidae, Drepanaspidae, Pteraspidae) ; (6) Osteostraci
(Cephalaspidae, Ateleaspidae, &c.); (c) Anliarchi (As-
terolepidae, Pterichthys, Bothrolepis, &c.) ; (d) Anaspida
(Birkeniidae).
Class : Pisces.
I. Subclass : ELASMOBRANCHII.
With four orders : (a) Pleuropterygii (Cladoselache) ; (b)
Ichthyotomi (Pleuracanthidae) ; (c) Acanthpdii (Diplacan-
thidae, and Acanthodidae) ; (d) Selachii (divided from
the structure of the vertebral centres into Asterospondyli
and Tectospondyli).
II. Subclass : HOLOCEPHALI.
With one order : Chimaeroidei.
III. Subclass : DIPNOI.
With two orders : (a) Sirenoidei (Lepidosiren, Ceratodus,
Uronemidae, Ctenodontidae) ; (6) A rthrodira (Homosteus,
Coccosteus, Dinichthys).
IV. Subclass : TELEOSTOMI.
A. Order : Crossopterygii.
With four suborders: (l) Haplistia (Tarassius) ; (2)
Rhipidistia (Holoptychidae, Rhizodontidae, Ostco-
lepidae) ; (3) Actinistia (Coelacanthidae) ; (4) Clad-
istia (Polypterus).
B. Order : Actinopterygii.
With about twenty suborders : (i) Chondrostei (Palae-
oniscidae, Platysomidae, Chondrosteidae, Sturgeons);
(2) Protospondyli (Semionotidae, Macrosemiidae,
Pycnpdontidae, Eugnathidae, Amiidae, Pachy-
cormidae); (3) Aetheospondyli (Aspidqrhynchidae,
Lepidoeteidae) ; (4) Isospondyli (Pholidophoridae,
Osteoglossidae, Clupeidae, Leptolepidae, &c.) ; (5)
Plectospondyli(Cyprmidae, Characimdae) ; (6) Nemato-
gnathi; (7) Apodes; and the other Teleosteans.
There are, however, grave objections to this system, which
cannot be said to reflect the present state of our knowledge. In
his masterly paper on the evolution of the Dipneusti, L. Dollo
has conclusively shown that the importance of the autostyly
on which the definition of the Holocephali from the Elasmo-
branchii or Selachii and of the Dipneusti from the Teleostomi
rested, had been exaggerated, and that therefore the position
assigned to these two groups in Giinther's classification of 1880
still commended itself. Recent work on Palaeospondylus, on
the Ostracoderms, and on the Arthrodira, throws great doubt
on the propriety of the positions given to them in the above
classification, and the rank assigned to the main divisions of the
Teleostomi do not commend themselves to the writer of the
present article, who would divide the fishes into three sub-
classes : —
I. Cyclostomi
II. Selachii
III. Teleostomi,
the characters and contents of which will be found in separate
HISTORY FROM 1880]
ICHTHYOLOGY
249
articles; in the present state of uncertainty as to their position,
Palaeospondylus and the Ostracodermi are best placed hors cadre
and will be dealt with under these names.
The three subclasses here adopted correspond exactly with
those proposed in Theo. Gill's classification of the recent fishes
(" Families and Subfamilies of Fishes," Mem. Nat. Ac. Sci. vi.
1893), except that they are regarded by that authority as
classes.
The period dealt with in this chapter, ushered in by the publica-
tion of Giinther's Introditction to the Study of Fishes, has been
one of extraordinary activity in every branch of ichthyology,
recent and fossil. A glance at the Zoological Record, published
by the Zoological Society of London, will show the ever-increasing
number of monographs, morphological papers and systematic
contributions, which appear year after year. The number of
new genera and species which are being proposed is amazing,
but it is difficult to tell how many of them will simply go to swell
the already overburdened synonymy. Perhaps a reasonable
estimate of the living species known at the present day would
assess their number at about 13,000.
It is much to be regretted that there is not a single general
modern systematic work on fishes. The most important treatises,
the 7th volume of the Cambridge Natural History, by T. W.
Bridge and G. A. Boulenger, and D. S. Jordan's Guide to the
Study of Fishes, only profess to give definitions of the families
with enumerations of the principal genera. Gunther's Catalogue
of the Fishes in the British Museum therefore remains the only
general descriptive treatise, but its last volume dates from 1870,
and the work is practically obsolete. A second edition of it
was begun in 1894, but only one volume, by Boulenger, has
appeared, and the subject is so vast that it seems doubtful
now whether any one will ever have the time and energy to
repeat Giinther's achievement. The fish fauna of the different
parts of the world will have to be dealt with separately, and it
is in this direction that descriptive ichthyology is most likely
to progress.
North America, the fishes of which were imperfectly known
in 1880, now possesses a Descriptive Catalogue in 4 stout volumes,
by D. S. Jordan and B. W. Evermann, replacing the synopsis
brought out in 1882 by D. S. Jordan and C. H. Gilbert. A similar
treatise should embrace all the fresh-water species of Africa,
the fishes of the two principal river systems, the Nile and the
Congo, having recently been worked out by G. A. Boulenger.
Japanese ichthyology has been taken in hand by D. S. Jordan
and his pupils.
The fishes of the deep sea have been the subject of extensive
monographs by L. Vaillant (Travailleur and Talisman), A.
Giinther (Challenger), A. Alcock (Investigator), R. Collett
(Hirondelle), S. Carman (Albatross) and a general resume up
to 1895 was provided in G. B. Goode's and T. H. Bean's Oceanic
Ichthyology. More than 600 true bathybial fishes are known
from depths of 1000 fathoms and more, and a great deal of
evidence has been accumulated to show the general transition
of the surface fauna into the bathybial.
A recent departure has been the exploration of the Antarctic
fauna. Three general reports, on the results of the Southern
Cross, the Belgica and the Swedish South Polar expeditions,
had already been published in 1907, and others on the Scotia
and Discovery were in preparation. No very striking new types
of fishes have been discovered, but the results obtained are
sufficient to entirely disprove the theory of bipolarity which
some naturalists had advocated. Much has been done towards
ascertaining the life-histories of the fishes of economic im-
portance, both in Europe and in North America, and our
knowledge of the larval and post-larval forms has made great
progress.
Wonderful activity has been displayed in the field of palae-
ontology, and the careful working out of the morphology of the
archaic types has led to a better understanding of the general
lines of evolution; but it is to be regretted that very little
light on the relationships of the living groups of Teleosteans
has been thrown by the discoveries of palaeontologists.
Among the most remarkable additions made in recent years,
the work of R. H. Traquair on the problematic fishes Palaeo-
spondylus, Thelodus, Drepanaspis, Lanarkia, Aleleaspis, Birkenia
and Lanasius, ranks foremost; next to it must be placed the
icsearches of A. S. Woodward and Bashford Dean on the
primitive shark Cladoselache, and of the same authors, J. S.
Newberry, C. R. Eastman, E. W. Claypole and L. Hussakof, on
the Arthrodira, a group the affinities of which have been
much discussed.
AUTHORITIES. — The following selection from the extremely ex-
tensive ichthyological literature which has appeared during the period
1880-1906 will supplement the bibliographical notice appended to
section I. I. The General Subject: A. Gunther, Introduction to
the Study oj Fishes (Edinburgh, 1880); B. Dean, Fishes Living and
Fossil (New York, 1895); T. W. Bridge and G. A. Boulenger,
"Fishes," Cambridge Natural History, vii. (1904); D. S. Jordan,
Guide to the Study of Fishes (2 vols., New York, 1905). II. Palaeonto-
logical : A. Fritsch, Fauna der Gaskohle und der Kalksteine der Perm-
formation Bo'hmens (vols. i.-iii., Prague, 1879—1894); K. A. von
Zittel, Handbuch der Palaeontologie, vol. iii. (Munich, 1887); A.
Smith Woodward, Catalogue of Fossil Fishes in the British Museum,
vols. i.-iii. (London, 1889-1895); A. Smith Woodward, Outlines oj
Vertebrate Paldontology .for Students of Zoology (Cambridge, 1898);
J. S. Newberry, " The Palaeozoic Fishes of North America," Man.
U.S. Geol. Sum. vol. xvi. (1889); J. V. Rohon, " Die obersilurischen
Fische von Oosel, Thyestidae und Tremataspidae," Mem. Ac. Imp.
Sc. St-Petersb. xxxviii. (1892); O. Jaekel, Die Selachier von Bolca,
ein Beitrag zur Morphogenie der Wirbeltiere (Berlin, 1894) ; B. Dean,
" Contributions to the Morphology of Cladoselache," Journ. Morphol.
ix. (1894); R. H. Traquair, "The Asterolepidae," Man. Palaeont.
Soc. (1894—1904, in progress); " Report on Fossil Fishes collected
by the Geological Survey of Scotland in the Silurian Rocks of the
South of Scotland," Trans. Roy Soc. Edin. xxxix. (1899); L. Dollo,
" Sur la phylogdnie des Dipneustes," Bull. Soc. Beige Geol. vol. ix.
(1895); E. W. Claypole, The Ancestry of the Upper Devonian
Placoderms of Ohio," Amer. Geol. xvii. (1896) ; B. Dean, " Palaeonto-
logical Notes," Mem. N.Y. Ac. ii. (1901); A. Stewart and S. W.
Williston, " Cretaceous Fishes of Kansas," Univ. Geol. Sun. Kansas,
vi. (Topeka, 1901); A. S. Woodward, " Fossil Fishes of the English
Chalk," Palaeontogr. Soc. (1902-1903, etc.); R. H. Tra-
quair, " The Lower Devonian Fishes of Gemiinden," Roy. Soc.
Edin. Trans. 40 (1903); W. J. and I. B. J. Sollas, " Account of the
Devonian Fish Palaeospondylus," Phil. Trans. 196 (1903) ; C.
T. Regan, " Phylogeny of the Teleostomi," Ann. & Mag. N.H.
(7) '3 (J9O4); C. R. Eastman, "Fishes of Monte Bolca," Bull.
Mus. C.Z. 46 (1904); "Structure and Relations of Mylostoma,"
Op. cit. 2 (1906); O. Abel, " Fossile Flugfische," Jahrb. Geol.
Reichsanst. 56 (Wien, 1906); L. Hussakof. " Studies on the Arthro-
dira," Mem. Amer. Mus. N.H. ix. (1906). III. Faunistic (recent
fishes): (A) EUROPE: E. Bade, Die mitteleuropdischen Susswasser-
fische (2 vols., Berlin, 1901-1902). GREAT BRITAIN: F. Day,
The Fishes of Great Britain and Ireland (2 vols., London, 1880-1884) ;
J. T. Cunningham, The Natural History of the Marketable Marine
Fishes of the British Islands (London, 1896); W. C. M'Intosh and
A. T. Masterman, The Life-Histories of the British Marine Food-
Fishes (London, 1897); Sir H. Maxwell, British Fresh-water Fish
(London, 1904) ; F. G. Aflalo, British Salt-water Fish (London, 1904).
Numerous important researches into the development, life-conditions
and distributions, carried out at the Biological Laboratories at
Plymouth and St Andrews and during the survey of the fishing
grounds of Ireland, have been published by W. L. Calderwood,
J. T. Cunningham, E. W. L. Holt, W. C. M'Intosh, J. W. Fulton,
W. Garstang and Prince in the Journ. Mar. Biolog. Assoc., The
Reports of the Fishery Board of Scotland, Scient. Trans. R. Dublin Soc.
and other periodicals. (B) DENMARK AND SCANDINAVIA: W.
Lilljeborg, Sveriges och Norges Fiskar (3 vols., Upsala, 1881-1891);
F. A. Smith, A History of Scandinavian Fishes by B. Fries, C. U.
Ekstrom and C.Sundevall, with Plates by W. von Wright (second edition,
revised and completed by F. A. S., Stockholm, 1892); A. Stuxberg,
Sveriges och Norges Fiskar (Goteborg, 1895); C. G. J. Petersen,
Report of the Danish Biological Station (Copenhagen, 1802-1900)
(annual reports containing much information on fishes of and fishing
in the Danish seas). (C) FINLAND: G. Sundman and A. J. Mela,
Finland's Fiskar (Helsingfors, 1883-1891). (D) GERMANY: K.
Mobius and F. Heincke, " Die Fische der Ost.see," Bericht Commiss.
Untersuch. deutsch. Meere (Kiel, 1883); F. Heincke, E. Ehrenbaum
and G. Duncker have published their investigations into the life-
history and development of the fishes of Heligoland in Wissenschaftl.
Meeresuntersuchungen (Kiel and Leipzig, 1894-1899); (E) SWITZER-
LAND: V. Fatio, Faune des vertebres de la Suisse: Poissons (2 vols.,
Geneva and Basel, 1882-1890). (F) FRANCE: E. Moreau, Histoire
naturelle des poissons de la France (3 vols., Paris, 1881) ; Supplement
(Paris, 1891). (G) PYRENEAN PENINSULA: D. Carlos de Braganca,
Resultados das investigates scientificas feitas a bordo do yacht
"Amelia." Pescas maritimas, \. and ii. (Lisbon, 1899-1904). (H)
ITALY AND MEDITERRANEAN: P. Doderlein, Manuale ittiologico del
Mediterraneo (Palermo, 1881-1891, not completed; interrupted
25°
ICHTHYOLOGY
by the death of the author); E. W. L. Holt, " Recherches sur 1;
reproduction des poissons osseux, principalement dans le golfe de
Marseille," Ann. Mus. Mars. v. (Marseilles, 1899); (I) WESTERN
AND CENTRAL ASIA: L. Lortet, "Poissons et reptiles du lac de
Tiberiade," Arch. Mus. d'Hist. Nat. Lyon, iii. (1883); S. Herzen-
stein, Wissenschaftliche Resultate der von N. M. Przewalski nach
Central Asien unternommenen Reisen: Fische (St Petersburg
1888-1891); L. Berg, Fishes of Turkestan (Russian text, St Peters-
burg, 1905); G. Radde, S. Kamensky and F. F. Kawraisky have
worked out the Cyprinids and Salmonids of the Caucasus (Tiflis
1896-1899). (J) JAPAN: F. Steindachner and L. Doderlein
" Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Fische Japans," Denkschr. Ak. Wien
(vols. 67 and 68, 1883); K. Otaki, T. Fujita and T. Higurashi,
Fishes of Japan (in Japanese) (Tokyo, 1903, in progress). Numerous
papers by'D. S. Jordan, in collaboration with J. O. Snyder, E. C.
Starks, H. W Fowler and N. Sindo. (K) EAST INDIES: F. Day,
The Fauna of British India: Fishes (2 vols., London, 1889) (chiefly
an abridgment of the author's Fishes of India); M. Weber, " Die
Susswasserfische des Indischen Archipels," Zoo/. Ergebnisse e. Reise
in Niederl. Ostind. iii. (Leiden, 1894). Numerous contributions
to the fauna of the Malay Peninsula and Archipelago by G. A.
Boulenger, L. Vaillant, F. Steindachner, G. Duncker, W. Volz
and C. L. Popta. (L) AFRICA: G. A. Boulenger, Materiaux pour
la faune du Congo: poissons nouveaux (Brussels, 1898-1902, in
progress); and Poissons du bassin du Congo (Brussels, 1901); G.
Pfeffer, Die Thierwelt Ostafrikas: Fische (Berlin, 1896); A. Gunther,
G. A. Boulenger, G. Pfefrer, F. Steindachner, D. Vinciguerra, J.
Pellegrin and E. Lonnberg have published numerous contributions
to the fish-fauna of tropical Africa in various periodicals. The
marine fishes of South Africa have received special attention on the
part of J. D. F. Gilchrist, Marine Investigations in South Africa,
i. and ii. (1898-1904), and new species have been described by G. A.
Boulenger and C. T. Regan. (M) NORTH AMERICA: D. S. Jordan
andB.W. Evermann, The Fishes of North and Middle America (4 vols.,
Washington, 1896-1900); D. S. Jordan and B. W. Evermann,
American Food and Game Fishes (New York, 1902); D. S. Jordan
and C. H. Gilbert " The Fishes of Bering Sea," in Fur-Seals and
Fur-Seal Islands (Washington, 1899); The U.S. Bureau of Fisheries
(since 1903) has published annually a Report and a Bulletin, contain-
ing a vast amount of information on North American fishes and
every subject having a bearing on the fisheries of the United States;
S. E. Meek, " Fresh-water Fishes of Mexico," Field Columb. Mus.
Zoo/, v. (1904). (N) SOUTH AMERICA : C. H. and R. S. Eigenmann,
" A Catalogue of the Fresh-water Fishes of South America," Proc.
U.S. Nat. Mus. 14 (Washington, 1891); the same authors, F.
Steindachner, G. A. Boulenger, C. Berg and C. T. Regan have
published contributions in periodicals on this fauna. (O) AUS-
TRALIA: J. E. Tenison- Woods, Fish and Fisheries of New South
Wales (Sydney, 1882); J. Douglas Ogilby, Edible Fishes and Crus-
taceans of New South Wales (Sydney, 1893); J. Douglas Ogilby and
E. R. Waite are authors of numerous papers on Australian fishes
in Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales and Rec. Austral. Mus. (P) SOUTH
PACIFIC: D. S. Jordan and B. W. Evermann, "Shore Fishes of
the Hawaiian Islands," Bull. U.S. Fish. Comm. 23 (1905). (Q)
MADAGASCAR : H. E. Sauvage, Histoire physique, naturelle et politique
de Madagascar, par A. Grandidier, xvi. ; Poissons (Paris, 1891).
(R) OCEANIC FISHES : G. B. Goode and T. H. Bean, Oceanic Ichthy-
ology (Washington, 1895); A. Gunther, Deep-sea Fishes of the
" Challenger " Expedition (London, 1887); C. H. Gilbert, " Deep-sea
Fishes of the Hawaiian Islands," Bull. U.S. Fish. Comm. 23 (1905) ;
R. Collett, Norske Nordhavs Expedition: Fiske (Christiania, 1880);
C. F. Lutken, Dijmphna-Togtets Zoologisk-botaniske Udbytte: Kara-
Havets Fiske (Copenhagen, 1886); L. Vaillant, Expeditions scienti-
fiquesdu "Travailleur" etdu "Talisman": Poissons (Paris, 1888); A.
Agassiz, Three Cruises of the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey Steamer
"Blake" (Boston and New York, 1888); A. Alcock, Illustrations
of the Zoology of H.M.S. "Investigator": Fishes (Calcutta, 1892-
1899, in progress); A. Alcock, Descriptive Catalogue of the Indian
Deep-sea Fishes in the Indian Museum (Calcutta, 1899, contains
references to all the previous papers of the author on the subject) ;
R. Collett, Resultats des campagnes scientifiques accomplies par
Albert I" prince de Monaco: poissons provenant des campagnes du
yacht " I'Hirondelle," (Monaco, 1896); R. Koehler, Resultats scien-
tifiques de la campagne du " Caudan, (Paris, 1896); C. H. Gilbert
and F. Cramer, " Report on the Fishes dredged in Deep Water near
the Hawaiian Islands," Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. xix. (Washington,
1896); C. Lutken, " Spolia Atlantica," Vidensk. Selsk. Skr. vii.
andix. (Copenhagen, 1892-1898); C. Lutken, Danish I ngolf Expedi-
tion, ii. : Ichthyological Results (Copenhagen, 1808); S. Garman,
" Reports on an Exploration off the West Coast of Mexico, Central
and South America, and off the Galapagos Islands in charge of
Alexander Agassiz, by the U.S. Fish Commission Steamer "Albatross,"
during 1891, ' Mem. Mus. Comp. Zoo/, vol. xxiv. (Cambridge, U.S.A.,
1899). (S) ANTARCTIC FISHES: G. A. Boulenger, Report on the
Collections made during the voyage of the " Southern Cross ": Fishes
(London, 1902); L. Dollo, Expedition Antarctique Beige (S.Y. " Bel-
gica "). Poissons (Antwerp, 1904); E. Lonnberg, Swedish South
Polar Expedition: Fishes (Stockholm, 1905); G. A. Boulenger,
Fishes of the " Discovery " Antarctic Expedition (London, 1906)
(G. A. B.)
III. DEFINITION OF THE CLASS Pisces.
DIVISIONS
[ANATOMY
ITS PRINCIPAL
Fishes, constituting the class Pisces, may be defined as Craniate
Vertebrata, or Chordata, in which the anterior portion of the
central nervous system is expanded into a brain surrounded
by an unsegmented portion of the axial skeleton; which are
provided with a heart, breathing through gills; and in which
the limbs, if present, are in the form of fins, as opposed to the
pentadactyle, structure common to the other Vertebrata. With
the exception of a few forms in which lungs are present in addition
to the gills, thus enabling the animal to breathe atmospheric
air for more or less considerable periods (Dipneusti), all fishes
are aquatic throughout their existence.
In addition to the paired limbs, median fins are usually present,
consisting of dermal rays borne by endoskeletal supports, which
in the more primitive forms are strikingly similar in structure
to the paired fins that are assumed to have arisen from the break-
ing up of a lateral fold similar to the vertical folds out of which
the dorsal, anal and caudal fins have been evolved. The body
is naked, or scaly, or covered with bony shields or hard spines.
Leaving aside the Ostracophori, which are dealt with in a
separate article, the fishes may be divided into three subclasses;
I. Cyclostomi or Marsipobranchii, with the skull imperfectly
developed, without jaws, with a single nasal aperture, without
paired fins, and with an unpaired fin without dermal rays.
Lampreys and hag-fishes.
II. Selachii or Chondropterygii, with the skull well developed
but without membrane bones, with paired nasal apertures,
with median and paired fins, the ventrals bearing prehensile
organs (claspers) in the males. Sharks, skates and chimaeras.
III. Teleostomi, with the skull well developed and with
membrane bones, with paired nasal apertures, primarily with
median and paired fins, including all other fishes. (G. A. B.)
IV. ANATOMY1
The special importance of a study of the anatomy of fishes
h'es in the fact that fishes are on the whole undoubtedly the
most archaic of existing craniates, and it is therefore to them
especially that we must look for evidence as to the evolutionary
history of morphological features occurring in the higher groups
of vertebrates.
In making a general survey of the morphology of fishes it
is essential to take into consideration the structure of the young
developing individual (embryology) as well as that of the adult
(comparative anatomy in the narrow sense). Palaeontology
is practically dumb excepting as regards external form and
skeletal features, and even of these our knowledge must for long
be in a hopelessly imperfect state. While it is of the utmost
importance to pay due attention to embryological data it is
equally important to consider them critically and in conjunction
with broad morphological considerations. Taken by themselves
they are apt to be extremely misleading.
External Features. — The external features of a typical fish
are intimately associated with its mode of life. Its shape is
more or less that of a spindle; its surface is covered with a
lighly glandular epidermis, which is constantly producing
lubricating mucus through the agency of which skin-friction
is reduced to an extraordinary degree; and finally it possesses
a set of remarkable propelling organs or fins.
The exact shape varies greatly from the typical spindle shape with
variations in the mode of life; e.g. bottom-living fishes may be
much flattened from above downwards as in the rays, or from side
to side in the Pleuronectids such as flounder, plaice or sole, or the
shape may be much elongated as in the eels.
Head, Trunk and Tail. — In the body of the fish we may recog-
nize the three main subdivisions of the body — head, trunk
and tail — as in the higher vertebrates, but there is no definite
narrowing of the anterior region to form a neck such as occurs
n the higher groups, though a suspicion of such a narrowing
occurs in the young Lepidosiren.
1 For general anatomy of fishes, see T.'W. Bridge, Cambridge
Natural History, and R. Wiedersheim, Vergl. Anat. der Wirbelthiere.
The latter contains an excellent bibliography.
ANATOMY]
ICHTHYOLOGY
251
The tail, or postanal region, is probably a secondary develop-
ment—a prolongation of the hinder end of the body for motor
purposes. This is indicated by the fact that it frequently develops
late in ontogeny.
The vertebrate, in correlation perhaps with its extreme cephaliza-
tion, develops from before backwards (except the alimentary canal,
which develops more en bloc), there remaining at the hind end for a
prolonged period a mass of undifferentiated embryonic tissue from
the anterior side of which the definitive tissues are constantly being
developed. After development has reached the level of the anus it
still continues backwards and the tail region is formed, showing a
continuation of the same tissues as in front, notochord, nerve cord,
gut, myotomes. Of these the (postanal) gut soon undergoes atrophy.
Fins. — The fins are extensions of the body surface which
serve for propulsion. To give the necessary rigidity they are
provided with special skeletal elements, while to give mobility
they are provided with special muscles. These muscles, like
the other voluntary muscles of the body, are derived from the
primitive myotomes and are therefore segmental in origin. The
fins are divisible into two main categories — the median or
unpaired fins and the paired fins.
The median fins are to be regarded as the more primitive.
The fundamental structure of the vertebrate, with its median
FIG. I. — Heterocercal Tail of Acipenser. a, Modified median
scales (" fulcra ") ; b, bony plates.
skeletal axis and its great muscular mass divided into segments
along each side of the body, indicates that its primitive method
of movement was by waves of lateral flexure, as seen in an
Amphioxus, a cyclostome or an eel. The system of median
fins consists in the first instance of a continuous fin-fold extend-
ing round the posterior end of the body — as persists even in the
adult in the existing Dipneusti. A continuous median fin-fold
occurs also in various Teleosts (many deep-sea Teleosts, eels,
From Cambridge Natural History, vol. vii., " Fishes, &c.," by permission of Messrs.
Macmillan & Co., Ltd.
FIG. 2. — Cladoselache. (After Dean.)
&c.), though the highly specialized features in other respects
make it probable that we have here to do with a secondary
return to a condition like the primitive one. In the process
of segmentation of the originally continuous fin-fold we notice
first of all a separation of and an increase in size of that portion
of the fin which from its position at the tip of the tail region is
in the most advantageous position for producing movements of
the body. There is thus formed the caudal fin. In this region
there is a greatly increased size of the fin-fold — both dorsally
and ventrally. There is further developed a highly character-
istic asymmetry. In the original symmetrical or protocercal
( = diphycercal) type of tail (as seen in a cyclostome, a Dipnoan
and in most fish embryos) the skeletal axis of the body runs
straight out to its tip — the tail fold being equally developed
above and below the
axis. In the highly de-
veloped caudal fin of
the majority of fishes,
however, the fin-fold is
developed to a much
From "Challenger" Reports Zool., published by
H.M. Stationery Office.
FIG. 3. — Chlamydoselachus.
Giinther.)
(After
greater extent on the
ventral side, and corre-
lated with this the
skeletal axis is turned
upwards as in the helerocercal tail of sharks and sturgeons. The
highest stage in this evolution of the caudal fin is seen in the
Teleostean fishes, where the ventral tail-fold becomes developed
to such an extent as to produce a secondarily symmetrical
appearance (homocercal tail, fig. 4).
The sharks have been referred to as possessing heterocercal
tails, but, though this is true of the majority, within the limits of the
group all three types of tail-fin occur, from the protocercal tail of the
fossil Pleuracanthids and the living Chlamydoselachus to the highly
developed, practically homocercal tail of the ancient Cladoselache
(fig. 2).
The praecaudal portion of the fin-fold on the dorsal side of
the body becomes broken into numerous finlets in living Crosso-
pterygians, while in other fishes it disappears throughout part
of its length, leaving only one, two or three enlarged portions —
the dorsal fins (fig. 4, d.f.). Similarly the praecaudal part of
the fin-fold ventrally becomes reduced to a single anal fin (a./.),
occasionally continued backwards by a series of finlets (Scom-
bridae). In the sucker-fishes (Remora, Echeneis) the anterior
dorsal fin is metamorphosed into a sucker by which the creature
attaches itself to larger fishes, turtles, &c.
The paired fins — though more recent developments than
the median — are yet of very great morphological interest,
d.f
c.f...
From Cambridge Natural History, vol. vii., " Fishes, &c.," by permission of Messrs,
Macmillan & Co., Ltd.
FIG. 4. — Tilapia dolloi, a teleostean fish, to illustrate external
features. (After Boulenger.)
A, Side view. g.r, Gill rakers.
B, First branchial arch. l.l. Lateral line organs.
a.f, Anal fin. n, Nasal opening.
c.f, Caudal fin. p.f, Pelvic fin.
d.f, Dorsal fin. P-op, Preoperculum.
g.f, Gill lamellae. pt.f, Pectoral fin.
as in them we are compelled to recognize the homologues of
the paired limbs of the higher vertebrates. We accordingly
distinguish the two pairs of fins as pectoral or anterior and
pelvic ( = " ventral ") or posterior. There are two main types
of paired fin — the archiplerygial type, a paddle-like structure
supported by a jointed axis which bears lateral rays and exists
in an unmodified form in Neoceratodus alone amongst living
fishes, and the actinopterygial type, supported by fine raylike
structures as seen in the fins of any ordinary fish. The relatively
252
ICHTHYOLOGY
[ANATOMY
less efficiency of the archipterygium and its predominance
amongst the more ancient forms of fishes point to its being
the more archaic of these two types.
In the less highly specialized groups of fishes the pectoral
fins are close behind the head, the pelvic fins in the region of the
cloacal opening. In the more specialized forms the pelvic
fins frequently show a more or less extensive shifting towards
the head, so that their position is described as thoracic (fig. 4)
or jugular (Gadus — cod, haddock, &c., fig. 5).
FIG. 5. — Burbot (Lota vulgaris), with jugular ventral fins.
The median fin, especially in its caudal section, is the main propel-
ling organ : the paired fins in the majority of fishes serve for balanc-
ing. In the Dipneusti the paired fins are used for clambering about
amidst vegetation, much in the same fashion as the limbs of Urodeles.
In Ceratodus they also function as paddles. In various Teleosts
the pectoral fins have acquired secondarily a leg-like function, being
used for creeping or skipping over the mud (Periophthalmus; cf. also
Trigloids, Scorpaenids and Pediculati). In the " flying " fishes the
pectoral fins are greatly enlarged and are used as aeroplanes, their
quivering movements frequently giving a (probably erroneous)
impression of voluntary flapping movements. In the gobies and
lumpsuckers (Cyclopteridae) the pelvic fins are fused to form an
adhesive sucker ; in the Gobiesocidae they take part in the formation
of a somewhat similar sucker.
The evolutionary history of the paired limbs forms a fascinating
chapter in vertebrate morphology. As regards their origin two
hypotheses have attracted special attention: (l) that enunciated by
Gegenbaur, according to which the limb is a modified gill septum,
and (2) that supported by James K. Thacher, F. M. Balfour, St
George Mivart and others, that the paired fins are persisting and
modified portions of a once continuous fin-fold on each side of the
body. The majority of morphologists are now inclined to accept
the second of these views. Each has been supported by plausible
arguments, for which reference must be made to the literature of the
subject.1 Both views rest upon the assumed occurrence of stages for
the existence of which there is no direct evidence, viz. in the case of
(l) transitional stages between gill septum and limb, and in the case
of (2) a continuous lateral fin-fold. (There is no evidence that the
lateral row of spines in the acanthodian Climatius has any other
than a defensive significance.) In the opinion of the writer of this
article, such assumptions are without justification, now that our
knowledge of Dipnoan and Crossopterygian and Urodele embryology
points towards the former possession by the primitive vertebrate
of a series of projecting, voluntarily movable, and hence potentially
motor structure on each side of the body. It must be emphasized that
these — the true external gills — are the only organs known actually to
exist in vertebrates which might readily be transformed into limbs.
When insuperable objections are adduced to this having actually
taken place in the course of evolution, it will be time enough to fall
back upon purely hypothetical ancestral structures on which to
base the evolutionary history of the limbs.
The ectoderm covering the general surface is highly glandular.
In the case of the Dipneusti, flask -shaped multicellular glands
like those of Amphibians occur in addition to the scattered
gland cells.
A characteristic feature of glandular activity is the production of
a slight electrical disturbance. In the case of Malopterurus this
elsewhere subsidiary function of the skin has become so exaggerated
as to lead to the conversion of the skin of each side of the body into
a powerful electrical organ.1 Each of these consists of some two
million small chambers, each containing an electric disk and all
deriving their nerve supply from the branches of a single enormous
axis cylinder. This takes its origin from a gigantic ganglion cell
situated latero-dorsally in the spinal cord between the levels of the
first and second spinal nerves.
Cement Organs. — The larvae of certain Teleostomes and
Dipnoans possess special glandular organs in the head region
for the secretion of a sticky cement by which the young fish is
able to attach itself to water-plants or other objects. As a rule
these are ectodermal in origin; e.g. in Lepidosiren and Proto-
pterus* the crescentic cement organ lying ventrally behind the
1 Cf. J. Graham Kerr, Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. x. 227.
* For electric organs see W. Biedermann, Electro-Physiology.
* J. Graham Kerr, Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci. vol. xlvi.
mouth consists of a glandular thickening of the deep layer of
the ectoderm. In young ganoid fishes preoral cement organs
occur. In Crossopterygians there is one cup-shaped structure
on each side immediately in front of the mouth. Here the
glandular epithelium is endodermal, developed4 as an outgrowth
from the wall of the alimentary canal, closely resembling a gill
pouch. In Amia* the same appears to be the case. In a few
Teleosts similar organs occur, e.g. Sarcodaces, Hyperopisus,6
where so far as is known they are ectodermal.
Photogenic Organs. — The slimy secretion produced by the
epidermal glands of fishes contains in some cases substances
which apparently readily undergo a slow process of oxidation,
giving out light of low wave-length in the process and so giving
rise to a phosphorescent appearance. In many deep-sea fishes
this property of producing light-emitting secretion has under-
gone great development, leading to the existence of definite
photogenic organs. These vary much in character, and much
remains to be done in working out their minute structure. Good
examples are seen in the Teleostean family Scopelidae, where
they form brightly shining eye-like spots scattered about the
surface of the body, especially towards the ventral side.
External Gills. — In young Crossopterygians and in the young
Protopterus and Lepidosiren true external gills occur of the same
morphological nature as those of Urodele amphibians. In
Crossopterygians a single one is present on each side on the
hyoid arch; in the two Dipnoans mentioned four are present
From Trans. Zool. Soc. of London.
FlG. 6. — Larva of Polypterus. (After Budgett.)
on each side — on visceral arches III., IV., V. and VI. (It may
be recalled that in Urodeles they occur on arches III., IV. and V.,
with vestiges7 on arches I. and II.). Each external gill develops
as a projection of ectoderm with mesodermal core near the upper
end of its visceral arch; the main aortic arch is prolonged into
it as a loop. When fully developed it is pinnate, and is provided
with voluntary muscles by which it can be moved freely to
renew the water in contact with its respiratory surface. In
the case of Polypterus a short rod of cartilage projects from the
From Phil. Transactions, Royal Society of London.
FIG. 7.— Thirty Days' Larval Lepidosiren. (After Graham Kerr.)
hyoid arch into the base of the external gill. Their occurrence
with identical main features in the three groups mentioned
indicates that the external gills are important and archaic organs
of the vertebrata. Their non-occurrence in at least some of
the groups where they are absent is to be explained by the
presence of a large vascular yolk sac, which necessarily fulfils
in a very efficient way the respiratory function.
Alimentary Canal. — The alimentary canal forms a tube tra-
versing the body from mouth to cloacal opening. Corresponding
with structural and functional differences it is for descriptive
4 J. Graham Kerr, The Budgett Memorial Volume.
f J. Phelps, Science, vol. N.S. ix. p. 366; J. Eycleshymer and
Wilson, Amer. Journ. Anal. v. (1906) p. 154.
•I. S. Budgett, Trans. Zool. Soc. Land, xvi., 1901, p. 130.
7L. Driiner, Zool. Jahrbucher Anal. Band xix. (1904), S. 434.
ANATOMY]
ICHHTYOLOGY
253
n-.
purposes divided into the following regions — (i) Buccal cavity
or mouth cavity, (2) Pharynx, (3) Oesophagus or gullet, (4)
Stomach, (5) Intestine, and (6) Cloaca. The buccal cavity or
mouth cavity is morphologically a stomodaeum, i.e. it represents
an inpushing of the external surface. Its opening to the exterior
is wide and gaping in the embryo in certain groups (Selachians
and Crossopterygians), and even in the adult among the Cyclo-
stomata, but in the adult Gnathostome it can be voluntarily
opened and shut in correlation
with the presence of a hinged
jaw apparatus. The mouth
opening is less or more ventral
in position in Cyclostomes and
Selachians, while in Dipnoans
and Teleostomes it is usually
terminal.
In certain cases (e.g. Lepido-
siren)1 the buccal cavity arises
by secondary excavation with-
out any actual pushing in of
ectoderm.
It is highly characteristic
$f the vertebrata that the
pharynx — the portion of the
alimentary canal immediately
behind the buccal cavity —
communicates with the ex-
terior by a series of paired
clefts associated with the
function of respiration and
known as the visceral clefts.
It is especially characteristic
of fishes that a number of
these clefts remain open as
functional breathing organs in
the adult.
The visceral clefts arise as
hollow pouches (or at first solid
(by permission oi projections) of the endoderm.
ivmuiumui ut *_<>., mu.... After Boas, Lehr- Each pouch fuses with the
buck der Zooloeie (by permission of Gustav j ... j j
Fischer). ectoderm at its outer end and
FIG. 8. — Diagrams to illustrate then becomes perforated so as
the relations of branchial clefts and to form a free communication
pharynx in an Elasmobranch (A) between pharynx and exterior,
and a Teleost (B) ; I, 2, &c., Bran- _, '. ,
chial septa. The mesenchymatous pack-
b.c, Opercular cavity.
b.l, Respiratory lamellae,
c, Coelom.
Macmillan & Co., Ltd.).
e.b.a, Opercular opening.
hy.a, Hyoid arch.
hy.c, Hyobranchial cleft.
ing tissue between consecu-
tive clefts forms the visceral
arches, and local condensation
within each gives rise to im-
portant skeletal elements — to
l.s, Valvular outer edge of gill which the name visceral arches
septum.
n, Nasal aperture.
oes, Oesophagus.
op, Operculum.
p.q, Palato quadrate cartilage.
Ph, Pharynx.
sp, Spiracle.
is often restricted. From the
particular skeletal structures
which develop in the visceral
arches bounding it the anterior
cleft is known as the hyoman-
dibular cleft, the next one as
hyobranchial. In common usage the hyomandibular cleft is
called the spiracle, and the series of clefts behind it the branchial
clefts.
The typical functional gill cleft forms a vertical sb't, having on
each side a gill septum which separates it from its neighbours
in the series. The lining of the gill cleft possesses over a less or
greater extent of its area a richly developed network of capillary
blood-vessels, through the thin covering of which the respiratory
exchange takes place between the blood and the water which
washes through the gill cleft. The area of respiratory surface
tends to become increased by the development of outgrowths.
Frequently these take the form of regular plate-like structures
known as gill lamellae. In the Selachians these lamellae are
strap-like structures (Elasmobranch) attached along nearly their
1 J. Graham Kerr, Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci. xlvi. 423.
whole length to the gill septum as shown in fig. 8, A. In the
Holocephali and in the sturgeon the outer portions of the gill
septa have disappeared and this leads to the condition seen in
the higher Teleostomes (fig. 8, B), where the whole of the septum
has disappeared except its thick inner edge containing the
skeletal arch. It follows that in these higher Teleostomes —
including the ordinary Teleosts — the gill lamellae are attached
only at their extreme inner end.
In the young of Selachians and certain Teleosts (e.g. Gymnarchus
and Heterotis)* the gill lamellae are prolonged as filaments which
project freely to the exterior. These must not be confused with
true external gills.
The partial atrophy of the gill septa in the Teleostomes pro-
duces an important change in their appearance. Whereas
in the Selachian a series of separate gill clefts is seen in external
view each covered by a soft valvular backgrowth of its anterior
lip, in the Teleostean fish, on the other hand, a single large
opening is seen on each side (opercular opening) covered over by
the enormously enlarged valvular flap belonging to the anterior lip
of the hyobranchial cleft. This flap, an outgrowth of the hyoid
arch, is known as the operculum.
In the Teleostomi there are usually five functional clefts, but
these are the survivors of a formerly greater number. Evidence
of reduction is seen at both ends of the series. In front of the
first functional cleft (the hyobranchial) there is laid down
in the embryo the rudiment of a spiracular cleft. In the less
highly organized fishes this survives in many cases as an open
cleft.
In many sharks and in sturgeons the spiracle forms a conspicuous
opening just behind the eye. In rays and skates, which are modified
in correlation with their ground feeding habit, the spiracle is a large
opening which during the great widening out of the body during
development comes to be situated on the dorsal side, while the
branchial clefts come to be ventral in position. In existing Crosso-
pterygians the spiracle is a slit-like opening on the dorsal side of the
head which can be opened orclosed at will. In Dipneusti.as in the
higher Teleostomes, the spiracle is found as an embryonic rudiment,
but in this case it gives rise in the adult to a remarkable sense organ
of problematical function.3
Traces of what appear to be pre-spiracular clefts exist in
the embryos of various forms. Perhaps the most remarkable
of these is to be found in the larval Crossopterygian, 4 and ap-
parently also in Amia* at least, amongst the other ganoids,
where a pair of entodermal pouches become cut off from the
main entoderm and, establishing an opening to the exterior,
give rise to the lining of the cement organs of the larva.
Posteriorily there is evidence that the extension backwards of the
series of gill clefts was much greater in the primitive fishes. In
the surviving sharks (CUamydoselachus and Notidanus cinereus),
there still exist in the adult respectively six and seven branchial
clefts, while in embryonic Selachians there are frequently
to be seen pouch-like outgrowths of entoderm apparently repre-
senting rudimentary gill pouches but which never develop.
Further evidence of the progressive reduction in the series of
clefts is seen in the reduction of their functional activity at the
two ends of the series. The spiracle, even where persisting
in the adult, has lost its gill lamellae either entirely or excepting
a few vestigial lamellae forming a " pseudobranch " on its
anterior wall (Selachians, sturgeons). A similar reduction
affects the lamellae on the anterior wall of the hyobranchial
cleft (except in Selachians) and on the posterior wall of the last
branchial cleft.
A pseudobranch is frequently present in Teleostomes on the anter-
ior wall of the hyobranchial cleft, i.e. on the inner or posterior face
of the operculum. It is believed by some morphologists to belong
really to the cleft in front.6
Phytogeny. — The phylogeny of the gill clefts or pouches is un-
certain. The only organs of vertebrates comparable with them
morphologically are the enterocoelic pouches of the entoderm which
2 J. S. Budgett, op. cit.
3 W. E. Agar, Anat. Anz., 1905, S. 298.
4 J. Graham Kerr, The Budgett Memorial Volume.
6J. Phelps, Science, vol. N.S. ix. p. 366; J. Eycleshymer and
Wilson, Amer. Journ. Anat., v. 1906, p. 154.
• F. Maurer, Morphol. Jahrb. ix., 1884, S. 229, and xiv., 1888, S. 175.
254
ICHTHYOLOGY
[ANATOMY
y'f
give rise to the mesoderm. It is possible that the respiratory
significance of the wall of the gill cleft has been secondarily acquired.
This is indicated by the fact that they appear in some cases to be
lined by an ingrowth of ectoderm. This suggests that there may have
been a spreading inwards of respiratory surface from the external
gills. It is conceivable that before their walls became directly
respiratory the gill clefts served for the pumping of fresh water over
the external gills at the bases of which they lie.
Lung. — As in the higher vertebrates, there develops in all
the main groups of gnathostomatous fishes, except the Selachians,
an outgrowth of the pharyngeal
wall intimately associated with
gaseous interchange. In the
Crossopterygians and Dipnoans
this pharyngeal outgrowth agrees
exactly in its midventral origin
and in its blood-supply with the
lungs of the higher vertebrates,
and there can be no question
about its being morphologically
the same structure as it is also in
function.
In the Crossqpterygian the ven-
trally placed slit-like glottis leads
into a common chamber produced
anteriorly into two horns and
continued backwards into two
" lungs." These are smooth, thin-
walled, saccular structures, the
right one small, the left very large
and extending to the hind end of
the splanchnocoele. In the Dip-
noans the lung has taken a dorsal
position close under the vertebral
column and above the splanchno-
coele. Its walls are sacculated,
almost spongy in Lepidosiren and
Protopterus, so as to give increase
to the respiratory surface. In
Nexeratodus (fig. 9) an indication of
division into two halves is seen in
the presence of two prominent
longitudinal ridges, one dorsal and
one ventral. In Lepidosiren and
Protopterus the organ is completely
divided except at its anterior end
into a right and a left lung. The
anterior portion of the lung or lungs
is connected with the median ven-
tral glottis by a short wide vesti-
bule which lies on the right side of
the oesophagus.]
In the Teleostei the repre-
sentative of the lung, here termed
the swimbladder, has for its
predominant function a hydro-
static one; it acts as a float.
It arises as a diverticulum of the
gut-wall which may retain a
tubular connexion with the gut
(physostomatotis condition) or
may in the adult completely lose
such connexion (physoclistic) . It
shows two conspicuous differ-
ences from the lung of other
forms: (i) it arises in the young
fish as a dorsal instead of as a
ventral diverticulum, and (2) it
FIG. 9. — LungotNeoceratodus, derives its blood-supply not from
opened in its lower half to show the sixth aortic arch but from
branches of the dorsal aorta.
These differences are held by
its cellular pouches, a, Right
half; b. Left half; c, Cellular
pouches; e, Pulmonary vein;
/, Arterial ' blood-vessel; "oe, many to be sufficient to invalidate
Oesophagus, opened to show *he, homologizing of the swim-
glottis (el ) bladder with the lung. The follow-
ing facts, however, appear to do
away with the force of such a contention, (i) In the Dipneusti
(e.g. Neoceratodus) the lung apparatus has acquired a dorsal posi-
tion, but its connexion with the mid-ventral glottis is asymmetrical,
passing round the right side of the gut. Were the predominant
function of the lung in such a form to become hydrostatic we
might expect the course of evolution to lead to a shifting of the
glottis dorsalwards so as to bring it nearer to the definitive
situation of the lung. (2) In Erythrinus and other Characinids
the glottis is not mid-ventral but decidedly lateral in position,
suggesting either a retention of, or a return to, ancestral stages in the
dorsalward migration of the glottis. (3) The blood-supply of the
Teleostean swimbladder is from branches of the dorsal aorta, which
may be distributed over a long anteroposterior extent of that vessel.
Embryology, however, shows that the swimbladder arises as a local-
ized diverticulum. It follows that the blood-supply from a long stretch
of the aorta can hardly be primitive. We should rather expect the
primitive blood-supply to be from the main arteries of the pharyngeal
wall, i.e. from the hinder aortic arch as is the case with the lungs of
other forms. Now in Amia at least we actually find such a blood-
supply, there being here a pulmonary artery corresponding with that
in lung-possessing forms. Taking these points into consideration
there seems no valid reason for doubting that in lung and swim-
bladder we are dealing with the same morphological structure.
Function. — In the Crossopterygians and Dipnoans the lung
is used for respiration, while at the same time fulfilling a hydro-
static function. Amongst the Actinopterygians a few forms
still use it for respiration, but its main function is that of a float.
In connexion with this function there exists an interesting
compensatory mechanism whereby the amount of gas in the
swimbladder may be diminished (by absorption), or, on the
other hand, increased, so as to counteract alterations in specific
gravity produced, e.g. by change of pressure with change of
depth. This mechanism is specially developed in physoclistic
forms,where there occur certain glandular patches (" red glands ")
in the lining epithelium of the swimbladder richly stuffed
with capillary blood-vessels and serving apparently to secrete
gas into the swimbladder. That the gas in the swimbladder
is produced by some vital process, such as secretion, is already
indicated by its composition, as it may contain nearly 90%
of oxygen in deep-sea forms or a similar proportion of nitrogen
in fishes from deep lakes, i.e. its composition is quite different
from what it would be were it accumulated within the swimbladder
by mere ordinary diffusion processes. Further, the formation
of gas is shown by experiment to be controlled by branches of
the vagus and sympathetic nerves in an exactly similar fashion
to the secretion of saliva in a salivary gland. (See below for
relations of swimbladder to ear).
Of the important non-respiratory derivatives of the pharyn-
geal wall (thyroid, thymus, postbranchial bodies, &c.), only
the thyroid calls for special mention, as important clues to its
evolutionary history are afforded by the lampreys. In the
larval lamprey the thyroid develops as a longitudinal groove
on the pharyngeal floor. From the anterior end of this groove
there pass a pair of peripharyngeal ciliated tracts to the dorsal
side of the pharynx where they pass backwards to the hind
end of the pharynx. Morphologically the whole apparatus
corresponds closely with the endostyle and peripharyngeal and
dorsal ciliated tracts of the pharynx of Amphioxus. The corre-
spondence extends to function, as the open thyroid groove
secretes a sticky mucus which passes into the pharyngeal cavity
for the entanglement of food particles exactly as in Amphioxus.
Later on the thyroid groove becomes shut off from the pharynx;
its secretton now accumulates in the lumina of its interior and
it functions as a ductless gland as in the Gnathostomata. The
only conceivable explanation of this developmental history
of the thyroid in the lamprey is that it is a repetition of phylo-
genetic history.
Behind the pharynx comes the main portion of the alimentary
canal concerned with the digestion and absorption of the food.
This forms a tube varying greatly in length, more elongated
and coiled in the higher Teleostomes, shorter and straighter
in the Selachians, Dipnoans and lower Teleostomes. The
oesophagus or gullet, usually forming a short, wide tube, leads
into the glandular, more or less dilated stomach. This is
frequently in the form of a letter J, the longer limb being con-
tinuous with the gullet, the shorter with the intestine. The
curve of the J may be as in Polypterus and the perch produced
backwards into a large pocket. The intestine is usually marked
off from the stomach by a ring-like sphincter muscle forming the
ANATOMY]
ICHTHYOLOGY
255
pyloric valve. In the lower gnathostomatous fishes (Selachians,
Crossopterygians, Dipnoans, sturgeons) the intestine possesses
the highly characteristic spiral valve, a shelf-like projection
into its lumen which pursues a spiral course, and along the turns
of which the food passes during the course of digestion. From
its universal occurrence in the groups mentioned we conclude
that it is a structure of a very archaic type, once characteristic
of ancestral Gnathostomata; a hint as to its morphological signifi-
cance is given by its method of development.1 In an early
stage of development the intestinal rudiment is coiled into a
spiral and it is by the fusion together of the turns that the spiral
valve arises. The only feasible explanation of this peculiar
method of development seems to lie in the assumption that the
ancestral gnathostome possessed an elongated coiled intestine
which subsequently became shortened with a fusion of its coils.
In the higher fishes the spiral valve has disappeared — being
still found, however, in a reduced condition in Amia and Lepi-
dosteus, and possibly as a faint vestige in one or two Teleosts
(certain Clupeidae* and Salmonidae3). In the majority of the
Teleosts the absence of spiral valves is coupled with a secondary
elongation of the intestinal region, which in extreme cases
(Loricariidae) may be accompanied by a secondary spiral coiling.
The terminal part of the alimentary canal — the cloaca — is
characterized by the fact that into it open the two kidney ducts.
In Teleostomes the cloaca is commonly flattened out, so that
the kidney ducts and the alimentary canal come to open in-
dependently on the outer surface.
The lining of the alimentary canal is throughout the greater
part of its extent richly glandular. And at certain points local
enlargements of the secretory surface take place so as to form
glandular diverticula. The most ancient of these as indicated
by its occurrence even in Amphioxus appears to be the liver,
which, originally — as we may assume — mainly a digestive
gland, has in the existing Craniates developed important excretory
and glycogen-storing functions. Arising in the embryo as a
simple caecum, the liver becomes in the adult a compact gland of
very large size, usually bi-lobed in shape and lying in the front
portion of the splanchnocoele. The stalk of the liver rudiment
becomes drawn out into a tubular bile duct, which may become
subdivided into branches, and as a rule develops on its course
a pocket-like expansion, the gall-bladder. This may hang freely
in the splanchnocoele or may be, as in many Selachians, imbedded
in the liver substance.
The pancreas also arises by localized bulging outwards of the
intestinal lining — there being commonly three distinct rudiments
in the embryo. In the Selachians the whitish compact pancreas
of the adult opens into the intestine some little distance behind
the opening of the bile duct, but in the Teleostomes it becomes
involved in the liver outgrowth and mixed with its tissue, being
frequently recognizable only by the study of microscopic sections.
In the Dipnoans the pancreatic rudiment remains imbedded
in the wall of the intestine: its duct is united with that of the
liver.
Pyloric Caeca. — In the Teleostomi one or more glandular
diverticula commonly occur at the commencement of the
intestine and are known as the pyloric caeca. There may be
a single caecum (crossopterygians, Ammodytes amongst Teleosts)
or there may be nearly two hundred (mackerel) . In the sturgeons
the numerous caeca form a compact gland. In several families
of Teleosts, on the other hand, there is no trace of these pyloric
caeca.
In Selachians a small glandular diverticulum known as the
rectal gland opens into the terminal part of the intestine on its
dorsal side.
Coelomic Organs. — The development of the mesoderm in the
restricted sense (mesothelium) as seen in the fishes (lamprey,
Lepidosiren, Protopterus, Polypterus) appears to indicate beyond
JJ. Ruckert, Arch. Entwickelungsmech. Band iv., 1897, S. 298;
J. Graham Kerr, Phil. Trans. B. 192, 1900, p. 325, and The Budgett
Memorial Volume.
2 Cuvier et Valenciennes, Hist. nat. des poiss. xix., 1846, p. 151.
3 J. Rathke, Ub. d. Darmkanal u.s.w. d. Fische, Halle, 1824, S. 62.
doubt that the mesoderm segments of vertebrates are really
enterocoelic pouches in which the development of the lumen
is delayed. Either the inner, or both inner and outer (e.g.
Lepidosiren) walls of the mesoderm segment pass through a
myoepithelial condition and give rise eventually to the great
muscle segments (myomeres, or myotomes) which lie in series
on each side of the trunk. In the fishes these remain distinct
throughout life. The fins, both median and paired, obtain
their musculature by the ingrowth into them of muscle buds
from the adjoining myotomes.
Electrical Organs* — It is characteristic of muscle that at the
moment of contraction it produces a slight electrical disturbance.
In certain fishes definite tracts of the musculature show a reduc-
tion of their previ-
ously predominant
function of contrac-
tion and an increase
of their previously
subsidiary function of
producing electrical
disturbance; so that
the latter function is
now predominant.
In the skates (Raia)
the electrical organ is
a fusiform structure
derived from the lateral
musculature of the
tail ; in Gymnotus — the
electric eel — and in
Mormyrus it forms an
enormous structure
occupying the place of
the ventral halves of
the myotomes along
nearly the whole length
of the body; in Tor-
pedo it forms a large,
somewhat kidney-
shaped Structure as From G nbauri Untersuchungen zur vcrgleich.
Viewed trom above Anal, der Wirbeltierc, by permission of Wilhelm
lying on each side of the Engelmann.
head and derived from F,G ,o._view of Torpedo from the dorsal
side. the electric organs are exposed.
T _
< orebrain
br, Common muscular sheath covering
branchial clefts (on the left side this
has been removed so as to expose the
series of branchial sacs).
/, Spiracle.
o.e, Electric organ, on the left side the
nerve-supply is shown.
o, Eye.
t, Sensory tubes of lateral line system.
the musculature of the
anterior visceral arches.
In Torpedo the nerve- TT
supply is derived from "> Mesencephalon.
cranial nerves VII. IX. \\\< Cerebellum.
and the anterior bran- IV- Electric lobe.
chial branches of X.
The electric organ
is composed of pris-
matic columns each
built up of a row of
compartments. Each
compartment contains
a lamellated electric
disc representing the shortened-up and otherwise metamor-
phosed muscle fibre. On one face (ventral in Torpedo, anterior
in Raia) of the electric disc is a gigantic end-plate supplied
by a beautiful, dichotomously branched, terminal nervous
arborization.
The development of the mesoderm of the head region is too
obscure for treatment here.6 The ventral portion of the trunk
mesoderm gives rise to the splanchnocoel or general coelom.
Except in the Myxinoids the anterior part of the splanchnocoel
becomes separated off as a pericardiac cavity, though in adult
Selachians the separation becomes incomplete, the two cavities
being in communication by a pericardio-peritoneal canal.
Nephridial System. — The kidney system in fishes consists of
segmentally arranged tubes leading from the coelom into a
longitudinal duct which opens within the hinder end of the
enteron — the whole forming what is known as the archinephros
(Lankester) or holonephros (Price). Like the other segmented
* Cf. W. Biedermann, Electro-Physiology.
6 Literature in N. K. Koltzoff, Bull. Soc. Nat. Moscou, 1901,
P- 259-
256
ICHTHYOLOGY
[ANATOMY
organs of the vertebrate the archinephros develops from before
backwards. The sequence is, however, not regular. A small
number of tubules at the head end of the series become specially
enlarged and are able to meet the excretory needs during larval
existence (Pronephros): the immediately succeeding tubules
remain undeveloped, and then come the tubules of the rest of
the series which form the functional kidney of the adult
(Mesonephros).
The kidney tubules subserve the excretory function in two
different ways. The wall of the tubule, bathed in blood from
the posterior cardinal vein, serves to extract nitrogenous pro-
ducts of excretion from the blood and pass them into the lumen
of the tubule. The open ciliated funnel or nephrostome at the
coelomic end of the tubule serves for the passage outwards of
coelomic fluid to flush the cavity of the tubule. The secretory
activity of the coelomic lining is specially concentrated in certain
limited areas in the neighbourhood of the nephrostomes, each
such area ensheathing a rounded mass depending into the coelom
and formed of a blood-vessel coiled into a kind of skein — a
glomerulus. In the case of the pronephros the glomeruli are
as a rule fused together into a single glomus. In the mesonephros
they remain separate and in this case the portion of coelom
surrounding the glomerulus tends to be nipped off from the
general coelom — to form a Malpighian body. The separation
may be incomplete — the Malpighian coelom remaining in
connexion with the general coelom by a narrow peritoneal
canal. The splanchnocoelic end of this is usually ciliated and
is termed a peritoneal funnel: it is frequently confused with
the nephrostome.
Mesonephros. — The kidney of the adult fish is usually a compact
gland extending over a considerable distance in an anteroposterior
direction and lying immediately dorsal to the coelomic cavity.
Peritoneal funnels are present in the adult of certain Selachians
(e.g. Acanthias, Squatina), though apparently in at least some
of these forms they no longer communicate with the Malpighian
bodies or tubules. The kidneys of the two sides become fused
together posteriorly in Protopterus and in some Teleosts. The
mesonephric ducts undergo fusion posteriorly in many cases to
form a median urinary or urinogenital sinus. In the Selachians
this median sinus is prolonged forwards into a pair of horn-like
continuations — the sperm sacs. In Dipnoans the sinus becomes
greatly dilated and forms a large, rounded, dorsally placed
cloacal caecum. In Actinopterygians a urinary bladder of
similar morphological import is commonly present.
Gonads. — The portion of coelomic lining which gives rise to
the reproductive cells retains its primitive relations most nearly
in the female, where, as a rule, the genital cells are still shed
into the splanchnocoele. Only in Teleostomes (Lepidosteus and
most Teleosts) the modification occurs that the ovary is shut
off from the splanchnocoele as a closed cavity continuous with
its duct.
In a few Teleosts (Salmonidae, Muraenidae, Cobitis) the ovary is
not a closed sac, its eggs being shed into the coelom as in other
groups.
The appearance of the ovary naturally varies greatly with
the character of the eggs.
The portion of coelomic lining which gives rise to the male
genital cells (testis) is in nearly, if not quite, all cases, shut off
from the splanchnocoele. The testes are commonly elongated
in form. In Dipneusti1 (Lepidosiren and Protopterus) the hinder
portion of the elongated testis has lost its sperm-producing
function, though the spermatozoa produced in the anterior
portion have to traverse it in order to reach the kidney. In
Polypterus1 the testis is continued backwards as a "testis
ridge," which appears to correspond with the posterior vesicular
region of the testis in Lepidosiren and Protopterus. Here also
the spermatozoa pass back through the cavities of the testis
ridge to reach the kidney duct. In the young Teleost3 the
rudiment of the duct forms a backward continuation of the
1 T. Graham Kerr, Proc. Zool. Soc. Land. (1901), p. 484.
1 J. S. Budgett, Trans. Zool. Soc. Land. xv. (1901), vol. p. 324.
* H. F. Jungersen, Arb. zool. zoot. Inst. Wurzburg, Band ix., 1889.
testis containing a network of cavities and opening as a rule
posteriorly into the kidney duct. It is difficult to avoid the
conclusion that the testis duct of the Teleost is for the most
part the equivalent morphologically of the posterior vesicular
region of the testis of Polypterus and the Dipneusti.
Relations of Renal and Reproductive Organs, (i) Female. — In
the Selachians and Dipnoans the oviduct is of the type (Mullerian
duct) present in the higher vertebrates and apparently repre-
senting a split-off portion of the archinephric duct. At its
anterior end is a wide funnel-like coelomic opening. Its walls
are glandular and secrete accessory coverings for the eggs. In
the great majority of Teleosts and in Lepidosteus the oviduct
possesses no coelomic funnel, its walls being in structural con-
tinuity with the wall of the ovary. In most of the more primitive
Teleostomes (Crossopterygians, sturgeons, Amia) the oviduct
has at its front end an open coelomic funnel, and it is difficult to
find adequate reason for refusing to regard such oviducts as
true Miillerian ducts. On this interpretation the condition
characteristic of Teleosts would be due to the lips of the oviduct
becoming fused with the ovarian wall, and the duct itself would
be a Miillerian duct as elsewhere.
A departure from the normal arrangement is found in those
Teleosts which shed their eggs into the splanchnocoele, e.g. amongst
Salmonidae, the smelt
(Osmerus) and capelin
(Mallotus) possess a pair
of oviducts resembling
Mullerian ducts while
the salmon possesses
merely a pair of genital
pores opening together
behind the anus. It
seems most probable that
the latter condition has
been derived from the
former by reduction of
the Mullerian ducts,
though it has been
argued that the con-
verse process has taken
place. The genital pores
mentioned must not be
confused with the ab-
dominal pores, which in
many adult fishes, par-
ticularly inthose without
open peritoneal funnels,
lead from coelom directly
to the exterior in the
region of the cloacal
opening. These appear
to be recent develop-
ments, and to have
nothing to do morpho-
logically with the genito-
urinary system.4
(2) Male. — It seems
+ t,~4 .,-:,**:i:,. ],. *l. From Arch. zool. experimental^, by permission of
that primitively the Schleicher Frires.
S.S-:
male reproductive ele-
ments like the female
were shed into the
coelom and passed
thence through the
nephridial tubules. In
correlation probably
with the greatly re-
duced size of these
elements they are com-
monly no longer shed
intothesplanchnocoele,
FIG. II. — Urino-Genital Organs of the
right side in a male Scyllium. (After
Borcea.)
m.n. i, Anterior (genital) portion of meso-
nephros with its coiled duct.
m.n. 2, Posterior (renal) portion of meso-
nephros.
s.s, Sperm sac.
T, Testis.
u, " Ureter " formed by fusion of
collecting tubes of renal portion
of mesonephros.
u.g.s, Urino-genital sinus;
v.s, Vesicula seminalis.
but are conveyed from
the testis through covered-in canals to the Malpighian bodies
or kidney tubules. The system of covered-in canals forms the
testicular network, the individual canals being termed vasa
efferentia. In all probability the series of vasa efferentia was
originally spread over the whole length of the elongated testis
(cf. Lepidosteus), but in existing fishes the series is as a rule
4 E. J. Bles, Proc. Roy. Soc. 62, 1897, p. 232.
ANATOMY]
ICHTHYOLOGY
257
restricted to a comparatively short anteroposterior extent. In
Selachians the vasa efferentia are restricted to the anterior end
of testis and kidney, and are connected by a longitudinal canal
ending blindly in front and behind. The number of vasa
efferentia varies and in the rays (Raia, Torpedo) may be reduced
to a single one opening directly into the front end of the meso-
nephric duct. The anterior portion of the mesonephros is
much reduced in size in correlation with the fact that it has
lost its renal function. The hinder part, which is the functional
kidney, is considerably enlarged. The primary tubules of this
region of the kidney have undergone, a modification of high
morphological interest. Their distal portions have become
much elongated, they are more or less fused, and their openings
into the mesonephric duct have undergone backward migration
until they open together either into the mesonephric duct at
its posterior end or into the urinogenital sinus independently
of the mesonephric duct. The mesonephric duct is now connected
only with the anterior part of the kidney, and serves merely as
a vas deferens or sperm duct. In correlation with this it is
somewhat enlarged, especially in its posterior portion, to form
a vesicula seminalis.
The morphological interest of these features lies in the fact that
they represent a stage in evolution which carried a little farther
would lead to a complete separation of the definitive kidney (meta-
nephros) from the purely genital anterior section of the mesonephros
(epididymis), as occurs so characteristically in the Amniota.
Dipneusti. — In Lepidosiren l a small number (about half a
dozen) of vasa efferentia occur towards the hind end of the
vesicular part of the testis and open into Malpighian bodies.
'In Prolopterus the vasa efferentia are reduced to a single one
on each side at the extreme hind end of the testis.
Teleostomi. — In the actinopterygian Ganoids a well-developed
testicular network is present; e.g. in Lepidosteus 2 numerous
vasa efferentia arise from the testis along nearly its whole length
and pass to a longitudinal canal lying on the surface of the
A c r / B
Graham Kerr, Proc. Zool. Sac. London.
FIG. 12. — Diagram illustrating Connexion between Kidney and
Testis in Various Groups of Fishes.
A, Distributed condition of vasa D, Direct communication be-
efferentia (Acipenser, Lepi-
dosteus).
tween testis and kidney
duct (Polypterus,Te\eosts).
B, Vasa efferentia_ reduced to a c.f, Nephrostome leading from
few at the hind end (Lepi- Malpighian coelom into
dosiren) .
C, Reduction qf vasa efferentia
to a single one posteriorly
(Protopterus).
kidney tubule.
TI, Functional region of testis.
TJ, Vesicular region of testis.
WD, Mesonephric duct.
kidney, from which in turn transverse canals lead to the Mal-
pighian bodies. (In the case of A mia they open into the tubules
or even directly into the mesonephric duct.) In the Teleosts
and in Poly pier us there is no obvious connexion between testis
and kidney, the wall of the testis being continuous with that of
its duct, much as is the case with the ovary and its duct in the
female. In all probability this peculiar condition is to be
1 J. Graham Kerr, Proc. Zool. Soc. Land. (1901) p. 484.
* F. M. Balfour and W. N. Parker, Phil. Trans. (1882).
XIV. 9
explained 3 by the reduction of the testicular network to a
single vas efferens (much as in Protopterus or as in Raia and
various anurous Amphibians at the front end of the series)
which has come to open directly into the mesonephric duct
(cf. fig. 12).
Organs of the Mesenchyme. — In vertebrates as in all other
Metazoa, except the very lowest, there are numerous cell elements
which no longer form part of the regularly arranged epithelial
layers, but which take part in the formation of the packing tissue
of the body. Much of this forms the various kinds of connective
tissue which fill up many of the spaces between the various
epithelial layers; other and very important parts of the
general mesenchyme become specialized in two definite directions
and give rise to two special systems of organs. One of these
is characterized by the fact that the intercellular substance
or matrix assumes a more or less rigid character — it may be
infiltrated with salts of lime — giving rise to the supporting tissues
of the skeletal system. The other is characterized by the inter-
cellular matrix becoming fluid, and by the cell elements losing
their connexion with one another and forming the characteristic
fluid tissue, the blood, which with its well-marked containing
walls forms the blood vascular system.
Skeletal System. — The skeletal system may be considered
under three headings — (i) the chordal skeleton, (2) the carti-
laginous skeleton and (3) the osseous skeleton.
1. Chordal Skeleton. — The most ancient element of the skeleton
appears to be the notochord — a cylindrical rod composed of highly
vacuolated cells lying ventral to the central nervous system
and dorsal to the gut. Except in Amphioxus — where the condi-
tion may probably be secondary, due to degenerative shortening
of the central nervous system — the notochord extends from a
point just behind the infundibulum of the brain (see below)
to nearly the tip of the tail. In ontogeny the notochord is a
derivative of the dorsal wall of the archenteron. The outer
layer of cells, which are commonly less vacuolated and form
a " chordal epithelium," soon secretes a thin cuticle which
ensheaths the notochord and is known as the primary sheath.
Within this there is formed later a secondary sheath, like the
primary, cuticular in nature. This secondary sheath attains a
considerable thickness and plays an important part in strengthen-
ing the notochord. The notochord with its sheaths is in existing
fishes essentially the skeleton of early life (embryonic or larval).
In the adult it may, in the more primitive forms (Cyclostomata,
Dipneusti), persist as an important part of the skeleton, but as
a rule it merely forms the foundation on which the cartilaginous
or bony vertebral column is laid down.
2. Cartilaginous or Chondral Skeleton. — (A) Vertebral column.4
In the embryonic connective tissue or mesenchyme lying just
outside the primary sheath of the notochord there are developed
a dorsal and a ventral series of paired nodules of cartilage known
as arcualia (fig. 13, d.a, v.a). The dorsal arcualia are commonly
prolonged upwards by supradorsal cartilages which complete
the neural arches and serve to protect the spinal cord. The
ventral arcualia become, in the tail region only, also incorporated
in complete arches — the haemal arches. In correlation with
the flattening of the body of the fish from side to side the arches
are commonly prolonged into elongated neural or haemal
spines.
The relations of the arcualia to the segmentation of the body,
as shown by myotomes and spinal nerves, is somewhat obscure.
The mesenchyme in which they arise is segmental in origin (sclerotom,
which suggests that they too may have been primitively segmental,
but in existing fishes there are commonly two sets of arcualia to
each body segment.
In gnathostomatous fishes the arcualia play a most important
part in that cartilaginous tissue derived from them comes into
special relationships with the notochord and gives rise to the
vertebral column which functionally replaces this notochord
in most of the fishes. This replacement occurs according to
two different methods, giving rise to the different types of
vertebral column known as chordacentrous and arcicentrous.
3 J. Graham Kerr, Proc. Zool. Soc. Land. (1901), p. 495.
4 H. Gadow and E. C. Abbott, Phil. Trans. 186 (1895), p. 163
ICHTHYOLOGY
[ANATOMY
(a) Chordacentrous type. An incipient stage in the evolution
of a chordacentrous vertebral column occurs in the Dipneusti,
where cartilage cells from the arcualia become amoeboid and
migrate into the substance of the secondary sheath, boring their
way through the primary sheath (fig. 13, C). They wander
throughout the whole extent of the secondary sheath, colonizing
it as it were, and settle down as typical stationary cartilage
cells. The secondary sheath is thus converted into a cylinder
of cartilage. In Selachians exactly the same thing takes place,
but in recent forms development goes a step further, as the
cartilage cylinder becomes broken into a series of segments,
known as vertebral centra. The wall of each segment becomes
much thickened in the middle so that the notochord becomes
constricted within each centrum and the space occupied by it
From Wiedersheim, Grundriss
Gustav Fischer.
•vergleichenden Anatomic, by permission
FIG. 13. — Diagrammatic transverse sections to illustrate the
morphology of the vertebral column.
c. Centrum.
d.a, Dorsal arcualia.
n.a. Neural arch.
nc, Notochord.
nc.ep, Chordal epithelium.
n.sp, Neural spine.
sh.i, Primary sheath.
sh.2, Secondary sheath.
sk.l. Connective tissue.
tr.p, Transverse process.
v.a. Ventral arcualia.
A, Primitive conditions as seen
in any young embryo.
B, Condition as it occurs in
Cyclostomata, sturgeons,
embryos of bony Actino-
pterygians.
C, Condition found in Sela-
chians and Dipnoans.
D and E, Illustrating the de-
velopmental process in
bony Actinopterygians and
higher vertebrates.
is shaped like the cavity of a dice-box. When free from noto-
chord and surrounding tissues such a cartilaginous centrum
presents a deep conical cavity at each end (amphicoelous) .
_ A secondary modification of the centrum consists in the calcifica-
tion of certain zones of the cartilaginous matrix. The precise
arrangement of these calcified zones varies in different families
and affords characters which^are of taxonomic importance in palaeont-
ology where only skeletal structures are available (see SELACHIANS).
(b) Arcicentrous type. Already in the Selachians the verte-
bral column is to a certain extent strengthened by the broadening
of the basis of the arcualia so as partially to surround the centra.
In the Teleostomes, with the exceptions of those ganoids
mentioned, the expanded bases of the arcualia undergo complete
fusion to form cartilaginous centra which, unlike the chorda-
centrous centra, lie outside the primary sheath (figs. 13, D and
E). In these forms no invasion of the secondary sheath by
cartilage cells takes place. The composition of the groups
of arcualia which give rise to the individual centrum is different
in different groups. The end result is an amphicoelous or bicon-
cave centrum in general appearance much like that of the Sela-
chian.
In Lepidosteus the spaces between adjacent centra become filled
by a secondary development of intervertebral cartilage which then
splits in such a way that the definitive vertebrae are opisthocoelous,
i.e. concave behind, convex in front.
Ribs. — In the Crossopterygians a double set of " ribs " is
present on each side of the vertebral column, a ventral set lying
immediately outside the splanchnocoelic lining and apparently
serially homologous with the haemal arches of the caudal region,
and a second set passing outwards in the thickness of the body
wall at a more dorsal level. In the Teleostomes and Dipnoans
only the first type is present; in the Selachians only the second.
It would appear that it is the latter which is homologous with the
ribs of vertebrates above fishes.
Median Fin Skeleton. — The foundation of the skeleton of the
median fins consists of a series of rod-like elements, the radialia,
each of which frequently is segmented into three portions. In
a few cases the radialia correspond segmentally with the neural
and haemal arches (living Dipnoans, Pleur acanthus tail region)
and this suggests that they represent morphologically pro-
longations of the neural and haemal spines. That this is so is
rendered probable by the fact that we must regard the evolution
of the system of median fins as commencing with a simple
flattening of the posterior part of the body. It is only natural
to suppose that the edges of the flattened region would be at first
supported merely by prolongations of the already existing
spinous processes. In the Cyclostomes (where they are branched)
and in the Selachians, the radialia form the main supports of
the fin, though already in the latter they are reinforced by a
new set of fin rays apparently related morphologically to the
osseous or placoid skeleton (see below).
The series of radialia tends to undergo the same process of local
concentration which characterizes the fin-fold as a whole. In its
extreme form this leads to complete fusion of the basal portions of
a number of radialia (dorsal fins of Holoptychius and various
Selachians, and anal fin of Pleur acanthus). In view of the identity
in function it is not surprising that a remarkable resemblance exists
between the mechanical arrangements (of skeleton, muscles, &c.), of
the paired and unpaired fins. The resemblance to paired fins becomes
very striking in some of the cases where the basal fusion mentioned
above takes place (Pleuracanthus).
(B) Chondrocranium1. — In front of the vertebral column
lies the cartilaginous trough, the chondrocranium, which pro-
tects the brain. This consists of a praechordal portion —
as/.
p. pi:
Trans. Roy. Sac. Edinburgh.
FIG. 14. — Chondrocranium of a young Lepidosiren, showing the
suspension of the lower jaw by the upper portion of the mandibular
arch. (After Agar.)
H, Hyoid arch. q, Quadrate = upper end of mandibular
M, Mandibular arch. arch.
o.a, Occipital arch. tr, Trabecula.
ot. Auditory capsule.
The palato-pterygoid bar (p.pt) is represented by a faint vestige
which disappears before the stage figured.
developed out of a pair of lateral cartilaginous rods — the tra-
beculae cranii — and a parachordal portion lying on either side of
the anterior end of the notochord. This arises in development
1 For development cf . Gaupp in Hertwig's Handbuch der Entwicke-
lungslehre.
ANATOMY]
ICHTHYOLOGY
259
from a cartilaginous rod (parachordal cartilage) lying on
each side of the notochord and possibly representing a fused
row of dorsal arcualia. The originally separate parachordals
and trabeculae become connected to form a trough-like, primitive
cranium, complete or nearly so laterally and ventrally but open
dorsally. With the primitive cranium there are also connected
cartilaginous capsules developed round the olfactory and
auditory organs. There also become fused with the hinder
r.
- M. c.h.
After W. K. Parker, Trans. Zool. Soc. London.
After Gegenbaur, Untersuchungen zur verg. Anal, der Wirbelticre, by permission
of Wilhelm Engelmann.
C,
After Hubrecht, Brown's Ticrreich, by permission of Gustav Fischer.
FIG. 15. — Chondrocranium, &c. of Scyllium (A), Notidanus cinereus
(B) and Chimaera (C).
Br.A, Branchial arches. olf,
c.h, Ceratohyal. ot,
e.p.l, Ethmopalatine ligament. p.pt,
Hm, Hyomandibular. p.s.l,
M, Meckel's cartilage. r,
o, Orbit.
Olfactory capsule.
Auditory capsule.
Palato-pterygoid bar.
Prespiracular ligament.
Rostrum.
end of the cranium a varying number of originally distinct
neural arches.
(C) Visceral Arches. — The skeleton of the visceral arches con-
sists essentially of a series of half -hoops of cartilage, each divided
in the adult into a number of segments and connected with its
fellow by a median ventral cartilage. The skeleton of arches
I. and II. (mandibular and hyoidean) undergoes modifications
of special interest (figs. 14 and 15). The lower portion of the
mandibular arch becomes greatly thickened to support the lower
or hinder edge of the mouth. It forms the primitive lower jaw
or " Meckel's cartilage." Dorsal to this an outgrowth arises
from the anterior face of the arch which supports the upper
or anterior margin of the mouth: it is the primitive upper jaw
or palato-pterygoquadrate cartilage. The portion of the arch
dorsal to the palato-pterygo-quadrate outgrowth may form the
suspensorial apparatus of the lower jaw, being fused with the
cranium at its upper end. This relatively primitive con-arrange-
ment (protostylic, as it may be termed) occurs in Dipneusti
among fishes (cf. fig. 14). More usually this dorsal part of the
mandibular arch becomes reduced, its
place being occupied by a ligament (pre-
spiracular) uniting the jaw apparatus to the
chondrocranium, the upper jaw being also
attached to the chondrocranium by the
ethmopalatine ligament situated more
anteriorly. The main attachment, how-
ever, of the jaws to the chondrocranium
in such a case, as holds for the majority
of fishes, is through the enlarged dorsal
segment of the hyoid arch (hyomandibular)
which articulates at its dorsal end with
the chondrocranium, while its ventral end
is attached to the hinge region of the jaw
by stout ligamentous bands. A skull in
which the jaws are suspended in this
manner is termed a hyostylic skull (e.g.
Scyllium in fig. 15).
In Notidanus (fig. 15, B) there is a large
direct articulation of the upper jaw to the
chondrocranium in addition to the indirect
one through the hyomandibular: such a
skull is amphistylic. In Heterodontus the
upper jaw is firmly bound to the cranium
throughout its length, while in Holocephali
(fig. 15, C) complete fusion has taken place,
so that the lower jaw appears to articulate
directly with the cranium (" auto stylic "
condition). In Dipneusti * (Lepidosiren and
Protopterus) the cartilaginous upper jaw never
develops (except in its hinder quadrate por-
tion) beyond the condition of a faint rudi-
ment, owing doubtless to its being replaced
functionally by precociously developed bone.
(D) A ppendicular Skeleton. — Theskeleton FIG. 16. — Fore-limb
of the free part of the limb is attached to of Ceratodus.
the limb girdle which lies embedded in
the musculature of the body. Each limb girdle is probably
to be looked upon as consisting, like the skeleton of the visceral
arches, of a pair of lateral half-hoops of cartilage. While in
Pleur acanthus the lateral halves are distinct (and segmented
like the branchial arches), in living Selachians generally the
two halves are completely fused ventrally with one another.
The part of the girdle lying dorsal to the articulation of the limb
is termed scapular in the case of the pectoral limb, iliac in the
case of the pelvic, while the
ventral portions are known
respectively as coracoid and
ischio-pubic.
In most Teleostomes the
primitive pelvic girdle does not
develop; in the Dipneusti it is
represented by a median un-
paired cartilage.
The skeleton of the free
limb is probably seen in its
most archaic form amongst
existing fishes in the biserial FlG. i-j.—a, Skeleton of pec-
archipterygium of Ceratodus toral limb of Pleuracanthus. (From
(fig. 16). This is indicated by Gegenbaur, after Fritsch.) b,
the relative predominance of Skeleton of pectoral limb of
, *;. , Acanthias. (After Gegenbaur.)
this type of fin amongst the
geologically more ancient fishes. The biserial archipterygium
consists of a segmented axial rod, bearing a praeaxial and a
postaxial series of jointed rays.
In Protopterus and Lepidosiren the limbs are reduced and the
lateral rays have less (Protopterus) or more (Lepidosiren) completely
disappeared.
1 Cf. W. E. Agar, Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin. xlv. (1906), 49.
26o
ICHTHYOLOGY
[ANATOMY
In such an archaic Selachian as Pleuracanthus the fin is clearly
of the biserial archipterygial type, but the lateral rays are
reduced (pectoral) or absent (pelvic) (fig. 17, a) on one side of
the axis. In a typical adult Selachian the. pectoral fin skeleton
From Budget!, Trans, Zool. Soc. London, xvi, part vii. From Wiedersheim's Verg.
Anat. der Wirbeltiere, by permission of Gustav Fischer.
FIG. 18. — Skeleton of Pectoral Limb of Polypterus. a, 30 mm.
larva, b, Adult.
has little apparent resemblance to the biserial archipterygium —
the numerous outwardly directed rays springing from a series
of large basal cartilages (pro-, meso- and meta-pterygium). The
condition in the young (e.g. fig. 17, b, Acanthias) hints strongly,
however, at the possibility of the fin skeleton
being really a modified biserial archiptery-
gium, and that the basal cartilages represent
the greatly enlarged axis which has become
fixed back along the side of the body. In
Crossopterygians (Polypterus) the highly
From Wiedersheim's peculiar fin skeleton (fig. 18) while still in
tier*' "by ^permission'^'of tne embryonic cartilaginous stage is clearly
Guitkv Fischer. referable to a similar condition. In the
FIG. 19. Skeleton Actinopterygians — with the increased de-
of Pectoral Fin of velopment of dermal fin rays — there comes
Amia. about reduction of the primitive limb
skeleton. The axis becomes particularly
reduced, and the fin comes to be attached directly to the
pectoral girdle by a number of basal pieces (Teleosts) probably
representing vestigial rays (cf. fig. 19).
Views on the general morphology of the fin skeleton are strongly
affected by the view held as to the mode of evolution of the fins.
By upholders of the lateral fold hypothesis the type of fin skeleton
described for Cladoselache1 is regarded as particularly primitive.
It is, however, by no means clear that the obscure basal structures
figured (Fig. 20) in this fin do not really represent the pressed back
axis as in Pleuracanthus.
The pelvic fin skeleton, while built obviously on the same
plan as the pectoral, is liable to much modification and frequently
degeneration.
Osseous or Bony Skeleton. — The most ancient type of bony
skeleton appears to be represented in the placoid elements such
as are seen in the
skin of the Sela-
chian (fig. 21).
Each placoid
element consists of
a spine with a
broadly expanded
base embedded in
the dermis. The
base is composed
of bone: the spine
FIG. 21.— Placoid of ^ somewhat
elements of a male modified bone
Thorn-back, Raia known as dentine.
clavata.
From Bashford Dean, Mem.
N.Y. Acad. of Science.
FIG. 20. — Skeleton of
Pectoral Fin of Cladose-
lache.
Ensheathing the
tip of the spine is
a layer of extremely hard enamel formed by the inner surface of
the ectoderm which originally covered it. Such typical placoid
1 Bashford Dean, Journ. Morph. ix. (1894) 87, and Trans. New
York Acad. Sci. xiii. (1894) 115.
scales are well seen on any ordinary skate. In the groups of fishes
above the Selachians, the coating of placoid elements shows
various modifications. The spines disappear, though they may
be present for a time in early development. The bony basal
plates tend to undergo fusion — in certain cases they form a
continuous bony cuirass (various Siluroids, trunk-fishes) formed
of large plates jointed together at their edges. More usually
the plates are small and regular in size. In Crossopterygians
and Lepidosteus and in many extinct forms the scales are of
the ganoid type, being rhomboidal and having their outer
layer composed of hard glistening ganoine. In other Teleostomes
the scales are as a rule thin, rounded and overlapping — the so-
called cycloid type (fig. 22, A); where the posterior edge shows
toothlike projections the scale is termed ctenoid (fig. 22, B).
In various Teleosts the scales are vestigial (eel); in others (as
in most electric fishes) they have completely disappeared.
Teeth. — Certain of the placoid elements belonging to that
part of the skin which gives rise to the lining of the stomodaeum
have their spines enlarged or otherwise modified to form teeth.
In the majority of fishes these remain simple, conical structures:
in some of the larger sharks (Carcharodon) they become flattened
into trenchant blades with serrated edges: in certain rays
(Myliobatis) they form a pavement of flattened plates suited
for crushing molluscan shells. In the young Neoceratodus*
B
FIG. 22. — A, Cycloid Scale of Scopelus resplendens (magn.).
Ctenoid Scale of Lethrinus (magn.).
there are numerous small conical teeth, the bases of which become
connected by a kind of spongework of bony trabeculae. As
development goes on a large basal mass is formed which becomes
the functional tooth plate of the adult, the original separate
denticles disappearing completely. In the other two surviving
Dipnoans, similar large teeth exist, though here there is no longer
trace in ontogeny of their formation by the basal fusion of
originally separate denticles. In the Selachians the bony
skeleton is restricted to the placoid elements. In the Teleostomes
and the Dipnoans the original cartilaginous skeleton becomes
to a great extent unsheathed or replaced by bony tissue. It
seems highly probable that the more deeply seated osseous
elements occurring in these as in the higher groups arose in the
course of evolution by the spreading inwards of bony trabeculae
from the bases of the placoid elements. Such a method has been
demonstrated as occurring in individual development in the
case of certain of the more superficially placed bones.3
The placoid element with its cap of enamel secreted by the ecto-
derm is probably originally derived from a local thickening of the
basement membrane which with the external cuticle may be looked
on as the most ancient skeletal structure in the Metazoa. The basal
plate appears to have been a later development than the spine;
in the palaeozoic Coelolepidae * the basal plate is apparently not yet
developed.
Only a brief summary can be given here of the leading features
in the osteology of fishes. Care must be taken not to assume
that bony elements bearing the same name in fishes and in other
groups, or even in the various sub-divisions of the fishes, are
necessarily strictly homologous. In all probability bony elements
occupying similar positions and described by the same anatomical
2 R. Semon, Zool. Forschungsreisen, Band i. § 115.
8 O. Hertwig, Arch. mikr. Anat. xi. (1874).
4 R. H. Traquair, Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin. xxxix. (1899).
ANATOMY]
ICHTHYOLOGY
261
V.F.R
name have been evolved independently from the ancestral
covering of placoid elements.
Teleostei. — It will be convenient to take as the basis of our
description the bony skeleton of such a Teleostean fish as the
salmon. In the vertebral column all the cartilaginous elements
are replaced by bone. The haemal spines of the turned-up tip
of the tail are flattened (hypural bones) and serve to support
the caudal fin rays.
In Argyropclecus and in one or two deep-sea forms the vertebral
column remains cartilaginous.
Apart from the ossification of the radialia which takes place
in the adults of bony fishes there exist special supporting
structures in the fins (paired as well as
median) of all the gnathostomatous fishes
and apparently in nature independent of the
cartilaginous skeleton. These are known as
dermal fin-rays.1 Morphologically they are
probably to be looked on (like placoid
elements) as local exaggerations of the base-
ment membrane.
In their detailed characters two main types
of dermal fin-ray may be recognized. The first
of these are horny unjointed rays and occur in
the fins of Selachians and at the edge of the
fins of Teleostomes (well seen in the small pos-
terior dorsal or " adipose " fin, particularly in
Siluroids). The second type of dermal fin-ray
is originally arranged in pairs and forms the
From Parker & Has- main supports of the fin in the adult Teleost
Text-book o! (fig. 23). The members of each pair are in
by permission c]Ose contact except proximally where they
. Macmillan & separate and embrace the tip of one of the
radialia. The fin-rays of this second type are
frequently branched and jointed : in other cases
they form unbranched rigid spines.
In the angler or fishing-frog (Lophius) the
anterior rays of the dorsal fin become greatly
pit
\
well's Text-book
Zoology,
of Messrs.
Co., Ltd.
FIG. 23. — One of
the radialia of the
salmon, consisting
of three segments,
s ' "2 > P g < elongated to form small fishing-rods, from
ml fin rav D FR wh.ich dePend bait-'ike lures for &e attraction
of its prey.
In the skull of the adult salmon it is seen that certain parts of
the chondrocranium (fig. 24) have been replaced by bone
(" cartilage bones ") while other more superficially placed bones
("membrane bones") cover its surface (fig. 25). Of cartilage
bones four are developed round the foramen magnum — the
basioccipital, supraoccipital and two exoccipitals. In front of
tataee —
From Wiedersheim, Verg. Anal, der Wirbeltiere, by permission of Gustav Fischer.
FIG. 24. — Chondrocranium of Salmon, seen from the right side.
alsph,
basocc,
ekteth,
epiot,
exocc,
fr,
opisth,
Alisphenoid.
Basioccipital.
Lateral ethmoid.
Epiotic.
Exoccipital.
Frontal.
Opisthotic.
orbsph, Orbitosphenoid.
proot, Prootic.
psph, Parasphenoid.
Pterotic.
Supra occipital.
Sphenotic.
Vomer.
ptero,
socc,
sphot,
ve,
the basioccipital is the basisphenoid with an alisphenoid on each
side. The region (presphenoidal) immediately in front of the
basisphenoid is unossified, but on each side of it an orbitosphenoid
is developed, the two orbitosphenoids being closely approximated
in the mesial plane and to a certain extent fused, forming the
upper part of the interorbital septum. In the anterior or
ethmoidal portion of the cranium the only cartilage bones are a
1 Cf. E. S. Goodrich, Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci. xlvii. (1904), 465.
pair of lateral ethmoids lying at the anterior boundary of the
orbit. A series of five distinct elements are ossified in the wall
of the auditory or otic capsule, the prootic and opisthotic more
ventrally, and the sphenotic, pterotic and epiotic more dorsally.
The roof of the cranium is covered in by the following dermal
bones — parietals (on each side of the supraoccipital), f rentals,
dermal ethmoid and small nasals, one over each olfactory organ.
The floor of the cranium on its oral aspect is ensheathed by the
large parasphenoid and the smaller vomer in front of and over-
lapping it. The cartilaginous lower jaw is ossified posteriorly
to form the articular (fig. 25) with a small membrane bone, the
angular, ventral to it, but the main part of the jaw is replaced
functionally by a large membrane bone which ensheaths it — •
the dentary — evolved in all probability by the spreading out-
wards of bony tissue from the bases of the placoid elements
(teeth) which it bears. The original upper jaw (palato-pterygoid
bar) is replaced by a chain of bones — palatine in front, then
rpiot
,ympt
^y*' branfhiosT
dent
art pmeojj
From Wiedersheim, Verg. Anal, der Wirbeltiere, by permission of Gustav Fischer.
FIG. 25. — Complete Skull of Salmon from left side.
art. Articular.
branchiost, Branchiostegal.
dent, Dentary.
epiot, Epiotic.
eth, Dermal ethmoid.
fr. Frontal.
Hyomandibular.
hyom,
inlop.
Jug,
mpt,
mtpt,
mx,
nas,
Interopercular.
Mesopterygoid.
Metapterygoid.
Maxilla.
Nasal.
Opercular.
Palatine.
Parietal.
Premaxilla.
Preopercular.
Pterygoid.
Pterotic.
Quadrate.
socc, Supraoccipital.
sphot, Sphenotic.
subop, Subopercular.
sympl, Symplectic.
Zunge, Tongue.
op,
pal,
par,
pmx,
preop,
Pt,
pier,
Quad,
pterygoid and mesopterygoid, and posteriorly metapterygoid
and quadrate, the latter giving articulation to the articular bone
of the lower jaw. These representatives of the palatopterygoid
bar no longer form the functional upper jaw. This function is
performed by membrane bones which have appeared external
to the palatopterygoid bar — the premaxilla and maxilla — which
carry teeth — and the small scale-like jugal behind them. The
quadrate is suspended from the skull as in the Selachians (hyo-
stylic skull) by the upper portion of the hyoid arch — here
represented by two bones — the hyomandibular and symplectic.
The ventral portion of the hyoid arch is also represented by a
chain of bones (stylohyal, epihyal, ceratohyal, hypohyal and
the ventral unpaired basihyal) , as is also each of the five branchial
arches behind it. In addition to the bony elements belonging
to the hyoid arch proper a series of membrane bones support the
opercular flap. Ventrally there project backwards from the
ceratohyal a series of ten overlapping branchiostegal rays, while
more dorsally are the broader interopercular, subopercular and
opercular.
In addition to the bones already enumerated there is present
a ring of circumorbital bones, a preopercular, behind and external
to the hyomandibular and quadrate, and squamosal, external
to the hinder end of the auditory capsule.
262
ICHTHYOLOGY
[ANATOMY
In the salmon, pike, and various other Teleosts, extensive regions of
the chondrocranium persist in the adult, while in others (e.g. the cod)
the replacement by bone is practically complete. Bony elements
may be developed in addition to those noticed in the salmon.
In the sturgeon the chondrocranium is ensheathed by numerous
membrane bones, but cartilage bones are absent. In the Crosso-
pterygians * the chondrocranium persists to a great extent in the
adult, but portions of it are replaced by cartilage bones — the most
interesting being a large sphenethmoid like that of the frog. Numer-
ous membrane bones cover the chondrocranium externally. In the
Dipneusti2 the chondrocranium is strengthened in the adult by
numerous bones. One of the most characteristic is the great
palatopterygoid bone which develops very early by the spreading
of ossification backwards from the tooth bases, and whose early
development probably accounts for the non-development of the
palatopterygoid cartilage.
Appendicidar Skeleton. — The primitive pectoral girdle, which
in the Dipneusti is strengthened by a sheath of bone, becomes in
the Teleostomes reduced in size (small scapula and coracoid
bones) and replaced functionally by a secondary shoulder girdle
formed of superficially placed membrane bones (supraclavicular
and cleithrum or " clavicle," with, in addition in certain cases,
an infraclavicular and one or two postclavicular elements), and
connected at its dorsal end with the skull by a post-temporal
bone.
The pelvic girdle is in Teleostomes completely absent as a rule.
The skeleton of the free limb undergoes ossification to a less
or greater extent in the Teleostomes.
In Polypterus the pectoral fin (fig. 18, B) shows three ossifications
in the basal part of the fin — pro-, meso- and metapterygium. Of
these the metapterygium probably represents the ossified skeletal
axis: while the propterygium and also the numerous diverging
radials probably represent the lateral rays of one side of the archi-
pterygium.
In the Teleostomes the place of the pelvic girdle is taken functionally
by an element apparently formed by the fusion of the basal portions
of several radials.
Vascular System. — The main components of the blood vascular
system in the lower vertebrates are the following: (i) a single
or ' double dorsal aorta lying between the enteron and note-
chord; (2) a ventral vessel lying beneath the enteron; and (3)
a series of paired hoop-like aortic arches connecting dorsal and
ventral vessels round the sides of the pharynx. The blood-
stream passes forwards towards the head in the ventral vessel,
dorsalwards through the aortic arches, and tailwards in the
dorsal aorta.
The dorsal aorta is single throughout the greater part of its
extent, but for a greater or less extent at its anterior end (circulus
cephalicus) it consists of two paired aortic roots. It is impossible
to say whether the paired or the unpaired condition is the more
primitive, general morphological conditions being in favour of
the latter, while embryological evidence rather supports the
former. The dorsal aorta, which receives its highly oxygenated
blood from the aortic arches, is the main artery for the distribu-
tion of this oxygenated blood. Anteriorly the aortic roots are
continued forwards as the dorsal carotid arteries to supply the
head region. A series of paired, segmentally-arranged arteries
pass from the dorsal aorta to supply the muscular body wall,
and the branches which supply the pectoral and pelvic fins
(subclavian or brachial artery, and iliac artery) are probably
specially enlarged members of this series of segmental vessels.
Besides these paired vessels a varying number of unpaired
branches pass from dorsal aorta to the wall of the alimentary
canal with its glandular diverticula (coeliac, mesenteric, rectal).
The ventral vessel undergoes complicated changes and is
represented in the adults of existing fishes by a series of important
structures. Its post-anal portion comes with the atrophy of the
post-anal gut to lie close under the caudal portion of the dorsal
aorta and is known as the caudal vein. This assumes a secondary
connexion with, and drains its blood into, the posterior cardinal
veins (see below). In the region between cloaca and liver the
ventral vessel becomes much branched or even reticular and —
1 R. H. Traquair, Journ. Anal. Phys. v. (1871) 166; J. S. Budgett,
Trans. Zool. Soc. Land. xvi. 315.
«T. W. Bridge, Trans. Zool. Soc. Land. xiv. (1898) 350; W. E.
Agar, op. cit.
serving to convey the food-laden blood from the wall of the
enteron to the capillary network of the liver — is known as the
hepatic portal vein. The short section in front of the liver is
known as the hepatic vein and this conveys the blood, which has
been treated by the liver, into a section of the ventral vessel,
which has become highly muscular and is rhythmically contrac-
tile. This enlarged muscular portion, in which the contractility —
probably once common to the main vessels throughout their
extent — has become concentrated, serves as a pump and is
known as the heart. Finally the precardiac section of the
ventral vessel — the ventral aorta — conveys the blood from heart
to aortic arches.
In addition to the vessels mentioned a large paired vein is
developed in close relation to the renal organ which it serves
to drain. This is the posterior cardinal. An anterior prolongation
(anterior cardinal) serves to drain the blood from the head region.
From the point of junction of anterior and posterior cardinal a
large transverse vessel leads to the heart (ductus Cuvieri).
Heart. — Originally a simple tube curved into a somewhat
S-shape, the heart, by enlargements, constrictions and fusions
of its parts, becomes converted into the complex, compact
heart of the adult. In this we recognize the following portions —
(i) Sinus venosus, (2) Atrium, (3) Ventricle. A fourth chamber,
the conus arteriosus, the enlarged and contractile hinder end
of the ventral aorta, is also physiologically a part of the heart.
The sinus venosus receives the blood from the great veins (ductus
Cuvieri and hepatic veins).
It — like the atrium which it
enters by an opening guarded
by two lateral valves — has
thin though contractile walls.
The atrium is as a rule single,
but in the Dipnoans, in corre-
lation with the importance of
their pulmonary breathing, it
is incompletely divided into
a right and a left auricle. In
Neoceratodus the incomplete
division is effected by the
presence of a longitudinal
shelf projecting into the atrial
cavity from its posterior wall.
From Boas, Lehrbuch der Zoologic, by per-
mission of Gustav Fischer.
FIG. 26. — Diagram to illustrate
the condition of the Conus in an
Elasmobranch (A), Amia (B) and
a, Atrium.
b.a, Bulbus aortae.
c.a, Conus arteriosus.
s.v, Sinus venosus.
v, v'. Valves.
v.a, Ventral aorta.
vt, Ventricle.
The opening of the sinus a typical Teleost (C).
venosus is to the right of this
shell, that of the pulmonary
vein to the left. In Prototerus
and Lepidosiren a nearly com-
plete septum is formed by
the fusion of trabeculae, there
being only a minute opening in it posteriorly. The atrium
opens by a wide opening guarded by two or more flap valves
provided with chordae tendineae into the ventricle.
The ventricle, in correspondence with it being the main
pumping apparatus, has its walls much thickened by the develop-
ment of muscular trabeculae which, in the lower forms separated
by wide spaces in which most of the blood is contained, become
in the Teleostomes so enlarged as to give the wall a compact
character, the spaces being reduced to small scattered openings
on its inner surface. In the Dipnoans the ventricle, like the
atrium, is incompletely divided into a right and left ventricle.
In Ceratodus this is effected by an extension of the interauricular
shelf into the ventricle. In Lepidosiren the separation of the
two ventricles is complete but for a small perforation anteriorly,
the heart in this respect showing a closer approximation to the
condition in the higher vertebrates than is found in any Am-
phibians or in any reptiles except the Crocodilia. The conus
arteriosus is of interest from the valvular arrangements in its
interior to prevent regurgitation of blood from ventral aorta
into ventricle. In their simplest condition, as seen e.g. in an
embryonic Selachian, these arrangements consist of three, four
or more prominent longitudinal ridges projecting into the lumen
of the conus, and serving to obliterate the lumen when jammed
ANATOMY]
ICHTHYOLOGY
263
,ov v
together by the systole of the conus. As development goes on
each of these ridges becomes segmented into a row of pocket
valves with their openings directed anteriorly so that regurgita-
tion causes them to open out and occlude the lumen by their
free edges meeting. Amongst the Teleostomes the lower ganoids
show a similar development of longitudinal rows of valves
in the conus. In Amia (fig.26, B), however, the conus is shortened
and the number of valves in each
longitudinal row is much reduced.
This leads to the condition found
in the Teleosts (fig. 26, O), where
practically all trace of the conus has
disappeared, a single circle of valves
representing a last survivor of each
row (save in a few exceptional cases,
e.g. Albula, Tarpon, Osteoglossum,
where two valves of each row are
present).
In front of the conus vestige of the
Teleost there is present a thick walled
bulbus aortae differing from the conus
in not being rhythmically contractile,
its walls being on the contrary richly
provided with elastic tissue.
The Dipnoans1 show an im-
portant advance in the conus as in
atrium and ventricle. The conus
has a characteristic spiral twist.
Within it in Neoceralodus are a
number of longtitudinal rows of
pocket valves. One of these rows
is marked out by the very large
size of its valves and by the fact
they are not distinct from one
another but even in the adult form
a continuous, spirally - running,
longitudinal fold. This ridge pro-
jecting into the lumen of the conus
divides it incompletely into two
After Newton Parker, from Trans, channels, the one beginning (i.e. at
ef^RoyaUri^Academy.vcL^ .^ hjnder end) Qn ^ fc/, gjde and
of Pr'olopUrus, Ts^en^rom ending in front Centrally, the other
beginning on the right and ending
dorsally. In Protopterus a similar
condition occurs, only in the front
end of the conus a second spiral
fold is present opposite the first
and, meeting this, completes the
division of the conus cavity into
two separate parts. The rows of
pocket valves which do not enter
into the formation of the spiral
folds are here greatly reduced.
These arrangements in the conus
of the Dipnoans are of the highest
morphological interest, pointing in
an unmistakable way towards the
condition found in the higher lung-
breathing vertebrates. Of the two
conus is partially divided in the
f.V
a. Atrium.
ac, Anterior cardinal.
an.v, Anastomotic vein.
Intestine.
Caudal vein.
Femoral vein.
Gall-bladder.
Hepatic vein.
Inferior jugular vein.
Posterior vena cava.
Kidney.
Liver.
Ovarian veins.
Pericardium.
'p.c.v, Left posterior cardinal.
p.v', Parietal veins.
r.p.v. Renal portal,
i, Stomach.
s.b.v, Subclavian.
the
C,
c.v,
h.v,
i.j.v,
i.v.c,
ft,
/,
ov.v,
p.
cavities into which
Dipneusti the one which begins posteriorly on the right
receives the (venous) blood from the right side of the
heart, and ending up anteriorly dorsal to the other cavity
communicates only with aortic arches V. and VI. In the higher
vertebrates this cavity has become completely split off to form
the root of the pulmonary arteries, and a result of aortic arch V.
receiving its blood along with the functionally much more im-
portant VI. (the pulmonary arch) from this special part of the
conus has been the almost complete disappearance of this arch
(V.) in all the higher vertebrates.
Arterial System. — There are normally six aortic arches laid
down corresponding with the visceral arches, the first (mandi-
1 J. V. Boas, Morphol. Jahrb. vi. (1880).
bular) and second (hyoidean) undergoing atrophy to a less or
greater extent in post-embryonic life. Where an external gill
is present the aortic arch loops out into this, a kind of short-
circuiting of the blood-stream taking place as the external
gill atrophies. As the walls of the clefts assume their respiratory
function the aortic arch becomes broken into a network of
capillaries in its respiratory portion, and there is now distinguished
a ventral afferent and a dorsal efferent portion of each arch.
Complicated developmental changes, into which it is unnecessary
to enter,2 may lead to each efferent vessel draining the two
sides of a single cleft instead of the adjacent walls of two clefts
as it does primitively. In the
Crossopterygians and Dipnoans
as in the higher vertebrates
the sixth aortic arch gives
off the pulmonary artery to
the lung. Among the Actino-
pterygians this, probably primi-
tive, blood-supply to the lung
(swim-bladder) persists only in
Amia.
Venous System. — The most
interesting variations from the
general plan outlined have to
do with the arrangements of the
posterior cardinals. In the
Selachians these are in their
anterior portion wide and sinus-
like, while in the region of the
kidney they become broken into
a sinusoidal network supplied
by the postrenal portion now
known as the renal portal vein.
In the Teleostomes the chief
noteworthy feature is the ten-
dency to asymmetry, the right
posterior cardinal being fre-
quently considerably larger
', , ,. f j
than the left and connected
with it by transverse anasto-
motic vessels, the result being
that most of the blood from the
two kidneys passes forwards by
the right 'posterior cardinal.
The Dipnoans (fig. 27) show a
similar asymmetry, but here the
anterior end of the right pos-
terior cardinal disappears, being
replaced functionally by a new vessel which conveys the blood
from the right posterior cardinal direct to the sinus venosus
instead of to the outer end of the ductus Cuvieri. This new
vessel is the posterior vena cava which thus in the series of
vertebrates appears for the first time in the Dipneusti.
Pulmonary Veins. — In Polypterus (fig. 28) the blood is drained
from the lungs by a pulmonary vein on each side which unites
in front with its fellow and opens into the great hepatic vein
behind the heart. In the Dipnoans the conjoined pulmonary
veins open directly into the left section of the atrium as in higher
forms. In the Actinopterygians with their specialized air-
bladder the blood passes to the heart via posterior cardinals,
or hepatic portal, or — a probably more primitive condition —
directly into the left ductus Cuvieri (Amia).
Lymphatics. — More or less irregular lymphatic spaces occur
in the fishes as elsewhere and, as in the Amphibia, localized
muscular developments are present forming lymph hearts.
Central Nervous System. — The neural tube shows in very early
stages an anterior dilated portion which forms the rudiment
of the brain in contradistinction to the hinder, narrower part
which forms the spinal cord. This enlargement of the brain
is correlated with the increasing predominance of the nerve
1 Cf. F. Hochstetter in O. Hertwig Handbuch der Entwickelungs-
lehre.
FIG. 28. — Venous System of
Polypterus 30 mm. larva (dorsal
view).
a.c.v, Anterior cardinal vein.
d.C, Ductus Cuvieri.
h.v, Hepatic vein.
i.j.v, Inferior jugular vein.
ir.v, Inter-renal vein.
l.v, Lateral cutaneous vein.
p.c.v, Posterior cardinal vein.
p.n, Pronephros.
Pulmonary vein.
Subclavian vein.
Sinus venosus.
Thyroid.
Vein from pharyngeal wall.
Anterior portion of left pos-
terior cardinal vein.
p.v,
s,
s.v,
th,
I'
264
ICHTHYOLOGY
[ANATOMY
centres at the anterior end of the body which tend to assume
more and more complete control over those lying behind.
Spinal Con/.— A remarkable peculiarity occurs in the sun
fishes (Molidae), where the body is greatly shortened and where
the spinal cord undergoes a corresponding abbreviation so as to
be actually shorter than the brain.
Brain. — It is customary to divide the brain into three main
regions, fore-, mid-, and hind-brain, as in the most familiar
vertebrates there is frequently seen in the embryo a division of
the primitive brain dilatation into three vesicles lying one behind
the other. A consideration of the development of the brain in
the various main groups of vertebrates shows that these divisions
are not of equal importance. In those archaic groups where
the egg is not encumbered by the presence of a large mass of
yolk it is usual for the brain to show in its early stages a division
into two main regions which we may term the primitive fore-brain
or cerebrum and the primitive hind-brain or rhombencephalon.
Only later does the hinder part of the primitive fore-brain
become marked off as mid-brain. In the fully developed
brain it is customary to recognize the series of regions indicated
below, though the boundaries between these regions are not
mathematical lines or surfaces any more than are any other
biological boundaries: —
{Myelencephalon (Medulla oblon-
gata).
Metencephalon (Cerebellum).
("Mesencephalon (Mid-brain).
Cerebrum (Primitive Fore-brain)-! Thalamencephalon(Diencephalon).
[[Hemispheres (Telencephalon).]
The myelencephalon or medulla oblongata calls for no special
remark, except that in the case of Torpedo there is a special
upward bulging of its floor on each side of the middle line forming
the electric lobe and containing the nucleus of origin of the
nerves to the electric organ.
The cerebellum occurs in its simplest form in lampreys and
Dipnoans (fig. 29, C), where it forms a simple band-like thickening
of the anterior end of the roof of the hind-brain. In Selachians
.0.1 •
A B
A and B from Wiedersheim, by permission of Gustav Fischer.
FlG. 29. — Brain of Scyllium (A), Salmo (B) and Lepidosiren (C).
The three figures are not drawn to the same scale.
cer. Cerebellum. G.p, Pineal body.
c.h, Cerebral hemisphere. m.b, Roof of mid-brain, optic
th, Thalamencephalon. lobes, tectum opticum.
f.b, Primitive fore-brain (in B the o.l, Olfactory lobe.
line points to the thickened
wall of the fore-brain, the
so-called " basal ganglia ").
IV.f, Fourth ventricle.
it is very large and bulges upwards, forming a conspicuous organ
in a dorsal view of the brain (fig. 29, A). In Teleosts (fig. 29, B)
the cerebellum is also large. It projects back as a great tongue-
like structure over the roof of the fourth ventricle, while in front
it dips downwards and projects under the roof of the mid-brain
forming a highly characteristic valvula cerebelli. A valvula
cerebelli occurs also in ganoids, while in the Crossopterygians
a similar extension of the cerebellum projects backwards into
the IV. ventricle or cavity of the hind-brain (fig. 30).
The mesencephalon is a conspicuous structure in the fishes
from its greatly developed roof (tectum opticum) which receives
the end pencils of the optic nerve. Normally it projects upwards
as a pair of large optic lobes, but in the Dipnoans (fig. 29, C) the
lateral thickening is not sufficiently great to cause obvious
lateral swellings in external view.
The thalamencephalon is one of the most interesting parts
of the brain from its remarkable uniformity throughout the
Vertebrata. Even in Amphioxus the appearance of a sagittal
section strongly suggests vestiges of a once present thalamen-
cephalon.1 The roof — like that of the myelencephalon — remains
t.0.
a.c,
'o.c.
O..C.
FIG. 30. — Median Longitudinal Section through the brain of
Lepidosiren and Polypterus. In the upper figure (Lepidosiren) the
habenular ganglion and hemisphere are shown in outline though not
actually present in a median section.
Anterior commissure.
Cerebellum.
Dorsal sac.
a.c,
cer,
d.s,
g.h, Habenular ganglion.
h.c, Habenular commissure.
Infundibular gland.
Lateral plexus.
.c,
i.g.
l.p,
o.c. Optic chiasma.
pall, Pallium.
par, Paraphysis.
pin, Pineal body.
p.c, Posterior commissure.
s.v, Saccus vasculosus.
t.o, Tectum opticum.
v. 1 1 1, Third ventricle.
r.IV, Fourth ventricle.
vel, Velum transversum.
to a great extent membranous, forming with the closely applied
pia mater a vascular roof to the III. ventricle. Frequently a
transverse fold of the roof dips down into the III. ventricle
forming the velum transversum (fig. 30).
The side walls of the thalamencephalon are greatly thickened
forming the thalamus (epithalamus and hypothalamus), while
a ganglionic thickening of the roof posteriorly on each side
forms the ganglia habenulae which receive olfactory fibres from
the base of the hemisphere. The habenular ganglia are unusually
large in the lampreys and are here strongly asymmetrical, the
right being the larger.
The floor of the thalamencephalon projects downwards and
backwards as the infundibulum. The side walls of this are
thickened to form characteristic lobi inferiores, while the blind
end develops glandular outgrowths (infundibular gland, fig. 30)
overlaid by a rich development of blood sinuses and forming
with them the saccus vasculosus. The optic chiasma, where
present, is involved in the floor of the thalamencephalon and
forms a large, upwardly-projecting ridge. Farther forwards on
the floor or anterior wall is the anterior commissure (see below).
Passing forwards from the mid-brain (cf. fig. 30) a series of
interesting structures are found connected with the roof of the
primitive fore-brain, viz. — posterior commissure (intercalary
region), pineal organ, habenular commissure with anterior
parietal organ, dorsal sac ( = pineal cushion), velum transversum,
paraphysis. The posterior commissure is situated in the boundary
between thalamencephalon and mid-brain. It is formed of
1 C. v. Kupffer, Sludien z. vergl. Entwickelungsgeschichte der
Cranioten.
ANATOMY]
ICHTHYOLOGY
265
fibres connecting up the right and left sides of the tectum
opticum (?). The habenular or superior commissure situated
farther forwards connects the two ganglia habenulae. In the
immediate neighbourhood of these ganglia there project upwards
two diverticula of the brain-roof known as the pineal organ
and the parapineal (or anterior parietal) organ. The special
interest of these organs 1 lies in the fact that in certain vertebrates
one (parapineal in Sphenodon and in lizards) or both (Petromyzon)
exhibit histological features which show that they must be looked
on as visual organs or eyes. In gnathostomatous fishes they do
not show any definite eye-like structure, but in certain cases
(Polyodon, Callichthys, &c.) the bony plates of the skull-roof
are discontinuous over the pineal organ forming a definite
parietal foramen such as exists in lizards where the eye-like
structure is distinct. It is also usual to find in the epithelial
wall of the pineal organ columnar cells which show club-shaped
ends projecting into the lumen (exactly as in the young visual
cells of the r,etina 2) and are prolonged into a root-like process
at the other end. Definite nerve fibres pass down from these
parietal organs to the brain. It is stated that the fibres from
the pineal organ pass into the posterior commissure, those of
the parapineal organ into the habenular commissure.
The facts mentioned render it difficult to avoid the conclusion
that these organs either have been sensory or are sensory.
Possibly they represent the degenerate and altered vestiges
of eye-like organs present in archaic vertebrates, or it may be
that they represent the remains of organs not eye-like in function
but which for some other reason lay close under the surface of
the body. It would seem natural that a diverticulum of brain-
tissue exposed to the influence of light-rays should exhibit the
same reaction as is shown frequently elsewhere in the animal
kingdom and tend to assume secondarily the characters of a
visual organ. The presence of the rod-like features in the
epithelial cells is perhaps in favour of the latter view. In evolu-
tion we should expect these to appear before the camera-like
structure of a highly developed eye, while in the process of
degeneration we should expect these fine histological characters
to go first.
Selachians. — No parapineal organ is present. The pineal body
(except in Torpedo where it is absent) is in the form of a long slender
tube ending in front in a dilated bulb lying near the front end of
the brain in close contact with, or enclosed in, a definite foramen
in the cranial roof.
Holocephali and Crpssopterygii. — Here also the pineal body is
long and tubular: at its origin it passes dorsalwards or slightly
backwards behind the large dorsal sac.
Actinopterygian Ganoids resemble Selachians on the whole. In
Amia a parapineal organ is present, and it is said to lie towards the
left side and to be connected by a thick nerve with the left habenular
ganglion (cf. Petromyzon, article CYCLOSTOMATA). This is adduced
to support the view that the pineal and parapineal bodies represent
originally paired structures.
Teleostei. — A parapineal rudiment appears in the embryo of some
forms, but in the adult only the pineal organ is known to exist. This
is usually short and club-shaped, its terminal part with much folded
wall and glandular in character. In a few cases a parietal foramen
occurs (Callichthys, Loricaria, &c.).
Dipneusti. — The pineal organ is short and simple. No parapineal
organ is developed.
The dorsal sac is formed by that part of the roof of the thala-
mencephalon lying between the habenular commissure and
the region of the velum. In some cases a longitudinal groove
is present in which the pineal organ lies (Dipneusti). In the
Crossopterygians the dorsal sac is particularly large and was
formerly mistaken for the pineal organ.
The velum transfer sum is a transverse, inwardly-projecting
fold of the roof of the primitive fore-brain in front of the dorsal
sac. To those morphologists who regard the hemisphere region
or telencephalon as a primitively unpaired structure the velum
is an important landmark indicating the posterior limit of the
telencephalon. Those who hold the view taken in this article
1 Cf. F. K. Studnicka 's excellent account of the parietal organs in
A. Oppel's Lehrbuch vergl. mikr. Anatomic, T. v. (1905).
2F. K. Studnicka, S.B. bohm. Gesell. (1901); J. Graham Kerr,
Quart. Journ. Micr. Set. vol. xlvi., and The Budgett Memorial
Volume.
that the hemispheres are to be regarded as paired outpushings
of the side wall of the primitive fore-brain attribute less morpho-
logical importance to the velum. Physiologically the velum
is frequently important from the plexus of blood-vessels which
passes with it into the III. ventricle.
In Petromyzon and Chimaera the velum is not developed.
In Dipnoans there are present in its place paired transverse
folds which are probably merely extensions backwards of the
lateral plexuses.
The Paraphysis is a projection from the roof of the primitive
fore-brain near its anterior end. It is well seen in Dipnoans 3
(Lepidosiren and Protoplerus) where in the larva (exactly as
in the urodele larva) it forms a blindly ending tube sloping
upwards and forwards between the two hemispheres. In the
adult it becomes mixed with the two lateral plexuses and is
liable to be confused with them. In the other groups — except
the Teleosts where it is small (Anguilla) or absent (most Teleosts)
— the paraphysis is by no means such a definite structure, but
generally there is present a more or less branched and divided
diverticulum of the brain wall, frequently glandular, which
is homologized with the paraphysis. The morphological signifi-
cance of the paraphysis is uncertain. It may represent the
remains of an ancient sense organ, or it may simply represent
the last connexion between the brain and the external ectoderm
from which it was derived.
An important derivative of the primitive fore-brain is seen
in the pair of cerebral hemispheres which in the higher verte-
brates become of such relatively gigantic dimensions. The
hemispheres appear to be primitively associated with the
special sense of smell, and they are prolonged anteriorly into a
pair of olfactory lobes which come into close relation with the
olfactory organ. From a consideration of their adult relations
and of their development — particularly in those groups where
there is no disturbing factor in the shape of a large yolk sac —
it seems probable that the hemispheres are primitively paired
outpushings of the lateral wall of the primitive fore-brain 4 —
in order to give increased space for the increased mass of nervous
matter associated with the olfactory sense. They are most
highly developed in the Dipneusti amongst fishes. They are
there (cf . fig. 29, C) of relatively enormous size with thick nervous
floor (corpus striatum) and side walls and roof (pallium) surround-
ing a central cavity (lateral ventricle) which opens into the
third ventricle. At the posterior end of the hemisphere a small
area of its wall remains thin and membranous, and this becomes
pushed into the lateral ventricle by an ingrowth of blood-vessel
to form the huge lateral plexus ( = plexus hemisphaerium).
In this great size of the hemispheres 6 and also in the presence
of a rudimentary cortex in the Dipnoi we see, as in many other
features in these fishes, a distinct foreshadowing of conditions
occurring in the higher groups of vertebrates. The Cyclostomes
possess a distinct though small pair of hemispheres. In the
Selachians the relatively archaic Notidanidae 6 possess a pair
of thick-walled hemispheres, but in the majority of the members
of the group the paired condition is obscured (fig. 20, A).
In the Teleostomes the mass of nervous matter which in other
groups forms the hemispheres does not undergo any pushing
outwards except as regards the small olfactory lobes. On the
contrary, it remains as a great thickening of the lateral wall
of the thalamencephalon (the so-called basal ganglia) , additional
space for which, however, may be obtained by a considerable
increase in length of the fore-brain region (cf. fig. 30, A) or by
actual involution into the third ventricle (Polypterus).1 The
great nervous thickenings of the thalamencephalic wall bulge
into its cavity and are covered over by the thin epithelial roof
of the thalamencephalon which is as a consequence liable to
be confused with the pallium or roof of the hemispheres with
which it has nothing to do : the homologue of the pallium
3 J. Graham Kerr, Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci. vol. xlvi.
4F. K. Studnicka, S.B. bohm. Gesell. (1901); J. Graham Kerr,
Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci. vol. xlvi., and The Budgett Memorial Volume,
6 G. Elliot Smith, Anat. Anz. (1907).
6 F. K. Studnicka, S.B. bohm. Gesell. (1896).
7 J. Graham Kerr, The Budgett Memorial Volume.
266
ICHTHYOLOGY
[ANATOMY
as of other parts of the hemisphere is contained within the
lateral thickening of the thelamencephalic wall, not in its
membranous roof.1
Associated with the parts of the fore-brain devoted to the
sense of smell (especially the corpora striata) is the important
system of bridging fibres forming the anterior commissure
which lies near the anterior end of the floor, or in the front wall,
of the primitive fore-brain. It is of great interest to note the
appearance in the Dipnoans (Lepidosiren and Protoplerus)
of a corpus callosum (cf. fig. 30 B) lying dorsal to the anterior
commissure and composed of fibres connected with the pallial
region of the two hemispheres.
Sense Organs. — The olfactory organs are of special interest
in the Selachians, where each remains through life as a widely-
open, saccular involution of the ectoderm which may be pro-
longed backwards to the margin of the buccal cavity by an
open oronasal groove, thus retaining a condition familiar in
the embryo of the higher vertebrates. In Dipnoans the olfactory
organ communicates with the roof of the buccal cavity by
definite posterior nares as in the higher forms — the communicat-
ing passage being doubtless the morphological equivalent of
the oronasal groove, although there is no direct embryological
evidence for this. In the Teleostomes the olfactory organ varies
from a condition of great complexity in the Crossopterygians
down to a condition of almost complete atrophy in certain
Teleosts (Plectognathi).2
The eyes are usually of large size. The lens is large and spheri-
cal and in the case of most Teleostomes accommodation for
distant vision is effected by the lens being pulled bodily nearer
the retina. This movement is brought about by the contraction
of smooth muscle fibres contained in the processus falciformis,
a projection from the choroid which terminates in contact with
the lens in a swelling, the campanula Halleri. In Amia and in
Teleosts a network of capillaries forming the so-called choroid
gland surrounds the optic nerve just outside the retina. As
a rule the eyes of fishes have a silvery, shining appearance due
to the deposition of shining flakes of guanin in the outer layer
of the choroid (Argentea) or, in the case of Selachians, in the
inner layers (tapetum). Fishes which inhabit dark recesses,
e.g. of caves or of the deep sea, show an enlargement, or, more
frequently, a reduction, of the eyes. Certain deep-sea Teleosts
possess remarkable telescopic eyes with a curious asymmetrical
development of the retina.5
The otocyst or auditory organ agrees in its main features
with that of other vertebrates. In Selachians the otocyst
remains in the adult open to the exterior by the ductus endolym-
phaticus. In Squatina 4 this is unusually wide and correlated ;
with this the calcareous otoconia are replaced by sand-grains
from the exterior. In Dipnoans (Lepidosiren and Prolopterus)
curious outgrowths arise from the ductus endolymphaticus
and come to overlie the roof of the fourth ventricle, recalling
the somewhat similar condition met with in certain Amphibians.
In various Teleosts the swim-bladder enters into intimate relations
with the otocyst. In the simplest condition these relations consist in
the prolongation forwards of the swim-bladder as a blindly ending
tube on either side, the blind end coming into direct contact either
with the wall of the otocyst itself or with the fluid surrounding it
(perilymph) through a gap in the rigid periotic capsule. A wave of
compression causing a slight inward movement of the swim-bladder
wall will bring about a greatly magnified movement of that part
of the wall which is not in relation with the external medium, viz.
the part in relation with theinteriorof the auditory capsule. In this
way the perception of delicate sound waves may be rendered much
more perfect. In the Ostariophysi (Sagemehl), including the
Gyprinidae, the Siluridae, the Characinidae and the Gymnotidae, a
physiologically similar connexion between swim-bladder and otocyst
is brought about by the intervention of a chain of auditory ossicles
(Weberian ossicles) formed by modification of the anterior vertebrae.6
1F. K. Studnicka, S.B. bphm. Gesell. (1901); J. Graham
Kerr, Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci. xlvi., and The Budgett Memorial
Volume.
1 R. Wiedersheim, Kolliker's Festschrift: cf. also Anal. Anz.
(1887).
* A. Brauer, Verhandl. deutsch. zoo/. Gesell. (1902).
4 C. Stewart, Journ. Linn. Soc. Zool. (1006), 439.
* T. W. Bridge and A. C. Haddon, Phil. Trans. 184 (1893).
Lateral Line Organs.6 — Epidermal sense buds are scattered
about in the ectoderm of fishes. A special arrangement of these
in lines along the sides of the body and on the head region form
the highly characteristic sense organs of the lateral line system.
In Lepidosiren these organs retain their superficial position; in
other fishes they become sunk beneath the surface into a groove,
which may remain open (some Selachians), but as a rule becomes
closed into a tubular channel with openings at intervals. It
has been suggested that the function of this system of sense
organ's is connected with the perception of vibratory disturbances
of comparatively large wave length in the surrounding medium.
Peripheral Nerves. — In the Cyclostomes the dorsal afferent
and ventral efferent nerves are still, as in Amphioxus, independent,
but in the gnathostomatous fishes they are, as in the higher
vertebrates, combined together into typical spinal nerves.
As regards the cranial nerves the chief peculiarities of fishes
relate to (i) the persistence of the branchial clefts and (2) the
presence of an elaborate system of cutaneous sense organs
supplied by a group of nerves (lateralis) connected with a centre
in the brain which develops in continuity with that which
receives the auditory nerve. These points may be exemplified
by the arrangements in Selachians (see fig. 31). I., II., III., IV.
and VI. call for no special remark.
Trigeminus (V.). — The ophthalmicus profundus branch (op.p.) —
which probably is morphologically a distinct cranial nerve —
°PP
opsVtt
From Bridge, Cambridge Natural History, vol. vii. " Fishes " (by permission of
Macmillan & Co., Ltd.). After Wiedersheim, Grundriss der tuglcithmdcn Anatomic
(by permission of Gustav Fischer).
FIG. 31. — Diagram of Cranial nerves of a Fish. Cranial nerves and
branchial clefts are numbered with Roman figures. Trigeminus
black ; Facialis dotted ; Lateralis oblique shading ; Glossopharyn-
geal cross-hatched ; Vagus white.
bucc, Buccal. mx, Maxillary.
c, Commissure between pre- oc, Occipitospinal.
and postauditory parts of ol.o, Olfactory organ.
lateralis system. op.p, Ophthalmicus profundus.
d.r, Dorsal roots of spinal nerves, op.s, Ophthalmicus superficialis.
g.g, Gasserian ganglion. pn, Palatine.
gn.g, (Geniculate) ganglion of pq., Palatoptery go-quadrate
VII. cartilage.
hy, Hyomandibular. i, Spiracle.
/.n.X, Lateralis vagi. st. Supra-temporal branch of
m, Motor branches of hy. lateralis system.
md, Mandibular. t.a, Lateralis centre in brain.
md.ex, External mandibular. v.n, Visceral nerve.
mk.c, Meckel's cartilage. v.r, Ventral roots.
passes forwards along the roof of the orbit to the skin of the
snout. As it passes through the orbit it gives off the long
ciliary nerves to the eyeball, and is connected with the small
ciliary ganglion (also connected with III.) which in turn gives
off the short ciliary nerves to the eyeball. The ophthalmicus
superficialis (cut short in the figure) branch passes from the root
ganglion of V. (Gasserian ganglion), and passes also over the
orbit to the skin of the snout. It lies close to, or completely
fused with, the corresponding branch of the lateralis system.
The main trunk of V. branches over the edge of the mouth
into the maxillary (mx.) and mandibular (md.) divisions, the
former, like the two branches already mentioned, purely sensory,
the latter mixed — supplying the muscles of mastication as well
as the teeth of the lower jaw and the lining of the buccal floor.
The main trunk of the Facialis (VII.) bifurcates over the
' For literature of lateral line organs see Cole, Trans. Linn. Soc.
vii. (1898).
ANATOMY]
ICHTHYOLOGY
267
spiracle into a prespiracular portion — the main portion of which
passes to the mucous membrane of the palate as the palatine
(pnVll.) — and a postspiracular portion, the hyomandibular
(hy.) trunk which supplies the muscles of the hyoid arch and
also sends a few sensory fibres to the lining of the spiracle, the
floor of mouth and pharynx and the skin of the lower jaw.
Combined with the main trunk of the facial are branches belong-
ing to the lateralis system.
Lateralis Group of Nerves. — The lateralis group of nerves are
charged with the innervation of the system of cutaneous sense
organs and are all connected with the same central region in
the medulla. A special sensory area of the ectoderm becomes
involuted below the surface to form the otocyst, and the nerve
fibres belonging to this form the auditory nerve (VIII.). Other
portions of the lateralis group become mixed up with various
other cranial nerves as follows:
(a) Facial portion.
(1) Ophthalmicus superficial (op.s.Vll.): passes to lining
of nose or to the lateral line organs of the dorsal part of snout.
(2) Buccal (bucc. VII.) : lies close to maxillary division of V.
and passes to the sensory canals of the lower side of the snout.
(3) External mandibular (md.ex.}: lies in close association
with the mandibular division of V., supplies the sensory canals
of the lower jaw and hyoid region.
Lateralis vagi (l.n.X.) becomes closely associated with the
vagus. It supplies the lateral line organs of the trunk.
In the lamprey and in Dipnoans the lateralis vagi loses its
superficial position in the adult and comes into close relation
with the notochord.
In Actinopterygians and at least some Selachians a lateralis set
of fibres is associated with IX., and in the former fishes a con-
spicuous trunk of lateralis fibres passes to some or all (Gadus)
of the fins. This has been called the lateralis accessories and is
apparently connected with V., VII., IX., X. and certain spinal
nerves.1
Vagus Group (IX., X., XI.).— The glossopharyngeus (IX.) forks
over the first branchial cleft (pretrematic and post-trematic
branches) and also gives off a palatine branch (pn.lX.). In
some cases (various Selachians, Ganoids and Teleosts) it would
seem that IX. includes a few fibres of the lateralis group.
Vagus (X.) is shown by its multiple roots arising from the
medulla and also by the character of its peripheral distribution
to be a compound structure formed by the fusion of a number of
originally distinct nerves. It consists of (i) a number of
branchial branches (X.1 X.2 &c.), one of which forks over each
gill cleft behind the hyobranchial and which may (Selachians)
arise by separate roots from the medulla; (2) an intestinal
branch (s.n.X.) arising behind the last branchial and innervating
the wall of the oesophagus and stomach and it may be even the
intestine throughout the greater part of its length (Myxine).
The accessorius (XI.) is not in fishes separated as a distinct
nerve from the vagus.
With increased development of the brain its hinder portion,
giving rise to the vagus system, has apparently come to encroach
on the anterior portion of the spinal cord, with the result that a
number of spinal nerves have become reduced to a less or more
vestigial condition. The dorsal roots of these nerves disappear
entirely in the adult, but the ventral roots persist and are to
be seen arising ventrally to the vagus roots. They supply
certain muscles of the pectoral fins and of the visceral arches
and are known as spino-occipital nerves.2
These nerves are divisible into an anterior more ancient set — the
occipital nerves — and a posterior set of more recent origin — (occipito-
spinal nerves). In Selachians 1-5 pairs of occipital nerves alone
are recognizable : in Dipnoans 2-3 pairs of occipital and 2-3 pairs of
occipito-spinal: in Ganoids 1-2 pairs occipital and 1-5 pairs occipito-
spinal; in Teleosts finally the occipital nerves have entirely dis-
appeared while there are 2 pairs of occipito-spinal. In Cyclostomes
no special spino-occipital nerves have been described.
The fibres corresponding with those of the Hypoglossus (XII.)
of higher vertebrates spring from the anterior spinal nerves,
1 For literature of lateral line organs see Cole, Trans. Linn. Soc.,
vii. (1898).
1 M. Furbringer in Gegenbaur's Festschrift (1896).
which are here, as indeed in Amphibia, still free from the
cranium.
Sympathetic. — The sympathetic portion of the nervous
system does not in fishes attain the same degree of differentiation
as in the higher groups. In Cyclostomes it is apparently re-
presented by a fine plexus with small ganglia found in the
neighbourhood of the dorsal aorta and on the surface of the heart
and receiving branches from the spinal nerves. In Selachians
also a plexus occurs in the neighbourhood of the cardinal veins
and extends over the viscera: it receives visceral branches
from the anterior spinal nerves. In Teleosts the plexus has
become condensed to form a definite sympathetic trunk on each
side, extending forwards into the head and communicating with
the ganglia of certain of the cranial nerves. (J. G. K.)
V. DISTRIBUTION IN TIME AND SPACE
The origin of Vertebrates, and how far back in time they extend,
is unknown. The earliest fishes were in all probability devoid
of hard parts and traces of their existence can scarcely be
expected to be found. The hypothesis that they may be derived
from the early Crustaceans, or Arachnids, is chiefly based on the
somewhat striking resemblance which the mailed fishes of the
Silurian period (Ostracodermi) bear to the Arthropods of that
remote time, a resemblance, however, very superficial and re-
garded by most morphologists as an interesting example of
mimetic resemblance — whatever this term may be taken to
mean. The minute denticles known as conodonts, which first
appear in the Ordovician, were once looked upon as teeth of
Cyclostomes, but their histological structure does not afford
any support to the identification and they are now generally
dismissed altogether from the Vertebrates. As a compensation
the Lower Silurian of Russia has yielded small teeth or spines
which seem to have really belonged to fishes, although their
exact affinities are not known (Palaeodus and Archodus of
J. V. Rohon).
It is not until we reach the Upper Silurian that satisfactory
remains of unquestionable fishes are found,and here they suddenly
appear in a considerable variety of forms, very unlike modern
fishes in every respect, but so highly developed as to convince
us that we have to search in much earlier formations for their
ancestors. These Upper Silurian fishes are the Coelolepidae,
the Ateleaspidae, the Birkeniidae, the Pteraspidae, the Tremata-
spidae and the Cephalaspidae, all referred to the Ostracophori.
The three last types persist in the Devonian, in the middle of
which period the Osteolepid Crossopterygii, the Dipneusti and
the Arthrodira suddenly appear. The most primitive Selachian
(Cladoselache) , the Acanthodian Selachians (Diplacanthidae) , the
Chimaerids ( Ptyctodus) , and the Palaeoniscid ganoids (Chirolepis)
appear in the Upper Devonian, along with the problematic
Palaeospondylus.
In the Carboniferous period, the Ostracophori and Arthrodira
have disappeared, the Crossopterygii and Dipneusti are still abun-
dant, and theSelachians(P/eM/-ocaw/A«i,Acanthodians,truesharks)
and Chondrostean ganoids (Palaeoniscidae and Platysomidae)
are predominant. In the Upper Permian the Holostean ganoids
(Acanthophorus) make their appearance, and the group becomes
dominant in the Jurassic and the Lower Cretaceous. In the
Trias, the Crossopterygii and Dipneusti dwindle in variety and
the Ceratodontidae appear; the Chondrostean and Holostean
ganoids are about equally represented, and are supplemented in
the Jurassic by the first, annectant representatives of the
Teleostei (Pholidophoridae, Leptolepidae) . In the latter period,
the Holostean ganoids are predominant, and with them we find
numerous Cestraciont sharks, some primitive skates (Squatinidat
and Rhinobatidae) , Chimaerids and numerous Coelacanthid
crossopterygians.
The fish-fauna of the Lower Cretaceous is similar to that
of the Jurassic, whilst that of the Chalk and other Upper Cretace-
ous formations is quite modern in aspect, with only a slight
admixture of Coelacanthid crossopterygians and Holostean
ganoids, the Teleosteans being abundantly represented by
Elopidae, Albulidae, Halosauridae, Scopelidae and Berycidae,
268
ICHTHYOLOGY
[DISTRIBUTION IN
many being close allies of the present inhabitants of the deep
sea. At this period the spiny-rayed Teleosteans, dominant
in the seas of the present day, made their first appearance.
With the Eocene, the fish-fauna has assumed the essential
character which it now bears. A few Pycnodonts survive as
the last representatives of typically Mesozoic ganoids, whilst
in the marine deposits of Monte Bolca (Upper Eocene) the
principal families of living marine fishes are represented by genera
identical with or more or less closely allied to those still exist-
ing; it is highly remarkable that forms so highly specialized as
the sucking-fish or remoras, the flat-fish (Pleuronectidae), the
Pediculati, the Plectognaths, &c., were in existence, whilst in
the freshwater deposits of North America Osteoglossidae and
CicUidae were already represented. Very little is known of the
freshwater fishes of the early Tertiaries. What has been pre-
served of them from the Oligocene and Miocene shows that
they differed very slightly from their modern representatives.
We may conclude that from early Tertiary times fishes were
practically as they are at present. The great hiatus in our know-
ledge lies in the period between the Cretaceous and the Eocene.
At the present day the Teleosteans are in immense pre-
ponderance, Selachians are still well represented, the Chondro-
stean ganoids are confined to the rivers and lakes of the temperate
zone of the northern hemisphere (Acipenseridae, Polyodontidae),
the Holostean ganoids are reduced to a few species (Lepidosteus,
Amia) dwelling in the fresh waters of North America, Mexico
and Cuba, the Crossopterygians are represented by the isolated
group Polypteridae, widely different from any of the known
fossil forms, with about ten species inhabiting the rivers and
lakes of Africa, whilst the Dipneusti linger in Australia (Neocera-
lodus), in South America (Lepidosiren), and in tropical Africa
(Prolopterus). The imperfections of the geological record pre-
clude any attempt to deal with the distribution in space as
regards extinct forms, but several types, at present very re-
stricted in their habitat, once had a very wide distribution. The
Ceratodontidae, for instance, of which only one species is now
living, confined to the rivers of Queensland, has left remains in
Triassic, Rhaetic, Jurassic and Cretaceous rocks of Europe,
North America, Patagonia, North and South Africa, India and
Australia; the Amiidae and Lepidosteldae were abundant in
Europe in Eocene and Miocene times; the Osteoglossidae, now
living in Africa, S.E. Asia and South America, occurred in North
America and Europe in the Eocene.
In treating of the geographical distribution of modern fishes,
it is necessary to distinguish between fresh-water and marine
forms. It is, however, not easy to draw a line between these
categories, as a large number of forms are able to accommodate
themselves to either fresh or salt water, whilst some periodically
migrate from the one into the other. On the whole, fishes
may be roughly divided into the following categories: —
I. Marine fishes. A. shore-fishes; B. pelagic fishes; C.
deep-sea fishes.
II. Brackish-water fishes.
III. Fresh-water fishes.
IV. Migratory fishes. A. anadromous (ascending fresh waters
to spawn); B. catadromous (descending to the sea
to spawn).
About two-thirds of the known recent fishes are marine. Such
are nearly all the Selachians, and, among the Teleosteans, all
the Heleromi, Pediculati and the great majority of Apodes,
Thoracostei, Percesoces, Anacanthini, Acanthopterygii and Plecto-
gnathi. All the Crossopterygii, Dipneusti, Opislhomi, Sym-
branchii, and nearly all the Ganoidei and Ostariophysi are con-
fined to fresh-water.
The three categories of marine fishes have thus been defined
by Gunther:—
" i. Shore Fishes — that is, fishes which chiefly inhabit parts of
the sea in the immediate neighbourhood of land either actually
raised above, or at least but little submerged below, the surface of the
water. They do not descend to any great depth, — very few to 300
fathoms, and the majority live close to the surface. The distribution
of these fishes is determined, not only by the temperature of the sur-
face water, but also by the nature of the adjacent land and its animal
and vegetable products, — some being confined to flat coasts with soft
or sandy bottoms, others to rocky and fissured coasts, others to living
coral formations. If it were not for the frequent mechanical and
involuntary removals to which these fishes are exposed, their dis-
tribution within certain limits, as it no doubt originally existed,
would resemble still more that of freshwater fishes than we find it
actually does at the present period.
2. Pelagic Fishes — that is, fishes which inhabit the surface and
uppermost strata of the open ocean, and approach the shores only
accidentally or occasionally (in search of prey), or periodically (for
the purpose of spawning). The majority spawn in the open sea,
their ova and young being always found at a great distance from the
shore. With regard to their distribution, they are still subject
to the influences of light and the temperature of the surface water;
but they are independent of the variable local conditions which tie
the shore fish to its original home, and therefore roam freely over a
space which would take a freshwater or shore fish thousands of years
to cover in its gradual dispersal. Such as are devoid of rapidity of
motion are dispersed over similarly large areas by the oceanic cur-
rents, more slowly than the strong swimmers, but not less surely. An
accurate definition, therefore, of their distribution within certain
areas equivalent to the terrestrial regions is much less feasible than
in the case of shore fishes.
3. Deep-Sea Fishes — that is, fishes which inhabit such depths
of the ocean that they are but little or not at all influenced by light
or the surface temperature, and which, by their organization, are
prevented from reaching the surface stratum in a healthy condition.
Living almost under identical tellurian conditions, the same type,
the same species, may inhabit an abyssal depth under the equator as
well as one near the arctic or antarctic circle; and all that we know
of these fishes points to the conclusion that no separate horizontal
regions can be distinguished in the abyssal fauna, and that no
division into bathymetrical strata can be attempted on the base of
generic much less of family characters."
A division of the world into regions according to the distribu-
tion of the shore-fishes is a much more difficult task than that
of tracing continental areas. It is possible perhaps to dis-
tinguish four great divisions: the Arctic region, the Atlantic
region, the Indo-Pacific region and the Antarctic region. The
second and third may be again subdivided into three zones:
Northern, Tropical and Southern. This appears to be a more
satisfactory arrangement than that which has been proposed
into three zones primarily, each again subdivided according
to the different oceans. Perhaps a better division is that adopted
by D. S. Jordan, who arranges the littoral fishes according to
coast lines; we then have an East Atlantic area, a West Atlantic,
an East Pacific and a West Pacific, the latter including the
coasts of the Indian Ocean. The tropical zone, whatever be
the ocean, is that in which fishes flourish in greatest abundance
and where, especially about coral-reefs, they show the greatest
variety of bizarre forms and the most gorgeous coloration.
The fish-fauna of the Indo-Pacific is much richer than that
of the Atlantic, both as regards genera and species.
As regards the Arctic and Antarctic regions, the continuity
or circumpolar distribution of the shore fishes is well established.
The former is chiefly characterized by its Cottids, Cyclopterids,
Zoarcids and Gadids, the latter by its Nototheniids. The theory
of bipolarity receives no support from the study of the fishes.
Pelagic fishes, among which we find the largest Selachians
and Teleosteans, are far less limited in their distribution, which,
for many species,' is nearly world-wide. Some are dependent
upon currents, but the great majority being rapid swimmers
able to continue their course for weeks, apparently without
the necessity of rest (many sharks, scombrids, sword-fishes), pass
from one ocean into the other. Most numerous between the
tropics, many of these fishes occasionally wander far north and
south of their habitual range, and there are few genera that
are at all limited in their distribution.
Deep-sea fishes, of which between seven hundred and eight
hundred species are known, belong to the most diverse groups
and quite a number of families are exclusively bathybial (Chla-
mydosclachidae, Stomiatidae, Alepocephalidae, Nemichlhyidae,
Synaphobranchidae, Saccopharyngidae, Cetomimidae, Halosau-
ridae, Lipogenyidae, Notacanlhidae, Chiasmodontidae, Icosleidae,
Muraenolepididae, Macruridae, Anomalopidae, Podatelidae,
Trachypteridae, Lophotidae, Ceratiidae, Giganlactinidae). But
they are all comparatively slight modifications of the forms
living on the surface of the sea or in the shallow parts, from
TIME AND SPACE]
ICHTHYOLOGY
269
•which they may be regarded as derived. In no instance do these
types show a structure which may be termed archaic when
compared with their surface allies. That these fishes are localized
in their vertical distribution, between the loo-fathoms line,
often taken as the arbitrary limit of the bathybial fauna, and
the depth of 2750 fathoms, the lowest point whence fishes have
been procured, there is little doubt. But our knowledge is
still too fragmentary to allow of any general conclusions, and
the same applies to the horizontal distribution. Yet the same
species may occur at most distant points; as these fishes dwell
beyond the influence of the sun's rays, they are not affected by
temperature, and living in the Arctic zone or under the equator
makes little difference to them. A great deal of evidence has
been accumulated to show the gradual transition of the surface
into the bathybial forms; a large number of surface fishes have
been met with in deep water (from 100 to 500 fathoms), and
these animals afford no support to Alexander Agassiz's supposi-
tion of the existence of an azoic zone between the 2oo-fathoms
line and the bottom.
Brackish-water fishes occur also in salt and fresh water, in
some localities at least, and belong to various groups of Teleo-'
steans. Sticklebacks, gobies, grey mullets, blennies are among
the best-known examples. The facility with which they accom-
modate themselves to changes in the medium in which they live
has enabled them to spread readily over very large areas. The
three-spined stickleback, for instance, occurs over nearly the
whole of the cold and temperate parts of the northern hemisphere,
whilst a grey mullet (Mugil capita) ranges without any appreciable
difference in form from Scandinavia and the United States
along all the Atlantic coasts to the Cape of Good Hope and
Brazil. It would be hardly possible to base zoo-geographical
divisions on the distribution of such forms.
The fresh-water fishes, however, invite to such attempts.
How greatly their distribution differs from that of terrestrial
animals has long ago been emphasized. The key to their mode
of dispersal is, with few exceptions, to be found in the hydro-
graphy of the continents, latitude and climate, excepting of
course very great altitudes, being inconsiderable factors, the
fish-fauna of a country deriving its character from the head-
waters of the river-system which flows through it. The lower
Nile, for instance, is inhabited by fishes bearing a close resem-
blance to, or even specifically identical with, those of tropical
Africa, thus strikingly contrasting with the land-fauna of its
banks. The knowledge of the river-systems is, however, not
sufficient for tracing areas of distribution, for we must bear
in mind the movements which have taken place on the surface
of the earth, owing to which present conditions may not have
existed within comparatively recent times, geologically speaking;
and this is where the systematic study of the aquatic animals
affords scope for conclusions having a direct bearing on the
physical geography of the near past. It is not possible here to
enter into the discussion of the many problems which the dis-
tribution of fresh-water fishes involves; we limit ourselves to
an indication of the principal regions into which the world may
be divided from this point of view. The main divisions proposed
by Giinther in the gth edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica
still appear the most satisfactory. They are as follows: —
I. THE NORTHERN ZONE OR HOLARCTIC REGION. — Characterized
by Acipenseridae. Few Siluridae. Numerous Cyprinidae, Salmon-
idae, Esocidae, Percidae.
1. Europaeo- Asiatic or Palaearctic Region. Characterized by
absence of osseous Ganoidei ; Cpbitinae and Barbus numerous.
2. North American or Nearctic Region. Characterized by osseous
Ganoidei and abundance of Catostominae ; but no Cobitinae
or Barbus.
II. THE EQUATORIAL ZONE. — Characterized by the development
of Siluridae.
A. Cyprinoid Division. Characterized by presence of Cyprinidae,
Mastacembelidae, Anabantidae, Ophiocephalidae.
1. Indian Region. Characterized by absence of Dipneusti,
Polypteridae, Mormyridae and Characinidae. Cobi-
tinae numerous.
2. African Region. Characterized by presence of Dipneusti,
Polypterid and Mormyrid; Cichlid and Characinid
numerous.
B. Acyprinoid Division. Characterized by absence of Cyprinidae
and the other families mentioned above.
1 . Tropical American or Neotropical Region. Characterized
by presence of Dipneusti ; Cichlidae and Characinidae
numerous ; Gymnotidae and Loricariidae.
2. Tropical Pacific Region. Includes the Australian as
well as the Polynesian Region. Characterized by
presence of Dipneusti. Cichlidae and Characinidae
absent.
III. THE SOUTHERN ZONE. — Characterized by absence ot Cypri-
nidae and scarcity of Siluridae. Haplochitonidae and Galaxiidae
represent the Salmonids and Esoces of the northern zone. One
region only.
i. Antarctic Region. Characterized by the small number of
species; the fishes of
(a) The Tasmanian subregion;
(&) The New Zealand subregion ; and
(c) The Patagonian or Fuegian subregion
being almost identical.
Although, as expressed in the above synopsis, the resemblance
between the Indian and African regions is far greater than exists
between them and the other regions of the equatorial zone,
attention must be drawn to the marked affinity which some of
the fishes of tropical Africa show to those of South America
(Lepidosirenidae, Characinidae, Cichlidae, Nandidae), an affinity
which favours the supposition of a connexion between these
two parts of the world in early Tertiary times.
The boundaries of Giinther's regions may thus be traced,
beginning with the equatorial zone, this being the richest.
EQUATORIAL ZONE. — Roughly speaking, the borders of this
zoological zone coincide with the geographical limits of the
tropics of Cancer and Capricorn; its characteristic forms,
however, extend in undulating lines several degrees both north-
wards and southwards. Commencing from the west coast of
Africa, the desert of the Sahara forms a boundary between
the equatorial and northern zones; as the boundary approaches
the Nile, it makes a sudden sweep towards the north as far as
northern Syria, crosses through Persia and Afghanistan to the
southern ranges of the Himalayas, and follows the course of
the Yang-tse-Kiang, which receives its contingent of equatorial
fishes through its southern tributaries. Its continuation through
the North Pacific may be indicated by the tropic, which strikes
the coast of Mexico at the southern end of the Gulf of California.
Equatorial types of South America are known to extend so
far northwards; and, by following the same line, the West
India Islands are naturally included in this zone.
Towards the south the equatorial zone embraces the whole
of Africa and Madagascar, and seems to extend still farther
south in Australia, its boundary probably following the southern
coast of that continent; the detailed distribution of the fresh-
water fishes of south-western Australia has been little studied,
but the tropical fishes of that region follow the principal water-
course, the Murray river, far towards the south and probably
to its mouth. The boundary-line then stretches to the north
of Tasmania and New Zealand, coinciding with the tropic
until it strikes the western slope of the Andes, on the South
American continent, where it again bends southward to embrace
the system of the Rio de la Plata.
The four regions into which the equatorial zone is divided
arrange themselves into two well-marked divisions, one of which
is characterized by the presence of Cyprinid fishes, combined
with the development of Labyrinlhic Percesoces (Anabantidae
and Ophiocephalidae) and Mastacembelids, whilst in the other
these types are absent. The boundary between the Cyprinoid
and Acyprinoid division seems to follow the now exploded
Wallace's line — a line drawn from the south of the Philippines
between Borneo and Celebes, and farther south between Bali
and Lombok. Borneo abounds in Cyprinids; from the Philippine
Islands a few only are known, and in Bali two species have been
found; but none are known from Celebes or Lombok, or from
islands situated farther east.
The Indian region comprises Asia south of the Himalayas and
the Yang-tse-Kiang, and includes the islands to the west of
Celebes and Lombok. Towards the north-east the island of
Formosa, which also by other parts of its fauna shows the
270
ICHTHYOPHAGI— ICHTHYOSAURUS
characters of the equatorial zone, has received some characteristic
Japanese freshwater fishes. Within the geographical boundaries
of China the freshwater fishes of the tropics pass gradually into
those of the northern zone, both being separated by a broad,
debateable ground. The affluents of the great river traversing
this district are more numerous from the south than from the
north, and carry the southern fishes far into the temperate
zone. Scarcely better defined is the boundary of this region
towards the north-west, in which fishes were very poorly re-
presented by types common to India and Africa.
The African region comprises the whole of Africa south of
the Sahara. It might have been conjectured that the more
temperate climate of its southern extremity would have been
accompanied by a conspicuous difference in the fish fauna. But
this is not the case; the difference between the tropical and
southern parts of Africa consists simply in the gradual dis-
appearance of specifically tropical forms, whilst Silurids,
Cyprinids and even Anabas penetrate to its southern coast;
no new form, except a Galaxias at the Cape of Good Hope, has
entered to impart to South Africa a character distinct from the
central portion of the continent. In the north-east the African
fauna passes the isthmus of Suez and penetrates into Syria;
the system of the Jordan presents so many African types that
it has to be included in a description of the African region as
well as of the Europaeo-Asiatic.
The boundaries of the Neotropical or Tropical American
region have been sufficiently indicated in the definition of the
equatorial zone. A broad and most irregular band of country,
in which the South and North American forms are mixed,
exists in the north.
The Tropical Pacific region includes all the islands east of
Wallace's line, New Guinea, Australia (with the exception of
its south-eastern portion), and all the islands of the tropical
Pacific to the Sandwich group.
NORTHERN ZONE. — The boundaries of the northern zone coin-
cide in the main with the northern limit of the equatorial zone;
but they overlap the latter at different points. This happens
in Syria, as well as east of it, where the mixed faunae of the
Jordan and the rivers of Mesopotamia demand the inclusion
of this territory in the northern zone as well as in the equatorial;
in the island of Formosa, where a Salmonid and several Japanese
Cyprinids flourish; and in Central America, where a Lepidosleus,
a Cyprinid (Sclerognathus meridionalis) , and an Amiurus (A.
meridionalis) represent the North American fauna in the midst
of a host of tropical forms.
There is no separate arctic zone for freshwater fishes; ichthyic
life becomes extinct towards the pole wherever the fresh water
remains frozen throughout the year, or thaws for a few weeks
only; and the few fishes which extend into high latitudes
belong to types in no wise differing from those of the more tem-
perate south. The highest latitude at which fishes have been
obtained is 82° N. lat., whence specimens of char (Salmo arcturus
and Salmo naresii) have been brought back.
The Palaearctic or Europaeo-Asiatic Region. — The western
and southern boundaries of this region coincide with those
of the northern zone. Bering Strait and the Kamchatka Sea
have been conventionally taken as the boundary in the north,
but the fishes of both coasts, so far as they are known, are not
sufficiently distinct to be referred to two different regions.
The Japanese islands exhibit a decided Palaearctic fish fauna
with a slight influx of tropical forms in the south. In the east,
as well as in the west, the distinction between the Europaeo-
Asiatic and the North American regions disappears almost
entirely as we advance farther towards the north. Finally,
the Europaeo-Asiatic fauna mingles with African and Indian
forms in Syria, Persia and Afghanistan.
The boundaries of the North American or Nearctic region
have been sufficiently indicated. The main features and the
distribution of this fauna are identical with those of the preceding
region.
SOUTHERN ZONE. — The boundaries of this zone have been
indicated in the description of the equatorial zone; they over-
lap the southern boundaries of the latter in South Australia
and South America, but we have not the means of defining the
limits to which southern types extend northwards. This zone
includes Tasmania, with at least a portion of south-eastern
Australia (Tasmanian sub-region) , New Zealand and the Auckland
Islands (New Zealand sub-region), and Chile, Patagonia, Tierra
del Fuego and the Falkland Islands (Fuegian sub-region).
No freshwater fishes are known from Kerguelen's Land, or
from islands beyond 55° S. lat.
The Tropical American region is the richest (about 1300 species) ;
next follow the African region (about 1000), the Indian region
(about 800), the Europaeo-Asiatic region (about 500), the North
American region (about 400), the Tropical Pacific region (about
60) ; whilst the Antarctic region is quite insignificant.
Of the migratory fishes, or fishes travelling regularly from
the sea to fresh waters, most, if not all, were derived from marine
forms. The anadromous forms, annually or periodically ascend-
ing rivers for the purpose of spawning, such as several species
of Acipenser, Salmo, Coregonus, Clupea (shads), and Petromyzon,
are only known from the northern hemisphere, whilst the cata-
'dromous forms, spending most of their life in fresh water but
resorting to the sea to breed, such as Anguilla, some species of
Mugil, Galaxias and Pleuronectes, have representatives in
both hemispheres. (G. A. B.)
ICHTHYOPHAGI (Gr. for "fish-eaters"), the name given
by ancient geographers to several coast-dwelling peoples in
different parts of the world and ethnically unrelated. Nearchus
mentions such a race as inhabiting the barren shores of the
Mekran on the Arabian Sea; Pausanias locates them on the
western coast of the Red Sea. Ptolemy speaks of fish-eaters
in Ethiopia, and on the west coast of Africa; while Pliny
relates the existence of such tribes on the islands in the Persian
Gulf. Herodotus (book i. c. 200) mentions three tribes of the
Babylonians who were solely fish-eaters, and in book iii. c. 19
refers to Ichthyophagi in Egypt. The existence of such tribes
was confirmed by Sir Richard F. Burton (El-Medinah, p. 144).
ICHTHYOSAURUS, a fish or porpoise-shaped marine reptile
which characterized the Mesozoic period and became extinct
immediately after the deposition of the Chalk. It was named
Ichthyosaurus (Gr. fish-lizard) by C. Konig in 1818 in allusion
to its outward form, and is best known by nearly complete
skeletons from the Lias of England and Germany. The large
head is produced into a slender, pointed snout; and the jaws
are provided with a row of conical teeth nearly uniform in
size and deeply implanted in a continuous groove. The eye is
enormous, and is surrounded by a ring of overlapping " sclerotic
From British Museum Guide to Fossil Reptiles and Fishes, by permission of the
Trustees.
Skeleton of Ichthyosaurus communis, with outline of body and fins,
from the Lower Lias of Lyme Regis, Dorset; original nearly four
metres in length.
plates," which would serve to protect the eye-ball during diving.
The vertebrae are very numerous, short and deeply biconcave,
imparting great flexibility to the backbone as in fishes. The
neck is so short and thick that it is practically absent. There
are always two pairs of paddle-like limbs, the hinder pair never
disappearing as in porpoises and other Cetacea, though often
much reduced in size. A few specimens from the Upper Lias
of Wurttemberg (in the museums of Stuttgart, Tubingen,
Budapest and Chicago) exhibit remains of the skin, which is
quite smooth and forms two triangular median fins, one in the
middle of the back, the other at the end of the tail. The dorsal
fin consists merely of skin without any internal skeleton, while
ICHTHYOSIS— ICONIUM
271
the tail-fin is expanded in a vertical plane and has the lower lobe
stiffened by the tapering end of the backbone, which is sharply
bent downwards. Immature individuals are sometimes observ-
able within the full-grown skeletons, suggesting that this reptile
was viviparous.
The largest known species of Ichthyosaurus is /. trigonodon
from the Upper Lias of Banz, Bavaria, with the head measuring
about two metres in length and probably representing an animal
not less than ten metres in total length. /. platyodon, from the
English Lower Lias, seems to have been almost equally large.
/. intermedius and /. communis, which are the commonest
species in the English Lower Lias, rarely exceed a length of three
or four metres. The species in rocks later than the Lias are
known for the most part only by fragments, but the remains of
Lower Cretaceous age are noteworthy for their very wide geo-
graphical distribution, having been found in Europe, the East
Indies, Australia, New Zealand and South America. Allied
Ichthyosaurians named Ophthalmosaurus and Baptanodon,
from the Upper Jurassic of England and North America, are
nearly or quite toothless and have very flexible broad paddles.
The earliest known Ichthyosaurians (Mixosaurus), which
occur in the Trias, are of diminutive size, with paddles which
suggest that these marine reptiles were originally descended
from land or marsh animals (see REPTILES).
AUTHORITIES. — -R. Owen, A Monograph of the Fossil Reptilia of
the Liassic Formations, part iii. (Mon. Palaeont. Soc., 1881); E.
Fraas, Die Ichthyosaurier der siiddeutschen Trias- und Jura-AUager-
ungen (Tubingen, 1891). Also good figures in T. Hawkins, The
Book of the Great Sea-dragons (London, 1840). (A. S. Wo.)
ICHTHYOSIS, or XERODERMA, a general thickening of the
whole skin and marked accumulation of the epidermic elements,
with atrophy of the sebaceous glands, giving rise to a hard, dry,
scaly condition, whence the names, from ixdvs, fish, and fijpos,
dry, dtpfia, skin. This disease generally first appears in infancy,
and is probably congenital. It differs in intensity and in distri-
bution, and is generally little amenable to any but palliative
remedies, such as the regular application of oily substances.
Ichthyosis lingualis (" smokers' tongue "), a variety common
in heavy smokers, occurs in opaque white patches on the tongue,
gums and roof of the mouth. Cancer occasionally starts from
the patches. The affection is obstinate, but may disappear
spontaneously.
ICKNIELD STREET, (i) The Saxon name (earlier Icenhylt)
of a prehistoric (not Roman) " Ridgeway " along the Berkshire
downs and the Chilterns, which crossed the Thames near
Streatley and ended somewhere near Tring or Dunstable. In
some places there are traces of a double road, one line on the hills
and one in the valley below, as if for summer and winter use.
No modern highroad follows it for any distance. Antiquaries
have supposed that it once ran on to Royston, Newmarket
and Norfolk, and have connected its name with the Iceni, the
Celtic tribe inhabiting East Anglia before the Roman conquest.
But the name does not occur in early documents so far east,
and it has certainly nothing to do with that of the Iceni
(Haverfield, Victoria History of Norfolk, i. 286). See further
ERMINE STREET. (2) A Roman road which ran through Derby,
Lichfield, Birmingham and Alcester is sometimes called Icknield
Street and sometimes Rycknield Street. The origin of this
nomenclature is very obscure (Viet. Hist, of Warwick, i. 239).
(F. J. H.)
ICON (through the Latinized form, from Gr. eluuiv, portrait,
image), generally any image or portrait-figure, but specially
the term applied to the representations in the Eastern Church
of sacred personages, whether in painting or sculpture, and
particularly to the small metal plaques in archaic Byzantine
style, venerated by the adherents of the Greek Church. See
ICONOCLASTS; IMAGE- WORSHIP ; BYZANTINE ART. The term
" iconography," once confined to the study of engravings (q.v.),
is now applied to the history of portrait images in Christian art,
though it is also used with a qualifying adjective of Greek,
Roman and other art.
ICONIUM (mod. Konia), a city of Asia Minor, the last of the
Phrygian land towards Lycaonia, was commonly reckoned to
Lycaonia in the Roman time, but retained its old Phrygian
connexion and population to a comparatively late date. Its
natural surroundings must have made it an important town from
the beginning of organized society in this region. It lies in an
excellently fertile plain, 6 m. from the Pisidian mountains on
the west, with mountains more distant on the north and south, ,
while to the east the dead level plain stretches away for hundreds '.
of miles, though the distant view is interrupted by island-like
mountains. Streams from the Pisidian mountains make the
land on the south-west and south of the city a garden; but on
the east and north-east a great part of the naturally fertile soil
is uncultivated. Trees grow nowhere except in the gardens
near the city. Irrigation is necessary for productiveness, and
the water-supply is now deficient. A much greater supply was
available for agriculture in ancient times and might be re-
introduced.
Originally a Phrygian city, as almost every authority who has
come into contact with the population calls it, and as is implied
in Acts xiv. 6, it was in a political sense the chief city of the
Lycaonian tetrarchy added to the Galatian country about 165
B.C., and it was part of the Roman province Galatia from 25
B.C. to about A.D. 295. Then it was included in the province
Pisidia (as Ammianus Marcellinus describes it) till 372, after
which it formed part of the new province Lycaonia so long as
the provincial division lasted. Later it was a principal city of
the theme of Anatolia. It suffered much from the Arab raids
in the three centuries following A.D. 660; its capture in 708 is
mentioned, but it never was held as a city of the caliphs. In
later Roman and Byzantine times it must have been a large and
wealthy city. It was a metropolis and an archbishopric, and
one of the earliest councils of the church was held there in A.D.
235. The ecclesiastical organization of Lycaonia and the country
round Iconium on all sides was complete in the early 4th century,
and monuments of later 3rd and 4th century Christianity are
extremely numerous. The history of Christian Iconium is utterly
obscure. The city was thrice visited by St Paul, probably
in A.D. 47, 50 and 53; and it is the principal scene of the tale
of Paul and Thecla (which though apocryphal has certainly
some historical basis; see THECLA). There was a distinct
Roman element in Iconium, arising doubtless from the presence
of Roman traders. This was recognized by Claudius, who granted
the honorary title Claudiconium, and by Hadrian, who elevated
the city to the rank of a Roman colony about A.D. 130 under
the name Colonia Aelia Hadriana Augusta Iconiensium. The
period of its greatest splendour was after the conquest by the
Seljuk Turks about 1072-1074. It soon became the capital of
the Seljuk state, and one of the most brilliant cities of the world.
The palace of the sultans and the mosque of Ala ed-dm Kaikobad
formerly covered great part of the Acropolis hill in the northern
part of the city. Farther south there is still the great complex
of buildings which form the chief seat of the Mevlevi dervishes,
a sect widely spread over Anatolia. Many other splendid mosques
and royal tombs adorned the city, and justified the Turkish
proverb, " See all the world; but see Konia." The walls,
about 2 m. in circumference, consisted of a core of rubble and
concrete, coated with ancient stones, inscriptions, sculptures
and architectural marbles, forming a striking sight, which no
traveller ever examined in detail. Beyond the walls extended
the gardens and villas of a prosperous Oriental population,
especially on the south-west towards the suburb of Meram.
When the Seljuk state broke up, and the Osmanli or Ottoman
sovereignty arose, Konia decayed, its population dwindled
and the splendid early Turkish buildings were suffered to go
to ruin. As trade and intercourse diminished Konia grew poorer
and more ruinous. The walls and the palace, still perfect in
the beginning of the ipth century, were gradually pulled down
for building material, and in 1882 there remained only a small
part of the walls, from which all the outer stones had been
removed, while the palace was a ruin. At that time and for
some years later a large part of Konia was like a city of the dead.
But about 1895 the advent of the Anatolian railway began to
restore its prosperity. A good supply of drinking water was
272
ICONOCLASTS
brought to the city by Fend Pasha, who governed the vilayet
ably for several years, till in 1903 he was appointed Granc
Vizier. The sacred buildings, mosques, &c., .were patched up
(except a few which were quite ruinous) and the walls wholly
removed, but an unsightly fragment of a palace-tower stil
remained in 1906. In 1904-1905 the first two sections of the
Bagdad railway, 117 m., to Karaman and Eregli, were built
In the city there is a branch of the Ottoman bank, a government
technical school, a French Catholic mission and a school, an
Armenian Protestant school for boys, an American mission
school for girls, mainly Armenian, and other educational
establishments.
The founder of the Mevlevi dancing dervishes, the poet
Mahommed Jelal-ed-Din (Rumi), in 1307, though tempted
to assume the inheritance along with the empire of the Seljuk
sultan Ala ed-dln Kaikobad III., who died without heirs, pre-
ferred to pass on the power to Osman, son of Ertogrul, and
with his own hands invested Osman and girt him with the sword:
this investiture was the legitimate beginning of the Osmanli
authority. The heirs of Jelal-ed-Din (Rumi) were favoured
by the Osmanli sultans until 1516, when Selim was on the
point of destroying the Mevlevi establishment as hostile to the
Osmanli and the faith; and though he did not do so the Mevlevi
and their chiefs were deprived of influence and dignity. In
1829 Mahmud II. restored their dignity in part, and in 1889
Abd-ul-Hamid II. confirmed their exemption from military duty.
The head of the Mevlevi dervishes (Aziz-Effendi, Hazreti-
Mevlana, Mollah-Unkiar, commonly styled simply Chelebi-
Effendi) has the right to gird on the sultan's sword at his in-
vestiture, and is master of the considerable revenues of the
greatest religious establishment in the empire. He has also
the privilege of corresponding direct with the caliph; but
otherwise is regarded as rather opposed to the Osmanli adminis-
tration, and has no real power.
Iconium is distant by rail 466 m. from the Bosporus at Haidar-
Pasha, and 389 from Smyrna by way of Afium-Kara-Hissar.
It has recently become the seat of a considerable manufacture
of carpets, owing to the cheapness of labour. The population
was estimated at 44,000 in 1890, and is now probably over
50,000. Mercury mines have begun to be worked; other
minerals are known to exist. (W. M. RA.)
ICONOCLASTS (Gr. ei/coi'o/cXdo-rijs: etiuv, image, and K\aeiv,
to break), the name applied particularly to the opponents in
the 8th and gth centuries of the use of images in Christian cult.
As regards the attitude towards religious images assumed
by the primitive Christian Church, several questions have often
been treated as one which cannot be too carefully kept apart.
There can be no doubt that the early Christians were unanimous
in condemning heathen image-worship and the various customs,
some immoral, with which it was associated. A form of icono-
latry specially deprecated in the New Testament was the then
prevalent adoration of the images of the reigning emperors
(see Rev. xv. 2). It is also tolerably certain that, if for no other
reasons besides the Judaism, obscurity, and poverty of the
early converts to Christianity, the works of art seen in their
meeting-houses cannot at first have been numerous. Along
with these reasons would co-operate towards the exclusion of
visible aids to devotion, not only the church's sacramental use
of Christ's name as a name of power, and its living sense of his
continued real though unseen presence, but also, during the
first years, its constant expectation of his second advent as
imminent. It was a common accusation brought against Jews
and Christians that they had " no altars, no temples, no known
images " (Min. Fel. Oct. c. 10), that " they set up no image
or form of any god" (see Arnob. Adv. Gent. vi. i; similarly
Celsus); and this charge was never denied; on the contrary
Origen gloried in it (c. Celsum, bk. 7, p. 386). At a comparatively
early date, indeed, we read of various Gnostic sects calling in
the fine arts to aid their worship; thus Irenaeus (Haer. i. 25. 6),
speaking of the followers of Marcellina, says that " they possess
images, some of them painted, and others formed from different
kinds of material; and they maintain that a likeness of Christ
was made by Pilate at that time when Jesus lived among men.
They crown these images, and set them up along with the images
of the philosophers of the world; that is to say, with the images
of Pythagoras and Plato and Aristotle and the rest. They have
also other modes of honouring these images after the same
manner as the Gentiles " (cf. Aug. De Haer. c. 7). It is also well
known that the emperor Alexander Severus found a place for
several Scripture characters and even for Christ in his lararium
(Lamprid. Vit. Alex. Sen. c. 29). But there is no evidence
that such a use of images extended at that period to orthodox
Christian circles. The first unmistakable indication of the public
use of the painter's art for directly religious ends does not occur
until A.D. 306, when the synod of Elvira, Spain, decreed (can.
36) that " pictures ought not to be in a church, lest that which
is worshipped and adored be painted on walls."1 This canon
is proof that the use of sacred pictures in public worship was not
at the beginning of the 4th century a thing unknown within
the church in Spain; and the presumption is that in other
places, about the same period, the custom was looked upon
with a more tolerant eye. Indications of the existence of allied
forms of sacred Christian art prior to this period are not wholly
wanting. It seems possible to trace some of the older and better
frescos in the catacombs to a very early age; and Bible manu-
scripts were often copiously illuminated and illustrated even
before the middle of the 4th century. An often-quoted passage
from Tertullian (De Pudic. c. 10, cf. c. 7) shows that in his day
the communion cup was wont to bear a representation of the
Good Shepherd. Clement of Alexandria (Paedag. iii. n)
mentions the dove, fish, ship, lyre, anchor, as suitable devices
for Christian signet rings. Origen (c. Celsum, bk. 3) repudiates
graven images as only fit for demons.
During the 4th and following centuries the tendency to enlist
the fine arts in the service of the church steadily advanced;
not, however, so far as appears, with the formal sanction of any
regular ecclesiastical authority, and certainly not without
strong protests raised by more than one powerful voice. From
a passage in the writings of Gregory of Nyssa (Oral, de Laudibus
Theodori Martyris, c. 2) it is easy to see how the stories of recent
martyrs would offer themselves as tempting subjects for the
painter, and at the same time be considered to have received
from him their best and most permanent expression; that this
feeling was widespread is shown in many places by Paulinus
of Nola (ob. 431), from whom we gather that not only martyr-
doms and Bible histories, but also symbols of the Trinity were
in his day freely represented pictorially. Augustine (De Cons.
Ev. i. 10) speaks less approvingly of those who look for Christ
and his apostles " on painted walls " rather than in his written
word. How far the Christian feeling of the 4th and sth centuries
was from being settled in favour of the employment of the
fine arts is shown by such a case as that of Eusebius of Caesarea,
who, in reply to a request of Constantia, sister of Constantine,
'or a picture of Christ, wrote that it was unlawful to possess
'mages pretending to represent the Saviour either in his divine
or in his human nature, and added that to avoid the reproach
of idolatry he had actually taken away from a lady friend the
pictures of Paul and of Christ which she had.2 Similarly Epi-
shanius in a letter to John, bishop of Jerusalem, tells how in
a church at Anablatha near Bethel he had found a curtain
sainted with the image " of Christ or of some other saint,"
which he had torn down and ordered to be used for the burial
of a pauper. The passage, however, reveals not only what
Epiphanius thought on the subject, but also that such pictures
must have been becoming frequent. Nilus, the disciple and
defender of Chrysostom, permitted the symbol of the cross
n churches and also pictorial delineations of. Old and New
Testament history, but deprecated other symbols, pictures
of martyrs, and most of all the representation of Christ. In
the time of Gregory the Great the Western Church obtained
" Placuit picturas in ecclesia esse non debere, ne quod colitur et
adoraturin parietibusdepingatur." See Hefele, Conciliengcsch. i. 170.
2 The letter, which is most probably, though not certainly, genuine,
appears in the Acta of the second council of Nice.
ICONOCLASTS
273
something like an authoritative declaration on the question
about images, but in a sense not quite the same as that of the
synod of Elvira. Serenus of Marseilles had ordered the destruc-
tion of all sacred images within his diocese; this action called
forth several letters from Pope Gregory (viii. 2. in; ix. 4.
n), in which he disapproved of that course, and, drawing the
distinction which has since been authoritative for the Roman
Church, pointed out that —
" It is one thing to worship a picture and another to learn from the
language of a picture what that is which ought to be worshipped.
What those who can read learn by means of writing, that do
the uneducated learn by looking at a picture. . . . That, therefore,
ought not to have been destroyed which had been placed in the
churches, not for worship, but solely for instructing the minds of the
ignorant."
With regard to the symbol of the cross, its public use dates
from the time of Constantine, though, according to many
Christian archaeologists it had, prior to that date, a very im-
portant place in the so-called " disciplina arcani." The intro-
duction of the crucifix was later; originally the favourite com-
bination was that 'of the figure of a lamb lying at the foot of the
cross; the council of Constantinople, called " in Trullo," in 692
enjoined that this symbol should be discontinued, and that
where Christ was shown in connexion with his cross he should
be represented in his human nature. In the catacombs Christ
is never represented hanging on the cross, and the cross itself
is only portrayed in a veiled and hesitating manner. In the
Egyptian churches the cross was a pagan symbol of life borrowed
by the Christians and interpreted in the pagan manner. The cross
of the early Christian emperors was a labarum or token of victory
in war, a standard for use in battle. Religious feeling in the West
recoiled from the crucifix as late as the 6th century, and it was
equally abhorrent to the Monophysites of the East who regarded
the human nature of Christ as swallowed up in the divine.
Nevertheless it seems to have originated in the East, perhaps
as a protest against the extreme Monophysites, who even denied
the passibility of Christ. Perhaps the Nestorians, who clung
to the human aspect of Christ, introduced it about 550. From
the East it soon passed to the West.
Not until the 8th century were the religious and theological
questions which connect themselves with image-worship distinctly
raised in the Eastern Church in their entirety. The controversy
began with an address which Leo the Isaurian, in the tenth
year of his reign (726), delivered in public " in favour of over-
throwing the holy and venerable images," as says Theophanes
(Chronogr., in Migne Pair. Gr. 108, 816). This emperor had,
in the years 717 and 718, hurled back the tide of Arab conquest
which threatened to engulf Byzantium, and had also shown
himself an able statesman and legislator. Born at Germanicia
in Syria, and, before he mounted the throne, captain-general
of the Anatolian theme, he had come under the influence of the
anti-idolatrous sects, such as the Jews, Montanists, Paulicians
and Manicheans, which abounded in Asia Minor, but of which
he was otherwise no friend. But his religious reform was un-
popular, especially among the women, who killed an official
who, by the emperor's command, was destroying an image of
Christ in the vestibule of the imperial palace of Chalce. This
emeute provoked severe reprisals, and the partisans of the images
were mutilated and killed, or beaten and exiled. A rival emperor
even, Agallianus, was set up, who perished in his attempt to
seize Constantinople. Italy also rose in arms, and Pope Gregory
II. wrote to Leo blaming his interference in religious matters,
though he dissuaded the rebels in Venetia, the Exarchate and
the Pentapolis from electing a new emperor and marching
against Leo. In 730 Germanus the patriarch resigned rather
than subscribe to a decree condemning images; later he was
strangled in exile and replaced by an iconoclast, Anastasius.
Meanwhile, inside the Arab empire, John of Damascus wrote
his three dogmatic discourses against the traducers of images,
arguing that their use was not idolatry but only a relative
worship (irpocrKuvijo-ts (rxertKi?). The next pope, Gregory III.
convoked a council of ninety-three bishops, which excommuni-
cated the iconoclasts, and the fleet which Leo sent to retaliate
on the Latin peninsula was lost in a storm in the Adriatic. The
most Leo was able to do was to double the tribute of Calabria
and Sicily, confiscate the pope's revenues there, and impose on
the bishops of south Italy a servitude to Byzantium which
lasted for centuries.
Leo III. died in June 740, and then his son Constantine V.
began a persecution of the image-worshippers in real earnest.
In his eagerness to restore the simplicity of the primitive church
he even assailed Mariolatry, intercession of saints, relics and
perhaps infant baptism, to the scandal even of the iconoclast
bishops themselves. His reign began with the seizure for eighteen
months of Constantinople by his brother-in-law Artavasdes,
who temporarily restored the images. He was captured and
beheaded with his accomplices in November 742, and in February
754 Constantine held in the palace of Hieria a council of 388
bishops, mostly of the East; the patriarchs of Rome, Antioch,
Alexandria and Jerusalem refused to attend. In it images were
condemned, but the other equally conservative leanings of the
emperor found no favour. The chief upholders of images, the
patriarch Germanus, George of Cyprus and John of Damascus,
were anathematized, and Christians forbidden to adore or make
images or even to hide them. These decrees were obstinately
resisted, especially by the monks, large numbers of whom fled
to Italy. In 765 the emperor demanded of his subjects all over
his empire an oath on the cross that they detested images, and
St Stephen the younger, the chief upholder of them, was murdered
in the streets. A regular crusade now began against monks and
nuns, and images and relics were destroyed on a great scale.
In parts of Asia Minor (Lydia and Caria) the monks were even
forced to marry the nuns. In 769 Pope Stephen III. condemned
the council of Hieria, and in 775 Constantine V. died. His
son Leo IV. died in 780, leaving a widow, Irene, of Athenian
birth, who seized the opportunity presented by the minority
of her ten-year-old son Constantine VI. to restore the images
and dispersed relics. In 784 she invited Pope Adrian I. to come
and preside over a fresh council, which was to reverse that of
754 and heal the schism with Rome. In August 786 the council
met, but was broken up by the imperial guards, who were
Easterns and sturdy iconoclasts. Irene replaced them by a
more trustworthy force, and convoked a fresh council of three
hundred bishops and monks innumerable in September 787,
at Nicaea in the church of St Sophia. The cult of images was
now solemnly restored, iconoclast bishops deposed or reconciled,
the dogmatic theory of images defined, and church discipline
re-established. The order thus imposed lasted twenty-four
years, until a military revolution placed a soldier of fortune,
half Armenian, half Persian, named Leo, on the throne; he,
like his soldiers, was persuaded that the ill-success of the Roman
arms against Bulgarians and other invaders was due to the
idolatry rampant at court and elsewhere. The soldiers stoned
the image of Christ which Irene had set up afresh in the palace
of Chalce, and this provoked a counter-demonstration of the
clergy. Leo feigned for a while to be on their side, but on the
and of February 815, in the sanctuary of St Sophia, publicly
refused to prostrate himself before the images, with the approba-
tion of the army and of many bishops who were iconoclasts at
heart. Irene's patriarch Nicephorus was now deposed and one
Theodotus, a kinsman of Constantine Copronymus, consecrated
in his place on the ist of April 815. A fresh council was soon
convoked, which cursed Irene and re-enacted the decrees of
754. This reaction lasted only for a generation under Leo the
Armenian, who died 820, Michael II. 820-829, and Theophilus
829-842; and was frustrated mainly by the exertions of Theodore
of Studion and his monks, called the Studitae. Theodore refused
to attend or recognize the new council, and was banished first
to Bithynia and thence to Smyrna, whence he continued to
address his appeals to the pope, to the eastern patriarchs and
to his dispersed monks. He died in 826. Theophilus, the last
of the iconoclast emperors, was a devoted Mariolater and con-
troversialist who invited the monks to discuss the question of
images with him, and whipped or branded them when he was
out-argued; he at length banished them from the cities, and
274
ICONOCLASTS
branded on the hands a painter of holy pictures, Lazarus by
name, who declined to secularize his art; he also raised to the
patriarchal throne John Hylilas, chief instigator of the reaction
of 815. In 842 Theophilus died, leaving his wife Theodora
regent; she was, like Irene, addicted to images, and chose as
patriarch a monk, Methodius, whom the emperor Michael had
imprisoned for laying before him Pope Paschal I.'s letter of
protest. John Hylilas was deposed and flogged in turn. A
fresh council was now held which re-enacted the decrees of
787, and on the zoth of February 842 the new patriarch, the
empress, clergy and court dignitaries assisted in the church
of St Sophia at a solemn restoration of images which lasted
until the advent of the Turks. The struggle had gone on for
116 years.
The iconoclastic movement is perhaps the most dramatic
episode in Byzantine history, and the above outline of its
external events must be completed by an appreciation of its
deeper historical and religious significance and results. We
can distinguish three parties among the combatants: —
1. The partisans of image worship. These were chiefly
found in the Hellenic portions of the empire, where Greek art
had once held sway. The monks were the chief champions of
images, because they were illuminators and artists. Their
doctors taught that the same grace of the Holy Spirit which
imbued the living saint attaches after death to his relics, name,
image and picture. The latter are thus no mere representations,
but as it were emanations from the archetype, vehicles of the
supernatural personality represented, and possessed of an
inherent sacramental value and power, such as the name of
Jesus had for the earliest believers. Here Christian image-
worship borders on the beliefs which underlie sympathetic
magic (see IMAGE WORSHIP).
2. The iconoclasts proper, who not only condemned image
worship in the sense just explained but rejected all religious
art whatever. Fleeting matter to their mind was not worthy
to embody or reflect heavenly supersensuous energies denoted
by the names of Christ and the saints. For the same reason
they rejected relics and, as a rule, the worship of the cross.
Statues of Christ, especially of him hanging on the cross, inspired
the greatest horror and indignation; and this is why none
of the graven images of Christ, common before the outbreak
of the movement, survive. More than this — although the
synod of 692 specially allowed the crucifix, yet Greek churches
have discarded it ever since the 8th century.
This idea that material representation involves a profanation
of divine personages, while disallowing all religious art which
goes beyond scroll-work, spirals, flourishes and geometrical
designs, yet admits to the full of secular art; and accordingly
the iconoclastic emperors replaced the holy pictures in churches
with frescoes of hunting scenes, and covered their palaces with
garden scenes where men were plucking fruit and birds singing
amid the foliage. Contemporary Mahommedans did the same,
for it is an error to suppose that this religion was from the first
hostile to profane art. At one time the mosques were covered
with mosaics, analogous to those of Ravenna, depicting scenes
from the life of Mahomet and the prophets. The Arabs only
forbade plastic art in the pth century, nor were their essentially
Semitic scruples ever shared by the Persians.
The prejudice we are considering is closely connected with
the Manichaean view of matter, which in strict consistency
rejected the belief that God was really made flesh, or really
died on the cross. The Manichaeans were therefore, by reason
of their dualism, arch-enemies no less of Christian art than
of relics and cross- worship; the Monophysites were equally so
by reason of their belief that the divine nature in Christ entirely
absorbed and sublated the human; they shaded off into the
party of the aphthartodoketes, who held that his human body
was incorruptible and made of ethereal fire, and that his divine
nature was impassible. Their belief made them, like the Mani-
chaeans, hostile to material portraiture of Christ, especially of his
sufferings on the cross. All these nearly allied schools of Chris-
tian thought could, moreover, address, as against the image-
worshippers, a very effective appeal to the Bible and to Christian
antiquity. Now Egypt, Asia Minor, Armenia, western Syria and
the Hauran were almost wholly given up to these forms of opinion.
Accordingly in all the remains of the Christian art of the Hauran
one seeks in vain for any delineation of human face or figure.
The art of these countries is mainly geometrical, and allows
only of monograms crowned with laurels, of peacocks, of animals
gambolling amid foliage, of fruit and flowers, of crosses which
are either svastikas of Hindu and Mycenaean type, or so lost
in enveloping arabesques as to be merely decorative. Such
was the only religious art permitted by the Christian sentiment of
these countries, and also of the large enclaves of semi-Manichaean
belief formed in the Balkans by the transportation thither of
Armenians and Paulicians. And it is important to remark
that the protagonists of iconoclasm in Byzantium came from
these lands where image cult offended the deepest religious
instincts of the masses. Leo the Isaurian had all the scruples
of a Paulician, even to the rejection of the cult of Virgin and
saints; Constantine V. was openly such. Michael Balbus was
reared in Phrygia among Montanists. The soldiers and captains
of the Byzantine garrisons were equally Armenians and Syrians,
in whom the sight of a crucifix or image set up for worship in-
spired nothing but horror.
The issue of the struggle was not a complete victory even
in Byzantium for the partisans of image-worship. The icono-
clasts left an indelible impress on the Christian art of the Greek
Church, in so far as they put an end to the use of graven images;
for the Eastern icon is a flat picture, less easily regarded than
would be a statue as a nidus within which a spirit can lurk.
Half the realm of creative art, that of statuary, was thus sup-
pressed at a blow; and the other half, painting, forfeited all
the grace and freedom, all the capacity of new themes, forms
and colours, all the development which we see in the Latin
Church. The Greeks have produced no Giotto, no Fra Angelico,
no Raphael. Their artists have no choice of subjects and no
initiative. Colour, dress, attitude, grouping of figures are all
dictated by traditional rules, set out in regular manuals. God
the Father may not be depicted at all — a restriction intelligible
when we remember that the image in theory is fraught with
the virtue of the archetype; but everywhere the utmost timidity
is shown. What else could an artist do but make a slavish
and exact copy of old pictures which worked miracles and
perhaps had the reputation as well of having fallen from
heaven?
3. Between these extreme parties the Roman Church took
the middle way of common sense. The hair-splitting distinction
of the Byzantine doctors between veneration due to images
(irpocrKvvriaa TI^TJTIK^), and the adoration (irpo<TKvvTjau
\a.T(*VT tKT)) due to God alone, was dropped, and the utility of
pictures for the illiterate emphasized. Their use was declared to
be this, that they taught the ignorant through the eye what they
should adore with the mind ; they are not themselves to be adored.
Such was Gregory the Great's teaching, and such also is the
purport of the Caroline books, which embody the conclusions
arrived at by the bishops of Germany, Gaul and Aquitaine,
presided over by papal legates at the council of Frankfort in 794,
and incidentally also reveal the hatred and contempt of Charle-
magne for the Byzantine empire as an institution, and for Irene,
its ruler, as a person. The theologians whom Louis the Pious
convened at Paris in 825, to answer the letter received from the
iconoclast emperor Michael Balbus, were as hostile to the
orthodox Greeks as to the image-worshippers, and did not scruple
to censure Pope Adrian for having approved of the empress
Irene's attitude. The council of Trent decided afresh in the
same sense.
Two incidental results of the iconoclastic movement must
be noticed, the one of less, the other of more importance. The
lesser one was the flight of Greek iconolatrous monks from
Asia Minor and the Levant to Sicily and Calabria, where they
established convents which for centuries were the western homes
of Greek learning, and in which were written not a few of the
oldest Greek MSS. found in our libraries. The greater event
ICONOSTASIS— IDA
275
was the scission between East and West. The fury of the West
against the iconoclastic emperors was such that the whole of
Italy clamoured for war. It is true that Pope Stephen II.
applied in 753 to Constantino V., one of the worst destroyers
of images, for aid against the Lombards, for the emperor of
Byzantium was still regarded as the natural champion of the
church. But Constantine refused aid, and the pope turned to
the Prankish King Pippin. The die was cast. Henceforth Rome
was linked with the Carolingian house in an alliance which
culminated in the coronation of Charlemagne by the -pope on
the 25th of December 800.
In the crusading epoch the Cathars and Paulicians carried
all over Europe the old iconoclastic spirit, and perhaps helped
to transmit it to Wycliffe and Hus. Not the least racy clause
in the document compiled about 1389 by the Wycliffites in
defence of their defunct teacher is the following: " Hit semes
that this offrynge ymages is a sotile cast of Antichriste and his
clerkis for to drawe almes fro pore men . . . certis, these ymages
of hemselfe may do nouther gode nor yvel to mennis soules,
but thai myghtten warme a man's body in colde, if thai were
sette upon a fire."
At the period of the Reformation it was unanimously felt
by the reforming party that, with the invocation of saints and
the practice of reverencing their relics, the adoration of images
ought also to cease. The leaders of the movement were not,
however, perfectly agreed on the question as to whether these
might not in some circumstances be retained in churches.
Luther had no sympathy with the iconoclastic outbreaks which
then occurred; he classed images in themselves as among the
" adiaphora," and condemned only their cultus; so also the
" Confessio Tetrapolitana " leaves Christians free to have them
or not, if only due regard be had to what is expedient and
edifying. The " Heidelberg Catechism," however, emphatically
declares that images are not to be tolerated at all in churches.
SOURCES. — " Acts of the Seventh Ecumenical Council held in
Nicaea, 787," in Mansi's Concilia, vols. xii. and xiii. ; " Acts of the
Iconoclast Council of 815," in a treatise of Nicephorus discovered by
M. Serruysand printed in the Seances Acad. des Inscript. (May 1903) ;
Theophanes, Chronographia, edit, de Boor (Leipzig, 1883-1885) ; and
Pair. Gr. vol. 108. Also his " Continuators " in Pair. Gr. vol. 109;
Nicephorus, Chronicon, edit, de Boor (Leipzig, 1880), and Pair. Gr.
vol. 100; Georgius Monachus, Chronicon, edit. Muralt (Petersburg,
1859), and Pair. Gr. no; anonymous " Life of Leo the Armenian"
in Pair. Gr. 108; The Book of the Kings, by Joseph Genesios, Pair.
Gr. 109; " Life of S. Stephanas, Junior," Pair. Gr. 100; " St John
of Damascus," three " Sermones " against the iconoclasts, Pair. Gr.
95; Nicephorus Patriarch, " Antirrhetici," Pair. Gr. 100; Theodore
Studita, " Antirrhetici," Pair. Gr. 99. For bibliography of con-
temporary hymns, letters, &c., bearing on the controversy see
K. Krumbacher's History of Byzantine Literature, 2nd ed. p. 674.
Literature: Louis Brehier( La Querelle des images, and Les
Origines du crucifix (Paris, 1904) ; Librairie Blond, in French, each
volume 60 centimes (brief but admirable); Karl Schwartzlose,
Der Bilderstreit (Gotha, 1890); Karl Schenk, "The Emperor
Leo III.," in Byzant. Zeitschrift (1896, German); Th. Uspenskij,
Skizzen zur Geschichte der byzantinischen Kultur (St Petersburg, 1892,
Russian) ;Lombard, Etudes d'histoire byzantine ; Constantine V.( Paris,
l<)O2,Biblioth. del'universite de Paris, xvi.) ; A.Tougard, La Persecution
iconoclaste (Paris, 1897); and Rev. des questions historiques (1891);
Marin, Les Moines de Constantinople (Paris, 1897, bk. iv. Les
Moines et les empereurs iconoclastes) ; Alice Gardner, Theodore of
Studium (London, 1905) ; Louis Maimbourg, Histoire de I'heresie
des iconoclastes (Paris, 1679-1683); J. Daill6 (Dallaeus), De imagini-
bus (Leiden, 1642, and in French, Geneva, 1641); Spanheim,
Historic, imaginum (Leiden, 1686). See also the account of this
epoch in the Histories of Neander, Gibbon and Milman; Aug.
Fr. Gfrorer, " Der Bildersturm " in Byzantinische Geschichte 2
(1873); C. J. von Hefele, Conciliengeschichte 3 (1877), 366 ff.
(also in English translation; Karl Krumbacher. Bezant. Literatur-
geschichte (2nd ed. p. 1090). (F. C. C.)
ICONOSTASIS, the screen in a Greek church which divides
the altar and sanctuary from the rest of the church. It is gener-
ally attached to the first eastern pier or column and rises to the
level of the springing of the vault. The iconostasis or image-
bearer has generally three doors, one on each side of the central
door, beyond which is the principal altar. The screen is sub-
divided into four or five tiers, each tier decorated with a series
of panels containing representations of the saints: of these
only the heads, hands and feet are painted, the bodies being
covered with embossed metal work, richly gilded. There is a
fine example in the Russo-Greek chapel, Welbeck Street, London,
which was rebuilt in 1864-1865.
ICOSAHEDRON (Gr. eiro<n, twenty, and '(Spa, a face or base),
in geometry, a solid enclosed by twenty faces. The " regular
icosahedron " is one of the Platonic solids; the " great icosa-
hedron " is a Kepler-Poinsot solid; and the " truncated icosa-
hedron " is an Archimedean solid (see POLYHEDRON). In
crystallography the icosahedron is a possible form, but it has not
been observed; it is closely simulated by a combination of the
octahedron and pentagonal dodecahedron, which has twenty
triangular faces, but only eight are equilateral, the remaining
twelve being isosceles (see CRYSTALLOGRAPHY).
ICTERUS, a bird so called by classical authors, and supposed
by Pliny to be the same as the Galgulus, which is generally
identified with the golden oriole (Oriolus galbula).1 It signified
a bird in the plumage of which yellow or green predominated,
and hence Brisson did not take an unhappy liberty when he
applied it in a scientific sense to some birds of the New World
of which the same could be said. These are now held to con-
stitute a distinct family, Icleridae, intermediate it would seem
between the BUNTINGS (q.ii.) and STARLINGS (q.v.); and, while
many of them are called troopials (the English equivalent of
the French Troupiales, first used by Brisson), others are known
as the American CRACKLES (q.v.). The typical species of Icterus
is the Oriolus icterus of Linnaeus, the Icterus vulgaris of Daudin
and modern ornithologists, an inhabitant of northern Brazil,
Guiana, Venezuela, occasionally visiting some of the Antilles
and of the United States. Thirty-three species of the genus
Icterus alone, and more than seventy others belonging to up-
wards of a score of genera, are recognized by Sclater and Salvin
(Nomenclator, pp. 35-39) as belonging to the Neotropical Region,
though a few of them emigrate to the northward in summer.
Cassicus and Oslinops may perhaps be named as the most remark-
able. They are nearly all gregarious birds, many of them with
loud and in most cases, where they have been observed, with
melodious notes, rendering them favourites in captivity, for
they readily learn to whistle simple tunes. Some have a plumage
wholly black, others are richly clad, as is the well-known Balti-
more oriole, golden robin or hangnest of the United States,
Icterus baltimore, whose brightly contrasted black and orange
have conferred upon it the name it most commonly bears in
North America, those colours being, says Catesby (Birds of
Carolina, i. 48), the tinctures of the armorial bearings of the
Calverts, Lords Baltimore, the original grantees of Maryland,
but probably more correctly those of their liveries. The most
divergent form of Icleridae seems to be that known in the United
States as the meadow-lark, Sturnella magna or 5. ludoviciana,
a bird which in aspect and habits has considerable resemblance
to the larks of the Old World, Alaudidae, to which, however,
it has no near affinity, while Dolichonyx oryzvoorus, the bobolink
or rice-bird, with its very bunting-like bill, is not much less
aberrant. (A. N.)
ICTINUS, the architect of the Parthenon at Athens, of the
Hall of the Mysteries at Eleusis, and of the temple of Apollo
at Bassae, near Phigalia. He was thus active about 450-430
B.C. We know little else about him; but the remains of his
two great temples testify to his wonderful mastery of the
principles of Greek architecture.
IDA (d. 559), king of Bernicia, became king in 547, soon after
the foundation of the kingdom of Bernicia by the Angles. He
built the fortress of Bebbanburh, the modern Bamborough, and
after his death his kingdom, which did not extend south of
the Tees, passed in turn to six of his sons. The surname of
1 The number of names by which this species was known in ancient
times — Chloris or Chlorion, Galbula (akin to Galgulus), Parra and
Vireo — may be explained by its being a common and conspicuous
bird, as well as one which varied in plumage according to age and
sex (see ORIOLE). Owing to its general colour, Chloris was in time
transferred to the GREENFINCH (q.v.), while the names Galbula,
Parra and Vireo have since been utilized by ornithologists (see
JACAMAR and JACANA).
276
IDAHO
" Flame-Bearer," sometimes applied to him, refers, however, not
to Ida, but to his son Theodric (d. 587).
See J. R. Green, Making of England, vol. i. (London, 1897).
IDAHO, a western state of the United States of America,
situated between 42° and 49° N. lat. and 111° and 117° W. long.
It is bounded N. by British Columbia and Montana, E. by
Montana and Wyoming, S. by Utah and Nevada, and W. by
Oregon and Washington. Its total area is 83,888 sq. m., of
which 83,354 sq. m. are land surface, and of this 41,851.55 sq. m.
were in July 1908 unappropriated and unreserved public lands
of the United States, and 31,775-7 sq. m. were forest reserves,
of which 15,153-5 sq. m. were reserved between the ist of July
1906 and the ist of July 1907.
Physical Features. — Idaho's elevation above sea-level varies from
738 ft. (at Lewiston, Nez Perce county) to 12,078 ft. (Hyndman
Peak, on the boundary between Custer and Elaine counties), and
Us mean elevation is about 4500 ft. The S.E. corner of the wedge-
shaped surface of the state is a part of the Great Basin region of the
United States. The remainder of the state is divided by a line
running S.E. and N.W., the smaller section, to the N. and E., belong-
ing to the Rocky Mountain region, and the larger, S. and W. of this
imaginary line, being a part of the Columbia Plateau region. The
topography of the Great Basin region in Idaho is similar to that of
the same region in other states (see NEVADA) ; in Idaho it forms a
very small part of the state; its mountains are practically a part of
the Wasatch Range of Utah; and the southward drainage of the
region (into Great Salt Lake, by Bear river) also separates it from
the other parts of the state. The Rocky Mountain region of Idaho
is bounded by most of the state's irregular E. boundary — the
Bitter Root, the Cceur d'Alene and the Cabinet ranges being parts
of the Rocky Mountain System. The Rocky Mountain region
reaches across the N. part of the state (the Panhandle), and well
into the middle of the state farther S., where the region is widest and
where the Salmon River range is the principal one. The region is made
up in general of high ranges deeply glaciated, preserving some
remnants of ancient glaciers, and having fine " Alpine " scenery,
with many sharp peaks and ridges, U-shaped valleys, cirques, lakes
and waterfalls. In the third physiographic region, the Columbia
plateau, are the Saw Tooth, Bois6, Owyhee and other rugged ranges,
especially on the S. and W. borders of the region. The most prominent
features of this part of the state are the arid Snake river plains and
three mountain-like elevations — Big, Middle and East Buttes — that
rise from their midst. The plains extend from near the S.E. corner of
the state in a curved course to the W. and N.W. for about 350 m.
over a belt 50 to 75 m. wide, and cover about 30,000 sq. m. Where
they cross the W. border at Lewiston is the lowest elevation in the
state, 738 ft. above the sea. Instead of being one plain formed by
erosion, this region is rather a series of plains built up with sheets of
lava, several thousand feet deep, varying considerably in elevation
and in smoothness of surface according to the nature of the lava,
and being greater in area than any other lava beds in North America
except those of the Columbia river, which are of similar formation
and, with the Snake river plains, form the Columbia plateau. Many
volcanic cones mark the surface, but by far the most prominent
among them are Big Butte, which rises precipitously 2350 ft. above
the plain (7659 ft. above the sea) in the E. part of Blaine county, and
East Butte, 700 ft. above the plain, in the N.W. part of Bingham
county. Middle Butte (400 ft. above the plain, also in Bingham
county) is an upraised block of stratified basalt. The Snake river
(which receives all the drainage of Idaho except small amounts
taken by the Spokane, the Pend Oreille and the Kootenai in the N.,
all emptying directly into the Columbia, and by some minor
streams of the S.E. that empty into Great Salt Lake, Utah) rises
in Yellowstone National Park a few miles from the heads of the
Madison fork of the Missouri, which flows to the Gulf of Mexico,
and the Green fork of the Colorado, which flows to the Gulf of Cali-
fornia. It flows S.W. and then W. for about 800 m. in a tremendous
canon across southern Idaho; turns N. and runs for 200 m. as the
boundary between Idaho and Oregon (and for a short distance between
Idaho and Washington); turns again at Lewiston (where it ceases
to be the boundary, and where the Clearwater empties into it) to
the W. into a deep narrow valley, and joins the Columbia in S.E.
Washington. Practically all the valley of the Snake from Idaho
Falls in S.E. Idaho (Bingham county) to the mouth is of canon
character, with walls from a few hundred to 6000 ft. in height (about
650 m. in Idaho). The finest parts are among the most magnificent
in the west; among its falls are the American (Oneida and Blaine
counties), and the Shoshone and the Salmon (Lincoln county). At
the Shoshone Falls the river makes a sudden plunge of nearly 200 ft.,
and the Falls have been compared with the Niagara and Zambezi;
a short distance back of the main fall is a cataract of 125 ft., the
Bridal Veil. Between Henry's Fork and Malade (or Big Wood)
river, a distance of 200 m., the river apparently has no northern
tributaries; but several streams, as the Camas, Medicine Lodge
and Birch creeks, and Big and Little Lost rivers, which fail to pene-
trate the plain of the Snake after reaching its border, are believed to
join it through subterranean channels. The more important affluents
are the North Fork in the E., the Raft, Salmon Falls and the
Bruneau in the S., the Owyhee and the Payettel'in the S.W., and the
Salmon and Clearwater in the W. The scenery on some of these
tributaries is almost as beautiful as that of the Snake, though lacking
the grandeur of its greater scale. In 1904 electricity, generated by
water-power from the rivers, notably the Snake, began to be utilized
in mining operations. Scattered among the mountains are numerous
(glacial) lakes. In the N. are: Cceur d'Alene Lake, in Kootenai
county, about 30 m. long and from 2 to 4 m. wide, drained by the
Spokane river; Priest Lake, in Bonner county, 20 m. long and about
10 m. wide; and mostly in Bonner, but partly in Kootenai county,
a widening of Clark Fork, Lake Pend Oreille, 60 m. long and from
3 to IS m. wide, which is spanned by a trestle of the Northern Pacific
8400 ft. long. Bear Lake, in the extreme S.E., lies partly in Utah.
Mineral springs and hot springs are also a notable feature of Idaho's
physiography, being found in Washington, Ada, Blaine, Bannock,
Cassia, Owyhee, Oneida, Nez Perce, Kootenai, Shoshone and
Fremont counties. At Soda Springs in Bannock county are scores
of springs whose waters, some ice cold and some warm, contain
magnesia, soda, iron, sulphur, &c. ; near Hailey, Blaine county,
water with a temperature of 144° F. is discharged from numerous
springs; and at Bois6, water with a temperature of 165° is obtained
from wells.
The fauna and flora of Idaho are similar in general to those of the
other states in the north-western part of the United States.
Climate. — The mean annual temperature of Idaho from 1898 to
1903 was 45-5° F. There are several distinct climate zones within
the state. North of Clearwater river the climate is comparatively
mild, the maximum in 1902 (96° F.) being lower than the highest
temperature in the state and the minimum ( - 16°) higher than the
lowest temperature registered. The mildest region of the state
is the Snake river basin between Twin Falls and Lewiston, and the
valley of the Bois6, Payette and Weiser rivers; here the mean
annual temperature in 1902 was 52° F., the maximum was 106° F.,
and the minimum was - 13° F. In the Upper Snake basin, in the
Camas prairie and Lost river regions, the climate is much colder,
the highest temperature in 1902 being 101° and the lowest - 35° F.
The mean annual rainfall for the entire state in 1903 was 16-60 in.;
the highest amount recorded was at Murray, Shoshone county
(37-70 in.) and the lowest was at Garnet, Elmore county (5-69 in.).
Agriculture. — The principal source of wealth in Idaho was in
1900 agriculture, but it had long been secondary to mining, and its
development had been impeded by certain natural disadvantages.
Except for the broad valleys of the Panhandle, where the soils are
black in colour and rich in vegetable mould, the surface of the state
is arid; the Snake river valley is a vast lava bed, covered with
deposits of salt and sand, or soils of volcanic origin. And, apart
from this, the farming country was long without transport facilities.
The fertile northern plateaus, the Camas and Nez Perce prairies
and the Palouse country — a wonderful region for growing the durum
or macaroni wheat — until 1898 had no market nearer than Lewiston,
50-70 m. away; and even in 1898, when the railway was built,
large parts of the region were not tapped by it, and were as much as
30 m. from any shipping point, for the road had followed the Clear-
water. In the arid southern region, also, there was no railway until
1885, when the Oregon Short Line was begun. Like limitations
in N. and S. had like effects: for years the country was devoted to
live-stock, which could be driven to a distant market. Timothy
was grown in the northern, and alfalfa in the southern region as a
forage crop. Even at this earliest period, irrigation, simple and
individual, had begun in the southern section, the head waters of
the few streams in this district being soon surrounded by farms.
Co-operation and colonization followed, and more ditching was done,
co-operative irrigation canals were constructed with some elaborate
and large dams and head gates. The Carey Act (1894) and the
Federal Reclamation Act (l9O2)introduced the most important period
of irrigation. Under the Carey Act the Twin Falls project, deriving
water from the Snake river near Twin Falls, and irrigating more than
200,000 acres, was completed in 1903-1905. The great projects
undertaken with Federal aid were: the Minidoka, in Lincoln
and Cassia counties, of which survey began in March 1903 and con-
struction in December 1904, and which was completed in 1907, com-
manding an irrigable area of 130,000-150,000 acres,1 and has a diver-
sion dam (rock-fill type) 600 ft. long, and 130 m. of canals and 1 10 m.
of laterals; the larger Payette-Bois6 project in Ada, Canyon and
Owyhee counties (372,000 acres irrigable; 300,000 now desert;
60% privately owned), whose principal features are the Payette
dam (rock-fill), loo ft. high and 400 ft. long, and the Boisd dam
(masonry), 33 ft. high and 400 ft. long, 200 m. of canals, 100 m. of
laterals, a tunnel noo ft. long and 12,500 h.p. transmitted 29 m.,
3000 h.p. being necessary to pump to a height of 50-90 ft. water for
the irrigation of 15,000 acres; and the Dubois project, the largest in
the state, on which survey and reconnaissance work were done in
1903-1904, which requires storage sites on the North Fork of the
1 Of these 80,000 acres are reached directly — 72,000 N., and 8000 S.
of the Snake river; and from 50,000 to 70,000 acres more are above
the level of the canals and will have water pumped to them by the
11,000-30,000 h.p. developed.
< > i \r\ ~* , Kuiie -Fort tjeinniiiJ, " '• ri" . (
WE, ,.,', l^°fy -^j^^ , ./ • : j V '
bWriri'MiaS r-^.!lndi»i Rest?-, 3 i V
IDAHO
and
MONTANA
Scale, 1:3,170,000
English Miles
o 10 20 40 60
Indian Reservations
National Parks
County Seats
County Boundaries
Railways
Mmery Walk« se.
IDAHO
277
Snake and on nearly all the important branches of the North Fork,
and whose field is 200,000 — 250,000 acres, almost entirely Federal
property, in the W. end of Fremont county between Mud Lake and
the lower end of Big Lost river. A further step in irrigation is the
utilization of underground waters: in the Big Camas Prairie region,
Elaine county, water 10 ft. below the surface is tapped and pumped
by electricity generated from the only surface water of the region,
Camas Creek. In 1899 the value of the crops and other agricultural
products of the irrigated region amounted to more than seven-tenths
of the total for the state. In 1907, according to the Report of the
state commissioner of immigration, l,559.9!5 irrigated acres were
under cultivation, and 3,266,386 acres were " covered " by canals
3789 m. long and costing $11,257,023.
Up to 1900 the most prosperous period (absolutely) in the agri-
cultural development of the state was the last decade of the igth
century; the relative increase, however, was greater between 1880
and 1890. The number of farms increased from 1885 in 1880 to
6603 in 1890 and to 17,471 in 1900; the farm acreage from 327,798
in 1880 to 1,302,256 in 1890 and to 3,204,903 acres in 1900; the
irrigated area (exclusive of farms on Indian reservations) from
217,005 acres in 1889 to 602,568 acres in 1899; the value of products
increased from $1,515,314 in 1879 to $3,848,930 in 1889, and to
$18,051,625 in 1899; the value of farm land with improvements
(including buildings) from $2,832,890 in 1880 to $17,431,580 in 1890
and $42,318,183 in 1900; the value of implements and machinery
from $363,930 in 1880 to $1,172,460 in 1890 and to $3,295,045 in
1900; and that of live-stock from $4,023,800 in 1880 to $7,253,490
in 1890 and to $21,657,974 in 1900. In 1900 the average size of
farms was 183-4 acres. Cultivation by owners is the prevailing
form of tenure, 91 -3 % of the farms being so operated in 1900 (2-3 %
by cash tenants and 6-4% by share tenants). As illustrative of
agricultural conditions the contrast of the products of farms operated
by Indians, Chinese and whites is of considerable interest, the value
of products (not fed to live-stock) per acre of the 563 Indian farms
being in 1899 $1-40, that of the 16,876 white farms $4-67, and that
of the 23 Chinese farms intensively cultivated and devoted to market
vegetables $69-83.
The income from agriculture in 1899 was almost equally divided
between crops ($8,951,440) and animal products ($8,784,364) — in
that year forest products were valued at $315,821. Of the crops,
hay and forage were the most valuable ($4,238,993), yielding 47-4 %
of the total value of crops, an increase of more than 200 % over that
of 1889, and in 1907, according to the Year-book of the Department
of Agriculture, the crop was valued at $8,585,000. Wheat, which
in 1899 ranked second ($2,131,953), showed an increase of more
than 400% in the decade, and the farm value of the crop of 1907,
according to the Year-book of the United States Department of
Agriculture, was $5,788,000; the value of the barley crop in 1899
($312,730) also increased more than 400% over that of 1889,
and in 1907 the farm value of the product, according to the
same authority, was $1,265,000; the value of the oat crop in 1899
($702,955) showed an increase of more than 300% in the decade,
and the value of the product in 1907, according to the United States
Department of Agriculture, was $2,397,000.
More than one-half of the cereal crop in 1905 was produced in the
prairie and plateau region of Nez Perce and Latah counties. The
production of orchard fruits (apples, cherries, peaches, pears, plums
and prunes) increased greatly from 1889 to 1899; the six counties
of Ada, Canyon (probably the leading fruit county of the state),
Latah (famous for apples), Washington, Owyhee and Nez Perce
had in 1900 89% of the plum and prune trees, 85% of all pear
trees, 78 % of all cherry trees, and 74 % of all apple trees in the state,
and in 1906 it was estimated by the State Commissioner of Immigra-
tion that there were nearly 48,000 acres of land devoted to orchard
fruits in Idaho. Viticulture is of importance, particularly in the
Lewiston valley. In 1906, 234,000 tons of sugar beets were raised,
and fields in the Bois6 valley raised 30 tons per acre.
Of the animal products in 1899, the most valuable was live-stock
sold during the year ($3,909,454) ; the stock-raising industry was
carried on most extensively in the S.E. part of the state. Wool
ranked second in value ($2,210,790), and according to the estimate
of the National Association of Wool Manufactures for 1907, Idaho
ranked fourth among the wool-producing states in number of sheep
(2,500,000), third in wool, washed and unwashed (17,250,000 Ib),
and fourth in scoured wool (5,692,500 ft). In January 1908, accord-
ing to the Year-book of the Department of Agriculture, the number
and farm values of live-stock were: milch cows, 69,000, valued at
$2,208,000, and other neat cattle, 344,000, valued at $5,848,000;
horses, 150,000, $11,250,000; sheep, 3,575,000, $12,691,000; and
swine, 130,000, $910,000. According to state reports for 1906,
most of the neat cattle were then on ranges in Lemhi, Idaho,
Washington, Cassia and Owyhee counties; Nez Perce, Canyon,
Fremont, Idaho, and Washington counties had the largest number
of horses; Owyhee, Blaine and Canyon counties had the largest
numbers of sheep, and Idaho and Nez Perce counties were the
principal swine-raising regions. The pasture lands of the state have
been greatly decreased by the increase of forest reserves, especially
by the large reservations made in 1906-1907.
Mining. — The mineral resources of Idaho are second only to the
agricultural; indeed it was primarily the discovery of the immense
value of the deposits of gold and silver about 1860 that led to the
settlement of Idaho Territory. In Idaho, as elsewhere, the first form
of mining was a very lucrative working of placer deposits; this gave
way to vein mining and a greatly reduced production of gold and
silver after 1878, on account of the exhaustion of the placers. Then
came an adjustment to new conditions and a gradual increase of the
aroduct. The total mineral product in 1906, according to the State
Mine Inspector, was valued at $24,138,317. The total gold produc-
tion of Idaho from 1860 to 1906 has been estimated at $250,000,000,
of which a large part was produced in the Idaho Basin, the region
lying between the N. fork of the Bois6 and the S. fork of the Payette
rivers. In 1901-1902 rich gold deposits were discovered in the
Thunder Mountain district in Idaho county. The counties with the
largest production of gold in 1907 (state report) were Owyhee
($362,742), Boise ($282,444), Custer ($210,900) and Idaho; the
total for the state was $1,075,618 in 1905; in 1906 it was $1,149,100;
and in 1907, according to state reports, $1,373,031. The total of the
state for silver in 1905 was $5,242,172; in 1906 it was $6,042.606;
in 1907, according to state reports, it was $5,546,554. The richest
deposits of silver are those of Wood river and of the Cceur d'Alene
district in Shoshone county (opened up in 1886); the county's
product in 1906 was valued at $5,322,706, an increase of $917,743
over the preceding year; in 1907 it was $4,780,093, according to
state reports. The production of the next richest county, Owyhee,
in 1907, was less than one tenth that of Shoshone county, which
yields, besides, about one half of the lead mined in the United States,
its product of lead being valued at $9,851,076 in 1904, at $14,365,265
in 1906, and at $12,232,233 (state report) in 1907. Idaho was the
first of the states in its output of lead from 1896, when it first passed
Colorado in rank, to 1906, excepting the year 1899, when Colorado
again was first; the value of the lead mined in 1906 was
$I4.535>823. and of that mined in 1907 (state report), $12,470,375.
High grade copper ores have been produced in the Seven Devils
and Washington districts of Washington county ; there are deposits,
little developed up to 1906, in Lemhi county (which was almost in-
accessible by railway) and in Bannock county; the copper mined
in 1905 was valued at $1,134,846, and in 1907, according to state
reports, at $2,241,177, of which about two-thirds was the output
of the Cceur d'Alene district in Shoshone county. Zinc occurs in
the Cceur d'Alene district, at Hailey, Blaine county and elsewhere;
according to the state reports, the state's output in 1906 was valued
at $91,426 and in 1907 at $534,087. Other minerals of economic
value are sandstone, quarried at Bois6, Ada county, at Preston,
Oneida county, and at Goshen, Prospect and Idaho Falls; Bingham
county, valued at $22,265 in 1905, and at $11,969 in 1906; limestone,
valued at $14,105 in 1905 and at $12,600 in 1906, used entirely
for the local manufacture of lime, part of which was used in the manu-
facture of sugar; and coal, in the Horseshoe Bend and Jerusalem
districts in Boisfi county, in Lemhi county near Salmon City, and in
E. Bingham and Fremont counties, with an output in 1906 of 5365
tons, valued at $18,538 as compared with 20 and 10 tons respectively
in 1899 and 1900. Minerals developed slightly, or not at all, are
granite, valued at $1500 in 1905; surface salt, in the arid and semi-
arid regions; nickel and cobalt, in Lemhi county; tungsten, near
Murray, Shoshone county; monazite and zircon, in certain sands;
and some pumice.
Manufactures. — The manufactures of Idaho in 1900 were relatively
unimportant, the value of all products of establishments under the
"factory system" being $3,001,442; in 1905 the value of such
manufactured products had increased 192-2 %, to $8,768,743.
The manufacturing establishments were limited to the supply of
local demands. The principal industries were devoted to lumber
and timber products, valued at $908,670 in 1900, and in 1905 at
$2,834,506, 211-9% more. In 1906 the Weyerhauser Syndicate
built at Potlatch, a town built by the syndicate in Latah county,
a lumber mill, supposed to be the largest in the United States, with
a daily capacity of 750,000 ft. In Bonner county there are great
mills at Sand Point and at Bonner's Ferry. In these and the other
93 saw-mills in the state in 1905 steam generated by the waste wood
was the common power. The raw material for these products was
secured from the 35,000 sq. m. of timber land in the state (6164 so. m.
having been reserved up to 1905, and 31,775-7 sq. m. up to April
1907 by the United States government); four-fifths of the cut in
1900 was yellow pine. Flour and grist mill products ranked second
among the manufactures, being valued at $1,584,473 in 1905, an
increase of nearly 116% over the product in 1900; and steam-car
construction and repairs ranked third, with a value of $913,670 in
1905 and $523,631 in 1900. In 1903-1904 the cultivation of sugar
beets and the manufacture of beet sugar were undertaken, and
manufacturing establishments for that purpo.se were installed at
Idaho Falls and Blackfoot (Bingham county), at Sugar, or Sugar
City (Fremont county), a place built up about the sugar refineries,
and at Nampa, Canyon county. In 1906 between 57,000,000 and
64,000,000 Ib of beet sugar were refined in the state. Brick-making
was of little more than local importance in 1906, the largest kilns
being at Boise, Sand Point and Cceur d'Alene City. Lime is made
at Orofino, Shoshone county, and at Hope, Bonner county.
Communications.— The total railway mileage in January 1909
was 2,022-04 m-> an increase from 206 m. in 1880 and 946 m. in 1890.
The Great Northern, the Northern Pacific, and the OregonRailway
278
IDAHO
& Navigation lines cross the N. part of the state; _ the Oregon
Short Line crosses the S., and the Union Pacific, which owns the
Oregon Railway & Navigation and the Oregon Short Line roads
crosses the eastern part. The constitution declares that railway
are public highways, that the legislature has authority to regulati
rates, and that discrimination in tolls shall not be allowed.
Population. — The population of Idaho in 1870 was 14,999; i
1880 it was 32,610, an increase of 117-4%; in 1890 it was 88,548
an increase of 158-8%; in 1900 161,772 (82-7% increase); andii
1910325,594(101-3% increase). Of the inhabitants 15-2% were
in 1900 foreign-born and 4-5% were coloured, the colourec
population consisting of 293 negroes, 1291 Japanese, 1467
Chinese and 4226 Indians. The Indians lived principally in
three reservations, the Fort Hall and Lemhi reservations (1350
sq. m. and 100 sq. m. respectively), in S.E. and E. Idaho, being
occupied by the Shoshone, Bannock and Sheef-eater tribes
and the Cceur d'Alene reservation (632 sq. m.), in the N.W.,by
the Coeur d'Alene and Spokane tribes. The former Nez Perce
reservation, in the N.W. part of the state, was abolished in 1895,
and the Nez Perces were put under the supervision of the
superintendent of the Indian School at Fort Lapwai, about
12 m. E. of Lewiston, in Nez Perce county. Of these tribes,
the Nez Perce and Cceur d'Alene were self-supporting; the
other tribes were in 1900 dependent upon the United States
government for 30% of their rations. Of the 24,604 foreign-
born inhabitants of the state, 3943 were from England, 2974
were from Germany, 2528 "were Canadian English, 2822 were
from Sweden, and 1633 were from Ireland, various other countries
being represented by smaller numbers. The urban population
of Idaho in 1900 (i.e. the population of places having 4000 or
more inhabitants) was 6-2% of the whole. There were thirty-
three incorporated cities, towns and villages, but only five had
a population exceeding 2000; these were Boise (5957), Pocatello
(4046), Lewiston (2425), Moscow (2484) and Wallace (2265).
In 1906 it was estimated that the total membership of all
religious denominations was 74,578, and that there were
32,425 Latter-Day Saints or Mormons (266 of the Reorganized
Church), 18,057 Roman Catholics, 5884 Methodist Episcopalians
(5313 of the Northern Church), 3770 Presbyterians (3698 of the
Northern Church), 3206 Disciples of Christ, and 2374 Baptists
(2331 of the Northern Convention).
Government. — The present constitution of Idaho was adopted
in 1 889. The government is similar in outline to that of the other
states of the United States. The executive officials serve for a
term of two years. Besides being citizens of the United States
and residents of the state for two years preceding their election
the governor, lieutenant-governor and attorney-general must
each be at least thirty years of age, and the secretary of state,
state auditor, treasurer and superintendent of education must
be at least twenty-five years old. The governor's veto may be
overridden by a two-thirds vote of the legislature; the governor,
secretary of state, and the attorney-general constitute a Board
of Pardons and a Board of State Prison Commissioners. The
legislature meets biennially; its members, who must be citizens
of the United States and electors of the state for one year pre-
ceding their election, are chosen biennially; the number of
senators may never exceed twenty-four, that of representatives
sixty; each county is entitled to at least one representative.
The judiciary consists of a supreme court of three judges, elected
every six years, and circuit and probate courts, the five district
judges being elected every four years. Suffrage requirements
are citizenship in the United States, registration and residence
in the state for six months and in the county for thirty days
immediately before election, but mental deficiency, conviction
of infamous crimes (without restoration to rights of citizenship),
bribery or attempt at bribery, bigamy, living in " what is known
as patriarchal, plural or celestial marriage," or teaching its
validity or belonging to any organization which teaches poly-
gamy,1 are disqualifications. Chinese or persons of Mongolian
1 This disqualification and much other legislation were due to the
large Mormon population in Idaho. In 1884-1885 all county and
precinct officers were required to take a test oath abjuring bigamy,
polygamy, or celestial marriage; and under this law in 1888 three
descent not born in the United States are also excluded from
suffrage rights. Women, however, since 1897, have had the
right to vote and to hold office, and they are subject to jury
service. An Australian ballot law was passed in 1891. The
constitution forbids the chartering of corporations except
according to general laws. In 1909 a direct primary elections
law was passed which required a majority of all votes to nominate,
and, to make a majority possible, provided for preferential
(or second-choice) voting, such votes to be canvassed and added
to the first-choice vote for each candidate if there be no majority
by the first-choice vote. The right of eminent domain over all
corporations is reserved to the state; and no corporation may
issue stock except for labour, service rendered, or money paid
in. The waters of the state are, by the constitution of the
state, devoted to the public use, contrary to the common law
theory of riparian rights. By statute (1891) it has been provided
that in civil actions three-fourths of a jury may render a verdict,
and in misdemeanour cases five-sixths may give a verdict. Life
insurance agents not residents of Idaho cannot write policies
in the state. Divorces may be obtained after residence of six
months on the ground of adultery, cruelty, desertion or neglect
for one year, habitual drunkenness for the same period, felony
or insanity. There are a state penitentiary at Boise, an
Industrial Training School at St Anthony, an Insane Asylum
at Blackfoot, and a North Idaho Insane Asylum at Orofino.
The care of all defectives was let by contract to other states
until 1906, when a state school for the deaf and blind was opened
in Boise. No bureau of charities is in existence, but there is a
Labor Commission, and a Commissioner of Immigration and
a Commissioner of Public Lands to investigate the industrial
resources. The offices of State Engineer and Inspector of Mines
have been created.
Education. — The public schools in 1905-1906 had an enrolment
of 62,726, or 81-5% of the population between 5 and 21 years of
age. The average length of school term was 6-8 months, the average
expenditure (year ending Aug. 31, 1906) for instruction for each
child was $19-29, and the expenditure for all school purposes was
$1,008,481. There was a compulsory attendance law, which,
however, was not enforced. Higher education is provided by the
University of Idaho, established in 1899 at Moscow, Latah county,
which confers degrees in arts, science, music and engineering, and
offers free tuition. In 1907-1908 the institution had 41 instructors
and 426 regular and 58 special students. In 1901 the Academy of
Idaho, another state institution with industrial and technical courses
and a preparatory department, was established at Pocatello, Bannock
county, to be a connecting link between the public schools and the
university. There are two state normal schools, one at Lewiston
and the other at Albion. The only private institution of college
rank in 1908 was the College of Caldwell (Presbyterian, opened 1891)
at Caldwell, Canyon county, with 65 students in 1906-1907. There
are Catholic academies at Boise1 and Cceur d'Alene and a convent,
Our Lady of Lourdes, at Wallace, Shoshone county, opened in
1905; Mormon schools at Paris (Bear Lake county), Preston
(Oneida county), Rexburg (Fremont county), and Oakley (Cassia
county} ; a Methodist Episcopal school (1906) at Weiser (Washington
county); and a Protestant Episcopal school at Bois6 (1892). The
Idaho Industrial Institute (non-denominational; incorporated in
1899) is at Weiser.
Finance. — The finances of Idaho are in excellent condition.
The bonded debt on the 3oth of September 1908 was $1,364,000.
The revenue system is based on the general property tax and there
s a State Board of Equalization. Each year $100,000 is set aside
or the sinking fund for the payment of outstanding bonds as fast
as they become due. The constitution provides that the rate of
:axation shall never exceed 10 mills for each dollar of assessed valua-
tion, that when the taxable property amounts to $50,000,000 the
members of the territorial legislature were deprived of their seats as
nehgible. An act of 1889, when the Mormons constituted over 20%
of the population, forbade in the case of any who had since the 1st
of January 1888 practised, taught, aided or encouraged polygamy
>r bigamy, their registration or voting until two years after they had
taken a test oath renouncing such practices, and until they had
satisfied the District Court that in the two years preceding they had
been guilty of no such practices. The Constitutional Convention
which met at Boise in July-August 1889 was strongly anti-Mormon,
and the Constitution it framed was approved by a popular vote of
2,398 out of 14,184. The United States Supreme Court decided the
inti-Mormon legislation case of Davis v. Beason in favour of the
daho legislature. In 1893 the disqualification was made no longer
etroactive, the two-year clause was omitted, and the test oath
covered only present renunciation of polygamy.
IDAR— IDAS
279
rate shall not exceed 5 mills, when it reaches $100,000,000, 3 mills
shall be the limit, and when it reaches $300,000,000 the rate shall
not exceed ij mills; but a greater rate may be established by a
vote of the people. No public debt (exclusive of the debt of the
Territory of Idaho at the date of its admission to the Union as a state)
may be created that exceeds ij % of the assessed valuation (except
in case of war, &c.) ; the state cannot lend its credit to any corpora-
tion, municipality or individual; nor can any county, city or town
lend its credit or become a stockholder in any company (except
for municipal works).
History. — The first recorded exploration of Idaho by white
men was made by Lewis and Clark, who passed along the Snake
river to its junction with the Columbia; in 1805 the site of Fort
Lemhi in Lemhi county was a rendezvous for two divisions of
the Lewis and Clark expedition; later, the united divisions
reached a village of the Nez Perce Indians near the south fork
of the Clearwater river, where they found traces of visits by
other white men. In 1810 Fort Henry, on the Snake river, was
established by the Missouri Fur Company, and in the following
year a party under the auspices of the Pacific Fur Company
descended the Snake river to the Columbia. In 1834 Fort Hall
in E. Idaho (Bingham county) was founded. It acquired
prominence as the meeting-point of a number of trails to the
extreme western parts of North America. Missions to the
Indians were also established, both by the Catholics and by the
Protestants. But the permanent settlements date from the
revelation of Idaho's mineral resources in 1860, when the
Coeur d'Alene, Palouses and Nez Perces were in the North,
and the Blackfoots, Bannocks and Shoshones in the South.
While trading with these Indians, Capt. Pierce learned in the
summer of 1860 that there was gold in Idaho. He found it on
Orofino Creek, and a great influx followed — coming to Orofino,
Newsome, Elk City, Florence, where the ore was especially rich,
and Warren. The news of the discovery of the Boise Basin
spread far and wide, and Idaho City, Placerville, Buena Vista,
Centreville and Pioneerville grew up. The territory now
constituting Idaho was comprised in the Territory of Oregon
from 1848 to 1853; from 1853 to 1859 the southern portion of
the present state was a part of Oregon, the northern a part of
Washington Territory; from 1859 to 1863 the territory was
within the bounds of Washington Territory. In 1863 the
Territory of Idaho was organized; it included Montana until
1864, and a part of Wyoming until 1868, when the area of the
Territory of Idaho was practically the same as that of the present
state. Idaho was admitted into the Union as a state in 1890.
There have been a few serious Indian outbreaks in Idaho. In
1856 the Coeur d'Alenes, Palouses and Spokanes went on the
war-path; in April 1857 they put to flight a small force under
Col. Edward Jenner Steptoe; but the punitive expedition led
by Col. George Wright (1803-1865) was a success. In 1877 the
Nez Perces, led by Chief Joseph, refused to go on the reservation
set apart for them, defeated a small body of regulars, were
pursued by Major-General O. 0. Howard, reinforced by frontier
volunteers, and in September and October were defeated and
retreated into Northern Montana, where they were captured
by Major-General Nelson A. Miles. Occasional labour troubles
have been very severe in the Cceur d'Alene region, where the
attempt in 1892 of the Mine Owners' Association to discriminate
in wages between miners and surfacemen brought on a union
strike. Rioting followed the introduction of non-union men,
the Frisco Mill was blown up, and many non-union miners were
killed. The militia was called out and regular troops were
hurried to Shoshone county from Fort Sherman, Idaho and
Fort Missoula, Montana. These soon quieted the district. But
the restlessness of the region caused more trouble in 1899. The
famous Bunker Hill and Sullivan mines were wrecked, late in
April, by union men. Federal troops, called for by Governor
Frank Steunenberg, again took charge, and about 800 suspected
men in the district were arrested and shut up in a stockade
known as the " bull-pen." Ten prisoners, convicted of destroying
the property of the mine-owners, were sentenced to twenty-two
months in jail. The feeling among the union men was bitter
against Steunenberg, who was assassinated on the aoth of
December 1905. The trial in 1907 of Charles H. Haywood,
secretary of the Western Federation of Miners, who was charged
with conspiracy in connexion with the murder, attracted national
attention; it resulted in Hay wood's acquittal. Before 1897
the administration of the state was controlled by the Republican
party; but in 1896 Democrats, Populists and those Republicans
who believed in free coinage of silver united, and until 1902
elected a majority of all candidates for state offices. In 1902,
1904, 1906 and 1908 a Republican state ticket was elected.
GOVERNORS
Territorial.
William H. Wallace 1863
W. B. Daniels, Secretary, Acting Governor . 1863-1864
Caleb Lyon 1864-1865
C. de Witt Smith, Secretary, Acting Governor 1865
Horace C. Gilson ,, ,, 1865-1866
S. R. Howlett „ „ 1866
David W. Ballard 1866-1870
E. J. Curtis, Acting Governor 1870
Thomas W. Bennett 1871-1875
D. P. Thompson 1875-1876
Mason Brayman 1876-1880
John B. Neil 1880-1883
John N. Irwin 1883-1884
William M. Bunn 1884-1885
Edward A. Stevenson 1885-1889
George L. Shoup 1889-1890
STATE GOVERNORS
George L. Shoup,1 Republican .... 1890
Norman B. Wiley, Acting Governor . . . 1890-1892
William J. McConnell, Republican . . . 1893-1897
Frank Steunenberg, Democrat Populist . . 1897-1901
Frank W. Hunt, „ „ 1901-1903
John T. Morrison, Republican 1903-1905
Frank R. Gooding, ,, .... 1905—1909
James H. Brady, ,, .... 1909-
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The physical features and economic resources
of Idaho are discussed in J. L. Onderdonk's Idaho : Facts and
Statistics (San Francisco, 1885), Israel C. Russell's " Geology and
Water Resources of the Snake River Plains of Idaho," U.S. Geologi-
cal Survey, Bulletin ipp (Washington, 1902), The State of Idaho (a
pamphlet issued by the State Commissioner of Immigration),
Waldmor Lindgren's " Gold and Silver Veins of Silver City, De
Lamar and other Mining Districts of Idaho," U.S. Geological Survey,
zoth Annual Report (Washington, 1900), and " The Mining Districts
of the Idaho Basin and the Bois6 Ridge, Idaho," U.S. Geological
Survey, i8th Annual Report (Washington, 1898). These reports
should be supplemented by the information contained elsewhere
in the publications of the Geological Survey (see the Indexes of the
survey) and in various volumes of the United States Census. W. B.
Hepburn's Idaho Laws and Decisions, Annotated and Digested
(Bois6, 1900), and H. H. Bancroft's Washington, Idaho, and Montana
(San Francisco, 1890) are the principal authorities for administration
and history. The reports of the state's various executive officers
should be consulted also.
IDAR, or EDAR, a native state of India, forming part of the
Mahi Kantha agency, within the Gujarat division of Bombay.
It has an area of 1669 sq. m., and a population (1901) of 168,557,
showing a decrease of 44% in the decade as the result of famine.
Estimated gross revenue, £29,000; tribute to the gaekwar of
Baroda, £2000. In 1901 the raja and his posthumous son both
died, and the succession devolved upon Sir Pertab Singh (q.v.)
of Jodhpur. The line of railway from Ahmedabad through
Parantij runs mainly through this state. Much of the territory
is held by kinsmen of the raja on feudal tenure. The products
are grain, oil-seeds and sugar-cane. The town of Idar is 64 m.
N.E. of Ahmedabad. Pop. (1901) 7085. It was formerly the
capital, but Ahmednagar (pop. 3200) is the present capital.
IDAS, in Greek legend, son of Aphareus of the royal house of
Messene, brother of Lynceus. He is only mentioned in a single
passage in Homer (Iliad, ix. 556 sqq.), where he is called the
strongest of men on earth. He carried off Marpessa, daughter
of Evenus, as his wife and dared to bend his bow against Apollo,
who was also her suitor. Zeus intervened, and left the choice
to Marpessa, who declared in favour of Idas, fearing that the
god might desert her when she grew old (Apollodorus i. 7).
The Apharetidae are best known for their fight with the Dioscuri.
1 Governor Shoup resigned in December to take his seat in the
U.S. Senate.
280
IDDESLEIGH, EARL OF— IDEA
A quarrel had arisen about the division of a herd of cattle which
the four had stolen. Idas claimed the whole of the booty as
the victor in a contest of eating, and drove the cattle off to
Messene. The Dioscuri overtook him and lay in wait in a hollow
oak. But Lynceus, whose keenness of sight was proverbial,
saw Castor through the trunk and warned his brother, who
thereupon slew the mortal Castor; finally, Pollux slew Lynceus,
and Idas was struck by lightning (Apollodorus iii. n; Pindar,
Nem., x. 60; Pausanias iv. 3. i). According to others, the
Dioscuri had carried off the daughters of Leucippus, who had
been betrothed to the Apharetidae (Ovid, Fasti, v. 699;
Theocritus xxii. 137). The scene of the combat is placed near
the grave of Aphareus at Messene, at Aphidna in Attica, or
in Laconia; and there are other variations of detail in the
accounts (see also Hyginus, Fab. 80). Idas and Lynceus were
originally gods of light, probably the sun and moon, the herd
of cattle (for the possession of- which they strove with the
Dioscuri) representing the heavenly bodies. The annihilation
of the Apharetidae in the legend indicates the subordinate
position held by the Messenians after the loss of their independ-
ence and subjugation by Sparta, the Dioscuri being distinctly
Spartan, as the Apharetidae were Messenian heroes. The grave
of Idas and Lynceus was shown at Sparta, according to Pausanias
(iii. 13. i), whose own opinion, however, is that they were
buried in Messenia. On the chest of Cypselus, Marpessa is repre-
sented as following Idas from the temple of Apollo (by whom,
according to some, she had been carried off), and there was a
painting by Polygnotus of the rape of the Leucippidae in the
temple of the Dioscuri at Athens.
In the article GREEK ART, fig. 66 (PI. iv.) represents Idas and the
Dioscuri driving off cattle.
IDDESLEIGH, STAFFORD HENRY NORTHCOTE, IST EARL
OF (1818-1887), British statesman, was born in London, on the
27th of October 1818. His ancestors had long been settled in
Devonshire, their pedigree, according to Burke, being traceable
to the beginning of the i2th century. After a successful career
at Balliol College, Oxford, he became in 1843 private secretary
to Mr Gladstone at the board of trade. He was afterwards
legal secretary to the board; and after acting as one of the
secretaries to the Great Exhibition of 1851, co-operated with
Sir Charles Trevelyan in framing the report which revolutionized
the conditions of appointment to the Civil Service. He succeeded
his grandfather, Sir Stafford Henry Northcote, as 8th baronet
in 1851. He entered Parliament in 1855 as Conservative M.P.
for Dudley, and was elected for Stamford in 1858, a seat which
he exchanged in 1866 for North Devon. Steadily supporting
his party, he became president of the board of trade in 1866,
secretary of state for India in 1867, and chancellor of the
exchequer in 1874. In the interval between these last two
appointments he had been one of the commissioners for the
settlement of the " Alabama " difficulty with the United States,
and on Mr Disraeli's elevation to the House of Lords in 1876
he became leader of the Conservative party in the Commons.
As a finance minister he was largely dominated by the lines of
policy laid down by Mr Gladstone; but he distinguished himself
by his dealings with the Debt, especially his introduction of
the New Sinking Fund (1876), by which he fixed the annual
charge for the Debt in such a way as to provide for a regular
series of payments off the capital. His temper as leader was,
however, too gentle to satisfy the more ardent spirits among
his own followers, and party cabals (in which Lord Randolph
Churchill — who had made a dead set at the " old gang," and
especially Sir Stafford Northcote — took a leading part) led to
Sir Stafford's transfer to the Lords in 1885, when Lord Salisbury
became prime minister. Taking the titles of earl of Iddesleigh
and Viscount St Cyres, he was included in the cabinet as
first lord of the treasury. In Lord Salisbury's 1886 ministry
he became secretary of state for foreign affairs, but the arrange-
ment was not a comfortable one, and his resignation had just
been decided upon when on the izth of January 1887 he died
very suddenly at Lord Salisbury's official residence in Downing
Street. Lord Iddesleigh was elected lord rector of Edinburgh
University in 1883, in which capacity he addressed the students,
on the subject of " Desultory Reading." He had little leisure
for letters, but amongst his works were Twenty Years of Financial
Policy (1862), a valuable study of Gladstonian finance, and
Lectures and Essays (1887). His Life by Andrew Lang appeared
in 1890. Lord Iddesleigh married in 1843 Cecilia Frances
Farrer (d. 1910) (sister of Thomas, ist Lord Farrer), by whom
he had seven sons and three daughters.
He was succeeded as 2nd earl by his eldest son, WALTER
STAFFORD NORTHCOTE (1845- )> wn° for some years was
his father's private secretary. He was chairman of the Inland
Revenue Board from 1877 to 1892; and is also known as a
novelist. His eldest son STAFFORD HENRY NORTHCOTE, Viscount
St Cyres (1869- ), was educated at Eton and Merton College
Oxford. After taking a ist class in History, he was elected
a senior student of Christ Church, where he resided for a while
as tutor and lecturer. His interest in the development of
religious thought led him to devote himself specially to the
history of the Roman Catholic Church in the i7th century, the
first-fruits of which was his Francois de Fenelon (London, 1901);
eight years later he published his Pascal (ib. 1909).
The second son of the ist earl of Iddesleigh, STAFFORD HENRY
NORTHCOTE, ist Baron Northcote (b. 1846), was educated at
Eton and at Merton College, Oxford. He became a clerk in
the foreign office in 1868, acted as private secretary to Lord
Salisbury, and was attached to the embassy at Constantinople
from 1876 to 1877. From 1877 to 1880 he was secretary to the
chancellor of the exchequer, was financial secretary to the war
office from 1885 to 1886, surveyor-general of ordnance, 1886 to
1887, and charity commissioner, 1891 to 1892. In 1887 he was
created a baronet. In 1880 he was elected M.P. for Exeter as a
Conservative, and retained the seat until 1899, when he was
appointed governor of Bombay (1899-1903), being created a peer
in 1900. Lord Northcote was appointed governor-general of the
Commonwealth of Australia in 1903, and held this post till 1908.
He married in 1873 Alice, adopted daughter of the ist Lord
Mount Stephen.
IDEA (Gr. tita, connected with Idtiv, to see; cf. Lat. species
from specere, to look at), a term used both popularly and in
philosophical terminology with the general sense of " mental
picture." To have no idea how a thing happened is to be without
a mental picture of an occurrence. In this general sense it is
synonymous with concept (q.v.) in its popular usage. In
philosophy the term " idea " is common to all languages and
periods, but there is scarcely any term which has been used with
so many different shades of meaning. Plato used it in the
sphere of metaphysics for the eternally existing reality, the
archetype, of which the objects of sense are more or less imperfect
copies. Chairs may be of different forms, sizes, colours and so
forth, but " laid up in the mind of God " there is the one per-
manent idea or type, of which the many physical chairs are
derived with various degrees of imperfection. From this
doctrine it follows that these ideas are the sole reality (see
further IDEALISM) ; in opposition to it are the empirical thinkers
of all time who find reality in particular physical objects (see
HYLOZOISM, EMPIRICISM, &c.). In striking contrast to Plato's
use is that of John Locke, who defines " idea " as " whatever
is the object of understanding when a man thinks " (Essay
on the Human Understanding (I.), vi. 8). Here the term is
applied not to the mental process, but to anything whether
physical or intellectual which is the object of it. Hume differs
from Locke by limiting " idea " to the more or less vague
mental reconstructions of perceptions, the perceptual process
being described as an " impression." Wundt widens the term
to include " conscious representation of some object or process
of the external world." In so doing he includes not only ideas
of memory and imagination, but also perceptual processes,
whereas other psychologists confine the term to the first two
groups. G. F. Stout and J. M. Baldwin, in the Dictionary of
Philosophy and Psychology, i. 498, define " idea " as " the repro-
duction with a more or less adequate image, of an object not
actually present to the senses." They point out that an idea
IDEALISM
281
.and a perception are by various authorities contrasted in various
ways. " Difference in degree of intensity," " comparative
absence of bodily movement on the part of the subject," " com-
parative dependence on mental activity," are suggested by
psychologists as characteristic of an idea as compared with a
perception.
It should be observed that an idea, in the narrower and
generally accepted sense of a mental reproduction, is frequently
composite. That is, as in the example given above of the idea
of chair, a great many objects, differing materially in detail,
all call a single idea. When a man, for example, has obtained
an idea of chairs in general by comparison with which 'he can
say " This is a chair, that is a stool," he has what is known
as an " abstract idea " distinct from the reproduction in his
mind of any particular chair (see ABSTRACTION). Furthermore
a. complex idea may not have any corresponding physical
object, though its particular constituent elements may severally
be the reproductions of actual perceptions. Thus the idea of
a centaur is a complex mental picture composed of the
ideas of man and horse, that of a mermaid of a woman and a
fish.
See PSYCHOLOGY.
IDEALISM (from Gr. ISea, archetype or model, through
Fr. idealisme), a term generally used for the attitude of mind
which is prone to represent things in an imaginative light and
to lay emphasis exclusively or primarily on abstract perfection
(i.e. in " ideals "). With this meaning the philosophical use of
the term has little in common.
To understand the philosophical theory that has come to be
known under this title, we may ask (i) what in general it is
and how it is differentiated from other theories of knowledge
and reality, (2) how it has risen in the history of philosophy, (3)
what position it occupies at present in the world of speculation.
i. General Definition of Idealism. — Idealism as a philosophical
doctrine -conceives of knowledge or experience as a process in
which the two factors of subject and object stand in a relation
of entire interdependence on each other as warp and woof.
Apart from the activity of the self or subject in sensory reaction,
memory and association, imagination, judgment and inference,
there can be no world of objects. A thing-in-itself which is
not a thing to some consciousness is an entirely unrealizable,
because self-contradictory, conception. But this is only one
side of the truth. It is equally true that a subject apart from
an object is unintelligible. As the object exists through the
constructive activity of the subject, so the subject lives in the
construction of the object. To seek for the true self in any
region into which its opposite in the form of a not-self does
not enter is to grasp a shadow. It is in seeking to realize its
own ideas in the world of knowledge, feeling and action that
the mind comes into possession of itself; it is in becoming
permeated and transformed by the mind's ideas that the world
develops the fullness of its reality as object.
Thus defined, idealism is opposed to ordinary common-sense
dualism, which regards knowledge or experience as the result
of the more or less accidental relation between two separate
and independent entities — the mind and its ideas on one side,
the thing with its attributes on the other — that serve to limit
and condition each other from without. It is equally opposed
to the doctrine which represents the subject itself and its state
and judgments as the single immediate datum of consciousness,
and all else, whether the objects of an external world or person
other than the individual subject whose states are known to
itself, as having a merely problematic existence resting upon
analogy or other process of indirect inference. This theory is
sometimes known as idealism. But it falls short of idealism
as above defined in that it recognizes only one side of the anti-
thesis of subject and object, and so falls short of the doctrine
which takes its stand on the complete correlativity of the two
factors in experience. It is for this reason that it is sometimes
known as subjective or incomplete idealism. Finally the theory
defined is opposed to all forms of realism, whether in the older
form which sought to reduce mind to a function of matter,
or in any of the newer forms which seek for the ultimate essence
of both mind and matter in some unknown force or energy which,
while in itself it is neither, yet contains the potentiality of both.
It is true that in some modern developments of idealism the
ultimate reality is conceived of in an impersonal way, but it is
usually added that this ultimate or absolute being is not some-
thing lower but higher than self-conscious personality, including
it as a more fully developed form may be said to include a more
elementary.
2. Origin and Development of Idealism. — In its self-conscious
form idealism is a modern doctrine. In it the self or subject
may be said to have come to its rights. This was possible in
any complete sense only after the introspective movement
represented by the middle ages had done its work, and the
thought of the individual mind and will as possessed of relative
independence had worked itself out into some degree of clearness.
In this respect Descartes' dictum — cogito ergo sum — may be
said to have struck the keynote of modern philosophy, and all
subsequent speculation to have been merely a prolonged com-
mentary upon it. While in its completer form it is thus a
doctrine distinctive of modern times, idealism has its roots far
back in the history of thought. One of the chief proofs that has
been urged of the truth of its point of view is the persistency
with which it has always asserted itself at a certain stage in
philosophical reflection and as the solution of certain recurrent
speculative difficulties. All thought starts from the ordinary
dualism or pluralism which conceives of the world as consisting
of the juxtaposition of mutually independent things and persons.
The first movement is in the direction of dispelling this appear-
ance of independence. They are seen to be united under the
relation of cause and effect, determining and determined, which
turns out to mean that they are merely passing manifestations
of some single entity or energy which constitutes the real un-
known essence of the things that come before our knowledge.
In the pantheism that thus takes the place of the old dualism
there seems no place left for the individual. Mind and will in
their individual manifestations fade into the general background
of appearance without significance except as a link in a fated
chain. Deliverance from the pantheistic conception of the
universe comes through the recognition of the central place
occupied by thought and purpose in the actual world, and,
as a consequence of this, of the illegitimacy of the abstraction
whereby material energy is taken for the ultimate reality.
The first illustration of this movement on a large scale was
given in the Socratic reaction against the pantheistic conclusions
of early Greek philosophy (see IONIAN SCHOOL). The
whole movement of which Socrates was a part may be ^"^w"m-
said to have been in the direction of the assertion of Socrates.
the rights of the subject. Its keynote is to be found
in the Protagorean " man is the measure." This seems to have
been interpreted by its author and by the Sophists in general
in a subjective sense, with the result that it became the motto
of a sceptical and individualistic movement in contemporary
philosophy and ethics. It was not less against this form of
idealism than against the determinism of the early physicists
that Socrates protested. Along two lines the thought of Socrates
led to idealistic conclusions which may be said to have formed
the basis of all subsequent advance, (i) He perceived the im-
portance of the universal or conceptual element in knowledge,
and thus at a single stroke broke through the hard realism of
ordinary common sense, disproved all forms of naturalism
that were founded on the denial of the reality of thought, and
cut away the ground from a merely sensational and subjective
idealism. This is what Aristotle means by claiming for Socrates
that he was the founder of definition. (2) He taught that life
was explicable only as a system of ends. Goodness consists in
the knowledge of what these are. It is by his hold upon them that
the individual is able to give unity and reality to his will. In
expounding these ideas Socrates limited himself to the sphere
of practice. Moreover, the end or ideal of the practical life
was conceived of in too vague a way to be of much practical use.
His principle, however, was essentially sound, and led directly
282
IDEALISM
to the Platonic Idealism. Plato extended the Socratic discovery
to the whole of reality and while seeking to see the pre-Socratics
with the eyes of Socrates sought " to see Socrates with the
eyes of the pre-Socratics." Not only were the virtues
to be explained by their relation to a common or
universal good which only intelligence could apprehend, but
there was nothing in all the furniture of heaven or earth which
in like manner did not receive reality from the share it had in
such an intelligible idea or essence. But these ideas are them-
selves intelligible only in relation to one another and to the
whole. Accordingly Plato conceived of them as forming a system
and finding their reality in the degree in which they embody
the one all-embracing idea and conceived of not under the form of
an efficient but of a final cause, an inner principle of action or
tendency in things to realize the fullness of their own nature
which in the last resort was identical with the nature of the whole.
This Plato expressed in the myth of the Sun, but the garment
of mythology in which Plato clothed his idealism, beautiful as
it is in itself and full of suggestion, covered an essential weakness.
The more Plato dwelt upon his world of ideas, the more they
seemed to recede from the world of reality, standing over against
it as principles of condemnation instead of revealing themselves
in it. In this way the Good was made to appear as an end
imposed upon things from without by a creative intelligence
instead of as an inner principle of adaptation.
On one side of his thought Aristotle represents a reaction
against idealism and a return to the position of common-sense
dualism, but on another, and this the deeper side, he
represents the attempt to restore the theory in a
more satisfactory form. His account of the process of know-
ledge in his logical treatises exhibits the idealistic bent in its
clearest form. This is as far removed as possible either from
dualism or from empiricism. The universal is the real; it is
that which gives coherence and individuality to the particulars
of sense which apart from it are like the routed or disbanded
units of an army. Still more manifestly in his Ethics and
Politics Aristotle makes it clear that it is the common or universal
will that gives substance and reality to the individual. In spite
of these and other anticipations of a fuller idealism, the idea
remains as a form imposed from without on a reality otherwise
conceived of as independent of it. As we advance from the logic
to the metaphysics and from that to his ontology, it becomes
clear that the concepts are only " categories " or predicates of
a reality lying outside of them, and there is an ultimate division
between the world as the object or matter of thought and the
thinking or moving principle which gives its life. It is this
that gives the Aristotelian doctrine in its more abstract state-
ments an air of uncertainty. Yet besides the particular contri-
bution that Aristotle made to idealistic philosophy in his logical
and ethical interpretations, he advanced the case in two direc-
tions, (a) He made it clear that no explanation of the world
could be satisfactory that was not based on the notion of con-
tinuity in the sense of an order of existence in which the reality
of the lower was to be sought for in the extent to which it gave
expression to the potentialities of its own nature — which were
also the potentialities of the whole of which it was a part. (6)
From this it followed that difficult as we might find it to explain
the relation of terms so remote from each other as sense and
thought, the particular and the universal, matter and mind,
these oppositions cannot in their nature be absolute. These
truths, however, were hidden from Aristotle's successors, who
for the most part lost the thread which Socrates had put into
their hand. When the authority of Aristotle was again invoked,
it was its dualistic and formal, not its idealistic and metaphysical,
side that was in harmony with the spirit of the age. Apart from
one or two of the greatest minds, notably Dante, what appealed
to the thinkers of the middle ages was not the idea of reality
as a progressive self-revelation of an inner principle working
through nature and human life, but the formal principles of
classification which it seemed to offer for a material of thought
and action given from another source.
Modern like ancient idealism came into being as a correction
of the view that threatened to resolve the world of matter and
mind alike into the changing manifestations of some
single non-spiritual force or substance. While,
however, ancient philosophy may be said to have
been unilinear, modern philosophy had a twofold origin,
and till the time of Kant may be said to have pursued two
independent courses.
All philosophy is the search for reality and rational certainty
as opposed to mere formalism on the one hand, to authority
and dogmatism on the other. In this sense modern philosophy
had a common root in revolt against medievalism. In England
this revolt sought for the certainty and clearness that reason
requires in the assurance of an outer world given to immediate
sense experience; on the continent of Europe, in the assurance
of an inner world given immediately in thought. Though
starting from apparently opposite poles and following widely
different courses the two movements led more or less directly
to the same results. It is easy to understand how English
empiricism issued at once in the trenchant naturalism of Hobbes.
It is less comprehensible how the Cartesian philosophy from
the starting-point of thought allied itself with a similar point
of view. This can be understood only by a study of the details
of Descartes' philosophy (see CARTESIANISM). Suffice it to say
that in spite of its spiritualistic starting-point its general result
was to give a stimulus to the prevailing scientific tendency as
represented by Galileo, Kepler and Harvey to the principle
of mechanical explanations of the phenomena of the universe.
True it was precisely against this that Descartes' immediate
successors struggled. But the time-spirit was too strong for
them. Determinism had other forms besides that of a crude
materialism, and the direction that Malebranche succeeded
in giving to speculation led only to the more complete denial
of freedom and individuality in the all-devouring pantheism of
Spinoza.
The foundations of idealism in the modern sense were laid
by the thinkers who sought breathing room for mind and will
in a deeper analysis of the relations of the subject to
the world that it knows. From the outset English
philosophy had a leaning to the psychological point of
view, and Locke was only carrying on the tradition of his
predecessors and particularly of Hobbes in definitely accepting
it as the basis of his Essay. It was, however, Berkeley who first
sought to utilize the conclusions that were implicit in Locke's
starting-point to disprove " the systems of impious and profane
persons which exclude all freeedom, intelligence, and design
from the formation of things, and instead thereof make a self-
existent, stupid, unthinking substance the root and origin of
all beings." Berkeley's statement of the view that all knowledge
is relative to the subject — that no object can be known except
under the form which our powers of sense-perception, our
memory and imagination, our notions and inference, give it —
is still the most striking and convincing that we possess. To
have established this position was a great step in speculation.
Henceforth ordinary dogmatic dualism was excluded from
philosophy; any attempt to revive it, whether with Dr Johnson
by an appeal to common prejudice, or in the more reflective
Johnsonianism of the 18th-century Scottish philosophers, must
be an anachronism. Equally impossible was it thenceforth
to assert the mediate or immediate certainty of material substance
as the cause either of events in nature or of sensations in our-
selves. But with these advances came the danger of falling
into error from which common-sense dualism and naturalistic
monism were free. From the point of view which Berkeley
had inherited from Locke it seemed to follow that not only
material substance, but the whole conception of a world of
objects, is at most an inference from subjective modifications
which are the only immediately certain objects of knowledge.
The implications of such a view were first clearly apparent
when Hume showed that on the basis of it there seemed to be
nothing that we could confidently affirm except the order of
our own impressions and ideas. This being so, not only were
physics and mathematics impossible as sciences of necessary
Berkeley.
IDEALISM
283
t.cibaiu.
objective truth, but our apparent consciousness of a permanent
self and object alike must be delusive.
It was these paradoxes that Kant sought to rebut by a more
thoroughgoing criticism of the basis of knowledge the sub-
„ . stance of which is summed up in his celebrated Refuta-
tion of Idealism,1 wherein he sought to undermine
Hume's scepticism by carrying it one step further and demon-
strating that not only is all knowledge of self or object excluded,
but the consciousness of any series of impressions and ideas
is itself impossible except in relation to some external per-
manent and universally accepted world of objects.
But Kant's refutation of subjective idealism and his vindica-
tion of the place of the object can be fully understood only
when we take into account the other defect in the
teaching of his predecessors that he sought in his
Critique to correct. In continental philosophy the reaction
against mechanical and pantheistic explanations of the universe
found even more definite utterance than in English psychological
empiricism in the metaphysical system of Leibnitz, whose theory
of self-determined monads can be understood only when taken
in the light of the assertion of the rights of the subject against
the substance of Spinoza and the atoms of the materialist.
But Leibnitz also anticipated Kant in seeking to correct the
empirical point of view of the English philosophers. True,
sense-given material is necessary in order that we may have
thought. " But by what means," he asks, " can experience
and the senses give ideas ? Has the soul windows ? Is it like
a writing tablet? Is it like wax? It is plain that all those
who think thus of the soul make it at bottom corporeal. True,
nothing is in the intellect which has not been in the senses, but
we must add except the intellect itself. The soul contains the
notions of being, substance, unity, identity, cause, perception,
reasoning and many others which the senses cannot give "
(Nouveaux essais, ii. i). But Leibnitz's conception of the priority
of spirit had too little foundation, and the different elements
he sought to combine were too loosely related to one another
to stand the strain of the two forces of empiricism and material-
ism that were opposed to his idealism. More particularly by
the confusion in which he left the relation between the two
logical principles of identity and of sufficient reason underlying
respectively analytic and synthetic, deductive and inductive
thought, he may be said to have undermined in another way
the idealism he strove to establish. It was in seeking to close
up the fissure in his system represented by this dualism that his
successors succeeded only in adding weakness to weakness by
reducing the principle of sufficient reason to that of formal
identity (see WOLFF) and representing all thought as in essence
analytic. From this it immediately followed that, so far as the
connexion of our experiences of the external world does not show
itself irreducible to that of formal identity, it must remain un-
intelligible. As empiricism had foundered on the difficulty of
showing how our thoughts could be an object of sense experience,
so Leibnitzian formalism foundered on that of understanding
how the material of sense could be an object of thought. On
one view as on the other scientific demonstration was impossible.
The extremity to which philosophy had been brought by
empiricism on the one hand and formalism on the other was
K ni Kant's opportunity. Leibnitz's principle of the " nisi
intellectus ipse " was expanded by him into a demon-
stration the completest yet effected by philosophy of the part
played by the subject not merely in the manipulation of the
material of experience but in the actual constitution of the
object that is known. On the other hand he insisted on the
synthetic character of this activity without which it was im-
possible to get beyond the circle of our own thoughts. The parts
of the Critique of Pure Reason, more particularly the " Deduction
of the Categories " in which this theory is worked out, may be
said to have laid the foundation of modern idealism — " articulum
stantis aut cadentis doctrinae." In spite of the defects of Kant's
statement — to which it is necessary to return — the place of the
concepts and ideals of the mind and the synthetic organizing
1 Kritik d. reinen Vernunft, p. 197 (ed. Hartenstein).
activity which these involve was established with a trenchancy
which has been acknowledged by all schools alike. The
" Copernican revolution " which he claimed to have effected
may be said to have become the starting-point of all modern
philosophy. Yet the divergent uses that have been made of it
witness to the ambiguity of his statement which is traceable
to the fact that Kant was himself too deeply rooted in the
thought of his predecessors and carried with him too much of
their spirit to be able entirely to free himself from their assump-
tions and abstractions. His philosophy was more like Michael-
angelo's famous sculpture of the Dawn, a spirit yet encumbered
with the stubble of the material from which it was hewn, than
a clear cut figure with unmistakable outlines. Chief among
these encumbering presuppositions was that of a fundamental
distinction between perception and conception and consequent
upon it between the synthetic and the analytic use of thought.
It is upon this in the last resort that the distinction between
the phenomenal world of our experience and a noumenal world
beyond it is founded. Kant perceives that " perception without
conception is blind, conception without perception is empty,"
but if he goes so far ought he not to have gone still further and
inquired whether there can be any perception at all without a
concept, any concept which does not presuppose a precept, and,
if this is impossible, whether the distinction between a world
of appearance which is known and a world of things-in-themselves
which is not, is not illusory ?
It was by asking precisely these questions that Hegel gave
the finishing strokes to the Kantian philosophy. The starting-
point of all valid philosophy must be the perception
that the essence of all conscious apprehension is the
union of opposites — of which that of subject and object is the
most fundamental and all-pervasive. True, before differences
can be united they must have been separated, but this merely
proves that differentiation or analysis is only one factor in a
single process. Equally fundamental is the element of synthesis.
Nor is it possible at any point in knowledge to prove the existence
of a merely given in whose construction the thinking subject
has played no part nor a merely thinking subject in whose
structure the object is not an organic factor. In coming, as at
a certain point in its development it does, to the consciousness
of an object, the mind does not find itself in the presence of an
opponent, or of anything essentially alien to itself but of that
which gives content and stability to its own existence. True,
the stability it seems to find in it is incomplete. The object
cannot rest in the form of its immediate appearance without
involving us in contradiction. The sun does not " rise," the
dew does not " fall." But this only means that the unity between
subject and object to which the gift of consciousness commits
us is incompletely realized in that appearance: the apparent
truth has to submit to correction and supplementation before
it can be accepted as real truth. It does not mean that there is
anywhere a mere fact which is not also an interpretation nor
an interpreting mind whose ideas have no hold upon fact. From
this it follows that ultimate or absolute reality is to be sought
not beyond the region of experience, but in the fullest and most
harmonious statement of the facts of our experience. True a
completely harmonious world whether of theory or of practice
remains an ideal. But the fact that we have already in part
realized the ideal and that the degree in which we have realized
it is the degree in which we may regard our experience as trust-
worthy, is proof that the ideal is no mere idea as Kant taught,
but the very substance of reality.
Intelligible as this development of Kantian idealism seems
in the light of subsequent philosophy, the first statement of
it in Hegel was not free from obscurity. The unity
of opposites translated into its most abstract terms
as the " identity of being and not-being," the principle la
that the " real is the rational," the apparent sub- Hegelian
stitution of " bloodless " categories for the substance J^^Jte
of concrete reality gave it an air of paradox in the eyes
of metaphysicians while physicists were scandalized by the
premature attempts at a complete philosophy of nature and
284
IDEALISM
history. For this Hegel was doubtless partly to blame. But
philosophical critics of his own and a later day are not hereby
absolved from a certain perversity in interpreting these doctrines
in a sense precisely opposite to that in which they were intended.
The doctrine of the unity of contraries so far from being the
denial of the law of non-contradiction is founded on an absolute
reliance upon it. Freed from paradox it means that in every
object of thought there are different aspects or elements each of
which if brought separately into consciousness may be so
emphasized as to appear to contradict another. Unity may be
made to contradict diversity, permanence change, the particular
the universal, individuality relatedness. Ordinary conscious-
ness ignores these " latent fires "; ordinary discussion brings
them to light and divides men into factions and parties over
them; philosophy not because it denies but because it acknow-
ledges the law of non-contradiction as supreme is pledged to
seek a point of view from which they may be seen to be in
essential harmony with one another as different sides of the same
truth. The " rationality of the real " has in like manner been
interpreted as intended to sanctify the existing order. Hegel
undoubtedly meant to affirm that the actual was rational in
the face of the philosophy which set up subjective feeling and
reason against it. But idealism has insisted from the time of
Plato on the distinction between what is actual in time and space
and the reality that can only partially be revealed in it. Hegel
carried this principle further than had yet been done. His
phrase does not therefore sanctify the established fact but,
on the contrary, declares that it partakes of reality only so far
as it embodies the ideal of a coherent and stable system which
it is not. As little is idealism responsible for any attempt to
pass off logical abstractions for concrete reality. The " Logic "
of Hegel is merely the continuation of Kant's " Deduction " of
the categories and ideas of the reason which has generally been
recognized as the soberest of attempts to set forth the presup-
positions which underlie all experience. " What Hegel attempts
to show is just that the categories by which thought must
determine its object are stages in a process that, beginning with
the idea of ' Being,' the simplest of all determinations is driven
on by its own dialectic till it reaches the idea of self-consciousness.
In other words the intelligence when it once begins to define
an object for itself, finds itself launched on a movement of self-
asserting synthesis in which it cannot stop until it had recognized
that the unity of the object with itself involves its unity with
all other objects and with the mind that knows it. Hence,
whatever we begin by saying, we must ultimately say ' mind ' '
(Caird, Kant, i. 443).
While the form in which these doctrines were stated proved fatal
to them in the country of their birth, they took deep root in the next
generation in English philosophy. Here the stone that the builders
rejected was made the head of the corner. The influences which led
to this result were manifold. From the side of literature the way
was prepared for it by the genius of Coleridge, Wordsworth and
Carlyle; from the side of morals and politics by the profound dis-
content of the constructive spirit of the century with the disintegra-
ting conceptions inherited from utilitarianism. In taking root in
England idealism had to contend against the traditional empiricism
represented by Mill on the one hand and the pseudo-Kantianism
which was rendered current by Mansel and Hamilton on the other.
As contrasted with the first it stood for the necessity of recognizing
a universal or ideal element as a constitutive factor in all experience
whether cognitive or volitional; as contrasted with the latter for
the ultimate unity of subject and object, knowledge and reality,
and therefore for the denial of the existence of any thing-in-itself
for ever outside the range of experience. Its polemic against the
philosophy of experience has exposed it to general misunderstanding,
as though it claimed some a priori path to truth. In reality it stands
for a more thoroughgoing and consistent application of the test of
experience. The defect of English empiricism from the outset had
been the uncritical acceptance of the metaphysical dogma of a pure
unadulterated sense-experience as the criterion of truth. This
assumption idealism examines and rejects in the name of experience
itself. Similarly it only carried the doctrine of relativity to its
logical conclusion in denying that there could be any absolute
relativity. Object stands in essential relation to subject, subject to
object. This being so, it is wholly illogical to seek for any test of
the truth and reality of either except in the form which that relation
itself takes. In its subsequent development idealism in England
has passed through several clearly marked stages which may be
distinguished as (a) that of exploration and tentative exposition in
the writings of J. F. Ferrier,1 J. Hutchison Stirling,2 Benjamin
Jowett,3 W. T. Harris;4 (6) of confident application to the central
problems of logic, ethics and politics, fine art and religion, and as a
principle of constructive criticism and interpretation chiefly in
T. H. Green,5 E. Caird,6 B. Bosanquet;7 (c) of vigorous effort to
develop on fresh lines its underlying metaphysics in F. H. Bradley,8
J. M. E. McTaggart," A. E. Taylor,10 Josiah Royce11 and others.
Under the influence of these writers idealism, as above expounded
though with difference of interpretation in individual writers, may
be said towards the end of the igth century to have been on its way
to becoming the leading philosophy in the British Isles and America.
3. Reaction against Traditional Idealism. — But it was not
to be expected that the position idealism had thus won for itself
would remain long unchallenged. It had its roots in New
a literature and in forms of thought remote from the Dualism
common track; it had been formulated before the anttPrag-
great advances in psychology which marked the course matjsal-
of the century; its latest word seemed to involve conse-
quences that brought it into conflict with the vital interest
the human mind has in freedom and the possibility of real
initiation. It is not, therefore, surprising that there should
have been a vigorous reaction. This has taken mainly two
opposite forms. On the one hand the attack has come from the
old ground of the danger that is threatened to the reality of
the external world and may be said to be in the interest of the
object. On the other hand the theory has been attacked in the
interest of the subject on the ground that in the statuesque
world of ideas into which it introduces us it leaves no room for
the element of movement and process which recent psychology
and metaphysic alike have taught us underlies all life. The
conflict of idealism with these two lines of criticism — the accusa-
tion of subjectivism on the one side of intellectualism and rigid
objectivism on the other — may be said to have constituted
the history of Anglo-Saxon philosophy during the first decade
of the 2oth century.
I. Whatever is to be said of ancient Idealism, the modern
doctrine may be said notably in Kant to have been in the main
a vindication of the subjective factor in knowledge. But that
space and time, matter and cause should owe their origin to the
action of the mind has always seemed paradoxical to common
sense. Nor is the impression which its enunciation in Kant made,
likely to have been lightened in this country by the connexion
that was sure to be traced between Berkeleyanism and the new
teaching or by the form which the doctrine received at the hands
of T. H. Green, its leading English representative between 1870
and 1880. If what is real in things is ultimately nothing but
their relations, and if relations are inconceivable apart from the
relating mind, what is this but the dissolution of the solid ground
of external reality which my consciousness seems to assure me
underlies and eludes all the conceptual network by which
I try to bring one part of my experience into connexion with
another ? It is quite true that modern idealists like Berkeley
himself have sought to save themselves from the gulf of sub-
jectivism by calling in the aid of a universal or infinite mind
or by an appeal to a total or absolute experience to which our own
is relative. But the former device is too obviously a deus ex
machina, the purpose of which would be equally well served by
supposing with Fichte the individual self to be endowed with
the power of subconsciously extraditing a world which returns
to it in consciousness under the form of a foreign creation.
The appeal to an Absolute on the other hand is only to sub-
stitute one difficulty for another. For granting that it places
the centre of reality outside the individual self it does so only
at the price of reducing the reality of the latter to an appearance;
1 Institutes of Metaphysics (1854) ; Works (1866).
2 Secret of Hegel (1865).
3 Dialogues of Plato (1871).
4 Journal of Spec. Phil. (1867).
5 Hume's Phil. Works (1875).
• Critical account of the Phil, of Kant (1877).
' Knowledge and Reality (1885); Logic (1888).
8 Appearance and Reality (1893).
* Studies in Hegelian Cosmology (1901).
10 Elements of Metaphysics (1903).
" The World and the Individual (1901).
IDEALISM
285
and if only one thing is real what becomes of the many different
things which again my consciousness assures me are the one
world with which I can have any practical concern? To meet
these difficulties and give back to us the assurance of the sub-
stantiality of the world without us it has therefore been thought
necessary to maintain two propositions which are taken to be
the refutation of idealism, (i) There is given to us immediately
in knowledge a world entirely independent of and different from
our own impressions on the one hand and the conceptions by
which we seek to establish relations between them upon the
other. The relation of these impressions (and for the matter
of that of their inter-relations among themselves) to our minds
is only one out of many. As a leading writer puts it: "There
is such a thing as greenness having various relations, among
others that of being perceived."1 (2) Things may be, and may
be known to be simply different. They may exclude one another,
exist so to speak in a condition of armed neutrality to one another,
without being positively thereby related to one another or altered
by any change taking place in any of them. As the same writer
puts it: " There is such a thing as numerical difference, different
from conceptual difference,"2 or expressing the same thing in
other words " there are relations not grounded in the nature of
the related terms."
In this double-barrelled criticism it is important to distinguish
what is really relevant. Whatever the shortcomings of individual
writers may be, modern idealism differs, as we have seen, from
the arrested idealism of Berkeley precisely in the point on which
dualism insists. In all knowledge we are in touch not merely
with the self and its passing states, but with a real object which
is different from them. On this head there is no difference,
and idealism need have no difficulty in accepting all that its
opponents here contend. The difference between the two
theories does not consist in any difference of emphasis on the
objective side of knowledge, but in the standard by which the
nature of the object is to be tested — the difference is logical
not metaphysical — it concerns the definition of truth or falsity
in the knowledge of the reality which both admit. To idealism
there can be no ultimate test, but the possibility of giving any
fact which claims to be true its place in a coherent system of
mutually related truths. To this dualism opposes the doctrine
that truth and falsehood are a matter of mere immediate
intuition: " There is no problem at all in truth and falsehood,
some propositions are true and some false just as some roses are
red and some white."3 The issue between the two theories
under this head may here be left with the remark that it is a
curious comment on the logic of dualism that setting out to
vindicate the reality of an objective standard of truth it should
end in the most subjective of all the way a thing appears to the
individual. The criticism that applies to the first of the above
contentions applies mutatis mutandis to the second. As idealism
differs from Berkeleyanism in asserting the reality of an " ex-
ternal " world so it differs from Spinozism in asserting the
reality of difference within it. Determination is not merely
negation. On this head there need be no quarrel between
it and dualism. Ours is a many-sided, a many-coloured world.
The point of conflict again lies in the nature and ground of
the assigned differences. Dualism meets the assertion of absolute
unity by the counter assertion of mere difference. But if it
is an error to treat the unity of the world as its only real aspect,
it is equally an error to treat its differences as something ulti-
mately irreducible. No philosophy founded on this assumption
is likely to maintain itself against the twofold evidence of
modern psychology and modern logic. According to the first
the world, whether looked at from the side of our perception
or from the side of the object perceived, can be made intelligible
only when we accept it for what it is as a real continuity. Differ-
ences, of course, there are; and, if we like to say so, every differ-
ence is unique, but this does not mean that they are given in
absolute independence of everything else, " fired at us out of
1 See Mind, New Series, xii. p. 433 sqq.
2 Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society (1900-1901), p. HO.
8 Mind, New Series, xiii. p. 523; cf. 204, 350.
a cannon." They bear a definite relation to the structure of our
physical and psychical nature, and correspond to definite needs
of the subject that manifests itself therein. Similarly from
the side of logic. It is not the teaching of idealism alone but
of the facts which logical analysis has brought home to us that
all difference in the last resort finds its ground in the quality
or content of the things differentiated, and that this difference
of content shows in turn a double strand, the strand of sameness
and the strand of otherness — that in which and that by which
they differ from one another. Idealism has, of course, no quarrel
with numerical difference. All difference has its numerical
aspect: two different things are always two both in knowledge
and in reality. What it cannot accept is the doctrine that there
are two things which are two in themselves apart from that
which makes them two — which are not two of something. So
far from establishing the truth for which dualism is itself con-
cerned— the reality of all differences — such a theory can end
only in a scepticism as to the reality of any difference. It is
difficult to see what real difference there can be between things
which are differences of nothing.
II. More widespread and of more serious import is the
attack from the other side to which since the publication of
A. Seth's Hegelianism and Personality (1887) and W. James's
Will to Believe (1903) idealism has been subjected. Here also
it is important to distinguish what is relevant from what
is irrelevant in the line of criticism represented by these
writers. There need be no contradiction between idealism and
a reasonable pragmatism. In so far as the older doctrine is
open to the charge of neglecting the conative and Ideological
side of experience it can afford to be grateful to its critics for
recalling it to its own eponymous principle of the priority of
the "ideal" to the "idea," of needs to the conception of their
object. The real issue comes into view in the attempt, under-
taken in the interest of freedom, to substitute for the notion of
the world as a cosmos pervaded by no discernible principle
and in its essence indifferent to the form impressed upon it by
its active parts.
To the older idealism as to the new the essence of mind or spirit
is freedom. But the guarantee of freedom is to be sought for not
in the denial of law, but in the whole nature ot mind and its relation
to the structure of experience. Without mind no orderly world : only
through the action of the subject and its " ideas " are the con-
fused and incoherent data of sense-perception (themselves shot
through with both strands) built up into that system of things
we call Nature, and which stands out against the subject as the
body stands out against the soul whose functioning may be
said to have created it. On the other hand, without the world_ no
mind: only through the. action of the environment upon the subject
is the idealizing activity in which it finds its being called into exist-
ence. Herein lies the paradox which is also the deepest truth of our
spiritual life. In interpreting its environment first as a world ot
things that seem to stand in a relation of exclusion to one another
and to itselt, then as a natural system governed by rigid mechanical
necessity, the mind can yet feel that in its very opposition the world
is akin to it, bone of its bone and flesh of its flesh. What is true ot
mind is true of will. Idealism starts from the relativity of the
world to purposive consciousness. But this again may be so stated
as to represent only one side of the truth. It is equally true that
the will is relative to the world of objects and interests to which
it is attached through instincts and feelings, habits and sentiments.
In isolation from its object the will is as much an abstraction as
thought apart from the world of percepts, memories and associations
which give it content and stability. And just as mind does not lose
but gain in individuality in proportion as it parts with any claim
to the capricious determination of what its world shall be, and
becomes dominated by the conception of an order which is immutable
so the will becomes tree and " personal " in proportion as it identifies
itself with objects and interests, and subordinates itself to laws and
requirements which involve the suppression of all that is merely
arbitrary and subjective. Here, too, subject and object grow
together. The power and vitality of the one is the power and
vitality of the other, and this is so because they are not two things
with separate roots but are both rooted in a common reality which,
while it includes, is more than either.
Passing by these contentions as unmeaning or irrelevant and seeing
nothing but irreconcilable contradiction between the conceptions
of the world as immutable law and a self-determining subject
pragmatism (q.v.) seeks other means of vindicating the reality of
freedom. It agrees with older forms of libertarianism in taking its
stand on the fact of spontaneity as primary and self-evidencing,
286
IDEALISM
but it is not content to assert its existence side by side with rigidly
determined sequence. It carries the war into the camp of the enemy
by seeking to demonstrate that the completely determined action
which is set over against freedom as the basis of explanation m the
material world is merely a hypothesis which, while it serves suffi-
ciently well the limited purpose for which it is devised, is incapable
of verification in the ultimate constituents of physical nature.
There seems in fact nothing to prevent us from holding that while
natural laws express the average tendencies of multitudes they give
no clue to the movement of individuals. Some have gone farther
and argued that from the nature of the case no causal explanation
of any real change in the world of things is possible. A cause is
that which contains the effect (" causa aequat effectum "), but this
is precisely what can never be proved with respect to anything that
is claimed as a real cause in the concrete world. Everywhere the
effect reveals an element which is indiscoverable in the cause with
the result that the identity we seek for ever eludes us. Even the
resultant of mechanical forces refuses to resolve itself into its con-
stituents. In the " resultant " there is a new direction, and with
it a new quality the component forces of which no analysis can
discover.1
It is not here possible to do more than indicate what appear
to be the valid elements in these two conflicting interpretations
of the requirements of a true idealism. On behalf of the older
it may be confidently affirmed that no solution is likely to find
general acceptance which involves the rejection of the conception
of unity and intelligible order as the primary principle of our
world. The assertion of this principle by Kant was, we have
seen, the corner-stone of idealistic philosophy in general, under-
lying as it does the conception of a permanent subject not less
than that of a permanent object. As little from the side of
knowledge is it likely that any theory will find acceptance which
reduces all thought to a process of analysis and the discovery of
abstract identity. There is no logical principle which requires
that we should derive qualitative change by logical analysis from
quantitative difference. Everywhere experience is synthetic:
it gives us multiplicity in unity. Explanation of it does not
require the annihilation of all differences but the apprehension
of them in organic relation to one another and to the whole
to which they belong. It was, as we have seen, this conception
of thought as essentially synthetic for which Kant paved the
way in his polemic against the formalism of his continental
predecessors. The revival as in the above argument of the idea
that the function of thought is the elimination of difference,
and that rational connexion must fail where absolute identity
is indiscoverable merely shows how imperfectly Kant's lesson
has been learned by some of those who prophesy in his name.
Finally, apart from these more academic arguments there is
an undoubted paradox in a theory which, at a moment when in
whatever direction we look the best inspiration in poetry,
sociology and physical science comes from the idea of the unity
of the world, gives in its adhesion to pluralism on the ground
of its preponderating practical value.
On the other hand, idealism would be false to itself if it inter-
preted the unity which it thus seeks to establish in any sense
that is incompatible with the validity of moral distinctions and
human responsibility in the fullest sense of the term. It would
on its side be, indeed, a paradox if at a time when the validity of
human ideals and the responsibility of nations and individuals
to realize them is more universally recognized than ever before
on our planet, the philosophical theory which hitherto has been
chiefly identified with their vindication should be turned against
them. Yet the depth and extent of the dissatisfaction are
sufficient evidence that the most recent developments are not
free from ambiguity on this vital issue.
What is thus suggested is not a rash departure from the general
point of view of idealism (by its achievements in every field
to which it has been applied, " stat mole sua ") but a cautious
inquiry into the possibility of reaching a conception of the world
1 The most striking statement of this argument is to be found in
Boutroux's treatise De la contingence des lots de la nature, first
published in 1874 ar|d reprinted without alteration in 1905. The
same general line of thought underlies James Ward's Naturalism and
Agnosticism (2nd ed., 1903), and A. I. Balfour's Foundations of
ZJe/i«/(8thed., 1901). H. Bergson's works on the other hand contain
the elements of a reconstruction similar in spirit to the suggestions
of the present article.
in which a place can be found at once for the idea of unity and
determination and of movement and freedom. Any attempt
here to anticipate what the course of an idealism inspired by
such a spirit of caution and comprehension is likely to be cannot
but appear dogmatic.
Yet it may be permitted to make a suggestion. Taking for
granted the unity of the world idealism is committed to interpret it
as spiritual as a unity of spirits. This is implied in the phrase by
which it has sought to signalize its break with Spinozism: " from
substance to subject." The universal or infinite is one that realizes
itself in finite particular minds and wills, not as accidents or imperfec-
tions of it, but as its essential form. These on their side, to be subject
in the true sense must be conceived of as possessing a life which is
truly their own, the expression of their own nature as self-deter-
minant. In saying subject we say self, in saying self we say free
creator. No conception of the infinite can therefore be true which
does not leave room for movement, process, free creation. Oldness,
sameness, permanence of principle and direction, these must be,
otherwise there is nothing; but newness of embodiment, existence,
realization also, otherwise nothing is.
Now it is just to these implications in the idea of spirit that some
of the prominent recent expositions of Idealism seem to have failed
to do justice. They have failed particularly when they have left
the idea of " determination " unpurged of the suggestion of time
succession. The very word lends itself to this mistake. Idealists
have gone beyond others in asserting that the subject in the sense of
a being which merely repeats what has gone before is timeless. This
involves that its activity cannot be truly conceived of as included
in an antecedent, as an effect in a cause or one term of an equation
in the other. As the activity of a subject or spirit it is essentially
a new birth. It is this failure that has led to the present revolt
against a " block universe." But the difficulty is not to be met by
running to the opposite extreme in the assertion or a loose and
ramshackle one. This is merely another way of perpetuating the
mistake of allowing the notion of determination by an other or a
preceding to continue to dominate us in a region where we have in
reality passed from it to the notion of determination by self or by
self-acknowledged ideals. As the correction from the one side
consists in a more whole-hearted acceptance of the conception of
determination by an ideal as the essence of mind, so from the other
side it must consist in the recognition of the valuelessness of a freedom
which does not mean submission to a self-chosen, though not self-
created, law.
The solution here suggested is probably more likely to meet with
opposition from the side of Idealism than of Pragmatism. It
involves, it will be said, the reality of time, the dependence of the
Infinite in the finite, and therewith a departure from the whole line
of Hegelian thought. (l) It does surely involve the reality of time
in the sense that it involves the reality of existence, which it is agreed
is process. Withoutprocesstheeternalis not completeor, if eternity
means completeness, is not truly eternal. Our mistake lies in abstrac-
tion of the one from the other, which, as always, ends in confusion
of the one with the other. Truth lies in giving each its place. Not
only does eternity assert the conception of the hour but the hour
asserts the conception of eternity — with what adequacy is another
question. (2) The second of the above objections takes its point
from the contradiction to religious consciousness which seems to be
involved. This is certainly a mistake. Religious consciousness
asserts, no doubt, that God is necessary to the soul: from Him as
its inspiration, to Him as its ideal are all things. But it asserts with
equal emphasis that the soul is necessary to God. To declare itself
an unnecessary creation is surely on the part of the individual soul
the height of impiety. God lives in the soul as it in Him. He also
might say, from it as His offspring, to it as the object of His outgoing
love are all things. (3) It is a mistake to attribute to Hegel the
doctrine that time is an illusion. If in a well-known passage (Logic
§ 212) he seems to countenance the Spinoxistic view he immediately
corrects it by assigning an " actualizing force " to this illusion and
making it a " necessary dynamic element of truth." Consistently
with this we have the conclusion stated in the succeeding section
on the Will. " Good, the final end of the world, has being only
while it constantly produces itself. And the world of the spirit
and the world of nature continue to have this distinction, that the
latter moves only in a recurring cycle while the former certainly
also makes progress." The mistake is not Hegel's but ours. It
is to be remedied not by giving up the idea of the Infinite but by
ceasing to think of the Infinite as of a being endowed with a static
perfection which the finite will merely reproduces, and definitely
recognizing the forward effort of the finite as an essential element
in Its self-expression. If there be any truth in this suggestion it
seems likely that the last word of idealism, like the first, will prove
to be that the type of the highest reality is to be sought for not in
any fixed Parmenidean circle of achieved being but in an ideal of
good which while never fully expressed under the form of time
can never become actual and so fulfil itself under any other.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — (A) General works besides those of the writers
mentioned above: W. Wallace, Prolegomena to the Study of Hegel
(1894), and Hegel's Philosophy of Mind (1894); A. Seth and R. B.
IDELER— IDENTIFICATION
287
Haldane, Essays in Phil. Criticism (1883) ; John Watson, Kant and
his English Critics (1881); J. B. Baillie, Idealistic Construction of
Experience (1906) ; J. S. Mackenzie, Outlines of Metaphysics (1902) ;
A. E. Taylor, Elements of Metaphysics (1903); R. L. Nettleship,
Lectures and Remains (1897) ; D. G. Ritchie, Philosophical Studies
(1905).
(B) Works on particular branches of philosophy: (a) Logic —
F. H. Bradley, Principles of Logic (1883); B. Bosanquet, Logic
(1888) and Essentials of Logic (1895). (ft) Psychology—]. Dewey,
Psychology (1886); G. F. Stout, Analytic Psychology (1896); B.
Bosanquet, Psychology of the Moral Self (1897). (c) Ethics — F. H.
Bradley, Ethical Studies (1876); J. Dewey, Ethics (1891); W. R.
Sorley, Ethics of Naturalism (2nd ed., 1904) ; J. S. Mackenzie, Manual
of Ethics (4th ed., 1900) ; J. H. Muirhead, Elements of Ethics (yd ed.,
1910). (d) Politics and Economics — B. Bosanquet, Philosophical
Theory of the State (1899), and Aspects of the Social Problem (1895) ;
B. Bonar, Philosophy and Political Economy in their historical
Relations (1873); D. G. Ritchie, Natural Rights (1895); J. S.
Mackenzie, An Introd. to Social Phil. (1890); J. MacCunn, Six
Radical Thinkers (1907). (e) Aesthetic — B. Bosanquet, History of
Aesthetic (1892), and Introd. to Hegel's Phil, of the Fine Arts (1886);
W. Hastie, Phil, of Art by Hegel and Michelet (1886). (/) Religion—
J. Royce, Religious Aspect of Philosophy (1885), and The Conception
of God (1897); R. B. Haldane, The Pathway to Reality (1903);
E. Caird, Evolution of Religion (1893) ; J. Caird, Introd. to the Phil,
of Religion (1880) ; H. Jones, Idealism as a Practical Creed (1909).
(C) Recent Criticism. Besides works mentioned in the text : W.
James, Pragmatism (1907), A Pluralistic Universe (1909), The
Meaning of Truth (1909); H. Sturt, Personal Idealism (1902);
F. C. S. Schiller, Humanism (1903) ; G. E. Moore, Principia Ethica;
H. Rashdall, The Theory of Good and EM (1907).
See also ETHICS and METAPHYSICS. (J. H. Mu.)
IDELER, CHRISTIAN LUDWIG (1766-1846), German chrono-
logist and astronomer, was born near Perleberg on the 2ist of
September 1766. After holding various official posts under the
Prussian government he became professor at the university of
Berlin in 1821, and eighteen years later foreign member of the
Institute of France. From 1816 to 1822 he was tutor to the
young princes William Frederick and Charles. He died in Berlin
on the loth of August 1846. He devoted his life chiefly to the
examination of ancient systems of chronology. In 1825-1826
he published his great work, Handbuch der mathematischen und
technischen Chronologic (2 vols.; 2nd ed., 1883), re-edited as
Lehrbuch der Chronologic (1831); a supplementary volume,
Die Zeilrechnung der Chinesen, appeared in 1839. Beside these
important works he wrote also Untersuchungen uber d. Ursprung
und d. Bedeutungd. Sternnamen (1809) and Uber d. Ursprung d.
Thierkreises (1838). With Nolle he published handbooks on
English and French language and literature. His son, JULIUS
LUDWIG IDELER (1809-1842), wrote Meteorologia velerum
Graecorum et Romanorum (1832).
IDENTIFICATION (Lat. idem, the same), the process of
proving any one's identity, i.e. that he is the man he purports
to be, or — if he is pretending to be some one else — the man
he really is; or in case of dispute, that he is the man he is
alleged to be. As more strenuous efforts have been made for the
pursuit of criminals, and more and more severe penalties are
inflicted on old offenders, means of identification have become
essential, and various processes have been tried to secure that
desirable end. For a long time they continued to be most im-
perfect; nothing better was devised than rough and ready
methods of recognition depending upon the memories of officers
of the law or the personal impressions of witnesses concerned
in the case, supplemented in more recent years by photographs,
not always a safe and unerring guide. The machinery employed
was cumbrous, wasteful of time and costly. Detective policemen
were marched in a body to inspect arrested prisoners in the
exercising yards of the prison. Accused persons were placed
in the midst of a number of others of approximately like figure
and appearance, and the prosecutor and witnesses were called
in one by one to pick out the offender. Inquiries, with a detailed
description of distinctive marks, and photographs were circu-
lated far and wide to local police forces. Officers, police and
prison wardens were despatched in person to give evidence of
identity at distant courts. Mis-identification was by no means
rare. Many remarkable cases may be quoted. One of the most
notable was that of the Frenchman Lesurques, in the days of
the Directory, who was positively identified as having robbed
the Lyons mail and suffered death, protesting his innocence
of the crime, which was afterwards brought home to another
man, Duboscq, and this terrible judicial error proved to be the
result of the extraordinary likeness between the two men.
Another curious case is to be found in American records, when a
man was indicted for bigamy as James Hoag, who averred that
he was really Thomas Parker. There was a marvellous conflict
of testimony, even wives and families and personal friends being
misled, and there was a narrow escape of mis-identification.
The leading modern case in England is that of Adolf Beck (1905).
Beck (who eventually died at the end of 1909) was arrested on
the complaint of a number of women who positively swore to
his identity as Smith, a man who had defrauded them. An
ex-policeman who had originally arrested Smith also swore that
Beck was the same man. There was a grave miscarriage of
justice. Beck was sentenced to penal servitude, and although
a closer examination of the personal marks showed that Beck
could not possibly be Smith, it was only after a scandalous delay,
due to the obstinacy of responsible officials, that relief was
afforded. It has to be admitted that evidence as to identity
based on personal impressions is perhaps of all classes of evidence
the least to be relied upon.
Such elements of uncertainty cannot easily be eliminated
from any system of jurisprudence, but some improvements in
the methods of identification have been introduced in recent
years. The first was in the adoption of anthropometry (?.».),
which was invented by the French savant, A. Bertillon. The
reasons that led to its general supersession may be summed up
in its costliness, the demand for superior skill in subordinate
agents and the liability to errors not easy to trace and correct.
A still more potent reason remained, the comparative failure
of results. It was found in the first four years of its use in England
and Wales that an almost inappreciable number of identifications
were effected by the anthropometric system; namely, 152 in
1898, 243 in 1899, 462 in 1900, and 503 in 1901, the year in
which it was supplemented by the use of " finger prints " (q.v.).
The figures soon increased by leaps and bounds. In 1902 the
total number of searches among the records were 6826 and the
identifications 1722 for. London and the provinces; in 1903
the searches were 11,919, the identifications 3642; for the
first half of 1904 the searches were 6697 and the identifications
2335. In India and some of the colonies the results were still
more remarkable; the recognitions in 1903 were 9512, and
17,289 in 1904. Were returns available from other countries
very similar figures would no doubt be shown. Among these
countries are Ireland, Australasia, Ceylon, South Africa, and many
great cities of the United States; and the system is extending
to Germany, Austria-Hungary and other parts of Europe.
The record of finger prints in England and Wales is kept by
the Metropolitan police at New Scotland Yard. They were at
first limited to persons convicted at courts at quarter sessions
and assizes and to all persons sentenced at minor courts to more
than a month without option of fine for serious offences. The
finger prints when taken by prison warders are forwarded to
London for registration and reference on demand. The total
number of finger-print slips was 70,000 in 1904, and weekly
additions were being made at the rate of 350 slips. The
advantages of the record system need not be emphasized. By
its means identification is prompt, inevitable and absolutely
accurate. By forwarding the finger prints of all remanded
prisoners to New Scotland Yard, their antecedents are established
beyond all hesitation.
In past times identification of criminals who had passed through
the hands of the law was compassed by branding, imprinting
by a hot iron, or tattooing with an indelible sign, such as a crown,
fleur de lys or initials upon the shoulder or other part of the body.
This practice, long since abandoned, was in a measure continued
in the British army, when offenders against military law were
ordered by sentence of court-martial to be marked with " D "
for deserter and " B.C." bad character; this ensured their
recognition and prevented re-enlistment; but all such penalties
have now disappeared. (A. G.)
288
IDEOGRAPH— IDOMENEUS
IDEOGRAPH (Gr. lota, idea, and ypactxtv, to write), a symbol
or character painted, written or inscribed, representing ideas
and not sounds; such a form of writing is found in Chinese
and in most of the Egyptian hieroglyphs (see WRITING).
IDIOBLAST (Gr. Kios, peculiar, and /3XcKrr6s, a shoot), a
botanical term for an individual cell which is distinguished
by its shape, size or contents, such as the stone-cells in the soft
tissue of a pear.
, something peculiar and personal; Mios,
IDIOM (Gr.
one's own, personal), a form of expression whether in words,
grammatical construction, phraseology, &c., which is peculiar
to a language; sometimes also a special variety of a particular
language, a dialect,
IDIOSYNCRASY (Gr. IdioavyKpao-'ta, peculiar habit of body
or temperament; Ktos, one's own, and avyKpacns, blending,
tempering, from (TvyKtpa.vvva6ai, to put together, compound,
mix), a physical or mental condition peculiar to an individual
usually taking the form of a special susceptibility to particular
stimuli; thus it is an idiosyncrasy of one individual that
abnormal sensations of discomfort should be excited by certain
odours or colours, by the presence in the room of a cat, &c.;
similarly certain persons are found to be peculiarly responsive or
irresponsive to the action of particular drugs. The word is also
used, generally, of any eccentricity or peculiarity of character,
appearance, &c.
IDOLATRY, the worship (Gr. \arptia) of idols (Gr. tKuXov),
i.e. images or other objects, believed to represent or be the
abode of a superhuman personality. The term is often used
generically to include such varied forms as litholatry, dendrolatry,
pyrolatry, zoolatry and even necrolatry. In an age when the
study of religion was practically confined to Judaism and
Christianity, idolatry was regarded as a degeneration from an
uncorrupt primeval faith, but the comparative and historical
investigation of religion has shown it to be rather a stage of an
upward movement, and that by no means the earliest. It is
not found, for instance, among Bushmen, Fuegians, Eskimos,
while it reached a high development among the great civiliza-
tions of the ancient world in both hemispheres.1 Its earliest
stages are to be sought in naturism and animism. To give
concreteness to the vague ideas thus worshipped the idol, at
first rough and crude, comes to the help of the savage, and in
course of time through inability to distinguish subjective and
objective, comes to be identified with the idea it originally
symbolized. The degraded form of animism known as fetichism
is usually the direct antecedent of idolatry. A fetich is adored,
not for itself, but for the spirit who dwells in it and works through
it. Fetiches of stone or wood were at a very early age shaped
and polished or coloured and ornamented. A new step was
taken when the top of the log or stone was shaped like a human
head; the rest of the body soon followed. The process can be
followed with some distinctness in Greece. Sometimes, as in
Babylonia and India, the representation combined human and
animal forms, but the human figure is the predominant model;
man makes God after his own image.
Idols may be private and personal like the teraphim of the
Hebrews or the little figures found in early Egyptian tombs,
or — a late development, public and tribal or national. Some,
like the ancestral images among the Maoris, are the intermittent
abodes of the spirits of the dead.
As the earlier stages in the development of the religious con-
sciousness persist and are often manifest in idolatry, so in the
higher stages, when men have attained loftier spiritual ideas,
idolatry itself survives and is abundantly visible as a reactionary
1 According to Varro the Romans had no animal or human image
of a god for 170 years after the founding of the city; Herodotus
(i. I3i)says the Persians had no temples or idols before Artaxerxesl.;
Lucian (De sacrif. 1 1) bears similar testimony for Greece and as to
idols (Dea Syr. 3) for Egypt. Eusebius (Praep. Evang. i. 9) sums
up the theory of antiquity in his statement "the oldest peoples had
no idols." Images of the gods indeed presuppose a denniteness of
conception and powers of discrimination that could only be the result
of history and reflection. The iconic age everywhere succeeded to
an era in which the objects of worship were aniconic, e.g. wooden
posts, stone steles, cones.
tendency. The history of the Jewish people whom the prophets
sought, for long in vain, to wean from worshipping images
is an illustration: so too the vulgarities of modern popular
Hinduism contrasted with the lofty teaching of the Indian
sacred books.
In the New Testament the word «5coXoXarp«ta (idololalria,
afterwards shortened occasionally to eldo\a.Tptia, idolatria)
occurs in all four times, viz. in i Cor. x. 14; Gal. v. 20; i Peter
iv. 3; Col. iii. 5. In the last of these passages it is used to
describe the sin of covetousness or " mammon-worship." In
the other places it indicates with the utmost generality all the
rites and practices of those special forms of paganism with which
Christianity first came into collision. It can only be understood
by reference to the LXX., where aKcoXoy (like the word " idol "
in A.V.) occasionally translates indifferently no fewer than
sixteen words by which in the Old Testament the objects of
what the later Jews called " strange worship " (171 nyiy) are
denoted (see Encyclopaedia Biblica). In the widest acceptation
of the word, idolatry in any form is absolutely forbidden in
the second commandment, which runs " Thou shall not make
unto thee a graven image; [and] to no visible shape in heaven
above, or in the earth beneath, or in the water under the
earth, shall thou bow down or render service " (see DECA-
LOGUE). For some accounl of Ihe queslions connecled with
the breaches of Ihis law which are recorded in the history
of the Israelites see the article JEWS ; those differences
as to Ihe inlerprelation of the prohibilion which have so
seriously divided Christendom are discussed under the head of
ICONOCLASTS. •
In the ancient church, idolatry was naturally reckoned among
Ihose magna crimina or greal crimes againsl Ihe firsl and second
commandmenls which involved the highesl ecclesiastical
censures. Not only were those who had gone openly to heathen
temples and partaken in the sacrifices (sacrificati) or burnt
incense (thurificatf) held guilty of this crime; the same charge,
in various degrees, was incurred by those whose renunciation
of idolatry had been private merely, or who otherwise had used
unworthy means to evade persecution, by those also who had
feigned themselves mad lo avoid sacrificing, by all promolers
and encouragers of idolatrous rites, and by idol makers, incense
sellers and architects or builders of struclures connected wilh
idol worship. Idolatry was made a crime against Ihe slale by
the laws of Constanlius (Cod. Theod. xvi. 10. 4, 6), forbidding
all sacrifices on pain of death, and still more by the stalutes of
Theodosius (Cod. Theod. xvi. 10. 12) enacled in 392, in which
sacrifice and divinalion were declared Ireasonable and punish-
able wilh dealh; the use of lights, incense, garlands and libations
was lo involve Ihe forfeilure of house and land where they were
used; and all who entered heathen temples were to be fined.
See Bingham, Antiqq. bk. xvi. c. 4.
See also IMAGE-WORSHIP; and on the whole question, RELIGION.
IDOMENEUS, in Greek legend, son of Deucalion, grandson
of Minos and Pasiphae, and king of Crete. As a descendant
of Zeus and famous for his beauty, he was one of the suilors of
Helen; hence, afler her abduction by Paris, he took part in the
Trojan War, in which he distinguished himself by his bravery.
He is mentioned as a special favourite of Agamemnon (Iliad,
iv. 257). According to Homer (Odyssey, iii. 191), he returned
home safely with all his counlrymen who had survived Ihe war,
bul later legend connects him with an incidenl similar lo lhat
of Jephlha's daughler. Having been overtaken by a violent
storm, to ensure his safety he vowed to sacrifice to Poseidon the
first living thing thai mel him when he landed on his nalive
shore. This proved lo be his son, whom he slew in accordance
with his vow; whereupon a plague broke out in the island,
and Idomeneus was driven out. He fled to Ihe dislrict of Sal-
lenlum in Calabria, and subsequenlly to Colophon in Asia
Minor, where he setlled near Ihe lemple of Ihe Clarian Apollo
and was buried on Mount Cercaphus (Virgil, Aeneid, iii. 121,
400, 531, and Servius on Ihose passages). Bul Ihe Cretans showed
his grave at Cnossus, where he was worshipped as a hero wilh
Meriones (Died. Sic. v. 79).
IDRIA— IDRISI
289
IDRIA, a mining town in Carniola, Austria, 25 m. W. of
Laibach. Pop. (1900) 5772. It is situated in a narrow Alpine
valley, on the river Idria, an affluent of the Isonzo, and owes
its prosperity to the rich mines of quicksilver which were
accidentally discovered in 1497. Since 1580 they have been
under the management of the government. The mercurial ore lies
in a bed of clay slate, and is found both mingled with schist
and in the form of cinnabar. A special excellence of the ore
is the greatness of the yield of pure metal compared with the
amount of the refuse. As regards the quantity annually ex-
tracted, the mines of Idria rank second to those of Almaden in
Spain, which are the richest in the world.
IDRIALIN, a mineral wax accompanying the mercury ore in
Idria. According to Goldschmidt it can be extracted by means
of xylol, amyl alcohol or turpentine; also without decomposi-
tion, by distillation in a current of hydrogen, or carbon dioxide.
It is a white crystalline body, very difficultly fusible, boiling
above 440° C. (824° F.), of the composition C^oH^O. Its solution
in glacial acetic acid, by oxidation with chromic acid, yielded
a red powdery solid and a fatty acid fusing at 62° C., and
exhibiting all the characters of a mixture of palmitic and
stearic acids.
IDRISI, or EDRISI [Abu Abdallah Mahommed Ibn Mahommed
Ibn Abdallah Ibn Idrisi, c. A.D. 1090-1154], Arabic geographer.
Very little is known of his life. Having left Islamic lands and
become the courtier and panegyrist of a Christian prince, though
himself a descendant of the Prophet, he was probably regarded
by strict Moslems as a scandal, whose name should not, if
possible, be mentioned. His great-grandfather, Idrisi II.,
" Biamrillah," a member of the great princely house which had
reigned for a time as caliphs in north-west Africa, was prince
of Malaga, and likewise laid claim to the supreme title (Com-
mander of the Faithful). After his death in 1055, Malaga was
seized by Granada (1057), and the Idrisi family then probably
migrated to Ceuta, where a freedman of theirs held power. Here
the geographer appeals to have been born in A.H. 493 (A.D. 1099).
He is said to have studied at Cordova, and this tradition is con-
firmed by his elaborate and enthusiastic description of that
city in his geography. From this work we know that he had
visited, at some period of his life before A.D. 1154, both Lisbon
and the mines of Andalusia. He had also once resided near
Morocco city, and once was at (Algerian) Constantine. More
precisely, he tells us that in A.D. 1117 he went to see the cave
of the Seven Sleepers at Ephesus; he probably travelled ex-
tensively in Asia Minor. From doubtful readings in his text
some have inferred that he had seen part of the coasts of France
and England. We do not know when Roger II. of Sicily (noi-
1154) invited him to his court, but it must have been between
1125 and 1150. Idrisi made for the Norman king a celestial
sphere and a disk representing the known world of his day —
both in silver. These only absorbed one-third of the metal
that had been given him for the work, but Roger bestowed on
him the remaining two-thirds as a present, adding to this 100,000
pieces of money and the cargo of a richly-laden ship from
Barcelona. Roger next enlisted Idrisi's services in the compila-
tion of a fresh description of the " inhabited earth " from
observation, and not merely from books. The king and his
geographer chose emissaries whom they sent out into various
countries to observe, record and design; as they returned,
Idrisi . inserted in the new geography the information they
brought. Thus was gradually completed (by the month of
Shawwal, A.H. 548 = mid- January, A.D. 1154), the famous work,
best known, from its patron and originator, as Al Rojari, but
whose fullest title seems to have been, The going out of a Curious
Man to explore the Regions of the Globe, its Provinces, Islands,
Cities and their Dimensions and Situation. This has been
abbreviated to The Amusement of him who desires to traverse
the Earth, or The Relaxation of a Curious Mind. The title of
Nubian Geography, based upon Sionita and Hezronita's mis-
reading of a passage relating to Nubia and the Nile, is entirely
unwarranted and misleading. The Rogerian Treatise contains
a full description of the world as far as_it was known to the
XIV. 10
author. The " inhabited earth "is divided into seven " climates,"
beginning at the equinoctial line, and extending northwards
to the limit at which the earth was supposed to be rendered
uninhabitable by cold. Each climate is then divided by per-
pendicular lines into eleven equal parts, beginning with the
western coast of Africa and ending with the eastern coast of
Asia. The whole world is thus formed into seventy-seven equal
square compartments. The geographer begins with the first
part of the first climate, including the westernmost part of the
Sahara and a small (north-westerly) section of the Sudan (of
which a vague knowledge had now been acquired by the Moslems
of Barbary), and thence proceeds eastward through the different
divisions of this climate till he finds its termination in the Sea
of China. He then returns to the first part of the second climate,
and so proceeds till he reaches the eleventh part of the seventh
climate, which terminates in north-east Asia, as he conceives
that continent. The inconveniences of the arrangement (ignoring
all divisions, physical, political, linguistic or religious, which
did not coincide with those of his "climates") are obvious.
Though Idrisi was in such close relations with one of the
most civilized of Christian courts and states, we find few traces
of his influence on European thought and knowledge. The chief
exception is perhaps in the delineation of Africa in the world-
maps of Marino Sanuto (q.v.) and Pietro Vesconte. His account
of the voyage of the Maghrurin or " Deceived Men " of Lisbon
in the Atlantic (a voyage on which they seem to have visited
Madeira and one of the Canaries) may have had some effect in
stimulating the later ocean enterprise of Christian mariners; but
we have no direct evidence of this. Idrisi's Ptolemaic leanings
give a distinctly retrograde character to certain parts of his
work, such as east Africa and south Asia; and, in spite of the
record of the Lisbon Wanderers, he fully shares the common
Moslem dread of the black, viscous, stormy and wind-swept
waters of the western ocean, whose limits no one knew, and over
which thick and perpetual darkness brooded. At the same time
his breadth of view, his clear recognition of scientific truths
(such as the roundness of the world) and his wide knowledge
and intelligent application of preceding work (such as that of
Ptolemy, Masudi and Al Jayhani) must not be forgotten. He
also preserves and embodies a considerable amount of private
and special information — especially as to Scandinavia (in whose
delineation he far surpasses his predecessors), portions of the
African coast, the river Niger (whose name is perhaps first to
be found, after Ptolemy's doubtful Nigeir, in Idrisi), portions
of the African coast, Egypt, Syria, Italy, France, the Adriatic
shore-lands, Germany and the Atlantic islands. No other
Arabic work contains a larger assortment of valuable geographical
facts; unfortunately the place-names are often illegible or hope-
lessly corrupted in the manuscripts. Idrisi's world-map, with
all its shortcomings, is perhaps the best product of that strangely
feeble thing — the Mahommedan cartography of the middle ages.
Besides the Rojari, Idrisi wrote another work, largely geo-
graphical, cited by Abulfida as The Book of Kingdoms, but
apparently entitled by its author The Gardens of Humanity
arid the Amusement of the Soul. This was composed for William
the Bad (1154-1166), son and successor of Roger II., but is
now lost. He likewise wrote, according to Ibn Said, on Medica-
ments, and composed verses, which are referred to by the Sicilian
Mahommedan poet Ibn Bashrun.
Two manuscripts of Idrisi exist in the BibliothSque Nationale,
Paris, and other two in the Bodleian Library, Oxford. One of the
English MSS.,broughtfrom Egypt byGreaves, is illustrated by a map
of the known world, and by thirty-three sectional maps (for each
part of the first three climates). The second manuscript, brought
by Pococke from Syria, bears the date of A.H. 906, or A.D. 1500.
It consists of 320 leaves, and is illustrated by one general and seventy-
seven particular maps, the latter consequently including all the parts
of every climate. The general map was published by Dr Vincent in
his Periplus of the Erythraean Sea. A copy of Idrisi's work in the
Escorial was destroyed by the fire of 1671.
An epitome of Idrisi's geography, in the original Arabic, was
printed, with many errors, in 1592 at the Medicean press in Rome,
from a MS. preserved in the Grand Ducal library at Florence
(De geo$raphia universali. Hortulus cultissimus . . . ). Even the
description of Mecca is here omitted. Pococke supplied it from
290
IDUMAEA
his MS. In many bibliographical works this impression has been
wrongly characterized as one of the rarest of books. In 1619 two
Maronite scholars, Gabriel Sionita and Joannes Hezronita, published
at Paris a Latin translation of this epitome (Geographic, Nubiensis,
id est, accuratissima totius orbis in VII. climata divisi descriptio).
Besides its many inaccuracies of detail, this edition, by its unlucky
title of Nubian Geography, started a fresh and fundamental error
as to Idrisi's origin ; this was founded on a misreading of a passage
where Idrisi describes the Nile passing into Egypt through Nubia—
not " terram nostrum" as this version gives, but " terrain illius "
is here the true translation. George Hieronymus Velschius, a
German scholar, had prepared a copy of the Arabic original, with
a Latin translation, which he purposed to have illustrated with notes ;
but death interrupted this design, and his manuscript remains in
the university library of Jena. Casiri (Bib. Ar. Hisp. ii. 13) mentions
that he had determined to re-edit this work, but he appears never
to have executed his intention. The part relating to Africa was
ably edited by Johann Melchior Hartmann (Commentatio de geo-
graphia Africae Edrisiana, Gottingen, 1791, and Edrisii Africa,
Gottingen, 1796). Here are collected the notices of each region
in other Moslem writers, so as to form, for the time, a fairly complete
' body of Arabic geography as to Africa. Hartmann afterwards
published Idrisi's Spain (Hispania, Marburg, 3 vols., 1802-1818).
An (indifferent) French translation of the whole of Idrisi's
geography (the only complete version which has yet appeared),
based on one of the MSS. of the Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris, was
published by Amedee Jaubert in 1836-1840, and forms volumes
v. and vi. of the Recueil de voyages issued by the Paris Societd de
Geographic; but a good and complete edition of the original text is
still a desideratum. A number of Oriental scholars at Leiden deter-
mined in 1861 to undertake the task. Spain and western Europe
were assigned to Dozy; eastern Europe and western Asia to Engel-
mann; central and eastern Asia to Defremery; and Africa to
de Goeje. The first portion of the work appeared in 1866, under the
title of Description de I'Afrique et de VEspagne par Edrisi, texte arabe,
publie avec une traduction, des notes et un glossaire par R. Dozy et
M. J. de Goeje (Leiden, E. J. Brill, 1866); but the other collaborators
did not furnish their quota. Other parts of Idrisi's work have been
separately edited; e.g. "Spain" (Descripcion de Espana de . . .
Aledris), by J. A. Cond6, in Arabic and Spanish (Madrid, 1799);
" Sicily " (Descrizione della Sicilia . . . di Elidris), by P. D. Magri
and F. Tardia (Palermo, 1764); " Italy " (Italia descritta net " libra
delReRuggero," c0mpitood<jEdmz'),byM.AmariandC.Schiapa.relli,
in Arabic and Italian (Rome, 1883); "Syria" (Syria descripta a
. . . El Edrisio . . . ), by E. F. C. Rosenmiiller, in Arabic and Latin,
1825, and (Idrisii . . . Syria), by J. Gildemeister (Bonn, 1885)
(the last a Beilage to vol. viii. of the Zeitschrift d. deutsch. Palastina-
Vereins). See also M. Casiri, Bibliolheca Arabico-Hispana Escuria-
lensis (2 vols., Madrid, 1760-1770); V. Lagus, " Idrisii notitiam
terrarum Balticarum ex commerciis Scandinavorum et Italorum
. . . prtam esse " in Atti del IV Congresso internaz. degli orientalist!
in Firenze, p. 395 (Florence, 1880); R. A. Brandel " Om och ur den
arabiske geografen Idrisi," Akad. afhand. (Upsala, 1894). (C. R. B.)
IDUMAEA ('ISovnaia), the Greek equivalent of Edom (ch*),
a territory which, in the works of the Biblical writers, is considered
to lie S.E. of the Dead Sea, between the land of Moab and the
Gulf of Akaba. Its name, which is connected with the root
meaning " red," is probably applied in reference to the red
sandstone ranges of the mountains of Petra.1 This etymology,
however, is not certain. The apparently theophorous name
Obed-Edom (2 Sam. vi. 10) shows that Edom is the name of a
divinity. Of this there is other evidence; a Leiden papyrus
names Etum as the wife of the Semitic fire-god Reshpu.
The early history of Edom is hidden in darkness. The
Egyptian references to it are few, and do not give us much
light regarding its early inhabitants. In the early records of
the Pentateuch, the country is often referred to by the name
of Seir, the general name for the whole range of mountains on
the east side of the Jordan-Araba depression south of the Dead
Sea. These mountains were occupied, so early as we can find
any record, by a cave-dwelling aboriginal race known as Horites,
who were smitten by the much-discussed king Chedorlaomer
(Gen. xiv. 6) and according to Deut. ii. 22 were driven out by
the Semitic tribes of Esau's descendants. The Horites are to
us little more than a name, though the discovery of cave-dwellers
of very early date at Gezer in the excavations of 1902-1905 has
enabled us to form some idea as to their probable culture-status
and physical character.
The occupants of Edom during practically the whole period
of Biblical history were the Bedouin tribes which claimed
1 A curious etymological speculation connects the name with the
story of Esau's begging for Jacob's pottage, Gen. xxv. 30.
descent through Esau from Abraham, and were acknowledged
by the Israelites (Deut. xxiii. 7) as kin. That they intermarried
with the earlier stock is suggested by the passage in Gen.
xxxvi. 2, naming, as one of the wives of Esau, Oholibamah,
daughter of Zibeon the Horite (corrected by verse 20). Among
the peculiarities of the Edomites was government by certain
officials known as o'&tf,2 which the English versions (by
too close a reminiscence of the Vulgate duces) translate " dukes."
The now naturalized word " sheikhs " would be the exact render-
ing. In addition to this Bedouin organization there was the
curious institution of an elective monarchy, some of whose kings
are catalogued in Gen. xxxvi. 31-39 and i Chron. i. 43-54. These
kings reigned at some date anterior to the time of Saul. No
deductions as to their chronology can be based on the silence
regarding them in Moses' song, Exodus xv. 15. There was a
king in Edom (Num. xx. 14) who refused passage to the Israelites
in their wanderings.
The history of the relations of the Edomites and Israelites
may be briefly summarized. Saul, whose chief herdsman,
Doeg, was an Edomite (i Sam.xxi. 7), fought successfully against
them (i Sam. xiv. 47). Joab (i Kings xi. 16) or Abishai, as his
deputy (i Chron. xviii. ii, 13), occupied Edom for six months and
devastated it; it was garrisoned and permanently held by David
(2 Sam. viii. 14). But a refugee named Hadad, who escaped
as a child to Egypt and grew up at the court of the Egyptian
king, returned in Solomon's reign and made a series of reprisal
raids on the Israelite territory (i Kings xi. 14). This did not
prevent Solomon introducing Edctnites into his harem (i Kings
xi. i) and maintaining a navy at Ezion-geber, at the head of
the Gulf of Akaba (i Kings ix. 26). Indeed, until the time of
Jehoram, when the land revolted (2 Kings viii. 20, 22), Edom
was a dependency of Judah, ruled by a viceroy (i Kings xxii.
47). An attempt at recovering their independence was tempor-
arily quelled in a campaign by Amaziah (2 Kings xiv. 7), and
Azariah his successor was able to renew the sea trade of the Gulf
of Akaba (2 Kings xiv. 22) which had probably languished since
the wreck of Jehoshaphat's ships (i Kings xxii, 48); but the
ancient kingdom had been re-established by the time of Ahaz,
and the king's name, Kaush-Malak, is recorded by Tiglath
Pileser. He made raids on the territory of Judah (2 Chron.
xxviii. 17). The kingdom, however, was short-lived, and it was
soon absorbed into the vassalage of Assyria.
The later history of Edom is curious. By the constant west-
ward pressure of the eastern Arabs, which (after the restraining
force of the great Mesopotamian kingdoms was weakened)
assumed irresistible strength, the ancient Edomites were forced
across the Jordan-Araba depression, and with their name
migrated to the south of western Palestine. In i Maccabees
v. 65 we find them at Hebron, and this is one of the first indica-
tions that we discover of the cis-Jordanic Idumaea of Josephus
and the Talmud.
Josephus used the name Idumaea as including not only
Gobalitis, the original Mount Seir, but also Amalekitis, the land
of Amalek, west of this, and Akrabatine, the ancient Acrabbim,
S.W. of the Dead Sea. In War IV. viii. i, he mentions two
villages " in the very midst of Idumaea," named Betaris and
Caphartobas. The first of these is the modern Beit Jibrin
(see ELEUTHEROPOLIS), the second is Tuffuh, near Hebron.
Jerome describes Idumaea as extending from Beit Jibrin to
Petra, and ascribes the great caves at the former place to .cave-
dwellers like the aboriginal Horites. Ptolemy's account presents
us with the last stage, in which the name Idumaea is entirely
restricted to the cis-Jordanic district, and the old trans-Jordanic
region is absorbed in Arabia.
The Idumaean Antipater was appointed by Julius Caesar
procurator of Judaea, Samaria and Galilee, as a reward for
services rendered against Pompey. He was the father of Herocl
the Great, whose family thus was Idumaean in origin. (Set
PALESTINE.) (R. A. S. M.)
* The same word is used in the anonymous prophecy incorporated
in the book of Zachariah (xii. 5), and in one or two other places as
well, of Hebrew leaders.
IDUN— IGLAU
291
IDUN, or IDUNA, in Scandinavian mythology, the goddess
of youth and spring. She was daughter of the dwarf Svald and
wife of Bragi. She was keeper of the golden apples, the eating
of which preserved to the gods their eternal youth. Loki,
the evil spirit, kidnapped her and the apples, but was forced
by the gods to restore her liberty. Idun personifies the year
between March and September, and her myth represents the
annual imprisonment of spring by winter.
IDYL, or IDYLL (Gr. tldvbXiov, a descriptive piece, from eMos,
a shape or style; Lat. idyllium), a short poem of a pastoral
or rural character, in which something of the element of land-
scape is preserved or felt. The earliest commentators of anti-
quity used the term to designate a great variety of brief and
homely poems, in which the description of natural objects was
introduced, but the pastoral idea came into existence in con-
nexion with the Alexandrian school, and particularly with Theo-
critus, Bion and Moschus, in the 3rd century before Christ.
It appears, however, that tldv\\u>v was not, even then, used
consciously as the name of a form of verse, but as a diminutive
of eKos, and merely signified " a little piece in the style of "
whatever adjective might follow. Thus the idyls of the pastoral
poets were «i56XXta cuiroXtKa, little pieces in the goatherd
style. We possess ten of the so-called " Idyls " of Theocritus,
and these are the type from which the popular idea of this kind
of poem is taken. But it is observable that there is nothing in
the technical character of these ten very diverse pieces which
leads us to suppose that the poet intended them to be regarded as
typical. In fact, if he had been asked whether a poem was or
was not an idyl he would doubtless have been unable to com-
prehend the question. As a matter of fact, the first of his
poems, the celebrated " Dirge for Daphnis, " has become the
prototype, not of the modern idyl, but of the modern elegy,
and the not less famous " Festival of Adonis " is a realistic
mime. It was the six little epical romances, if they may be so
called, which started the conception of the idyl of Theocritus.
It must be remembered, however, that there is nothing in
ancient literature which justifies the notion of a form of verse
recognized as an " idyl." In the 4th century after Christ
the word seems to have become accepted in Latin as covering
short descriptive poems of very diverse characters, for the
early MSS. of Ausonius contain a section of " Edyllia," which
embraces some of the most admirable of the miscellaneous
pieces of that writer. But that Ausonius himself called his
poems " idyls " is highly doubtful. Indeed, it is not certain
that the heading is not a mistake for " Epyllia." The word
was revived at the Renaissance and applied rather vaguely
to Latin and Greek imitations of Theocritus and of Virgil. It
was also applied to modern poems of a romantic and pastoral
character published by such writers as Tasso in Italy, Monte-
mayor in Portugal and Ronsard in French. In 1658 the English
critic, Edward Phillips, defined an " idyl " as " a kind of
eclogue," but it was seldom used to describe a modern poem.
Mme Deshoulieres published a series of seven Idylles in 1675,
and Boileau makes a vague reference to the form. The senti-
mental German idyls of Salomon Gessner (in prose, 1758) and
Voss (in hexameters, 1800) were modelled on Theocritus.
Goethe's Alexis und Dora is an idyl. It appears that the very
general use, or abuse, of the word in the second half of the
igth century, both in English and French, arises from the
popularity of two works, curiously enough almost identical in
date, by two eminent and popular poets. The Idylles hero'iques
(1858) of Victor de Laprade and the Idylls of the King
(1859) of Tennyson enjoyed a success in either country which
led to a wide imitation of the title among those who had,
perhaps, a very inexact idea of its meaning. Among modern
Germans, Berthold Auerbach and Jeremias Gotthelf have been
prominent as the composers of sentimental idyls founded on
anecdotes of village-life. On the whole, it is impossible to admit
that the idyl has a place among definite literary forms. Its
character is vague and has often been purely sentimental, and
our conception of it is further obscured by the fact that though
the noun carries no bucolic idea with it in English, the adjective
("idyllic ") has come to be synonymous with pastoral and
rustic. (E. G.)
IFFLAND, AUGUST WILHELM (1759-1814), German actor
and dramatic author, was born at Hanover on the fcjth of April
1759. His father intended his son to be a clergyman, but the
boy preferred the stage, and at eighteen ran away to Gotha
in order to prepare himself for a theatrical career. He was
fortunate enough to receive instruction from Hans Ekhof, and
made such rapid progress that he was able in 1779 to accept
an engagement at the theatre in Mannheim, then rising into
prominence. He soon stood high in his profession, and extended
his reputation by frequently playing in other towns. In 1796
he settled in Berlin, where he became director of the national
theatre of Prussia; and in 181! he was made general director
of all representations before royalty. Iffland produced the
classical works of Goethe and Schiller with conscientious care;
but he had little understanding for the drama of the romantic
writers. The form of play in which he was most at home, both
as actor and playwright, was the domestic drama, the sentimental
play of everyday life. His works are almost entirely destitute
of imagination; but they display a thorough mastery of the
technical necessities of the stage, and a remarkable power of
devising effective situations. His best characters are simple
and natural, fond of domestic life, but too much given to the
utterance of sentimental commonplace. His best-known plays
are Die J tiger, Dienstpflicht, Die Advokaten, Die Miindel and
Die Hagestolzen. Iffland was also a dramatic critic, and German
actors place high value on the reasonings and hints respecting
their art in his Almanack fur Theater und Theaterfreunde. In
1798-1802 he issued his DramatischenWerke'm 16 volumes, to
which he added an autobiography (Meine Iheatralische Laufbahn).
In 1807-1809 Iffland brought out two volumes of Neue drama-
tische Werke. Selections from his writings were afterwards
published, one in n (Leipzig, 1827-1828), the other in 10 volumes
(Leipzig, 1844, and again 1860). As an actor, he was conspicuous
for his brilliant portrayal of comedy parts. His fine gentlemen,
polished men of the world, and distinguished princes were
models of perfection, and showed none of the traces of elaborate
study which were noticed in his interpretation of tragedy.
He especially excelled in presenting those types of middle-class
life which appear in his own comedies. Iffland died at Berlin
on the 22nd of September 1814. A bronze portrait statue of
him was erected in front of the Mannheim theatre in 1864.
See K. Duncker, Iffland in seinen Schriften als Kiinstler, Lehrer,
und Direktor der Berliner Buhne (1859); W. Koffka, Iffland und
Dalberg (1865); and Lampe, Studien uber Iffland ah Dramatiker
(Celle, 1899). Iffland's interesting autobiography, Meine theatra-
lische Laujbahn, was republished by H. Holstein in 1885.
IGLAU (Czech Jihlava), a town of Austria, in Moravia,
56 m. N.W. of Brunn by rail. Pop. (1900) 24,387, of whom
4200 are Czechs and the remainder Germans. Iglau is situated
on the Iglawa, close to the Bohemian frontier, and is one of the
oldest towns in Moravia, being the centre of a German-speaking
enclave. Among the principal buildings are the churches of St
Jakob, St Ignatius, St John and St Paul, the town-hall, and the
barracks formed from a monastery suppressed under the emperor
Joseph II. There is also a fine cemetery, containing some
remarkable monuments. It has the principal tobacco and cigar
factory of the state monopoly, which employs about 2500 hands,
and has besides a large and important textile and glass industry,
corn and saw-mills, pottery and brewing. Fairs are periodically
held in the town; and the trade in timber, cereals, and linen and
woollen goods is generally brisk.
Iglau is an old mining town where, according to legend, the
silver mines were worked so early as 799. King Ottakar I.
(1198-1230) established here a mining-office and a mint. At a
very early date it enjoyed exceptional privileges, which were
confirmed by King Wenceslaus I. in the year 1250. The town-
hall contains a collection of municipal and mining laws dating
asfarbackasisSg. At Iglau, on the sth of July 1436, the treaty was
made with the Hussites, by which the emperor Sigismund was
acknowledged king of Bohemia. A granite column near the
292
IGLESIAS— IGNATIUS
town marks the spot where Ferdinand I., in 1527, swore fidelity
to the Bohemian states. During the Thirty Years' War Iglau was
twice captured by the Swedes. In 1742 it fell into the hands of
the Prussians, and in December 1805 the Bavarians under
Wrede were defeated near the town.
IGLESIAS, a town and episcopal see of Sardinia in the province
of Cagliari, from which it is 34 m. W.N.W. by rail, 620 ft. above
sea-level. Pop. (1901) 10,436 (town), 20,874 (commune). It
is finely situated among the mountains in the S.W. portion
of the island, and is chiefly important as the centre of a mining
district; it has a government school for mining engineers.
The minerals are conveyed by a small railway via Monteponi
(with its large lead and zinc mine) to Portovesme (15 m. S.W.
of Iglesias in the sheltered gulf of Carloforte), near Portoscuso,
where they are shipped. The total amount of the minerals
extracted in Sardinia in 1905 was 170,236 tons and their value
£765,054 (chiefly consisting of 99,749 tons of calamine zinc,
26,051 of blende zinc, 24,798 tons of lead and 15,429 tons of
lignite): the greater part of them — 118,009 tons — was exported
from Portoscuso by sea and most of the rest from Cagliari, the
zinc going mainly to Antwerp, and in a less proportion to
Bordeaux and Dunkirk, while the lead is sent to Pertusola
near Spezia, to be smelted. At Portoscuso is also a tunny
fishery.
The cathedral of Iglesias, built by the Pisans, has a good
facade (restored); the interior is late Spanish Gothic. San
Francesco is a fine Gothic church with a gallery over the entrance,
while Sta Chiara and the church of the Capuchins (the former
dating from 1285) show a transition between Romanesque and
Gothic. The battlemented town walls are well preserved and
picturesque; the castle, built in 1325, now contains a glass
factory. The church of Nostra Signora del Buon Cammino
above the town (1080 ft.) commands a fine view.
IGNATIEV, NICHOLAS PAVLOVICH, COUNT (1832-1908),
Russian diplomatist, was born at St Petersburg on the 2gth of
January 1832. His father, Captain Paul Ignatiev, had been
taken into favour by the tsar Nicholas I., owing to his fidelity
on the occasion of the military conspiracy in 1825; and the
grand duke Alexander (afterwards tsar) stood sponsor at the
boy's baptism. At the age of seventeen he became an officer
of the Guards. His diplomatic career began at the congress
of Paris, after the Crimean War, where he took an active part
as military attache in the negotiations regarding the rectification
of the Russian frontier on the Lower Danube. Two years
later (1858) he was sent with a small escort on a dangerous
mission to Khiva and Bokhara. The khan of Khiva laid a plan
for detaining him as a hostage, but he eluded the danger and
returned safely, after concluding with the khan of Bokhara a
treaty of friendship. His next diplomatic exploit was in the
Far East, as plenipotentiary to the court of Peking. When the
Chinese government was terrified by the advance of the Anglo-
French expedition of 1860 and the burning of the Summer
Palace, he worked on their fears so dexterously that he obtained
for Russia not only the left bank of the Amur, the original
object of the mission, but also a large extent of territory and
sea-coast south of that river. This success was supposed to
prove his capacity for dealing with Orientals, and paved his way
to the post of ambassador at Constantinople, which he occupied
from 1864 till 1877. Here his chief aim was to liberate from
Turkish domination and bring under the influence of Russia
the Christian nationalities in general and the Bulgarians in
particular. His restless activity in this field, mostly of a semi-
official and secret character, culminated in the Russo-Turkish
war of 1877-1878, at the close of which he negotiated with the
Turkish plenipotentiaries the treaty of San Stefano. As the
war which he had done so much to bring about did not eventually
secure for Russia advantages commensurate with the sacrifices
involved, he fell into disfavour, and retired from active service.
Shortly after the accession of Alexander III. in 1881, he was
appointed minister of the interior on the understanding that he
would carry out a nationalist, reactionary policy, but his shifty
ways and his administrative incapacity so displeased his imperial
master that he was dismissed in the following year. After that
time he exercised no important influence in public affairs. He
died on the 3rd of July 1908.
IGNATIUS ('I-yva.Tios') , bishop of Antioch, one of the " Apos-
tolic Fathers." No one connected with the history of the early
Christian Church is more famous than Ignatius, and yet among
the leading churchmen of the time there is scarcely one about
whose career we know so little. Our only trustworthy infor-
mation is derived from the letters which he wrote to various
churches on his last journey from Antioch to Rome, and from
the short epistle of Polycarp to the Philippians. The earlier
patristic writers seem to have known no more than we do.
Irenaeus, for instance, gives a quotation from his Epistle to
the Romans and does not appear to know (or if he- knew he
has forgotten) the name of the author, since he describes him
(Adv. haer. v. 28. 4) as " one of those belonging to us " (TIS rSiv
rinerepuv). If Eusebius possessed any knowledge about Ignatius
apart from the letters he never reveals it. The only shred of
extra information which he gives us is the statement that
Ignatius " was the second successor of Peter in the bishopric
of Antioch " (Eccles. hist. iii. 36). Of course in later times
a cloud of tradition arose, but none of it bears the least evidence
of trustworthiness. The martyrologies, from which the account
of his martyrdom that used to appear in uncritical church
histories is taken, are full of anachronisms and impossibilities.
There are two main types — the Roman and the Syrian — out
of which the others are compounded. They contradict each
other in many points and even their own statements in different
places are sometimes quite irreconcilable. Any truth that
the narrative may contain is hopelessly overlaid with fiction.
We are therefore limited to the Epistles for our information,
and before'we can use even these we are confronted with a most
complex critical problem, a problem which for ages aroused
the most bitter controversy, but which happily now, thanks
to the labours of Zahn, Lightfoot, Harnack and Funk, may be
said to have reached a satisfactory solution.
I. The Problem of the Three Recensions. — The Ignatian
problem arises from the fact that we possess three different
recensions of the Epistles, (a) The short recension (often called
the Vossian) contains the letters to the Ephesians, Magnesians,
Trallians, Romans, Philadelphians, Smyrnaeans and to Poly-
carp. This recension was derived in its Greek form from the
famous Medicean MS. at Florence and first published by Vossius
in 1646 (see Theol. Lileraturzeilung, 1906, 596 f., for an early
papyrus fragment in the Berlin Museum, containing Ad Smyrn.
in. fin. xii. init.). In the Medicean MS. the Epistle to the Romans
is missing, but a Greek version of this epistle was discovered
by Ruinart, embedded in a martyrium, in the National Library
at Paris and published in 1689. There are also (i) a Latin
version made by Robert Grosseteste, bishop of Lincoln, about
1250, and published by Ussher in 1644 — two years before the
Vossian edition appeared; (2) an Armenian version which
was derived from a Syriac not earlier than the 5th century
and published at Constantinople in 1783; (3) some fragments
of a Syriac version published in Cureton's edition of Ignatius;
(4) fragments of a Coptic version first published in Lightfoot's
work (ii. 859-882). (b) The long recension contains the seven
Epistles mentioned above in an expanded form and several
additional letters besides. The Greek form of the recension,
which has been preserved in ten MSS., has thirteen letters,
the additional ones being to the Tarsians, the Philippians,
the Antiochians, to Hero, to Mary of Cassobola and a letter
of Mary to Ignatius. The Latin form, of which there are thirteen
extant MSS., omits the letter of Mary of Cassobola, but adds
to the list the Laus Heronis, two Epistles to the apostle John,
one to the Virgin Mary and one from Mary to Ignatius, (c) The
Syriac or Curetonian recension contains only three Epistles,
viz. to Polycarp, to the Romans, and to the Ephesians, and
these when compared with the same letters in the short and
long recensions are found to be considerably abbreviated. The
Syriac recension was made by William Cureton in 1845 from
three Syriac MSS. which had recently been brought from the
IGNATIUS
293
Nitrian desert and deposited in the British Museum. One
of these MSS. belongs to the 6th century, the other two are
later. Summed up in a word, therefore, the Ignatian problem
is this: which of these three recensions (if any) represents the
actual work of Ignatius ?
II. History of the Controversy. — The history of the controversy
may be divided into three periods: (a) up to the discovery
of the short recension in 1646; (b) between 1646 and the dis-
covery of the Syriac recension in 1845; (c) from 1845 to the
present day. In the first stage the controversy was theological
rather than critical. The Reformation raised the question as
to the authority of the papacy and the hierarchy. Roman
Catholic scholars used the interpolated Ignatian Epistles very
freely in their defence and derived many of their arguments
from them, while Protestant scholars threw discredit on these
Epistles. The Magdeburg centuriators expressed the gravest
doubts as to their genuineness, and Calvin declared that " nothing
was more foul than those fairy tales (naeniis) published under
the name of Ignatius!" It should be stated, however, that
one Rornan Catholic scholar, Denys Petau (Petavius), admitted
that the letters were interpolated, while the Protestant Vedelius
acknowledged the seven letters mentioned by Eusebius. In
England the Ignatian Epistles took an important place in the
episcopalian controversy in the I7th century. Their genuineness
was defended by the leading Anglican writers, e.g. Whitgift,
Hooker and Andrewes, and vigorously challenged by Dissenters,
e.g. the five Presbyterian ministers who wrote under the name
of Smectymnuus and John Milton.1 The second period is
marked by the recognition of the superiority of the Vossian
recension. This was speedily demonstrated, though some
attempts were made, notably by Jean Morin or Morinus (about
1656), Whiston (in 1711) and Meier (in 1836), to resuscitate
the long recension. Many Protestants still maintained that
the new recension, like the old, was a forgery. The chief attack
came from Jean Daille, who in his famous work (1666) drew up
no fewer than sixty-six objections to the genuineness of the
Ignatian literature. He was answered by Pearson, who in his
Vittdiciae epistolarum S. Ignatii (1672) completely vindicated
the authenticity of the Vossian Epistles. No further attack
of any importance was made till the time of Baur, who like
Daille rejected both recensions. In the third stage — inaugurated
in 1845 by Cureton's work — the controversy has ranged round
the relative claims of the Vossian and the Curetonian recensions.
Scholars have been divided into three camps, viz. (i) those
who followed Cureton in maintaining that the three Syriac
Epistles alone were the genuine work of Ignatius. Among
them may be mentioned the names of Bunsen, A. Ritschl,
R. A. Lipsius, E. de Pressense, H. Ewald, Milman, Bohringer.
(2) Those who accepted the genuineness of the Vossian recension
and regarded the Curetonian as an abbreviation of it, e.g.
Petermann, Denzinger, Uhlhorn, Merx, and in more recent times
Th. Zahn, J. B. Lightfoot, Ad. Harnack and F. X. Funk. (3)
Those who denied the authenticity of both recensions, e.g. Baur
and Hilgenfeld and in recent times van Manen,2 Volter3 and
van Loon.4 The result of more than half a century's discussion
has been to restore the Vossian recension to the premier position.
III. The Origin of the Long Recension. — The arguments
against the genuineness of the long recension are decisive,
(i) It conflicts with the statement of Eusebius. (2) The first
trace of its use occurs in Anastasius of Antioch (A.D. 598) and
Stephen Gobarus (c. 575-600). (3) The ecclesiastical system
of the letters implies a date not earlier than the 4th century.
(4) The recension has been proved to be dependent on the
Apostolical Constitutions. (5) The doctrinal atmosphere implies
the existence of Arian and Apollinarian heresies. (6) The
added passages reveal a difference in style which stamps them
at once as interpolations. There are several different theories
1 In his short treatise " Of Prelatical Episcopacy," works iii.
p. 72 (Pickering, 1851).
2 Theologisch. Tijdschrift (1892), 625-633.
3 Ib. (1886) 114-136; Die Ignatianischen Briefe (1892).
4 76. (1893)275-316.
with regard to the origin of the recension. Some, e.g. Leclerc,
Newman and Zahn, think that the writer was an Arian and that
the additions were made in the interest of Arianism. Funk,
on the other hand, regards the writer as an Apollinarian. Light-
foot opposes both views and suggests that it is better " to con-
ceive of him as writing with a conciliatory aim."
IV. The Objections to the Curetonian Recension. — The objections
to the Syriac recension, though not so decisive, are strong
enough to carry conviction with them, (i) We have the express
statement of Eusebius that Ignatius wrote seven Epistles.
(2) There are statements in Polycarp's Epistle which cannot
be explained from the three Syriac Epistles. (3) The omitted
portions are proved by Lightfoot after an elaborate analysis to
be written in the same style as the rest of the epistles and could
not therefore have been later interpolations. (4) The Cure-
tonian letters are often abrupt and broken and show signs of
abridgment. (5) The discovery of the Armenian version proves
the existence of an earlier Syriac recension corresponding to
the Vossian of which the Curetonian may be an abbreviation.
It seems impossible to account for the origin of the Curetonian
recension on theological grounds. The theory that the abridg-
ment was made in the interests of Eutychianism or Mono-
physitism cannot be substantiated.
V. The Date and Genuineness of the Vossian Epistles. — We are
left therefore with the seven Epistles. Are they the genuine
work of Ignatius, and, if so, at what date were they written?
The main objections are as follows: (i) The conveyance of a
condemned prisoner to Rome to be put to death in the amphi-
theatre is unlikely on historical grounds, and the route taken
is improbable for geographical reasons. This objection has very
little solid basis. (2) The heresies against which Ignatius
contends imply the rise of the later Gnostic and Docetic sects.
It is quite certain, however, that Docetism was in existence in
the ist century (cf. i John), while many of the principles of
Gnosticism were in vogue long before the great Gnostic sects
arose (cf. the Pastoral Epistles). There is nothing in Ignatius
which implies a knowledge of the teaching of Basilides or
Valentinus. In fact, as Harnack says: " No Christian writer
after 140 could have described the false teachers in the way that
Ignatius does." (3) The ecclesiastical system of Ignatius is
too developed to have arisen as early as the time of Trajan.
At first sight this objection seems to be almost fatal. But we
have to remember that the bishops of Ignatius are not bishops
in the modern sense of the word at all, but simply pastors of
churches. They are not mentioned at all in two Epistles, viz.
Romans and Philippians, which seems to imply that this form
of government was not universal. It is only when we read
modern ecclesiastical ideas into Ignatius that the objection has
much weight. To sum up, as Uhlhorn says: "The collective
mass of internal evidence against the genuineness of the letters
... is insufficient to counterbalance the testimony of the
Epistle of Polycarp in their favour. He who would prove the
Epistles of Ignatius to be spurious must begin by proving the
Epistle of Polycarp to be spurious, and such an undertaking is
not likely to succeed." This being so, there is no reason for
rejecting the opinion of Eusebius that the Epistles were written
in the reign of Trajan. Harnack, who formerly dated them
about 140, now says that they were written in the latter years
of Trajan, or possibly a little later (117-125). The majority of
scholars place them a few years earlier (iio-ii?).6
The letters of Ignatius unfortunately, unlike the Epistles of
St Paul, contain scant autobiographical material. We are told
absolutely nothing about the history of his career. The fact
that like St Paul he describes himself as an tKTpuna (Rom. 9),
and that he speaks of himself as " the last of the Antiochene
Christians" (Trail. 13; Smyrn. xi.), seems to suggest that he
had been converted from paganism somewhat late in life and
that the process of conversion had been abrupt and violent.
He bore the surname of Theophorus, i.e. " God-clad " or " bearing
6 But there are still a few scholars, e.g. van Manen and Volter,
who prefer a date about 150 or later; van Loon goes as late as 175.
See article " Old-Christian Literature," Ency. Bib. iii. col. 3488. ,
294
IGNORAMUS— IGNORANCE
God." Later tradition regarded the word as a passive form
(" God-borne ") and explained it by the romantic theory that
Ignatius was the child whom Christ took in his arms (Mark ix.
36-37). The date at which he became bishop of Antioch cannot
be determined. At the time when the Epistles were written he
had just been sentenced to death, and was being sent in charge
of a band of soldiers to Rome to fight the beasts in the amphi-
theatre. The fact that he was condemned to the amphitheatre
proves that he could not have been a Roman citizen. We lose
sight of him at Troas, but the presumption is that he was martyred
at Rome, though we have no early evidence of this.
But if the Epistles tell us little of the life of Ignatius, they give
us an excellent picture of the man himself, and are a mirror in
which we see reflected certain ideals of the life and thought of
the day. Ignatius, as Schaff says, " is the incarnation of three
closely connected ideas: the glory of martyrdom, the omni-
potence of episcopacy, and the hatred of heresy and schism."
1. Zeal for martyrdom in later days became a disease in the
Church, but in the case of Ignatius it is the mark of a hero.
The heroic note runs through all the Epistles; thus he says:
" I bid all men know that of my own free will I die for God, unless
ye should hinder me,. . . Let me be given to the wild beasts, for
through them I can attain unto God. I am God's wheat, and I
am ground by the wild beasts that I may be found the pure bread
of Christ. Entice the wild beasts that they may become my sepulchre
. . . ; come fire and cross and grapplings with wild beasts, wrench-
ing of bones, hacking of limbs, crushings of my whole body; only
be it mine to attain unto Jesus Christ " (Rom. 4-5).
2. Ignatius constantly contends for the recognition of the
authority of the ministers of the church. "Do nothing," he
writes to the Magnesians, "without thebishopandthepresbyters."
The " three orders " are essential to the church, without them
no church is worthy of the name (cf. Trail. 3). " It is not
lawful apart from the bishop either to baptize or to hold a
love-feast " (Smyrn. 8). Respect is due to the bishop as to God,
to the presbyters as the council of God and the college of apostles,
to the deacons as to Jesus Christ (Trail. 3). These terms must
not, of course, be taken in their developed modern sense. The
" bishop " of Ignatius seems to represent the modern pastor of
a church. As Zahn has shown, Ignatius is not striving to
introduce a special form of ministry, nor is he endeavouring to
substitute one form for another. His particular interest is not
so much in the form of ministry as in the unity of the church.
It is this that is his chief concern. Centrifugal forces were at
work. Differences of theological opinion were arising. Churches
had a tendency to split up into sections. The age of the apostles
had passed away and their successors did not inherit their
authority. The unity of the churches was in danger. Ignatius
was resisting this fatal tendency which threatened ruin to the
faith. The only remedy for it in those days was to exalt the
authority of the ministry and make it the centre of church life.
It should be noted that (i) there is no trace of the later doctrine
of apostolical succession; (2) the ministry is never sacerdotal in
the letters of Ignatius. As Lightfoot puts it: " The ecclesiastical
order was enforced by him (Ignatius) almost solely as a security
for doctrinal purity. The threefold ministry was the husk, the
shell, which protected the precious kernel of the truth " (i. 40).
3. Ignatius fights most vehemently against the current forms
of heresy. The chief danger to the church came from the
Docetists who denied the reality of the humanity of Christ and
ascribed to him a phantom body. Hence we find Ignatius
laying the utmost stress on the fact that Christ " was truly born
and ate and drank, was truly persecuted under Pontius Pilate . . .
was truly raised from the dead " (Trail. 9). " I know that He
was in the flesh even after the resurrection, and when He came
to Peter and his company, He said to them, 'Lay hold and
handle me, and see that I am not an incorporeal spirit ' " (Smyrn.
3). Equally emphatic is Ignatius's protest against a return to
Judaism. " It is monstrous to talk of Jesus Christ and to practise
Judaism, for Christianity did not believe in Judaism but Judaism
in Christianity " (Magn. 10).
Reference must also be made to a few of the more characteristic
points in the theology of Ignatius. As far as Christology is
concerned, besides the insistence on the reality of the humanity
of Christ already mentioned, there are two other points which
call for notice, (i) Ignatius is the earliest writer outside the
New Testament to describe Christ under the categories of current
philosophy; cf. the famous passage in Eph. 7. " There is one
only physician, of flesh and of spirit (aapKiKos KCU irvtvfjia.TiKos),
generate and ingenerate (^tvvT\ri>^ Kai ayivvriros), God in
man, true life in death, son of Mary and son of God, first passible
and then impassible " (irpSnov iraBrrros /coi diraflqs). (2)
Ignatius is also the first writer outside the New Testament to
mention the Virgin Birth, upon which he lays the utmost stress.
" Hidden from the prince of this world were the virginity of
Mary and her child-bearing and likewise also the death of the
Lord, three mysteries to be cried aloud, the which were wrought
in the silence of God " (Eph. 19). Here, it will be observed, we
have the nucleus of the later doctrine of the deception of Satan.
In regard to the Eucharist also later ideas occur in Ignatius.
It is termed a /UUOT^PIOC ( Trail. 2), and the influence of the Greek
mysteries is seen in such language as that used in Eph. 20,
where Ignatius describes the Eucharistic bread as " the medicine
of immortality and the antidote against death." When Ignatius
says too that " the heretics abstain from Eucharist because they
do not allow that the Eucharist is the flesh of Christ," the words
seem to imply that materialistic ideas were beginning to find an
entrance into the church (Smyr. 6). Other points that call for
special notice are: (i) Ignatius's rather extravagant angelology.
In one place for instance he speaks of himself as being able to
comprehend heavenly things and " the arrays of angels and the
musterings of principalities " (Troll. 5). (2) His view of the Old
Testament. In one important passage Ignatius emphatically
states his belief in the supremacy of Christ even over " the
archives " of the faith, i.e. the Old Testament: " As for me, my
archives — my inviolable archives — are Jesus Christ, His cross, His
death, His resurrection and faith through Him" (Philadel. 8).
AUTHORITIES. — T. Zahn, Ignatius von Antlochien (Gotha, 1873);
J. B. Lightfoot, Apostolic Fathers, part ii. (London, 2nd ed., 1889);
F. X. Funk, Die Echtheit der ignat. Briefe (Tubingen, 1892); A.
Harnack, Chronologic der altchristlichen Litteratur (Leipzig, 1897).
There is a good bibliography in G. Kriiger, Early Christian Literature
(Eng. trans., 1897, pp. 28-29). See also APOSTOLIC FATHERS.
(H. T. A.)
IGNORAMUS (Latin for " we do not know," " we take no
notice of "), properly an English law term for the endorsement
on the bill of indictment made by a grand jury when they
" throw out " the bill, i.e. when they do not consider that the
case should go to a petty jury. The expression is now obsolete,
" not a true bill," " no bill," being used. The expressions
" ignoramus jury," " ignoramus Whig," &c., were common in
the political satires and pamphlets of the years following on
the throwing out of the bill for high treason against the 2nd
earl of Shaftesbury in 1681. The application of the term to an
ignorant person dates from the early part of the i7th century.
The New English Dictionary quotes two examples illustrating
the early connexion of the term with the law or lawyers. George
Ruggle (1575-1622) in 1615 wrote a Latin play with the title
Ignoramus, the name being also that of the chief character in
it, intended for one Francis Brakin, the recorder of Cambridge.
It is a satire against the ignorance and pettifogging of the
common lawyers of the day. It was answered by a prose tract
(not printed till 1648) by one Robert Callis, serjeant-at-law. This
bore the title of The Case and Argument against Sir Ignoramus of
Cambridge.
IGNORANCE (Lat. ignorantia, from ignorare, not to know),
want of knowledge, a state of mind which in law has important
consequences. A well-known legal maxim runs: ignorantia
juris non excusat ("ignorance of the law does not excuse"). With
this is sometimes coupled another maxim: ignorantia facti
excusal ("ignorance of the fact excuses"). That every one who
has capacity to understand the law is presumed to know it
is a very necessary principle, for otherwise the courts would be
continually occupied in endeavouring to solve problems which
by their very impracticability would render the administration
of justice next to impossible. It would be necessary for the
IGNORANTINES— IGUANA
295
court to engage in endless inquiries as to the true inwardness
of a man's mind, whether his state of ignorance existed at the
time of the commission" of the offence, whether such a condition
of mind was inevitable or brought about merely by indifference
on his part. Therefore, in English, as in Roman law, ignorance
of the law is no ground for avoiding the consequences of an act.
So far as regards criminal offences, the maxim as to ignoranlia
juris admits of no exception, even in the case of a foreigner
temporarily in England, who is likely to be ignorant of English
law. In Roman law the harshness of the rule was mitigated
in the case of women, soldiers and persons under the age of
twenty-five, unless they had good legal advice within reach
(Dig. xxii. 6. 9). Ignorance of a matter of fact may in general
be alleged in avoidance of the consequences of acts and agree-
ments, but such ignorance cannot be pleaded where it is the
duty of a person to know, or where, having the means of know-
ledge at his disposal, he wilfully or negligently fails to avail
himself of it (see CONTRACT).
In logic, ignorance is that state of mind which for want of
evidence is equally unable to affirm or deny one thing or another.
Doubt, on the other hand, can neither affirm nor deny because
the evidence seems equally strong for both. For Ignoralio
Elenchi (ignorance of the refutation.) see FALLACY.
IGNORANTINES (Freres Ignorantins), a name given to the
Brethren of the Christian Schools (Freres des Ecoles Chretiennes) ,
a religious fraternity founded at Reims in 1680, and formally
organized in 1683, by the priest Jean Baptiste de la Salle, for
the purpose of affording a free education, especially in religion,
to the children of the poor. In addition to the three simple
vows of chastity, poverty and obedience, the brothers were
required to give their services without any remuneration and
to wear a special habit of coarse black material, consisting of a
cassock, a hooded cloak with hanging sleeves and a broad-
brimmed hat. The name Ignorantine was given from a clause
in the rules of the order forbidding the admission of priests with
a theological education. Other popular names applied to the
order are Freres de Saint-Yon, from the house at Rouen, which
was their headquarters from 1705 till 1770, Freres <J quatre bras,
from their hanging sleeves, and Freres Fouelleurs, from their
former use of the whip (jouet) in punishments. The order,
approved by Pope Benedict XIII. in 1724, rapidly spread over
France, and although dissolved by the National Assembly's
decree in February 1790, was recalled by Napoleon I. in 1804,
and formally recognized by the French government in 1808.
Since then its members have penetrated into nearly every country
of Europe, and into America, Asia and Africa. They number
about 14,000 members and have over 2000 schools, and are
the strongest Roman Catholic male order. Though not officially
connected with the Jesuits, their organization and discipline
are very similar.
See J. B. Blain, La Vie du venerable J. B. de la Salle (Versailles,
1887).
IGUALADA, a town of north-eastern Spain, in the province
of Barcelona, on the left bank of the river Noya, a right-hand
tributary of the Llobregat, and at the northern terminus of
the Igualada-Martorell-Barcelona railway. Pop. (1900) 10,442.
Igualada is the central market of a rich agricultural and wine-
producing district. It consists of an old town with narrow
and irregular streets and the remains of a fortress and ramparts,
and a new town which possesses' regular and spacious streets
and many fine houses. The local industries, chiefly developed
since 1880, include the manufacture of cotton, linen, wool,
ribbons, cloth, chocolate, soap, brandies, leather, cards and
nails. The famous mountain and convent of Montserrat or
Monserrat (q.v.) is 12 m. E.
IGUANA, systematically Iguanidae (Spanish quivalent of
Carib iwana), a family of pleurodont lizards, comprising about
50 genera and 300 species. With three exceptions, all the genera
of this extensive family belong to the New World, being specially
characteristic of the Neotropical region, where they occur as
far south as Patagonia, while extending northward into the
warmer parts of the Nearctic regions as far as California and
British Columbia. The exceptional genera are Brachylophus
in the Fiji Islands, Hoplurus and Chalarodon in Madagascar.
The iguanas are characterized by the peculiar form of their
teeth, these being rgund at the root and blade-like, with serrated
edges towards the tip, resembling in this respect the gigantic
extinct reptile Iguanodon. The typical forms belonging to this
family are distinguished by the large dewlap or pouch situated
beneath the head and neck, and by the crest, composed of
slender elongated scales, which extends in gradually diminishing
height from the nape of the neck to the extremity of the tail.
The latter organ is very long, slender and compressed. The
tongue is generally short and not deeply divided at its extremity,
nor is its base retracted into a sheath; it is always moist and
covered with a glutinous secretion. The prevailing colour of
the iguanas is green; and, as the majority of them are arboreal
in their habits, such colouring is generally regarded as pro-
Vov f/o
* :.i.-..»
FIG. I. — Iguana.
tective. Those on the other hand which reside on the ground
have much duller, although as a rule equally protective hues.
Some iguanas, however (e.g. Anolis carolinensis) , possess, to an
extent only exceeded by the chameleon, the power of changing
their colours, their brilliant green becoming transformed under
the influence of fear or irritation, into more sombre hues and even
into black. They differ greatly in size, from a few inches to
several feet in length.
One of the largest and most widely distributed is the common
iguana (Iguana tuber culata) , which occurs in the tropical parts
of Central and South America and the West Indies, with the
closely allied /. rhinolophus. It attains a length of 6 ft., weigh-
ing then perhaps 30 fb, and is of a greenish colour, occasionally
mixed with brown, while the tail is surrounded with alternate
rings of those colours. Its food consists of vegetable substances,
mostly leaves, which it obtains from the forest trees among
whose branches it lives and in the hollows of which it deposits
its eggs. These are of an oblong shape about if in.
in length, and are said by travellers to be very pleasant
eating, especially when taken raw, and mixed with farina.
They are timid, defenceless animals, depending for safety on
the comparative inaccessibility of their arboreal haunts, and
their protective colouring, which is rendered even more effective
by their remaining still on the approach of danger. But the
favourite resorts of the iguana are trees which overhang the
296
IGUANODON
water, into which they let themselves fall with a splash, whatever
the height of the tree, and then swim away, or hide at the bottom
for many minutes. Otherwise they exhibit few signs of animal
intelligence. " The iguana," says H. W. Bates (The Naturalist
on the Amazons), " is one of the stupidest animals I ever met.
The one I caught dropped helplessly from a tree just ahead of
me; it turned round for a moment to have an idiotic stare at
the intruder and then set off running along the path. I ran
FIG. 2. — Head of Iguana rhinolophus.
after it and it then stopped as a timid dog would do, crouching
down and permitting me to seize it by the neck and carry it off."
Along with several other species, notably Ctenosura acanthinura,
which is omnivorous, likewise called iguana, the common iguana
is much sought after in tropical America; the natives esteem
its flesh a delicacy, and capture it by slipping a noose round
its neck as it sits in fancied security on the branch of a tree.
Although chiefly arboreal, many of the iguanas take readily
to the water; and there is at least one species, AmUyrhynchus
crislatus, which leads for the most part an aquatic life. These
marine lizards occur only in the Galapagos Islands, where
they are never seen more
than 20 yds. inland, while
they may often be observed
in companies several hundreds
of yards from the shore, swim-
ming with great facility by
means of their flattened tails.
Tbeir feet are all more or less
webbed, but in swimming
they are said to keep these organs motionless by their sides.
Their food consists of marine vegetation, to obtain which they
dive beneath the water, where they are able to remain, without
coming to the surface to breathe, for a very considerable time.
Though they are thus the most aquatic of lizards, Darwin,
who studied their habits during his visit to those islands, states
that when frightened they will not enter the water. Driven
along a narrow ledge of rock to the edge of the sea, they pre-
ferred capture to escape by swimming, while if thrown into the
water they immediately returned to the point from which they
started. A land species belonging to the allied genus Conolophus
also occurs in the Galapagos, which differs from most of its kind
in forming burrows in the ground.
IGUANODON, a large extinct herbivorous land reptile from
the Wealden formation of western Europe, almost completely
known by numerous skeletons from Bernissart, near Mons,
Belgium. It is a typical representative of the ornithopodous
(Gr. for bird-footed) Dinosauria. The head is large and laterally
compressed with a blunt snout, nearly terminal nostrils and
relatively small eyes. The sides of the jaws are provided with
a close series of grinding teeth, which are often worn down to
stumps; the front of the jaws forms a toothless beak, which
would be encased originally in a horny sheath. When unworn
the teeth are spatulate and crimped or serrated round the edge,
closely resembling those of the existing Central American
lizard, Iguana — hence the name Iguanodon (Gr. Iguana-tooth)
proposed by Mantell, the discoverer of this reptile, in 1825.
The bodies of the vertebrae are solid; and they are convexo-
concave (i.e. opisthocoelous) in the neck and anterior part of the
back, where there must have been much freedom of motion.
The hindquarters are comparatively large and heavy, while
the tail is long, deep and more or less laterally compressed,
evidently adapted for swimming. The small and mobile fore-
limbs bear four complete fingers, with the thumb reduced to
a bony spur. The pelvis and hind-limbs much resemble those
of a running bird, such as those of an emu or the extinct moa;
but the basal bones (metatarsals) of the three-toed foot remain
separate throughout life, thus differing from those of the running
birds, which are firmly fused together even in the young adult.
No external armour has bean found. The reptile doubtless
frequented marshes, feeding on the succu-
lent vegetation, and often swimming in
the water. Footprints prove that when on
land it walked habitually on its hind-limbs.
The earliest remains of Iguanodon were
found by Dr G. A. Mantell in the Weal-
den formation of Sussex, and a large part
of the skeleton,
lacking the head,
was subsequently
discovered in a
block of ragstone
in the Lower
Greensand
Skeleton of Iguanodon bernissartensis. (After Dollo.)
Maidstone, Kent. These fossils, which are now in the British
Museum, were interpreted by Dr Mantell, who made comparisons
with the skeleton of Iguana, on the erroneous supposition that
the resemblance in the teeth denoted some relationship to this
existing lizard. Several of the bones, however, cduld not be
understood until the much later discoveries of Mr S. H. Beckles
in the Wealden cliffs near Hastings; and an accurate knowledge
of the skeleton was only obtained when many complete speci-
mens were disinterred by the Belgian government from the
Wealden beds at Bernissart, near Mons, during the years 1877-
1880. These skeletons, which now form the most striking feature
of the Brussels Museum, evidently represent a large troop of
animals which were suddenly destroyed and buried in a deep
IGUVIUM
297
ravine or gully. The typical species, Iguanodon mantelli,
measures 5 to 6 metres' in length, while I. bernissartensis (see
fig.) attains a length of 8 to 10 metres. They are found both
at Bernissart and in the south of England, while other
» species are also known from Sussex. Nearly complete skeletons
of allied reptiles have been discovered in the Jurassic and
Cretaceous rocks of North America.
REFERENCES. — G. A. Mantell, Petrifactions and their Teaching
(London, 1851); L. Dollo, papers in Bull. Mus. Roy. d'Hist. Nat.
Belg., vols. i.-iii. (1882-1884). (A. S. Wo.)
IGUVIUM (mod. Gubbio, q.v.), a town of Umbria, situated
among the mountains, about 23 m. N.N.E. of Perusia and con-
nected with it by a by-road, which joined the Via Flaminia
near the temple of Jupiter Appenninus, at the modern Scheggia.
It appears to have been an important place in pre-Roman
times, both from its coins and from the celebrated tabulae
Iguvinae (see below).
We find it in possession of a treaty with Rome, similar to
that of the Camertes Umbri; and in 167 B.C. it was used as a
place of safe custody for the Illyrian King Gentius and his sons
(Livy xlv. 4.3). After the Social War, in which it took no part,
it received Roman citizenship. At that epoch it must have
received full citizen rights since it was included in the tribus
Clustumina (C.I.L. xi. e.g. 5838). In 49 B.C. it was occupied
by Minucius Thermus on behalf of Pompey, but he abandoned
the town. Under the empire we hear almost nothing of it.
Silius Italicus mentions it as subject to fogs. A bishop of Iguvium
is mentioned as early as A.D. 413. It was taken and destroyed
by the Goths in 552, but rebuilt with the help of Narses. The
Umbrian town had three gates only, and probably lay on the
steep mountain side as the present town does, while the Roman
city lay in the lower ground. Here is the theatre, which, as an
inscription records, was restored by Cn. Satrius Rufus in the
time of Augustus. The diameter of the orchestra is 76! ft.
and of the whole 230 ft., so that it is a building of considerable
size ; the stage is well preserved and so are parts of the external
arcades of the auditorium. Not far off are ruins probably of
ancient baths, and the concrete core of a large tomb with a
vaulted chamber within. (T.As.)
Of Latin inscriptions (C.I.L. xi. 5803-5926) found at Iguvium
. two or three are of Augustan date, but none seem to be earlier.
A Latin inscriptibn of Iguvium (C.I.L. xi. 5824) mentions
a priest whose functions are characteristic of the place " L.
Veturius Rufio avispex extispecus, sacerdos publicus et privatus."
The ancient town is chiefly celebrated for the famous Iguvine
(less correctly Eugubine) Tables, which were discovered there
in 1444, bought by the municipality in 1456, and are still pre-
served in the town hall. A Dominican, Leandro Alberti (Descri-
zione d'ltalia, 1550), states that they were originally nine in
number, and an independent authority, Antonio Concioli (Statuta
cimtatis Eugubii, 1673), states that two of the nine were taken
to Venice in 1 540 and never reappeared. The existing seven
were first published in a careful but largely mistaken transcript
by Buonarotti in 1724, as an appendix to Dempster's De Etruria
Regali.1
The first real advance towards their interpretation was made
by Otfried Muller (Die Elrusker, 1828), who pointed out that
though their alphabet was akin to the Etruscan their language
was Italic. Lepsius, in his essay De tabulis Eugubinis (1833),
finally determined the value of the Umbrian signs and the
received order of the Tables, pointing out that those in Latin
alphabet were the latest. He subsequently published what
may be called the editio princeps in 1841. The first edition,
with a full commentary based on scientific principles, was that
of Aufrecht and Kirchhoff in 1849-1851, and on this all sub-
sequent interpretations are based (Breal, Paris, 1875; Bucheler,
Umbrica, Bonn, 1883, a reprint and enlargement of articles in
Fleckeisen's Jahrbuch, 1875, pp. 127 and 313). The text is
everywhere perfectly legible, and is excellently represented in
photographs by the marquis Ranghiasci-Brancaleone, published
with Breal's edition.
1 A portion of this article is taken by permission from R. S.
Conway's Italic Dialects (Camb. Univ. Press, 1897).
Language. — The dialect in which this ancient set of liturgies ii
written is usually known as Umbrian, as it is the only monument we
possess of any length of the tongue spoken in the Umbrian district
before it was latinized (see UMBRIA). The name, however, is certainly
too wide, since an inscription from Tuder of, probably, the 3rd
century B.C. (R. S. Conway, The Italic Dialects, 352) shows a final
-s and a medial -d-, both apparently preserved from the changes
which befell these sounds, as we shall see, in the dialect of Iguvium.
On the other hand, inscriptions of Fulginia and Assisium (ibid.
354-355) agree very well, so far as they go, with Iguvine. It is
especially necessary to make clear that the language known as
Umbrian is that of a certain limited area, which cannot yet be shown
to have extended very far beyond the eastern half of the Tiber
valley (from Interamna Nahartium to Urvinum Mataurense), be-
cause the term is often used by archaeologists with a far wider
connotation to include all the Italic, pre-Etruscan inhabitants of
upper Italy; Professor Ridgeway, for instance, in his Early Age of
Greece, frequently speaks of the " Umbrians " as the race to which
belonged the Villanova culture of the Early Iron age. It is now
one of the most urgent problems in the history of Italy to determine
the actual historical relation (see further ROME: History, ad. init.)
between the 'Qnflpol of, say, Herodotus and the language of Iguvium,
of which we may now offer some description, using the term Umbrian
strictly in this sense.
Under the headings LATIN LANGUAGE and OSCA LINGUA there
have been collected (i) the points which separate all the Italic
languages from their nearest congeners, and (2) those which separate
Oseo-Umbrian from Latin. We have now to notice (3) the points in
which Umbrian has diverged from Oscan. The first of them ante-
dates by six or seven centuries the similar change in the Romance
languages (see ROMANCE LANGUAGES).
(1) The palatalization of k and g before a following « or e, or
consonant i as in tic.it (i.e. di(it) = Lat. decet ; muieto past part,
passive (pronounced as though the » were an English or French _;')
beside Umb. imperative mugatu, Lat. mugire.
(2) The loss of final-d, e.g. in the abl. sing. fern. Umb. told=Qsc.
toutad.
(3) The change of d between vowels to a sound akin to r, written
by a special symbol q (d) in Umbrian alphabet and by RS in Latin
alphabet, e.g. teda in Umbrian alphabet =dirsa in Latin alphabet
(see below), " let him give," exactly equivalent to Paelignian dida
(see PAELIGNI).
(4) The change of -s- to -r- between vowels as in erom, " esse "
= 0sc. ezum, and the gen. plur. fern, ending in -orw = Lat. -arum,
Osc. -azum.
To this there appear a long string of exceptions, e.g. asa = Lat. ara.
These are generally regarded as mere archaisms, and unfortunately
the majority of them are in words of whose origin and meaning very
little is known, so that (for all we can tell) in many the -s- may
represent -ss- or -ps- as in osa/M = Lat. operate, cf. Osc. opsaom.
(5) The change of final -ns to -/ as in the ace. plur. masc. wttuf=
Lat. vitulos.
(6) In the latest stage of the dialect (see below) the change of final
-s to -r, as in abl. plur. arver, arviis, i.e. " arvorum frugibus."
(7) The decay of all diphthongs; ai, oi, ei all become a monoph-
thong variously written e and i (rarely ei), as in the dat. sing. fern.
tote, "civitati"; dat. sing. masc. pople, "populo"; loc. sing,
masc. onse (from *om(e)sei), " in umero. ' So au, eu, ou all become
d, as in ote = Osc. auti, Lat. aut.
(8) The change of initial I to v, as in vutu = Lat. lavito.
Owing to the peculiar character of the Tables no grammatical
statement about Umbrian is free from difficulty; and these bare
outlines of its phonology must be supplemented by reference to the
lucid discussion in C. D. Buck's Oscan and Umbrian Grammar
(Boston, 1904), or to the earlier and admirably complete Oskisch-
umbrische Grammatik of R. von Planta (Strassburg, 1892-1897).
Some of the most important questions are discussed by R. S. Conway
in The Italic Dialects, vol. ii. p. 495 seq.
Save for the consequences of these phonetic changes, Umbrian
morphology and syntax exhibit no divergence from Oscan that
need be mentioned here, save perhaps two peculiar perfect-forma-
tions with -/- and -MJZ-; as in ampelust, fut. perf. " impendent,"
combifianfiust, " nuntiaverit " (or the like). Full accounts of the
accidence and syntax, so far as it is represented in the inscriptions,
will be found in the grammars of Buck and von Planta already
mentioned, and in the second volume of Conway, op. cit.
Chronology. (I.) The Relative Dates of the Tables. — At least four
periods in the history of the dialect can be distinguished in the
records we have left to us, by the help of the successive changes (a)
in alphabet and (6) in language, which the Tables exhibit. Of these
only the outstanding features can be mentioned here; for a fuller
discussion the reader must be referred to The Italic Dialects, pp. 400 sq q .
(a) Changes in Alphabet.— Observe first that Tables L, II., III.
and IV., and the first two inscriptions of V. are in Umbrian character;
the Latin alphabet is used in the Claverniur paragraph (V. iii.),
and the whole of VI. (a and 6) and VII. (a and b).
What we may call the normal Umbrian alphabet (in which e.g.
Table I. a is written) consists of the following signs, the writing
being always from right to left : fl a, 8 6, ^ 1} {«•«• a sound akin
to r derived from d), Je, 7 v, 4 z, S h, I i, H ft and g, < /, l-H m, M n.
298
IJOLITE— ILE-DE-FRANCE
1 P, 0 r, 8 s, X / and d, V « and o, 8 f, d s (i.e. a voiceless palatal
consonant.)
In the Latin alphabet, in which Tables VI. and VII. and the third
inscription of Table V. are written, d is represented by RS, g by G
but k by C, d by D, t by T, v and u by V but o by O, $ by S,
though the diacritic is often omitted. The interpunct is double
with the Umbrian alphabet, single and medial with the Latin.
Tables VI. and VII., then, and V. iii., were written later than the
rest. But even in the earlier group certain variations appear.
The latest form of the Umbrian alphabet is that of Table V. i. and
ii., where the abbreviated form of m (A) and the angular and un-
divided form of k (H noOl) are especially characteristic.
Nearest to this is that of Tables III. and IV., which form a single
document; then that of I. (a) and (b); earliest would seem that of
II. (a) and II. (6). In II. a, 18 and 24, we have the archaic letter
son (M =s) of the abecedaria (E. S. Roberts, Int. Gr. Epig. pp. 17 ff .),
which appears in lio other Italic nor in any Chalcidian inscription,
though it survived longer in Etruscan and Venetic use. Against
this may be set the use of O for / in I. b l, but this appears also in
IV. 20 and should be called rather Etruscan than archaic. These
characteristics of II. o and b would be in themselves too slight to
Erove an earlier date, but they have perhaps some weight as con-
rming the evidence of the language.
(b) Changes in Language. — The evidence of date derived from
changes in the language is more difficult to formulate, and the inquiry
calls for the .most diligent use of scientific method and critical
judgment. Its intricacy lies in the character of the documents
before us — religious formularies consisting partly of matter estab-
lished in usage long before they were written down in their present
shape, partly of additions made at the time of writing. The best
example of this is furnished by the expansion and modernisation
of the subject-matter of Table I. into Tables VI. and VII. o. Hence
we frequently meet with forms which had passed out of the language
that was spoken at the time they were engraved, side by side
with their equivalents in that language. We may distinguish four
periods, as follows:
1. The first period is represented, not by any complete table,
but by the old unmodernised forms of Tables III. and IV., which
show the original guttural plosives unpalatalized, e.g. kebu = Lat.
cibum.
2. In the second period the gutturals have been palatalized, but
there yet is no change of final j to r. This is represented by the rest
of III. and IV. and by II. (a and b).
3. In the third period final i has everywhere become r. This
appears in V. (i. and ii. and also iii.). Table I. is a copy or redraft
made from older documents during this period. This is shown by
the occasional appearance of r instead of final s.
4. Soon after the dialect had reached its latest form, the Latin
alphabet was adopted. Tables VI. and VII. a contain an expanded
form of the same liturgical direction as Table I.
It is probable that further research will amend this classification
in detail, but its main lines are generally accepted.
(II.) Actual Date of the Tables. — Only the leading points can be
mentioned here.
(i.) The Latin alphabet of the latest Tables resembles that of the
Tabula Bantina, and might have been engraved at almost any time
between 150 B.C. and 50 B.C. It is quite likely that the closer
relations with Rome, which began after the Social War, led to the
adoption of the Latin alphabet. Hence we should infer that the
Tables in Umbrian alphabet were at all events older than ox> B.C.
(ii.) For an upper limit of date, in default of definite evidence, it
seems imprudent to go back beyond the 5th]century B.C., since neither
in Rome nor Campania have we any evidence of public written
documents of any earlier century. When more is known of the earliest
Etruscan inscriptions it may become possible to date the Iguvine
Tables by their alphabetic peculiarities as compared with their
mother-alphabet, the Etruscan. The " Tuscan name " is denounced
in the comprehensive curse of Table VI. b, 53-60, and we may infer
that the'town of Iguvium was independent but in fear of the Etruscans
at the time when the curse was first composed. The absence of all
mention of either Gauls or Romans seems to prove that this time
was at least earlier than 400 B.C.; and the curse may have been
composed long before it was written down.
The chief sources in which further information may be sought
have been already mentioned. (R. S. C.)
IJOLITE (derived from the first syllable of the Finnish words
Jiivaru, Jijoki, &c., common as geographical names in the
Kola peninsula, and the Gr. Xi0os, a stone), a rock consisting
essentially of nepheline and augite, and of great rarity, but of
considerable importance from a mineralogical and petrographical
standpoint. It occurs in various parts of the Kola peninsula
in north Finland on the shores of the White Sea. The pyroxene,
is morphic, yellow or green, and is surrounded by formless areas
of nepheline. The accessory minerals are apatite, cancrinite,
calcite, titanite and jiwaarite, a dark-brown titaniferous variety
of melanite-garnet. This rock is the plutonic and holo-
crystalline analogue of the nephelenites and nepheline-dolerites;
it bears the same relation to them as the nepheline-syenites
have to the phonolites. It is worth mentioning that a leucite-
augite rock, resembling ijolite except in containing leucite
in place of nepheline, is known to occur at Shonkin Creek, near
Fort Benton, Montana, and has been called missourite.
IKI, an island belonging to Japan, lying off the north-western
coast of Kiushiu, in 33° 45' N. lat. and 129° 40' E. long. It has
a circumference of 86 m., an area of 51 sq. m., and a population
of 36,530. The island is, for the most part, a tableland about
500 ft. above sea-level. The anchorage is at Gonoura, on the
south-west. A part of Kublai Khan's Mongols landed at Iki
when about to invade Japan in the i3th century, for it lies in
the direct route from Korea to Japan via Tsushima. In the
immediate vicinity are several rocky islets.
ILAGAN, the capital of the province of Isabela, Luzon,Philip-
pine Islands, on an elevated site at the confluence of the Pina-
canauan river with the Grande de Cagayan, about 200 m. N.N.E.
of Manila. Pop. (1903) 16,008. The neighbouring country is
the largest tobacco-producing section in the Philippines.
ILCHESTER, a market town in the southern parliamentary
division of Somersetshire, England, in the valley of the river
Ivel or Yeo, 5 m. N.W. of Yeovil. It is connected by a stone
bridge with the village of Northover on the other side of the
river. Ilchester has lost the importance it once possessed,
and had in 1901 a population of only 564, but its historical
interest is considerable. The parish church of St Mary is Early
English and Perpendicular, with a small octagonal tower, but
has been largely restored in modern times. The town possesses
almshouses founded in 1426, a picturesque cross, and a curious
ancient mace of the former corporation.
Ilchester (Cair Pensavelcoit, Ischalis, Ivelcestre, Yevelchesler)
was a fortified British settlement, and subsequently a military
station of the Romans, whose Fosse Way passed through it.
Its importance continued in Saxon times, and in 1086 it was a
royal borough with 107 burgesses. In 1180 a gild merchant
was established, and the county gaol was completed in 1188.
Henry II. granted a charter, confirmed by John in 1203, which
gave Ilchester the same liberties as Winchester, with freedom
from tolls and from being impleaded without the walls, the fee
farm being fixed at £26, 105. od. The bailiffs of Ilchester are
mentioned before 1230. The borough was incorporated in 1556,
the fee farm being reduced to £8. Ilchester was the centre
of the county administration from the reign of Edward III.
until the igth century, when the change from Toad to rail
travelling completed the decay of the town. Its place has
been taken by Taunton. The corporation was abolished in
1886. Parliamentary representation began in 1298, and the
town continued to return two members until 1832. A fair
on the 29th of August was granted by the charter of 1203.
Other fairs on the 27th of December, the 22nd of July, and the
Monday before Palm Sunday, were held under a charter of
1289. The latter, fixed as the 2$th of March, was still held at
the end of the i8th century, but there is now no fair. The
Wednesday market dates from before the Conquest. The
manufacture of thread lace was replaced by silk weaving about
1750, but this has decayed.
ILE-DE-FRANCE, an old district of France, forming a kind
of island, bounded by the Seine, the Marne, the Beuvronne,
the Theve and the Oise. In this sense the name is not found
in written documents before 1429; but in the second half of
the 1 5th century it designated a wide military province of
government, bounded N. by Picardy, W. by Normandy, S. by
Orleanais and Nivernais, and E. by Champagne. Its capital
was Paris. From the territory of Ile-de -France were formed
under the Revolution the department of the Seine, together
with the greater part of Seine-et-Oise, Seine-et-Marne, Oise
and Aisne, and a small part of Loiret and Nievre. (The term
tie-de-France is also used for Mauritius, q.v.).
See A. Longnon, " L'Tle-de-France, son origine, ses limites, ses
gouverneurs," in the Memoires de laSocietede I'histoire de Paris el de
I 'Ile-de- France, vol. i. (1875).
ILETSK— ILION
299
ILETSK, formerly Fort Iletskaya Zashchita, a town of Russia,
in the government of Orenburg, 48 m. S. of the town of Orenburg
by the railway to Tashkent, near the Ilek river, a tributary of
the Ural. Pop. 11,802 in 1897. A thick bed of excellent rock-
salt is worked here to the extent of about 100,000 tons annually.
The place is resorted to for its salt, mud and brine baths, and
its koumiss cures.
ILFELD, a town in Germany, in the Prussian province of
Hanover, situated at the south foot of the Harz, at the entrance
to the Bahrethal, 8 m. N. from Nordhausen by the railway to
Wernigerode. Pop. 1600. It contains an Evangelical church,
a celebrated gymnasium, once a monasterial school, with a
fine library, and manufactures of parquet-flooring, paper and
plaster of Paris, while another industry in the town is brewing.
It is also of some repute as a health resort.
Ilfeld, as a town, dates from the i4th century, when it sprang
up round a Benedictine monastery. Founded about 1190 this
latter was reformed in 1545, and a year later converted into the
school mentioned above, which under the rectorship of Michael
Neander (1525-1595) enjoyed a reputation for scholarship which
it has maintained until to-day.
See Forstemann, Monumenta rerum Ilfeldensium (Nordhausen,
1843); M. Neander, Bericht vom Kloster Ilfeld, edited by Bouterwek
(Gottingen, 1873); and K. Meyer, Geschichte des Klosters Iljeld
(Leipzig, 1897).
ILFORD [GREAT ILFORD], an urban district in the Romford
parliamentary division of Essex, England, on the Roding,
7 m. E.N.E. of London by the Great Eastern railway. Pop.
(1891) 10,913, (1901) 41,234. A portion of Hainault Forest
Lies within the parish. The hospital of St Mary and St Thomas,
founded in the i2th century as a leper hospital, now contains
almshouses and a chapel, and belongs to the marquess of Salisbury,
who as " Master " is required to maintain a chaplain and six
aged inmates. The chapel appears to be of the date of this
foundation. Claybury Hall is a lunatic asylum (1893) of the
London County Council. There are large photographic material
works and paper mills. LITTLE ILFORD is a parish on the
opposite (west) side of the Roding. The church of St Mary
retains Norman portions, and has a curious monumental brass
commemorating a boy in school-going clothes (1517). Pop.
(1901) 17,915.
ILFRACOMBE, a seaport and watering-place in the Barnstaple
parliamentary division of Devonshire, England, on the Bristol
Channel, 225 m. W. by S. of London by the London & South-
western railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 8557. The
picturesque old town, built on the cliffs above its harbour,
consists of one street stretching for about a mile through a net-
work of lanes. Behind it rise the terraces of a more modern
town, commanding a fine view across the Channel. With its
beautiful scenery and temperate climate, Ilfracombe is frequented
by visitors both in summer and winter. Grand rugged cliffs
line the coast; while, inland, the country is celebrated for the
rich colouring of its woods and glens. Wooded heights form a
semicircle round the town, which is protected from sea winds
by Capstone Hill. Along the inner face of this rock has been cut
the Victoria Promenade, a long walk roofed with glass and used
>for concerts. The restored church of Holy Trinity dates originally
from the i2th century. Sea-bathing is insecure, and is confined
to a few small coves, approached by tunnels hewn through the
rock. The harbour, a natural recess among the cliffs, is sheltered
on the east by Hilsborough Head, where there are some alleged
Celtic remains; on the west by Lantern Hill, where the ancient
chapel of St Nicholas has been transformed into a lighthouse.
In summer, passenger steamers run to and from Ilfracombe
pier; but the shipping trade generally has declined, though
herring fisheries are carried on with success. In the latter part
of the I3th century Ilfracombe obtained a grant for holding a
fair and market, and in the reign of Edward III. it was a place
of such importance as to supply him with six ships and ninety-
six men for his armament against Calais. During the Civil War,
being garrisoned for the Roundheads, it was in 1644 captured
by the Royalists, but in 1646 it fell into the hands of Fairfax.
ILHAVO, a seaport in the district of Aveiro, formerly included
in the province of Beira, Portugal, 3 m. S.W. of Aveiro (<?.».),
on the lagoon of Aveiro, an inlet of the Atlantic Ocean. Pop.
(1900) 12,617. Ilhavo is inhabited chiefly by fishermen, but has
a celebrated manufactory of glass and porcelain, the Vista-
Alegre, at which the art of glass-cutting has reached a high
degree of perfection. Salt is largely exported. Ilhavo is cele-
brated for the beauty of its women. It is said to have been
founded by Greek colonists about 400 B.C., but this tradition is
of doubtful validity.
ILI, one of the principal rivers of Central Asia, in the Russian
province of Semiryechensk. The head-stream, called the Tekez,
rises at an altitude of 11,600 ft. E. of Lake Issyk-kul, in
82° 25' E. and 43° 23' N. , on the W. slopes of mount Kash-katur.
At first it flows eastward and north-eastward, until, after
emerging from the mountains, it meets the Kungez, and then,
assuming the name of Hi, it turns westwards and flows between
the Trans-Hi Ala-tau mountains on the south and the Boro-
khoro and Talki ranges on the north for about 300 m. to Iliysk.
The valley between 79° 30' and 82° E. is 50 m. wide, and the
portion above the town of Kulja (Old Kulja) is fertile and
populous, Taranchi villages following each other in rapid suc-
cession, and the pastures being well stocked with sheep and
cattle and horses. At Iliysk the river turns north-west, and
after traversing a region of desert and marsh falls by at least
seven mouths into the Balkash Lake, the first bifurcation of
the delta taking place about 115 m. up the river. But it is only
the southern arm of the delta that permanently carries water.
The total length of the river is over 900 m. From Old Kulja to
New Kulja the Hi is navigable for at most only two and a half
months in the year, and even then considerable difficulty is
occasioned by the shoals and sandbanks. From New Kulja
to Iliysk (280 m.) navigation is easy when the water is high,
and practicable even at its lowest for small boats. At Iliysk
there is a ferry on the road from Kopal to Vyernyi. The principal
tributaries of the Hi are the Kash, Chilik and Charyn. A vast
number of streams flow towards it from the mountains on both
sides, but most of them are used up by the irrigation canals
and never reach their goal. The wealth of coal in the valley
is said to be great, and when the Chinese owned the country
they worked gold and silver with profit. Fort Hi or Iliysk, a
modern Russian establishment, must not be confounded with
Hi, the old capital of the Chinese province of the same name.
The latter, otherwise known as Hoi-yuan-chen, New Kulja
(Gulja), or Manchu Kulja, was formerly a city of 70,000 in-
habitants, but now lies completely deserted. Old Kulja, Tatar
Kulja or Nin-yuan, is now the principal town of the district.
The Chinese district of Hi formerly included the whole of the
valley of the Hi river as far as Issyk-kul, but now only its upper
part. Its present area is about 27,000 sq. m. and its population
probably 70,000. It belongs administratively to the province of
Sin-kiang or East Turkestan. (See KULJA.)
ILION, a village of Herkimer county, New York, U.S.A.,
about 12 m. S.E. of Utica, on the S. bank of the Mohawk river.
Pop. (1890) 4057; (1900) 5138 (755 foreign-born); (1905, state
census) 5924; (1910) 6588. It is served by the New York
Central & Hudson river, and the West Shore railways, by the
Utica & Mohawk Valley Electric railroad, and by the Erie canal.
It has a public library (1868) of about 13,500 volumes, a public
hospital and a village hall. The village owns its water-works
and its electric-lighting plant. Its principal manufactures are
Remington typewriters and Remington fire-arms (notably the
Remington rifle); other manufactures are filing cabinets and
eases and library and office furniture (the Clark & Baker Co.),
knit goods, carriages and harness, and store fixtures. In 1828
Eliphalet Remington (1793-1861) established here a small
factory for the manufacture of rifles. He invented, and, with the
assistance of his sons, Philo (1816-1889), Samuel and Eliphalet,
improved the famous Remington rifle, which was adopted
by several European governments, and was supplied in large
numbers to the United States army. In 1856 the company
added the manufacture of farming tools, in 1870 sewing-machines,
300
ILKESTON— ILLE-ET-VILAINE
and in 1874 typewriters. The last-named industry was sold to
the Wyckoff, Seamans & Benedict Company in 1886, and soon
afterwards, on the failure of the original Remington company,
the fire-arms factory was bought by a New York City firm. A
store was established on the present site of Ilion as early as
1816, but the village really dates from the completion of the
Erie canal in 1825. On the canal list it was called Steele's
Creek, but it was also known as Morgan's Landing, and from
1830 to 1843 as Remington's Corners. The post-office, which
was established in 1845, was named Remington, in honour of
Eliphalet Remington; but later the present name was adopted.
The village was incorporated in 1852. Ilion is a part of the
township of German Flats (pop. in 1900, 8663; in 1910, 10,160),
settled by Palatinate Germans about 1725. The township was
the scene of several Indian raids during the French and Indian
War and the War of Independence. Here General Herkimer
began his advance to raise the siege of Fort Schuyler (1777),
and subsequently Ilion was the rendezvous of Benedict Arnold's
force during the same campaign.
ILKESTON, a market town and municipal borough, in the
Ilkeston parliamentary division of Derbyshire, England, 9 m.
E.N.E. of Derby, on the Midland and the Great Northern
railways. Pop. (1891) 19,744, (1901) 25,384. It is situated
on a hill commanding fine views of the Erewash valley. The
church of St Mary is Norman and Early English, and has a
fine chancel screen dating from the later part of the i3th century.
The manufactures of the town are principally hosiery and lace,
and various kinds of stoneware. Coal and iron are wrought in
the neighbourhood. An alkaline mineral spring, resembling
the seltzer water of Germany, was discovered in 1830, and baths
were then erected, which, however, were subsequently closed.
The town, which is very ancient, being mentioned in Domesday,
obtained a grant for a market and fair in 1251, and received
its charter of incorporation in 1887. It is governed by a mayor,
6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, 2526 acres.
ILKLEY, an urban district in the Otley parliamentary division
of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, 16 m. N.W. from Leeds,
on the Midland and the North-Eastern railways. Pop. of urban
district(i9oi) 7455. It is beautifully situated in the upper part
of the valley of the Wharfe, and owing to the fine scenery of
the neighbourhood, and to the bracing air of the high moorlands
above the valley, has become a favourite health resort. Here
and at Ben Rhydding, i m. E.,are several hydropathic establish-
ments. The church of All Saints is in the main Decorated,
largely restored in 1860. Three ancient sculptured crosses
are preserved in the churchyard. The institutions include a
museum of local antiquities, a grammar school, the Siemens
Convalescent Home and the Ilkley Bath Charitable Institution.
The fine remains of Bolton Abbey lie in the Wharfe valley, 5 m.
above Ilkley. Ilkley has been identified with the Olicana of
Ptolemy, one of the towns of the British tribe of the Brigantes.
There was a Roman fort near the present church of All Saints,
and the site has yielded inscriptions and other small remains.
Numerous relics are preserved in the museum.
ILL, a river of Germany, entirely within the imperial territory
of Alsace-Lorraine. It rises on a north foothill of the Jura,
S.W. of Basel, and flows N.N.E. parallel with the Rhine, which
it enters from the left, 9 m. below Strassburg. Its course lies
for the most part through low meadowland; and the stream,
which is 123 m. long, receives numerous small affluents, which
pour out of the short narrow valleys of the Vosges. It is navigable
from Ladhof near Colmar to its confluence with the Rhine, a
distance of 59 m. It is on this river, and not on the Rhine,
that the principal towns of Upper Alsace are situated, e.g.
Miilhausen, Colmarl, Schlettstadt and Strassburg. The 111
feeds two important canals, the Rhine-Marne canal and the
Rhine-Rhone canal, both starting from the neighbourhood of
Strassburg.
ILLAWARRA, a beautiful and fertile district of New South
Wales, Australia, extending from a point 33 m. S. of Sydney,
along the coast southwards for 40 m. to Shoalhaven. It is
thickly populated, and supplies Sydney with the greater part
of its dairy produce. There are also numerous collieries, produc-
ing coal of superior quality, and iron ore, fireclay and freestone
are plentiful. The Illawarra Lake, a salt lagoon, 9 m. long and
3 m. wide, is encircled by hills and is connected with the sea
by a narrow channel; quantities of fish are caught in it and
wild fowl are abundant along its shores. The chief towns in
the district are Wollongong, Kiama, Clifton and Shellharbour.
ILLE-ET-VILAINE, a maritime department of north-western
France, formed in 1 790 out of the eastern part of the old province
of Brittany. Pop. (1906) 611,805. Area 2699 sq. m. It is
bounded N. by the English Channel, the Bay of St Michel and
the department of Manche; E. by Mayenne; S. by Loire-
Inferieure; and W. by Morbihan and C6tes-du-Nord. The
territory of Ille-et-Vilaine constitutes a depression bordered
by hills which reach their maximum altitudes (over 800 ft.)
in the N.E. and W. of the department. The centre of this
depression, which separates the hills of Brittany from those
of Normandy, is occupied by Rennes, capital of the department
and an important junction of roads, rivers and railways. The
department takes its name from its two principal rivers, the
Ille and the Vilaine. The former joins the Vilaine at Rennes
after a course of 18 m. through the centre of the department;
and the latter, which rises in Mayenne, flows westwards as far
as Rennes, where it turns abruptly south. The stream is tidal
up to the port of Redon, and is navigable for barges as far as
Rennes. The Vilaine receives the Meu and the Seiche, which
are both navigable. There are two other navigable streams,
the Airon and the Ranee, the long estuary of which falls almost
entirely within the department. The Ille-et-Rance canal con-
nects the town of Rennes with those of Dinan and St Malo.
The greater portion of the shore of the Bay of St Michel is
covered by the Marsh of Dol, valuable agricultural land, which
is protected from the inroads of the sea by dykes. Towards
the open channel the coast is rocky. Small lakes are frequent
in the interior of the department. The climate is temperate,
humid and free from sudden changes. The south-west winds,
while they keep the temperature mild, also bring frequent
showers, and in spring and autumn thick fogs prevail. The
soil is thin and not very fertile, but has been improved by the
use of artificial manure. Cereals of all kinds are grown, but
the principal are wheat, buckwheat, oats and barley. Potatoes,
early vegetables, flax and hemp are also largely grown, and
tobacco is cultivated in the arrondissement of St Malo. Apples
and pears are the principal fruit, and the cider of the canton
of Dol has a high reputation. Cheese is made in considerable
quantities, and the butter of Rennes is amongst the best in
France. Large numbers of horses and cattle are raised. Mines
of iron, lead and zinc (Pont-P6an) and quarries of slate, granite,
&c., are worked. There are flour and saw-mills, brick works,
boat-building yards, iron and copper foundries and forges,
dyeworks, and a widespread tanning industry. Sail-cloth,
rope, pottery, boots and shoes (Fougeres), edge-tools, nails,
farming implements, paper and furniture are also among the
products of the department. The chief ports are St Malo and
St Servan. Fishing is very active on the coast, and St Malo,
St Servan and Cancale equip fleets for the Newfoundland cod-
banks. There are also important oyster-fisheries in the Bay
of St Michel, especially at Cancale. The little town of Dinard
is well known as a fashionable bathing-resort. Exports include
agricultural products, butter, mine-posts and dried fish; imports,
live-stock, coal, timber, building materials and American wheat.
The department is served by the Western railway, and has over
130 m. of navigable waterway. The population is of less dis-
tinctively Celtic origin than the Bretons of Western Brittany,
between whom and the Normans and Angevins it forms a transi-
tional group. Ille-et-Vilaine is divided into the arrondissements
of Fougeres, St Malo, Montfort-sur-Meu, Redon, Rennes and
Vitre, with 43 cantons and 360 communes. The chief town
is Rennes, which is the seat of an archbishop and of a court
of appeal, headquarters of the X. army corps, and the centre
of an academic (educational division).
In addition to the capital, Fougeres, St Malo, St Servan,
ILLEGITIMACY
301
Redon, Vitre, Dol, Dinard and Cancale
are the towns of chief importance and
are separately noticed. At Combourg
there is a picturesque chateau of the
i4th and isth centuries where
Chateaubriand passed a portion of his
early life. St Aubin-du-Cormier has
the ruins of an important feudal fort-
ress of the i3th century built by the
•dukes of Brittany for the protection
of their eastern frontier. Montfort-
sur-Meu has a cylindrical keep of the
1 5th century which is a survival of its old ramparts.
ILLEGITIMACY (from " illegitimate," Lat. illegitimus, not
in accordance with law, hence born out of lawful wedlock),
the state of being of illegitimate birth. The law dealing with
TABLE II. — Illegitimate Births to 1000 Unmarried and Widowed Females, aged 15-49 years.
Country.
1846-55-
1856-65.
1866-75.
1876-85.
1886-95.
1896-1905.
England and Wales .
17
18
16
13
10
8
Scotland .
22
23
20
17
13
Ireland
5
4
5
3
Denmark
28
27
26
24
23
Sweden
20
22
23
22
22
Germany .
28
27
26
Netherlands
10
9
9
6
Belgium .
16
16
17
19
17
17
France
15
17
17
16
17
18
Italy
24
24
19
TABLE I. — Illegitimate Births per 1000 Births (excluding still-born).
as it is usually termed. This is given for certain countries in
Table II.
The generally accepted idea that the inhabitants of the warmer
countries of the south of Europe are more ardent in tempera-
1876-1880.
1881-1885.
1886-1890.
1891-1895.
1896-1900.
1901-1905.
England and Wales
48
48
46
42
41
40
Scotland
85
83
81
74
68
64
Ireland
24
27
28
36
36
26
Denmark
101
IOO
95
94
96
IOI
Norway
84
81
75
71
74
Sweden
IOO
102
103
105
U3
Finland
73
7°
65
65
66
Russia
28
27
27
27
27
Austria
138
H5
H7
146
141
Hungary
73
79
82
85
90
94
Switzerland •
47
48
47
46
45
Germany .
87
92
92
9i
90
84
Netherlands
31
30
32
31
27
23
Belgium
74
82
87
88
80
68
France
72
7»
83
87
88
88
Portugal
123
122
121
Spain
49
44
Italy .
72
76
74
69
62
56
New South Wales
42
44
49
60
69
70
Victoria .
43
46
49
60
69
70
Queensland
39
4i
44
48
59
65
South Australia
22
25
30
38
4i
West Australia
48
5i
42
Tasmania
44
38
46
57
New Zealand
23
29
32
38
44
45
the legitimation of children born out of wedlock will be found
under LEGITIMACY AND LEGITIMATION. How far the prevalence
of illegitimacy in any community can be taken as a guide to
the morality of that community is a much disputed question.
The phenomenon itself varies so much in different localities,
even in localities where the same factors seem to prevail, that
affirmative conclusions are for the most part impossible to draw.
In the United Kingdom, where the figures differ considerably
for the three countries — England, Scotland, Ireland — the reasons
that might be assigned for the differences are negatived if applied
on the same lines, as they might well be, to certain other countries.
Then again, racial, climatic and social differences must be allowed
for, and the influence of legislation is to be taken into account.
The fact that in some countries marriage is forbidden until a
man has completed his military service, in another, that consent
of parents is requisite, in another, that " once a bastard always
a bastard " is the rule, while in yet another that the merest of
subsequent formalities will legitimize the offspring, must account
in some degree for variations in figures.
Table I. gives the number of illegitimate births per 1000
births in various countries of the workl for quinquennial periods.
It is to be noted that still-born births are excluded, as in the
United Kingdom (contrary to the practice prevailing in most
European countries) registration of such births is not com-
pulsory. The United States is omitted, as there is no national
system of registration of births.
This method of measuring illegitimacy by ascertaining the
proportion of illegitimate births in every thousand births is
a fairly accurate one, but there is another valuable one which
is often applied, that of comparing the number of illegitimate
births with each thousand unmarried females at the child-
bearing age — the " corrected " rate as opposed to the " crude,"
ment has at least no support as shown
in the figures in Table I., where we find
a higher rate of illegitimacy in Sweden
and Denmark than in Spain or Italy.
Religion, however, must be taken
into account as having a strong influ-
ence in preventing unchastity, though
it cannot be concluded that any par-
ticular creed is more powerful in this
direction than another; for example,
the figures for Austria and Ireland are
very different. It cannot be said,
either, that figures bear out the state-
ment that where there is a high rate
of illegitimacy there is little prostitu-
tion. It is more probable that in a
country where the standard of living
is low, and early marriages are the
rule, the illegitimate birth-rate will
be low. As regards England and
Wales, the illegitimate birth-rate has
been steadily declining for many years,
not only in actual numbers, but also in
proportion to the population.
TABLE III. — England and Wales.
Year.
Illegitimate
Births.
Proportion
to 1000 of
population.
Illegitimate
Births in
1000 Births.
1860
43.693
2-2
64
1865
46,585
2-2
62 ,
1870
44.737
2-O
56
1875
40,813
•7
48
1880
42,542
•6
48
1885
42,793
•6
48
1890
38,412
•3
44
1895
38,836
•3
42
1900
36,814
•i
40
1905
37,315
•I
40
1907
36,189
•0
39
The corrected rate bears out the result shown in Table III.
as follows:
TABLE IV. — England and Wales. Illegitimate Birth-rate calculated on
the Unmarried and Widowed Female Population, aged 15-45
years.
Rate per 1000.
Compared with
rate in 1876-1880,
taken as 100.
1876-1880
1881-1885
1886-1890
1891-1895
1896-1900
1901-1905
1906
1907
14-4
13-5
u-8
10- 1
9-2
8-4
8-1
7-8
IOO-O
93-8
81-9
70-1
63-9
58-3
56-3
54-2
Table V. gives the illegitimate births to 1000 births in
England and Wales for the ten years 1897-1906 and for
302
ILLEGITIMACY
TABLE V. — England and Wales. Illegitimate Births to 1000 Births.
Ten
years
1897-
1906.
1907.
Ten
years
1897-
1906.
1907.
Ten
years
1897-
1906.
1907.
Ten
years
1897-
1906.
1907.
Bedford . .
49
53
Hertford . .
40
42
Oxford . .
53
56
N. Riding
53
45
Berks . . .
47
48
Huntingdon
49
46
Rutland . .
46
70
w. „
43
41
Bucks . . .
40
44
Kent . . .
40
4i
Shropshire
64
61
Cambridge
48
53
Lancashire
38
37
Somerset .
37
35
Anglesey .
81
75
Chester . .
4'
39
Leicester-
Stafford . .
40
38
Brecon
44
4°
Cornwall .
50
48
shire
40
39
Suffolk . .
56
62
Cardigan .
64
61
Cumberland .
61
58
Lincolnshire .
55
54
Surrey
38
37
Carmarthen .
37
4'
Derby . . .
41
41
London
37
38
Sussex
52
52
Carnarvon
60
72
Devon
39
39
Middlesex
3°
28
Warwick .
32
3°
Denbigh .
49
47
Dorset . .
40
37
Monmouth
29
27
Westmor-
Flint . . .
42
42
Durham
^4
37
Norfolk . .
62
65
land
61
62
Glamorgan
26
26
Essex .
28
27
Northampton
41
42
Wilts . . .
41
42
Merioneth
71
77
Gloucester
36
36
Northumber-
Worcester
37
38
Montgomery .
76
73
Hants .
40
36
land .
39
38
Yorks—
Pembroke
52
47
Hereford .
66
66
Nottingham .
50
49
E. Riding
52
49
Radnor
66
67
TABLE VI. — Annual Illegitimate Birth-rates in each Registration County of England and Wales, 1870-1907.
Registration
Counties.
Illegitimate Births to 1000 Unmarried and Widowed Females,
aged 1 5-45 years.
Decrease per cent
in each County
between the period
1870-1872
and 1907.
Three-year Periods.
Years.
1870-1872.
1880-1882.
1890-1892.
1900-1902.
1903-1905
1906.
1907.
England and Wales
17-0
14-1
io-5
8-5
8-3
8-1
7-8
54-1
London ....
10-3
9-8
8-1
6-9
6-9
6-8
6/4
37-9
Bedford ....
2I-I
18-0
• II-2
8-4
8-0
8-2
8-7
58-8
Berks ....
16-8
13-4
10-3
8-7
8-6
8-1
8-4
50-0
Bucks ....
19-0
16-5
12-6
9-1
8-9
7'3
8-8
53-7
Cambridge .
19-3
15-6
12-4
9-6
IO-I
9.7
10-4
46-1
Chester ....
17-5
14-2
10-3
7-7
7-3
7-2
6-9
• 60-6
Cornwall
16-5
14-8
II-2
8-6
8-1
7-5
7-5
54-5
Cumberland .
29-2
23-9
18-6
12-3
12-3
12-3
II-O
62-3
Derby ....
22-5
17-7
12-8
IO-O
IO-O
IO-O
9.4
58-2
Devon ....
14-0
10-6
8-1
6-7
6-5
6-7
6-1
56-4
Dorset ....
14-2
I3-I
9-6
7-2
7-2
8-1
6-4
54-9
Durham ....
24-0
18-0
13-8
n-i
n-i
10-8
11-6
5i-7
Essex ....
16-2
12-7
9-1
7'3
7-1
6-7
6-4
60-5
Gloucester
12-9
n-6
8-2
' *•*
6-3
6-1
6-8
5-8
55'0
Hants ....
13-6
u-8
8-5
7'3
7-1
6-9
6-4
52-9
Hereford
21-4
19-0
13-4
1 1 -2
"•5
10-3
II-O
48-6
Hertford . . .
18-4
I5-3
10-4
7-0
7-2
6-6
7-5
59'2
Huntingdon ., .
19-8
14-0
12-9
10-9
9-7
9-7
97
51-0
Kent
14-7
I2-I
9'3
7-5
7-6
7'5
7-2
51-0
Lancashire .
16-2
13-6
IO-2
7'9
7-8
7-5
7-2
55-6
Leicestershire
19-9
16-1
n-4
8-6
7.9
7-5
7-3
63-3
Lincolnshire .
22-3
18-5
14-2
12-2
I2-I
12-7
11-9
46-6
Middlesex
9.4
9-4
6-5
5-9
6-0
6-1
5'7
39-4
Monmouth .
18-6
15-9
n-3
10-2
9-1
9-6
9'3
50-0
Norfolk ....
27-3
22-6
16-7
13-4
13-4
12-5
12-8
53'i
Northampton
18-7
I5-9
11-7
9-1
8-8
9-0
7-7
58-8
Northumberland
2I-I
17-9
12-4
IO-2
IO-O
10-4
9-3
55-9
Nottingham .
24-5
21-7
15-4
12-7
12-6
12-0
11-9
5i-4
Oxford ....
I9-0
15-4
10-4
9-0
9-1
9'3
9-2
51-6
Rutland ....
18-1
12-7
7.9
7'2
6-8
9-0
1 1 -4
37-o
Salop ....
28-2
21-8
16-6
12-8
I3'4
13-0
n-8
58-2
Somerset
13-3
"•3
7-4
6-0
6-0
5'4
5'5
58-6
Stafford ....
24-6
19-4
H-5
II-2
n-4
10-9
IO-I
58-9
Suffolk ....
22-0
17-8
14-0
12-0
n-7
12-4
12-5
43-2
Surrey ....
9-5
8-5
6-6
5-9
5-7
5-9
57
40-0
Sussex ....
13-7
"•5
8-7
7-2
7-0
6-5
6-4
53-3
Warwick ....
Westmorland
14-9
21-9
13-2
17-9
9'7
I3-I
7-6
8-6
7-5
9-1
6-6
8-5
6-8
7-8
54-4
64-4
Wilts ....
17-1
14-7
10-3
9-2
8-7
8-6
9-3
45'6
Worcester
16-3
13-7
9-2
7-2
6-8
6-6
6-6
59'5
Yorks—
E. Riding .
N. Riding . .
23-0
27-7
18-2
20-2
14-3
15-4
12-2
12-1
11-7
n-6
12-2
1 1 -9 •
10-6
IO-2
53-9
63-2
W. Riding . . .
20-4
16-1
11-4
9.4
9-2
8-8
8-1
60-3
Anglesey . . .
19-7
16-7
15-7
16-1
14-9
13-3
12-9
34-5
Brecon ....
19-9
18-0
12-5
IO-I
9-2
9-2
8-3
58-3
Cardigan
Carmarthen
16-0
18-2
14-8
13-9
11-8
9.4
8-9
7-7
7-8
8-2
6-3
7'7
7-3
8-9
54-4
Si''
Carnarvon .
18-3
13-9
12-7
10-3
9-6
9.4
10-5
42-6
Denbigh ....
2I-I
17-6
J3-4
12-3
ii-6
'3-5
10-3
5i-2
Flint
18-7
iS-d.
T-l.T
9.7
1 1 *2
I T «O
T T «n
A T -2
Glamorgan .
Merioneth
Montgomery
/
17-7
24-4
29-5
iU if.
13-5
19-5
24-3
*o *•
10-3
16-4
16-7
/
8-5
13-5
I3-I
9-1
13-4
13-4
ii 9
8-9
13-2
12-6
1 1 *\J
8-4
12-7
11-7
41 £
52-5
48-0
60-3
Pembroke
21-6
I5-9
12-4
8-9
10-2
10-7
8-4
61-1
Radnor ....
41-8
33-2
20- 1
14-4
13-4
8-3
"•3
73-0
ILLEGITIMACY
303
TABLE VII.— Rate of Illegitimacy per 1000 Births.
Belfast. . . .31
Liverpool .
• 54
Birmingham . . 35
Manchester
. 28
Bradford ... 40
Middlesboro' .
• 25
Bristol .... 31
Newcastle .
• 36
Cork . . . . 18
Nottingham
. 60
Dublin. ... 28
Portsmouth
• 33
Edinburgh . . 69
Salford . . .
. 28
Glasgow ... 63
Sunderland
• 30
Leeds .... 54
TABLE VIII.— Scotland 1906.
Births Legitimate. Illegitimate.
Births per
1000 of pop.
Percentage of
Illegitimate to
Total Births.
132,005 122,699 9306
27-93
7-05
Illegitimate
Births.
Percentage
of
Illegitimate
to Total
Births.
Illegitimate
Births.
Percentage
of
Illegitimate
to Total
Births.
1860
1865
1870
1875
1880
1885
1890
9,736
11,262
11,108
10,786
10,589
10,680
9.241
9-22
9-96
9-63
8-73
8-50
8-47
7-60
1895
1900
1901
1902
1903
1904
1905
1906
9204
8534
8359
8300
8295
9010
9082
9306
7-28
6-49
6-32
6-28
6-21
6-79
6-91
7-05
TABLE IX. — Scotland 1906.
Illegitimate
Illegitimate Births
Births.
per 1000 of Un-
\T_
Per 1000
marneu women ana
Widows between
I\O.
of Pop.
15 and 45.
Districts:
Principal Town .
4318
7-14
Large Town .
1029
5-58
Small Town .
1724
6-23
Mainland-rural .
2099
9-08
Insular-rural .
136
5-88
Shetland ....
31
5-3°
7-0
Orkney
29
5-99
77
Caithness ....
84
9.96
19-4
Sutherland ....
28
.6-81
10- 1
Ross and Cromarty
74
4-40
6-9
Inverness ....
H5
8-02
n-5
Nairn
18
10-29
13-2
Elgin (or Moray) .
169
15-66
26-3
Banff
202
12-93
25-4
Aberdeen ....
1083
12-38
24-2
Kincardine ....
93
8-15
17-0
Forfar
676
9-43
14-2
Perth
215
7-93
10-8
Fife
308
4-56
9'7
Kinross
20
9-95
22-2
Clackmannan .
53
6-69
10-9
Stirling
235
4-91
13-2
Dumbarton ....
163
4-14
97
Argyll
148
10-07
12-7
Bute
3°
8-36
9-2
Renfrew
410
4-46
8-5
Ayr
499
6-23
14-3
Lanark
2872
6-28
15-9
Linlithgow ....
99
3-88
15-4
Edinburgh ....
930
7-23
II-O
Haddington.
66
5-92
n-8
Berwick
60
9-63
12-7
Peebles
21
6-18
7-9
Selkirk
46
9-13
"•5
Roxburgh ....
83
8-67
9-8
Dumfries ....
218
12-51
19-9
Kirkcudbright .
92
10-71
15-7
Wigtoun
1 06
12-79
22-5
Scotland
9306
7-05
14-1
the year 1907. Table VI. gives the " corrected " rate for certain
three-year periods. In connexion with these tables the following
extract from the Registrar-General's Report for 1907 (p. xxx.)
is important.
" It is difficult to explain the variations in the rates of illegitimacy
in the several counties. It may be stated generally that the
proportion of illegitimate children cannot alone serve as a standard
of morality. Broadly speaking, however, the single and widowed
women in London, in the counties south of the Thames, and in the
south-western counties have comparatively few illegitimate children;
on the other hand, the number of illegitimate children is com-
paratively high in Shropshire, in Herefordshire, in Staffordshire,
in Nottinghamshire, in Cumberland, in North Wales, and also in
TABLE X. — Ireland. Proportion per cent of Illegitimate Births.
1903.
1904.
1905-
1906.
1907.
Ireland
Leinster .
Munster .
Ulster ... .
Connaught
2-6
2-5
2-6
2-6
2-5
2-6
2-3
3-3
o-5
2-6
2-2
3-4
0-7
2-7
2-3
3'5
0-7
2-7
2-2
3-5
0-7
2-7
2-1
3-3
0-6
nearly all the counties on the eastern seaboard, viz. Suffolk, Norfolk,
Lincolnshire, the East and North Ridings of Yorkshire, and Durham.
In the Registrar-General's Report for the year 1851 it was assumed
that there was an indirect connexion between female illiteracy and
illegitimacy. This may have been the case in the middle of the
last century, but there is no conclusive evidence that such is the
case at the present day. The proportions of illegitimacy and the
proportions of married women who signed the marriage register
TABLE XI. — Ireland 1907.
County.
No. of
Illegitimate
Births.
Per cent of
Total Births.
Leinster —
Carlow
27
3-56
Dublin
34
i-iS
Dublin Co. Borough ....
3H
3-29
Kildare
22
1-46
Kilkenny
54
3-29
King's
24
2-07
Longford
II
1-23
Louth
27
2-OI
Meath
30
2-27
Queen's
18
1-70
19
I -57
Wexford
89
4-n
Wicklow
37
2-91
Munster —
Clare
23
1-04
Cork Co. and Co. Borough
151
1-69
Kerry
5i
i-34
Limerick Co. and Co. Borough
107
3-H
Tipperary N.R
19
1-49
Tipperary S.R
66
3-32
Waterford Co. and Co. Borough .
68
3-69
Ulster-
Antrim
230
5-o8
Armagh
99
3-49
Belfast Co. Borough ....
355
3-13
Cavan
27
i-54
Donegal
54
1-36
Fermanagh
Londonderry Co. and Borough
4i
"45 .
3-15
4-35
Monaghan
24
1-55
Tyrone
iie
3-8o
Connaught —
Galway
32
•80
IO
• 77
Mayo
21
•45
Roscommon
9
•5°
Sligo
9
•52
Leinster
716
2-67
Munster
495
2-II
Ulster
1272
3-32
81
•60
2564
by mark are relatively high in Staffordshire, in North Wales, in
Durham and in the North Riding of Yorkshire; on the other hand,
in Norfolk, in Suffolk and in Lincolnshire there is a compara-
tively high proportion of illegitimacy and a low proportion of
illiteracy."
This latter conclusion may be carried further by saying that
in those European countries where elementary education is
3°4
ILLER— ILLINOIS
most common, the rate of illegitimacy is high, and that it is
low in the more illiterate parts, e.g. Ireland and Brittany.
It has been said that one of the contributory causes of illegiti-
macy is the contamination of great cities; statistics, however,
disprove this, there being more illegitimacy in the rural districts.
Table VII. gives the rate of illegitimacy in some of the principal
towns of the United Kingdom.
That poverty is a determining factor in causing illegitimacy
the following figures, giving the rate of illegitimacy in the
poorest parts of London and in certain well-to-do parts, clearly
disprove: —
Rate of Illegitimacy per 1000 Births.
London.
1901.
1903.
1905-
1907.
Stepney
Bethnal Green . . .
Mile End Old Town
Whitechapel ....
St George's, Hanover Sq. .
Kensington ....
Fulham
Marylebone ....
12
13
15
22
9
15
13
24
18
11
'-9
10
ii
15
19
40
48
43
182
45
44
42
1 86
45
49
45
198
45
54
40
182
Tables VIII. and IX. give the rate of illegitimacy for the
various counties of Scotland, and Table X. the rate for Ireland.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The Annual Reports of the Registrars-General
for England, Scotland and Ireland; statistical returns of foreign
countries; A. Leffingwell, Illegitimacy and the Influence of the
Seasons upon Conduct (1892). (T. A. I.)
ILLER, a river of Bavaria, rising in the south-west extremity
of the kingdom, among the Algauer Alps. Taking a northerly
course, it quits the mountains at Immenstadt, and, flowing by
Kempten, from which point it is navigable for rafts, forms
for some distance the boundary between Bavaria and Wurttem-
berg, and eventually strikes the Danube (right bank) just above
Ulm. Its total length is 103 m.
ILLINOIS, a North Central state of the United States of
America, situated between 37° and 42° 30' N. lat. and 87° 35'
and 91° 40' W. long. It is bounded N. by Wisconsin, E. by
Lake Michigan and Indiana, S.E. and S. by the Ohio river,
which separates it from Kentucky, and S.W. and W. by the
Mississippi river, which separates it from Missouri and Iowa.
The Enabling Act of Congress, which provided for the organiza-
tion of Illinois Territory into a state, extended its jurisdiction
to the middle of Lake Michigan and the Mississippi river;
consequently the total area of the state is 58,329 sq. m., of which
2337 sq. m. are water surface, though the official figures of the
United States Geological Survey, which does not take into
account this extension of jurisdiction, are 56,665 sq. m.
1 Physiography. — Physiographically, the state (except the extreme
'southern point) lies wholly in the Prairie Plains region. The N.E.
corner is by some placed in the " Great Lakes District." The
;southern point touches the Coastal Plain Belt at its northward
extension called the " Mississippi Embayment." The surface of
Illinois is an inclined plane, whose general slope is toward the S. and
S.W. The average elevation above sea-level is about 600 ft. ; the
,highest elevation is Charles Mound (1257 ft.), on the Illinois-
Wisconsin boundary line, one of a chain of hills that crosses Jo
jDaviess, Stephenson, Winnebago, Boone and McHenry counties.
jAn elevation from 6 to 10 m. wide crosses the southern part of the
state from Grand Tower, in Jackson county, on the Mississippi to
Shawneetownf in Gallatin county, on the Ohio, the highest point
-being; 1047 ft. above the sea; from Grand Tower N. along the
Mississippi to the mouth of the Illinois there is a slight elevation and
there is another elevation of minor importance along the Wabash.
Many of the river bluffs rise to an unusual height, Starved Rock,
:near Ottawa, in La Salle county, being 150 ft. above the bed of the
Illinois river. Cave in Rock, on the Ohio, in Hardin county, was
once the resort of river pirates. The country S. of the elevation
(mentioned above) between Grand Tower and Shawneetown was
originally covered with forests.
The drainage of Illinois is far better than its low elevation and
comparatively level surface would suggest. There are more than
275 streams m the state, grouped in two river systems, one having
the Mississippi, which receives three-fourths of the waters of
Illinois, as outlet, the other being tributary to the Wabash or Ohio
rivers. The most important river is the Illinois, which, formed by
the junction of the Des Plaines and the Kankakee, in the N.E.
part of Grundy county, crosses the N. central and W. portions of
the state, draining 24,726 sq. m. At some points, notably at Lake
Peoria, it broadens into vast expanses resembling lakes. The
Kaskaskia, in the S., notable for its variations in volume, and the
Rock, in the N., are the other important rivers emptying into the
Mississippi; the Embarrass and Little Wabash, the Saline and
Cache in the E., are the important tributaries of the Wabash and
Ohio rivers. The Chicago river, a short stream I m. long, formed
by the union of its N. and S. branches, naturally flowed into Lake
Michigan, but by the construction of the Chicago Drainage Canal
its waters were turned in 1900 so that they ultimately flow into the
Mississippi.
The soil of Illinois is remarkable for its fertility. The surface
soils are composed of drift deposits, varying from 10 to 200 ft.
in depth; they are often overlaid with a black loam 10 to 15 in.
deep, and in a large portion of the state there is a subsoil of yellow
clay. The soil of the prairies is darker and coarser than that of the
forests, but all differences disappear with cultivation. The soil of
the river valleys is alluvial and especially fertile, the " American
Bottom," extending along the Mississippi from Alton to Chester,
having been in cultivation for more than 150 years. Along the
river bluffs there is a silicious deposit called loess, which is well
suited to the cultivation of fruits and vegetables. In general the
N. part of the state is especially suited to the cultivation of hay, the
N. and central parts to Indian corn, the E. to oats, and the S.W.
to wheat.
Climate. — The climate of Illinois is notable for its extremes of
temperature. The warm winds which sweep up the Mississippi
Valley from the Gulf of Mexico are responsible for the extremes of
heat, and the Arctic winds of the north, which find no mountain
range to break their strength, cause the extremes of cold. The mean
annual temperature at Winnebago, near the N. border, is 47° F., and
it increases to the southward at the rate of about 2° for every degree
of latitude, being 52° F. at Springfield, and 58° F. in Cairo, at the
S. extremity. The lowest temperature ever recorded in the state
was -32° F., in February 1905, at Ashton in the N.W. and the
highest was 115° F., in July 1901, at Centralia, in the S., making a
maximum range of 147 F. The range of extremes is considerably
greater in the N. than in the S. ; for example, at Winnebago ex-
tremes have ranged from -26° F. to 110° F. or 136° F., but at
Cairo they have ranged only from — 16° F. to 106° F. or 122° F.
The mean annual precipitation is about 39 in. in the S. counties,
but this decreases to the northward, being about 36 in. in the central
counties and 34 in. along the N. border. The mean annual snow-
fall increases from 12 in. at the S. extremity to approximately 40 in.
in the N. counties. In the N. the precipitation is 44-8 % greater in
spring and summer than it is in autumn and winter, but in the S.
only 26-17% greater. At Cairo the prevailing winds are southerly
duringall monthsexcept February, and as far north as Springfield they
are southerly from April to January; but throughout the N. half
of the state, except along the shore of Lake Michigan, where they
vary from N.E. to S.W., the winds are mostly from the W. or N.W.
from October to March and very variable for the remainder of the
year. The dampness and miasma, to which so many of the early
settlers' fatal " chills and fever " were due, have practically dis-
appeared before modern methods of sanitary drainage.
Fauna and Flora. — The fauna and flora, which are similar to
those of the other North Central States of North America, impressed
the early explorers with their richness and variety. " We have
seen nothing like this for the fertility of the land, its prairies, woods,
and wild cattle," wrote Pere Jacques Marquette of the Illinois
region, and later explorers also bore witness to the richness of the
country. Many of the original wild animals, such as the bison,
bear, beaver, deer and lynx, have disappeared; wolves, foxes and
mink are rare; but rabbits, squirrels and raccoons are still common.
The fish are mainly the coarser species, such as carp, buffalo-fish
and white perch; of better food fish, the principal varieties are bass
(black, striped and rock), crappie, pike, " jack salmon " or wall-
eyed pike, and sun fish. The yield of the fisheries in 1900 was
valued at $388,876. The most important fisheries on the Illinois river
and its tributaries were at Havana, Pekin and Peoria, which in 1907-
1908 were represented by a total catch of about 10,000,000 tb,
put of a total for this river system of 17,570,000 ft. The flora
is varied. Great numbers of grasses and flowering plants which once
beautified the prairie landscape are still found on uncultivated lands,
and there are about 80 species of trees, of which the oak, hickory,
maple and ash are the most common. The cypress is found only
in the S. and the tamarack only in the N. The forest area, estimated
at 10,200 sq. m. in 1900, is almost wholly in the southern counties,
and nearly all the trees which the northern half of the state had
before the coming of the whites were along the banks of streams.
Among wild fruits are the cherry, plum, grape, strawberry, black-
berry and raspberry.
Industry and Commerce. — The fertility of the soil, the mineral
wealth and the transportation facilities have given Illinois a
vast economic development. In 1900 more than seven-tenths
of the inhabitants in gainful occupations were engaged in
agriculture (25-6%), manufactures and mechanical pursuits
(26-7%), and trade and transportation (22%).
r- ) —
.0 C
ILLINOIS
305
Historically and comparatively, agriculture is the most important
industry. In 1900 about nine-tenths of the total land area was
inclosed in farms; the value of farm property ($2,004,316,897) was
greater than that of any other state; as regards the total value of
farm products in 1899 Illinois was surpassed only by Iowa; in the
value of crops Illinois led all the states, and the values of property
and of products were respectively 35-6% and 87-1% greater than
at the end of the preceding decade. During the last half of the
igth century the number of farms increased rapidly, and the average
size declined from 158 acres in 1850 to 127-6 acres in 1870 and
124-2 acres in 1900.' The prevailing form of tenure is that of owners,
60-7 % of the farms being so operated in 1900; but during the decade
1890-1900 the number of farms cultivated by cash tenants in-
creased 30-8%, and the number by share tenants 24-5%, while
the increase of cultivation by owners was only I %. In proportion
of farm land improved (84-5%), Illinois was surpassed only by
Iowa among the states. Cereals form the most important agri-
cultural product (600,107,378 bushels in 1899 — in value about three-
fourths of the total agricultural products of the state). In the
production of cereals Illinois surpassed the other states at the
close of each decade during the last half of the 19th century except
that ending in 1890, when Iowa was the leading state. Indian corn
and oats are the most valuable crops. The rank of Illinois in the
production of Indian corn was first in 1899 with about one-fifth of
the total product of the United States, and first in 1907 ' with nearly
one-tenth of the total crop of the country (9,521,000 bushels out of
99,931,000). In 1879, in 1899 and in 1905 (when it produced
132,779,762 bushels out of 953,216,197 from the entire country)
it was first among the states producing oats, but it was surpassed
by Iowa in 1889, 1906 and 1907; in 1907 the Illinois crop was
101,675,000 bushels. From 1850 until 1879 Illinois also led in the
production of wheat; the competition of the more western states,
however, caused a great decline in both acreage and production of
that cereal, the state's rank in the number of bushels produced
declining to third in 1889 and to fourteenth in 1899, but the crop and
yield per acre in 1902 was larger than any since 1894; in 1905 the
state ranked ninth, in 1906 eighth and in 1907 fifth (the crop being
40,104,000 bushels) among the wheat-growing states of the country.
The rank of the state in the growing of rye also declined from second
in 1879 to eighth in 1899 and to ninth in 1907 (when the crop was
1,106,000 bushels), and the rank in the growing of barley from
third in 1869 to sixteenth in 1899. In 1907 the barley crop was
600,000 bushels. Hay and forage are, after cereals, the most im-
portant crops; in 1907 2,664,000 acres produced 3,730,000 tons of
hay valued at $41,030,000. Potatoes and broom corn are other
valuable products. The potato crop in 1907 was 13,398,000 bushels,
valued at $9,647,000, and the sugar beet, first introduced during
the last decade of the iqth century, gave promise of becoming one
of the most important crops. From 1889 to 1899 there was a distinct
decline in the production of apples and peaches, but there was a great
increase in that of cherries, plums and pears. The large urban
population of the state makes the animal products very valuable,
Illinois ranking third in 1900 in the number of dairy cows, and in
the farm value of dairy products; indeed, all classes of live stock,
except sheep, increased in number from 1850 to 1900, and at the
end of the latter year Illinois was surpassed only by Iowa in the
number of horses and swine; in 1909 there were more horses in
Illinois than in Iowa. Important influences in the agricultural
development of the state have been the formation of Farmers'
Institutes, organized in 1895, a Corn Breeders' Association in 1898,.
and the introduction of fertilizers, the use of which in 1899 was
nearly seven times the amount in 1889, and the study of soils,
carried on by the State Department of Agriculture and the
United States Department of Agriculture.
The growth of manufacturing in Illinois during the last half of
the I gth century, due largely to the development of her exceptional
transportation facilities, was the most rapid and remarkable in the
industrial history of the United States. In 1850 the state ranked
fifteenth, in 1860 eighth, in 1870 sixth, in 1880 fourth, in 1890 and
again in 1900 third, in the value of its manufactures. The average
increases of invested capital and products for each decade from
1850-1900 were, respectively, 189-26% and 152-9%; in 1900 the
capital invested ($776,829,598, of which $732,829,771 was in
establishments under the " factory system "), and the product
($1,259,730,168, of which $1,120,868,308 was from establishments
under the " factory system "). showed unusually small percentages
of increase over those for 1890 (54-7% and 38-6% respectively);
and in 1905 the capital and product of establishments under the
" factory system" were respectively $975,844,799 and $1,410,342,129,
showing increases of 33-2% and 25-8% over the corresponding
figures for 1900.
The most important industry was the wholesale slaughtering
and packing of meats, which yielded 22-9% of the total manu-
factured product of the state in 1900, and 22-5% of the total in
*The statistics for years prior to 1900 are taken from reports of
the U.S. Census, those for years after 1900 from the Year Books
of the U.S. Department of Agriculture. It should be borne in mind
that in census years, when comparison can be made, the two sets of
statistics often vary considerably.
1905. From 1870 to 1905 Illinois surpassed the other states in this
industry, yielding in 1900 and in 1905 more than one-third of the
total product of the United States. The increase in the value of
the product in this industry in Illinois between 1900 and 1905 was
over 10%. An interesting phase of the industry is the secondary
enterprises that have developed from it, nearly all portions of the
slaughtered animal being finally put to use. The blood is converted
into clarifying material, the entrails are used for sausage coverings,
the hoofs and small bones furnish the raw material for the manu-
facture of glue, the large bones are carved into knife handles, and
the horns into combs, the fats are made to yield butterine, lard and
soap, and the hides and hair are used in the manufacture of mat-
tresses and felts.
The manufacture of iron and steel products, and of products
depending upon iron and steel as raw material, is second in im-
portance. The iron for these industries is secured from the Lake
Superior region, the coal and limestone from mines within the state.
Indeed, in the manufacture of iron and steel, Illinois was surpassed
in 1900 only by Pennsylvania and Ohio, the 1900 product being
valued at $60,303,144; but the value of foundry and machine shop
products was even greater ($63,878,352). In 1905 the iron and
steel product had increased in 'value since 1900 44-9%, to
$87,352,761 ; the foundry and machine shop products 25-2 %, to
$79-961,482; and the wire product showed even greater increase,
largely because of a difference of classification in the two censuses,
the value in 1905 being' $14,099,566, as against $2,879,188 in
1900, showing an increase of nearly 390%. The development of
agriculture, by creating a demand for improved farm machinery,
has stimulated the inventive genius; in many cases blacksmith
shops have been transformed into machinery factories; also well-
established companies of the eastern states have been induced to
remove to Illinois by the low prices of iron and wood, due to cheap
transportation rates on the Great Lakes. Consequently, in 1890,
in 1900 and again in 1905, Illinois surpassed any one of the other
states in the production of agricultural implements, the product in
1900 being valued at $42,033,796, or 41-5% of the total output of
agricultural machinery in the United States; and in 1905 with a
value of $38,412,452 it represented 34-3% of the product of the
entire country. In the building of railway cars by manufacturing
corporations, Illinois also led the states in 1900 and in 1905, the
product being valued at $24,845,606 in 1900 and at $30,926,464
(an increase of nearly one-fourth) in 1905; and in construction by
railway companies was second in 1900, with a product valued at
$16,580,424, which had increased 53-7% in 1905, when the product
was valued at $25,491^09. The greatest increase of products
between 1890 and 1900 was in the manufacture of electrical apparatus
(2400%), in which the increase in value of product was 37-2%
between 1900 and 1905.
Another class of manufactures consists of those dependent upon
agricultural products for raw material. Of these, the manufacture
of distilled liquors was in 1900 and in 1905 the most important,
Illinois leading the other states; the value of the 1900 product,
which was nearly 12% less than that of 1890, was increased by
41-6%, to $54,101,805, in 1905. Perria, the centre of the industry,
is the largest producer of whisky and high-class wines of the cities
in the United States. There were also, in 1900, 35 direct and other
indirect products made from Indian corn by glucose plants, which
consumed one-fifth of the Indian corn product of the state, and
the value of these products was $18,122,814; m !9°5 it was only
$14,532,180. Of other manufactures dependent upon agriculture,
flour and grist mill products declined between 1890 and 1900, but
between 1900 and 1905 increased 39-6% to a value of $39,892,127.
The manufacture of cheese, butter and condensed milk increased
60% between 1890 and 1900, but between 1900 and 1905 only 3-1 %,
the product in 1905 being valued at $13,276,533.
Other prosperous industries are the manufacture of lumber and
timber products (the raw material being floated down the Mississippi
river from the forests of other states), whose output increased from
1890 to 1900 nearly 50%, but declined slightly between 1900 and
1905; of furniture ($22,131,846 in 1905; $15,285,475 in 1900;
showing an increase of 44.8%), and of musical instruments
($13.323.358 in 1905; $8,156,445 in 1900; an increase of 63-3%
in the period), in both of which Illinois was second in 1900 and
in 1905; book and job printing, in which the state ranked second
in 1900 ($28,293,684 in 1905; $19,761,780 in 1900; an increase of
43-2%), newspaper and periodical printing ($28,644,981^ in 1905;
$19,404,955 in 1900; an increase of 47-6%), in which it ranked
third in 1900; and the manufacture of clothing, boots and shoes.
The value of the clothing manufactured in 1905 was $67,439,617
(men's $55,202,999; women's $12,236,618), an increase of 30-1%
over 1900). The great manufacturing centre is Chicago, where more
than seven-tenths of the manufactured products of the state were
produced in 1900, and more than two-thirds in 1905.
In this development of manufactures, the mineral resources have
been an important influence, nearly one-fourth (23-6%) of the
manufactured product in 1900 depending upon minerals for raw
material. Although the iron ore, for the iron and steel industry,
is furnished by the mines of the Lake Superior region, bituminous coal
and limestone are supplied by the Illinois deposits. The great
central coal field of North America extends into Illinois from
306
ILLINOIS
Indiana as far N. as a line from the N. boundary of Grundy county
to Rock Island, W. from Rock Island to Henderson county, then
S.W. to the southern part of Jackson county, when it runs S. into
Kentucky, thus including more than three-fourths (42,900 sq. m.]
of the land surface of the state. In 1679 Hennepin reported deposits
of coal near what is now Ottawa on the Illinois; there was some
mining in 1810 on the Big Muddy river in Jackson county; and in
1833, 6000 tons were mined. In 1907 (according to state authorities)
coal was produced in 52 counties, Williamson, Sangamon, St Clair,
Macoupin and Madison giving the largest yield. In that year the
tonnage was 51,317,146, and the value of the total product
$54,687,882; in 1908 the value of the state's product of coal was
exceeded only by that of Pennsylvania (nearly six times as great).
Nearly 30% of all coal mined in the state was mined by machinery
in 1907. The output of petroleum in Illinois was long unimportant.
The first serious attempts to find oil and gas in the state were in the
'fifties of the igth century. In 1889 the yield of petroleum was
1460 barrels. In 1902 it was only 200 barrels, nearly all of which
came from Litchfield, Montgomery county (where oil had been found
in commercial quantities in 1886), and Washington, Tazewell county,
in the west central part of the state; at this time it was used locally
for lubricating purposes. There had been some drilling in Clark
county in 1865, and in 1904 this field was again worked at Westfield.
In 1905 the total output of the state was 181,084 barrels; in 1906
the amount increased to 4,397,050 barrels, valued at $3,274,818;
and in 1907, according to state reports, the output was 24,281,973
barrels, being nearly as great as that of the Appalachian field.
The petroleum-producing area of commercial importance is a strip
of land about 80 m. long and 2 or 3 to 10 or 12 m. wide in the S.E.
part of the state, centring about Crawford county. In April 1906
the first pipe lines for petroleum in Illinois were laid; before that
time all shipments had been in tank cars. In connexion with
petroleum, natural gas has been found, especially in Clark and
Crawford counties; in 1906 the state's product of natural gas was
valued at $87,211. Limestone is found in about 30 counties,
principally Cook, Will and Kankakee; the value of the product
in 1906 was $2,942,331. Clay and clay products of the state were
valued in 1906 at $12,765,453. Deposits of lead and zinc have been
discovered and worked in Jo Daviess county, near Galena and
Elizabeth, in the N.W. part of the state. A southern district,
including parts of Hardin, Pope and Saline counties, has produced,
incidentally to fluorspar, some lead, the maximum amount being
I7f><3%7 Ib from the Fairview mine in 1866-1867. In !9°5 the
zinc from the entire state was valued at $5,499,508; the lead pro-
duct in 1906 was valued at $65,208. Sandstone, quarried in 10
counties, was valued in 1905 at $29,115 and in 1906 at $19,125.
Pope and Hardin counties were the only sources of fluorspar in the
United States from 1842 until 1898, when fluorspar began to be
mined in Kentucky; in 1906 the output was 28,268 tons, valued at
$160,623, and in 1905 33,275 tons, valued at $220,206. The centre
of the fluorspar district was Rosiclare in Hardin county. The cement
deposits are also of value, natural cement being valued at $118,221
and Portland cement at $2,461,494 in 1906. Iron ore has been
discovered. Glass sand is obtained from the Illinois river valley
in La Salle county; in 1906 it was valued at $156,684, making the
state in this product second only to Pennsylvania and West Virginia
(in 1905 it was second only to Pennsylvania). The value of the
total mineral product of -the state in 1906 was estimated at
$121,188,306.'
Communications. — Transportation facilities have been an
important factor in the economic development of Illinois. The
first European settlers, who were French, came by way of the
Great Lakes, and established intimate relations with New Orleans
by the Mississippi river. The American settlers came by way
of the Ohio river, and the immigrants from the New England
and Eastern states found their way to Illinois over the Erie
Canal and the Great Lakes. The first transportation problem
was to connect Lake Michigan and the Mississippi river; this
was accomplished by building the Illinois & Michigan canal
to La Salle, at the head of the navigation on the Illinois river,
a work which was begun in 1836 and completed in 1848 under
the auspices of the state. In 1890 the Sanitary District of
Chicago undertook the construction of a canal from Chicago
to Joliet, where the new canal joins the Illinois & Michigan
canal; this canal is 24 ft. deep and 160 ft. wide. The Federal
government completed in October 1907 the construction of a
1 According to the report of the State Geological Survey, the
value of the total mineral product in the state for 1907 was
$152,122,648, the values of the different minerals being as follows:
coal, $54,687,382; pie iron, about $52,228,000; petroleum,
$16,432,947; clay and clay products, $13,351,362; zinc, $6,614,608;
limestone, $4,333,651; Portland cement, $2,632,576; sand and
gravel, $1,367,653; natural slag, $174,282; fluorspar, $141,971;
mineral waters, $91,700; lead ore, $45,760; sandstone, $14,996;
and pyrite, $5700.
new canal, the Illinois & Mississippi, popularly known as the
Hennepin, from Hennepin to Rock river (just above the mouth
of Green river), 7 ft. deep, 52 ft. wide (at bottom), and 80 ft.
wide at the water-line. This canal provides, with the Illinois
& Michigan canal and the Illinois river, an improved waterway
from Chicago to the Mississippi river, and greatly increases
the commercial and industrial importance of the " twin cities "
of Sterling and Rock Falls, where the Rock river is dammed by
a dam nearly 1500 ft. long, making the main feeder for the canal.
This feeder, formally opened in 1907, runs nearly due S. to a
point on the canal N.W. of Sheffield and N.E. of Mineral;
there are important locks on either side of this junction. At
the general election in November 1908 the people of Illinois
authorized the issue of bonds to the amount of $20,000,000 to
provide for the canalizing of the Desplaines and Illinois rivers
as far as the city of Utica, on the latter river, and connecting
with the channel of the Chicago Sanitary District at Joliet.
The situation of Illinois between the Great Lakes and the
Appalachian Mountains has made it a natural gateway for
railroads connecting the North Atlantic and the far Western
states. The first railway constructed in the West was the
Northern-Cross railroad from Meredosia on the Illinois river to
Springfield, completed in 1842; during the last thirty years of
the igth century Illinois had a larger railway mileage than any
of the American states, her mileage in January 1909 amounting
to 12,215-63 m., second only to that of Texas. A Railway and
Warehouse Commission has authority to fix freight and passenger
rates for each road. It is the oldest commission with such
power in the United States, and the litigation with railways
which followed its establishment in 1871 fully demonstrated the
public character of the railway business and was the precedent
for the policy of state control elsewhere.2
Population. — In 1870 and 1880 Illinois was fourth among the
states of the United States in population; but in 1890, in 1900,
and in 1910, its rank was third, the figures for the last three years
named being respectively 3.826,351, 4,821,550, and 5,638, 591.*
The increase from 1880 to 1890 was 24-3%; from 1890 to
1900, 26%. Of the population in 1900, 98-2% was white,
79-9% was native-born, and 51-2% was of foreign parentage
(either one or both parents foreign-born). The principal foreign
element was German, the Teutonic immigration being especially
large in the decade ending in 1860; the immigrants from the
United Kingdom were second in importance, those from the
Scandinavian countries third, and those from southern Europe
fourth. The urban population, on the basis of places having
4000 inhabitants or more, was 51% of the total; indeed the
population of Cook county, in which the city of Chicago is situ-
ated, was two-fifths of the total population of the state; during
the decade of the Civil War (1860-1870) the population of the
state increased only 48-4%, and that of Cook county about
140%, while from 1870 to 1900 the increase of all counties,
excluding Cook, was about 36%, the increase in Chicago was
about 468 %. Of the 930 incorporated cities, towns and villages,
614 had less than 1000 inhabitants, 27 more than 5000 and less
than 10,000, 14 more than 10,000 and less than 20,000, 4 more
than 20,000 and less than 25,000, and 7 more than 25,000.
These seven were Chicago (1,698,575), the second city in popula-
tion in the United States, Peoria (56,100), Quincy (36,252),
Springfield (34,159), Rockford (31,051), East St Louis (29,655),
and Joliet (29,353). In 1906 it was estimated that the total
number of communicants of all denominations was 2,077,197,
and that of this total 932,084 were Roman Catholics, 263,344
were Methodist (235,092 of the Northern Church, 7198 of the
Southern Church, 9833 of the African Methodist Episcopal
Church, 5512 of the Methodist Protestant Church, and 3597 of
the Free Methodist Church of North America), 202,566 were
Lutherans (113,527 of the Evangelical Lutheran Synodical
2 See the so-called McLean County Case (67 111. n), the Neal
Ruggles Case (91 111. 256), The People v. The Illinois Central Railroad
Co. (95 HI. 313), and Munn v. III. (94 U.S. 113).
'The populations in other census years were: (1810), 12,282;
(1820), 55-2"; (1830), 157,445; (1840), 476,183; (1850), 851,470;
(1860), i,7H,95i; (1870), 2,539,891; (1880), 3,077,871.
ILLINOIS
307
Conference, 36,366 of the General Council of the Evangelical
Lutheran Church, 14,768 of the General Synod of the Evan-
gelical Lutheran Church, and 14,005 of the Evangelical Lutheran
Synod of Iowa and other states), 152,870 were Baptists (118,884
of the Northern Convention, 16,081 of the National (Colored)
Baptist Convention, 7755 Free Baptists, 6671 General Bap-
tists, and 5163 Primitive Baptists), 115,602 were Presbyterian
(86,251 of the Northern Church, 17,208 of the Cumberland
Church (now a part of the Northern Church), and 9555 of the
United Presbyterian Church), 101,516 were Disciples of Christ,
59,973 were members of the German Evangelical Synod of
North America, 54,875 were Congregationalists, and 36,364
were Protestant Episcopalians.
Government. — Illinois has been governed under four con-
stitutions, a Territorial constitution of 1812, and three State
constitutions of 1818, 1848 and 1870 (subsequently amended).
Amendments may be made by a Constitutional Convention or
a two-thirds vote of all the members elected to the legislature,
ratification by the people being required in either instance.
To call a Constitutional Convention it is necessary that a majority
popular vote concur in the demand therefor of two-thirds
of the members of each house of the General Assembly. The
executive officials hold office for four years, with the excep-
tion of the treasurer, whose term of service is two years. The
governor must be at least thirty years of age, and he must also
have been a citizen of the United States and of Illinois for the
five years preceding his election. His veto may be over-ridden
by a two-thirds vote of all the members elected to the legislature.
Members of the legislature, which meets biennially, are chosen
by districts, three representatives and one senator from each
of the 51 districts, 18 of which are in Cook county. The term
of senators is four years, that of representatives two years;
and in the election of representatives since 1870 there has been
a provision for " minority " representation, under which by
cumulative voting each voter may cast as many votes for one
candidate as there are representatives to be chosen, or he may
distribute his votes (giving three votes to one candidate, or i^
votes each to two candidates, or one vote each to three can-
didates), the candidate or candidates receiving the highest
number of votes being elected. A similar system of cumulative
voting for aldermen may be provided for by ordinance of
councils in cities organized under the general state law of 1872.
Requisites for membership in the General Assembly are citizen-
ship in the United States; residence in Illinois for five years,
two of which must have been just preceding the candidate's
election; and an age of 25 years for senators, and of 21 years
for representatives. Conviction for bribery, perjury or other
infamous crime, or failure (in the case of a collector or holder
of public moneys) to account for and pay over all moneys
due from him are disqualifications; and before entering upon
the duties of his office each member of the legislature must take
a prescribed oath that he has neither given nor promised any-
thing to influence voters at the election, and that he will not
accept, directly or indirectly, " money or other valuable thing
from any corporation, company or person " for his vote or
influence upon proposed legislation. Special legislation is pro-
hibited when general laws are applicable, and special and local
legislation is forbidden in any of twenty-three enumerated cases,
among which are divorce, changing of an individual's name or
the name of a place, and the grant to a corporation of the right to
build railways or to exercise any exclusive franchise or privilege.
The judiciary consists of a supreme court of 7 members elected
for a term of 9 years; a circuit court of 54 judges, 3 for each
of 1 8 judicial districts, elected for 6 years; and four appellate
courts — one for Cook county (which has also a " branch ap-
pellate court," both the court and the branch court being pre-
sided over by three circuit judges appointed by the Supreme
Court) and three other districts, each with three judges ap-
pointed in the same way. In Cook county a criminal court,
and the supreme court of Cook county (originally the supreme
court of Chicago), supplement the work of the circuit court.
There are also county courts, consisting of one judge who serves
for four years; in some counties probate courts have been
established, and in counties of more than 500,000 population
juvenile courts for the trial and care of delinquent children are
provided for.
The local government of Illinois includes both county and
township systems. The earliest American settlers came from
the Southern States and naturally introduced the county system;
but the increase of population from the New England and Middle
States led to a recognition of township organization in the con-
stitution of 1848, and this form of government, at first prevalent
only in the northern counties, is now found in most of the middle
and southern counties. Cook county, although it has a town-
ship system, is governed, like those counties in which townships
are not found, by a Board of Commissioners, elected by the
townships and the city of Chicago. A general law of 1872 pro-
vides for the organization of municipalities, only cities and
villages being recognized, though there are still some " towns "
which have failed to reorganize under the new law. City charters
are granted only to such municipalities as have a population
of at least 1000.
Requirements for suffrage are age of 21 years or more, citizen-
ship in the United States, and residence in the state for one year,
in the county ninety days, and the election precinct thirty days
preceding the exercise of suffrage. Women are permitted to
vote for certain school officials and the trustees of the State
University. Disfranchisement is brought about by conviction
for bribery, felony or infamous crime, and an attempt to vote
after such conviction is a felony.
The relation of the state to corporations and industrial pro-
blems has been a subject of important legislation. The
constitution declares that the state's rights of eminent domain
shall never be so abridged as to prevent the legislature from taking
the property and franchises of incorporated companies and sub-
jecting them to the public necessity in a way similar to the
treatment of individuals. In 1903 the legislature authorized the
municipal ownership of public service corporations, and in 1905
the city of Chicago took steps to acquire ownership of its street
railways — a movement which seemed to have spent its force in
1907, when the municipal ownership candidates were defeated
in the city's elections— and in 1902 the right of that city to
regulate the price of gas was recognized by the United States
Circuit Court of Appeals. Railways organized or doing business
in the state are required by the constitution to have a public
office where books for public inspection are kept, showing the
amount of stock, its owners, and the amount of the road's
liabilities and assets. No railway company may now issue stock
except for money, labour, or property actually received and
applied to purposes for which the corporation was organized.
In 1907 a law went into effect making two cents a mile a maxi-
mum railway fare. An anti-trust law of 1893 exempted from the
definition of trust combinations those formed by producers of
agricultural products and live stock, but the Untied States Supreme
Court in 1902 declared the statute unconstitutional as class legis-
lation. According to a revised mining law of 1899 (subsequently
amended), all mines are required to be in charge of certified
mine managers, mine examiners, and hoisting engineers, when
the services of the engineers are necessary ; and every mine must
have an escapement shaft distinct from the hoisting shaft. The
number of men permitted to work in any mine not having an
escapement shaft cannot, in any circumstances, exceed ten during
the time in which the escapement or connexion is being completed.
Economic conditions have also led to an increase of administra-
tive boards. A State Civil Service Commission was created
by an act of the General Assembly of 1905. A Bureau of Labor
Statistics (1879), whose members are styled Commissioners
of Labor, makes a study of economic and financial problems
and publishes biennial reports; a Mining Board (1883) and an
inspector of factories and workshops (since 1893) have for their
duty the enforcement of labour legislation. There are also a
State Food Commission (1899) and a Live Stock Commission
(1885). A Board of Arbitration (1895) has authority to make
and publish investigations of all facts relating to strikes and
3o8
ILLINOIS
lock-outs, to issue subpoenas for the attendance and testifying
of witnesses, and " to adjust strikes or lock-outs by mediation
or conciliation, without a formal submission to arbitration."
The employment of children under 14 years of age in factories
or mines, and working employees under 16 years of age for more
than 60 hours a week, are forbidden by statute. The state has
an excellent " Juvenile Court Law," which came into force
on the ist of July 1899 and has done much good, especially in
Chicago. The law recognized that a child should not be treated
like a mature malefactor, and provided that there should be no
criminal procedure, that the child should not be imprisoned
or prosecuted, that his interests should be protected by a pro-
bation officer, that he should be discharged unless found depend-
ent, delinquent or truant, and in such case that he should be
turned over to the care of an approved individual or charitable
society. This law applies to counties having a minimum popula-
tion of 500,000. The legal rate of interest is 5 %, but this may
be increased to 7% by written contract. A homestead owned
and occupied by a householder having a family is exempt (to
the amount of $1000) from liability for debts, except taxes upon,
and purchase money for, the same. Personal property to the
value of $300 also is exempt from liability for debt. Grounds
for divorce are impotence of either party at time of marriage,
previous marriage, adultery, wilful desertion for two years,
habitual drunkenness, attempt on life, extreme and repeated
cruelty, and conviction of felony or other infamous crime. The
marriage of cousins of the first degree is declared incestuous
and void. In June 1907 the Supreme Court of Illinois declared
the sale of liquor not a common right and " sale without license
a criminal offence," thus forcing clubs to close their bars or take
out licences.
The charitable institutions of the state are under the management
of local trustees appointed by the governor. They are under the
supervision of the Board of State Commissioners of Public Charities
(five non-salaried members appointed by the governor) ; in 1908
there were 18 institutions under its jurisdiction. Of these, seven
were hospitals for the insane — six for specific parts of the state, viz.
northern at Elgin, eastern at Kankakee, central at Jacksonville,
southern at Anna, western at Watertown, and general at South
Bartooville, and one at Chester for insane criminals. The others
were the State Psychopathic Institute at Kankakee (established in
1907 as part of the insane service) for systematic study of mental
and nervous diseases; one at Lincoln having charge of feeble-
minded children; two institutions for the blind — a school at
Jacksonville and an industrial home at Marshall Boulevard and
I9th Street, Chicago; a home for soldiers and sailors (Quincy),
one for soldiers' orphans (Normal), and one for soldiers' widows
(Wilmington); a school for the deaf (Jacksonville), and an eye and
ear infirmary (Chicago). The Board of Charities also had super-
vision of the State Training School for (delinquent) Girls (1893)
at Geneva, and of the St Charles School for (delinquent) Boys (1901)
at St Charles.
The trustees of each penal institution are appointed by the
governor, and the commissioners of the two penitentiaries and the
managers of the state reformatory compose a Board of Prison
Industries. There were in 1908 two penitentiaries, one at Joliet
and one at Chester, and, in addition to the two reformatory institu-
tions for young offenders under the supervision of the Board of
Charities, there is a State Reformatory for boys at Pontiac. The
indeterminate sentence and parole systems are important features
of the treatment of criminals. All but two of the counties have
almshouses. In 1908, in some counties, the care of paupers was
stijl let by contract to the lowest bidder or the superintendent was
paid between $1-00 and $1-80 — seldom more than $1-50 — a week
for each patient, and he paid a small (or no) rent on the county
farm. Complete state control of the insane and the introduction of
modern hospital and curative treatment in the state asylums (or
hospitals) are gradually taking the place of county care for the
insane and of antiquated custodial treatment in and political control
of the state asylums — changes largely due to the action of Governor
Deneen, who appointed in 1906 a Board of Charities pledged to
reform. By a law of 1905 all employed in such institutions were
put on a civil service basis. In 1907-1908, $1,500,000 was spent in
rehabilitating old buildings and in buying new land and erecting
buildings.
Education. — Public education in Illinois had its genesis in
the land of the North-West Territory reserved for educational
purposes by the Ordinance of 1787. The first state school law,
which provided for state taxation for public schools, was enacted
in 1825. The section providing for taxation, however, was
repealed, but free schools supported by the sale of land reserved
for education and by local taxation were established as early
as 1834. In 1855 a second school law providing for a state
school tax was enacted, and this is the foundation of the existing
public school system; the constitution of 1870 also requires
the legislature to provide a thorough and efficient system of
public schools. In 1907-1908 the total school revenue, nine-
tenths of which was derived from local taxation and the remainder
chiefly from a state appropriation (for the year in question,
$1,057,000) including the proceeds derived from permanent
school funds secured by the gift and sale of public lands on the
part of the United States Government, was $39,989,510-22.
The attendance in some school of all children from 7 to 16 years
of age is compulsory, and of the population of school age
(1,500,066) 988,078 were enrolled in public schools. The
average length of the school term in 1908 was 7-8 months, and
the average monthly salary of teachers was $82-12 for men and
$60.76 for women.
The state provides for higher education in the University
of Illinois, situated in the cities of Champaign and Urbana.
It was founded in 1867, through the United States land grant
of 1862, as the Illinois Industrial University, and received its
present name in 1885; since 1870 it has been co-educational.
Associated with the University are the State Laboratory of
Natural History, the State Water Survey, the State Geological
Survey, the State Entomologist's Office, and Agricultural and
Engineering Experiment Stations. The University confers
degrees in arts, science, engineering, agriculture, law, medicine,
pharmacy, dentistry, music, and library science; besides the
usual subjects, it has a course in ceramics. The University
publishes Bulletins of the Agricultural and Engineering Experi-
ment Stations; Reports of the State Water Survey, of the
State Natural History Survey, of the State Geological Survey,
and of the State Entomologist's Office; University Studies; and
The Journal of English and Germanic Philology. The schools of
medicine, pharmacy and dentistry are in Chicago. The faculty
in 1907 numbered 408, and the total enrolment of students
in 1907-1908 was 4743 (of whom 991 were women), distributed
(with 13 duplicates in the classification) as follows: Graduate
School, 203; Undergraduate Colleges, 2812; Summer Session,
367; College of Law, 186; College of Medicine, 476; College
of Dentistry, 76; School of Pharmacy, 259; Academy, 377.
In 1908 the University had a library of 103,000 volumes. The
trustees of the institution, who have legislative power only, are
the governor, the President of the Board of Agriculture, the
State Superintendent of Public Instruction, and nine others
elected by the people. There were in 1907 more than forty
other universities and colleges in the state, the most important
being the University of Chicago, North-western University
at Evanston, Illinois Wesleyan University at Bloomington,
Knox College, Galesburg, and Illinois College at Jacksonville.
There were also six normal colleges, five of them public: the
Southern Illinois State Normal College at Carbondale, the Eastern
Illinois State Normal School at Charleston, the Western Illinois
State Normal School at Macomb, the Chicago Normal School
at Chicago, the Northern Illinois State Normal School atDeKalb,
and the Illinois State Normal University at Normal.
Finance. — The total receipts for the biennial period ending the
3Oth of September 1908 were $19,588,842-06, and the disbursements
were $21,278,805-27; and on the Ist of October 1908 there was a
balance in the treasury of $3,859,263-44. The bonded debt on the
same date was $17,500; these bonds ceased to bear interest in
1882, but although called in by the governor they have never been
presented for payment. The system of revenue is based upon the
general property tax; the local assessment of all real and personal
property is required, with the aim of recording all kinds of property
upon the assessment rolls. Boards of Revision and Boards of
Supervision then equalize the assessments in the counties and
townships, while a State Board of Equalization seeks to equalize
the total valuation of the various counties. The tendency is for
property valuations to decline, the estimated valuation from 1873
to 1893 decreasing 27% in Cook county and 39% in the other
counties, while the assessments from 1888 to 1898 were in inverse
ratio to the increase of wealth. There has also been great inequality
in valuations, the increase of valuation in Cook county made in
ILLINOIS
309
compliance with the revenue law of 1898 being $200,000,000, while
that for the rest of the state was only $4,000,000. Among other
sources of revenue are an inheritance tax, which yields approximately
$1,000,000 a year, and 7% of the annual gross earnings of the
Illinois Central railway, given in return for the state aid in the
construction of the road. The constitution prohibits the state from
lending its credit or making appropriations in aid of any corporation,
association or individual, and from constructing internal improve-
ments, and the counties, townships, and other political units cannot
incur indebtedness in excess of 5% of their assessed property
valuation. The legislature may not contract a debt of more than
$250,000 except to suppress treason, war or invasion, and no
legislative appropriation may extend longer than the succeeding
legislature. General banking laws must be submitted to the people
for ratification.
History. — Illinois is the French form of Iliniwek, the name
of a confederacy of Algonquian tribes. The first exploration by
Europeans was that of the French. In 1659 Pierre Radis-
son and Medard Chouart des Groseilliers seem to have
reached the upper Mississippi. In 1672 Jacques Marquette,
a Jesuit father, after having established a mission to the
Indians at Mackinaw (Michigan) in the preceding year, ex-
plored the country around Chicago. In 1673 Marquette, under
orders to begin a mission to the Indians, who were known to
the French by their visits to the French settlements in the
Lake Superior region, and Louis Joliet, who acted under orders
of Jean Talon, Intendant of Canada, ascended the Fox river,
crossed the portage between it and the Wisconsin river, and
followed that stream to the Mississippi, which they descended
to a point below the mouth of the Arkansas. On their return
journey they ascended the Illinois river as far as Lake Peoria;
they then crossed the portage to Lake Michigan, and in 1675
Marquette founded a mission at the Indian town of Kaskaskia,
near the present Utica, 111. In 1679 the explorer La Salle,
desiring to find the mouth of the Mississippi and to extend the
domain of France in America, ascended the St Joseph river,
crossed the portage separating it from the Kankakee, which he
descended to the Illinois, and built in the neighbourhood of
Lake Peoria a fort which he called Fort Crevecceur. The
vicissitudes of the expedition, the necessity for him to return
to Canada for tools to construct a large river-boat, and opposition
in Canada to his plans, prevented him from reaching the mouth
of the Illinois until the 6th of February 1682. After such pre-
liminary explorations, the French made permanent settlements,
which had their origin in the missions of the Jesuits and the
bartering posts of the French traders. Chief of these were
Kaskaskia, established near the mouth of the Kaskaskia river,
about 1720; Cahokia, a little below the mouth of the Missouri
river, founded at about the same time; and Fort Chartres, on
the Mississippi between Cahokia and Kaskaskia, founded in
1720 to be a link in a chain of fortifications intended to extend
from the St Lawrence to the GuK of Mexico. A monument of
the labours of the missionaries is a manuscript dictionary
(c. 1720) of the language of the Illinois, with catechism and
prayers, probably the work of Father Le Boulanger.
In 1712 the Illinois river was made the N. boundary of the
French province of Louisiana, which was granted to Antoine
Crozat (1655-1738), and in 1721 the seventh civil and military
district of that province was named Illinois, which included
more than one-half of the present state, the country between
the Arkansas river and the line 43° N. lat., as well as the country
between the Rocky Mountains and the Mississippi; but in 1723
the region around the Wabash river was formed into a separate
district. The trade of the Illinois country was now diverted
to the settlements in the lower Mississippi river, but the French,
although they were successful in gaining the confidence and
friendship of the Indians, failed to develop the resources of the
country. By the treaty of Paris, 1763, France ceded to Great
Britain her claims to the country between the Ohio and
Mississippi rivers, but on account of the resistance of Pontiac, a
chief of the Ottawas who drew into conspiracy most of the tribes
between the Ottawa river and the lower Mississippi, the English
were not able to take possession of the country until 1765, when
the French flag was finally lowered at Fort Chartres.
The policy of the British government was not favourable
to the economic development of the newly-acquired country,
since it was feared that its prosperity might react against the
trade and industry of Great Britain. But in 1769 and the suc-
ceeding years of English control, this policy was relaxed, and
immigration from the seaboard colonies, especially from Virginia,
began. In 1771 the people of the Illinois country, through a
meeting at Kaskaskia, demanded a form of self-government
similar to that of Connecticut. The petition was rejected by
General Thomas Gage; and Thomas Legge, earl of Dartmouth
(1731-1801), Secretary of State for Plantations and President
of the Board of Trade, drew up a plan of government for Illinois
in which all officials were appointed by the crown. This, how-
ever, was never operative, for in 1774, by the famous Quebec
Act, the Illinois country was annexed to the province of Quebec,
and at the same time the jurisdiction of the French civil law
was recognized. These facts explain the considerable sympathy
in Illinois for the colonial cause in the War of Independence.
Most of the inhabitants, however, were French, and these were
Loyalists. Consequently, the British government withdrew
their troops from the Illinois country. The English authorities
instigated the Indians to make attacks upon the frontiers of
the American colonies, and this led to one of the most important
events in the history of the Illinois country, the capture of the
British posts of Cahokia and Kaskaskia in 1778, and in the
following year of Vincennes (Indiana), by George Rogers Clark
(q.v.), who acted under orders of Patrick Henry, Governor of
Virginia. These conquests had much to do with the securing
by the United States of the country W. of the Alleghanies and
N. of the Ohio in the treaty of Paris, 1783.
The Virginia House of Delegates, in 1778, extended the civil
jurisdiction of Virginia to the north-west, and appointed Captain
John Todd (1750-1782), of Kentucky, governor of the entire
territory north of the Ohio, organized as " The County of
Illinois "; the judges of the courts at Cahokia, Kaskaskia,
and Vincennes, who had been appointed under the British
administration, were now chosen by election; but this govern-
ment was confined to the old French settlements and was
entirely inefficient. In 1 787, Virginia and the other states having
relinquished their claims to the country west of the Alleghanies,
the North- West Territory was organized by Congress by the
famous Ordinance of 1787. Two years later St Clair county
was formed out of the S.W. part of the Illinois country, while
the E. portion and the settlements around Vincennes (Indiana)
were united into the county of Knox, and in 1795 the S. part
of St Clair county was organized into Randolph county, with
Kaskaskia as the seat of administration. In 1800 the Illinois
country was included in the Territory of Indiana, and in 1809
the W. part of Indiana from Vincennes N. to Canada was organized
as the Territory of Illinois; it included, besides the present
territory of the state, all of Wisconsin except the N. part of the
Green Bay peninsula, a considerable part of Michigan, and all
of Minnesota E. of the Mississippi. In 1812, by permission of
Congress, a representative assembly was chosen, a Territorial
constitution was adopted, and the Territorial delegate in Con-
gress was elected directly by the people.
In 1818 Illinois became a state of the American Union, the
Enabling Act fixing the line 42° 30' as the N. boundary, instead
of that provided by the Ordinance of 1787, which passed through
the S. bend of Lake Michigan. The reason given for this change
was that if the Mississippi and Ohio rivers were the only outlets
of Illinois trade, the interests of the state would become identified
with those of the southern states; but if an outlet by Lake
Michigan were provided, closer relations would be established
with the northern and middle states, and so " additional security
for the perpetuity of the Union " would be afforded.
Among the first problems of the new state were those relating
to lands and Indians. Throughout the Territorial period
there was conflict between French and English land claims.
In 1804 Congress established land offices at Kaskaskia and
Vincennes to examine existing claims and to eliminate conflict
with future grants; in 1812 new offices were established at
310
ILLINOIS
Shawneetown and Edwardsville for the sale of public lands;
and in 1816 more than 500,000 acres were sold. In 1818, how-
ever, many citizens were in debt for their lands, and " squatters "
invaded the rights of settlers. Congress therefore reduced the
price of land from $2 to $1-25 per acre, and adopted the policy
of pre-emption, preference being given to the claims of existing
settlers. The Indians, however, resisted measures looking
toward the extinguishment of their claims to the country. Their
dissatisfaction with the treaties signed in 1795 and 1804 caused
them to espouse the British cause in the War of 1812, and in
1812 they captured Fort Dearborn on the present site of Chicago,
and massacred many of the prisoners. For a number of years
after the end of the conflict, the Indians were comparatively
peaceful; but in 1831 the delay of the Sauk and Foxes in with-
drawing from the lands in northern Illinois, caused Governor
John Reynolds (1788-1865) to call out the militia. The follow-
ing year Black Hawk, a Sauk leader, opened an unsuccessful war
in northern Illinois and Wisconsin (the Black Hawk War);
and by 1833 all Indians in Illinois had been removed from the
state.
The financial and industrial policy of the state was unfortunate.
Money being scarce, the legislature in 1819 chartered a state
bank which was authorized to do business on the credit of the
state. In a few years the bank failed, and the state in 1831
borrowed money to redeem the depreciated notes issued by the
bank. A second state bank was chartered in 1835; two years
later it suspended payment, and in 1843 the legislature pro-
vided for its liquidation. The state also undertook to establish
a system of internal improvements, granting a loan for the
construction of the Illinois and Michigan canal in 1836, and in
1837 appropriating $10,000,000 for the building of railroads
and other improvements. The experiment proved unsuccessful;
the state's credit declined and a heavy debt was incurred, and
in 1840 the policy of aiding public improvements was abandoned.
Through the efforts of Governor Thomas Ford (1800-1850) a
movement to repudiate the state debt was defeated, and a plan
was adopted by which the entire debt could be reduced without
excessive taxation, and by 1880 practically the entire debt was
extinguished.
A notable incident in the history of the state was the im-
migration of the Mormons from Missouri, about 1840. Their
principal settlements were in Hancock county. They succeeded
in securing favours from the legislature, and their city of Nauvoo
had courts and a military organization that was independent
of state control. Political intrigue, claims of independence from
the state, as well as charges of polygamy and lawless conduct,
aroused such intense opposition to the sect that in 1844 a civil
war broke out in Hancock county which resulted in the murder
of Joseph Smith and the removal of the Mormons from Illinois
in 1846.
The slavery question, however, was the problem of lasting
political importance. Slaves had been brought into the Illinois
country by the French, and Governor Arthur St Clair (1734-
1818) interpreted the article of the Ordinance of 1787, which
forbade slavery in the North-West Territory, as a prohibition
of the introduction of slaves into the Territory, not an interference
with existing conditions. The idea also arose that while negroes
could not become slaves, they could be held as indentured
1 servants, and such servitude was recognized in the Indiana
Code of 1803, the Illinois constitution of 1818, and Statutes of
1819; indeed there would probably have been a recognition
of slavery in the constitution of 1818 had it not been feared
that such recognition would have prevented the admission of
the state to the Union. In 1823 the legislature referred to
the people a resolution for a constitutional convention to amend
the constitution. The aim, not expressed, was the legalization
of slavery. Although a majority of the public men of the
state, indeed probably a majority of the entire population, was
either born in the Southern states or descended from Southern
people, the resolution of the legislature was rejected, the leader
of the opposition being Governor Edward Coles (1786-1868),
a Virginia slave-holder, who had freed his slaves on coming to
Illinois, and at least one half the votes against the proposed
amendment of the constitution were cast by men of Southern
birth. The opposition to slavery, however, was at first economic,
not philanthropic. In 1837 there was only one abolition society
in the state, but chiefly through the agitation of Elijah P.
Lovejoy (see ALTON), the abolition sentiment grew. In 1842
the moral issue had become political, and the Liberty Party
was organized, which in 1848 united with the Free Soil Party;
but as the Whig Party approved the policy of non-extension
of slavery, these parties did not succeed so well united as under
separate existence. In 1854, however, the Liberty and Free
Soil parties, the Democrats opposed to the Kansas-Nebraska
Bill, and some Whigs united, secured a majority in the legislature,
and elected Lyman Trumbull United States senator. Two
years later these elements formally organized as the Republican
Party, though that name had been used locally in 1854, and
elected their candidates for state offices. This was the first
time that the Democratic Party had been defeated, its organiza-
tion having been in control since the admission of Illinois to
the Union. An important influence in this political revolution
was a change in the character of the population. Until 1848
the Southern element predominated in the population, but after
that year the immigration from the Northern states was greater
than that from the South, and the foreign element also in-
creased.1 The opposition to slavery continued to be political and
economic rather than philanthropic. The constitution of 1848,
which abolished slavery, also forbade the immigration of slaves
into the state.2 In 1858 occurred the famous contest for the
office of United States senator between Stephen A. Douglas
(Democrat) and Abraham Lincoln (Republican). Douglas
was elected, but the vote showed that Illinois was becoming
more Northern in sympathy, and two years later Lincoln, then
candidate for the presidency, carried the state.
The policy of Illinois in the early period of secession was one
of marked loyalty to the Union; even in the S. part of the state,
where there was a strong feeling against national interference
with slavery, the majority of the people had no sympathy with
the pro-slavery men in their efforts to dissolve the Union. The
legislature of 1861 provided for a war fund of $2,000,000; and
Capt. James H. Stokes (1814-1890) of Chicago transferred a large
amount of munitions of war from St Louis, where the secession
sentiment was strong, to Alton. The state contributed 255,092
men to the Federal armies. From 1862-1864, however, there
was considerable opposition to a continuance of the war. This
was at first political; the legislature of 1862 was Democratic,
and for political purposes that body adopted resolutions against
further conflict, and recommended an armistice, and a national
convention to conclude peace. The same year a convention,
whose duty was to revise the constitution, met. It declared
that the law which called it into being was no longer binding,
and that it was supreme in all matters incident to amending the
constitution. Among its acts was the assumption of the right
of ratifying a proposed amendment to the constitution of the
United States which prohibited Congress from interfering with
the institution of slavery within a state, although the right of
ratification belonged to the legislature. The convention also
inserted clauses preventing negroes and mulattoes from immigrat-
ing into the state and from voting and holding office; and
although the constitution as a whole was rejected by the people,
these clauses were ratified. In 1863 more pronounced opposition
to the policy of the National Government developed. A mass
meeting, which met at Springfield in July, at the instance of
1 The influence of immigration and sectionalism upon Illinois
politics is well illustrated by the fact that the first six governors
(1818-1838) were born in the Southern states, six of the eight
United States senators of that period were also Southern born, and
all of the representatives, with one exception, also came to Illinois
from the Southern states. After 1838 the Eastern states began to
be represented among the governors, but until 1901 no governor
was elected who was a native of Illinois. See E. B. Greene, Sectional
Forces in the History of Illinois (Publications of the Historical
Library of Illinois, No. 8, 1903).
1 In the slavery issue of 1848 the sentiment for abolition centred
in the northern counties, the opposition in the southern.
ILLINOIS
the Democratic Party, adopted resolutions that condemned
the suspension of the writ of Habeas Corpus, endorsed the doctrine
of state sovereignty, demanded a national assembly to determine
terms of peace, and asked President Lincoln to withdraw the
proclamation that emancipated the slaves, and so to permit
the people of Illinois to fight only for" Union, the Constitution
and the enforcement of the laws." The Knights of the Golden
Circle, and other secret societies, whose aims were the promulga-
tion of state sovereignty and the extension of aid to the Con-
federate states, began to flourish, and it is said that in 1864
there were 50,000 members of the Sons of Liberty in the state.
Captain T. Henry Hines, of the Confederate army, was appointed
by Jefferson Davis to co-operate with these societies. For a
time his headquarters were in Chicago, and an elaborate attempt
to liberate Confederate prisoners in Chicago (known as the Camp
Douglas Conspiracy) was thwarted by a discovery of the plans.
In the elections of 1864 the Republicans and Union Democrats
united, and after an exciting campaign they were successful.
The new legislature was the first among the legislatures of the
states to ratify (on the ist of February 1865) the Thirteenth
Amendment.
From the close of the Civil War until the end of the igth
century the Republican Party was generally dominant, but the
trend of political development was not without interest. In
1872 many prominent men of the state joined the Liberal
Republican Party, among them Governor John M. Palmer,
Senator Lyman Trumbull and Gustavus Koerner (1809-1896),
one of the most prominent representatives of the German
element in Illinois. The organization united locally, as in national
politics, with the Democratic Party, with equally ineffective
results. Economic depression gave the Granger Movement
considerable popularity, and an outgrowth of the Granger
organization was the Independent Reform Party, of 1874,
which advocated retrenchment of expenses, the state regulation
of railways and a tariff for revenue only. A Democratic Liberal
Party was organized in the same year, one of its leaders being
Governor Palmer; consequently no party had a majority in
the legislature elected in 1874. In 1876 the Greenback Party,
the successor in- Illinois of the Independent Reform Party,
secured a strong following; although its candidate for governor
was endorsed by the Democrats, the Republicans regained
control of the state administration.
The relations between capital and labour have resulted in
serious conditions, the number of strikes from 1880-1901 having
been 2640, and the number of lock-outs 95. In 1885 the governor
found it necessary to use the state militia to suppress riots in
Will and Cook counties occasioned by the strikes of quarry-
men, and the following year the militia was again called out to
suppress riots in St Clair and Cook counties caused by the wide-
spread strike of railway employees. The most noted instance
of military interference was in 1894, when President Grover
Cleveland sent United States troops to Chicago to prevent
strikers and rioters from interfering with the transmission of
the United States mails.
Municipal problems have also reacted upon state politics.
From 1897 to 1903 the efforts of the Street Railway Companies
of Chicago to extend their franchise, and of the city of Chicago
to secure municipal control of its street railway system, resulted
in the statute of 1903, which provided for municipal ownership.
But the proposed issue under this law of bonds with which
Chicago was to purchase or construct railways would have
increased the city's bonded indebtedness beyond its constitu-
tional limit, and was therefore declared unconstitutional in
April 1907 by the supreme court of the state.
A law of 1901 provided for a system of initiative whereby
any question of public policy might be submitted to popular
vote upon the signature of a written petition therefor by one-
tenth of the registered voters of the state; such a petition must
be filed at least 60 days before the election day when it is to be
voted upon, and not more than three questions by initiative
may be voted on at the same election; to become operative
a measure must receive a majority of all votes cast in the election.
Under this act, in 1902, there was a favourable vote (451,319
to 76,975) for the adoption of measures requisite to securing
the election of United States senators by popular and direct
vote, and in 1903 the legislature of the state (which in 1891 had
asked Congress to submit such an amendment) adopted a joint
resolution asking Congress to call a convention to propose such
an amendment to the Federal Constitution; in 1904 there was
a majority of all the votes cast in the election for an amendment
to the primary laws providing that voters may vote at state
primaries under the Australian ballot. The direct primary
law, however, which was passed immediately afterwards by the
legislature, was declared unconstitutional by the supreme
court of the state, as were a second law of the same sort passed
soon afterwards and a third law of 1908, which provided for direct
nominations of all officers and an " advisory " nomination of
United States senators.
AMERICAN GOVERNORS OF ILLINOIS
Territorial.
Ninian Edwards
Shadrach Bond .
Edward Coles
Ninian Edwards .
John Reynolds
Wm. L. D. Ewing (acting)
Joseph Duncan .
Thomas Carlin
Thomas Ford
Augustus C. French .
Joel A. Matteson
William H. Bissell . .
John Wood (acting)
Richard Yates
Richard J. Oglesby . .
John M. Palmer
Richard J. Oglesby .
John L. Beveridge (acting)
Shelby M. Cullom
John M. Hamilton (acting)
Richard J. Oglesby . .
Joseph W. Fifer .
John P. Altgeld . . .
John R. Tanner .
Richard Yates . . .
Charles S. Deneen
. 1809-1818
State.
1818-1822 Democrat
1822-1826
1826-1830
1830-1834
1834
1834-1838
1838-1842
1842-1846
I84&-I8531
1853-1857
1857-1860 Republican
1860-1861
1861-1865
1865-1869
1869-1873
1873
1873-1877
1877-1883
1883-1885
1885-1889
1889-1893
4893-1897 Democrat
1897-1901 Republican
1901-1905
1905-
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — There is no complete bibliography of the varied
and extensive literature relating to Illinois; but Richard Bowker's
State Publications, part ii. (New York, 1902), and the chapters of
E. B. Greene's The Government of Illinois (New York, 1904) contain
useful lists of documents, monographs and books. Physiography
is well described in The Illinois Glacial Lobe (U.S. Geological Survey,
Monograph, xxxviii.) and The Water Resources of Illinois (U.S.
Geological Survey, Annual Report, xviii.). The Illinois State
Laboratory of Natural History, connected with the State University,
has published S. A. Forbes and R. E. Richardson's Fishes of Illinois
(Urbana, 1909). Information concerning economic conditions may
be derived from the volumes of the Twelfth Census of the United
States, which treat of Agriculture, Manufactures and Mines and
Quarries: a summary of agricultural conditions may be found
in Census Bulletin No. 213. Constitutional and administrative
problems are discussed in Elliott Anthony's Constitutional History
of Illinois; Greene's The Government of Illinois, and H. P. Judson's
The Government of Illinois (New York, 1900). Among the reports
of the state officials, those of the Railroad and Ware House Com-
mission, of the Bureau of Labor Statistics, and of the Commissioners
of Charity are especially valuable. There is an historical study of
the problem of taxation, entitled, " History of the Struggle in
Illinois to realize Equality in Taxation," by H. B. Kurd, in the
Publications of the Michigan Political Science Association (1901).,
Local government is described by Albert Shaw, Local Government
in Illinois (Johns Hopkins University Studies, vol. i. No. 10). The
Blue Book of the State of Illinois (Springfield, 1903) ; H. B. Kurd's
Revised Statutes of Illinois (Chicago, 1903), and Starr and Curtis,
Annotated Statutes of the State of Illinois (Chicago, 1896), are also of
value.
The standard histories of the state are J. Moses, Illinois, Historical
and Statistical (2 vols., Chicago, 1889); and H. Davidson and B.
Stuv6, Complete History of Illinois (Springfield, 1874). Edward G.
Mason's Chapters from Illinois History (Chicago, 1901) is of interest
1 Mr French's service of seven years is due to the fact that the
Constitutional Convention of 184.8 ordered a new election of state
officials. French was re-elected Governor, beginning his new term
in 1849.
312
ILLORIN— ILLUMINATED MSS.
for the French explorations and the colonial period. C. E. Boyd
in " The County of Illinois " (American Hist. Rev. vol. iv.), " Record
Book and Papers of John Todd " (Chicago Historical Society, Col-
lections, iv.), C. E. Carter, Great Britain and the Illinois Country,
1763-1774 (Washington, 1910), R. L. Schuyler, The Transition of
Illinois to American Government (New York, 1909), and W. H. Smith
in The St Clair Papers (Cincinnati, 1882), and the Territorial Records
ef Illinois (" Publications of the State Historical Library," No. 3)
are important for the period until 1818. Governor Thomas Ford's
History of Illinois (Chicago, 1854), and Governor John Reynolds's
My Own Times (1855), are contemporary sources for 1818-1846;
they should be supplemented by N. W. Edwards's History of Illinois
(1778-1833) and Life of Ninian Edwards (Springfield, 1870), E. B.
Washburne's Edwards Papers (Chicago, 1884), C. H. Garnett's State
Banks of Issue in Illinois (Univ. of 111., 1898), and N. G. Harris's
History of Negro Servitude in Illinois (Chicago, iox>4)_. C. E. Carr's
The Illini (Chicago, 1904) is a study of conditions in Illinois from
1850-1860. W. W. Lusk's Politics and Politicians of Illinois, the
Illinois Constitutional Convention (1862), the Granger Movement in
Illinois, and Illinois Railway Legislation and Common Control
(University of Illinois Studies), Street Railway Legislation in Illinois
(Atlantic Monthly, vol. xciii.), are of value for conditions after 1860.
The publications of the Chicago Historical Society, of the " Fergus
Historical " series, of the State Historical Library, of the Wisconsin
Historical Society, also the Michigan Pioneer Collections, contain
valuable documents and essays.
ILLORIN, a province of British West Africa in the pro-
tectorate of Nigeria. It has an area of 6300 m. , with an estimated
population of about 250,000. Its inhabitants are of various
tribes, among which the Yoruba now predominate. There are
two minor emirates, Shonga and Lafiagi in this province, and a
number of semi-independent towns of which the chief are
Awton, Ajassa, Offa and Patiji. Under British administration
the province is divided into three divisions, Illorin (central), Offa
(southern) and Patiji (northern). The province is rich in agri-
cultural and sylvan products. Among the former are tobacco,
cotton, rice, peppers, ground-nuts and kolas. The latter include
great quantities of shea as well as palm-oil and rubber. The
capital is a town of the same name as the province. It is 1 60 m.
in a direct line N.N.E. of Lagos, and 50 m. S.S.W. of Jebba,
a port on the Niger, being connected with both places by railway.
The town is surrounded by a mud wall partly in ruins, which
has a circuit of some 10 m. Illorin is a great trading centre,
Hausa caravans bringing goods from central Africa, and
merchandise from the coasts of the Mediterranean, which is
distributed from Illorin to Dahomey, Benin and the Lagos
hinterland, while from the Guinea coast the trade is in the hands
of the Yoruba and comes chiefly through Lagos. A variety
of manufactures are carried on, including the making of leather
goods, carved wooden vessels, finely plaited mats, embroidered
work, shoes of yellow and red leather and pottery of various
kinds. Before the establishment of British administration
traders from the south, with a few selected exceptions, were
prohibited from entering the city. Illorin middlemen trans-
acted all business between the traders from the north, who
were not allowed to pass to the south, and those from the south.
Since the establishment of British authority the town has been
thrown open, crowds cf petty traders from Lagos have flocked
into Illorin, and between 4000 and 5000 trade licences are
issued yearly. The British resident estimated in 1904 that at
least 3000 loads of British cotton goods, which he valued at
£5 a load, were imported. The population of the town is
estimated at from 60,000 to 70,000. The chief buildings are
the palace of the emir and the houses of the baloguns (war
chiefs). From the centre of the town roads radiate like spokes
of a wheel to the various gates. Baobabs and other shade trees
are numerous. There are a number of mosques in the town,
and the Mahommedans are the dominant power, but the Yoruba,
who constitute the bulk of the people, are pagans.
The town of Illorin was founded, towards the close of the
1 8th century, by Yoruba, and rose to be the capital of one of
the Yoruba kingdoms. About 1825 the kingdom, which had
come under Mahommedan influence, ceased its connexion
with the Yoruba states and became an emirate of the Sokoto
empire. The Fula, however, maintained the Yoruba system
of government, which places the chief power in a council of elders.
In 1897 Illorin was occupied by the forces of the Royal Niger
Company, and the emir placed himself " entirely under the pro-
tection and power of the company." After the assumption of
authority by the British government in 1900, Illorin was organ-
ized for administration on the same system as the remainder
of northern Nigeria. The emir took the oath of allegiance
to the sovereign of Great Britain. A resident was placed at
his court. Courts of justice have been established and British
garrisons quartered at various places in the province. (See also
NIGERIA and LAGOS.)
ILLUMINATED MSS.—" Illumination," in art, is a term used
to signify the embellishment of written or printed text or design
with colours and gold, rarely also with silver. The old form of
the verb " to illuminate " was " to enlumine " (O. Fr. enlumincr;
Lat. ittuminare, " to throw light on," " to brighten "), as used
by Chaucer (A..B.C., 73), " kalendres enlumyned ben they,"
and other medieval writers. Joinville likens the action of
St Louis in adorning his kingdom with monastic foundations to
a writer " qui a fait son livre qui Penlumine d'or et d'azur ";
while Dante (Purgal. xi. 79) alludes to this kind of decoration
as " quell' arte che alluminare chiamata e in Parisi." But while
the term should be strictly applied to the brilliant book-orna-
mentation which was developed in the later middle ages, it has
been extended, by usage, to the illustration and decoration of
early MSS. in general.
From remote times the practice of illustrating texts by means
of pictorial representations 'was in vogue. The survival of
papyrus rolls containing the text of the Egyptian
ritual known as The Book of the Dead, dating back
fifteen centuries B.C., and accompanied with numerous scenes
painted in brilliant colours, proves how ancient was this very
natural method of elucidating a written text by means of pictures.
There are many passages in the writings of Latin authors showing
that illustrated books were not uncommon in Rome at least in
the early period of the empire; and the oldest extant paintings
in ancient classical MSS. may with little hesitation be accepted
as representative of the style of illustration which' was practised
very much earlier. But such paintings are rather illustrative
than decorative, and the only strictly ornamental adjuncts are
the frames in which they are set. Yet independent decoration
appears in a primitive form in the papyri and the earliest vellum
MSS. At the head or at the end of the text designs composed of
cross-hatchings, cables, dotted patterns and scrolls, sometimes
with birds or simple domestic objects, are found. The early
practice of writing the initial lines or even the entire text of a
volume in gold or coloured inks, and of staining with purple
and of gilding the 'vellum, while it undoubtedly enhanced the
decorative aspect, does not properly fall within the scope of this
article; it concerns the material rather than the artistic element
of the MS. (See MANUSCRIPTS, PALAEOGRAPHY.)
It will be seen, then, that in the earliest examples of book
decorations we find the germs of the two lines on which that
decoration was destined to develop in the illuminated MSS. of
the middle ages: the illustrative picture was the precursor of the
medieval miniature (the technical term for a picture in an
illuminated MS.); and the independent simple ornament was
to expand into the brilliant initial letters and borders of illumina-
tion. And yet, while the miniature has a career of its own in
artistic development which may be more conveniently dealt
with under a separate heading (see MINIATURE), its decorative
qualities are so closely bound up with those of the initial and
border that an historical description of illumination must give
full recognition to its prominent position in the general scheme
of book-ornamentation of the middle ages.
The first examples to come under consideration are the few
surviving MSS. of early origin which, preserving as they do the
classical tradition, form the connecting link between the art
of the Roman empire and that of the middle ages. The most
ancient of these, it is now agreed, is the fragmentary copy of
the Iliad, on vellum, in the Ambrosian Library of Milan, which •
consists of cuttings of the coloured drawings with which the
volume was adorned in illustration of the various scenes of the
ILLUMINATED MSS.
THE LINDISFARNE GOSPELS.— ABOUT A.D. 700.
(British Museum. Cotton MS., Nero D. iv. f. 211.)
Niagara Litho. Co., Buffalo, N.
ILLUMINATED MSS.
3*3
Byzan-
tlne.
poem. The MS. may have been executed in Italy, and there is
good reason to assign the fragments to the 3rd century. The
character of the art is quite classical, bearing comparison with
that of the wall-paintings of Pompeii and the catacombs. Equally
classical in their style are the fifty illustrative picture* of the
Vatican Virgil, known as the Schedae Vaticanae, of the 4th
century; but in these we find an advance on the Homeric
fragments in the direction of decoration, for gilt shading is here
employed to heighten the lights, and the frames in which the
pictures are set are ornamented with gilt lozenges. A second
famous MS. of Virgil in the Vatican library is the Codex Romanus,
a curious instance of rough and clumsy art, with its series of
illustrations copied by an unskilful hand from earlier classical
models. And a still later example of persistence of the classical
tradition is seen in the long roll of the book of Joshua, also in
the Vatican, perhaps of the loth century, which is filled with a
series of outline drawings of considerable merit, copied from an
earlier MS. But all such MSS. exhibit little tendency to decora-
tion, and if the book ornamentation of the early middle ages had
been practised only in the western empire and not also at Con-
stantinople, it is very doubtful if the brilliant illumination which
was afterwards developed would have ever existed.
When the centre of government passed eastward, Roman art
came under Oriental influence with its sense of splendour, and
developed the style known as Byzantine which, in its
earlier stages, and until it became stereotyped in
character, was broad in its drawing, on classical lines,
and brilliant in its colouring, and which introduced a profuse
application of gold in the details of ornament. Reacting on the
art of the west, the influence of the Byzantine or Greek school
is not only prominent in such early works as the mosaics of
Ravenna, but it has also left its mark in the peculiar character of
Italian pictorial art of the middle ages.
Very few examples of early Byzantine work in MSS. have
survived; but two fragmentary leaves (Brit. Mus., Add. MS.
5111) of tables of the Eusebian canons, which must have stood
at the beginning of a copy of the Gospels, executed no doubt
in the Eastern capital in the 6th century, are sufficient to
exemplify the splendour of ornament which might be lavished
on book decoration at that date. The surface of the vellum is
entirely gilt, and the ornamental designs are in classical style
and painted in bright colours. Two well-known MSS., the
Genesis of the Imperial Library of Vienna, of the latter part of
the 6th century, and the Gospels of Rossano in southern Italy,
of the same period, both containing series of illustrative paint-
ings of a semi-classical type, are very interesting specimens of
Byzantine art; but they depend on their purple vellum and
their silver-written texts to claim a place among highly orna-
mented MSS., for the paintings themselves are devoid of gold.
On the other hand, the Greek MS. of Genesis, of the 5th or 6th
century, which once formed part of the Cottonian collection in
the British Museum, but which was almost totally destroyed by
fire, was of a more artistic character: the drawing of its minia-
tures was of great merit and classical in style, and gold shading
was largely employed in the details. The famous MS. of
Dioscorides at Vienna, executed in the year 472, is another
excellent example of the early Byzantine school, its series of
paintings at the beginning of the volume well maintaining the
classical sentiment.
From such early examples Byzantine art advanced to a
maturer style in the pth and loth centuries, two MSS. in the
Bibliotheque Nationale of Paris being types of the best work
of this time. These are: the copy of the sermons of Gregory
Nazianzen (MS. Grec. 510), executed about the year 880 and
containing a series of large miniatures, some being of the highest
excellence; and a psalter of the loth century (MS. Grec. 139),
among whose miniatures are examples which still maintain the
old sentiment of classical art in a remarkable degree, one in
particular, representing David as the psalmist, being an adapted
copy of a classical scene of Orpheus and the Muses. The same
scene is repeated in a later Psalter in the Vatican: an instance
of the repetition of favourite subjects from one century to
another which is common throughout the history of medieval
art. At the period of the full maturity of the Byzantine school
great skill is displayed in the best examples of figure-drawing,
and a fine type of head and features is found in the miniatures
of such MSS. as the Homilies of Chrysostom at Paris, which
belonged to the emperor Nicephorus III., 1078-1081, and in the
best copies of the Gospels and Saints' Lives of that period, some
of them being of exquisite finish. By this time also the scheme
of decoration was established. Brilliant gilded backgrounds
give lustre to the miniatures. Initial letters in gold and colours
are in ordinary use; but, it is to be observed, they never become
very florid, but are rather meagre in outline, nor do they develop
the pendants and borders which are afterwards so characteristic
of the illuminated MSS. of the west. By way of general decora-
tion, the rectangular head-pieces, which are such prominent
features in Greek MSS. from the loth to the i3th centuries,
flourish in flowered and tesselated and geometric patterns in
bright colours and gold. These are palpably of Oriental design,
and may very well have been suggested by the woven fabrics
of western Asia.
But Byzantine art was not destined to have a great history.
Too self-contained and, under ecclesiastical influence, too much
secluded from the contact with other ideas and other influences
which are vitally necessary for healthy growth and expansion,
it fell into stereotyped and formal convention and ran in narrow
grooves. A general tendency was set up to paint the flesh tints
in swarthy hues, to elongate and emaciate the limbs, to stiffen
the gait, and generally to employ sombre colours in the miniatures,
the depressing effect of which the artist seems to have felt himself
compelled to relieve by rather startling contrasts of bright
vermilion and lavish employment of gold. Still the initials and
head-pieces continued to retain their brilliancy, of which they
could scarcely be deprived without losing their raison d'etre as
decorative adjuncts. But, with all faults, fine and delicate
drawing, with technical finish in the applied colours, is still
characteristic of the best Greek miniatures of the loth to I2th
centuries, and the fine type of head and features of the older
time remains a tradition. For example, in the Gospel lectionary,
Harleian MS. 1810, in the British Museum, of the izth century,
there is a series of scenes from the life of Christ which are more
than usually free from the contemporary conventionalism and
which contain many figures of noble design. After the i2th
century there is little in the art of Greek MSS. to detain us.
The later examples, as far as they exist, are decadent and are
generally lifeless copies of the earlier MSS.
Byzantine art, as seen in Greek MSS., stands apart as a thing
of itself. But we shall have to consider how far and in what
manner it had an influence on western art. Its reaction and
influence on Italian art have been mentioned. That that in- .
fluence was direct is manifest both in the style of such works
as the mosaics of Italy and in the character of the paintings
of the early Italian masters, and eventually in the earliest
examples of the illuminated MSS. of central and southern Italy.
But it is not so obvious how the influence which the eastern
art of the Greek school undoubtedly exercised on the illuminated
MSS. of the Prankish empire was conveyed. All things considered,
however, it seems more probable that it passed westward
through the medium of Italian art rather than by actual contact,
except perhaps in accidental instances.
We turn to the west of Europe, and we shall see how in the
elaborately ornamented Prankish MSS. of the Carolingian school
was combined the lingering tradition of the classical
style with a new arid independent element which had
grown up spontaneously in the north. This new bardic.
factor was the Celtic art which had its origin and was
brought to perfection in the illuminated MSS. of Ireland and
afterwards of Britain. It will therefore be convenient to trace
the history of that school of book ornamentation. But before
doing so we must dispose, in few words, of the more primitive
style which preceded the Carolingian development in western
continental Europe. This primitive style, which we may call
the native style, as distinguished from the more artificially
3H
ILLUMINATED MSS.
compounded art of the revival under Charlemagne, seems to
have been widely extended throughout the Prankish empire and
to have been common in Lombardy, and to some degree in Spain,
as well as in France, and is known as Merovingian and Franco-
Lombardic. This kind of ornamentation appears chiefly in
the form of initial letters composed of birds, fishes and animals
contorted into the shapes of the alphabetical letters; and in
a less degree of head-pieces and borders filled with interlacings,
or bands, or geometrical patterns, and even details of animal
life. In these patterns, barbarous as they usually are, the in-
fluence of such artistic objects as mosaics and enamels is evident.
The prevailing colours are crude green, red, orange and yellow,
which hold their, place with persistence through successive
generations of MSS. This native style also, in course of time,
came under Celtic influence, and adopted into its scheme the
interlaced designs of animal forms and other details of the
ornament of the north. It is therefore necessary to bear in
mind that, side by side with the great series of Carolingian MSS.,
executed with all possible magnificence, there was existent
this native school producing its examples of a more rustic
character, which must be taken into account when studying
the development of the later national style in France, in the
icth and succeeding centuries.
To turn now to the Celtic style of ornament in MSS. This
we find in full development in Ireland as early as the 7th century.
,- „, The Irish school of book ornamentation was essentially
cc/i/c. .iii. • »t ii
a native school working out its own ideas, created and
fostered by the early civilization of the country and destined
to have a profound influence on the art of Britain and eventually
on that of the continent. It may be described as a mechanical
art brought to the highest pitch of perfection by the most
skilful and patient elaboration. Initials, borders and full-page
designs are made up of interlaced ribbons, interlaced and en-
tangled zoomorphic creatures, intricate knots, spirals, zig-zag
ornaments, and delicate interwoven patterns, together with
all kinds of designs worked out in red dots — all arranged and
combined together with mathematical accuracy and with ex-
quisite precision of touch; and painted in harmonious colours
in thick pigments, which lend to the whole design the appearance
of enamel. Gold is never used. In the production of his designs
the Irish artist evidently took for his models the objects of early
metal work in which the Celtic race was so skilled, and probably,
too, the classical enamels and mosaics and jewelry which had
been imported and copied in the country. The finest example
of early Celtic book ornamentation is the famous copy of the
Gospels known as the Book of Kells, of the latter part of the 7th
century, preserved in Trinity College, Dublin: a miracle of
minute and accurate workmanship, combining in its brilliant
• pages an endless variety of design.
But, with all his artistic excellence, the Irish artist failed
completely in figure drawing; in fact he can hardly be said to
have seriously attempted it. When we contemplate, for example,
the rude figures intended to represent the evangelists in early
copies of the Gospels, their limbs contorted and often composed
of extraordinary interlacings and convolutions, we wonder that
the sense of beauty which the Irish artist indubitably possessed
in an eminent degree was not shocked by such barbarous pro-
ductions. The explanation is probably to be found in tradition.
These figures in course of time had come to be regarded rather as
details to be worked into the general scheme of the ornament
of the pages in which they occur than representations of the
human form, and were accordingly treated by the artist as
subjects on which to exercise his ingenuity in knotting them
into fantastic shapes.
Passing from Ireland, the Celtic style of book ornamentation
was naturally practised in the monastic settlements of Scotland,
and especially in St Columba's foundation in the
island of lona. Thence it spread to other houses in
Gospel*. Britain. In the year 635, at the request of Oswald,
king of Northumbria, Aldan, a monk of lona, was
sent to preach Christianity in that kingdom, and became the
founder of the abbey and see of Lindisfarne in Holy Isle off the
Northumbrian coast. Here was established by the brethren
who accompanied the missionary the famous school of Lindis-
farne, from which issued a wonderful series of finely written
and finely ornamented MSS. in the Celtic style, some of which
still survive. The most perfect is the Lindisfarne Gospels or
St Culhbert's Gospels or the Durham Book, as it is mere commonly
called from the fact of its having rested for some time at Durham
after early wanderings. This MS., written in honour of St
Cuthbert and completed early in the 8th century, is in the
Cottonian collection in the British Museum — a beautiful example
of writing, and of the Celtic style of ornament, and in perfect
condition. The contact with foreign influences, unknown in
Ireland, is manifested in this volume by the use of gold, but in
very sparing quantity, in some of the details. An interesting
point in the artistic treatment of the MS. is the style in which
the figures of the four evangelists are portrayed. Here the
conventional Irish method, noticed above, is abandoned;
the figures are mechanical copies from Byzantine models. The
artist was unskilled in such drawing and has indicated the folds
of the draperies, not by shading, but by streaks of paint of con-
trasting colours. Explanations of such instances of the unex-
pected adoption of a foreign style are rarely forthcoming; but
in this case there is one. The sections of the text have been
identified as following the Neapolitan use. The Greek Theodore,
archbishop of Canterbury, arrived in Britain in the year 688 and
was accompanied by Adrian, abbot of a monastery in the island
of Nisita near Naples; and 'they both visited Lindisfarne.
There can therefore be little doubt that the Neapolitan MS.
from which the text of the Durham Book was derived, was one
which Abbot Adrian had brought with him; and it may also
be assumed that his MS. also contained paintings of the evange-
lists in the Byzantine style, which served as models to the
Northumbrian artist.
The Celtic style was thus established through the north of
England, and thence it spread to the southern parts of the
country. But, for the moment, the account of its
further development in Britain must be suspended tiagiaa.
in order to resume the thread of the story of the later
classical influence on the illumination of MSS. of the Prankish
empire. Under Charlemagne, who became emperor of the West
in the year 800, art revived in many branches, and particularly
in that of the writing and the illumination of MSS. During the
reigns of this monarch and his immediate successors was produced
a series of magnificent volumes, mostly biblical and liturgical,
made resplendent by a lavish use of gold. The character of
the decoration runs still, as of old, in the two lines of illustration
and of pure ornament. We find a certain amount of general
illustration, usually of the biblical narrative, in pictorial scenes
drawn in freehand in the later classical style, and undoubtedly
inspired by the western art of Rome. But those illustrations
are small in number compared with the numerous examples
of pure ornament. Such ornament was employed in the tables
of the Eusebian canons, in the accessories of the traditional
pictures of the evangelists, in the full-page designs which intro-
duced the opening words of the several books of Bibles or Gospels,
in the large initial letters profusely scattered through the volumes,
in the infinite variety of borders which, in some MSS., adorned
page after page. In all this ornament the debased classical
element is prominently in evidence, Columns and arches
of variegated marbles, and leaf mouldings and other architec-
tural details are borrowed from the Roman basilicas, to serve
as decorations for text and miniature. The conventional
portrait-figures of the evangelists are modelled on the Byzantine
pattern, but with differences which appear to indicate an inter-
vening influence, such as would be exercised on the eastern art
by its transmission through Italy. Such figures, which indeed
become, in course of time, so formal as almost to be decorative
details along with their settings, grew stereotyped and passed on
monotonously from artist to artist, always subject to deteriora-
tion, and were perpetuated especially in MSS. of German
origin down to the nth and I2th centuries.
But it is not the debased classical decoration alone which
ILLUMINATED MANUSCRIPTS
PLATE II.
PSALTER OF WESTMINSTER ABBEY.— LATE TWELFTH CENTURY.
XIV. 314. (British Museum. Royal MS. 2A. xxii.)
PLATE III.
ILLUMINATED MANUSCRIPTS
tus cffrcc&uui* 61
umcuswatuefue.
nnutn
cum
nua/momsfilU
locccffirtcctcagit/
aiirqui
tffcaitf odoitfccitu.
mutrto
tnmu
ungue
fttmpt
usfius
ccpttraumnomncs
yalcsc:
ffinna
uatwr
qiuadcttetuDttawir
LECTIONARY, OF THE USE OF PARIS. LATE THIRTEENTH CENTURY. (British Museum. Add. M.S. 17,341.)
ILLUMINATED MSS.
marks the illumination of the Carolingian school. The influence
of the Celtic art, which has been described, imposed itself and
combined with it. This combination was due to the English-
man, Alcuin of York, who became abbot of the Benedictine
house of St Martin of Tours, and who did so much to aid Charle-
magne in the revival of letters. Thus, in the finest examples
of the Carolingian illuminated MSS., Celtic interlaced patterns
stand side by side with the designs of classical origin; and, at
the same time, it is interesting to observe that the older native
Merovingian style of ornament makes its presence felt, now
and again, in this or that detail. But with all the artistic effort
bestowed upon it, it must be conceded that Carolingian illumina-
tion, as presented in the MSS., is not always pleasing. Indeed,
it is often coarse and monotonous, and there is a tendency to
conceal inferiority under a dazzling abundance of gold. The
leading idea of the ornament of the great MSS. was splendour.
Gold was used in profusion even in the writing of the text, and
silver also in a minor degree; and the vellum, stained or painted
purple, enhanced the gorgeous effect of the illumination. But
undoubtedly the purer style of the Celtic school balanced and
restrained the tendency to coarseness; and this foreign influence
naturally was stronger in some centres than in others. For
example, in the abbey of Saint-Denis, near Paris, if we may draw
conclusions from surviving examples, the Celtic style was in
great favour. Another peculiarity in the decoration of the
Carolingian MSS. is the tendency of the artist to mix his styles,
and to attach details on a small scale, such as delicate sprays
and flourishes, and minute objects, to large-scale initial letters,
as though he felt that grossness required a corrective contrast.
The art became more refined under the immediate successors
of Charlemagne, and under Charles the Bald it culminated.
The most famous MSS. of the Carolingian school are the Evan-
geliarium, written and illuminated by the scribe Godescalc
for Charlemagne in the year 787; the Sacramentarium written
for Drogon, son of Charlemagne and bishop of Metz; the
Gospels of the emperor Lothair, once at Tours; the first Bible
of Charles the Bald, presented by Count Vivien, abbot of St
Martin of Tours; the second Bible, called the Bible of Saint
Denis, in Franco-Saxon style; and the so-called Gospels of
Francis II. There are also in the British Museum (Harleian
MS. 2788) an Evangeliarium written in gold and known as the
Codex aureus, of this school; and a Bible of Alcuin's recension,
probably executed at Tours in the middle of the pth century,
with illustrative miniatures and initial letters, but of a less
elaborate degree of ornament.
After this brilliant period decadence sets in; and in the course
of the nth century Prankish illumination sinks to its lowest
point, the miniatures being for the most part coarse and clumsy
copies of earlier models. The colours become harsh, often assum-
ing an unpleasant chalky appearance.
We have now to trace the development of another kind of
book decoration, quite different from the florid style of gold
and colours just now described, which had a lasting influence
on the early art of England, where it was specially cultivated,
and where it developed a character which at length became
distinctively national. This is the style of outline drawing which
fills so large a space in the Anglo-Saxon MSS. of the icth and
nth centuries.
We have already seen how the Celtic style of ornamentation
was introduced into the north of England. Thence it appears
to have spread rapidly southward. As early as the
Saxon. beginning of the 8th century it was practised at
Canterbury, as is testified by a famous psalter in the
British Museum (Cott. MS. Vespasian A. i), in which much
of the ornament is of Celtic type. But the same MS. is also
witness to the presence of another influence in English art, that
of the classical style of Rome, certain details of the ornament
being of that character and a miniature in the MS. being alto-
gether of the classical type. With little hesitation this element
may be ascribed to MSS. brought from Rome, in the first instance
by St Augustine, and afterwards by the incoming missionaries
who succeeded him, and deposited in such centres as Canterbury
and Winchester. But this importation of MSS. from Italy
was not confined to the south. We have distinct evidence
that they were brought into northern monasteries, such as those
of Jarrow and Wearmouth and York. Thus the English artists
of both south and north were in a position to take advantage
of material from two sources; and they naturally did so. Thus
we find that mingling of the Celtic and classical styles just
noticed. In this way, early grown accustomed to take classical
models for their drawings, the Anglo-Saxon artists were the more
susceptible to the later development of the classical style of out-
line drawing which was next introduced into the country from
the continent. The earliest MS. in which this style of drawing
is exhibited in fullest detail is the volume known as the Utrecht
Psalter, once in the Cottonian Library, in which the text of the
psalms is profusely illustrated with minute pen-sketches re-
markably full of detail. The period of the MS. is about the year
800; and it was probably executed in the north or north-east
of France. But the special interest of the drawings is that they
are evidently copies of much older models and provide a valuable
link with the late classical art of some two or three centuries
earlier. The work is very sketchy, the movement of the draperies
indicated by lightly scribbled strokes of the pen, the limbs
elongated, the shoulders humped — all characteristic features
which are repeated in the later Anglo-Saxon work. The drawings
of the Utrecht Psalter are clearly typical examples of a style
which, founded on Roman models, must at one time have been
widely practised in western Europe. For instance, there are
traces of it in such a centre as St Gallen in Switzerland, and
there are extant MSS. of the Psychomachia of Prudentius (a
favourite work) with drawings of this character which were
executed in France in the loth century. But the style does
not appear to have taken much hold on the fancy of continental
artists. It was reserved for England to welcome and to make
this free drawing her own, and to develop it especially in the
great school of illumination at Winchester. Introduced probably
in such examples as the Utrecht Psalter and copies of the Psycho-
machia, this free drawing of semi-classical origin had fully
established itself here in the course of the loth century, and
by that time had assumed a national character. A fair number
of MSS. of the loth and nth centuries which issued from the
Winchester school are still to be seen among the collections
of the British museum, in most of which the light style of outline
drawing with the characteristic fluttering drapery is more or
less predominant, although body colours were also freely em-
ployed in many examples. But the most elaborate specimen
of Anglo-Saxon illumination of the loth century is one belonging
to the duke of Devonshire: the Benediclional of the see of
Winchester, executed under the direction of .(Ethel wold, bishop
from 963 to 984, which contains a series of miniatures, in this
instance in body colours, but drawn in the unmistakable style
of the new school. In the scheme of decoration, however,
another influence is at work. As England had sent forth its
early Celtic designs to modify the art of the Prankish empire,
so the Carolingian style of ornament now, in its turn, makes
its way into this country, and appears in the purely ornamental
details of the Anglo-Saxon illuminated volumes. The frames
of the miniatures are chiefly composed of conventional foliage,
and the same architectural leaf-mouldings of classical origin
which are seen in the foreign MSS. are here repeated. Profuse
gilding also, which is frequently applied, sometimes with silver,
is due to foreign influence. But this character of decoration
soon assumed a national cast. Under the hands of the Anglo-
Saxon artist the conventional foliage flourished with greater
freedom; and the colouring which he applied was generally
softer and more harmonious than that which was employed
abroad. Examples of outline drawing of the best type exist
in the Harleian Psalter (No. 2904), of the same period as the
.<Ethel wold Benedictional; in the register of New Minster
(Stowe MS. 944), A.D. 1016-1020; and in the Prudentius
(Cotton MS. Cleop. C. viii.), executed early in the nth century.
With the Norman Conquest naturally great changes were
effected in the illumination of English MSS., as in other
316
ILLUMINATED MSS.
branches of art; no doubt to the ultimate improvement of
English draughtsmanship. Left to itself the outline drawing
N rmaa of tlle Angl°-Saxons> inclining as it did to affectation,
would probably have sunk into fantastic exaggeration
and feebleness. Brought more directly under Norman domination
it resulted in the fine, bold freehand style which is conspicuous
in MSS. executed in England in the next three centuries. Then
we come to the period when the art of illumination is brought
into line in the countries of western Europe, in England and in
France, in Flanders and in western Germany, by the splendid
outburst of artistic sentiment of the 1 2th century. This century
is the period of large folios providing ample space in their pages
for the magnificent initial letters drawn on a grand scale which
are to be seen in the great Bibles and psalters of the time. The
leading feature is a wealth of foliage with twining and interlacing
branches, among which human and animal life is freely intro-
duced, the whole design being thrown into relief by brilliant
colours and a generous use of gold. The figure drawing both in
miniatures and initials is stiff, the figures elongated but bold, and
with sweeping lines in the draperies; and a tendency to repre-
sent the latter clinging closely to the limbs is a legacy of the
tradition of the later classical style. In England the school of
Winchester appears to have maintained the same excellence
after the Norman Conquest as before it. A remarkable MS.
(Cotton, Nero C. iv.), a psalter of about the year 1160, with a
series of fine miniatures, is a good example of its work. In
France, Flanders and western Germany we find the same
energy in producing boldly ornamented volumes, as in England;
a certain heaviness of outline distinguishing the work of the
Flemish and German artists from that of the English and French
schools. Such MSS. as the Stavelot Bible (Brit. Mus., Add. MS.
28,107), of the close of the nth century, the Bible of Floreffe
(Add. MS. 17,737-17,738), of about the year 1160, and the
Worms Bible (Harl. MS. 2803-2804), of the same time, are fine
specimens of Flemish and German work.
It is towards the close of the 1 2th century and in the beginning
of the i3th century that the character of illumination settles
down on more conventional lines. Hitherto gold had
been applied in a liquid state; now it is laid on in leaf
and is highly burnished, a process which lends a brilliant
effect to initial and miniature. A great change passes over the
face of things. The large, bold style gives place to the minute.
Volumes decrease in size; the texts are written in close-packed
characters; the large and simple is superseded by the small and
decorated. The period has arrived when book ornamentation
becomes more settled and accurately defined within limits,
and starts on the course of regulated expansion which was to
run for three hundred years down to the close of the isth century.
In the i3th century the historiated or miniature initial, that is,
the initial letter containing within its limits a miniature illustrat-
ing the subject of the immediate text, is established as a favourite
detail of ornamentation, in addition to the regular independent
miniature. Such initials form a prominent feature- in the pretty
little Bibles which were produced in hundreds at this period.
But a still more interesting subject for study is the development
of the border which was to have such a luxuriant growth in the
I3th, i4th and isth centuries. Commencing as a pendant
from the initial, with terminal in form of bud or cusp, it gradually
pushes its way along the margins, unfolding foliage as it pro-
ceeds, and in course of time envelopes the entire page of text in
a complete framework formulating in each country a national
style.
In the miniatures of the I3th century the art of England, of
France, and of the Low Countries runs very much in one channel.
The Flemish art, however, may be generally distinguished from
the others by the heavier outline already noticed. The French
art is exquisitely exact and clean-cut, and in its best examples
it is the perfection of neat-handedness. English art is perhaps
less exact, but makes up for any deficiency in this direction by
its gracefulness. However, there is often little to choose between
the productions of the three countries, and they are hard to
distinguish. As an aid for such distinction, among small
l.lih
Ceatiuy.
differences, we may notice the copper tone of French gold
contrasting with the purer metal in English MSS.; and the
favour shown to deep ultramarine appears to mark French
work. But, besides actual illuminated miniature painting,
there is also a not inconsiderable amount of freehand illustrative
drawing in the MSS. In this particular the English artist main-
tains the excellence of work which distinguished his ancestors.
Such series of delicate drawings, slightly tinted, as those to be
seen in the famous Queen Mary's Psalter (Royal MS. 2 B. vii.),
and in other MSS. of the i3th and i4th centuries in the British
Museum, are not surpassed by any similar drawings done at the
same period in any other country. In the I3th century also
comes into vogue the highly decorated diaper-work, generally
of lozenges or chequered patterns in brilliant colours and brightly
burnished gold. These fill the backgrounds of miniatures and
initials, together with other forms of decoration, such as sheets
of gold stippled or surface-drawn in various designs. Diapering
continued to be practised in all three countries down into the
1 5th century; and in particular it is applied with exquisite
effect in many of the highly-finished MSS.t>f the artists of Paris.
To return to the growth of the borders: these continue to
be generally of one style in both England and France and in
Flanders during the i3th century; but, when with the opening
of the i4th century the conventional foliage begins to expand,
a divergence ensues. In France and Flanders the three-pointed
leaf, or ivy leaf, appears, which soon becomes fixed and flourishes
as a typical detail of ornament in French illumination of the
i4th and I5th centuries. In England there is less convention,
and along with formal branches and leafage, natural growths,
such as daisy-buds, acorns, oak leaves, nuts, &c., are also
represented.
Meanwhile German illumination, which in the large MSS. of
the 1 2th century had given high promise, in the following
centuries falls away and becomes detached from the _,
western schools, and is, as a general rule, of inferior
quality, although in the i3th century fine examples are still to
be met with. Dark outlines and backgrounds of highly-burnished
gold are in favour. At present, however, there is not sufficient
published material to enable us to pass a definite judgment on
the value of German illumination in the later middle ages.
But the researches of scholars are beginning to localize particular
styles in certain centres. For example, in Bohemia there was
a school of illumination of a higher class, which seems later
to have had an influence on English art, as will be noticed
presently.
We must now turn to Italy, which has been left on one side
during our examination of the art of the more western countries.
In attempting to bridge the gap which severs the later
classical style of Rome from the medieval art of Italy,
much must be left to conjecture. That a debased classical
style of drawing was employed in the earlier centuries of the
middle ages we cannot doubt. Such a MS. as the Ashburnham
Genesis of the 7th century, which contains pictures of a some-
what rude character but based apparently upon a recollection
of the classical drawing of earlier times, and which appears to
be of Italian origin, serves as a link, however slight. Coming
down to a later period, the primitive native art of the Prankish
empire, as we have seen, extended into northern Italy under the
name of Franco-Lombardic ornamentation; and we have also
seen how the art of the Byzantine school reacted on the art of
the southern portion of the country. Hence, in the middle
ages, the ornamentation of Italian MSS. appears to move on
two leading lines. The first, which we owe to the Byzantine
influence, in which figure-drawing is the leading idea, follows
the old classical method and, showing a distinctly Greek impress,
leads to the style which we recognize as Italian par excellence,
and which is seen most effectively manifested in the works of
Cimabue and Giotto and of allied schools. In this style the
colouring is generally opaque: the flesh tints being laid over a
foundation of deep olive green, which imparts a swarthy com-
plexion to the features — a practice also common in Byzantine
art. The other line is that of the Lorhbardic style which, like
ILLUMINATED MANUSCRIPTS
PLATE IV.
attanfr almnfccue fuicalfnanm
cfculancxirc0qt>3rieaptc0 bincect
tnnce mvfiraBpoicammm mccne cis
xnqraciiq? twmu" incrancnnexnatc
' %»fc*ii» Vf 1 VI VII V»»tl
nbfolnm uumantuntTCUO ft ctu™
xncnuntxi bo.uo inquxb^ — '« A
fofaxlxi
ifadoL
jacaincne
ftcmanu
[waconn- v
dnxnbxilxi
facnxm in
collar ato
I Tc-qxivax^r
iaxpuenf
"acniecxfc
Jmmc TOnp fnri cnnc fine osmoib?
pfoxicr cccliam fin qi> o:at in cixacjtii
(•vuiiiiv.'liV. n^ninifcuvv********^.**^ *y ^
• no atniarca tbunficamr-un xntr-ci
bxxlxiaixTCiific,
icncifactxcta incafii
tnucrannmfunr
r .fliioo.iur w.iconurpr
aram tcmpU-hno flnxubixlxxm x
van xnia-fxi.tDC(V xfc tcfunzcno ante
foabxxi xnyotatcan^cntcu u^ntftcacc
cotncnt aboxni lafc muwm «T
naitnwtnmi.Cixtncum fpi
niozralcm-fctTCixm rtfxxr^
ttunn'c.Si.iiti.br carhenulao tcmd
ilrat ca o'qnamoi clcmns otanMtf
xtti'Uxmitib7.f.pixitcna.fbinnioxnc.
" fcr cpm xil'factotcm niwalir'mirra
Y\ trqt> fiMgnc tiolixmue inccnfiini cci
nome offinrcrbunbiiUiTn incazma
Some rcncn: xxtcmue.nam fine fane
one iwninceiD place nopof
mono fcixvxur. 0ui6 nts I j
u\e figitrar .tut; cnnc T iit>u.i una
oucire yfona-cnurta qucptce fcpar
ptcrtae c qiu 4uin fiu pfmr pout
DUO fuis-Stuna cm catfrnula mftc
fxqxxi& vcncnnr ihownc croxntce i
acapicnr-^ttJtmbulum crixm ubxi
accipitxirincainatum-nanx fie idni
nbnlo pan? fxxpioi i xnfcnoi nito ca
tixnulie unumnxrira xnrp tn» fnc
xnuonce- qxiibjoxxunine Intnumiof'
xinxutxtiirunio caimo aoanxma.xxni
o •oxxxmxtwie aucnnc-'Txxiiio;>uunt
cms auaiain. auirain axxccm qxur
ramxxnxoncaiTiCTianr.mcclicctiniu,
nicxtxo a^cdpomum ccanxma fimifl
icainc-xinaqucaimclninbutJ qua
two: ciUxnxiLifr brir.ficlsx rinmbn
lo rnovfce inqnw fpaUtci'auaaron-
toilcttnxnbixlinn <7i>aufh> isnctcal
tfran mittcxnccnfum ccfttp.
ncmrqoq^foluo cinf'momia? libV..
C imxlxis axitioia inccnxnirconta
nxtwrnc obfxc mccnfaraiciTE.iircne
abco ncqxxitia TcmonxXfgaiatur.fti
miis ciu iccnfi nalc coir awxmocs
cffugamx3r,Tnix cxattobiae i Atgnff:
anc^m qbrcmcoix'i bcittca qopi,
fccxuiTnt obf-xian.HiTOir co:ui0 ci
?pnmia fifxip cutonce ponao ftim
cms omctcmomoji gen cvmcar. \
Sori»^.itinurncmoiaico fccnfxt
area alcana ftnir.£ltialrc)x xxl'fn
hunfi K.
cinoncp
ccfliii»nn..wai.cicaim<cil.t!urfuo
xTOtlnmncatx) aimn ctxxu'facaTOj
tiniufic.inn%tDfiqnificanoum qxud
fiait «c cft-aitarc TtoiUa-fxc cjxmn
ftY-criaccce-anclVojaaonigfacnfi
torjfcdn
fcmibi xi
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mftnepia
ncofltnii
.
acraft
DURANDUS, DE DIVINIS OFFICIIS. FOURTEENTH CENTURY. Italian School. (British Museum. Add. MS. 31,032.)
XIV. 316.
PLATE V.
ILLUMINATED MANUSCRIPTS
VALERIUS MAXIMUS. ABOUT A. D. 1475. Executed for Philippe de Comines. (British Museum, tfarfey J/.5. 4374.)
ILLUMINATED MSS.
the Celtic school of the British Isles, was an art almost exclusively
of pure ornament, of intricate interlacings of arabesques and
animal forms, with bright colouring and ample use of gold.
The Lombardic style was employed in certain centres, as, for
example, at Monte Cassino, where in the nth, i2th and i3th
centuries brilliant examples were produced. But it was not
destined to stand before the other, stronger and inherently
more artistic, style which was to become national. Still, its
cheme of brighter colouring and of general ornament seems to
have had an effect upon later productions, if we are not mistaken
in recognizing something of its influence in such designs as the
interlaced white vine-branch borders which are so conspicuous
in Italian MSS. of the period of the Renaissance.
The progress of Italian illumination in the style influenced
by the Byzantine element is of particular interest in the general
history of art, on account of the rapidity with which
'ceatury. ^ grew to maturity, and the splendour to which it
attained in the i5th century. Of the earlier centuries
the existing examples are not many. That Italian artists were
capable of great things as far back as the i2th century is evident
from their frescoes. We may notice the curious occurrence of
two very masterly paintings, the death of the Virgin and the
Virgin enthroned, drawn with remarkable breadth in the Italian
style, in the Winchester Psalter (Cottonian MS. Nero C. iv.)
of the middle of that century, as a token of the possibilities of
Italian illumination at that date; but generally there is little
to show. Even at the beginning of the i4th century most of the
specimens are of an ordinary character and betray a want of
skill in striking contrast with the highly artistic productions
of the Northern schools of England and France at the same
period. But, though inferior artistically, Italian book ornamenta-
tion had by this time been so far influenced by the methods
of those schools as to fall into line with them in the general
system of decoration. The miniature, the initial, the miniature-
initial and the border — all have their place and are subject
to the same laws of development as in the other schools. But,
once started, Italian illumination in the I4th century, especially
in Florence, expanded with extraordinary energy. We may
cite the Royal MS. 6, E. ix., containing an address to Robert
of Anjou, king of Sicily, 1334-1342, and the Add. MS. 27,428 of
legends of the saints, of about the year 1370, as instances of very
fine miniature-work of the Florentine type. As the century
advances, Italian illumination becomes more prolific and is
extended to all classes of MSS., the large volumes of the Decretals
and other law books, and still more the great folio choral books,
in particular affording ample space for the artist to exercise his
fancy. As was natural from the contiguity of the two countries,
as well as from political causes, France and Italy influenced
each other in the art. In many MSS. of the Florentine school
the French influence is very marked, and on the other hand,
Italian influence is exercised especially in MSS. of the southern
provinces of France. Italian art of this period also in some
degree affected the illumination of southern German MSS.
We have also to note the occurrence in Italy in the I4th century
of good illustrative outline drawings, generally tinted in light
colours; and occasionally we meet with a wonderfully bright
style of illumination of a lighter cast of colouring than usually
prevails in Italian art: such as may be seen in a MS. of Durandus
De divinis officiis (Brit. Mus., Add. MS. 31,032) containing an
exquisite series of initials and borders.
Taking a general view of the character of European illumina-
tion in the i4th century, it may be described as an art of great
invention and flexibility. The rigid exactness of the i3th
century is replaced by flowing lines, just as the stiff, formal
strokes of the handwriting of that century was exchanged for
a more cursive and easy style. The art of each individual
country now developed a national type of its own, which again
branched off into the different styles of provincial schools.
For example, in the eastern counties of England a very fine
school of illumination, the East Anglian, was established in the
first half of the century and produced a series of beautiful MSS.,
such as the Arundel Psalter (No. 83) in the British Museum.
By the end of the century the borders had developed on
national lines so fully as to become, more than any other detail
in the general scheme, the readiest means of identifying
the country of origin. First as to the English border: Diatiac-
the favour shown to the introduction of natural growths Borders
among the conventional foliage thrown out from the
frame into which the border had by this time expanded has
already been noticed. But now a new feature is introduced.
The frame up to this time had consisted generally of conventional
branches with bosses at the corners. Now it is divided more
into compartments within which twining coils of ornament
resembling cut feather- work are common details; and feathery
scrolls fill the corner-bosses and are attached to other parts
of the frame; while the foliage thrown out into the margin
takes the form of sprays of curious lobe- or spoon-shaped and
lozenge-shaped leaves or flowers, with others resembling curled
feathers, and with cup- and trumpet-shaped flowers. This new
style of border is contemporaneous with the appearance of a
remarkably brilliant style in the miniatures, good in drawing
and rich in colouring; and an explanation for the change has
been sought in foreign influence. It has been suggested, with
some plausibility, that this influence comes from the school of
Prague, through the marriage of Richard II. with Anne of
Bohemia in 1382. However this may be, there certainly is a
decidedly German sentiment in the feathery scrolls just described .
Turning to the French border, we find towards the close of
the I4th century that the early ivy-leaf pendant has now invaded
all the margins and that the page is set in a conventional frame
throwing off on every side sprigs and waving scrolls of the con-
ventional ivy foliage, often also accompanied with very delicate
compact tracery of minute flower-work filling the background
of the frame. Nothing can be more charming than the effect
of such borders, in which the general design is under perfect
control. The character, too, of the French miniature of this
period harmonizes thoroughly with the brilliant border, com-
posed as it is very largely of decorative elements, such as diapered
patterns and details of burnished gold. In the Low Countries,
as was natural, the influence of French art continued to have
great weight, at least in the western provinces where the style
of illumination followed the French lead.
The Italian border in its ordinary form was of independent
character, although following the methods of the West. Thrown
out from the initial, it first took the form of pendants of a
peculiarly heavy conventional curling foliage, associated, as
progress was made, with slender rods jointed at intervals with
bud-like ornaments and extending along the margins; at length
expanding into a frame. The employment of gilt spots or
pellets to fill spaces in the pendants and borders becomes very
marked as the century advances. They are at first in a simple
form, but they gradually throw out rays, and in the latter shape
they become the chief constituents of one kind of border of the
1 5th century.
Illumination in the isth century enters on a new phase.
The balance is no longer evenly maintained between the relative
values of the miniature and the border as factors
in the general scheme of decoration. The influence ceatury
of a new sentiment in art makes itself felt more and
more; the flat treatment of the miniature gradually gives place
to true laws of perspective and of figure-drawing, and to the
depth and atmospheric effects of modern painting. Miniature
painting in the decoration of MSS. now became more of a trade;
what in old times had been done in the cloister was now done
in the shop; and the professional miniaturist, working for his
own fame, took the place of the nameless monk who worked
for the credit of his house. Henceforth the miniature occupies
a more important place than ever in the illuminated MS.;
while the border, with certain important exceptions, is apt to
recede into an inferior position and to become rather an orna-
mental adjunct to set off the miniature than a work of art
claiming equality with it.
Continuing the survey of the several national styles, we shall
have to witness the final supersession of the older styles of
ILLUMINATED MSS.
England and France by the later developments of Italy and
Flanders. We left English illumination at the close of the I4th
century strengthened by a fresh infusion of apparently a foreign,
perhaps Bohemian, source. The style thus evolved marks a
brilliant but short-lived epoch in English art. It is not confined
to MSS., but appears also in the paintings of the time, as, for
example, in the portrait of Richard II. in Westminster Abbey
and in that in the Wilton triptych belonging to the earl of
Pembroke. Delicate but brilliant colouring, gold worked in
stippled patterns and a careful modelling of the human features
are its characteristics. In MSS. also the decorative borders, of
the new pattern already described, are of exceptional richness.
Brilliant examples of the style, probably executed for Richard
himself, may be seen in a magnificent Bible (Royal MS. i, E.
ix.), and in a series of cuttings from a missal (Add. MS. 29,704-
29,705) in the British Museum. But the promise of this new school
was not to be fulfilled. The same style of border decoration
was carried into the isth century, and good examples are found
down to the middle of it, but a general deterioration soon sets
in. Two MSS. must, however, be specially mentioned as sur-
viving instances of the fine type of work which could still be
turned out early in the century; and, curiously, they are both
the productions of one and the same illuminator, the Dominican,
John Siferwas. The first is a fragmentary Lectionary (Brit.
Mus., Harl. MS., 7026) executed for John, Lord Lovel of Tich-
mersh, who died in 1408; the other is the famous Sherborne
Missal, the property of the duke of Northumberland, a large
volume completed about the same time for the Benedictine abbey
of Sherborne in Dorsetshire. Certainly other MSS. of equal
excellence must have existed; but they have now perished.
After the middle of the isth century English illumination may
be said to have ceased, for the native style disappears before
foreign imported art. This failure is sufficiently accounted for
by the political state of the' country and the distractions of the
War of the Roses.
In France the isth century opened more auspiciously for the
art of illumination. Brilliant colouring and the diapered back-
ground glittering with gold, the legacy of the previous century,
still continue in favour for some time; the border, too, of ivy-
leaf tracery still holds its own. But in actual drawing there are
signs, as time advances, of growing carelessness, and the artist
appears to think more of the effect of colour than of draughts-
manship. This was only natural at a time when the real land-
scape began to replace the background of diaper and conventional
rocks and trees. In the first quarter of the century the school
of Paris comes prominently to the front with such magnificent
volumes as the Book of Hours of the regent, John Plantagenet,
duke of Bedford, now in the British Museum; and the companion
MS. known as the Sobieski Hours, at Windsor. In these examples,
as is always the case with masterpieces, we see a great advance
upon earlier methods. The miniatures are generally exquisitely
painted in brilliant colours and the drawing is of a high standard;
and in the borders now appear natural flowers intermingled
with the conventional tracery — a new idea which was to be
carried further as the century advanced. The Psalter executed
at- Paris for the boy-king Henry VI. (Cotton MS. Domitian A.
xviii.) is another example of this school, rather of earlier type
than the Bedford MS., but beautifully painted. In all three
MSS. the borders show no lack of finish; they are of a high
standard and are worthy of the miniatures. But perhaps the
very finest miniature-work to be found in any MS. of French
origin of this period is the breviary (Harl. MS. 2897) illuminated
for John the Fearless, duke of Burgundy, who was assassinated
in 1419. It could hardly be surpassed in refinement and minute-
ness of detail.
Development towards the modern methods of painting
moves on rapidly with the century. First, the border in the
middle period grows florid; the simpler ivy-spray design, which
had held its position so long, is gradually pushed away by a
growth of flowering scrolls, with flowers, birds and animal
and insect life introduced in more or less profusion. But hence-
forward deterioration increases, and the border becomes sub-
sidiary. In the case of miniatures following the old patterns
of the devotional and liturgical books, a certain restraint still
prevails; but with those in other works, histories and romances
and general literature, where the paintings are devised by the
fancy of the artist, the advance is rapid. The recognition of
the natural landscape, the perception of atmospheric effects
now guide the artist's brush, and the modern French school
of the second half of the isth century is fairly established.
The most celebrated leaders of this school were Jean Foucquet
of Tours and his sons, many of whose works still bear witness
to their skill. In the MSS. of this school the influence of the
Flemish contemporary art is very obvious; and before the
advance of that art French illumination receded. A certain
hardness of surface and want of depth characterize the French
work of this time, as well as the practice of employing gilt
hatching to obtain the high lights. This practice is carried to
excess in the latest examples of French illumination in the early
part of the i6th century, when the art became mechanical and
overloaded with ornament, and thus expired.
It has been seen that the Flemish school of illumination in
the I3th and i4th centuries followed the French model. In
the isth century, while the old tradition continued in force for
a while, the art developed on an independent line; and in the
second half of the century it exercised a widespread influence
on the neighbouring countries, on France, on Holland and on
Germany. This development was one of the results of the
industrial and artistic activity of the Low Countries at this
period, when the school of the Van Eycks and their followers,
and of other artists of the great and wealthy cities, such as
Bruges, Antwerp, Ghent, were so prolific. The Flemish minia-
tures naturally followed on the lines of painting. The new style
was essentially modern, freeing itself from the traditions of
medieval illumination and copying nature. Under the hand of
the Flemish artist the landscape attained to great perfection,
softness and depth of colouring, the leading attribute of the
school, lending a particular charm and sense of reality to his
out-door scenes. His closer observation of nature is testified
also in the purely decorative part of his work. Flowers, insects,
birds and other natural objects now frequent the border, the
origin of which is finally forgotten. It ceases to be a connected
growth wandering round the page; it becomes a flat frame
of dull gold or colour, over which isolated objects, flowers,
fruits, insects, butterflies, are strewn, painted with naturalistic
accuracy and often made, by means of strong shadows, to stand
out in relief against the background. This practice was soon
carried to florid excess, and all kinds of objects, including jewels
and personal ornaments, were pressed into the service of the
border, in addition to the details copied from nature. The soft
beauty of the later Flemish style proved very attractive to the
taste of the day, with the result that it maintained a high
standard well on into the i6th century, the only rivals being
the MSS. of Italian art. The names of celebrated miniaturists,
such as Memlinc, Simon Bening of Ghent, Gerard of Bruges,
are associated with its productions; and many famous extant
examples bear witness to the excellence to which it attained.
The Grimani Breviary at Venice is one of the best known MSS.
of the school; but almost every national library has specimens
to boast of. Among those in the British Museum may be
mentioned the breviary of Queen Isabella of Spain (Add. MS.
18,851); the Book of Hours of Juanaof Castille (Add. MS. 18,832);
a very beautiful Book of Hours executed at Bruges (Egerton
MS. 2125); another exquisite but fragmentary MS. of the same
type (Add. MS. 24,098) and cuttings from a calendar of the
finest execution (Add. MS. 18,855) ascribed to Bening of Ghent;
a series of large sheets of genealogies of the royal houses of
Portugal and Spain (Add. MS. 12,531) by the same master and
others; and late additions to the Sforza Book of Hours (Add.
MS. 34,294)-
But, besides the brilliantly coloured style of Flemish illumina-
tion which has been described, there was another which was
practised with great effect in the isth century. This was the
simpler style of drawing in white delicately shaded to indicate
ILLUMINATED MSS.
the contour of figures and the folds of drapery, &c., known as
grisaille or camaieu gris. It was not indeed confined to the
Flemish schools, but was practised also to some extent and to
good effect in northern France, and also in Holland and other
countries; but the centre of its activity appears to have been
in the Low Countries. The excellence to which it attained
may be seen in the MSS. of the Miracles de Nostre Dame now
in Paris and the Bodleian Library, which were executed for
Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy, in the middle of the isth
century.
Of the Dutch school of illumination, which was connected
with that of Flanders, there is little to be said. Judging from
existing examples, the art was generally of a more rustic and
coarser type. There are, however, exceptions. A MS. in the
British Museum (King's MS. 5) of the beginning of the isth
century contains scenes from the life of Christ in which the
features are carefully modelled, very much after the style of
English work of the same time; and some of the specimens of
Dutch work in camaieu gris are excellent.
German illumination in the isth century appears to have
largely copied the Flemish style; but it lost the finer qualities
of its pattern, and in decoration it inclined to extravagance.
Where the Flemish artist was content with single flowers grace-
fully placed, the German filled his borders with straggling plants
and foliage and with large flourished scrolls.
Italian illumination, which had developed so rapidly in the
I4th century, now advanced with accelerated pace and expanded
into a variety of styles, more or less local, culminating in the
exquisite productions of the classical renaissance in the latter
half of the i sth century. As in the other national styles of France
and Flanders, the Italian miniaturist quickly abandoned the
conventional for the natural landscape; but with more character
both in the figure-drawing and in the actual representation of
scenery. The colouring is brilliant, not of the softness of the
Flemish school, but of stronger and harder body; the outlines
are firm and crisp and details well delineated. The Florentine,
the Lombard, the Venetian, the Neapolitan and other schools
flourished; and, though they borrowed details from each other,
each had something distinctive in its scheme of colouring. The
border developed on several lines. The rayed gold spots or studs
or pellets, which were noticed in the i4th century, are now
grouped in profusion along the margins and in the interstices
of delicate flowering and other designs. Another favourite
detail in the composition of both initials and borders was the
twining vine tendril, generally in white or gold upon a coloured
ground, apparently a revival of the interlacing Lombardic
work of the nth and i2th centuries. At first, restrained and not
too complex, it fills the body of initials and short borders; then
it rapidly expands, and the convolutions and interlacings become
more and more elaborate. Lastly came the completed solid
frame into which are introduced arabesques, vignettes, candela-
bras, trophies, vases, medallions, antique gems, cupids, fawns,
birds, &c., and all that the fancy led by the spirit of classical
renaissance could suggest. Among the principal Italian MSS.
of the isth century in the British Museum there are: a copy of
Plutarch's Lives, with miniatures in a remarkable style (Add.
MS. 22,318); Aristotle's Ethics, translated into Spanish by
Charles, prince of Viana, probably executed in Sicily about
1458 (Add. MS. 21,120); a breviary of Santa Croce at Florence,
late in the century (Add. MS. 29,735); Livy's History of the
Macedonian War, of the Neapolitan school, late in the century
(Harl. MS. 3694) ; and, above all, the remarkable Book of Hours
of Bona Sforza of Savoy of about the year 1490 (Add. MS.
34,291); besides a fair number of MSS. exhibiting the rich
colouring of the Venetian school.
Like that of the French and Flemish schools, Italian illumina-
tion survived into the i6th century, and for a time showed
vigour. Very elaborate borders of the classical type and of
good design were still produced. But, as in other countries, it
was then a dying art. The attempt to graft illumination on
to books produced by the printing press, which were now dis-
placing the hand-written volumes with which the art had
always been associated, proved, except in a few rare instances,
a failure. The experiment did not succeed; and the art was
dead.
It remains to say a few words respecting the book ornamenta-
tion of the Peninsula. In the earlier centuries of the middle
ages there appears to have been scarcely anything
worthy of note. The Mozarabic liturgies and biblical
MSS. of the gth to I2th centuries are adorned with initial
letters closely allied to the primitive specimens of the Merovingian
and Franco-Lombardic pattern, and coloured with the same
crude tints; the larger letters also being partly composed of
interlaced designs. But the style is barbaric. Such illustrative
drawings as are to be found are also'of a most primitive character.
Moorish influence is apparent in the colours, particularly in the
yellows, reds and blacks. In the later middle ages no national
school of illumination was developed, owing to political condi-
tions. When in the isth century a demand arose for illuminated
MSS., recourse was had to foreign artists. Flemish art naturally
was imported, and French art on the one side and Italian art on
the other accompanied it. In the breviary executed for Queen
Isabella of Spain about the year 1497 (Brit. Mus., Add. MS.
18,851) we find a curious random association of miniatures
and borders in both the French and the Flemish styles, the
national taste for black, however, asserting itself in the borders
where, in many instances, the usual coloured designs are replaced
by black-tinted foliage and scrolls.
In other outlying countries of Europe the art of illumination
can scarcely be said to have existed. In Slavonic countries a
recollection of. the Byzantine school lingered in book ornamenta-
tion, but chiefly in a degraded and extravagant system of
fantastic interlacings. In the i6th century there was a revival
in Russia of the Byzantine style, and the head-pieces and other
ornamental details of the nth and I2th centuries were success-
fully imitated.
The consideration of oriental art does not come within the
scope of this article. It may, however, be noted that in Arabic
and Persian MSS. of the I3th to i6th centuries there are many
examples of exquisitely drawn title-pages and other ornament
of intricate detail, resplendent with colour and gold, which may
be ranked with western illuminations.
AUTHORITIES. — Medieval and later works dealing in part with
the technicalities of illumination are collected by Mrs Merrifield,
Original Treatises dating from the I2th to i8th Centuries on the Art
of Painting (1849); see also Theophilus, De diversis Artibus, ed.
R. Hendrie (1847). Text-books and collections of facsimiles are
Count A. de Bastard, Peintures et ornaments des manuscrits, a
magnificent series of facsimiles, chiefly from Carolingian MSS.
(1832-1869); Shaw and Madden, Illuminated Ornaments from MSS.
and early Printed Books (1833); Noel Humphreys and Jones, The
Illuminated Books of the Middle Ages (1849); H. Shaw, Handbook
of Medieval Alphabets (1853), and The Art of Illumination (1870);
Tymms and Digby Wyatt, The Art of Illumination (1860); Birch
and Jenner, Early Drawings and Illuminations, with a dictionary of
subjects in MSS. in the British Museum (1879); J. H. Middleton,
Illuminated MSS. in Classical and Medieval Times (1892); G. F.
Warner, Illuminated MSS. in the British Museum (official publica-
tion, 1903); H. Omont, Facsimiles des miniatures des plus anciens
MSS. grecs de la Bibl. Nationale (1902) ; V. de Boutovsky, Histoire
de I'ornement russe du X' au XVI' siecle, including facsimiles from
Byzantine MSS. (1870); J. O. Westwood, Facsimiles of Miniatures
and Ornaments of Anglo-Saxon and Irish MSS. (1868); E. M.
Thompson, English Illuminated MSS. (1895); Paleografia artistica
di Montecassino (1876-1884); Le Miniature nei codici Cassinesi
(1887); A. Haseloff, Eine thuringisch-sdchsische Malereischule des
13. Jahrhunderts (1897); G. Schwarzenski, Die Regensburger Buck-
malerei des JO. und II. Jahrhunderts (1901) ; Sauerland and Haseloff,
Der Psalter Erzbischof Egberts von Trier (1901).
Several of the most ancient illustrated or illuminated MSS. have
been issued wholly or partially in facsimile, viz. The Ambrosian
Homer, by A. Ceriani ; the Schedae Vaticanae and the Codex Romanus
of Virgil, by the Vatican Library; the Vienna Dioscorides, in the
Leiden series of facsimiles; the Vienna Genesis, by Hartel and
Wickhoff; the Greek Gospels of Rossano, by A. Haseloff: the
Ashburnham Pentateuch, by B. von Gebhart; the Utrecht Psalter,
by the Palaeographical Society.
Facsimiles from illuminated MSS. are also included in large
palaeographical works such as Silvestre, Universal Palaeography,
ed. Madden (1850); the Facsimiles of the Palaeographical Society
(1873-1894) and of the New Palaeographical Society (1903, &c.);
320
ILLUMINATI— ILLUMINATION
and the Collezione paleografia Vaticana, the issue of which was
commenced in 1905. Excellent photographic reproductions on a
reduced scale are being issued by the British Museum and by the
Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris. (E. M. T.)
ILLUMINATI (Lat. illuminare), a designation in use from the
1 5th century, and applied to, or assumed by, enthusiasts of
types distinct from each other, according as the " light " claimed
was viewed as directly communicated from a higher source, or as
due to a clarified and exalted condition of the human intelligence.
To the former class belong the alumbrados of Spain. Menendez
Pelayo first finds the name about 1492 (in the form aluminados,
1498), but traces them back to a Gnostic origin, and thinks their
views were promoted in Spain through influences from Italy.
One of their earliest leaders, born in Salamanca, a labourer's
daughter, known as La Beata de Piedrahita, came under the
notice of the Inquisition in 1511, as claiming to hold colloquies
with our Lord and the Virgin; having high patrons, no decision
was taken against her (Los Heterodoxos espanoles, 1881, lib. v.).
Ignatius Loyola, while studying at Salamanca (1527) was brought
before an ecclesiastical commission on a charge of sympathy
with the alumbrados, but escaped with an admonition. Others
were not so fortunate. In 1529 a congregation of unlettered
adherents at Toledo was visited with scourging and imprison-
ment. Greater rigours followed, and for about a century the
alumbrados afforded many victims to the Inquisition, especially
at Cordova. The movement (under the name of Illumines)
seems to have reached France from Seville in 1623, and attained
some proportions in Picardy when joined (1634) by Pierre
Guerin, cure of Saint-Georges de Roye, whose followers, known
as Gu6rinets, were suppressed in 1635 (Hermant, Hist, des
heresies, 1717). Another and obscure body of Illumines came
to light in the south of France in 1722, and appears to have
lingered till 1794, having affinities with those known contem-
poraneously in this country as " French Prophets," an offshoot
of the Camisards. Of different class were the so-called Illuminati,
better known as Rosicrucians, who claimed to originate in 1422,
but rose into notice in 1537; a secret society, combining with
the mysteries of alchemy the possession of esoteric principles
of religion. Their positions are embodied in three anonymous
treatises of 1614 (Richard et Giraud, Diet, de la theol. cath.).
A short-lived movement of republican freethought, to whose
adherents the name Illuminati was given, was founded on
May-day 1776 by Adam Weishaupt (d. 1830), professor of
Canon Law at Ingolstadt, an ex-Jesuit. The chosen title of
this Order or Society was Pe.rfectibilists (Perfektibilisten). Its
members, pledged to obedience to their superiors, were divided
into three main classes; the first including " novices,"
" minervals " and "lesser illuminati "; the second consisting
of freemasons, " ordinary," " Scottish " and " Scottish knights ";
the third or " mystery " class comprising two grades of " pries'. "
and " regent " and of " magus " and " king." Relations with
masonic lodges were established at Munich and Freising in 1780.
The order had its branches in most countries of the European
continent, but its total numbers never seem to have exceeded
two thousand. The scheme had its attraction for literary men,
such as Goethe and Herder, and even for the reigning dukes
of Gotha and Weimar. Internal rupture preceded its downfall,
which was effected by an edict of the Bavarian government
in 1785. Later, the title Illuminati was given to the French
Martinists, founded in 1754 by Martinez Pasqualis, and to their
imitators, the Russian Martinists, headed about 1 790 by Professor
Schwartz of Moscow; both were Cabalists and allegorists,
imbibing ideas from Jakob Boehme and Emmanuel Swedenborg
(Bergier, Diet, de thtol.).
See (especially for details of the movement of Weishaupt) P.
Tschackert, in Hauck's Realencyklopadie (1901). (A. Go.*)
ILLUMINATION, in optics, the intensity of the light falling
upon a surface. The measurement of the illumination is termed
photometry (q.v.). The fundamental law of illumination is
that if the medium be transparent the intensity of illumination
which a luminous point can produce on a surface directly exposed
to it is inversely as the square of the distance. The word trans-
parent implies that no light is absorbed or stopped. Whatever,
therefore, leaves the source of light must in succession pass
through each of a series of spherical surfaces described round
the source as centre. The same amount of light falls perpendicu-
larly on all these surfaces in succession. The amount received
in a given time by a unit of surface on each is therefore inversely
as the number of such units in each. But the surfaces of spheres
are as the squares of their radii, — whence the proposition.
(We assume here that the velocity of light is constant, and
that the source gives out its light uniformly.) When the rays
fall otherwise than perpendicularly on the surface, the illumina-
tion produced is proportional to the cosine of the angle of
obliquity; for the area seen Under a given spherical angle
increases as the secant of the obliquity, the distance remain-
ing the same.
As a corollary to this we have the further proposition that
the apparent brightness of a luminous surface (seen through
a transparent homogeneous medium) is the same at all distances.
The word brightness is here taken as a measure of the amount
of light falling on the pupil per unit of spherical angle subtended
by the luminous surface. The spherical angle subtended by any
small surface whose plane is at right angles to the line of sight
is inversely as the square of the distance. So also is the light
received from it. Hence the brightness is the same at all
distances.
The word brightness is often used (even scientifically) in
another sense from that just defined. Thus we speak of a bright
star, of the question — When is Venus at its brightest? &c.
Strictly, such expressions are not defensible except for sources
of light which (like a star) have no apparent surface, so that
we cannot tell from what amount of spherical angle their light
appears to come. In that case the spherical angle is, for want
of knowledge, assumed to be the same for all, and therefore
the brightness of each is now estimated in terms of the whole
quantity of light we receive from it.
The function of a telescope is to increase the " apparent
magnitude " of distant objects; it does not increase the " ap-
parent brightness." If we put out of account the loss of light
by reflection at glass surfaces (or by imperfect reflection at
metallic surfaces) and by absorption, and suppose that the
magnifying power does not exceed the ratio of the aperture
of the object-glass to that of the pupil, under which condition
the pupil will be filled with light, we may say that the " apparent
brightness " is absolutely unchanged by the use of a telescope.
In this statement, however, two reservations must be admitted.
If the object under examination, like a fixed star, have no sensible
apparent magnitude, the conception of " apparent brightness "
is altogether inapplicable, and we are concerned only with the
total quantity of light reaching the eye. Again, it is found
that the visibility of an object seen against a black background
depends not only upon the " apparent brightness " but also
upon the apparent magnitude. If two or three crosses of different
sizes be cut out of the same piece of white paper, and be erected
against a black background on the further side of a nearly dark
room, the smaller ones become invisible in a light still sufficient
to show the larger. Under these circumstances a suitable
telescope may of course bring also the smaller objects into view.
The explanation is probably to be sought in imperfect action
of the lens of the eye when the pupil is dilated to the utmost.
Lord Rayleigh found that in a nearly dark room he became
distinctly short-sighted, a defect of which there is no trace
whatever in a moderate light. If this view be correct, the
brightness of the image on the retina is really less in the case of
a small than in the case of a large object, although the so-called
apparent brightnesses may be the same. However this may be,
the utility of a night-glass is beyond dispute.
The general law that (apart from the accidental losses men-
tioned above) the " apparent brightness " depends only upon
the area of the pupil filled with light, though often ill under-
stood, has been established for a long time, as the following
quotation from Smith's Optics (Cambridge, 1738), p. 113, will
show: —
ILLUSTRATION
321
" Since the magnitude of the pupil is subject to be varied by
various degrees of light, let NO be its semi-diameter when the
object PL is viewed by the naked eye from the distance OP; and
upon a plane that touches the eye at O, let OK be the semi-diameter
of the greatest area, visible through all the glasses to another eye
at P, to be found as PL was; or, which is the same thing, let OK
be the semi-diameter of the greatest area inlightened by a pencil of
rays flowing from P through all the glasses; and when this area is
not less than the area of the pupil, the point P will appear just as
bright through all the glasses as it would do if they were removed ;
but if the inlightened area be less than the area of the pupil, the
point P will appear less bright through the glasses than if they
were removed in the same proportion as the inlightened area is less
than the pupil. And these proportions of apparent brightness
would be accurate if all the incident rays were transmitted through
the glasses to the eye, or if only an insensible part of them were
stopt."
A very important fact connected with our present subject
is: The brightness of a self-luminous surface does not depend
upon its inclination to the line of sight. Thus a red-hot ball
of iron, free from scales of oxide, &c., appears flat in the dark;
so, also, the sun, seen through mist, appears as a flat disk. This
fact, however, depends ultimately upon the second law of
thermodynamics (see RADIATION). It may be stated, however,
in another form, in which its connexion with what precedes
is more obvious — The amount of radiation, in any direction,
from a luminous surface is proportional to the cosine of the
obliquity.
The flow of light (if we may so call it) in straight lines from the
luminous point, with constant velocity, leads, as we have seen, to
the expression /ur"2 (where r is the distance from the luminous point)
for the quantity of light which passes through unit of surface per-
pendicular to the ray in unit of time, n being a quantity indicating
the rate at which light is emitted by the source. This represents
the illumination of the surface on which it falls. The flow through
unit of surface whose normal is inclined at an angle 8 to the ray is
of course n<r* cos 6, again representing the illumination. These are
precisely the expressions for the gravitation force exerted by a
particle of mass p on a unit of matter at distance r, and for its
resolved part in a given direction. Hence we may employ an
expression V='S^r~1, which is exactly analogous to the gravitation
or electric potential, for the purpose of calculating the effect due to
any number of separate sources of light.
And the fundamental proposition in potentials, viz. that, if n
be the external normal at any point of a closed surface, the integral
fJ(dV ldn)dS>, taken over the whole surface, has the value — 471710,
where MO is the sum of the values of ^ for each source lying within
the surface, follows almost intuitively from the mere consideration
of what it means as regards light. For every source external to the
closed surface sends in light which goes out again. But the light
from an internal source goes wholly out; and the amount per
second from each unit source is 4*-, the total area of the unit sphere
surrounding the source.
It is well to observe, however, that the analogy is not quite
complete. To make it so, all the sources must lie on the same side of
the surface whose illumination we are dealing with. This is due
to the fact that, in order that a surface may be illuminated at all,
it must be capable of scattering light, i.e. it must be to some extent
opaque. Hence the illumination depends mainly upon those sources
which are on the same side as that from which it is regarded.
Though this process bears some resemblance to the heat analogy
employed by Lord Kelvin (Sir W. Thomson) for investigations in
statical electricity and to Clerk Maxwell's device of an incompressible
fluid without mass, it is by no means identical with them. Each
method deals with a substance, real or imaginary, which flows in
conical streams from a source so that the same amount of it passes
per second through every section of the cone. But in the present
process the velocity is constant and the density variable, while in
the others the density is virtually constant and the velocity variable.
There is a curious reciprocity in formulae such as we have just given.
For instance, it is easily seen that the light received from a uniformly
illuminated surface is represented by fff~* cos OdS.
As we have seen that this integral vanishes for a closed surface
which has no source inside, its value is the same for all shells of
equal uniform brightness whose edges lie on the same cone.
ILLUSTRATION. In a general sense, illustration (or the art
of representing pictorially some idea which has been expressed
in words) is as old as Art itself. There has never been a time
since civilization began when artists were not prompted to
pictorial themes from legendary, historical or literary sources.
But the art of illustration, as now understood, is a comparatively
modern product. The tendency of modern culture has been
to make the interests of the different arts overlap. The theory
of Wagner, as applied to opera, for making a combined appeal
XIV. II
to the artistic emotions, has been also the underlying principle
in the development of that great body of artistic production
which in painting gives us the picture containing " literary "
elements, and, in actual association with literature in its printed
form, becomes what we call " illustration." The illustrator's
work is the complement of expression in some other medium.
A poem can hardly exist which does not awaken in the mind
at some moment a suggestion either of picture or music. The
sensitive temperament of the artist or the musician is able to
realize out of words some parallel idea which can only be con-
veyed, or can be best conveyed, through his own medium of
music or painting. Similarly, music or painting may, and often
does, suggest poetry. It is from this inter-relation of the emo-
tions governing the different arts that illustration may be said
to spring. The success of illustration lies, then, in the instinctive
transference of an idea from one medium to another; the more
spontaneous it be and the less laboured in application, the better.
Leaving on one side the illuminated manuscripts of the
middle ages (see ILLUMINATED MSS.) we start with the fact
that illustration was coincident with the invention of printing.
Italian art produced many fine examples, notably the outline
illustrations to the Poliphili Hypneratomachia, printed by
Aldus at Venice in the last year of the I5th century. Other
early works exist, the products of unnamed artists of the French,
German, Spanish and Italian schools; while of more singular
importance, though not then brought into book form, were the
illustrations to Dante's Divine Comedy made by Botticelli
at about the same period. The sudden development of engraving
on metal and wood drew many painters of the Renaissance
towards illustration as a further opportunity for the exercise
of their powers; and the line-work, either original or engraved
by others, of Pollajuolo, Mantegna, Michelangelo and Titian
has its place in the gradual enlargement of illustrative art. The
German school of the i6th century committed its energies even
more vigorously to illustration; and many of its artists are
now known chiefly through their engravings on wood or copper,
a good proportion of which were done to the accompaniment
of printed matter. The names of Diirer, Burgmair, Altdorfer
and Holbein represent a school whose engraved illustrations
possess qualities which have never been rivalled, and remain
an invaluable aid to imitators of the present day.
Illustration has generally flourished in any particular age
in proportion to the health and vigour of the artistic productions
in other kinds. No evident revival in painting has come about,
no great school has existed during the last four centuries, which
has not set its mark upon the illustration of the period and
quickened it into a medium for true artistic expression. The
etchers of the Low Countries during the I7th century, with
Rembrandt at their head, were to a great extent illustrators
in their choice of subjects. In France the period of Watteau
and Fragonard gave rise to a school of delicately engraved
illustration, exquisite in detail and invention. In England
Hogarth came to be the founder of many new conditions, both
in painting and illustration, and was followed by men of genius
so distinct as Reynolds on the one side and Bewick on the other.
With Reynolds one connects the illustrators and engravers
for whom now Bartolozzi supplies a surviving name and an
embodiment in his graceful but never quite English art. But
it is from Thomas Bewick that the wonderfully consistent
development of English illustration begins to date. Bewick
marks an important period in the technical history of wood-
engraving as the practical inventor of the "tint"
and " white line " method of wood-cutting; but he ^°«re!
also happened to be an artist. His artistic device England.
was to give local colour and texture without shadow,
securing thereby a precision of outline which allowed no form
to be lost. And though, in consequence, many of his best
designs have somewhat the air of a specimen plate, he succeeded
in bringing into black-and-white illustration an element of
colour which had been wholly absent from it in the work of the
15th and i6th century German and Italian schools. Bewick's
method started a new school; but the more racy qualities
322
ILLUSTRATION
of his woodcuts were entirely dependent on the designer being
his own cutter; and the same happy relationship gave distinct
characteristics to the nearly contemporary work of William
Blake and of Calvert. Blake's wonderful Illustrations to the
Book of Job, while magnificent in their conventional rendering
of light and shade, still retain the colourlessness of the old
masters, as do also the more broadly handled designs to his
own books of prophecy and verse; but in his woodcuts to
Philips's Pastorals the modern tendency towards local colour
makes itself strongly felt. So wonderfully, indeed, have colour
and tone been expressed in these rough wood-blocks, that more
vivid impressions of darkness and twilight falling across quiet
landscape have never been produced through the same materials.
The pastoral designs made by Edward Calvert on similar lines
can hardly be over-praised. Technically these engravings are
far more able than those from which they drew their inspiration.
With the exception of the two artists named, and in a minor
degree of Thomas Stothard and John Flaxman, who also pro-
duced original illustrations, the period from the end of the i8th
century till about the middle of the ipth was less notable for the
work of the designer than of the engraver. The delicate plates
to Rogers's Italy were done from drawings which Turner had
not produced for purposes of illustration; and the admirable
lithographs of Samuel Prout and Richard Bonington were merely
studies of architecture and landscape made in a material that
admitted of indefinite multiplication. It is true that Gericault
came over to England about the year 1820 to draw the English
race-horse and other studies of country life, which were published
in London in 1821, and that other fine work in lithography was
done by James Ward, G. Cattermole, and somewhat later by
J. F. Lewis. But illustration proper, subject-illustration applied
to literature, was mainly in the hands of the wood-engravers;
and these, forming a really fine school founded on the lines which
Bewick had laid down, had for about thirty years to content
themselves with rendering the works of ephemeral artists, among
whom Benjamin R. Haydon and John Martin stand out as the
chief lights. It must not be forgotten, however, that while
the day of a serious English school of illustration had not yet
come, Great Britain possessed an indigenous tradition of gross
and lively caricature; a tradition of such robust force and
vulgarity that, by the side of some choicer specimens of James
Gillray and Henry W. Bunbury, the art of Rowlandson appears
almost refined. This was the school in which George Cruikshank,
John Leech, and the Dickens illustrators had their training,
from which they drew more and more away; until, with the
help of Punch, just before the middle of the igth century, English
caricaturists had learned the secret of how to be apposite and
amusing without scurrility and without libel. (See CARICATURE.)
Under NEWSPAPERS will be found some account of the rise
of illustrated journalism. It was in about the year 1832 that
the illustrated weekly paper started on its career
influence ;n England, anci almost by accident determined
of Wood- . . , :
engraving, under what form a great national art was to develop
itself. While in France the illustrators were making
their triumphs by means of lithography, English illustration
was becoming more and more identified with wood-engraving.
The demand for a method of illustration, easy to produce and
easy to print, for books and magazines of large circulation and
moderate price, forced the artist before long into drawing upon
the wood itself; and so soon as the artist had asserted his pre-
ference for facsimile over " tint," the school which came to be
called " of the 'sixties " was in embryo, and waited only for
artistic power to give it distinction. The engraver's translation
of the artist's painting or wash-drawing into " tint " had largely
exalted the individuality of the engraver at the expense of the
artist. But from the moment when the designer began to put
his own lines upon the wood, new conditions shaped themselves;
and though the artist at times might make demands which the
engraver could not follow, or the engraver inadequately fulfil
the expectation of the artist, the general tendency was to bring
designer and engraver into almost ideal relations — an ideal
which nothing short of the artist being his own engraver could
have equalled. Out of an alliance cemented by their common
use and understanding of the material on which they worked
came the school of facsimile or partial-facsimile engraving
which flourished during the 'sixties, and lasted just so long as
its conditions were unimpaired — losing its flavour only at the
moment when " improved " mechanical appliances enabled
the artist once more to dissociate himself from the conditions
which bound the engraver in his craft.
Before the fortunate circumstances which governed the work
of the 'sixties became decisive, illustrations of a transitional
character, but tending to the same end, had been p^.
produced by John Tenniel, John Gilbert, Birket RsphaelUe
Foster, Harrison Weir, T. Creswick, W. Mulready move-
and others; but their methods were too vague and meat~
diffuse to bear as yet the mark of a school; no single influence
gave a unity to their efforts. On some of them Adolf von
Menzel's illustrations to Kugler's Frederick the Great, published
in England in 1844, may have left a mark; Gilbert certainly
shows traces of the influence of Delacroix and Bonington in the
free, loose method of his draughtsmanship, independent of accurate
modelling, and with here and there a paint-like dab of black
to relieve a generally colourless effect; while Tenniel, with cold,
precise lines of wire-drawn hardness, remained the representative
of the past academic style, influencing others by the dignity
of his fine technique, but with his own feeling quite untouched
by the Pre-Raphaelite and romantic movement which was soon
to occupy the world of illustration. In greater or less degree
it may be said of the work of all these artists that, as it antedates,
so to the end does it stand somewhat removed in character from,
the school with which for a time it became contemporary. The
year which decisively marked the beginning of new things in
illustration was 1857, the year of the Moxon Tennyson and of
Wilmott's Poets of the Nineteenth Century, with illustrations by
Rossetti, Millais, Holman Hunt and Ford Madox Brown. In
these artists we get the germ of the movement which afterwards
came to have so wide a popularity. At the beginning, Pre-
Raphaelite in name, poetic and literary in its choice of subjects,
the school quickly expanded to an acceptance of those open-air
and everyday subjects which one connects with the names of
Frederick Walker, Arthur B. Houghton, G. F. Pinwcll and M.
North. The illustrations of the Pre-Raphaelites were eminently
thoughtful, full of symbolism, and with a certain pressure of
interest to which the epithet of " intense " came to be applied.
As an example of their method of thought-transference from
word to form, Madox Brown's drawing for the Dalziel Bible of
" Elijah and the Widow's Son " may be taken. The restoration
of life to a dead body, of a child to its mother, is there conveyed
with many illustrative touches and asides, which become clumsy
when stated in words. The hen bearing her chicken between her
wings is a perfectly direct and appropriate pictorial symbol,
but a far more imaginative stroke is the shadow on the wall of
a swallow flying back to the clay bottle where it has made its
nest. Here is illustration full of literary symbolism, yet wholly
pictorial in its means; and in this it is entirely characteristic
of Pre-Raphaelite feeling, with its method of suggesting, through
externals, consideration as opposed to mere outlook. Of this
phase Rossetti must be accounted the leader, but it was Millais
who, by the sheer weight of his personality, carried English
illustration along with him from Pre-Raphaelitism to the freer
romanticism and naturalistic tendencies of the 'sixties. Rossetti,
with his poetic enthusiasm, his strong personal magnetism and
dramatic power of composition, may be said to have brought
about the awakening; it was Millais who, by his rapid develop-
ment of style, his original and daring technique,
turned it into a movement. When he started, there O°M"H"™
were many influences behind him and his fellow-
workers — among older foreign contemporaries, those of Menzel
and Rethel; and behind these again something of the old
masters. But through a transitional period, represented by his
twelve drawings of " The Parables," which appeared first in
Good Words, Millais emerged in to the perfect independence of his
illustrations to Trollope's novels, Framley Parsonage and The
ILLUSTRATION
32-3
Small House at Allinglon, his own master and the master of a
new school. Depicting the ugly fashions of his day with grave
dignity and distinction, and with a broad power of rendering
type in work which had the aspect of genre, he drew the picture
of his age in a summary so embracing that his illustrations
attain the ralik almost of historical art. For art of this sort
the symbolism of the Pre-Raphaelites lost its use: the realization
in form of a character conveyed by an author's words, the happy
suggestion of a locality helping to fix the writer's description,
the verisimilitudes of ordinary life, even to trivial detail, carried
out with real pictorial conviction, were the things most to be
aimed at. Pictorial conviction was the great mark of the
illustrative school of the 'sixties. The work of its artists has
absorbed so completely the interest and reality of the letterpress
that the results are a model of what faithful yet imaginative
illustration should be'. In the illustrated magazines of this
period, Once a Week, Good Words, Cornhill, London Society,
The Argosy, The Leisure Hour, Sunday at Home, The Quiver
and The Churchman's Family Magazine, as well as others, is
to be found the best work of this new school of illustrators;
and with the greater number of them it cannot be mistaken
that Millais is the prevailing force.
By their side other men were working, more deeply influenced
by the old masters, and by the minuteness and hard, definite
treatment of form which the Pre-Raphaelite school had inculcated.
Foremost of these was Frederick Sandys. His illustrations,
scattered through nearly all the magazines which have been
named, show always a decorative power of design and are full
of fine drawing and fine invention, but remain resolutely cold
in handling and lacking in imaginative ardour. The few illus-
trations done by Burne- Jones at this period show a whole-
hearted following of Rossetti, but a somewhat struggling
technique; and the same qualities are to be found in the work of
Arthur Hughes, whose illustrations in Good Words for the Young
(1869) have a charm of tender poetic invention showing through
the faults and persistent uncertainty of his draughtsmanship.
The illustrations of Frederick Shields to Defoe's History of the
Plague have a certain affinity to the work of Sandys; but,
with less power over form, they show a more dramatic sense of
light and shade, and at their best can claim real and original
beauty. The formality of feeling and composition, and the
strained, stiff quality of line in Lord Leighton's designs to
Romola (1863), do a good deal to mar one's enjoyment of their
admirable draughtsmanship. Many fine drawings done at this
period by Leighton, Poynter, Henry Armstead and Burne-
Jones did not appear until the year 1880 in the " Dalziel Bible
Gallery," when the methods of which they were the outcome
had fallen almost out of use.
Deeply influenced by the broad later phases of Millais's black-
and-white work were those artists whose tendency lay in the
"The direction of idyllic naturalism and popular romance,
'sixties." the men to whom more particularly is given the name
of the period and school " the 'sixties," and whose
more immediate leader, as far as popular estimation goes, was
Frederick Walker. With his, one rrtay roughly group the names
of Pinwell, Houghton, North, Charles Keene, Lawless, Matthew
J. Mahoney, Morten and, with a certain reservation, W. Small
and G. du Maurier. In no very separate category stand
two other artists whose contributions to illustration were but
incidental, John Pettie and J. M'Neill Whistler. The broad
characteristics of this variously related group were a loose, easy
line suggestive of movement, a general fondness for white spaces
and open-air effects, and in the best of them a thorough sense of
the serious beauty of domestic and rural life. They treated the
present with a feeling rather idyllic than realistic; when they
touched the past it was with a courteous sort of realism, and a
wonderful inventiveness of detail which carried with it a charm
of conviction. Walker's method shows a broad and vivid use
of black and white, with a fine sense of balance, but very little
preoccupation for decorative effect. Pinwell had a more
delicate fancy, but less freedom in his technique — less ease, but
more originality of composition. In Houghton's work one sees
a swift, masterful technique, full of audacity, noble in its economy
of means, sometimes rough and careless. His temperament was
dramatic, passionate, satiric and witty. Some of his best work,
his " Scenes from American Life," appeared in the pages of the
Graphic as late as the years 1873-1874. There are indications
in the work of Lawless that he might have come close to Millais
in his power of infusing distinction into the barest materials
of everyday life, but he died too soon for his work to reach
its full accomplishment. North was essentially a landscape
illustrator. The delicate sense of beauty in du Maurier's early
work became lost in the formal but graceful conventions of his
later Punch drawings. It was in the pages of Punch that Keene
secured his chief triumphs. The two last-named artists outstayed
the day which saw the break-up of the school of which these
are the leading names. It ran its course through a period when
illustrated magazines formed the staple of popular consumption,
before the illustrated newspapers, with their hungry rush for
the record of latest events, became a weekly feature. Its waning
influence may be plainly traced through the early years of the
Graphic, which started in 1869 with some really fine work, done
under transitional conditions before the engraver's rendering
of tone-drawings once more ousted facsimile from its high place
in illustration.
In connexion with this transitional period, drawings for the
Graphic by Houghton, Pinwell, Sir Hubert von Herkomer,
E. J. Gregory, H. Woods, Charles Green, H. Paterson (Mrs
Allingham) and William Small deserve honourable mention.
Yet it was the last-named who was mainly instrumental in bring-
ing about the change from line-work to pigment, which depressed
the artistic value of illustration during the 'seventies and the
'eighties to almost absolute mediocrity. Several artists of great
ability practised illustration during this period: in addition to
those Graphic artists already mentioned there were Luke Fildes,
Frank Holl, S. P. Hall, Paul Renouard and a few others of smaller
merit. But the interest was for the time shifting from black-
and-white work and turning to colour. Kate Greenaway began
to produce her charming idyllic renderings of children in mob-
caps and long skirts. Walter Crane on somewhat similar lines
designed his illustrated nursery rhymes; while Randolph
Caldecott took the field with his fresh and breezy scenes of
hunting life and carousal in the times most typical of the English
squirearchy. Working with a broad outline, suggestive of the
brush by its easy freedom, and adding washes of conventional
colour for embellishment, he was one of the first in England
to show the beginnings of Japanese influence. Even more
dependent upon colour were his illustrated books for children;
while in black and white, in his illustrations to Bracebridge Hall
(1876), for instance, pen and ink began to replace the pencil,
and to produce a new and more independent style of draughts-
manship. This style was taken up and followed by many artists
of ability, by Harry Furniss, Hugh Thomson and others, till
the influence of E. A. Abbey's more mobile and more elaborate
penmanship came to produce a still further development in the
direction of fineness and illusion, and that of Phil May, with
Linley Sambourne for his teacher, to simplify and make broad
for those who aimed rather at a journalistic and shorthand
method of illustration. (See also CARICATURE and CARTOON.)
Under the absolutely liberating conditions of " process repro-
duction " (see PROCESS) the latest developments in illustration on
its lighter and more popular side are full of French influences, or
ready to follow the wind in any fresh direction, whether to America
or Japan ; but on the graver side they show a strong leaning towards
the older traditions of the 'sixties and of Pre-Raphaelitism. The
founding by William Morris of the Kelmscott Press in 1891, through
which were produced a series of decorated and illustrated books,
aimed frankly at a revival of medieval taste. In Morris's books
decorative effect and sense of material claimed mastery over the
whole scheme, and subdued the illustrations to a sort of glorious
captivity into which no breath of modern spirit could be breathed.
The illustrations of Burne-Jones filled with a happy touch of archaism
the decorative borders of William Morris; and only a little less
happy, apart from their imaginative inferiority, were the serious
efforts of Walter Crane and one or two others. Directly under the
Morris influence arose the " Birmingham school," with an entire
devotion to decorative methods and still archaic effects which
324
ILLUSTRATION
tended sometimes to rather inane technical results. Among its
leaders may be named Arthur Gaskin, C. M. Gere and E. H. New;
while work not dissimilar but more independent in spirit had already
been done by Selwyn Image and H. P. Home in the Century Guild
Hobby-Horse. But far greater originality and force belonged to the
work of a group, known for a time as the neo-Pre-Raphaelites,
which joined to an earnest study of the past a scrupulously open
mind towards more modern influences. Its earliest expression of
existence was the publication of an occasional periodical, the Dial
(1889-1897), but before long its influence became felt outside its
first narrow limits. The technical influence of Abbey, but still
more the emotional and intellectual teaching of Rossetti and Millais,
together with side-influences from the few great French symbolists,
were, apart from their own originality, the forces which gave dis-
tinction to the work of C. S. Ricketts, C. H. Shannon, R. Savage
and their immediate following. Beauty of line, languorous passion,
symbolism full of literary allusions, and a fondness for the life of
any age but the present, are the characteristics of the school. Their
influence fell very much in the same quarters where Morris found a
welcome; but an affinity for the Italian rather than the German
masters (shown especially in the " Vale Press " publications), and
a studied note of world-weariness, kept them somewhat apart from
the sturdy medievalism of Morris, and linked them intellectually,
with the decadent school initiated by the wayward genius of Aubrey
Beardsley. But though broadly men may be classed in groups, no
grouping will supply a formula for all the noteworthy work produced
when men are drawn this way and that by current influences.
Among artists resolutely independent of contemporary coteries
may be named W. Strang, whose grave, rugged work shows him a
pupil, through Legros, of Durer and others of the old masters; T.
Sturge Moore, an original engraver of designs which have an equal
affinity for Blake, Calvert and Hokusai; W. Nicholson, whose
style shows a dignified return to the best part of the Rowlandson
tradition; and E. J. Sullivan. In the closing years of the igth
century Aubrey Beardsley became the creator of an entirely novel
style of decorative illustration. Drawing inspiration from all
sources of European and Japanese art, he produced, by the force
of a vivid personality and extraordinary technical skill, a result
which was highly original and impressive. To a genuine liking for
analysis of repulsive and vicious types of humanity he added an
exquisite sense of line, balance and mass; and partly by succes
de scandale, partly by genuine artistic brilliance, he gathered round
him a host of imitators, to whom, for the most part, he was able
to impart only his more mediocre qualities.
In America, until a comparatively recent date, illustration bowed
the knee to the superior excellence of the engraver over the artist.
Not until the brilliant pen-drawing of E. A. Abbey carried
the day with the black-and-white artists of England did
any work of real moment emanate from the United
States, unless that of Elihu Vedder be regarded as an exception.
Howard Pyle is a brilliant imitator of Durer; he has also the
ability to adapt himself to draughtsmanship of a more modern
tendency. C. S. Reinhart was an artist of directness and force, in
a style based upon modern French and German examples; while of
greater originality as a whole, though derivative in detail, is the
fanciful penmanship of Alfred Brennan. Other artists who stand
in the front rank of American illustrators, and whose works appear
chiefly in the pages of Scribner's, Harper's and the Century Magazine,
are W. T. Smedley, F. S. Church, R. Blum, Wenzell, A. B. Frost, and
in particular C. Dana Gibson, the last of whom gained a reputation
in England as an American du Maurier.
The record of modern French illustration goes back to the day
when political caricature and the Napoleonic legend divided be-
_ tween them the triumphs of early lithography. The
illustrators of France at that period were also her
greatest artists. Of the historical and romantic school were D.
Raffet, Nicholas J. Charlet, G6ricault, Delacroix, I. B. Isabey and
Achille Dev6ria, many of whose works appeared in L' Artiste, a
paper founded in 1831 as the official organ of the romanticists; while
the realists were led in the direction of caricature by two artists of
such enormous force as Gavarni and Honor6 Daumier, whose works,
appearing in La Lithographie Mensuette, Le Charivari and La
Caricature, ran the gauntlet of political interference and suppression
during a troubled period of French politics — which was the very
cause of their prosperity. Behind these men lay the influence of
the great Spanish realist Goya. Following upon the harsh satire
and venomous realism of this famous school of pictorial invective,
the influence of the Barbizon school came as a milder force; but
the power of its artists did not show in the direction of original
lithography, and far more value attaches to the few woodcuts of
J. F. Millet's studies of peasant life. In these we see clearly the
tendency of French illustrative art to keep as far as possible the
authentic and sketch-like touch of the artist; and it was no doubt
from this tendency that so many of the great French illustrators
retained lithography rather than commit themselves to the middle-
man engraver. Nevertheless, from about the year 1830 many
French artists produced illustrations which were interpreted upon
the wood for the most part by English engravers. Cumer's editions
of Paul et Virginie and La Chaumiere Indienne, illustrated by
Huet, Jacque, Isabey, Johannot and Meissonier, were followed by
United
States.
Meissonier's more famous illustrations to Conies remois. After
Meissonier came J. B. E. Detaille and Alphonse M. de Neuville and,
with a voluminous style of his own, L. A. G. Dor6. By the majority
of these artists the drawing for the engraver seems to have been
done with the pen ; and the tendency to penmanship was still more
accentuated when from Spain came the influence of M. J. Fortuny's
brilliant technique; while after him, again, came Daniel Vierge,
to make, as it were, the point of the pen still more pointed. During
the middle period of the I9th century the best French illustration
was serious in character; but among the later men, when we have
recognized the grave beauty of Grasset's Les Quatre Fils d'Aymon
(in spite of his vicious treatment of the page by flooding washes of
colour through the type itself), and the delicate grace of Boutet de
Monvel's Jeanne d'Arc, also in colours, it is to the illustrators of the
comic papers that we have to go for the most typical and most
audacious specimens of French art. In the pages of Gil Bias, Le
Pierrot, L'Echo de Paris, Le Figaro Illustre, Le Courrier Fran$ais,
and similar publications, are to be found, reproduced with a dexterity
of process unsurpassed in England, the designs of J. L. Forain,
C. L. Leandre, L. A. Willette and T. A. Steinlen, the leaders of a
school enterprising in technique, and with a mixture of subtlety
and grossness in its humour. Caran d'Ache also became celebrated
as a draughtsman of comic drama in outline.
Among illustrators of Teutonic race the one artist who seems
worthy of comparison with the great Menzel is Hans Tegner, if,
indeed, he be not in some respects his technical superior;
but apart from these two, the illustrators respectively of aermaay-
Kiigler's Frederick the Great and Holberg's Comedies, there is no
German, Danish or Dutch illustrator who can lay claim to first
rank. Max Klinger, A. Bocklin, W. Triibner, Franz Stuck and
Hans Thoma are all symbolists who combine in a singular degree
force with brutality; the imaginative quality in their work is for
the most part ruined by the hard, braggart way in which it is driven
home. The achievements and tendency of the later school of
illustration in Germany are best seen in the weekly illustrated
journal, Jugend, of Munich. Typical of an older German school is
the work of Adolf Oberlander, a solid, scientific sort of caricaturist,
whose illustrations are at times so monumental that the humour
in them seems crushed out of life. Others who command high
qualities of technique are W. Dietz, L. von Nagel, Hermann Vogel,
H. Luders and Robert Haug. Behind all these men in greater or
less degree lies the influence of Menzel's coldly balanced and dry-
Ughted realism; but wherever the influence of Menzel ceases, the
merit of German illustration for the most part tends to disappear
or become mediocre.
AUTHORITIES. — W. J. Linton, The Masters of Wood Engraving
(London, 1889); C. G. Harper, English Pen Artists of To-day
(London, 1892) ; Joseph Pennell, Pen Drawing and Pen Draughtsmen
(London, 1894), Modern Illustration (London, 1895); Walter Crane,
The Decorative Illustration of Books (London, 1896); Gleeson White,
English Illustration: "The 'Sixties'.': 1855-1870 (Westminster,
1897); W. A. Chatto, A Treatise on Wood Engraving (London, «.</.);
Bar-le-Duc, Les Illustrations du XIX' siecle (Paris, 1882) ; T.
Kutschmann, Geschichte der deutschen Illustration vom ersten Auftreten
des Formschniltes bis auf die Gegenwart (Berlin, 1899). (L. Ho.)
Technical Developments.
The history of illustration, apart from the merits of individual
artists, during the period since the year 1875, is mainly that of the
development of what is called Process (q.v.), the term applied
to methods of reproducing a drawing or photograph which depend
on the use of some mechanical agency in the making of the block,
as distinguished from such products of manual skill as steel or
wood-engraving, lithography and the like. There is good reason
to believe that the art of stereotyping — the multiplication of
an already existing block by means of moulds and casts — is as
old as the isth century; and the early processes were, in a
measure, a refinement upon this: with the difference that they
aimed at the making of a metal block by means of a cast of the
lines of the drawing itself, the background of which had been
cut away so as to leave the design in a definite relief. Experi-
ments of this nature may be said to have assumed practical
shape from the time of the invention of Palmer's process called
at first Glyphography, about the year 1844; this was afterwards
perfected and used to a considerable extent under the name of
Dawson's Typographic Etching, and its results were in many cases
quite admirable, and often appear in books and periodicals of
the first part of the period with which we are now concerned.
The Graphic, for instance, published its first process block in
1876, and the Illustrated London News also made similar experi-
ments at about the same time.
From this time begins the gradual application of photography
to the uses of illustration, the first successful line blocks made by
ILLUSTRES— ILLYRIA
325
its help being probably those of Gillpt, at Paris, in the early 'eighties.
The next stage was to be the invention of some means of reproducing
wash drawings. To do this it was necessary for the surface of the
block to be so broken up that every tone of the drawing should be
represented thereon by a grain holding ink enough to reproduce it.
This was finally accomplished by the insertion of a screen, in the
camera, between the lens and the plate^-the effect of which was to
break up the whole surface of the negative into dots, and so secure,
when printed on a zinc plate and etched, an approximation to the
desired result. Half-tone blocks (as they were called) of this nature
(see PROCESS) were used in the Graphic from 1884 and the Illustrated
London News from 1885 onwards, the methods at first in favour
being those of Meisenbach and Boussod Valadonand Co.'s phototype.
Lemercier and Petit of Paris, Angerer and Goschl of Vienna, and F.
Ives of Philadelphia also perfected processes giving a similar result,
a block by the latter appearing in the Century magazine as early as
1882. Processes of this description had, however, been used for
some years before by Henry Blackburn in his Academy Notes.
During the decade 1875-1885, however, the main body of illustra-
tion was accomplished by wood-engraving, which a few years earlier
had achieved such splendid results. Its artistic qualities were now
at a rather low ebb, although good facsimile engravings of pen-
drawings were not infrequent. The two great illustrated periodicals
already referred to during that period relied more upon pictorial
than journalistic work. An increasing tendency towards the illus-
tration of the events of the day was certainly shown, but the whole
purpose of the journal was not, as at present, subordinated thereto.
The chief illustrated magazines of the time, Harper's, the Century,
the English Illustrated, were also content with the older methods,
and are filled with wood-engravings, in which, if the value of the
simple line forming the chief quality of the earlier work has dis-
appeared, a most astonishing delicacy and success were obtained
in the reproduction of tone.
Perhaps the most notable and most characteristic production of
the time in England was colour-printing. The Graphic and the
Illustrated London News published full-page supplements of high
technical merit printed from wood-blocks in conjunction with
metal plates, the latter sometimes having a relief aquatint surface
which produced an effect of stipple upon the shading; metal was
also used in preference to wood for the printing of certain colours.
The children's books illustrated by Randolph Caldecott, Walter
Crane and Kate Greenaway at this time are among the finest
specimens of colour-printing yet seen outside of Japan; in them
the use of flat masses of pleasant colour in connexion with a bold
and simple outline was carried to a very high pitch of excellence.
These plates were generally printed by Edmund Evans. In 1887
the use of process was becoming still more general; but its future
was by no means adequately foreseen, and the blocks of this and the
next few years are anything but satisfactory. This, it soon appeared,
was due to inefficient printing on the one hand, and, on the other,
to a want of recognition by artistsof the special qualities of drawing
most suitable for photographic reproduction. The publication of
Quevedo's Pablo de Segovia with illustrations by Daniel Vierge in
1882, although hardly noticed at the time, was to be a revelation of
the possibilities of the new development; and a serious study of
pen-drawing from this point of view was soon inaugurated by the
issue of Joseph Pennell's Pen Drawing and Pen Draughtsmen in
1889, followed in 1802 by C. G. Harper's English Pen Artists of
To-day and in 1896 by Walter Crane's Decorative Illustration of
Books. At this time also the influence of Aubrey Beardsley made
itself strongly felt, not merely as a matter of style, but, by the use
of simple line or mass of solid black, as an almost perfect type of
the work most suitable to the needs of process. Wider experience
of printing requirements, and finer workmanship in the actual
making of the blocks, in Paris, Vienna, New York and London,
soon brought the half-tone process into great vogue. The spread
of education has enormously increased the demand for ephemeral
literature, more especially that which lends itself to pictorial illus-
tration; and the photograph or drawing in wash reproduced in
half-tone has of late to a great extent ousted line work from the
better class of both books and periodicals.
Improvements in machinery have made it possible to print
illustrations at a very high speed; and the facility with which
photographs can now be taken of scenes such as the public delight
to see reproduced in pictures has brought about an almost complete
change in pictorial journalism. In addition, reference must be
made to an extraordinary increase in the numbers and circulation
of cheap periodical publications depending to a very large extent
for popularity on their illustrations. Several of these, printed on
the coarsest paper, from rotary machines, sell to the extent of
hundreds of thousands of copies per week. It was inevitable that
this cheapening process should not be permitted to develop without
opposition, and the Dial (1889-1897) must be looked on as a protest
by the band of artists who promoted it against the unintelligent
book-making now becoming prevalent. Much more effective and
far-reaching in the same direction was the influence of William
Morris, as shown in the publications of the Kelmscott Press (dating
from 1891). In these volumes the aim was to produce illustrations
and ornaments which were of their own nature akin to, and thus
able to harmonize with the type, and to do this hy pure handicraft
work. As a result, a distinct improvement is to be found in the mere
book-making of Great Britain; and although the main force of the
movement soon spent itself in somewhat uninspired imitations,
there can be no doubt of the survival of a taste for well-produced
volumes, in which the relationship of type, paper, illustration and
binding has been a matter of careful and artistic consideration.
Under this influence, a notable feature has been the re-issue, in an
excellent form, of illustrated editions of the works of most of the
famous writers.
In France the general movement has proceeded upon lines on
the whole very similar. Process — especially what was called
" Gillotage " — was adopted earlier, and used at first with greater
liberality than in England, although wood-engraving has persisted
effectively even up to our own time. In the various types of
periodicals of which the Revue Illustree, Figaro Illustre and Gil Bias
Illustre may be taken as examples, the most noticeable feature is a
use of colour-printing, which is far in advance of anything generally
attempted in Great Britain. A favourite and effective process is
that employedfor the reproduction of chalk drawings (as by Steinlen),
which consists of the application of a surface-tint of colour from a
metal plate to a print from an ordinary process block.
In Germany, Jugend, Simplicissimus, and other publications
devoted to humour and caricature, employ colour-printing to a
great extent with success. The organ of the artists of the younger
German schools, Pan (1895), makes use of every means of illustra-
tion, and has especially cultivated lithography and wood-cuts, using
these arts effectively but with some eccentricity. Holland has also
employed coloured lithography for a remarkable series of children's
books illustrated by van Hoytema and others. The Viennese Kunst
und Kunsthandwerk is an art publication which is exceptionally well
produced and printed.
Illustration in the United States has some few characteristics
which differentiate it from that of other countries. The later school
of fine wood-engraving is even yet in existence. American artists
also introduced an effective use of the process block, namely, the
engraving or working over of the whole or certain portions of it by
hand. This is generally done by an engraver, but in certain cases
it has been the work of the original draughtsman, and its possi-
bilities have been foreseen by him in making his drawing. The
only other variant of note is the use of half-tone blocks super-
imposed for various colours. (E. F. S.)
ILLUSTRES, the Latin name given to the highest magistrates
of the later Roman Empire. The designation was at first
informal, and not strictly differentiated from other marks of
honour. From the time of Valentinian I. it became an official
title of the consuls, the chief praefecti or ministers, and of the
comrnanders-in-chief of the army. Its usage was eventually
extended to lower grades of the imperial service, and to pension-
aries from the order of the spectabiles. The Illustres were
privileged to be tried in criminal cases by none but the emperor
or his deputy, and to delegate procuratores to represent them
in the courts.
See O. Hirschfeld in Sitzungsberichte der Berliner Akademie (1901),
p. 594 sqq. ; and T. Hodgkin, Italy and her Invaders (Oxford, 1892),
i. 603-617.
ILLYRIA, a name applied to part of the Balkan Peninsula
extending along the western shore of the Adriatic from Fiume
to Durazzo, and inland as far as the Danube and the Servian
Morava. This region comprises the modern provinces or states
of Dalmatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Montenegro, with the
southern half of Croatia-Slavonia, part of western Servia, the
sanjak of Novibazar, and the extreme north of Albania. As
the inhabitants of Illyria never attained complete political
unity its landward boundaries were never clearly defined.
Indeed, the very name seems originally to have been an ethno-
logical rather than a geographical term; the older Greek
historians usually wrote of " the Illyrians " (01 'IXXupioi), while
the names Illyris ('IXXupis) or less commonly Illyria ('IXXupia)
came subsequently to be used of the indeterminate area inhabited
by the Illyrian tribes, i.e. a region extending eastward from
the Adriatic between Liburnia on the N. and Epirus on the S.,
and gradually shading off into the territories of kindred peoples
towards Thrace. The Latin name Illyricum was not, unless
at a very early period, synonymous with Illyria; it also may
originally have signified the land inhabited by the Illyrians, but
it became a political expression, and was applied to various
divisions of the Roman Empire, the boundaries of which were
frequently changed and often included an area far larger than
Illyria properly so called. Vienna and Athens at different times
formed part of Illyricum, but no geographer would ever have
included these cities in Illyria.
326
ILLYRIA
Ethnology. — Little can be learned from written sources of
the origin and character of the Illyrians. The Greek legend
that Cadmus and Harmonia settled in Illyria and became the
parents of Illyrius, the eponymous ancestor of the whole Illyrian
people, has been interpreted as an indication that the Greeks
recognized some affinity between themselves and the Illyrians;
but this inference is based on insufficient data. Herodotus and
other Greek historians represent the Illyrians as a barbarous
people, who resembled the ruder tribes of Thrace. Both are
described as tattooing their persons and offering human sacrifices
to their gods. The women of Illyria seem to have occupied a
high position socially and even to have exercised political power.
Queens are mentioned among their rulers. Fuller and more
trustworthy information can be obtained from archaeological
evidence. In Bosnia the lake-dwellings at Butmir, the cemeteries
of Jezerine and Glasinac and other sites have yielded numerous
stone and horn implements, iron and bronze ornaments, weapons,
&c., and objects of more recent date fashioned in silver, tin,
amber and even glass. These illustrate various stages in the
development of primitive Illyrian civilization, from the neolithic
age onward. The Hallstatt and La Tene cultures are especially
well represented. (See W. Ridge way, The Early Age of Greece,
1901; R. Munro, Bosnia-Herzegovina and Dalmatia, Edinburgh,
1900; and W. Radimsky, Die neolithische Station wn Butmir,
Vienna, 1895-1898.) Similar discoveries have been made in
Dalmatia, as among the tumuli on the Sabbioncello promontory,
and in Croatia-Slavonia. H. Kiepert (" Uber den Volkstamm
der Leleges," in Monatsber. Berl. Akad., 1861, p. 114) sought
to prove that the Illyrians were akin to the Leleges; his theory
was supported by E. Schrader, but is not generally accepted.
In Dalmatia there appears to have been a large Celtic element,
and Celtic place-names are common. The ancient Illyrian
languages fall into two groups, the northern, closely connected
with Venetic, and the southern, perhaps allied to Messapian
and now probably represented by Albanian.
See K. Brugmann, Kurze vergleichende Grammalik der Indo-
germanischen Sprachen (Strassburg, 1904) ; and his larger Grundriss
der vergleichenden Grammatik (2nd ed., Strassburg, 1897), with the
authorities there quoted, especially P. Kretschmer, Einleitung in die
Geschichte der Griechischen Sprachen (Gottingen, 1896): see also
ALBANIA.
History. — Greek colonization on the Illyrian seaboard probably
began late in the ;th century B.C. or early in the 6th century.
The most important settlements appear to have been at
Epidamnus (Durazzo), Tragurium (Trau), Rhizon (near Cattaro),
Salona (near Spalato), Epidaurum (Ragusavecchia), Zara and
on the islands of Curzola, Lesina and Lissa. There is a collection
of Greek coins from Illyria in the museum at Agram, and the
researches of Professor F. Bulie and others at Salona (see SPALATO)
have brought to light Greek inscriptions, Greek pottery, &c.
dating from 600 B.C. But Greek influence seems never to have
penetrated far into the interior, and even on the coast it was
rapidly superseded by Latin civilization after the 3rd century
B.C. Until then the Illyrian tribes appear to have lived in a
state of intermittent warfare with their neighbours and one
another. They are said by Herodotus (ix. 43) to have attacked
the temple of Delphi. Brasidas with his small army of Spartans
was assaulted by them on his march (424 B.C.) across Thessaly
and Macedonia to attack the Athenian colonies in Thrace.
The earlier history of the Macedonian kings is one constant
struggle against the Illyrian tribes. The migrations of the Celts
at the beginning of the 4th century disturbed the country
between the Danube and the Adriatic. The Scordisci and other
Celtic tribes settled there, and forced the Illyrians towards the
south. The necessities of defence seem to have united the
Illyrians under a chief Bardylis (about 383 B.C.) and his son
Clitus. Bardylis nearly succeeded in destroying the rising
kingdom of Macedonia; King Amyntas II. was defeated, and a
few years later Perdiccas was defeated and slain (359). But the
great Philip crushed the Illyrians completely, and annexed part
of their country. During the next century we hear of them as
pirates. Issuing from the secluded harbours of the coast, they
ravaged the shores of Italy and Greece, and preyed on the
commerce of the Adriatic. The Greeks applied to Rome for
help. Teuta, the Illyrian queen, rejected the Roman demands
for redress, and murdered the ambassadors; but the two
Illyrian Wars (229 and 219 B.C.) ended in the submission of the.
Illyrians, a considerable part of their territory being annexed by
the conquerors. Illyria, however, remained a powerful kingdom
with its capital at Scodra (Scutari in Albania), until 180 B.C.,
when the Dalmatians declared themselves independent of
Gentius or Genthius, the king of Illyria, and founded a republic
with its capital at Delminium (see DALMATIA: History, on the
site of Delminium). In 168 Gentius came into conflict with the
Romans, who conquered and annexed his country. Dalmatia
was invaded by a Roman army under Gaius Marcius Figulus
in 156, but Figulus was driven back to the Roman frontier, and
in Dalmatia the Illyrians were not finally subdued until 165 years
afterwards. Publius Scipio Nasica, who succeeded Figulus,
captured Delminium, and in 119 L. Caecilius Metellus overran
the country and received a triumph and the surname Dalmaticus.
But in 51 a Dalmatian raid on Liburnia led to a renewal of
hostilities; the Roman armies were often worsted, and although
in 39 Asinius Pollio gained some successes (see Horace, Odes ii. i.
15) these appear to have been exaggerated, and it was not until
Octavian took the field in person that the Dalmatians submitted
in 33. (For an account of the war see Appian, Illyrica, 24-28;
Dio Cassius xlix. 38; Livy, Ep,it. 131, 132). They again revolted
in 16 and n, and in A.D. 6-9 joined the rebel Pannonians.
Suetonius (Tiberius, 16) declares that they were the most
formidable enemies with whom the Romans had had to contend
since the Punic Wars. In A.D. 9, however, Tiberius entirely
subjugated them, for which he was awarded a triumph in 12
(Dio Cass. Iv. 23-29, Ivi. 11-17; Veil. Pat. ii. 110-115). Thence-
forward Dalmatia, lapydia and Liburnia were united as the
province of Illyricum.
Latin civilization spread rapidly, the cultivation of the vine
was introduced, gold-mining was carried on in Bosnia, and
flourishing commercial cities arose along the coast. Illyria
became one of the best recruiting grounds for the Roman legions;
and in troubled times many Illyrian soldiers fought their way
up from the ranks to the imperial purple. Claudius, Aurelian,
Probus, Diocletian and Maximian were all sons of Illyrian
peasants. It is probable, however, that most of the highland
tribes now represented by the Albanians remained almost
unaffected by Roman influence. The importance of Illyricum
caused its name to be extended to many neighbouring districts;
in the 2nd century A.D. the Illyricus Limes included Noricum,
Pannonia, Moesia, Dacia and Thrace. In the reorganization
of the empire by Diocletian (285) the diocese of Illyricum was
created; it comprised Pannonia, Noricum and Dalmatia,
while Dacia and Macedonia, together called Eastern Illyricum,
were added later. Either Diocletian or after him Constantine
made Illyricum one of the four prefectures, each governed by
a praefsclus praelorio, into which the empire was divided. This
prefecture included Pannonia, Noricum, Crete and the entire
Balkan peninsula except Thrace, which was attached by Con-
stantine to the prefecture of the East. From the partition of
the empire in 285 until 379 Illyricum was included in the Western
Empire, but thenceforward Eastern Illyricum was annexed to
the Eastern Empire; its frontier was almost identical with the
line of demarcation between Latin-speaking and Greek-speaking
peoples, and roughly corresponded to the boundary which now
severs Latin from Greek Christianity in the Balkan peninsula.
The whole peninsula except Thrace was still known as Illyricum,
but was subdivided into Illyris Barbara or Romana and Illyris
Graeca (Eastern Illyricum with Greece and Crete). The Via
Egnatia, the great line of road which connected Rome with
Constantinople and the East, led across Illyricum from Dyr-
rachium to Thessalonica.
In the sth century began a series of invasions which profoundly
modified the ethnical character and the civilization of the
Illyrians. In 441 and 447 their country was ravaged by the
Huns. In 481 Dalmatia was added to the Ostrogothic kingdom,
which already included the more northerly parts of Illyricum,
ILMENAU— ILOILO
327
i.e. Pannonia and Noricum. Dalmatia was partially reconquered
by Justinian in 536, but after 565 it was devastated by the
Avars, and throughout the century bands of Slavonic invaders
had been gradually establishing themselves in Illyria, where,
unlike the earlier barbarian conquerors, they formed permanent
settlements. Between 600 and 650 the main body of the im-
migrants occupied Illyria (see SERVIA: History; and SLAVS).
It consisted of Croats and Serbs, two groups of tribes who spoke
a single language and were so closely related that the origin of
the distinction between them is obscure. The Croats settled
in the western half of Illyria, the Serbs in the eastern; thus the
former came gradually under the influence of Italy and Roman
Catholicism, the latter under the influence of Byzantium and
the Greek Church. Hence the distinction between them became
a marked difference -of civilization and creed, which has always
tended to keep the Illyrian Slavs politically disunited.
The Croats and Serbs rapidly absorbed most of the Latinized
Illyrians. But the wealthy and powerful city-states on the
coast were strong enough to maintain their independence and
their distinctively Italian character. Other Roman provincials
took refuge in the mountains of the interior; these Mavrovlachi,
as they were called (see DALMATIA: Population; and VLACHS),
preserved their language and nationality for many centuries.
The Illyrian tribes which had withstood the attraction of Roman
civilization remained unconquered among the mountains of
Albania and were never Slavonized. With these exceptions
Illyria became entirely Serbo-Croatian in population, language
and culture.
The name of Illyria had by this time disappeared from history.
In literature it was preserved, and the scene of Shakespeare's
comedy, Twelfth Night, is laid in Illyria. Politically the name
was revived in 1809, when the name Illyrian Provinces was given
to Carniola, Dalmatia, Istria, Fiume, Gorz and Gradisca, and
Trieste, with parts of Carinthia and Croatia; these territories
were ceded by Austria to Italy at the peace of Schonnbrun
(i4th Oct. 1809). The Illyrian Provinces were occupied by
French troops and governed in the interest of Napoleon; the
republic of Ragusa was annexed to them in 1811, but about
the end of 1813 the French occupation ceased to be effective
and the provinces reverted to Austria. The kingdom of Illyria,
which was constituted in 1816 out of the crown-lands of Carinthia,
Carniola, Istria, Gorz and Gradisca, and Trieste, formed until
1849 a kingdom of the Austrian crown. For the political pro-
paganda known as Illyrisrn, see CROATIA-SLAVONIA: History.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — In addition to the authorities quoted above,
see G. Zippel, Die romische Herrschaft in Illyrien bis auf Augustus
(Leipzig, 1877); P. O. Bahn, Der Ursprung der romischen Provinz
Illyrien (Grimma, 1876); J. Marquardt, Romische Staatsverwaltung,
i. (1881), p. 295; E. A. Freeman, " The Illyrian Emperors and their
Land" (Historical Essays, series 3, 1879); C. Patsch in Pauly-
Wissowa's Realencyklopadie, iv. pt. 2 (1901); Th. Mommsen, The
Provinces of the Roman Empire (ed. F. Haverfield, 1909).
ILMENAU, a town and summer resort of Germany, in the
grand-duchy of Saxe- Weimar, at the north foot of the Thuringian
Forest, on the river Ilm, 30 m/ by rail south of Erfurt. Pop.
(1905) 11,222. The town, which stands picturesquely among
wooded hills, is much frequented by visitors in the summer.
It was a favourite resort of Goethe, who wrote here his Iphigenie,
and often stayed at Gabelbach in the neighbourhood. It
has a grand-ducal palace, a Roman Catholic and two Evan-
gelical churches, a sanatorium for nervous disorders, and several
educational establishments. Its chief manufactures are glass
and porcelain, toys, gloves and chemicals, and the town has
tanneries and saw-mills. Formerly a part cf the county of
Henneberg, Ilmenau came in 1631 into the possession of electoral
Saxony, afterwards passing to Saxe- Weimar.
See R. Springer, Die klassischen Stdtten von Jena und Ilmenau
(Berlin, 1869) ; Pasig, Goethe und Ilmenau (2nd ed., Weimar, 1902) ;
and Fils, Bad Ilmenau und seine [7mge6wng(Hildburghausen, 1886).
ILMENITE, a mineral known also as titanic iron, formerly
regarded as an iron and titanium sesquioxide(Fe,Ti)20s isomor-
phous with haematite (Fe2Os), but now generally considered
to be an iron titanate FeTiO3 isomorphous with pyrophanite
(MnTi03) and geikielite (MgTi03) . It crystallizes in the parallel-
faced hemihedral class of the rhombohedral system, thus having
the same degree of symmetry as phenacite and pyrophanite,
but differing from that of haematite. The angles between the
faces are very nearly the same as between the corresponding
faces of haematite; but it is to be noted that the rhombohedral
angle (94° 29') of ilmenite is not intermediate between that of
haematite (94° o') and of the artificially prepared crystals of
titanium sesquioxide (92° 40'), which should be the case if the
three substances were isomorphous.
Analyses show wide variations in
chemical composition, and there is
a gradation from normal ilmen-
ite FeTiOs (with titanium dioxide
52-7, and ferrous oxide 47-3%) to
titaniferous haematite and titani-
ferous magnetite. Frequently also,
magnesia and manganous oxide are present in small amounts,
the former reaching 16%. The formula (Fe,Mg)TiO3 is then
analogous to those of geikielite and pyrophanite. Many analyses
show the presence of Ti02 and (Fe,Mg)O in this ratio of 1:1,
yet there is often an excess of ferric oxide to be accounted for;
this may perhaps be explained by the regular intergrowth on
a minute scale of ilmenite with haematite, like the intergrowth
of such substances as calcite and sodium nitrate, which are
similar crystallographically but not chemically.
In many of its external characters ilmenite is very similar
to haematite; the crystals often have the same tabular 01
lamellar habit; the twin-laws are the same, giving rise to twin-
lamellae and planes of parting parallel to the basal plane and
the primitive rhombohedron; the colour is iron-black with a
submetallic lustre; finally, the conchoidal fracture is the same
in both minerals. Ilmenite has a black streak; it is opaque,
but in very thin scales sometimes transparent with a clove-
brown colour. It is slightly magnetic, but without polarity.
The hardness is 55, and the specific gravity varies with the
chemical composition from 4-3 to 5-0.
Owing to the wide variations in composition, which even
yet are not properly understood, several varieties of the mineral
have been distinguished by special names. Crichtonite occurs
as small and brilliant crystals of acute rhombohedral habit
on quartz at Le Bourg d'Oisans in Dauphine; it agrees closely
in composition with the formula FeTiOs and has a specific gravity
of 4-7. Manaccanite (or Menaccanite) is a black sandy material,
first found in 1791 in a stream at Manaccan near Helston in
Cornwall. Iserite, from Iserwiese in the Iser Mountains, Bohemia,
is a similar sand, but containing some octahedral crystals,
possibly of titaniferous magnetite. Washingtonite is found
as large tabular crystals at Washington, Connecticut. Uddeval-
lite is from Uddevalla in Sweden. Picrotitanite or picroilmenite
(Gr. mKpos, " bitter ") is the name given to varieties con-
taining a considerable amount of magnesia. Other varieties
are kibdelophane, hystatite, &c. The name ilmenite, proposed
by A. T. Kupffer in 1827, is after the Ilmen Mountains in the
southern Urals, whence come the best crystals of the mineral.
The largest crystals, sometimes as much as 16 Ib in weight, are
from Kragero and Arendal in Norway.
Ilmenite occurs, often in association with magnetite, in
gneisses and schists, sometimes forming beds of considerable
extent, but of little or no economic value. It is a common
accessory constituent of igneous rocks of all kinds, more
especially basic rocks such as gabbro, diabase and basalt. In
these rocks it occurs as platy crystals, and is frequently re-
presented by a white, opaque alteration product known as
leucoxene. (L. J. S.)
ILOILO, a town, port of entry and the capital of the province
of Iloilo, Panay, Philippine Islands, at the mouth of Iloilo river,
on the S.E. coast. Pop. (1903) 19,054. In 1903, after the
census had been taken, the population of the town was more
than doubled by the addition of the municipalities of La Paz
(pop. 5724), Mandurriao (pop. 4482), Molo (pop. 8551) and
Jaro (pop. 10,681); in 1908 Jaro again became a separate town.
The town is built on low sandy ground, is irregularly laid out,
328
ILSENBURG— IMAGE
and its streets are not paved. It has a good government house
and a fine church. The harbour, suitable for ships of 15 ft.
draught, is well protected by the island of Guimaras, and ocean-
going vessels can lie in the channel. The surrounding country,
which is traversed by gravel roads leading to the principal towns
of the province, is fertile and well cultivated, producing sugar,
tobacco and rice in abundance. In commercial importance
Iloilo ranks next to Manila among Philippine cities; it has manu-
factures of pifia, jusi, coconut oil, lime, vinegar and various
articles made from palm wood. Much of the town was burned
by Filipino insurgents soon after its capture by American troops
in February 1899.
ILSENBURG, a village and health resort of Germany, in
Prussian Saxony, romantically situated under the north foot
of the Harz Mountains, at the entrance to the Ilsethal, 6 m.
N.W. from Wernigerode by the railway to Goslar. Pop. (1900)
3868. It has an Evangelical church, a modern chateau of the
princes of Stolberg, with pretty grounds, and a high grade school,
and manufactures metal wares, machines and iron screws and
bolts.
Owing to its charming surroundings and its central position
in the range, Ilsenburg is one of the most frequented tourist
resorts in the Harz Mountains, being visited annually by some
6000 persons. The old castle, Schloss Ilsenburg, lying on a high
crag above the town, was originally an imperial stronghold and
was probably built by the German king Henry I. The emperor
Otto III. resided here in 995, Henry II. bestowed it in 1003 upon
the bishop of Halberstadt, who converted it into a Benedictine
monastery, and the school attached to it enjoyed a great reputa-
tion towards the end of the i ith century. After the Reformation
the castle passed to the counts of Wernigerode, who restored
it and made it their residence until 1710. Higher still, on the
edge of the plateau rises the Ilsenstein, a granite peak standing
about 500 ft. above the valley, crowned by an iron cross erected
by Count Anton von Stolberg- Wernigerode in memory of his
friends who fell in the wars of 1813-1815. Around this rock
cluster numerous legends.
See Jacobs, Urkundenbuch des Klosters Ilsenburg (Halle, 1875);
Brandes, Ilsenburg als Sommeraufenthalt (Wernigerode, 1885); and
H. Herre, Ilsenburger Annalen (Leipzig, 1890).
IMAGE (Lat. imago, perhaps from the same root as imitari,
copy, imitate), in general, a copy, representation, exact counter-
part of something else. Thus the reflection of a person in a
mirror is known as his " image " ; in popular usage one person
is similarly described as " the very image " of another; so in
entomology the term is applied in its Latin form imago to an
insect which, having passed through its larval stages, has achieved
its full typical development. The term is in fact susceptible of
two opposite connotations; on the one hand, it implies that the
thing to which it is applied is only a copy; on the other that
as a copy it is faithful and accurate.
Psychology (<?.».) recognizes two uses of the term. The simplest
is for the impression made by an observed object on the retina,
the eye; in this connexion the term " after-image " (better
" after-sensation ") is used for an image which remains when the
eye is withdrawn from a brilliantly lighted object; it is called
positive when the colour remains the same, negative when the
complementary colours are seen. The strict psychological use
of the term " image " is by analogy from the physiological for
a purely mental idea which is taken as being observed by the eye
of the mind. These images are created or produced not by an
external stimulus, such as is necessary for a visual image (even
the after-image is due to the continued excitement of the same
organ), but by a mental act of reproduction. The simplest
ideational image, which has been described as the primary
memory-image, is " the peculiarly vivid and definite ideal
representation of an object which we can maintain or recall by
a suitable effort of attention immediately after perceiving it "
(Stout). For this no external stimulus is required, and as com-
pared with the after-image it represents the objects in perspective
just as they might be seen in perception. This is characteristic
of all mental images. The essential requisite for this primary
image is that the attention should have been fixed upon the
impressions.
The relation between sense-impressions and mental images
is a highly complicated one. Difference in intensity is not a
wholly satisfactory ground of distinction; abnormal physical
conditions apart, an image may have an intensity far greater
than that of a sense-given impression. On the other hand,
Hume is certainly right in holding that the distinctive character
of a percept as compared with an image is in all ordinary cases
the force and liveliness with which it strikes the mind — the
distinction, therefore, being one of quality, not of degree. A
distinction of some importance is found in the " superior
steadiness " (Ward) of impressions; while looking at any set of
surroundings, images of many different scenes may pass through
the mind, each one of which is immediately distinguished from
the impression of the actual scene before the eyes. This arises
partly, no doubt, from the fact that the perception has clear
localization, which the image has not. In many cases indeed an
image even of a most familiar scene is exceedingly vague and
inaccurate.
In Art the term is used for a representation or likeness of an
animate or inanimate object, particularly of the figure of a person
in sculpture or painting. The most general, application of the
word is to such a representation when used as an object of
religious worship or adoration, or as a decorative or architectural
ornament in places of religious worship. The worship of images,
or idolatry, from the point of view of comparative religion, is
treated in the article IMAGE-WORSHIP, and the history of the
attitude of the Christian church, outside the post-Reformation
church of England, towards the use of images as objects of
worship and religion in the article ICONOCLASTS. With regard
to the Pre-Reformation period in England, it is of interest to
note that by the constitutions of Archbishop Winchelsey, 1305,
it was the duty of the parish to provide for the parish church,
among other objects, the images of Christ on the Cross, of the
saint to whom the church was dedicated, to be placed in the
chancel, and of other saints. The injunctions of Edward VI.,
1547, ordered the destruction of all images that had been the
objects of superstitious use, and the act of 1549 (3 & 4 Edw. VI.
c. 10) declared all such images illegal. This act, repealed in
Mary's reign, was revived in 1604 (i James I. c. 25) and is still
in force. The present effect of this unrepealed act, as stated
in Boyd v. Philpotls (L.R. 6 P.C. 449), is that it only referred
to the images then subject to abuse, which had been ordered
to be removed, and did not refer to the subsequent use or abuse
of other images. In Article XXII. of the Articles of Religion
it is laid down that " the Romish Doctrine concerning . . .
Worshipping and Adoration as well of Images as of Reliques
. . . is a fond thing mainly invented and grounded on no
warranty of Scripture, but rather repugnant to the Word of
God." The law in regard to images, which in this connexion
include pictures and stained-glass windows, but not sculptured
effigies on monuments or merely ornamental work, is contained
in various judicial decisions, and is not defined by statute. The
effect of these decisions is thus summarized in the report of the
Royal Commission on Ecclesiastical Discipline, 1906: " Such
images are lawful as objects of decoration in a church, but are
unlawful if they are made, or are in danger of being made,
objects of superstitious reverence, contrary to Article XXII.
against the worshipping and adoration of images. In accordance
with this view, crosses, if not placed on the Holy Table, and also
crucifixes, if part only of a sculptured design or architectural
decoration, have been declared lawful. The question whether
a crucifix or rood standing alone or combined with figures of
the Blessed Virgin and St John can, in any circumstances, be
regarded as merely decorative, has given rise to a difference
of judicial opinion and appears to be unsettled." Speaking
generally, articles of decoration and embellishment not used
in the services cannot lawfully be introduced into a church
without the consent of the ordinary given by a faculty, the
granting of which is subject to the judicial discretion of the
chancellor or commissary, sitting as judge of the bishop's court.
IMAGE WORSHIP
329
By section 8 of the Public Worship Regulation Act 1874, com-
plainants may take proceedings if it is considered that " any
alteration in, or addition to, the fabric, ornaments or furniture
has been made without legal authority, or that any decoration
forbidden by law has been introduced into such church . . .
provided that no proceedings shall be taken ... if such altera-
tion or addition has been completed five years before the com-
mencement of such proceedings." The following are the principal
cases on the subject: in Boyd v. Philpotts, 1874 (L.R., 4 Ad. &• EC.
297; 6 P.C. 435), the Exeter reredos case, the privy council,
reversing the bishop's judgment, allowed the structure, which
contained sculptures in high relief of the Ascension, Trans-
figuration and Descent of the Holy Ghost at Pentecost, together
with a cross and angels; in R. v. the Bishop of London, 1889
(23 Q.B.D. 414, 24 Q.B.D. 213), the St Paul's reredos case, the
bishop refused further proceedings against the legality of a
structure containing sculptured figures of Christ on the Cross
and the Virgin and Child. In Clifton v. Ridsdale, 1876 (i P. & D.,
316), a metal crucifix on the centre of the chancel screen was
declared illegal as being in danger of being used superstitiously,
and in the same case pictures or rather coloured reliefs represent-
ing the " Stations of the Cross " were ordered to be removed
on the ground that they had been erected without a faculty,
and were also considered unlawful by Lord Penzance as con-
nected with certain superstitious devotion authorized by the
Roman church.
IMAGE WORSHIP. It is obvious that two religious votaries
kneeling together before a statue may entertain widely different
conceptions of what the image is and signifies, although their
outward attitude is the same. The one may regard it as a mere
image, picture or representation of the higher being, void in
itself of value or power. It is to him, like the photograph hung
on a wall of one we love, cherished as a picture and no more.
But the other may regard it, as a little girl regards her doll, as
an animated being, no mere picture, but as tenement and vehicle
of the god and fraught with divine influence. The former is
the attitude which the Latin Church officially inculcates towards
sacred pictures and statues; they are intended to convey to
the eyes of the faithful, especially to the illiterate among them,
the history of Jesus, of the Virgin and of the saints. The other
attitude, however, is that into which simple-minded Latin
peasants actually lapse, as it is also that which characterizes
other religions ancient or modern which use pictures or sculptures
of gods, demons, men, brutes, or of particular parts and organs
of the same. With the latter attitude alone does the present
article deal, and it may conveniently be called idolatry or image
worship. For the history of the use of images in Christian worship
see ICONOCLASTS.
The image or idol differs from the fetish, charm, talisman,
phylactery or miraculous relic, only in this, that either in the
flat or the round it resembles the power adored; it has a prototype
capable of being brought before the eye and visualized. This
is not necessarily the case with the worshipper of aniconic or
unshaped gods. The Semite or savage who sets up a sacred
stone or Bethel believes indeed that a divine power or influence
enters the stone and dwells in it, and he treats the stone as if
it were the god, kisses it, anoints it with oil, feeds the god in
it by pouring out over it the blood of victims slain. But he is
not an idolater, for he has not " made unto himself any graven
image, nor the likeness of anything that is in heaven above or in
the water beneath or in the water under the earth."
The question arises: must the stage of aniconic gods historic-
ally precede and lead up to that of pictures and images? Are
the latter a development of the former? In the history of human
religions can we trace, as it were, a law of transition from sacred
stock and stone up to picture and image? Is it true to say that
the latter is characteristic of a later and higher stage of religious
development? It was perhaps the facility with which a pillar
of stone or wood can be turned into an image by painting or
sculpturing on it eyes, ears, mouth, marks of sex and so on,
which led anthropologists of an earlier generation to postulate
such a law of development; but facts do not bear it out. In the
first place, what we are accustomed to call higher religions
deliberately attach greater sanctity to aniconic gods than to
iconic ones, and that from no artistic incapacity. The Jews
were as well able as their neighbours to fashion golden calves,
snakes and the minor idols called teraphim, when their legislator,
in the words we have just cited, forbade the ancillary use of all
plastic and pictorial art for religious purposes. And of our own
Christianity, Robertson Smith remarks as follows: "The host
in the Mass is artistically as much inferior to the Venus of Milo
as a Semitic Mass.eba was, but no one will say that medieval
Christianity is a lower form of religion than Aphrodite worship."
Here then in the most marked manner the aniconic sacrament
has ousted pictures and statues. It is the embodiment and
home of divine personality and power, and not they. Equally
contradictory of any such law of development is the circumstance
that the Greeks of the sth and 4th centuries B.C., although
Pheidias and other artists were embodying their gods and
goddesses in the most perfect of images, nevertheless continued
to cherish the rude aniconic stocks and stones of their ancestors.
If any such law ever operated in human religious development,
how can we explain the following facts. In the shadowy age
which preceded the Stone age and hardly ended later than
10,000 B.C., the cave-dwellers of the Dordogne could draw elks,
bisons, elephants and other animals at rest or in movement,
with a freshness and realism which to-day only a Landseer can
rival. And yet in the European Stone age which followed, the
age in which the great menhirs and cromlechs were erected, in
which the domestication of animals began and the first corn was
sown, we find in the strata no image of man or beast, big or little.
Whence this seeming blight and decay of art? Salomon;
Reinach, guided by the analogy of similar practices among
the aborigines of Australia, and noticing that these primitive
pictures represent none but animals that formed the staple
food of the age and place, and that they are usually found in
the deepest and darkest recesses of the caves where they could
only be drawn and seen by torchlight, has argued that they
were not intended for artistic gratification (a late motive in
human art), but were magical representations destined to
influence and perhaps attract the hunter's quarry. In a word,
this earliest art was ancillary to the chase. It is a common
practice in the magic of all ages and countries to acquire control
and influence over men and animals by making images of them. :
The prototype is believed to suffer whatever is done to the*
image. Reinach,'therefore, supposes that in the Stone age which
succeeded, pictorial art was banned because it had got into the
hands of magicians and had come to be regarded as inevitably
uncanny and malefic. This is certainly the secret of the ordinary
Mahommedan prohibition of pictures and statues, which goes
even to the length of denying to poor little Arab girls the enjoy^
ment of having dolls. It is felt that if you have got a picture
of any one, you have some power of harming him through it;
you can bind or loose him, just as yoti can a Djinn whose name
you have somehow learned. It is as dangerous for your enemy
to have a picture of you as for him to know your name. The
old Hebrew prohibition of graven images was surely based on
a like superstition, so far as it was not merely due to the physical
impossibility for nomads of heavy statues that do not admit of
being carried from camp to camp and from pasture .to pasture.
Possessing no images of Yahweh the Jews were also not exposed
to the same risk as were idolaters of having their gods stolen
by their foes and used against them. Lastly, the restriction to
aniconic worship saved them from much superstition, for there
is nothing which so much stimulates the growth of a mythology
as the manufacture of idols. The artist must indeed start with
imaginative types, revealed to him in visions or borrowed from
current myths. But the tendency of his art is to give rise to new
tales of the gods. There is perpetual action and reaction between
picture and myth; and a legislator desiring to purify and raise
his countrymen's religion must devote no less attention to their
plastic art than to their hymnology.
Motives drawn from homoeopathic magic may thus explain
the occasional disuse and prohibition of pictorial and plastic
330
IMAGINATION
art in cult; they may equally explain its genesis and rise in
certain ages and countries. Prayer is much more hopeful and
efficacious for a worshipper who has means of bringing near to
himself, and even coercing the god he worships. An image
fashioned like a god, and which has this advantage over a mere
stock and stone that it declares itself and reveals at a glance to
what god it is sacred, must surely attract and influence the god
to choose it as his home and tenement. And having the god
thus at hand and imprisoned in matter, the simple-minded
worshipper can punish him if his prayers are left unanswered.
Dr E. B. Tylor accordingly (in his chapter on " Idolatry " in
Primitive Culture, ii. 170), reminds us of " the negro who feeds
ancestral images and brings them a share of his trade profits,
but will beat an idol or fling it into the fire if it cannot give him
luck or preserve him from sickness." So Augustus Caesar,
having lost some ships in a storm, punished Neptune by forbid-
ding his image to be carried in procession at the Circensian
games (Sueton. Aug. 16).
In certain cases the wish to carry elsewhere the cult of a
favourite or ancestral cult, may have dictated the manufacture
of images that declare themselves and reveal at a glance whose
they are. Thus a Phoenician colonist might desire to carry
abroad the cult of a certain Baal or Astarte who lived in a
conical stone or pillar. Pilgrims visiting Paphos, the original
home and temple of Astarte, could of course be in no doubt about
which of the heavenly powers inhabited the cone of stone in
which she was there held to be immanent ; nor was any Semite
ever ignorant as to which Baal he stood before. It was neces-
sarily the Baal or Lord of the region. But small portrait statues
must surely have been made to be carried about or used in private
worship. Meanwhile the shapeless cone remained the object of
public adoration and pilgrimage.
The Egyptian writer Hermes Trismegistus (c. 250), in a work
called Asdepius (cited by Augustine, De civil. Dei, viii. 26),
claims that his ancestors discovered the art of making gods,
and since they could not create souls, they called up the souls
of demons or angels and introduced them into the holy images
and divine mysteries, that through these souls the idols might
possess powers of doing good and harm. This was the belief
of the pagans, and the Christians for centuries shared it with
them. Not a few Christian martyrs sought and won the palm
by smashing the idols in order to dislodge the indwelling devil;
occasionally their zeal was further gratified by beholding it pass
away like smoke from its ruined home.
Image worship then is a sort of animism. It is a continuance
by adults of their childish games with dolls. In the Roman
religion, on a feast of thanksgiving for a great victory, couches
were spread in the temples for the gods, whose images were taken
down from their pedestals and laid on the couches, and tables
set before them loaded with delicate viands. This was called a
Lectisternium. So Marco Polo (i. chap. 53) relates how theTatars
had each a figure of Natigay, the god of the earth, who watched
over their children, cattle and crops. The image was made of
felt and cloth, and similar images of his wife and children were
set on his left hand and in front of him. "And when they eat,
they take the fat of the meat and grease the god's mouth withal,
as well as the mouths of his wife and children." The old Greek
statues moved of themselves, shook their spears, kneeled down,
spoke, walked, wept, laughed, winked, and even bled and
sweated, — a mighty portent. Images of Christ, of the Virgin
and saints have achieved many a similar miraculous portent.
A figure of Christ has been known even to give its shoes to a poor
man, and a Virgin to drop a ring off her finger to a suppliant.
In Umbrian villages on Easter Sunday the images of Jesus and
His Mother are carried in rival processions from their respective
chapels, and are made to bow when they meet face to face. The
spectators applaud or hiss according as they make their bow
well or ill. In antiquity it was a common ceremony to arrange
a holy marriage between male and female images, and such
unions acted on the earth as a fertility charm. Much of a priest's
time was given up to the toilet of the god or goddess. Thus
Isis was dressed and coiffed every day by her special attendants
according to Apuleius (Met. xi. 9). Like the statue of St Agatha
of Catania to-day, her image was loaded with jewels, and an
inscription of Cadiz (C.I.L. ii. 3386) contains an inventory of the
jewels with which Isis had been endowed by Spanish devotees.
Idolatrous cults repose so largely on make-believe and
credulity that the priests who administered them, perhaps
oftener than we know, fell into the kind of imposture and
trickery of which the legend of Bel and the dragon represents
a classical example. " Thinkest thou not," said King Astyages,
" that Bel is a living god ? Or seest thou not how much he
eateth and drinketh every day? Then Daniel laughed, and
said, O King, be not deceived: for this is but clay within,
and brass without, and did never eat or drink anything." In
the sequel Daniel proves to the king that the priests with their
wives and children came in through privy doors and consumed
the viands set before the god; and the king, angered at their
trickery, slew them all and gave Bel over to Daniel for destruc-
tion.
The invectives against idolatry of the early Jewish and
Christian apologists, of Philo, Minucius Felix, Tertullian,
Arnobius, Lactantius and others, are very good reading and
throw much light on the question how an ancient pagan con-
ceived of his idols. One capital argument of the Christians
was the absurdity of a man making an idol and then being
afraid of or adoring the wo*k of his own hands. Lactantius
preserves the answer of the pagans so attacked (De origine
Erroris, ii.2): We do not, they said, fear the images themselves,
but those beings after whose likeness they were fashioned
and by whose names they were consecrated. Few such rites
of consecration remain, but they must have been similar to
those used in India to-day. There the Brahmin invites the
god to dwell within the image, specially made hollow to contain
him, " performing the ceremony of adhivasa or inhabitation,
after which he puts in the eyes and the prana, i.e. breath, life
or soul."1 Similarly Augustine (De civ. Dei, viii. 23) relates
how, according to Hermes, the spirits entered by invitation
(spiritus invitatos), so that the images became bodies of the gods
(corpora deorum). Thus the invisible spirits by a certain art
are so joined unto the visible objects of corporeal matter that
the latter become as it were animated bodies, images dedicated
to those spirits and controlled by them (see CONSECRATION).
Such statues were animated with sense and full of spirit, they
foresaw the future, and foretold it by lot, through their priests,
in dreams and in other ways.
See E. B. Tylor, Primitive Culture, ed. 1903 (list of authorities and
sources vol., p. 171); L. R. Farnell, The Evolution of Religion
(London, 1905) ; Jacob Grimm, Teutonic Mythology, translation by
J. S. Stallybrass. (F. C. C.)
IMAGINATION, in general, the power or process of producing
mental pictures or ideas. The term is technically used in
psychology for the process of reviving in the mind percepts
of objects formerly given in sense perception. Since this use
of the term conflicts with that of ordinary language, some
psychologists have preferred to describe this process as " imag-
ing " or " imagery " or to speak of it as " reproductive " as
opposed to " productive " or " constructive " imagination (see
IMAGE and PSYCHOLOGY). The common use of the term is for
the process of forming in the mind new images which have not
been previously experienced, or at least only partially or in
different combinations. Thus the image of a centaur is the
result of combining the common percepts of man and horse:
fairy tales and fiction generally are the result of this process
of combination. Imagination in this sense, not being limited
to the acquisition of exact knowledge by the requirements
of practical necessity, is up to a certain point free from objective
restraints. In various spheres, however, even imagination
is in practice limited: thus a man whose imaginations do
violence to the elementary laws of thought, or to the necessary
principles of practical possibility, or to the reasonable prob-
abilities of a given case is regarded as insane. The same limita-
tions beset imagination in the field of scientific hypothesis.
1 Tylor, Prim. Culture, ii. 178.
IMAM— IMIDAZOLES
Progress in scientific research is due largely to provisional
explanations which are constructed by imagination, but such
hypotheses must be framed in relation to previously ascertained
facts and in accordance with the principles of the particular
science. In spite, however, of these broad practical considera-
tions, imagination differs fundamentally from belief in that the
latter involves " objective control of subjective activity "
(Stout). The play of imagination, apart from the obvious
limitations (e.g. of avoiding explicit self-contradiction), is con-
ditioned only by the general trend of the mind at a given moment.
Belief, on the other hand, is immediately related to practical
activity: it is perfectly possible to imagine myself a millionaire,
but unless I believe it I do not, therefore, act as such. Belief
always endeavours to conform to objective conditions ; though
it is from one point of view subjective it is also objectively
conditioned, whereas imagination as such is specifically free.
The dividing line between imagination and belief varies widely
in different stages of mental development. Thus a savage
who is ill frames an ideal reconstruction of the causes of his
illness, and attributes it to the hostile magic of an enemy. In
ignorance of pathology he is satisfied with this explanation,
and actually believes in it, whereas such a hypothesis in the mind
of civilized man would be treated as a pure effort of imagination,
or even as a hallucination. It follows that the distinction between
imagination and belief depends in practice on knowledge,
social environment, training and the like.
Although, however, the absence of objective restraint, i.e.
a certain unreality, is characteristic of imagination, none the
less it has great practical importance as a purely ideational
activity. Its very freedom from objective limitation makes it
a source of pleasure and pain. A person of vivid imagination
suffers acutely from the imagination of perils besetting a friend.
In fact in some cases the ideal construction is so " real " that
specific physical manifestations occur, as though imagination
had passed into belief or the events imagined were actually in
progress.
IMAM, an Arabic word, meaning " leader " or " guide " in
the sense of a "pattern whose example is followed, whether for
good or bad." Thus it is applied to the Koran, to a builder's
level and plumb-line, to a road, to a school-boy's daily task,
to a written record. It is used in several of these senses in the
Koran, but specifically several times of leaders and (ii. 118)
of Abraham, "Lo, I make thee a pattern for mankind." Imam
thus became the name of the head of the Moslem community,
whose leadership and patternhood, as in the case of Mahomet
himself, is to be regarded as of the widest description. His
duty is to be the lieutenant, the Caliph (q.v.) of the Prophet,
to guard the faith and maintain the government of the state.
Round the origin and basis of his office all controversies as to
the Moslem state centre. The Sunnites hold that it is for men
to appoint and that the basis is obedience to the general usage
of the Moslem peoples from the earliest times. The necessity
for leaders has always been recognized, and a leader has always
been appointed. The basis is thus agreement in the technical
sense (see MAHOMMEDAN LAW), not Koran nor tradition from
Mahomet nor analogy. The Shl'ites in general hold that the
appointment lies with God, through the Prophet or otherwise,
and that He always has appointed. The Kharijites theoretically
recognize no absolute need of an Imam; he is convenient and
allowable. The Motazilites held that reason, not agreement,
dictated the appointment. Another distinction between the
Sunnites and the Shl'ites is that the Sunnites regard the Imam
as liable to err, and to be obeyed even though he personally
sins, provided he maintains the ordinances of Islam. Effective
leadership is the essential point. But the Shl'ites believe that
the divinely appointed Imam is also divinely illumined and pre-
served (ma'sum) from sin. The above is called the greater
Imamate. The lesser Imamate is the leadership in the Friday
prayers. This was originally performed by the Imam in the
first sense, who not only led in prayers but delivered a sermon
(khutba); but with the growth of the Moslem empire and the
retirement of the caliph from public life, it was necessarily given
over to a deputy — part of a gradual process of putting the
Imamate or caliphate into commission. These deputy Imams
are, in Turkey, ministers of the state, each in charge of his own
parish; they issue passports, &c., and perform the rites of circum-
cision, marriage and burial. In Persia among Shl'ites their
position is more purely spiritual, and they are independent of
the state. A few of their leaders are called Mujtahids, i.e. capable
of giving an independent opinion on questions of religion and
canon law. A third use of the term Imam is as an honorary
title. It is thus applied to leading theologians, e.g. to Abu
Hanifa, ash-Shafi'I, Malik ibn Anas, Ahmad ibn jjanbal (these
are called "the four Imams"), Ghazali.
See McG. de Slane's transl. of Ibn Khaldun's Prolegomenes, i.
384 seq., 402 seq., 426 seq., 445; iii. 35, 58 seq.; Ostrorog's transl. of
Mawardi's Ahkam i. 89 seq. ; Haarbriicker's transl. of Shahrastani
by index; Juynboll's De Mohammedaanische Wet, 316 seq.; Sell's
Faith of Islam, 95 seq.; Macdonald's Development of Muslim Theology,
56 seq. (D. B. MA.)
IMBECILE (through the French from Lat. imbecillus or imbe-
cillis, weak, feeble; of unknown origin), weak or feeble, particu-
larly in mind. The term " imbecility " is used conventionally of-
a condition of mental degeneration less profound than " idiotcy "
(see INSANITY).
IMBREX (Latin for " tile "), in architecture the term given to
the covering tile of the ancient roof: the plain tile is turned up on
each side and the imbrex covers the joint. In the simpler type of
roof the imbrex is semicircular, but in some of the Greek temples
it has vertical sides and an angular top. In the temple of Apollo
at Bassae, where the tiles were in Parian marble, the imbrex on
one side of the tile and the tile were worked in one piece out of the
solid marble.
IMBROS, a Turkish island in the Aegean, at the southern end
of the Thracian Chersonese peninsula. It forms with Samothrace,
about 1 7 m. distant, a caza (or canton) in the sanjak of Lemnos
and provinceof the Archipelago Isles. Herodotus (v. 26) mentions
it as an abode of the historic Pelasgians (q.v.). It was, like
Samothrace, a seat of the worship of the Cabeiri (q.v.). The
island is now the seat of a Greek bishopric. There is communica-
tion with the mainland by occasional vessels. The island is of
great fertility — wheat, oats, barley, olives, sesame and valonia
being the principal products, in addition to a variety of fruits.
Pop. about 92,000, nearly all Turks.
IMERETIA, or IMERITIA a district in Russian Transcaucasia,
extends from the left bank of the river Tskheniz-Tskhali to the
Suram range, which separates it from Georgia on the east, and is
bounded on the south by Akhaltsikh, and thus corresponds
roughly to the eastern part of the modern government of Kutais.
Anciently a part of Colchis, and included in Lazia during the
Roman empire, Imeretia was nominally under the dominion of
the Greek emperors. In the early part of the 6th century it
became the theatre of wars between the Byzantine emperor
Justinian and Chosroes, or Khosrau, king of Persia. Between
750 and 985 it was ruled by a dynasty (Apkhaz) of native princes,
but was devastated by hostile incursions, reviving only after it
became united to Georgia. It flourished until the reign of Queen
Thamar, but after her death (1212) the country became im-
poverished through strife and internal dissensions. It was
reunited with Georgia from 1318 to 1346, and again in 1424.
But the union only lasted forty-five years; from 1469 until 1810
it was governed by a Bagratid dynasty, closely akin to that which
ruled over Georgia. In 1621 it made the earliest appeal to
Russia for aid; in 1650 it acknowledged Russian suzerainty and
in 1769 a Russian force expelled the Turks. In 1803 the
monarch declared himself a vassal of Russia, and in 1810 the
little kingdom was definitively annexed to that empire. (See
GEORGIA.)
IMIDAZOLES, or GLYOXALINES, organic chemical compounds
CH=CH
containing the ring system HN<C^ I • Imidazole itself was
first prepared by H. Debus(Ann. 1858, 107, p. 254) by theactionof
ammonia on glyoxal, 2C2H2O2+2NH3 = C3H4N2+H2CO2-|-2H2O.
The compounds of this series may be prepared by the con-
densation of ortho-diketones with ammonia and aldehydes
332
IMITATION
R-CO-CO-R+2NH3+R'-CHO
R-C-N ^
R-C-NH/
from thioimidazolones by oxidation with dilute nitric acid (W.
Marckwald, Ber., 1892, 25, p. 2361); by distillation of hydro-
benzamide and similarly constituted bodies; and by the action of
phosphorus pentachloride on symmetrical dimethyloxamide, a
methylchlorglyoxaline being formed (0. Wallach, Ann., 1877,
184, p. 500).
The glyoxalines are basic in character, and the imide hydrogen
is replaceable by metals and alkyl groups. They are stable
towards reducing agents, and acidyl groups are only introduced
with difficulty.
Imidazole (glyoxaline), C3H4N2, crystallizes in thick prisms which
melt at 88-89° C. and boil at 253° C., and are readily soluble in
alcoholand in water. It is unaffected by chromic acid, but potassium
permanganate oxidizes it to formic acid. It forms salts with acids.
CeHs-C-N «
Lophine (triphenylglyoxaline), || ^C-C6HS> is formed
CeHg-C — NH
tiy the dry distillation of hydrobenzamide, or by saturating an
alcoholic solution of benzil and benzaldehyde (at a temperature of
40° C.) with ammonia. It crystallizes in needles which melt at
275° C. It is a weak base. When heated to 300° C. with hydriodic
acid and hydrochloric acid, in the presence of some red phosphorus,
it yields benzoic acid.
The keto-glyoxalines are known as imidazolones and are prepared
by the action of acids on acetalyl thioureas (W. Marckwald, Ber.,
1892, 25, p. 2357). Benzimidazole, CeH»<( '^^ ^CH, is the simplest
representative of the benzoglyoxalines and is prepared by the
condensation of formic acid with ortho-phenylene diamine. It
forms rhombic crystals which melt at 170° C. It is basic in char-
acter, and on oxidation with potassium permanganate yields a
small amount of glyoxaline dicarboxylic acid, II /CH.
HOOC-C-NH'
(E. Bamberger, Ann., 1893, 273, p. 338).
IMITATION (Lat. imitatio, from imitari, to imitate), the
reproduction or repetition of an action or thought as observed
in another person or in oneself, or the construction of one object
in the likeness of another. By some writers (e.g. Preyer and Lloyd
Morgan) the term " imitation " is limited to cases in which one
person copies the action or thought of another; others have pre-
ferred a wider use of the term (i.e. including " self -imitation ") , and
have attempted to classify imitative action into various groupings,
e.g. as cases of " conscious imitation," "imitative suggestion,"
"plastic imitation" (as when the members of a crowd sub-
consciously reproduce one another's modes of thought and action) ,
and the like. The main distinction is that which takes into
account the question of attention (q.v.) . In conscious imitation,
the attention is fixed on the act and its reproduction: in un-
conscious imitation the reproduction is entirely mechanical and
the agent does not "attend " to the action or thought which he
is copying: in subconscious imitation the action is not deliberate,
though the necessary train of thought would immediately follow
if the attention were turned upon it under normal conditions.
Imitation plays an extremely important part in human and
animal development, and a clear understanding of its character
is important both for the study of primitive peoples, and also in
the theories of education, art and sociology. The child's early
development is in large measure imitative: thus the first arti-
culate sounds and the first movements are mainly reproductions
of the words and actions of parents, and even in the later stages
that teacher is likely to achieve the best results who himself gives
examples of how a word should be pronounced or an action done.
The impulse to imitate is, however, not confined to children:
there is among the majority of adults a tendency to assimilate
themselves either to their society or to those whom they especially
admire or respect: this tendency to shun the eccentric is rooted
deeply in human psychology. Moreover, even among highly
developed persons the imitative impulse frequently overrides the
reason, as when an audience, a crowd, or even practically a
whole community is carried away by a panic for which no
adequate ground has been given, or when a cough or a yawn is
imitated by a company of people. Such cases may be compared
with those of persons in mesmeric trances who mechanically
copy a series of movements made by the mesmerist. The uni-
versality of the imitative impulse has led many psychologists to
regard it as an instinct (so William James, Principles of Psy-
chology, ii. 408; cf. INSTINCT), and in that large class of imitative
actions which have no obvious ulterior purpose the impulse
certainly appears to be instinctive in character. On the other
hand where the imitator recognizes the particular effect of a
process and imitates with the deliberate intention of producing
the same effect, his action can scarcely be classed as instinctive.
A considerable number of psychologists have distinguished
imitative from instinctive actions (e.g. Baldwin, and Sully).
According to Darwin the imitative impulse begins in infants at the
age of four months. It is to be noted, however, that the child
imitates, not every action indiscriminately, but especially those
towards which it has a congenital tendency. The same is true of
animals: though different kinds of animals may live in close
proximity, the young of each kind imitate primarily the actions
of their own parents.
Among primitive man imitation plays a very important
part. The savage believes that he can bring about events
by imitating them. He makes, for instance, an image of his
enemy and pierces it with darts or burns it, believing that by so
doing he will cause his enemy's death: similarly sailors would
whistle, or farmers would pour water on the ground, in the hope
of producing wind or rain. This form of imitation is known as
sympathetic magic (see MAGIC). The sociological importance of
imitation is elaborately investigated by Gabriel Tarde (Les Lois
delimitation, 2nd ed., 1895), who bases all social evolution on the
imitative impulse. He distinguishes " custom imitations," i.e.
imitations of ancient or even forgotten actions, and " mode
imitations," i.e. imitations of current fashions. New discoveries
are, in his scheme, the product of the conflict of imitations. This
theory, though of great value, seems to neglect original natural
similarities which, by the law of causation, produce similar
consequences, where imitation is geographically or chronologically
impossible.
The term " imitation " has also the following special uses: —
1. In Art-theory. — According to Plato all artistic production
is a form of imitation (jul/irjo-w). That which really exists is
the idea or type created by God; of this type all concrete
objects are representations, while the painter, the tragedian,
the musician are merely imitators, thrice removed from the
truth (Rep. x. 596 seq.). Such persons are represented by
Plato as a menace to the moral fibre of the community (Rep.
iii.), as performing no useful function, drawing men away from
reality and pandering to the irrational side of the soul. All art
should aim at moral improvement. Plato clearly intends by
" imitation " more than is connotated by the modern word:
though in general he associates with it all that is bad and second-
rate, he in some passages admits the value of the imitation of
that which is good, and thus assigns to it a certain symbolic
significance. Aristotle, likewise regarding art as imitation,
emphasizes its purely artistic value as purging the emotions
(naBapatt), and producing beautiful things as such (see
AESTHETICS and FINE ARTS).
2. In Biology, the term is sometimes applied to the assimila-
tion by one species of certain external characteristics(especially
colour) which enable them to escape the notice of other species
which would otherwise prey upon them. It is a form of pro-
tective resemblance and is generally known as mimicry (q.v.;
see also COLOURS OF ANIMALS).
3. In Music, the term " imitation " is applied in contrapuntal
composition to the repetition of a passage in one or more of the
other voices or parts of a composition. When the repetition
is note for note with all the intervals the same, the imitation
is called "strict" and becomes a canon (q.v.); if not it is called
" free," the latter being much the more common. There are
many varieties of imitation, known as imitation " by inversion,"
" by inversion and reversion," " by augmentation," " by
diminution " (see Grove's Dictionary of Music, s. »., and text-
books of musical theory).
IMITATION OF CHRIST
333
IMITATION OF CHRIST, THE (Imitatio Christi), the title
of a famous medieval Christian devotional work, much used
still by both Catholics and Protestants and usually ascribed to
Thomas a Kempis. The " Contestation " over the author of
the Imitation of Christ is probably the most considerable and
famous controversy that has ever been carried on concerning
a purely literary question. It has been going on almost without
flagging for three centuries, and nearly 200 combatants have
entered the lists. In the present article nothing is said on the
history of the controversy, but an attempt is made to summarize
the results that may be looked on as definitely acquired.
Until quite recently there were three candidates in the field — •
Thomas a Kempis (1380-1471), a canon regular of Mount St
Agnes in Zwolle, in the diocese of Utrecht, of the Windesheim
Congregation of Augustinian Canons; John Gerson (1363-1429),
chancellor of the University of Paris; and an abbot, John
Gersen, said to have been abbot of a Benedictine monastery
at Vercelli in the i2th century. Towards the end of the isth
century the Imitation circulated under the names of the first
two; but Gerson is an impossible author, and his claims have
never found defenders except in France, where they are no
longer urged. The Benedictine abbot Gersen is an absolutely
mythical personage, a mere " double " of the chancellor. Con-
sequently at the present day the question is narrowed to the issue:
Thomas a Kempis, or an unknown author.
The following is a statement of the facts that may be received
as certain :-
1. The earliest-known dated MS. of the Imitation is of 1424 —
it contains only Bk. I.; the earliest MSS. of the whole work of
certain date are of 1427. Probably some of the undated MSS.
are older; but it is the verdict of the most competent modern
expert opinion that there is no palaeographical reason for sus-
pecting that any known MS. is earlier than the first quarter of
the i 5th century.
2. A Latin letter of a Dutch canon regular, named Johann van
Schoonhoven, exhibits such a close connexion with Bk. I. that
plagiarism on the one side or the other is the only possible
explanation. It is capable of demonstration that the author
of the Imitation was the borrower, and that the opposite hypo-
thesis is inadmissible. Now, this letter can be shown to have
been written after 1382. Therefore Bk. I. was beyond contro-
versy written between the years 1382 and 1424.
3. It is not here assumed that the four treatises formed a
single work, or even that they are all by the same author; and
the date of the other three books cannot be fixed with the
same certainty. But, on the one hand, before the beginning
of the 1 5th century there is no trace whatever of their existence
— a strong argument that they did not yet exist; and on the
other hand, after 1424 nearly each year produces its quota of
MSS. and other signs of the existence of these books become
frequent. Moreover, as a matte.r of fact, the four treatises did
commonly circulate together. The presumption is strong that
Bks. II., III., IV., like Bk. I., were composed shortly before
they were put into circulation.
It may then be taken as proved that the Imitation was com-
posed between 1380 and 1425, and probably towards the end
rather than the beginning of that period. Having ascertained
the date, we must consider the birthplace.
4. A number of idioms and turns of expression throughout
the book show that its author belonged to some branch of the
Teutonic race. Further than this the argument does not lead;
for when the dialects of the early isth century are considered
it cannot be said that the expressions in question are Nether-
landic rather than German — as a matter of fact, they have all
been paralleled out of High German dialects.
5. Of the 400 MSS. of the Imitation 340 come from the Teutonic
countries — another argument in favour of its Teutonic origin.
Again, 100 of them, including the earliest, come from the Nether-
lands. This number is quite disproportionate to the relative
size of the Netherlands, and so points to Holland as the country
in which the Imitation was first most widely circulated and
presumably composed.
6. There is a considerable body of early evidence, traceable
before 1450, that the author was a canon regular.
7. Several of the MSS. were written in houses belonging to
the Windesheim Congregation of canons regular, or in close
touch with it. Moreover there is a specially intimate literary
and spiritual relationship between the Imitation and writings
that emanated from what has been called the " Windesheim
Circle."
To sum up: the indirect evidence points clearly to the con-
clusion that the Imitation was written by a Teutonic canon
regular, probably a Dutch canon regular of the Windesheim
Congregation, in the first quarter of the isth century. These
data are satisfied by Thomas a Kempis.
We pass to the direct evidence, neglecting that of witnesses
who had no special sources of information.
8. There can be no question that in the Windesheim Congrega-
tion itself there was already, during Thomas a Kempis's lifetime,
a fixed tradition that he was the author of the Imitation. The
most important witness to this tradition is Johann Busch.
It is true that the crucial words are missing in one copy of his
" Chronicle " ; but it is clear there were two redactions of the
work, and there are no grounds whatever for doubting that the
second with its various enlargements came from the hands of
Busch himself — a copy of it containing the passage exists
written in 1464, while both Busch and Thomas a Kempis were
still alive. Busch passed a great part of his life in Windesheim,
only a few miles from Mount St Agnes where Thomas lived.
It would be hard to find a more authentic witness. Another
witness is Hermann Rhyd, a German member of the Windesheim
Congregation, who also had personally known Thomas. Besides,
two or three MSS. originating in the Windesheim Congregation
state or imply the same tradition.
9. More than this: the tradition existed in Thomas a Kempis's
own monastery shortly after his death. For John Mauburne
became a canon in Mount St Agnes within a few years of Thomas's
death, and he states more than once that Thomas wrote the
Imitation.
10. The earliest biographer of Thomas a Kempis was an
anonymous contemporary: the Life was printed in 1494, but
it exists in a MS. of 1488. The biographer says he got his infor-
mation from the brethren at Mount St Agnes, and he states
in passing that Bk. III. was written by Thomas. Moreover,
he appends a list of Thomas's writings, 38 in number, and 5-8
are the four books of the Imitation. •
It is needless to point out that such a list must be of vastly
greater authority than those given by St Jerome or Gennadius
in their De Viris Illusiribus, and its rejection must, in consistency,
involve methods of criticism that would work havoc in the
history of early literature of what king soever. The domestic
tradition in the Windesheim Congregation, and in Mount St
Agnes itself, has a weight that cannot be legitimately avoided
or evaded. Indeed the external authority for Thomas's author-
ship is stronger than that for the authorship of most really anony-
mous books — such, that is, as neither themselves claim to be
by a given author, nor have been claimed by any one as his own.
A large proportion of ancient writings, both ecclesiastical and
secular, are unquestioningly assigned to writers on far less
evidence than that for Thomas's authorship of the Imitation.
Internal arguments have been urged against Thomas's author-
ship. It has been said that his certainly authentic writings
are so inferior that the Imitation could not have been written by
the same author. But only if they were of the most certain and
peremptory nature could such internal arguments be allowed
to weigh against the clear array of facts that make up the
external argument in favour of a Kempis. And it cannot be
said that the internal difficulties are such as this. Let it be
granted that Thomas was a prolific writer and that his writings
vary very much in quality; let it be granted also that the
Imitation surpasses all the rest, and that some are on a level
very far below it; still, when at their best, some of the other
works are not unworthy of the author of the Imitation.
In conclusion, it is the belief of the present writer that
334
IMMACULATE CONCEPTION
the " Contestation " is over, and that Thomas a Kempis's
claims to the authorship of the Imitation have been solidly
established.
The best account in English of the Controversy is that given by
F. R. Cruise in his Thomas d, Kempis (1887). Works produced
before 1880 are in general, with the exception of those of Eusebius
Amort, superannuated, and deal in large measure with points no
longer of any living interest. A pamphlet by Cruise, Who was
the Author of the Imitation? (1898) contains sufficient informa-
tion on the subject for all ordinary needs; it has been translated
into French and German, and may be regarded as the standard
handbook.
It has been said that the Imitation of Christ has had a wider
religious influence than any book except the Bible, and if the
statement be limited to Christendom, it is probably true. The
Imitation has been translated into over fifty languages, and is said
to have run through more than 6000 editions. The other statement,
often made, that it sums up all that is best of earlier Western
mysticism — that in it " was gathered and concentered all that was
elevating, passionate, profoundly pious in all the older mystics"
(Milman) is an exaggeration that is but partially true, for it de-
preciates unduly the elder mystics and fails to do justice to the
originality of the Imitation. For its spiritual teaching is something
quite different from the mysticism of Augustine in the Confessions,
or of Bernard in the Sermons on the Song of Songs ; it is different
from the scholastic mysticism of the St Victors or Bonaventure;
above all, it is different from the obscure mysticism, saturated with
the pseudo-Dionysian Neoplatonism of the German school of Eck-
hart, Suso, Tauler and Ruysbroek. Again, it is quite different from
the later school of St Teresa and St John of the Cross, and from
the introspective methods of what may be called the modern school
of spirituality. The Imitation stands apart, unique, as the principal
and most representative utterance of a special phase of religious
thought — non-scholastic, non-platonic, positive and merely religious
in its scope — herein reflecting faithfully the spirit of the movement
initiated by Gerhard Groot (q.v.), and carried forward by the circles
in which Thomas & Kempis lived. In contrast with more mystical
writings it is of limpid clearness, every sentence being easily under-
standable by all whose spiritual sense is in any degree awakened.
No doubt it owes its universal power to this simplicity, to its freedom
from intellectualism and its direct appeal to the religious sense
and to the extraordinary religious genius of its author. Professor
Harnack in his book What is Christianity? counts the Imitation as
one of the chief spiritual forces in Catholicism: it " kindles inde-
pendent religious life, and a fire which burns with a flame of its
own " (p. 266).
The best Latin edition of the Imitation is that of Hirsche (1874),
which follows closely the autograph of 1441 and reproduces the
rhythmical character of the book. Of English translations the most
interesting is that by John Wesley, under the title The Christian's
Pattern (1735). (E. C. B.)
IMMACULATE CONCEPTION, THE. This dogma of the
Roman Catholic Church was defined as " of faith " by Pope
Pius IX. on the 8th of December 1854 in the following terms:
" The doctrine which holds that the Blessed Virgin Mary, from
the first instant of her conception, was, by a most singular
grace and privilege of Almighty God, in view of the merits of
Jesus Christ, the Redeemer of the human race, preserved from
all stain of Original Sin, is a doctrine revealed by God, and there-
fore to be firmly and steadfastly believed by all the faithful." l
These words presuppose the distinction between original, or
racial, and actual, or personally incurred sin. There is no dis-
pute that the Church has always held the Blessed Virgin to be
sinless, in the sense of actual or personal sin. The question
of the Immaculate Conception regards original or racial sin only.
It is admitted that the doctrine as defined by Pius IX. was not
explicitly mooted before the i2th century. But it is claimed
that it is implicitly contained in the teaching of the Fathers.
Their expressions on the subject of the sinlessness of Mary are,
it is pointed out, so ample and so absolute that they must be
taken to include original sin as well as actual. Thus we have
in the first five centuries such epithets applied to her as "in
every respect holy," " in all things unstained," " super-innocent "
and " singularly holy "; she is compared to Eve before the
fall, as ancestress of a redeemed people; she is " the earth
before it was accursed."2 The well-known words of St Augustine
(d. 430) may be cited: "As regards the mother of God,"
he says, "I will not allow any question whatever of sin."3
1 From the Bull Ineffabilis Deus.
* See Passaglia's work, referred to below.
* De natura et gratia, cap. xxxvi.
It is true that he is here speaking directly of actual or personal
sin. But his argument is that all men are sinners; that they
are so through original depravity; that this original depravity
may be overcome by the grace of God, and he adds that he does
not know but that Mary may have had sufficient grace to over-
come sin " of every sort " (omni ex parte).
It seems to have been St Bernard who, in the i2th century,
explicitly raised the question of the Immaculate Conception.
A feast of the Conception of the Blessed Virgin had already
begun to be celebrated in some churches of the West. St
Bernard blames the canons of the metropolitan church of Lyons
for instituting such a festival without the permission of the Holy
See. In doing so, he takes occasion to repudiate altogether
the view that the Conception of Mary was sinless. It is doubtful,
however, whether he was using the term " Conception " in the
same sense in which it is used in the definition of Pius IX. In
speaking of conception one of three things may be meant:
(i) the mother's co-operation; (2) the formation of the body,
or (3) the completion of the human being by the infusion
of the rational or spiritual soul. In early times conception was,
very commonly used in the first sense — " active " conception
as it was called. But it is in the second, or rather the third,
sense that the word is employed in modern usage, and in the
definition of Pope Pius IX. But St Bernard would seem to
have been speaking of conception in the first sense, for in his
argument he says, " How can there be absence of sin where
there is concupiscence (libido}?" and stronger expressions
follow, showing that he is speaking of the mother and not of
the child.4
St Thomas Aquinas, the greatest of the medieval scholastics,
refused to admit the Immaculate Conception, on the ground that,
unless the Blessed Virgin had at one time or other been one of
the sinful, she could not justly be said to have been redeemed
by Christ.6 St Bonaventura (d. 12 74), second only to St Thomas
in his influence on the Christian schools of his age, hesitated
to accept it for a similar reason.6 The celebrated John Duns
Scotus (d. 1308), a Franciscan like St Bonaventura, argued,
on the contrary, that from a rational point of view it was
certainly as little derogatory to the merits of Christ to assert that
Mary was by him preserved from all taint of sin, as to say that
she first contracted it and then was delivered.7 His arguments,
combined with a better acquaintance with the language of the
early Fathers, gradually prevailed in the schools of the Western
Church. In 1387 the university of Paris strongly condemned
the opposite view. In 1483 Pope Sixtus IV., who had already
(1476) emphatically approved of the feast of the Conception,
condemned those who ventured to assert that the doctrine of
the Immaculate Conception was heretical, and forbade either
side to claim a decisive victory until further action on the part
of the Holy See. The council of Trent, after declaring that in
its decrees on the subject of original sin it did not include " the
blessed and immaculate Virgin'Mary, Mother of God," renewed
this prohibition.8 Pope Paul V. (d. 1651) ordered that no one,
under severe penalties, should dare to assent in public " acts "
or disputations that the Blessed Virgin was conceived in original
sin. Pope Gregory XV., shortly afterwards, extended this
prohibition to private discussions, allowing, however, the
Dominicans to argue on the subjects among themselves.
Clement XI., in 1708, extended the feast of the Conception
to the whole Church as a holy day of obligation. Long before
the middle of the igth century the doctrine was universally
taught in the Roman Catholic Church. During the reign of
Gregory XVI. the bishops in various countries began to press
for a definition. • Pius IX., at the beginning of his pontificate,
and again after 1851, appointed commissions to investigate the
whole subject, and he was advised that the doctrine was one
4 S. Bernard! Epist. clxxiv. 7.
6 Summa theologia, part iii., quaest. 27, art. 3.
6 In librum III. sententiarum distinct. 3 quaest. i. art. 2.
7 In librum III. sentenliarum dist. 3 quaest. i. n. 4; Cfr. Dis-
tinct. 1 8 n. 15. Also the Summa theologia of Scotus (compiled by a
disciple), part iii., quaest. 27, art. 2.
8 Sess. v. De peccato originate.
IMMANENCE— IMMERMANN
335
which could be defined and that the time for a definition was
opportune. On the 8th of December 1854 in a great assembly
of bishops, in the basilica of St Peter's at Rome, he promulgated
the Bull Inejfabilis Deus, in which the history of the doctrine
is summarily traced, and which contains the definition as given
above.
I The festival of the Conception of the Blessed Virgin, as distinct
from her Nativity, was certainly celebrated in the Greek Church
in the ;th century, as we learn from one of the canons of St
Andrew of Crete (or of Jerusalem) who died about A.D. -joo.1
There is some evidence that it was kept in Spain in the time of
St Ildefonsus of Toledo (d. 667) and in southern Italy before
A.D. 1000. In England it was known in the i2th century; a
. council of the province of Canterbury, in 1328, ascribes its
introduction to St Anselm. It spread to France and Germany
in the same century. It was extended to the whole church, as
stated above, in 1708. It is kept, in the Western Church, on the
8th of December; the Greeks have always kept it one day later.
The chief repertoire of Patristic passages, both on the doctrine
and on the festival, is Father Charles Passaglia's great collection,
entitled De immaculate Deiparae semper Virginis conceptu Caroli
Passaglia sac. S.J. commentarius (3 vols., Romae, 1854-1855).
A useful statement of the doctrine with numerous references to
the Fathers and scholastics is found in Hiirter's Theologia Dogmatica
(5th ed.), torn. i. tract, vii. cap. 6, p. 438.
The state of Catholic belief in the middle of the igth century
is well brought out in La Croyance generate et constants de I'Eglise
touchant I'immaculee conception de la bienheureuse Vierge Marie,
published in 1855 by Thomas M. J. Gousset (1792-1866), professor
of moral theology at the grand seminary of Besancpn, and suc-
cessively archbishop of Besangon and cardinal archbishop of Reims.
For English readers the doctrine, and the history of its definition,
is clearly stated by Archbishop Ullathorne in The Immaculate
Conception of the Motlier of God (2nd ed., London, 1904). Dr F. G.
Lee, in The Sinless Conception of the Mother^ of God; a Theological
Essay (London, 1891) argued that the doctrine of the Immaculate
Conception is a legitimate development of early church teaching.
(*J. C. H.)
IMMANENCE (from Lat. in-manere to dwell in, remain), in
philosophy and theology a term applied in contradistinction to
" transcendence," to the fact or condition of being entirely
within something. Its most important use is for the theological
conception of God as existing in and throughout the created
world, as opposed, for example, to Deism (q.v.), which conceives
Him as separate from and above the universe. This conception
has been expressed in a great variety of forms (see THEISM,
PANTHEISM). It should be observed that the immanence
doctrine need not preclude the belief in the transcendence of
God: thus God may be regarded as above the world (tran-
scendent) and at the same time as present in and pervading it
(immanent). The immanence doctrine has arisen from two
main causes, the one metaphysical, the other religious. Meta-
physical speculation on the relation of matter and mind has
naturally led to a conviction of an underlying unity of all
existence, and so to a metaphysical identification of God and
the universe: when this identification proceeds to the length of
expressing the universe as merely a mode or form of deity the
result is pantheism (cf . the Eleatics) : when it regards the deity
as simply the sum of the forces of nature (cf. John Toland) the
result is naturalism. In either case, but especially in the former,
it frequently becomes pure mysticism (q.v.). Religious thinkers
are faced by the problem of the Creator and the created, and the
necessity for formulating a close relationship between God and
man, the Infinite and Perfect with the finite and imperfect.
The conception of God as wholly external to man, a purely
mechanical theory of the creation, is throughout Christendom
regarded as false to the teaching of the New Testament as also to*
Christian experience. The contrary view has gained ground in
some quarters (cf. the so-called " New Theology " of Rev. R. J.
Campbell) so far as to postulate a divine element in human
beings, so definitely bridging over the gap between finite and
infinite which was to some extent admitted by the bulk of early
Christian teachers. In support of such a view are adduced not
only the metaphysical difficulty of postulating any relationship
between the infinite and the purely finite, but also the ethical
1 P. G., torn, cxvii. p. 1305.
problems of the nature of human goodness — i.e. how a merely
human being could appreciate the nature of or display divine
goodness — and the epistemological problem of explaining how
finite mind can cognize the infinite. The development of the
immanence theory of God has coincided with the deeper recogni-
tion of the essentially spiritual nature of deity as contrasted with
the older semi-pagan conception found very largely in the Old
Testament of God as primarily a mighty ruler, obedience to.
whom is comparable with that of a subject to an absolute
monarch: the idea of the dignity of man in virtue of his immediate
relation with God may be traced in great measure to the humanist
movement of the I4th and isth centuries (cf. the Inner Light
doctrine of Johann Tauler). In later times the conception of
conscience as an inward monitor is symptomatic of the same
movement of thought. In pure metaphysics the term ''imma-
nence-philosophy " is given to a doctrine held largely by German
philosophers (Rehmke, Leclair, Schuppe and others) according to
which all reality is reduced to elements immanent in conscious-
ness. This doctrine is derived from Berkeley and Hume on the
one hand and from Kantianism on the other, and embodies the
principle that nothing can exist for the mind save itself. The
natural consequence of this theory is that the individual con-
sciousness alone exists (solipsism) : this position is, however, open
to the obvious criticism that in some cases individual conscious-
nesses agree in their content. Schuppe, therefore, postulates a
general consciousness (Bewusstsein uberhaupt).
IMMANUEL BEN SOLOMON (c. i26$-c. 1330), Hebrew poet,
was born in Rome. He was a contemporary and friend of Dante,
and his verse shows the influence of the " divine poet. " Im-
manuel's early studies included science, mathematics and
philosophy; and his commentaries on Proverbs, Psalms, Job
and other Biblical books are good examples of the current
symbolical methods which Dante so supremely used. Immanuel's
fame chiefly rests on his poems, especially the collection (in the
manner of Harizi, q.v.) entitled Mehabberoth, a series of 27 good-
natured satires on Jewish life. Religious and secular topics are
indiscriminately interwoven, and severe pietists were offended by
Immanuel's erotic style. Most popular is an additional section
numbered 28 (often printed by itself) called Hell and Paradise
(ha-Tophet veha-Eden). The poet is conducted by a certain
Daniel (doubtfully identified with Dante) through the realms of
torture and bliss, and Immanuel's pictures and comments are
at once vivid and witty.
See J. Chotzner, Hebrew Humour (Lond., 1905), pp. 82-102. (I. A.)
IMMERMANN, KARL LEBERECHT (1796-1840), German
dramatist and novelist, was born on the 24th of April 1796 at
Magdeburg, the son of a government official. In 1813 he went
to study law at Halle, where he remained, after the suppression
of the university by Napoleon in the same year, until King
Frederick William's "Summons to my people " on March i7th.
He responded with alacrity, but was prevented by illness from
taking part in the earlier, campaign; he fought, however, in
1815 at Ligny and Waterloo, and marched into Paris with
Bliicher. At the conclusion of the war he resumed his studies
at Halle, and after being Referendar in Magdeburg, was ap-
pointed in 1819 Assessor at Miinster in Westphalia. Here he
made the acquaintance of Elise von Liitzow, Countess von
Ahlefeldt, wife of the leader of the famous " free corps " (see
LUTZOW). This lady first inspired his pen, and their relationship
is reflected in several dramas written about this time. In 1823
Immermann was appointed judge at Magdeburg, and in 1827
was transferred to Diisseldorf as Landgerichlsrat or district
judge. Thither the countess, whose marriage had in the mean-
time been dissolved, followed him, and, though refusing his hand,
shared his home until his marriage in 1839 with a granddaughter
of August Hermann Niemeyer (1754-1828), chancellor and
rector perpetuus of Halle university. In 1834 Immermann under-
took the management of the Diisseldorf theatre, and, although
his resources were small, succeeded for two years in raising it
to a high level of excellence. The theatre, however, was insuf-
ficiently endowed to allow of him carrying on the work, and
33^
IMMERSION— IMMORTALITY
in 1836 he returned to his official duties and literary pursuits.
He died at Diisseldorf on the zsth of August 1840.
Immermann had considerable aptitude for the drama, but
it was long before he found a congenial field for his talents. His
early plays are imitations, partly of Kotzebue's, partly of the
Romantic dramas of Tieck and Milliner, and are now forgotten.
In 1826, however, appeared Gardenia und Celinde, a love tragedy
of more promise; this, as well as the earlier productions,
awakened the ill-will of Platen, who made Immermann the
subject of his wittiest satire, Der romaniische Oedipus. Between
1827 and 1832 Immermann redeemed his good name by a series
of historical tragedies, Das Trauerspiel in Tirol (1827), Kaiser
Friedrich II. (1828) and a trilogy from Russian history, Alexis
(1832). His masterpiece is the poetic mystery, Merlin (1831),
a noble poem, which, like its model, Faust, deals with the deeper
problems of modern spiritual life. Immermann's important
dramaturgic experiments in Diisseldorf are described in detail
in Dilsseldorfer Anfange (1840). More significant is his position
as a novelist. Here he clearly stands on the boundary line
between Romanticism and modern literature; his Epigonen
(1836) might be described as one of the last Romantic imitations
of Goethe's Wilhelm Meister, while the satire and realism of his
second novel, Miinchhausen (1838), form a complete break with
the older literature. As a prose-writer Immermann is perhaps
best remembered to-day by the admirable story of village life,
Der Oberhof, which is embedded in the formless mass of Miinch-
hausen. His last work was an unfinished epic, Tristan und
Isolde (1840).
Immermann's Gesammelle Schriften were published in 14 vols.
in 1835-1843; a new edition, with biography and introduction by
R. Boxberger, in 20 vols. (Berlin, 1883) ; selected works, edited by.
M. Koch (4 vols., 1887-1888) and F. Muncker (6 vols., 1897).
See G. zu Putlitz, Karl Immermann, sein Leben und seine Werke
(2 vols., 1870); F. Freiligrath, Karl Immermann, Blatter der Erin-
nerung an ihn (1842); W. Muller, K. Immermann und sein Kreis
(1860); R. Fellner, Ceschichte einer deutschen Musterbiihne (1888);
K. Immermann: eine Gedachtnisschrift (1896).
IMMERSION (Lat. immersio, dipping), the act of being
plunged into a fluid, or being overwhelmed by anything; in
astronomy, the disappearance of a heavenly body in the shadow
of another, especially of a satellite in the shadow of its
primary.
IMMIGRATION (from Lat. in, into, and migrare, to depart),
the movement of population, other than that of casual
visitors or travellers, into one country from another (see
MIGRATION).
IMMORTALITY (Lat. in-, not, morlalis, mortal, from mors,
death), the condition or quality of being exempt from death
or annihilation. This condition has been predicated of man,
both body and soul, in many senses; and the term is used by
analogy of those whose deeds or writings have made a lasting
impression on the memory of man. The belief in human im-
mortality in some form is almost universal; even in early
animistic cults the germ of the idea is present, and in all the
higher religions it is an important feature. This article is confined
to summarizing the philosophical or scientific arguments for,
and objections to, the doctrine of the persistence of the human
soul after death. For the Christian doctrine, see ESCHATOLOGY;
and for other religions see the separate articles.
In the Orphic mysteries " the soul was regarded as a part
of the divine, a particula aurae divinae, for which the body
in its limited and perishable condition was no fit organ, but a
grave or prison(ri oxo/uo. o%ia). The existence of the soul in
the body was its punishment for sins in a previous condition ;
and the doom of its sins in the body was its descent into other
bodies, and the postponement of its deliverance " (Salmond's
Christian Doctrine of Immortality, p. 109). This deliverance
was what the mysteries promised. A remarkable passage in
Pindar (Thren. 2) is thus rendered by J. W. Donaldson (Pindar's
Epinician or Triumph'al Odes, p. 372). " By a happy lot, all
persons travel to an end free of toil. And the body, indeed, is
subject to the powerful influence of death; but a shadow of
vitality is still left alive, and this alone is of divine origin; while
our limbs are in activity it sleeps; but, when we sleep, it dis-
closes to the mind in many dreams the future judgment with
regard to happiness and misery."
The belief of Socrates is uncertain. In the Apology he is
represented as sure that " no evil can happen to a good man,
either in life or after death, " but as not knowing whether " death
be a state of nothingness and utter unconsciousness, or a change
or migration of the soul from this world to the next" (i. 40,
41). In the Phaedo a confident expectation is ascribed to him.
He is not the body to be buried; he will not remain with his
friends after he has drunk the poison, but he will go away to
the happiness of the blessed. The silence of the Memorabilia
of Xenophon must be admitted as an argument to the contrary;
but the probability seems to be that Plato did not in the Phaedo
altogether misrepresent the Master. In Plato's thought the
belief held a prominent position. " It is noteworthy," says
Professor D. G. Ritchie, " that, in the various dialogues in
which Plato speaks of immortality, the arguments seem to be
of different kinds, and most of them quite unconnected with
one another. In the Phaedrus (245 c) the argument is, that
the soul is self-moving, and, therefore, immortal; and this
argument is repeated in the Laws (x. 894, 895). It is an argu-
ment that Plato probably inherited from Alcmaeon, the physician
of Croton (Arist. De An. i. 2, § 17 405 A 29), whose views
were closely connected with those of the Pythagoreans. In the
Phaedo the main argument up to which all the others lead is
that the soul participates in the idea of life. Recollection
(anamnesis) alone would prove pre-existence, but not existence
after death. In the tenth book of the Republic we find the
curious argument that the soul does not perish like' the body,
because its characteristic evil, sin or wickedness does not kill
it as the diseases of the body wear out the bodily life. In
the Timaeus (41 A) the immortality even of the gods is made
dependent on the will of the Supreme Creator; souls are not in
their own nature indestructible, but persist because of His
goodness. In the Laws (xii. 959 A) the notion of a future life
seems to be treated as a salutary doctrine which is to be
believed because the legislator enacts it (Plato, p. 146). The
estimate to be formed of this reasoning has been well stated by
Dr A. M. Fairbairn, " Plato's arguments for immortality, isolated,
modernized, may be feeble, even valueless, but allowed to stand
where and as he himself puts them, they have an altogether
different worth. The ratiocinative parts of the Phaedo thrown
into syllogisms may be easily demolished by a hostile logician;
but in the dialogue as a whole there is a subtle spirit and cumula-
tive force which logic can neither seize nor answer " (Studies
in the Philoso'phy of Religion, p. 226, 1876).
Aristotle held that the vow or active intelligence alone is
immortal. The Stoics were not agreed upon the question.
Cleanthes is said to have held that all survive to the great
conflagration which closes the cycle, Chrysippus that only the
wise will. Marcus Aurelius teaches that even if the spirit survive
for a time it is at last " absorbed in the generative principle
of the universe." Epicureanism thought that " the wise man
fears not death, before which most men tremble; for, if we are,
it is not; if it is, we are not." Death is extinction. Augustine
adopts a Platonic thought when he teaches that the immortality
of the soul follows from its participation in the eternal truths.
The Apologists themselves welcomed, and commended to others,
the Christian revelation as affording a certainty of immortality
such as reason could not give. The Aristotelian school in Islam
did not speak with one voice upon the question; Avicenna
declared the soul immortal, but Averroes assumes only the
eternity of the universal intellect. Albertus Magnus argued
that the soul is immortal, as ex se ipsa causa, and as independent
of the body; Pietro Pomponazzi maintained that the soul's
immortality could be neither proved nor disproved by any
natural reasons. Spinoza, while consistently with his pantheism
denying personal immortality, affirms that "the human mind
cannot be absolutely destroyed with the body, but there remains
of it something which is eternal " (Eth. v. prop, xxiii.). The
reason he gives is that, as this something " appertains to the
IMMORTALITY
337
essence of the mind," it is " conceived by a certain eternal
necessity through the very essence of God."
Leibnitz, in accord with the distinctive principle of his
philosophy, affirmed the absolute independence of mind and
body as distinct monads, the parallelism of their functions in
life being due to the pre-established harmony. For the soul,
by its nature as a single monad indestructible and, therefore,
immortal, death meant only the loss of the monads constituting
the body and its return to the pre-existent state. The argument
of Ernst Plainer (Philos. Aphor. i. 1174, 1178) is similar. " If
the human soul is a force in the narrower sense, a substance, and
not a combination of substances, then, as in the nature of things
there is no transition from existence to non-existence, we cannot
naturally conceive the end of its existence, any more than we
can anticipate a gradual annihilation of its existence." He adds
a reason that recalls one of Plato's, " As manifestly as the human
soul is by means of the senses linked to the present life, so
manifestly it attaches itself by reason, and the conceptions,
conclusions, anticipations and efforts to which reason leads it,
to God and eternity."
Against the first kind of argument, as formulated by Moses
Mendelssohn, Kant advances the objection that, although we
may deny the soul extensive quantity, division into parts, yet
we cannot refuse to it intensive quantity, degrees of reality;
and consequently its existence may be terminated not by
decomposition, but by gradual diminution of its powers (or to
use the term he coined for the purpose, by elanguescence) . This
denial of any reasonable ground for belief in immortality in the
Critique of Pure Reason (Transcendental Dialectic, bk. ii. ch. i.)
is, however, not his last word on the subject. In the Critique
of the Practical Reason (Dialectic, ch. i. sec. iv) the immortality
of the soul is shown to be a postulate. Holiness, " the perfect
accordance of the will with the moral law," demands an endless
progress; and " this endless progress is only possible on the
supposition of an endless duration of the existence and personality
of the same rational being (which is called the immortality of
the soul)." Not demonstrable as a theoretical proposition, the
immortality of the soul " is an inseparable result of an uncon-
ditional a priori practical law." The moral interest, which is
so decisive on this question in the case of Kant, dominates
Bishop Butler also. A future life for him is important, because
our happiness in it may depend on our present conduct; and
therefore our action here should take into account the reward
or punishment that it may bring on us hereafter. As he main-
tains that probability may and ought to be our guide in life, he
is content with proving in the first chapter of the Analogy that
" a future life is probable from similar changes (as death) already
undergone in ourselves and in others, and from our present
powers, which are likely to continue unless death destroy them."
While we may fear this, " there is no proof that it will, either
from the nature of death," of the effect of which on our powers
we are altogether ignorant, " or from the analogy of nature,
which shows only that the sensible proof of our powers (not the
powers themselves) may be destroyed." The imagination that
death will destroy these powers is unfounded, because (i) " this
supposes we are compounded, and so discerptible, but the contrary
is probable " on metaphysical grounds (the indivisibility of the
subject in which consciousness as indivisible inheres, and its
distinction from the body) and also experimental (the persistence
of the living being in spite of changes in the body or even losses
of parts of the body); (2) this also assumes that " our present
living powers of reflection " must be affected in the same way
by death " as those of sensation," but this is disproved by their
relative independence even in this life; (3) " even the suspension
of our present powers of reflection " is not involved in " the idea
of death, which is simply dissolution of the body," and which
may even " be like birth, a continuation and perfecting of our
powers." " Even if suspension were involved, we cannot infer
destruction from it " (analysis of chapter i. in Angus's edition).
He recognizes that " reason did, as it well might, conclude that
it should finally, and upon the whole, be well with the righteous
and ill with the wicked," but only " revelation teaches us that
the next state of things after the present is appointed for the
execution of this justice " (ch. ii. note 10). He does not use
this general anticipation of future judgment, as he might have
done, as a positive argument for immortality.
Adam Ferguson (Institutes of Moral Philosophy, p. 119, new
ed., 1800) argues that " the desire for immortality is an instinct,
and can reasonably be regarded as an indication of that which
the author of this desire wills to do." From the standpoint
of modern science John Fiske confirms the validity of such an
argument; for what he affirms in regard to belief in the divine
is equally applicable to this belief in a future life. " If the
relation thus established in the morning twilight of man's
existence between the human soul and a world invisible and
immaterial is a relation of which only the subjective term is
real and the objective term is non-existent; then I say it is
something utterly without precedent in the whole history of
creation " (Through Nature to God, 1899, p. 188, 189). Whatever
may have been Hegel's own belief in regard to personal im-
mortality, the logical issue of his absolute idealism has been
well stated by W. Windelband (History of Philosophy, p. 633).
" It became clear that in the system of perpetual Becoming
and of the dialectical passing over of all forms into one another,
the finite personality could scarcely raise a plausible claim to
the character of a substance and to immortality in the religious
sense." F. D. Schleiermacher applies the phrase " the immortality
of religion " to the religious emotion of oneness, amid finitude,
with the infinite and, amid time, with the eternal; denies any
necessary connexion between the belief in the continuance of
personal existence and the consciousness of God; and rests his
faith on immortality altogether on Christ's promise of living
fellowship with His followers, as presupposing their as well as
His personal immortality. A. Schopenhauer assigns immortality
to the universal will to live; and Feuerbach declares spirit,
consciousness eternal, but not any individual subject. R. H.
Lotze for the decision of the question lays down the broad
principle, " All that has once come to be will eternally continue
so soon as for the organic unity of the world it has an unchange-
able value, but it will obviously again cease to be, when that is
not the case " (Gr. der Psy. p. 74).
Objections to the belief in immortality have been advanced
from the standpoints of materialism, naturalism, pessimism
and pantheism. Materialism argues that, as life depends on a
material organism, thought is a function of the brain, and the
soul is but the sum of mental states, to which, according to the
theory of psychophysical parallelism, physical changes always
correspond; therefore, the dissolution of the body carries with
it necessarily the cessation of consciousness. That, as now
constituted, mind does depend on brain, life on body, must
be conceded, but that this dependence is so absolute that the
function must cease with the organ has not been scientifically
demonstrated; the connexion of the soul with the body is as
yet too obscure to justify any such dogmatism. But against
this inference the following considerations may be advanced:
(i) Man does distinguish himself from his body; (2) heis conscious
of his personal identity through all the changes of his body;
(3) in the exercise of his will he knows himself not controlled
by but controlling his body; (4) his consciousness warrants
his denying the absolute identification of himself and his body.
It may further be added that materialism can be shown to be
an inadequate philosophy in its attempts to account even for
the physical universe, for this is inexplicable without the assump-
tion of mind distinct from, and directive of, matter. The theory
of psychophysical parallelism has been subjected to a rigorous
examination in James Ward's Naturalism and Agnosticism,
part iii., in which the argument that mind cannot be derived
from matter is convincingly presented. Sir Oliver Lodge in
his reply to E. Haeckel's Riddle of the Universe maintains that
" life may be something not only ultra-terrestrial, but even
immaterial, something outside our present categories of matter
and energy; as real as they are, but different, and utilizing them
for its own purpose " (Life and Matter, 1906, p. 198). He rejects
the attempt to explain human personality as " generated by
338
IMMORTALITY
the material molecular aggregate of its own unaided latent power,"
and affirms that the " universe where the human spirit is more
at home than it is among these temporary collocations of matter"
is " a universe capable of infinite development, of noble contem-
plation, and of lofty joy, long after this planet — nay the whole
solar system — shall have fulfilled its present spire of destiny,
and retired cold and lifeless upon its endless way " (pp. 199-200).
In his lecture on Human Immortality (3rd ed., 1906), Professor
William James deals with " two supposed objections to the
doctrine." The first is " the law that thought is a function of the
brain." Accepting the law he distinguishes productive from
permissive or transmissive function (p. 32), and, rejecting the view
that brain produces thought, he recognizes that in our present
condition brain transmits thought, thought needs brain for its
organ of expression; but this does not exclude the possibility
of a condition in which thought will be no longer so dependent
on brain. He quotes (p. 57) with approval Kant's words, "The
death of the body may indeed be the end of the sensational
use of our mind, but only the beginning of the intellectual use.
The body would thus be not the cause of our thinking, but merely
a condition restrictive thereof, and, although essential to our
sensuous and animal consciousness, it may be regarded as an
impeder of our pure spiritual life " (Krilik der reinen Vernwift,
2nd ed., p. 809).
Further arguments in the same direction are derived from the
modern school of psychical research (see especially F. W. H.
Myers' Human Personality, 1903).
Another objection is advanced from the standpoint of
naturalism, which, whether it issues in materialism or not,
seeks to explain man as but a product of the process of nature.
The universe is so immeasurably vast in extension and duration,
and man is so small, his home but a speck in space, and his
history a span in time that it seems an arrogant assumption for
him to claim exemption from the universal law of evolution and
dissolution. This view ignores that man has ideals of absolute
value, truth, beauty, goodness, that he consciously communes
with the God who is in all, and through all, and over all, that it
is his mind which recognizes the vastness of the universe and
thinks its universal law, and that the mind which perceives
and conceives cannot be less, but must be greater than the object
of its knowledge and thought.
Pessimism suggests a third objection. The present life is so
little worth living that its continuance is not to be desired.
James Thomson (" B.V.") speaks " of the restful rapture of
the inviolate grave," and sings the praises of death and of
oblivion. We cannot admit that the history of mankind justifies
his conclusion; for the great majority of men life is a good, and
its continuance an object of hope.
For pantheism personal immortality appears a lesser good
than reabsorption in the universal life; but against this objec-
tion we may confidently maintain that worthier of God and more
blessed for man is the hope of a conscious communion in an
eternal life of the Father of all with His whole family.
Lastly positivism teaches a corporate instead of an individual
immortality; man should desire to live on as a beneficent
influence in the race. This conception is expressed in George
Eliot's lines:
"O, may I join the choir invisible
Of those immortal dead who live again
In minds made better by their presence : live
In pulses stirred to generosity,
In deeds of daring rectitude, in scorn
For miserable aims that end with self,
In thoughts sublime that pierce the night like stars,
And with their mild persistence urge man's search
To vaster issues."
But these possibilities are not mutually exclusive alternatives.
A man may live on in the world by his teaching and example
as a power for good, a factor of human progress, and he may
also be continuing and completing his course under conditions
still more favourable to all most worthy in him. Consciously
to participate as a person in the progress of the race is surely
a worthier hope than unconsciously to contribute to it as an
influence; ultimately to share the triumph as well as the struggle
is a more inspiring anticipation.
In stating constructively the doctrine of immortality we must
assign altogether secondary importance to the metaphysical
arguments from the nature of the soul. It is sufficient to show,
as has already been done, that the soul is not so absolutely
dependent on the body, that the dissolution of the one must
necessarily involve the cessation of the other. Such arguments
as the indivisibility of the soul and its persistence can at most
indicate the possibility of immortality.
The juridical argument has some force; the present life does
not show that harmony of condition and character which our
sense of justice leads us to expect; the wicked prosper and the
righteous suffer; there is ground for the expectation that in the
future life the anomalies of this life will be corrected. Although
this argument has the support of such great names as Butler
and Kant, yet it will repel many minds as ah appeal to the motive
of self-interest.
The ethical argument has greater value. Man's life here is
incomplete, and the more lofty his aims, the more worthy his
labours, the moi'e incomplete will it appear to be. The man
who lives for fame, wealth, power, may be satisfied in this life;
but he who lives for the ideals of truth, beauty, goodness, lives
not for time but for eternity, -for his ideals cannot be realized,
and so his life fulfilled on this side of the grave. Unless these
ideals are mocking visions, man has a right to expect the con-
tinuance of his life for its completion. This is the line of argument
developed by Professor Hugo Miinsterberg in his lecture on The
Eternal Life (1905), although he states it in the terms peculiar
to his psychology, in which personality is conceived as primarily
will. " No endless duration is our goal, but complete repose
in the perfect satisfaction which the will finds when it has reached
the significance, the influence, and the value at which it is
aiming " (p. 83).
More general in its appeal still is the argument from the
affections, which has been beautifully developed in Tennyson's
In Memoriam. The heart protests against the severance of death,
and claims the continuance of love's communion after death;
and as man feels that love is what is most godlike in his nature,
love's claim has supreme authority.
There is a religious argument for immortality. The saints of
the Hebrew nation were sure that as God had entered into fellow-
ship with them, death could not sever them from his presence.
This is the argument in Psalms xvi. and xvii., if, as is probable,
the closing verses do express the hope of a glorious and blessed
immortality. This too is the proof Jesus himself offers when he
declares God to be the God of the living and not of the dead
(Matt. xxii. 32). God's companions cannot become death's
victims.
Josiah Royce in his lecture on The Conception of Immortality
(1900) combines this argument of the soul's union with God
with the argument of the incompleteness of man's life here: —
" Just because God is One, all our lives have various and unique
places in the harmony of the divine life. And just because God
attains and wins and finds this uniqueness, all our lives win in our
union with Him the individuality which is essential to their true
meaning. And just because individuals whose lives have uniqueness
of meaning are here only objects of pursuit, the attainment of this
very individuality, since it is indeed real, occurs not in our present
form of consciousness, but in a life that now we see not, yet in a
life whose genuine meaning is continuous with our own human life,
however far from our present flickering form of disappointed human
consciousness that life of the final individuality may be. Of this
our true individual life, our present life is a glimpse, a fragment, a
hint, and in its best moments a visible beginning. That this in-
dividual life of all of us is not something limited in its temporal
expression to the life that now we experience, follows from the very
fact that here nothing final or individual is found expressed
(pp. 144-146).
R. W. Emerson declares that " the impulse to seek proof of
immortality is itself the strongest proof of all." We expect
immortality not merely because we desire it; but because the
desire itself arises from all that is best and truest and worthiest in
ourselves. The desire is reasonable, moral, social, religious; it has
the same worth as the loftiest ideals, and worthiest aspirations
IMMUNITY— IMOLA
339
of the soul of man. The loss of the belief casts a dark shadow
over the present life. " No sooner do we try to get rid of
the idea of Immortality — than Pessimism raises its head . . .
Human griefs seem little worth assuaging; human happiness
too paltry (at the best) to be worth increasing. The whole
moral world is reduced to a point. Good and evil, right and
wrong, become infinitesimal, ephemeral matters. The affections
die away — die of their own conscious feebleness and uselessness.
A moral paralysis creeps over us " (Natural Religion, Post-
script). The belief exercises a potent moral influence. " The
day," says Ernest Renan, " in which the belief in an after-life
shall vanish from the earth will witness a terrific moral and
spiritual decadence. Some of us perhaps might do without
it, provided only that others held it fast. But there is no lever
capable of raising an entire people if once they have lost their
faith in the immortality of the soul " (quoted by A. W. Momerie,
Immortality, p. 9). To this belief, many and good as are the
arguments which can be advanced for it, a confident certainty
is given by Christian faith in the Risen Lord, and the life and
immortality which he has brought to light in his Gospel.
In addition to the works referred to above, see R. K. Gaye,
The Platonic Conception of Immortality and its Connexion with the
Theory of Ideas (1904) ; R. H. Charles, A Critical History of the
Doctrine of a Future Life in Israel, in Judaism and in Christianity
(1899) ; E. Pe'tavel, The Problem of Immortality (Eng. trans, by F. A.
Freer, 1892); J. Fiske, The Destiny of Man, viewed in the Light of
his Origin (1884); G. A. Gordon, Immortality and the New Theodicy
(1897) ; Henry Buckle, The After Life (1907). (A. E. G.*)
IMMUNITY (from Lat. immunis, not subject to a munus or
public service), a general term for exemption from liability,
principally used in the legal sense discussed below, but also in
recent times in pathology (for which see BACTERIOLOGY). In
international law the term ("not serving," "not subject")
implies exemption from the jurisdiction of the state which
otherwise exercises jurisdiction where the immunity arises.
It is thus applied to the exceptional position granted to sovereigns
and chiefs of states generally, and their direct representatives
in the states to which they are accredited.
Under EXTERRITORIALITY is treated the inviolability of
embassies and legations and the application of the material
side of the doctrine of immunity. As a right appertaining to
the persons of those who enjoy it, the doctrine has grown out
of the necessity for sovereigns of respecting each other's persons
in their common interest. To be able to negotiate without
danger of arrest or interference of any kind with their persons
was the only condition upon which sovereigns would have been
able to meet and discuss their joint interests. With the develop-
ment of states as independent entities and of intercourse between
them and their " nationals," the work of diplomatic missions
increased to such an extent that instead of having merely
occasional ambassadors as at the beginning, states found it
expedient to have resident representatives with a permanent
residence. Hence the sovereign's inviolability becomes vested
in the person of the sovereign's delegate, and with it as a necessary
corollary the exterritoriality of his residence. Out of the further
expansion of the work of diplomatic missions came duplication
of the personnel and classes of diplomatic secretaries, who as
forming part of the embassy or legation also had to be covered
by the diplomatic immunity.
In no branch of international intercourse have states shown
so laudable a respect for tradition as in the case of this immunity,
and this in spite of the hardship which frequently arises for
private citizens through unavoidable dealings with members
of embassies and legations. The Institute of International Law
(see PEACE) at their Cambridge session in 1895 drew up the
following rules,1 which may be taken to be the only precise
statement of theory on the subject, for the guidance of foreign
offices in dealing with it:—
ART. i. — Public ministers are inviolable. They also enjoy
" exterritoriality," in the sense and to the extent hereinafter
mentioned and a certain number of immunities.
ART. 2. — The privilege of inviolability extends: (l) To all classes
1 The rules were drawn up in French. The author of this article
is responsible for the translation of them.
of public ministers who regularly represent their sovereign or their
country; (2) To all persons forming part of the official staff of a
diplomatic mission; (3) To all persons forming part of its non-
official staff, under reserve, that if they belong to the country where
the mission resides they only enjoy it within the official residence.
ART. 3. — The government to which the minister is accredited
must abstain from all offence, insult or violence against the persons
entitled to the privilege, must set an example in the respect which
is due to them and protect them by specially rigorous penalties
from all offence, insult or violence on the part of the inhabitants of
the country, so that they may devote themselves to their duties in
perfect freedom.
ART. 4. — Immunity applies to everything necessary for the
fulfilment by ministers of their duties, especially to personal effects,
papers, archives and correspondence.
ART. 5. — It lasts during the whole time which the minister or
diplomatic official spends, in his official capacity, in the country
to which he has been sent.
It continues even in time of war between the two powers during
the period necessary to enable the minister to leave the country
with his staff and effects.
ART. 6. — Inviolability cannot be claimed : (l) In case of legitimate
defence on the part of private persons against acts committed by
the persons who enjoy the privilege; (2) In case of risks incurred
by any of the persons in question voluntarily or needlessly; (3) In
case of improper acts committed by them, provoking on the part
of the state to which the minister is accredited measures of defence
or precaution; but, except in a case of extreme urgency, this state
should confine itself to reporting the facts to the minister's govern-
ment, requesting the punishment or the recall of the guilty agent
and, if necessary, to surrounding the official residence to prevent
unlawful communications or manifestations.
Immunity with Respect to Taxes.
ART. II. — A public minister in a foreign country, functionaries
officially attached to his mission and the members of their families
residing with them, are exempt from paying: (l) Personal direct
taxes and sumptuary taxes; (2) General taxes on property, whether
on capital or income; (3) War contributions; (4) Customs duties
in respect of articles for their personal use.
Each government shall indicate the grounds (justifications) to
which these exemptions from taxation shall be subordinated.
Immunity from Jurisdiction.
ART. 12. — A public minister in a foreign country, functionaries
officially attached to his mission and the members of their families
residing with them, are exempt from all jurisdiction, civil or criminal,
of the state to which they are accredited; in principle, they are
only subject to the civil and criminal jurisdiction of their own
country. A claimant may apply to the courts of the capital of the
country of the minister, subject to the right of the minister to
prove that he has a different domicile in his country.
ART. 13. — With respect to crimes, persons indicated in the pre-
ceding article remain subject to the penal laws of their own country,
as if they had committed the acts in their own country.
ART. 14. — The immunity attaches to the function in respect of
acts connected with the function. As regards acts done not in
connexion with the function, immunity can only be claimed so long
as the function lasts.
ART. 15. — Persons of the nationality of the country to the
government of which they are accredited cannot claim the privilege
of immunity.
ART. 16. — Immunity from jurisdiction cannot be invoked: (i)
In case of proceedings taken by reason of engagements entered
into by the exempt person, not in his official or private capacity,
but in the exercise of a profession carried on by him in the country
concurrently with his diplomatic functions; (2) In respect of real
actions, including possessory actions, relating to anything movable
or immovable in the country.
It exists even in case of a breach of the law which may endanger
public order or safety, or of crime against the safety of the state,
without prejudice to such steps as the territorial government may
take for its own protection.
ART. 17. — Persons entitled to immunity from jurisdiction may
refuse to appear as witnesses before a territorial court on condition
that, if required by diplomatic intervention, they shall give their
testimony in the official residence to a magistrate of the country
appointed for the purpose.
Further questions connected with Immunity and Exterri-
toriality (q.v.) arise out of the different industrial enterprises
undertaken by states, such as posts, telegraphs, telephones,
railways, steamships, &c., which require regulation to prevent
conflicts of interest between the state owners and the private
interests involved in these enterprises. (T. BA.)
IMOLA (anc. Forum Cornelii), a town and episcopal see of
Emilia, Italy, in the province of Bologna, from which it is 21 m.
S.E. by rail, 140 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 12,058 (town);
33,144 (commune). The cathedral of S. Cassiano has been
340
IMP— IMPEACHMENT
modernized; it possesses interesting reliquaries, and contains
the tomb of Petrus Chrysologus, archbishop of Ravenna (d. 451),
a native of Imola. S. Domenico has a fine Gothic portal and
S. Maria in Regola an old campanile. The town also contains
some fine palaces. The communal library has some MSS.,
including a psalter with miniatures, that once belonged to Sir
Thomas More. The citadel is square with round towers at the
angles; it dates from 1304, and is now used as a prison. Imola
has a large lunatic asylum with over 1 200 inmates. Innocenzo
Francucci (Innocenzo da Imola), a painter of the Bolognese
school (1494-1549), was a native of Imola, and two of his works
are preserved in the Palazzo del Comune. The Madonna del
Piratello, 2 m. outside the town to the N.W., is in the early
Renaissance style -(1488); the campanile was probably built
from Bramante's plans in 1506.
The ancient Forum Cornelii, a station on the Via Aemilia,
is said by Prudentius, writing in the sth century A.D., to have
been founded by Sulla; but the fact that it belonged to the
Tribus Pallia shows that it already possessed Roman citizenship
before the Social war. In later times we hear little of it ; Martial
published his third book of epigrams while he was there. In the
Lombard period the name Imolas begins to appear. In 1480,
after a chequered history, the town came into the possession
of Girolamo Riario, lord 'of Forli, as the dowry of his wife Caterina
Sforza, and was incorporated with the States of the Church by
Caesar Borgia in 1500.
IMP (0. Eng. impa, a graft, shoot; the verb impian is cognate
with Ger. impfen, to graft, inoculate, and the Fr. enter; the
ultimate origin is probably the Gr. tfi<j>veiv, to implant, cf.
efitpvros, engrafted), originally a slip or shoot of a plant or tree
used for grafting. This use is seen in Chaucer (Prologue to the
Monk's Tale, 68) " Of fieble trees ther comen wrecched ympes."
The verb " to imp " in the sense of " to graft " was especially
used of the grafting of feathers on to the wing of a falcon or hawk
to replace broken or damaged plumage, and is frequently used
metaphorically. Like " scion," " imp " was till the i7th century
used of a member of a family, especially of high rank, hence
often used as equivalent to " child." The New English Dictionary
quotes an epitaph (1584) in the Beauchamp chapel at Warwick,
" Heere resteth the body of the noble Impe Robert of Dudley
. . . sonne of Robert Erie of Leycester." The current use of
the word for a small devil or mischievous sprite is due to the
expressions " imp of Satan, or of the devil or of hell," in the
sense of " child of evil." It was thus particularly applied to the
demons supposed to be the " familiar " spirits of witches.
IMPATIENS, in botany, a genus of annual or biennial herbs,
sometimes becoming shrubby, chiefly natives of the mountains
of tropical Asia and Africa, but also found widely distributed
in the north temperate zone and in South Africa. The flowers,
which are purple, yellow, pink or white and often showy, are
spurred and irregular in form and borne in the leaf-axils. The
name is derived from the fact that the seed-pod when ripe
discharges the seeds by the elastic separation and coiling of the
valves. Impatiens Noli-me-tangere, touch-me-not, an annual
succulent herb with yellow flowers, is probably wild in moist
mountainous districts in north Wales, Lancashire and West-
morland. I. Roylei, a tall hardy succulent annual with rose-
purple flowers, a Himalayan species, is common in England as a
self-sown garden plant or garden escape. I. Balsamina, the
common balsam of gardens, a well-known annual, is a native
of India; it is one of the showiest of summer and autumn flowers
and of comparatively easy cultivation. /. Sultani, a handsome
plant, with scarlet flowers, a native of Zanzibar, is easily grown
in a greenhouse throughout the summer, but requires warmth
in winter.
IMPEACHMENT (O. Fr. empechement, empeschement, from
empecher or empescher, to hinder, LateLat. impedicare, to entangle,
pedica, fetter, pes, foot), the English form of judicial parliamentary
procedure against criminals, in which the House of Commons
are the prosecutors and the House of Lords the judges. It.
differs from bills of attainder (q.v.) in being strictly judicial.
When the House of Commons has accepted a motion for impeach-
ment, the mover is ordered to proceed to the bar of the House
of Lords, and there impeach the accused " in the name of the
House of Commons, and of all the Commons of the United
Kingdom." The charges are formulated in articles, to each of
which the accused may deliver a written answer. The prosecution
must confine itself to the charges contained in the articles, though
further articles may be adhibited from time to time. The
Commons appoint managers to conduct the prosecution, but
the whole House in committee attends the trial. The defendant
may appear by counsel. The president of the House of Lords
is the lord high steward, in the case of peers impeached for high
treason; in other cases the lord chancellor. The hearing take?
place as in an ordinary trial, the defence being allowed to call
witnesses if necessary, and the prosecution having a right of
reply. At the end of the case the president " puts to each peer,
beginning with the junior baron, the questions upon the first
article, whether the accused be guilty of the crimes charged
therein. Each peer in succession rises in his place when the
question is put, and standing uncovered, and laying his right
hand upon his breast, answers, ' Guilty ' or ' Not guilty,' as the
case may be, ' upon my honour.' Each article is proceeded
with separately in the same manner, the lord high steward
giving his own opinion the last " (May's Parliamentary Practice,
c. xxiii.). Should the accused be found guilty, judgment follows
if the Commons move for it, but not otherwise. The Commons
thus retain the power of pardon in their own hands, and this
right they have in several cases expressly claimed by resolution,
declaring that it is not parliamentary for their lordships to give
judgment " until the same be first demanded by this House."
Spiritual peers occupy an anomalous position in the trial of
peers, as not being themselves ennobled in blood; on the im-
peachment of Danby it was declared by the Lords that Spiritual
peers have the right to stay and sit during proceedings for
impeachment, but it is customary for them to withdraw before
judgment is given, entering a protest " saving to themselves
and their successors all such rights in judicature as they have
by law, and by right ought to have." An impeachment, unlike
other parliamentary proceedings, is not interrupted by proroga-
tion, nor even by dissolution. Proceedings in the House of
Commons preliminary to an impeachment are subject to the
ordinary rules, and in the Warren Hastings case an act was passed
to prevent the preliminary proceedings from discontinuance by
prorogation and dissolution. A royal pardon cannot be pleaded
in bar of an impeachment, though it is within the royal prerogative
to pardon after the lords have pronounced judgment. The point
was raised in the case of the earl of Danby in 1679, and the rule
was finally settled by the Act of Settlement. Persons found
guilty on impeachment may be reprieved or pardoned like other
convicts. Impeachment will lie against all kinds of crimes and
misdemeanours, and against offenders of all ranks. In the case
of Simon de Beresford, tried before the House of Lords in 1330,
the House declared " that the judgment be not drawn into
example or consequence in time to come, whereby the said peers
may be charged hereafter to judge others than their peers,"
from which Blackstone andothershaveinferred that " a commoner
cannot be impeached before the Lords for any capital offence,
but only for high misdemeanours." In the case of Edward
Fitzharris in 1681, the House of Commons in answer to a resolu-
tion of the Lords suspending the impeachment, declared it to
be their undoubted right " to impeach any peer or commoner
for treason or any other crime or misdemeanour." And the
House of Lords has in practice recognized the right of the
Commons to impeach whomsoever they will. The procedure
has, however, been reserved for great political offenders whom
the ordinary powers of the law might fail to reach. It has now
fallen into desuetude. The last impeachments were those of
Warren Hastings (1788-1795) and Lord Melville (1806), but an
unsuccessful attempt was made by Thomas C. Anstey to impeach
Lord Palmerston in 1848. The earliest recorded instances of
impeachment are those of Lord Latimer in 1376 and of Pole,
earl of Suffolk, in 1386. From the time of Edward IV. to
Elizabeth it fell into disuse, " partly," says Hallam, " from the loss
IMPERIAL CHAMBER
of that control which the Commons had obtained under Richard
II. and the Lancastrian kings, and partly from the preference
the Tudor princes had given to bills of attainder or pains and
penalties when they wished to turn the arm of parliament against
an obnoxious subject." Revived in the reign of James I., it
became an instrument of parliamentary resistance to the crown,
and it was not unfrequently resorted to in the first three reigns
after the Revolution.
In the United States the procedure of impeachment both in
the national and in almost all of the state governments is very
similar to that described above. The national constitution
prescribes that the House of Representatives " shall have the
sole power of impeachment " and that " the Senate shall have
the sole power to try all impeachments." The House appoints
managers to conduct the prosecution at the bar of the Senate, and
the vote of the Senate is taken by putting the question separately
to each member, who, during the trial, must be on oath or affirma-
tion. In ordinary cases the president or president pro tempore of
the Senate presides, but when the president of the United States
is on trial the presiding officer must be the chief justice of the
United States Supreme Court. A two-thirds vote is necessary for
conviction. The president, vice-president or any civil officer of
the United States may be impeached for " treason, bribery or
other high crimes and misdemeanours," and if convicted, is re-
moved from office and may be disqualified for holding any office
under the government in future. The officer after removal is also
" liable and subject to indictment, trial, judgment and punish-
ment, according to law." The term " civil officeis of the United
States " has been construed as being inapplicable to members of
the Senate and the House of Representatives. The president's
pardoning power does not extend to officers convicted, on im-
peachment, of offences against the United States. Since the
organization of the Federal government there have been only
eight impeachment trials before the United States Senate, and of
these only two — the trials of Judge John Pickering, a Federal
District judge for the District of New Hampshire, in 1803, on a
charge of making decisions contrary to law and of drunkenness
and profanity on the bench, and of Judge W. H. Humphreys,
Judge of the Federal District Court of Tennessee, in 1863, on a
charge of making a secession speech and of accepting a judicial
position under the Confederate Government — resulted in convic-
tions. The two most famous cases are those of Justice Samuel
Chase of the United States Supreme Court in 1805, and of Presi-
dent Andrew Johnson, the only chief of the executive who has
been impeached, in 1868. There is a conflict of opinion with re-
gard to the power of the House to impeach a Federal officer who
has resigned his office, and also with regard to the kind of offences
for which an officer can be impeached, some authorities maintain-
ing that only indictable offences warrant impeachment, and others
that impeachment is warranted by any act highly prejudicial
to the public welfare or subversive of any essential principle
of government. The latter view was adopted by the House of
Representatives when it impeached President Johnson.
IMPERIAL CHAMBER (Reichskammergericht), the supreme
judicial court of the Holy Roman Empire, during the period
between 1495 and the dissolution of the Empire in 1806. From
the early middle ages there had been a supreme court of justice
for the Empire — the Hofgericht (or curia imperatoris, asitwere),
in which the emperor himself presided. By his side sat a body
of assessors ( Urtheilsfinder) ,whomustbeat least seven in number,
and who might, in solemn cases, be far more numerous,1 the
assessors who acted varying from time to time and from case
to case. The Hofgericht was connected with the person of the
emperor; it ceased to act when he was abroad; it died with
his death. Upon him it depended for its efficiency; and when,
in the i5th century, the emperor ceased to command respect,
his court lost the confidence of his subjects. The dreary reign
of Frederick III. administered its deathblow and after 1450
it ceased to sit. Its place was taken by the Kammergericht,
1 For instance, all the members of the diet might serve as Urtheils-
finder in a case like the condemnation of Henry tne Lion, duke of
Saxony, in the I2th century.
which appeared side by side with the Hofgericht from 1415, and
after 1450 replaced it altogether. The king (or his deputy)
still presided in the Kammergericht and it was still his personal
court; but the members of the court were now officials — the
consiliarii of the imperial aula (or Rammer, whence the name
of the court). It was generally the legal members of the council
who sat in the Kammergericht (see under AULIC COUNCIL);
and as they were generally doctors of civil law, the court which
they composed tended to act according to that law, and thus
contributed to the " Reception " of Roman law into Germany
towards the end of the isth century. The old Hofgericht had
been filled, as it were, by amateurs (provided they knew some
law, and were peers of the person under trial), and it had acted
by old customary law; the Kammergericht, on the contraiy, was
composed of lawyers, and it acted by the written law of Rome.
Even the Kammergericht, however, fell into disuse in the later
years of the reign of Frederick III.; and the creation of a new
and efficient court became a matter of pressing necessity, and
was one of the most urgent of the reforms which were mooted
in the reign of Maximilian I.
This new court was eventually created in 1495; and it bore
the name of Reichskammergericht, or Imperial Chamber. It
was distinguished from the old Kammergericht by the essential
fact that it was not the personal court of the emperor, but the
official court of the Empire (or Reich — whence its name). This
change was a natural result of the peculiar character of the move-
ment of reform which was at this time attempted by the electors,
under the guidance of Bertold, elector of Mainz. Their aim
was to substitute for the old and personal council and court
appointed and controlled by the 'emperor a new and official
council, and a new and official court, appointed and controlled
by the diet (or rather, in the ultimate resort, by the electors).
The members of the Imperial Chamber, which was created by
the diet in 1495 in order to serve as such a court,2 were therefore
the agents of the Empire, and not of the emperor. The emperor
appointed the president; the Empire nominated the assessors,
or judges.3 There were originally sixteen assessors (afterwards,
as a rule, eighteen) : half of these were to be doctors of Roman
law, -/while half were to be knights; but after 1555 it became
necessary that the latter should be learned in Roman law,
even if they had not actually taken their doctorate.
Thus the Empire at last was possessed of a court, a court
resting on the enactment of the diet, and not on the emperor's
will; a court paid by the Empire, and not by the emperor;
a court resident in a fixed place (until 1693, Spires, and after-
wards, from 1693 to 1806, Wetzlar), and not attached to the
emperor's person. The original intention of the court was that
it should repress private war (Fehde), and maintain the public
peace (Landfriede) . The great result which in the issue it served
to achieve was the final " Reception " of Roman law as the
common law of Germany. That the Imperial Chamber should
itself administer Roman law was an inevitable result of its com-
position; and it was equally inevitable that the composition
and procedure of the supreme imperial court should be imitated
in the various states which composed the Empire, and that
Roman law should thus become the local, as it was already
the central, law of the land.
The province of the Imperial Chamber, as it came to be
gradually defined by statute and use, extended to breaches of
the public peace, cases of arbitrary distraint or imprisonment,
pleas which concerned the treasury, violations of the emperor's
decrees or the laws passed by the diet, disputes about property
between immediate tenants of the Empire or the subjects of
different rulers, and finally suits against immediate tenants of
the Empire (with the exception of criminal charges and matters
relating to imperial fiefs, which went to the Aulic Council). It
2 The attempt to create a new and official council ultimately
failed.
3 More exactly, the emperor nominates, according to the regular
usage of later times, a certain number of members, partly as emperor,
and partly as the sovereign of his hereditary estates; while the
rest, who form the majority, are nominated partly by the electors
and partly by the six ancient circles.
342
IMPERIAL CITIES OR TOWNS— IMPEY
had also cognizance in cases of refusal to do justice; and it acted
as a court of appeal from territorial courts in civil and, to a small
extent, in criminal cases, though it lost its competence as a court
of appeal in all territories which enjoyed a privilegium de nan
appellando (such as, e.g. the territories of the electors). The
business of the court was, however, badly done; the delay was
interminable, thanks, in large measure, to the want of funds,
which prevented the maintenance of the proper number of judges.
In all its business it suffered from the competition of the Aulic
Council (q.v); for that body, having lost all executive com-
petence after the i6th century, had also devoted itself exclusively
to judicial work. Composed of the personal advisers of the
emperor, the Aulic Council did justice on his behalf (the erection
of a court to do justice for the Empire having left the emperor
still possessed of the right to do justice for himself through
his consiliarii) ; and it may thus be said to be the descendant
of the old Kammergericht. The competition between the Aulic
Council and the Imperial Chamber was finally regulated by
the treaty of Westphalia, which laid it down that the court
which first dealt with a case should alone have competence to
pursue it.
See R. Schroder, Lehrbuch der deutschen Rechtsgeschichte (Leipzig,
1904); J. N. Harpprecht, Staatsarchiv des Reichskammergerichts
(1757-1785); and G. Stobbe, Reichshofgericht und Reichskammer-
gericht (Leipzig, 1878). (E. BR.)
IMPERIAL CITIES OR TOWNS, the usual English translation
of Reichsstiidte, an expression of frequent occurrence in German
history. These were cities and towns subject to no authority
except that of the emperor, or German king, in other words
they were immediate; the earliest of them stood on the demesne
land of their sovereign, and they often grew up around his
palaces. A distinction was thus made between a Reichsstadt
and a Landstadt, the latter being dependent upon some prince,
not upon the emperor direct. The term Freie Reichsstadt, which
is sometimes used in the same sense as Reichsstadt, is rightly
only applicable to seven cities, Basel, Strassburg, Spires, Worms,
Mainz, Cologne and Regensburg. Having freed themselves
from the domination of their ecclesiastical lords these called
themselves Freistiidte and in practice their position was in-
distinguishable from that of the Reichsstadte.
In the middle ages many other places won the coveted position
of a Reichsstadt. Some gained it by gift and others by purchase ;
some won it by force of arms, others usurped it during times
of anarchy, while a number secured it through the extinction
of dominant families, like the Hohenstaufen. There were many
more free towns in southern than in northern Germany, but
their number was continually fluctuating, for their liberties
were lost much more quickly than they were gained. Mainz
was conquered and subjected to the archbishop in 1462. Some
free towns fell into the hands of various princes of the Empire
and others placed themselves voluntarily under such protection.
Some, like Donauworth in 1607, were deprived of their privileges
by the emperor on account of real, or supposed, offences, while
others were separated from the Empire by conquest. In
1648 Besanjon passed into the possession of Spain, Basel
had already thrown in its lot with the Swiss confederation,
while Strassburg, Colmar, Hagenau and others were seized by
Louis XIV.
Meanwhile the free towns had been winning valuable privileges
in addition to those which they already possessed, and the
wealthier among them, like Ltibeck and Augsburg, were practi-
cally imperia in imperio, waging war and making peace, and
ruling their people without any outside interference. But they
had also learned that union is strength. They formed alliances
among themselves, both for offence and for defence, and these
Stadtebiinde had an important influence on the course of German
history in the i4th and isth centuries. These leagues were
frequently at war with the ecclesiastical and secular potentates
of their district and in general they were quite able to hold their
own in these quarrels. The right of the free towns to be repre-
sented in the imperial diet was formally recognized in 1489, and
about the same time they divided themselves into two groups,
or benches, the Rhenish and the Swabian. By the peace of
Westphalia in 1648 they were formally constituted as the third
college of the diet. A list drawn up in 1422 mentions 75 free
cities, another drawn up in 1521 mentions 84, but at the time
of the French Revolution the number had decreased to 51. At
this time the Rhenish free cities were: Cologne, Aix-la-Chapelle,
Liibeck, Worms, Spires, Frankfort-on-the-Main, Goslar, Bremen,
Hamburg, Miihlhausen, Nordhausen, Dortmund, Friedberg and
Wetzlar. The Swabian free cities were: Regensburg, Augsburg,
Nuremberg, Ulm, Esslingen, Reutlingen, Nordlingen, Rothen-
burg-on-the-Tauber, Schwabisch-Hall, Rottweil, Ueberlingen,
Heilbronn, Memmingen, Gmtind, Dinkelsbiihl,Lindau,Biberach,
Ravensburg, Schweinfurt, Kempten, Windsheim, Kaufbeuern,
Weil, Wangen, Isny, Pfullendorf , Offenburg, Leutkirch, Wimpfen,
Weissenburg, Giengen, Gengenbach, Zell, Buchorn, Aalen,
Buchau and Bopfingen. But a large proportion of them
had as little claim to their exceptional positions as the pocket
boroughs of Great Britain and Ireland had before the passing of
the Reform Bill of 1832.
By the peace of Luneville in 1801 Cologne, Aix-la-Chapelle,
Worms and Spires were taken by France, and by the decision
of the imperial deputation of 1803 six cities only: Hamburg,
Liibeck, Bremen, Augsburg, Frankfort -on-Main and Nuremberg,
were allowed to keep their Reichsfreiheit, or in other words to
hold directly of the Empire. This number was soon further
reduced. On the dissolution of the Empire in 1806 Augsburg
and Nuremburg passed under the sovereignty of Bavaria, and
Frankfort was made the seat of a duchy for Karl Theodor von
Dalberg, elector and archbishop of Mainz, who was appointed
prince primate of the Confederation of the Rhine. When the
German Confederation was established in 1815 Hamburg,
Liibeck, Bremen and Frankfort were recognized as free cities,
and the first three hold that position in the modern German
empire; but Frankfort, in consequence of the part it took in
the war of 1866, lost its independence and was annexed by
Prussia.
In the earlier years of their existence the free cities were under
the jurisdiction of an imperial officer, who was called the
Reichsvogi or imperial advocate, or sometimes the Reichsschult-
heiss or imperial procurator. As time went on many of the
cities purchased the right of filling these offices with their own
nominees; and in several instances the imperial authority fell
practically into desuetude except when it was stirred into action
by peculiar circumstances. The internal constitution of the
free cities was organized after no common model, although
several of them had a constitution drawn up in imitation of
that of Cologne, which was one of the first to assert its
independence.
For the history of the free cities, see J. J. Moser, Reichsstddlisches
Handbuch (Tubingen, 1732); D. Hanlein, Anmerkungen uber die
Geschichte der Reichsstadte (Ulm, 1775); A. -Wendt, Beschreibung
der kaiserlichen freien Reichsstadte (Leipzig, 1804) ; G. W. Hugo,
Die Mediatisirung der deutschen Reichsstadte (Carlsruhe, 1838); G.
Waitz, Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichle (Kiel, 1844 fol.); G. L. von
Maurer, Geschichte der Stiidteverfassung in Deutschland (Erlangen,
1869-1871); W. Arnold, Verfassungsgeschichte der deutschen
Freistiidte (Gotha, 1854); P. Briilcke, Die Entwickelung der Reichs-
standschaft der Stadte (Hamburg, 1881); A. M. Ehrentraut, Unter-
suchungen uber die Frage der Frei- und Reichsstadte (Leipzig, 1902) ;
and S. Rietschel, Untersuchungenzur Geschichle der deutschen Stadtver-
fassung (Leipzig, 1905). See also the article COMMUNE. (A. W. H.*)
IMPEY, SIR ELIJAH (1732-1809), chief justice of Bengal,
was born on the I3th of June 1732, and educated at West-
minster with Warren Hastings, who was his intimate friend
throughout life. In 1773 he was appointed the first chief justice
of the new supreme court at Calcutta, and in 1775 presided at
the trial of Nuncomar (q.v.) for forgery, with which his name
has been chiefly connected in history. His impeachment was
unsuccessfully attempted in the House of Commons in 1787,
and he is accused by Macaulay of conspiring with Hastings to
commit a judicial murder; but the whole question of the trial
of Nuncomar >as been examined in detail by Sir James Fitzjames
Stephen, who states that " no man ever had, or could have, a
fairer trial than Nuncomar, and Impey in particular behaved
IMPHAL— IMPRESSIONISM
343
with absolute fairness and as much indulgence as was compatible
with his duty."
See E. B. Impey, Sir Elijah Impey (1846) ; and Sir James Stephen,
The Story of Nuncomar and the Impeachment of Sir Elijah Impey
(1885).
IMPHAL, the capital of the state of Manipur (q.v.) in eastern
Bengal and Assam, on the north-cast frontier of India, situated
at the confluence of three rivers. Pop. (1901) 67,903. It is
really only a collection of villages buried amid trees, with a
clearing containing the palace of the raja, the cantonments, and
the houses of the few European residents.
IMPLEMENT (Lat. implementum, a filling up, from implere,
to fill), in ordinary usage, a tool, especially in the plural for the
set of tools necessary for a particular trade or for completing a
particular piece of work (see TOOLS). It is also the most general
term applied to the weapons and tools that remain of those
used by primitive man. The Late Lat. implementum, more
usually in the plural, implemcnta, was used for all the objects
necessary to stock or " fill up " a house, farm, &c.; it was thus
applied to furniture of a house, the vestments and sacred vessels
of a church, and to articles of clothing, &c. The transition to
the necessary outfit of a trade, &c., is easy. In its original
Latin sense of " filling up," the term survives in Scots law,
meaning full performance or " fulfilment " of a contract, agree-
ment, &c. ; " to implement " is thus also used in Scots law for
to carry out, perform.
IMPLUVIUM, the Latin term for the sunk part .of the floor
in the atrium of a Greek or Roman house, which was contrived
to receive the water passing through the compluvium (q.v.) of
the roof. The impluvium was generally in marble and sunk
about a foot below the floor of the atrium.
IMPOSITION (from Lat. imponere, to place or lay unon), in
ecclesiastical usage, the " laying on " of hands by a bishop at
the services of confirmation and ordination as a sign that some
special spiritual gift is conferred, or that the recipient is set apart
for some special service or work. The word is also used of the
levying of a burdensome or unfair tax or duty, and of a penalty,
and hence is applied to a punishment task given to a schoolboy.
From " impose " in the sense of " to pass off " on some one,
imposition means also a trick or deception. In the printing
trade the term is used of the arrangement of pages of type in
the " forme," being one of the stages between composing and
printing.
IMPOST (through the O. Fr. from Lat. impositum, a thing
laid upon another; the modern French is impdi), a tax or tribute,
and particularly a duty levied on imported or exported mer-
chandise (see TAXATION, CUSTOMS DUTIES, EXCISE, &c.). In
architecture, " impost " (in German Kaempfer) is a term applied
in Italian to the doorpost, but in English restricted to the upper
member of the same, from which the arch springs. This may
either be in the same plane as the arch mould or projecting and
forming a plain band or elaborately moulded, in which case the
mouldings are known as impost mouldings. Sometimes the
complete entablature of a smaller order is employed, as in the
case of the Venetian or Palladian window, where the central
opening has an arch resting on the entablature of the pilasters
which flank the smaller window on each side. In Romanesque
and Gothic work the capitals with their abaci take the place of
the impost mouldings.
IMPOTENCE (Lat. impotentia, want of power), the term used
in law for the inability of a husband or wife to have marital
intercourse. In English matrimonial law if impotence exists in
either of the parties to a marriage at the time of its solemnization
the marriage is voidable ab initio. A suit for nullity on the ground
of impotence can only be brought by the party who suffers the
injury. Third persons — however great their interest — cannot
sue for a decree on this ground, nor can a marriage be impeached
after the death of one of the parties. The old rule of the ecclesi-
astical courts was to require a triennial cohabitation between the
parties prior to the institution of the suit, but this has been
practically abrogated (G. \. G., 1871, L.R. 2 P.C.D. 287). In
suits for nullity on the ground of impotence, medical evidence
as to the condition of the parties is necessary and a commission
of two medical inspectors is usually appointed by the registrar
of the court for the purpose of examining the parties; such
cases are heard in camera. In the United States impotence is
a ground for nullity in most states. In Germany it is recognized
as a ground for annulment, but not so in France.
IMPRESSIONISM. The word " Impressionist " has come
to have a more general application in England than in France,
where it took currency as the nickname of a definite group of
painters exhibiting together, and was adopted by themselves
during the conflict of opinion which the novelty of their art
excited. The word therefore belongs to the class of nicknames
or battle-names, like " Romanticist," " Naturalist," " Realist,"
which preceded it, words into which the acuteness of controversy
infuses more of theoretical purport than the work of the artists
denoted suggests to later times. The painters included in such
a " school " differ so much among themselves, and so little
from their predecessors compared with the points of likeness,
that we may well see in these recurring effervescences of official
and popular distaste rather the shock of individual force in the
artist measured against contemporary mediocrity than the
disturbance of a new doctrine. The " Olympia " of Manet,
hooted at the Salon of 1865 as subversive of all tradition, decency
and beauty, strikes the visitor to the Luxembourg rather as the
reversion to a theme of Titian by an artist of ruder vision than
as the demonstration of a revolutionary in painting. Later
developments of the school do appear to us revolutionary.
With this warning in a matter still too near us for final judgment,
we may give some account of the Impressionists proper, and then
turn to the wider significance sometimes given to the name.
The words Impressioniste, Impressionisms, are said to have
arisen from a phrase in the preface to Manet's catalogue of his
pictures exhibited in 1867 during the Exposition Universelle,
from which he was excluded. " It is the effect," he wrote,
" of sincerity to give to a painter's works a character that makes
them resemble a protest, whereas the painter has only thought
of rendering his impression." An alternative origin is a catalogue
in which Claude Monet entitled a picture of sunrise at sea
" Une Impression." The word was probably much used in the
discussions of the group, and was caught up by the critics as
characteristic.1 At (.he earlier date the only meaning of the word
was a claim for individual liberty of subject and treatment.
So far as subject went, most, though not all of Manet's pictures
were modern and actual of his Paris, for his power lay in the
representation of the thing before his eye, and not in fanciful
invention. His simplicity in this respect brought him into
collision with popular prejudice when, in the " Dejeuner sur
1'herbe" (1863), he painted a modern fete champetre. The
actual characters of his painting at this period, so fancifully
reproached and praised, may be grouped under two heads.
(1) The expression of the object by a few carefully chosen values
in flattish patches. Those patches are placed side by side with
little attenuation of their sharp collision. This simplification
of colour and tone recalls by its broad effects of light and sil-
houette on the one hand Velasquez, on the other the extreme
simplification made by the Japanese for the purposes of colour-
printing. Manet, like the other painters of his group, was
influenced by these newly-discovered works of art. The image,
thus treated, has remarkable hardiness and vigour, and also
great decorative breadth. Its vivacity and intensity of aspect
is gained by the sacrifice of many minor gradations, and by the
judgment with which the leading values have been determined.
This matching of values produces, technically, a " solid "
painting, without glazing or elaborate transparency in shadows.
(2) During this period Manet makes constant progress towards
a fair, clear colour. In his early work the patches of blond
colour are relieved against black shadows; later these shadows
clear up, and in place of an indeterminate brown sauce we find
1 Mr H. P. Hain Friswell has pointed out that the word " impres-
sion " occurs frequently in Chevreul's book on colour; but it is also
current among the critics. See Ruskin's chapter on Turner's com-
position—" impression on the mind."
344
IMPRESSIONISM
shadows that are colours. A typical picture of this period is
the " Musique aux Tuileries," refused by the Salon of 1863.
In this we have an actual out-of-doors scene rendered with a
frankness and sharp taste of contemporary life surprising to
contemporaries, with an elision of detail in the treatment of a
crowd and a seizing on the chief colour note and patch that
characterize each figure equally surprising, an effort finally to
render the total high-pitched gaiety of the spectacle as a banquet
of sunlight and colour rather than a collection of separate
dramatic groups.
For life of Edouard Manet (1832-1883) see Edmond Bazire, Manet
(Paris, 1884). An idea of the state of popular feeling may be gained
by reading Zola's eloquent defence in Man Salon, which appeared in
L'&enement (1866) and £douard Manet (1867), both reprinted in
Mes Haines (Paris, i8«o). The same author has embodied many of
the impressionist ideals in Claude Lantier, the fictitious hero of
L'CEuvre. Other writers belonging to Manet's group are Theodore
Duret, author of Les Peintres fran$ais en 1867 and Critique a' avant-
garde, articles and catalogue-prefaces reprinted 1885. See also, for
Manet and others, J. K. Huysman's L'Art moderne (1883) and
Certains. Summaries of the literature of the whole period will be
found in R. Muther, The History of Modern Painting (tr. London,
1896), not always trustworthy in detail, and Miss R. G. Kingsley,
A History of French Art (1899). For an interesting critical account
see W. C. Brownell, French Art (1892).
The second period, to which the name is sometimes limited,
is complicated by the emergence of new figures, and it is difficult
as yet, and perhaps will always remain difficult, to say how
much of originality belongs to each artist in the group. The
main features are an in tenser study of illumination, a greater
variety of illuminations, and a revolution in facture with a view
to pressing closer to a high pitch of light. Manet plays his part
in this development, but we shall not be wrong probably in giving
to Claude Monet (b. 1840) the chief role as the instinctive artist of
the period, and to Camille Pissarro (b. 1830) a very large part
as a painter, curious in theory and experiment. Monet at the
early date of 1866 had paipted a picture as daring in its naive
brutality of out-of-door illumination as the " Dejeuner sur
1'herbe." But this picture has the breadth of patch, solidity
and suavity of paste of Manet's practice. During the siege of
Paris (1870-71) Monet and Pissarro were in London, and there
the study of Turner's pictures enlarged their ideas of the pitch
in lighting and range of effect possible in painting, and also
suggested a new handling of colour, by small broken touches
in place of the large flowing touches characteristic of Manet.
This method of painting occupied much of the discussion of the
group that centred round Manet at the Cafe Guerbois, in the
Batignolles quarter (hence called L'£cole de Batignolles). The
ideas were: (i) Abolition of conventional brown tonality. But
all browns, in the fervour of this revolt, went the way of con-
ventional brown, and all ready-made mixtures like the umbers,
ochres, siennas were banished from the palette. Black itself
was condemned. (2) The idea of the spectrum, as exhibiting the
series of " primary " or " pure " colours, directed the reformed
palette. Six colours, besides white, were admitted to represent
the chief hues of the spectrum. (3) These colours were laid on
the canvas with as little previous mixture on the palette as
possible to maintain a maximum of luminosity, and were fused
by touch on the canvas as little as possible, for the same reason.
Hence the " broken " character of the touch in this painting,
and the subordination of delicacies of form and suave continuity
of texture to the one aim of glittering light-and-colour notation.
Justification of these procedures was sought in occasional
features of the practice of E. Delacroix, of Watteau, of J. B.
Chardin, in the hatchings of pastel, the stipple of water-colour.
With the ferment of theory went a parti pris for translating
all effects into the upper registers of tone (cf. Ruskin's chapter
on Turner's practice in Modern Painters), and for emphasizing
the colour of shadows at the expense of their tone. The charac-
teristic work of this period is landscape, as the subject of illumina-
tion strictly observed and followed through the round of the day
and of the seasons. Other pictorial motives were subordinated
to this research of effect, and Monet, with a haystack, group of
poplars, or church front, has demonstrated the variety of lighting
that the day and the season bring to a single scene. Besides
Pissarro, Alfred Sisley (1840-1899) is a member of the group,
and Manet continues his progress, influenced by the new ideas
in pictures like " Le Linge " and " Chez le Pere Lathuille."
Edmond Degas (b. 1834), a severe and learned draughtsman,
is associated with this landscape group by his curiosity in the
expression of momentary action and the effects of artificial
illumination, and by his experiments in broken colour, more
particularly in pastel. The novelty of his matter, taken from
unexplored corners of modern life, still more the daring and
irony of his observation and points of view, and the strangeness
of his composition, strongly influenced by Japanese art, enriched
the associations now gathering about the word " impressionist."
Another name, that of Auguste Renoir (b. 1841), completes
the leading figures of the group. Any " school " programme
would be strained to breaking-point to admit this painter,
unless on the very general grounds of love of bright colour,
sunlit places and independence of vision. He has no science
of drawing or of tone, but wins a precarious charm of colour
and expression.
The landscape, out-of-doors line, which unites in this period with
Manet's line, may be represented by these names: J. B. Corot,
J. B. Jongkind, Boudin, Monet. Monet's real teacher was Eugene
Boudin (1824-1898). (See Gusjave Cahen's Eugene Boudin, Paris,
1900). They, and others of the group, worked together in a painters'
colony at Saint Simeon, near Honfleur. It is usual to date the origin
of plein-air painting, i.e. painting out-of-doors, in an out-of-doors key
of tone, from a picture Manet painted in the garden of de Nittis, just
before the outbreak of war in 1870. This dates only Manet's change
to the lighter-key and looser handling. It was Monet who carried the
practice to a logical extreme, working on his canvas only during the
effect and in its presence. The method of Degas is altogether differ-
ent, viz., a combination in the studio from innumerable notes and
observations. It will be evident from what has been said above that
impressionistic painting is an artistic ferment, corresponding to the
scientific research into the principles of light and colour, just as
earlier movements in painting coincided with the scientific study of
perspective and anatomy. Chevreul's famous book, already referred
to, De la loi du contraste simultane des couleurs (1838), established
certain laws of interaction for colours adjacent to one another.
He still, however, referred the sensations of colour to the three im-
possible " primaries " of Brewster — red, blue and yellow. The
Voung-Helmholtz theory affected the palette of the Impressionists,
and the work of Ogden Rood, Colour (Internat. Scientific Series,
1879-1881), published in English, French and German, furnished the
theorists with formulae measuring the degradation of pitch suffered
by pigments in mixture.
The Impressionist group (with the exception of Manet, who still
fought for his place in the Salon) exhibited together for the first
time as L'Exposition des Impressionistes at Nadar's, Boulevard des
Capucines, in 1874. They were then taken up by the dealer Durand-
Ruel, and the succeeding exhibitions in 1876, 1877, 1879, 1880, 1881,
1882 and 1886 were held by him in various galleries. The full history
of these exhibitions, with the names of the painters, will be found in
two works: Fdlix-F6n(km, Les Impressionistes en 1886 (Paris, 1886),
and G. Geffroy, La Vie artistique (" Histoire de 1'impressionisme," in
vol. for 1894). See also G. Lecomte, L'Art impressioniste d'apres la
collection privee de M. Durand-Ruel (Paris, 1892); Duranty, La
Peinlure nouvelle (1876). Besides the names already cited, some
others may be added: Madame Berthe Morisot, sister-in-law of
Manet; Paul Cdzanne, belonging to the Manet-Pissarro group; and,
later, Gauguin. J. F. Raffaelli applied a " characteristic " drawing,
to use his word, to scenes in the dismal suburbs of Paris; Forain, the
satiric draughtsman, was a disciple of Degas, as also Zandomeneghi.
Miss Mary Cassatt was his pupil. Caillebotte, who bequeathed the
collection of Impressionist paintings now in the Luxembourg, was
also an exhibitor; and Boudin, who linked the movement to the
earlier schools.
The first exhibitions of the Impressionists in London were in 1882
and 1883, but their fortunes there cannot be pursued in the present
article, nor the history of the movement beyond its originators.
This excludes notable figures, of which M. Besnard may be chosen
as a type.
In Manet's painting, even in the final steps he took towards
"la peinture claire," there is nothing of the "decomposition
of tones " that logically followed from the theories of his followers.
He recognized the existence in certain illuminations of the
violet shadow, and he adopted in open-air work a looser and
more broken touch. The nature of his subjects encouraged
such a handling, for the painter who attempts to note from
nature the colour values of an elusive effect must treat form in a
summary fashion, still more so when the material is in constant
movement like water. Moreover, in the river-side subjects
IMPRESSIONISM
345
near Paris there was a great deal that was only pictorially
tolerable when its tone was subtracted from the details of its
form. Monet's painting carries the shorthand of form and
broken colour to extremity; the flowing touch of Manet is
chopped up into harsher, smaller notes of tone, and the pitch
pushed up till all values approach the iridescent end of the register.
It was in 1886 that the doctrinaire ferment came to a head, and
what was supposed to be a scientific method of colour was
formulated. This was pointillisme, the resolution of the colours
of nature back into six bands of the rainbow or spectrum, and
their representation on the canvas by dots of unmixed pigment.
These dots, at a sufficient distance, combine their hues in the
eye with the effect of a mixture of coloured lights, not of pigments,
so that the result is an increase instead of a loss of luminosity.
There are several fallacies, however, theoretical and practical,
in this " spectral palette " and pointillist method. If we depart
from the three primaries of the Helmholtz hypothesis, there is
no reason why we should stop at six hues instead of six hundred.
But pigments follow the spectrum series so imperfectly that
the three primaries, even if we could exactly locate them, limit
the palette considerably in its upper range. The sacrifice of
black is quite illogical, and the lower ranges suffer accordingly.
Moreover, it is doubtful whether many painters have followed
the laws of mixture of lights in their dotting, e.g. dotting green
and red together to produce yellow. It may be added that
dotting with oil pigment is in practice too coarse and inaccurate
a method. This innovation of pointillisme is generally ascribed
to George Seurat (d. 1890), whose picture, " La Grande Jatte,"
was exhibited at the Rue Laffitte in 1886. Pissarro experimented
in the new method, but abandoned it, and other names among
the Pointillistes are Paul Signac, Vincent van Gogh, and van
Rysselberghe. The theory opened the way for endless casuistries,
and its extravagances died out in the later exhibition of the
Independants or were domesticated in the Salon by painters
like M. Henri Martin.
The first modern painter to concern himself scientifically with the
reactions of complementary colours appears to have been Delacroix
(J. Leonardo, it should be remembered, left some notes on the
subject). It is claimed for Delacroix that as early as 1825 he ob-
served and made use of these reactions, anticipating the complete
exposition of Chevreul. He certainly studied the treatise, and his
biographers describe a dial-face he constructed for reference. He had
quantities of little wafers of each colour, with which he tried colour
effects, a curious anticipation of pointillist technique. The pointil-
lists claim him as their grandfather. See Paul Signac, " D'Eugene
Delacroix au N&>-Impressionnisme " (Revue Blanche, 1898). For a
fuller discussion of the spectral palette see the Saturday Review, 2nd,
gth and 23rd February and 23rd March 1901.
In England the ideas connected with the word Impressionism
have been refracted through the circumstances of the British
schools. The questions of pitch of light and iridescent colour
had already arisen over the work of Turner, of the Pre-
Raphaelites, and also of G. F. Watts, but less isolated and
narrowed, because the art of none of these limited itself to the
pursuit of light. Pointillisme, after a fashion, existed in British
water-colour practice. But the Pre-Raphaelite school had
accustomed the English eye to extreme definition in painting
and to elaboration of detail, and it happened that the painting
of James M'Neill Whistler (Grosvenor Gallery, 1878) brought
the battle-name Impressionism into England and gave it a
different colour. Whistler's method of painting was in no
way revolutionary, and he preferred to transpose values into
a lower key rather than compete with natural pitch, but his
vision, like that of Manet under the same influences, Spanish
and Japanese, simplified tone and subordinated detail. These
characteristics raised the whole question of the science and art
of aspect in modern painting, and the field of controversy was
extended backwards to Velasquez as the chief master of the
moderns. " Impressionism " at first had meant individualism
of vision, later the notation of fugitive aspects of light and of
movement; now it came to mean breadth in pictorial vision,
all the simplifications that arise from the modern analysis of
aspect, and especially the effect produced upon the parts of a
picture-field by attending to the impression of the whole. Ancient
painting analyses aspect into three separate acts as form, tone
and colour. All forms are made out with equal clearness by
a conventional outline; over this system of outlines a second
system of light and shade is passed, and over this again a system
of colours. Tone is conceived as a difference of black or white
added to the tints, and the colours are the definite local tints
of the objects (a blue, a red, a yellow, and so forth). In fully
developed modern painting, instead of an object analysed
into sharp outlines covered with a uniform colour darkened or
lightened in places, we find an object analysed into a number
of surfaces or planes set at different angles. On each of these
facets the character of the object and of the illumination, with
accidents of reflection, produces a patch called by modern painters
a " value," because it is colour of a particular value or tone.
(With each difference of tone, " value " implies a difference
of hue also, so that when we speak of a different tone of the
same colour we are using the word " same " in a loose or approxi-
mate sense.) These planes or facets define themselves one
against another with greater or less sharpness. Modern technique
follows this modern analysis of vision, and in one act instead
of three renders by a " touch " of paint the shape and value
of these facets, and instead of imposing a uniform ideal outline
at all their junctions, allows these patches to define themselves
against one another with variable sharpness.
Blurred definition, then, as it exists in our natural view of
things, is admitted into painting; a blurring that may arise
from distance, from vapour or smoke, from brilliant light,
from obscurity, or simply from the nearness in value of adjacent
objects. Similarly, much detail that in primitive art is elaborated
is absorbed by rendering the aspect instead of the facts known
to make up that aspect. Thus hair and fur, the texture of
stuffs, the blades of grass at a little distance, become patches of
tone showing only their larger constructive markings. But the
blurring of definitions and the elimination of detail that we find
in modern pictorial art are not all of this ready-made character.
We have so far only the scientific analysis of a field of view.
If the painter were a scientific reporter he would have to pursue
the systems of planes, with their shapes and values, to infinity.
Impressionism is the art that surveys the field and determines
which of the shapes and tones are of chief importance to the
interested eye, enforces these, and sacrifices the rest. Con-
struction, the logic of the object rendered, determines partly
this action of the eye, and also decoration, the effects of rhythm
in line and harmony in fields of colour. These motives belong
to all art, but the specially impressionist motive is the act of
attention as it affects the aspect of the field. We are familiar,
in the ordinary use of the eye, with two features of its structure
that limit clearness of vision. There is, first, the spot of clear
vision on the retina, outside of which all falls away into blur;
there is, secondly, the action of focus. As the former limits
clear definition to one spot in the field extended vertically and
laterally, so focus limits clear definition to one plane in the third
dimension, viz. depth. If three objects, A, B and C, stand
at different depths before the eye, we can at will fix A, whereupon
B and C must fall out of focus, or B, whereupon A and C must
be blurred, or C, sacrificing the clearness of A and B. All this
apparatus makes it impossible to see everything at once with
equal clearness, enables us, and forces us for the uses of real
life, to frame and limit our picture, according to the immediate
i nterest of the eye, whatever it may be. The painter instinctively
uses these means to arrive at the emphasis and neglect that his
choice requires. If he is engaged on a face he will now screw
his attention to a part and now relax it, distributing the attention
over the whole so as to restore the bigger relations of aspect.
Sir Joshua Reynolds describes this process as seeing the whole
" with the dilated eye "; the commoner precept of the studios
is " to look with the eyes half closed "; a third way is to throw
the whole voluntarily out of focus. In any case the result is
that minor planes are swamped in bigger, that smaller patches
of colour are swept up into broader, that markings are blurred.
The final result of these tentative reviews records, in what is
blurred and what is clear, the attention that has been distributed
IMPRESSMENT
to different parts, and to parts measured against the whole.
The Impressionist painter does not allot so much detail to a face
in a full-length portrait as to a head alone, nor to twenty figures
on a canvas as to one. Again, he indicates by his treatment
of planes and definitions whether the main subject of his picture
is in the foreground or the distance. He persuades the eye to
slip over hosts of near objects so that, as in life, it may hit a
distant target, or concentrate its attack on what is near, while
the distance falls away into a dim curtain. All those devices by
which attention is directed and distributed, and the importance in
space of an object established, affect impressionistic composition.
It is an inevitable misunderstanding of painting which plays
the game of art so closely up to the real aspects of nature that
its aim is that of mere exact copying. Painting like Manet's,
accused of being realistic in this sense, sufficiently disproves
the accusation when examined. Never did painting show a
parti pris more pronounced, even more violent. The elisions
and assertions by which Manet selects what he finds significant
and beautiful in the complete natural image are startling to the
stupid realist, and the Impressionist may best be described
as the painter who out of the completed contents of vision con-
structs an image moulded upon his own interest in the thing
seen and not on that of any imaginary schoolmaster. Accepting
the most complex terms of nature with their special emotions,
he uses the same freedom of sacrifice as the man who at the other
end of the scale expresses his interest in things by a few scratches
of outline. The perpetual enemy of both is the eclectic, who
works for possible interests not his own.
Some of the points touched on above will be found amplified
in articles by the writer in The Albemarle (September 1892), the
Fortnightly Review (June 1894), and The Artist (March-July 1896).
An admirable exposition of Impressionism in this sense is R. A. M.
Stevenson's The Art of Velasquez (1895). Mr Stevenson was trained
in the school of Carolus Duran, where impressionist painting was
reduced to a system. Mr Sargent's painting is a brilliant example
of the system. (D. S. M.)
IMPRESSMENT, the name given in English to the exercise
of the authority of the state to " press" ' or compel the service
of the subject for the defence of the realm. Every sovereign
state must claim and at times exercise this power. The " draft-
ing " of men for service in the American Civil War was a form
of impressment. All the monarchical, or republican, govern-
ments of Europe have employed the press at one time or another.
All forms of conscription, including the English ballot for the
militia, are but regulations of this sovereign right. In England
impressment may be looked upon as an erratic, and often
oppressive, way of enforcing the common obligation to serve
in " the host " or in the posse comitatus (power of the county).
In Scotland, where the feudal organization was very complete
in the Lowlands, and the tribal organization no less complete
in the Highlands, and where the state was weak, impressment
was originally little known. After the union of the two parlia-
ments in 1707, no distinction was made between the two divisions
of Great Britain. In England the kings of the Plantagenet
dynasty caused Welshmen to be pressed by the Lords Marchers,
and Irish kerns to be pressed by the Lords Deputy, for their
wars in France. Complaints were made by parliament of the
oppressive use of this power as early as the reign of Edward III.,
but it continued to be exercised. Readers of Shakespeare will
remember Sir John Falstaff's commission to press soldiers, and
the manner, justified no doubt by many and familiar examples
of the way in which the duty was performed. A small sum
1 It is^now accepted generally that " to press " is a corruption of
" prest," as " impress " is of " imprest," but the word was quite early
connected with ' press," to squeeze, crush, hence to compel or force.
The " prest " was a sum of money advanced (O. Fr. prester, modern
preter, to lend, Lat. praestare, to stand before, provide, become
surety for, &c.) to a person to enable him to perform some under-
taking, hence used of earnest money given to soldiers on enlistment,
or as the " coat and conduct " money alluded to in this article. The
methods of compulsion used to get men for military service naturally
connected the word with " to press " (Lat. pressure, frequentative of
premerejto force, and all reference to the money advanced was lost
(see Skeat, Etym. Diet., 1898, and the quotation from H. Wedgwood,
Diet, of Eng. Etym.).
called imprest-money, or coat and conduct money, was given
to the men when pressed to enable them to reach the appointed
rendezvous. Soldiers were secured in this way by Queen Eliza-
beth, by King Charles I., and by the parliament itself in the
Civil War. The famous New Model Army of Cromwell was
largely raised by impressment. Parliament ordered the county
committees to select recruits of " years meet for their employ-
ment and well clothed." After the Revolution of 1688 parlia-
ment occasionally made use of this resource. In 1779 a general
press of all rogues and vagabonds in London to be drafted
into the regiments was ordered. It is said that all who were
not too lame to run away or too destitute to bribe the parish
constable were swept into the net. As they were encouraged
to desert by the undisguised connivance of the officers and men
who were disgusted with their company, no further attempt
to use the press for the army was made.
A distinction between the liability of sailors and of other
men dates from the i6th century. From an act of Philip and
Mary (1556) it appears that the watermen of the Thames claimed
exemption from the press as a privileged body. They were
declared liable, and the liability was clearly meant to extend
to service as a soldier on shore. In the fifth year of Queen Eliza-
beth (1563) an act was passed to define the liability of the
sailors. It is known as " an Act touching politick considerations
for the maintenance of the Navy." By its term all fishermen
and mariners were protected from being compelled " to serve
as any soldiers upon the Land or upon the Sea, otherwise than
as a mariner, except it shall be to serve under any Captain of
some ship or vessel, for landing to do some special exploit which
mariners have been used to do." The operation of the act was
limited to ten years, but it was renewed repeatedly, and was
at last indefinitely prolonged in the sixteenth year of the reign
of Charles I. (1631). By the Vagrancy Act of the close of Queen
Elizabeth's reign (1597), disorderly serving-men and other dis-
reputable characters, of whom a formidable list is given, were
declared to be liable to be impressed for service in the fleet. The
" Takers," as they were called in early times, the Press Gang
of later days, were ordered to present their commission to two
justices of the peace, who were bound to pick out " such sufficient
number of able men, as in the said commission shall be contained,
to serve Her Majesty as aforesaid." The justices of the peace
in the coast districts, who were often themselves concerned in
the shipping trade, were not always zealous in enforcing the press.
The pressed sailors often deserted with the " imprest money "
given them. Loud complaints were made by the naval officers
of the bad quality of the men sent up to serve in the king's
ships. On the other hand, the Press Gangs were accused of
extorting money, and of making illegal arrests. In the reign
of Queen Anne (1703) an act was passed " for the increase of
Seamen and the better encouragement of navigation, and the
protection of the Coal Trade." The act which gave parish
authorities power to apprentice boys to the sea exempted the
apprentices from the press for three years, and until the age
of eighteen. It especially reaffirmed the part of the Vagrancy
Act of Elizabeth's reign which left rogues and vagabonds subject
to be pressed for the sea service. By the act for the " Increase
of Mariners and Seamen to navigate Merchant Ships and other
trading ships or vessels," passed in the reign of George II. (1740),
all men over fifty-five were exempted from the press together
with lads under eighteen, foreigners serving in British ships
(always numerous in war time), and landsmen who had gone
to sea during their first two years. The act for " the better
supplying of the cities of London and Westminster with fish "
gave exemption to all masters of fishing-boats, to four apprentices
and one mariner to each boat, and all landsmen for two years,
except in case of actual invasion. By the act for the encourage-
ment of insurance passed in 1774, the fire insurance companies
in London were entitled to secure exemption for thirty water-
men each in their employment. Masters and mates of merchant
vessels, and a proportion of men per ship in the colliers trading
from the north to London, were also exempt.
Subject to such limitations as these, all seafaring men, and
IMPROMPTU— IMPROVISATORS
347
watermen on rivers, were liable to be pressed between the ages
of eighteen and fifty-five, and might be pressed repeatedly for
so long as their liability lasted. The rogue and vagabond
element were at the mercy of the justices of the peace. The
frightful epidemics of fever which desolated the navy till late
in the iSth century were largely due to the infection brought
by the prisoners drafted from the ill-kept jails of the time. As
service in the fleet was most unpopular with the sailors, the press
could often only be enforced by making a parade of strength
and employing troops. The men had many friends who were
always willing to conceal them, and they themselves became
expert in avoiding capture. There was, however, one way of
procuring them which gave them no chance of evasion. The
merchant ships were stopped at sea and the sailors taken out.
This was done to a great extent, more especially in the case of
homeward-bound vessels. On one occasion, in 1802, an East
Indiaman on her way home was deprived of so many of her
crew by a man of war in the Bay of Biscay that she was unable
to resist a small French privateer, and was carried off as a prize
with a valuable cargo. The press and the jails failed to supply
the number of men required. In 1795 it was found necessary
to impose on the counties the obligation to provide " a quota "
of men, at their ownexpense. The local authorities provided the
recruits by offering high bounties, often to debtors confined in
the prisons. These desperate men were a very bad element in
the navy. In 1797 they combined with the United Irishmen,
of whom large numbers had been drafted into the fleet as vaga-
bonds, to give a very dangerous political character to the mutinies
at the Nore and on the south of Ireland. After the conclusion
of the great Napoleonic wars in 1815 the power of the press was
not again exercised. In 1835 an act was passed during Sir
James Graham's tenure of office.as first lord of the admiralty,
by which men who had once been pressed and had served for
a period of five years were to be exempt from impressment in
future. Sir James, however, emphatically reaffirmed the right
of the crown to enforce the service of the subject, and therefore
to impress the seamen. The introduction of engagements for
a term of five years in 1853, and then of long service, has produced
so large a body of voluntary recruits, and service in the navy
is so popular, that the question has no longer any interest save
an historical one. If compulsory service in the fleet should again
become necessary it will not be in the form of the old system
of impressment, which left the sailor subject to compulsory
service from the age of eighteen to fifty-five, and flooded the
navy with the scum of the jails and the workhouse.
AUTHORITIES. — Grose's Military Antiquities, for the general
subject of impressment, vol. ii. p. 73 et seq. S. R. Gardiner gives
many details in his history of James I. and Charles I., and in The
Civil War. The acts relating to the navy are quoted in A Collection
of the Statutes relating to the Admiralty, &c., published in 1810. Some
curious information is in the papers relating to the Brest Blockade
edited by John Leyland for the Navy Record Society. Sir James
Graham's speech is in Hansard for 1835. (D. H.)
IMPROMPTU (from in promptu, on the spur of the moment),
a short literary composition which has not been, or is not
supposed to have been, prepared beforehand, but owes its
merit to the ready skill which produces it without premeditation.
The word seems to have been introduced from the French
language in the middle of the i7th century. Without question,
the poets have, from earliest ages, made impromptus, and the
very art of poetry, in its lyric form, is of the nature of a modified
improvisation. It is supposed that many of the epigrams of
the Greeks, and still more probably those of the Roman satirists,
particularly Martial, were delivered on the moment, and gained
a great part, at least, of their success from the evidence which
they gave of rapidity of invention. But it must have been
difficult then, as it has been since, to be convinced of the value
of that evidence. Who is to be sure that, like Mascarille in
Les Precieuses ridicules, the impromptu-writer has not employed
his leisure in sharpening his arrows? James Smith received the
highest praise for his compliment to Miss Tree, the cantatrice: —
On this tree when a niglftingale settles and sings,
The Tree will return him as good as he brings.
This was extremely neat, but who is to say that James Smith
had not polished it as he dressed for dinner? One writer owed
all his fame, and a seat among the Forty Immortals of the French
Academy, to the reputation of his impromptus. This was the
Marquis Francois Joseph de St Aulaire (1643-1742). The piece
which threw open the doors of the Academy to him in 1706 was
composed at Sceaux, where he was staying with the duchess of
Maine, who was guessing secrets, and who called him Apollo.
St Aulaire instantly responded: —
La divinit^ qui s'amuse
A me demander mpn secret,
Si j'6tais Apollon, ne serait pas ma muse,
Elle serait The'tis — et le jour finirait.
This is undoubtedly as neat as it is impertinent, and if the
duchess had given him no ground for preparation, this is typical
of the impromptu at its best. Voltaire was celebrated for the
savage wit of his impromptus, and was himself the subject of a
famous one by Young. Less well known but more certainly
extemporaneous is the couplet by the last-mentioned poet, who
being asked to put something amusing in an album, and being
obliged to borrow from Lord Chesterfield a pencil for the purpose,
wrote: —
Accept a miracle instead of wit, —
See two dull lines with Stanhope's pencil writ.
The word " impromptu " is sometimes used to designate a short
dramatic sketch, the type of which is Moliere's famous Impromptu
du Versailles (1663), a miniature comedy in prose.
IMPROVISATORS, a word used to describe a poet who recites
verses which he composes on the spur of the moment, without
previous preparation. The term is purely Italian, although in
that language it would be more correctly spelt improvaisatore.
It became recognized as an English word in the middle of the
eighteenth century, and is so used by Smollett in his Trawls
(1766); he defines an improvisatore as " an individual who has
the surprising talent of reciting verses extempore, on any sub-
ject you propose." In speaking of a woman, the female form
improvisatrice is sometimes used in English.
Improvisation is a gift which properly belongs to those
languages in which a great variety of grammatical inflections,
wedded to simplicity of rhythm and abundance of rhyme,
enable a poet to slur over difficulties in such a way as to satisfy
the ear of his audience. In ancient times the greater part of
the popular poetry with which the leisure of listeners was
beguiled was of this rhapsodical nature. But in modern Europe
it was the troubadours, owing to the extreme flexibility of the
languages of Provence, who distinguished themselves above all
others as improvisatores. It is difficult to believe, however,
that the elaborate compositions of these poets, which have come
down to us, in which every exquisite artifice of versification is
taken advantage of, can have been poured forth without pre-
meditation. These poets, we must rather suppose, took a pride
in the ostentation of a prodigious memory, most carefully trained,
and poured forth in public what they had laboriously learned
by heart in private. The Italians, however, in the i6th century,
cultivated what seems to have been a genuine improvisation,
in which the bards rhapsodized, not as they themselves pleased,
but on subjects which were unexpected by them, and which
were chosen on the spot by their patrons. Of these, the most
extraordinary is said to have been Silvio Antoniano (1540-1603),
who from the age of ten was able to pour out melodious verse on
any subject which was suggested to him. He was brought to
Rome, where successive popes so delighted in his talent that in
1598 he was made a cardinal. In the 1 7th century the celebrated
Metastasio first attracted attention by his skill as an improvi-
satore. But he was excelled by Bernardino Perfetti (1681-1747),
who was perhaps the most extraordinary genius of this class
who has ever lived. He was seized, in his moments of composi-
tion, with a transport which transfigured his whole person, and
under this excitement he poured forth verses in a miraculous
flow. It was his custom to be attended by a guitarist, who
played a recitative accompaniment. In this way Perfetti
made a triumphal procession through the cities of Italy, ending
348
IN-ANTIS— INCENSE
up with the Capitol of Rome, where Pope Benedict XIII. crowned
him with laurel, and created him a Roman citizen. One of
the most remarkable improvisatores of modern times appeared
in Sweden, in the person of Karl Mikael Bellman( 1740-1 705),
who used to take up a position in the public gardens and parks
of Stockholm, accompanying himself on a guitar, and treating
metre and rhythm with a virtuosity and originality which place
him among the leading poets of Swedish literature. In England,
somewhat later, Theodore Hook (1788-1841) developed a surpris-
ing talent for this kind, but his verses were rarely of the serious
or sentimental character of which we have hitherto spoken.
Hook's animal spirits were unfortunately mingled with vulgarity,
and his clever jeuy d'esprit had little but their smartness to
recommend them. A similar talent, exercised in a somewhat
more literary direction, made Joseph Mery (i 708-1865) a delight-
ful companion in the Parisian society of his day. It is rare
indeed that the productions of the improvisatore, taken down
in shorthand, and read in the cold light of criticism, are found
to justify the impression which the author produced on his
original audience. Imperfections of every kind become patent
when we read these transcripts, and the reader cannot avoid
perceiving weaknesses of style and grammar. The eye and voice
of the improvisatore so hypnotize his auditors as to make them
incapable of forming a sober judgment on matters of mere
literature.
IN-ANTIS, the architectural term given to those temples
the entrance part of which consisted of two columns placed
between the antae or pilasters (see TEMPLE).
INAUDI, JACQUES (1867- ), Italian calculating prodigy,
was born at Onorato, Piedmont, on the i5th of October 1867.
When between seven and eight years old, at which time he was
employed in herding sheep, he already exhibited an extraordinary
aptitude for mental calculation. His powers attracted the notice
of various showmen, and he commenced to give exhibitions.
He was carefully examined by leading French scientists, including
Charcot, from the physiological, psychological and mathematical
point of view. The secret of his arithmetical powers appeared
to reside in.his extraordinary memory, improved by continuous
practice. It appeared to depend upon hearing rather than
sight, more remarkable results being achieved when figures were
read out than when they were written.
INCANTATION, the use of words, spoken, sung or chanted,
usually as a set formula, for the purpose of obtaining a result
by their supposed magical power. The word is derived from
the Latin incantare, to chant a magical formula; cf. the use of
carmen, for such a formula of words. The Latin use is very early ;
thus it appears in a fragment of the XII. Tables quoted in
Pliny (N.H. xxviii. 2, 4, 17), " Qui malum carmen incantasset."
From the O. Fr. derivative of incantare, enchanter, comes
" enchant," " enchantment," &c., properly of the exercise of
magical powers, hence to charm, to fascinate, words which also
by origin are of magical significance. The early magi of Assyria
and Babylonia were adepts at this art, as is evident from the
examples of Akkadian spells that have been discovered. Daniel
(v. n) is spoken of as " master of the enchanters " of Babylon.
In Egypt and in India many formulas of religious magic were in
use, witness especially the Vedic manlras, which are closely
akin to the Maori karakias and the North American matamanik.
Among the holy men presented by the king of Korea to the
mikado of Japan in A.D. 577 was a reciter of mantras, who would
find himself at home with the majinahi or incantation practised
by the ancient Japanese for dissipating evil influences. One
of the most common, widespread and persistent uses of incanta-
tion was in healing wounds, instancjs of which are found in the
Odyssey and the Kalevala, and in the traditional folk-lore of
almost every European country. Similar songs were sung to
win back a faithless lover (cf. the second Idyll of Theocritus).
See further MAGIC.
INCE, WILLIAM, English i8th century furniture designer
and cabinetmaker. He was one of the most successful imitators
of Chippendale, although his work was in many respects lighter.
He helped, indeed, to build the bridge between the massive and
often florid style of Chippendale and the more boudoir-like forms
of Hepplewhite. Although many of his designs were poor and
extravagant, his best work was very good indeed. His chairs
are sometimes mistaken for those of Chippendale, to which,
however, they are much inferior. He greatly affected the Chinese
and Gothic tastes of the second half of the i8th century. He
was for many years in partnership in Broad Street, Golden
Square, London, with Thomas Mayhew (q.v.), in collaboration
with whom he published a folio volume of ninety-five plates,
with letterpress in English and French under the title of The
Universal System of Household Furniture (undated, but probably
about 1762).
INCE-IN-MAKERFIELD, an urban district in the Ince
parliamentary division of Lancashire, England, adjoining the
borough of Wigan. Pop. (1901) 21,262. The Leeds and Liverpool
Canal intersects the township. There are large collieries, iron-
works, forges, railway wagon works, and cotton mills. There
is preserved here the Old Hall, a beautiful example of half-
timbered architecture.
INCENDIARISM (Lat. incendere, to set on' fire, burn), in law,
the wilful or malicious burning of the house or property of another,
and punishable as arson (g.vr). It may be noted that in North
Carolina it is provided in case of fires that there is to be a pre-
liminary investigation by local authorities; all towns and cities
have to make an annual inspection of buildings and a quarterly
inspection within fire limits and report to the state insurance
commissioner; all expenses so incurred are met by a tax of
£% on the gross receipts of the insurance companies (L. 1903,
ch. 719).
INCENSE, 'the perfume (fumigation) arising from certain
resins and gum-resins, barks, woods, dried flowers, fruits and
seeds, when burnt, and also the substances so burnt. In its
literal meaning the word " incense " is one with the word
" perfume," the aroma given off with the smoke (per fumum-)
of any odoriferous substance when burnt. But, in use, while
the meaning of the word " perfume " has been extended so as to
include everything sweet in smell, from smoking incense to the
invisible fresh fragrance of fruits and exquisite scent of flowers,
that of the word " incense," in all the languages of modern
Europe in which it occurs, has, by an opposite process of limita-
tion, been gradually restricted almost exclusively to frankincense
(see FRANKINCENSE). Frankincense has always been obtainable
in Europe in greater quantity than any other of the aromatics
imported from the East; it has therefore gradually come to be
the only incense used in the religious rites and domestic fumiga-
tions of many countries of the West, and at last to be properly
regarded as the only " true " or " genuine " (i.e. " franc") incense
(see Littre's Fr. Diet, and Skeat's Elym. Diet, of Engl. Lang.}?
The following is probably an exhaustive list of the substances
available for incense or perfume mentioned in the Hebrew Scrip-
tures:— Algum or almug wood (almug in i Kings x. n, 12; algura
1 Incensum (or incensum thuris) from incendere; Ital. and Port.
incenso; Span, incienso; Fr. encens. The substantive occurs in an
inscription of the Arvalian brotherhood (Marini, Gli Atti e Monu-
menti de'fratelli Arvali, p. 639),but is frequent only in ecclesiastical
Latin. Compare the classical suffimenlum and suffitus from suffio.
For " incense " Ulfila (Luke i. 10, 1 1) has retained the Greek Qvulana.
(thymiama); all the Teutonic names (Ger. Weihrauch; Old Saxon
Wirdc; I eel. Reykelsi; Dan. Rogelse) seem to belong to the Christian
period (Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie, i. 50).
* The etymological affinities of Obu, 06os, thus,fuffip,funus, and the
Sans, dhuma are well known. See Max Miiller, Chips, i. 99.
1 Classical Latin has but one word (thus or tus) for all sorts of
incense. Libanus, for frankincense, occurs only in the Vulgate.
Even the " ground frankincense " or " ground pine " (Ajuga chamae-
pilys) was known to the Romans as Tus terrae (Pliny), although they
called some plant, from its smelling like frankincense, Libanotis, and
a kind of Thasian wine, also from its fragrance, Libanios. The
Latino-barbaric word Olibanum (quasi Oleum Libani), the common
name for frankincense in modern commerce, is used in a bull of Pope
Benedict IX. (1033). It may here be remarked that the name
" European frankincense " is applied to Finns Taeda, and to the
resinous exudation (" Burgundy pitch ") of the Norwegian spruce
firs (Abies excelsa). The " incense tree " of America is the Idea
guianensis, and the " incense wood " of the same continent /.
heptaphytta.
INCENSE
349
in 2 Chron. ii. 8, and ix. 10, n), generally identified with sandal-
wood (Santalum album), a native of Malabar and Malaya; aloes, or
lign aloes (Heb. ahalim, ahaloth), produced by the Aloexylon Agal-
lochum (Loureiro), a native of Cochin-China, andAquilaria Agallocha
(Roxburgh), a native of India beyond the Ganges; balm (Heb. tsori),
the oleo-resin of Balsamodendron opobalsamum and B. gileadense;
bdellium (Heb. bdolah), the resin produced by Balsamodendron
roxburghii, B. Mukul and B. pubescens, all natives of Upper India
(Lassen, however, identifies bdolah with musk); calamus (Heb.
kaneh; sweet calamus, keneh bosem, Ex. xxx. 23; Ezek. xxvii. 19;
sweet cane, kaneh hattob, Jer. vi. 20; Isa. xliii. 24), identified by
Royle with the Androppgon Calamus aromaticus or roosa grass of
India; cassia (Heb. kiddah) the Cinnamomum Cassia of China;
cinnamon (Heb. kinnamon), the Cinnamomum zeylanicum of the
Somali country, but cultivated largely in Ceylon, where also it runs
wild, and in Java; costus (Heb. ketzioth), the root of the Aucklandia
Coslus (Falconer), native of Kashmir; frankincense (Heb. lebonah),
the gum-resin of Boswellia Frereana and B. Bhau-Dajiana of the
Somali country, and of B. Carterii of the Somali country and the
opposite coast of Arabia (see " The Genus Boswellia " by Sir George
Birdwood, Transactions of the Linnean Society, xxi. 1871) ; galbanum
(Heb. helbenah), yielded by Opoidia galbanifera (Royle) of Khorassan,
and Galbanum officinak (Don) of Syria and other Ferulas; ladanum
(Heb. lot, translated "myrrh" in Gen. xxxvii. 25, xliii. n), the
resinous exudation of Cistus creticus, C. ladaniferus and other
species of " rock rose " or " rose of Sharon "; myrrh (Heb. mor),
the gum-resin of the Balsamodendron Myrrha of the Somali country
and opposite shore of Arabia; onycha (Heb. sheheleth), the celebrated
odoriferous shell of the ancients, the operculum or " nail " of a
species of Strombus or " wing shell," formerly well known in Europe
under the name of Blatta byzanlina; it is still imported into Bombay
to burn with frankincense and other incense to bring out their odours
more strongly; saffron (Heb. karkom), the stigmata of Crocus
sativus, a native originally of Kashmir; spikenard (Heb. nerd), the
root of the Nardostachys Jatamansi of Nepal and Bhutan; stacte
(Heb. nataf), generally referred to the Styrax officinalis of the Levant,
but Hanbury has shown that no stacte or storax is now derived from
S. officinalis, and that all that is found in modern commerce is the
product of the Liquidambar orientalis of Cyprus and Anatolia.
Besides these aromatic substances named in the Bible, the following
must also be enumerated on account of their common use as incense
in the East; benzoin or gum benjamin, first mentioned among
Western writers by Ibn Batuta (i325-'349) under the name of
luban d' Jam (i.e. olibanum of Java), corrupted in the parlance of
Europe into benjamin and benzoin ; camphor, produced by Cinna-
momum Camphora, the " camphor laurel " of China and Japan, and
by Dryobalanops aromatica, a native of the Indian Archipelago, and
widely used as incense throughout the East, particularly in China;
elemi, the resin of an unknown tree of the Philippine Islands, the
elemi of old writers being the resin of Boswellia Frereana; gum-
dragon or dragon's blood, obtained from Calamus Draco, one of the
ratan palms of the Indian Archipelago, Dracaena Draco, a liliaceous
plant of the Canary Island, and Pterocarpus Draco, a leguminous
tree of the island of Socotra; rose-malloes, a corruption of the
Javanese rasamala, or liquid storax, the resinous exudation of
Liquidambar Altingia, a native of the Indian Archipelago (an
American Liquidambar also produces a rose-malloes-like exudation) ;
star anise, the starlike fruit of the Illicum anisatum of Yunan and
south-western China, burnt as incense in the temples of Japan;
sweet flag, the root of Acorus Calamus, the bach of the Hindus, much
used for incense in India. An aromatic earth, found on the coast of
Cutch, is used as incense in the temples of western India. The
animal excreta, musk and civet, also enter into the composition of
modern European pastils and clous fumants. Balsam of Tolu, pro-
duced by Myroxylon toluiferum, a native of Venezuela and New
Granada; balsam of Peru, derived from Myroxylon Pereirae, a
native of San Salvador in Central America; Mexican and Brazilian
elemi, produced by various species of Icica or " incense trees," and
the liquid exudation of an American species of Liquidambar, are al
used as incense in America. Hanbury quotes a faculty granted by
Pope Pius V. (August 2, 1571) to the bishops of the West Indies per-
mitting the substitution of balsam of Peru for the balsam of the East
in the preparation of the chrism to be used by the Catholic Church
in America. The Sangre del drago of the Mexicans is a resin re-
sembling dragon's blood obtained from a euphorbiaceous tree
Croton Draco.
Probably nowhere can the actual historical progress from
the primitive use of animal sacrifices to the later refinement o;
burning incense be more clearly traced than in the pages of the
Old Testament, where no mention of the latter rite occurs before
the period of the Mosaic legislation; but in the monuments o
ancient Egypt the authentic traces of the use of incense that
still exist carry us back to a much earlier date. From Meroe
to Memphis the commonest subject carved or painted in the
interiors of the temples is that of some contemporary Phrah
or Pharaoh worshipping the presiding deity with oblations o"
;old and silver vessels, rich vestments, gems, the firstlings of
he flock and herd, cakes, fruits, flowers, wine, anointing oil
and incense. Generally he holds in one hand the censer, and with
the other casts the pastils or osselets of incense into it: some-
times he offers incense in one hand and makes the libation of
wine with the other. One of the best known of these representa-
tions is that carved on the memorial stone placed by Tethmosis
Thothmes) IV. (1533 B.C.) on the breast of the Sphinx at Gizeh.1
The tablet represents Tethmosis before his guardian deity, the
sun-god Re, pouring a libation of wine on one side and offering
ncense on the other. The ancient Egyptians used various
substances as incense. They worshipped Re at sunrise with
resin, at mid-day with myrrh and at sunset with an elaborate
confection called kuphi, compounded of no fewer than sixteen
ingredients, among which were honey, wine, raisins, resin,
myrrh and sweet calamus. While it was being mixed, holy
writings were read to those engaged in the operation. According
to Plutarch, apart from its mystic virtues arising from the
magical combination of 4X4, its sweet odour had a benign
physiological effect on those who offered it.2 The censer used
was a hemispherical cup or bowl of bronze, supported by a long
handle, fashioned at one end like an open hand, in which the bowl
was, as it were, held, while the other end within which the pastils
of incense were kept was shaped into the hawk's head crowned
with a disk, as the symbol of Re.3 In embalming their dead
the Egyptians filled the cavity of the belly with every sort of
spicery except frankincense (Herod, ii. 86), for it was regarded
as specially consecrated to the worship of the gods. In the burnt-
offerings of male kine to Isis, the carcase of the steer, after
evisceration, was filled with fine bread, honey, raisins, figs,
frankincense, myrrh and other aromatics, and thus stuffed
was roasted, being basted all the while by pouring over it large
quantities of sweet oil, and then eaten with great festivity.
How important the consumption of frankincense in the worship
of the gods became in Egypt is shown by two of its monuments,
both of the greatest interest and value for the light they throw
on the early history of the commerce of the Indian Ocean. One
is an inscription in the rocky valley of Hammamat, through
which the desert road from the Red Sea to the valley of Egypt
opens on the green fields and palm groves of the river Nile near
Coptos. It was cut on the rocks by an Egyptian nobleman named
Hannu, who states that he was sent by Pharaoh Sankhkere,
Menthotp IV., with a force gathered out of the Thebaid, from
Coptos to the Red Sea, there to take command of a naval expedi-
tion to the Holy Land of Punt (Puoni), " to bring back odori-
ferous gums." Punt is identified with the Somali country,
now known to be the native country of the trees that yield the
bulk of the frankincense of commerce. The other bears the
record of a second expedition to the same land of Punt, under-
taken by command of Queen Hatshepsut, 1600 B.C. It is pre-
served in the vividly chiselled and richly coloured decorations
portraying the history of the reign of this famous Pharaoh on
the walls of the " Stage Temple " at Thebes. The temple is
now in ruins, but the entire series of gorgeous pictures recording
the expedition to " the balsam land of Punt," from its leaving
to its returning to Thebes, still remains intact and undefaced.4
These are the only authenticated instances of the export of
incense trees from the Somali country until Colonel Playfair,
then political agent at Aden, in 1862-1864, collected and sent to
Bombay the specimens from which Sir George Birdwood pre-
pared his descriptions of them for the Linnean Society in 1868.
King Antigonus is said to have had a branch of the true frank-
incense tree sent to him.
Homer tells us that the Egyptians of his time were emphatic-
ally a nation of druggists (Od. iv. 229, 230). This characteristic,
in which, as in many others, they so remarkably resemble the
1 Brugsch, Egypt under the Pharaohs, i. 77-81, 414-419.
1 Plutarch, De Iside et Osiride, c. 52. In Parthey's edition
(Berlin, 1850) other recipes for the manufacture of kuphi, by Galen
and Dioscorides, are given; also some results of the editor's own
experiments.
3 Wilkinson, Ancient Egyptians, i. 493; ii. 49, 398-400, 414-416.
4 Brugsch, Egypt under the Pharaohs, i. 303-312.
350
INCENSE
Hindus, the Egyptians have maintained to the present day;
and, although they have changed their religion, the use of incense
among them continues to be as familiar and formal as ever.
The kohl or black powder with which the modern, like the ancient,
Egyptian ladies paint their languishing eyelids, is nothing but
the smeeth of charred frankincense, or other odoriferous resin
brought with frankincense, and phials of water, from the well
of Zem-zem, by the pilgrims returning from Mecca. They also
melt frankincense as a depilatory, and smear their hands with
a paste into the composition of which frankincense enters, for
the purpose of communicating to them an attractive perfume.
Herodotus (iv. 75) describes a similar artifice as practised by the
women of Scythia. (compare also Judith x. 3, 4). In cold weather
the Egyptians warm their rooms by placing in them a brazier,
" chafing-dish," or " standing-dish," filled with charcoal, whereon
incense is burnt; and in hot weather they refresh them by
occasionally swinging a hand censer by a chain through them —
frankincense, benzoin and aloe wood being chiefly used for the
purpose.1
In the authorized version of the Bible, the word " incense "
translates two wholly distinct Hebrew words. In various
passages in the latter portion of Isaiah (xl.-lxvi.), in Jeremiah
and in Chronicles, it represents the Hebrew lebonah, more usually
rendered "frankincense"; elsewhere the original word is
ketoreth (Ex. xxx. 8, 9; Lev. x. i ; Num. vii. 14, &c.), a derivative
of the verb kilter (Pi.) or hiktir (Hiph.), which verb is used, not
only in Ex. xxx. 7, but also in Lev. i. 9, iii. n, ix. 13, and many
other passages, to denote the process by which the " savour
of satisfaction "in any burnt-offering, whether of flesh or of incense,
is produced. Sometimes in the authorized version (as in i Kings
iii. 3; i Sam. ii. 28) it is made to mean explicitly the burning
of incense with only doubtful propriety. The expression " in-
cense (ketoreth) of rams " in Ps. Ixvi. 15 and the allusion in Ps.
cxli. 2 ought both to be understood, most probably, of ordinary
burnt-offerings.2 The " incense " (ketoreth), or " incense of sweet
scents " (ketoreth sammim), called, in Ex. xxx. 35, " a confection
after the art of the apothecary," or rather " a perfume after
the art of the perfumer," which was to be regarded as most
holy, and the imitation of which was prohibited under the severest
penalties, was compounded of four " sweet scents " (sammim),3
namely stacte (nataph), onycha (sheheleth), galbanum (helbenah)
and " pure " or " fine " frankincense (lebonah zaccah), pounded
together in equal proportions, with (perhaps) an admixture
of salt (memullah) .* It was then to be "put before the testimony"
in the " tent of meeting." It was burnt on the altar of incense
by the priest every morning when the lamps were trimmed in
the Holy Place, and every evening when they were lighted or " set
up " (Ex. xxx. 7, 8). A handful of it was also burnt once a year
in the Holy of Holies by the high priest on a pan of burning
coals taken from the altar of burnt-offering (Lev. xvi. 12, 13).
Pure frankincense (lebonah) formed part of the meat-offering
(Lev. ii. 16, vi. 15), and was also presented along with the shew
bread (Lev. xxiv. 7) every Sabbath day (probably on two golden
saucers; see Jos. Ant. iii. 10, 7). The religious significance
of the use of incense, or at least of its use in the Holy of Holies,
is distinctly set forth in Lev. xvi. 12, 13.
The Jews were also in the habit of using odoriferous substances
in connexion with the funeral obsequies of distinguished persons
(see 2 Chron. xvi. 14, xxi. 19; Jer. xxxiv. 5). In Amos vi. 10
" he that burneth him " probably means " he that burns per-
fumes in his honour." References to the domestic use of incense
occur in Cant. iii. 6; Prov. xxvii. 9; cf. vii. 17.
The " marbles " of Nineveh furnish frequent examples of
the offering of incense to the sun-god and his consort (2 Kings
1 See Lane, Mod. Egyptians, pp. 34, 41, 139, 187, 438 (ed. 1860).
- See Wellhausen, Gesch. Israels, i. 70 sqq., who from philological
and other data infers the late date of the introduction of incense into
the Jewish ritual.
* According to Philo (Opera, i. 504, ed. Mangey), they symbolized
respectively water, earth, air and fire.
4 Other accounts of its composition, drawn from Rabbinical
sources, will be found in various works on Jewish antiquities; see,
for example, Reland, Antiq. Sacr. vet. Hebr. pp. 39-41 (1712).
xxiii. 5). The kings of Assyria united in themselves the royal
and priestly offices, and on the monuments they erected they
are generally represented as offering incense and pouring out
wine to the Tree of Life. They probably carried the incense
in the sacred bag so frequently seen in their hands and in those
also of the common priests. According to Herodotus (i. 183),
frankincense to the amount of 1000 talents' weight was offered
every year, during the feast of Bel, on the great altar of his
temple in Babylon.
The monuments of Persepolis and the coins of the Sassanians
show that the religious use of incense was as common in ancient
Persia as in Babylonia and Assyria. Five times a day the priests
of the Persians (Zoroastrians) burnt incense on their sacred
fire altars. In the Avesta (Vendidad, Fargard xix. 24, 40),
the incense they used is named vohu gaono. It has been identified
with benzoin, but was probably frankincense. Herodotus
(iii. 97) states that the Arabs brought every year to Darius as
tribute 1000 talents of frankincense. The Parsees still preserve
in western India the pure tradition of the ritual of incense
as followed by their race from probably the most ancient times.
The Ramayana and Mahabharata afford evidence of the em-
ployment of incense by the* Hindus, in the worship of the gods
and the burning of the dead, from the remotest antiquity. Its
use was obviously continued by the Buddhists during the
prevalence of their religion in India, for it is still used by them
in Nepal, Tibet, Ceylon, Burma, China and Japan. These
countries all received Buddhism from India, and a large propor-
tion of the porcelain and earthenware articles imported from
China and Japan into Europe consists of innumerable forms
of censers. The Jains all over India burn sticks of incense
before their Jina. The commonest incense in ancient India
was probably frankincense. The Indian frankincense tree,
Boswellia thurifera, Colebrooke (which certainly includes B.
glabra, Roxburgh), is a doubtful native of India. It is found
chiefly where the Buddhist religion prevailed in ancient times,
in Bihar and along the foot of the Himalayas and in western
India, where it particularly flourishes in the neighbourhood
of the Buddhist caves at Ajanta. It is quite possible therefore
that, in the course of their widely extended commerce during
the one thousand years of their ascendancy, the Buddhists
imported the true frankincense trees from Africa and Arabia
into India, and that the accepted Indian species are merely
varieties of them. Now, however, the incense in commonest
use in India is benzoin. But the consumption of all manner
of odoriferous resins, gum resins, roots, woods, dried leaves,
flowers, fruits and seeds in India, in social as well as religious
observances, is enormous. The grateful perfumed powder
abir or randa is composed either of rice, flour, mango bark or
deodar wood, camphor and aniseed, or of sandalwood or wood
aloes, and zerumbet, zedoary, rose flowers, camphor and civet.
The incense sticks and pastils known all over India under the
names of ud-buti (" benzoin-light ") or aggar-ki-buti (" wood
aloes light ") are composed of benzoin, wood aloes, sandal-
wood, rock lichen, patchouli, rose-malloes, talispat (the leaf of
Flacourtia Cataphracta of Roxburgh), mastic and sugar-candy
or gum. The abir and aggir bulis made at the Mahommedan city
of Bijapur in the Mahratta country are celebrated all over
western India. The Indian Mussulmans indeed were rapidly
degenerating into a mere sect of Hindus before the Wahabi
revival, and the more recent political propaganda in support
of the false caliphate of the sultans of Turkey; and we therefore
find the religious use of incense among them more general than
among the Mahommedans of any other country. They use it at
the ceremonies of circumcision, bismillah (teaching the child
" the name of God "), virginity and marriage. At marriage
they burn benzoin with nim seeds (Melia Azadirachla, Roxburgh)
to keep off evil spirits, and prepare the bride-cakes by putting
a quantity of benzoin between layers of wheaten dough, closed
all round, and frying them in clarified butter. For days the
bride is fed on little else. In their funeral ceremonies, the
moment the spirit has fled incense is burnt before the corpse
until it is carried out to be buried. The begging fakirs also go
INCENSE
about with a lighted stick of incense in one hand, and holding
out with the other an incense-holder (literally, " incense chariot "),
into which the coins of the pious are thrown. Large " incense
trees " resembling our Christmas trees, formed of incense-sticks
and pastils and osselets, and alight all over, are borne by the
Shiah Mussulmans in the aolennial procession of the Mohurrum,
in commemoration of the martyrdom of the sons of Ali. The
worship of the tulsi plant, or holy basil (Ocymum sanctum,
Don), by the Hindus is popularly explained by its consecration
to Vishnu and Krishna. It grows on the four-horned altar before
the house, or in a pot placed in one of the front windows, and is
worshipped every morning by all the female members of every
Hindu household. It is possible that its adoration has survived
from the times when the Hindus buried their dead in their
houses, beneath the family hearth. When they came into a
hot climate the fire of the sacrifices and domestic cookery was
removed out of the house; but the dead were probably still
for a while buried in or near it, and the tulsi was planted over
their graves, at once for the salubrious fragrance it diffuses and
to represent the burning of incense on the altar of the family
Lar. The rich land round about the holy city of Pandharpur,
sacred to Vithoba the national Mahratta form of (Krishna)-
Vishnu, is wholly restricted to the cultivation of the tulsi plant.
As to the dvta. mentioned in Homer (//. ix. 499, and elsewhere)
and in Hesiod (Works and Days, 338), there is some uncertainty
whether they were incense offerings at all, and if so, whether
they were ever offered alone, and not always in conjunction
with animal sacrifices. That the domestic use, however, of the
fragrant wood Ouov (the Arbor vitae or Callitris quadrivahis of
botanists, the source of the resin sandarach) was known in the
Homeric age, is shown by the case of Calypso (Od. v. 60), and
the very similarity of the word 6vov to Qivs may be taken as
almost conclusively proving that by that time the same wood
was also employed for religious purposes. It is not probable
that the sweet-smelling gums and resins of the countries of the
Indian Ocean began to be introduced into Greece before the
8th or 7th century B.C., and doubtless Xt/3acos or Xt^a^ajros first
became an article of extensive commerce only after the Medi-
terranean trade with the East had been opened up by the
Egyptian king Psammetichus (c. 664-610 B.C.). The new
Oriental word is frequently employed by Herodotus; and there
are abundant references to the use of the thing among the writers
of the golden age of Attic literature (see, for example, Aristo-
phanes, Plul. 1114; Frogs, 871, 888; Clouds, 426; Wasps,
96, 861). Frankincense, however, though the most common,
never became the only kind of incense offered to the gods among
the Greeks. Thus the Orphic hymns are careful to specify, in
connexion with the several deities celebrated, a great variety
of substances appropriate to the service of each; in the case
of many of these the selection seems to have been determined
not at all by their fragrance but by some occult considerations
which it is now difficult to divine. '
Among the Romans the use of r.eligious fumigations long
preceded the introduction of foreign substances for the purpose
(see, for example, Ovid, Fast. i. 337 seq., " Et non exiguo laurus
adusta sono "). Latterly the use of frankincense (" mascula
thura," Virg. Eel. viii. 65) became very prevalent, not only
in religious ceremonials, but also on various state occasions,
such as in triumphs (Ovid, Trist. iv. 2, 4), and also in connexion
with certain occurrences of domestic life. In private it was
daily offered by the devout to the Lar familiaris (Plaut. Aulul.
prol. 23); and in public sacrifices it was not only sprinkled
on the head of the victim by the pontifex before its slaughter,
and afterwards mingled with its blood, but was also thrown
upon the flames over which it was roasted.
No perfectly satisfactory traces can be found of the use of
incense in the ritual of the Christian Church during the first
four centuries.1 It obviously was not contemplated by the
1 This guarded statement still holds good. Compare Duchesne,
Christian Worship (Eng. trans., 1904), ch. ii., " The Mass in the
East," v. " The Books of the Latin Rite," and xii. "The Dedica-
tion of Churches."
author of the epistle to the Hebrews; its use was foreign to the
synagogue services on which, and not on those of the temple,
the worship of the primitive Christians is well known to have been
originally modelled; and its associations with heathen solemni-
ties, and with the evil repute of those who were known as
" thurificati," would still further militate against its employment.
Various authors of the ante-Nicene period have expressed them-
selves as distinctly unfavourable to its religious, though not of
course to its domestic, use. Thus Tertullian, while (De Cor.
Mil. 10) ready to acknowledge its utility in counteracting
unpleasant smells ( " si me odor alicujus loci offenderit, Arabiae
aliquid incendo "), is careful to say that he scorns to offeV
it as an accompaniment to his heartfelt prayers (Apol. 30; cf.
42). Athenagoras also (Legal. 13) gives distinct expression to
his sense of the needlessness of any such ritual (" the Creator
and Father of the universe does not require blood, nor smoke,
nor even the sweet smell of flowers and incense ") ; and Arnobius
(Adv. Gent. vii. 26) seeks to justify the Christian neglect of it
by the fact, for which he vouches, that among the Romans them-
selves incense was unknown in the time of Numa, while the
Etruscans had always continued to be strangers to it. Cyril
of Jerusalem, Augustine and the Apostolic Constitutions make
no reference to any such feature either in the public or private
worship of the Christians of that time. The earliest mention,
it would seem, occurs in the Apostolic Canons (can. 3), where
the dvula^a is spoken of as one of the requisites of the euchar-
istic service. It is easy to perceive how it should inevitably
have come in along with the whole circle of ideas involved in
such words as " temple," " altar," " priest," which about this
time came to be so generally applied in ecclesiastical connexions.
Evagrius (vi. 21) mentions the gift of aOvniarripiov by the con-
temporary Chosroes of Persia to the church of Jerusalem; and
all the Oriental liturgies of this period provide special prayers
for the thurification of the eucharistic elements. The oldest
Ordo Romamis, which perhaps takes us back to within a century
of Gregory the Great, enjoins that in pontifical masses a sub-
deacon, with a golden censer, shall go before the bishop as he
leaves the secretarium for the choir, and two, with censers,
before the deacon gospeller as he proceeds with the gospel to
the ambo. And less than two centuries afterwards we read an
order in one of the capitularies of Hincmar of Reims, to the
effect that every priest ought to be provided with a censer and
incense. That in this portion of their ritual, however, the
Christians of that period were not universally conscious of its
direct descent from Mosaic institutions may be inferred perhaps
from the " benediction of the incense " used in the days of
Charlemagne, which runs as follows: " May the Lord bless
this incense to the extinction of every noxious smell, and kindle
it to the odour of its sweetness." Even Thomas Aquinas (p. iii.
qu. 83, art. 5) gives prominence to this idea.
The character and order of these historical notices of incense
would certainly, were there nothing else to be considered, justify
the conclusion hitherto generally adopted, that its use was wholly
unknown in the worship of the Christian Church before the sth
century. On the other hand, we know that in the first Christian
services held in the catacombs under the city of Rome, incense
was burnt as a sanitary fumigation at least. Tertullian also
distinctly alludes to the use of aromatics in Christian burial:
" the Sabaeans will testify that more of their merchandise, and
that more costly, is lavished on the burial of Christians, than in
burning incense to the gods." And the whole argument from
analogy is in favour of the presumption of the ceremonial use
of incense by the Christians from the first. It is natural that
little should be said of so obvious a practice until the fuller
development of ritual in a later age. The slighting references-
to it by the Christian fathers are no more an argument against
its existence in the primitive church than the similar denuncia-
tions by the Jewish prophets of burnt-offerings and sacrifices
are any proof that there were no such rites as the offering of
incense, and of the blood of bulls and fat of rams, in the worship
of the temple at Jerusalem. There could be no real offence to-
Christians in the burning of incense. Malachi (i. 1 1) had already
352
INCENSE
foretold the time when among the Gentiles, in every place,
incense should be offered to God. Gold, with myrrh and frank-
incense were offered by the Persian Magi to the infant Jesus at
his birth; and in Revelation viii. 3, 4, the image of the offering
of incense with the prayers of the saints, before the throne of
God, is not without its significance. If also the passage in
Ambrose of Milan (on Luke i. n), where he speaks of " us " as
" adolentes altaria " is to be translated " incensing the altars,"
and taken literally, it is a testimony to the use of incense by the
Christian Church in, at least, the 4th century. But the earliest
express mention of the censing of the altar by Christian priests
is in " the works," first quoted in the 6th century, attributed
to " Dionysius the Areopagite," the contemporary of St Paul
(Acts xvii. 34).
The Missal of the Roman Church now enjoins incensation
before the introit, at the gospel and again at the offertory, and
at the elevation, in every high mass; the use of incense also
occurs at the exposition of the sacrament, at consecrations of
churches and the like, in processions, in the office for the burial
of the dead and at the exhibition of relics. On high festivals
the altar is censed at vespers and lauds.
In the Church of England the use of incense was gradually
abandoned after the reign of Edward VI., until the ritualistic
revival of the present day. Its use, however, has never been
abolished by law. A " Form for the Consecration of a Censer "
occurs in Bancroft's Form of Dedication and Consecration of a
Church or Chapel (1685). In various works of reference (as, for
example, in Notes and Queries, 3rd ser. vol. viii. p. u) numerous
sporadic cases are mentioned in which incense appears to have
been burnt in churches; the evidence, however, does not go
so far as to show that it was used during divine service, least of
all that it was used during the communion office. At the corona-
tion of George III., one of the king's grooms appeared " in a
scarlet dress, holding a perfuming pan, burning perfumes, as
at previous coronations."
In 1899, on the appeal of the Rev. H. Westall, St Cuthbert's,
London, and the Rev. E. Ram, St John's, Norwich, against the
use of incense in the Church of England, the archbishops of
Canterbury (Dr Temple) and York (Dr Maclagan) supported
the appeal. Their decision was reviewed by Chancellor L. T.
Dibdin in the loth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, and
the exposition given by Sir Lewis Dibdin of the whole question
of the use of incense in the Church of England may here be
interpolated. (G. B.)
Incense in the Church of England. — Mr Scudamore (Notitia
Eucharislica, and ed. pp. 141-142) thus describes the method
and extent of the employment of incense at the mass prior to
the Reformation: —
" According to the use of Sarum (and Bangor) the priest, after
being himself censed by the deacon, censed the altar before the
Introit began. The York rubric directed him to do it immediately
after the first saying of the Introit, which in England was thrice said.
The Hereford missal gives no direction for censing the altar at that
time. The middle of the altar was censed, according to Sarum,
Bangor and Hereford, before the reading of the Gospel. According
to Sarum and Bangor, the thurible, as well as the lights, attended the
Gospel to the lectern. Perhaps the York rubric implies that this was
done when it orders (which the others do not) the thurible to be
carried round the choir with the Gospel while the Creed was being
sung. In the Sarum and Bangor, the priest censed the oblations after
offering them; then the space between himself and the altar. He
was then, at Sarum, censed by the deacon, and an acolyte censed the
choir ; at Bangor the Sinistrum Gornu of the altar and the relics were
censed instead. York and Hereford ordered no censing at the
offertory. There is reason to think that, notwithstanding the order
for the use of incense at every celebration, it was in practice burnt
only on high festivals, and then only in rich churches, down to the
period of the Reformation. In most parishes its costliness alone
would preclude its daily use, while the want of an assistant minister
would be a very common reason for omitting the rite almost every-
where. Incense was not burnt in private masses, so that the clergy
were accustomed to celebrations without it, and would naturally
forego it on any plausible ground."
The ritual of the mass remained unchanged until the death of
Henry VIII. (Jan. 28, 1547). In March 1548 the Order
of the Communion was published and commanded to be used
by royal proclamation in the name of Edward VI. It was the
precursor of the Prayer Book, and supplemented the accustomed
Latin service by additions in English to provide for the com-
munion of the people in both kinds. But it was expressly stated
in a rubric that the old service of the mass was to proceed without
variation of any rite or ceremony .until after the priest had
received the sacrament, that is, until long after the last of the
three occasions for the use of incense explained above. But on
Whitsunday 1549 the first Prayer Book of Edward VI. came
into use under an Act of Parliament (2 and 3 Ed. VI. ch. i, the
first Act of Uniformity) which required its exclusive use in
public worship so as to supersede all other forms of service.
Another Act, 3 and 4 Ed. VI. ch. 10, required the old service
books to be delivered up to be destroyed. The first Prayer
Book does not contain any direction to use or any mention of
incense. It has been and still is a keenly controverted question
whether incense did or did not continue to be in ceremonial
use under the first Prayer Book or during the rest of Edward VI. 's
reign. No evidence has hitherto been discovered which justifies
us in answering this question in the affirmative. The second
Prayer Book of Edward VI. (1552), published under the authority
of the second Act of Uniforpiity (5 and 6 Ed. VI. ch. i), contains
no reference to incense. Edward VI. died on the 6th July
^553- Queen Mary by statute (i Mary, sess. 2, ch. 2) abolished
the Prayer Book, repealed the Acts of Uniformity and restored
" divine service and administration of sacraments as were most
commonly used in England in the last year of Henry VIII."
The ceremonial use of incense thus became again an undoubted
part of the communion service in the Church of England. A
proclamation issued (December 6, 1553) directed the church-
wardens to obtain the proper ornaments for the churches; and
the bishops (at any rate Bishop Bonner, see Visitation Articles
1554, Cardwell's Doc. Ann. i. 149-153) in their visitations
inquired whether censers had been furnished for use. Mary
died on the 1 7th of November 1558. On the 24th of June 1 559 the
second Prayer Book of Edward VI. (with a few alterations having
no reference to incense) was again established, under the authority
of the third Act of Uniformity (i Eliz. ch. 2), as the exclusive
service book for public service. There is no evidence of the
ceremonial use of incense under Elizabeth's Prayer Book, or under
the present Prayer Book of 1662 (established by the fourth Act
of Uniformity, 13 and 14 Charles II. ch. 4) until the middle of the
I9th century; and there is no doubt that as a ceremony of divine
worship, whether at the Holy Communion or at other services,
it was entirely disused. There are, however, a good many in-
stances recorded of what has been called a fumigatory use of
frankincense in churches, by which it was sought to purify the air,
in times of public sickness, or to dispel the foulness caused by
large congregations, or poisonous gases arising from ill-con-
structed vaults under the church floor. It seems also to have
been used for the purpose of creating an agreeable perfume on
great occasions, e.g. the great ecclesiastical feasts. But this use
of incense must be carefully distinguished from its ceremonial
use. It was utilitarian and not symbolical, and from the nature
of the purpose in view must have taken place before, rather than
during, service. Of the same character is the use of incense
carried in a perfuming pan before the sovereign at his coronation
in the procession from Westminster Hall to the Abbey. This
observance was maintained from James II. 's coronation to that
of George III. In the general revival of church ceremonial
which accompanied and followed the Oxford Movement incense
was not forgotten, and its ceremonial use in the pre-Reformation
method has been adopted in a few extreme churches since 1850.
Its use has been condemned as an illegal ceremony by the
ecclesiastical courts. In 1868 Sir Robert Phillimore (Dean of
the Arches) pronounced the ceremonial use of incense to be
illegal in the suit of Martin v. Mackonochie (2 A. and E. L.R.
116). The case was carried to the Privy Council on appeal,
but there was no appeal on the question of incense. Again,
in 1870, the ceremonial use of incense was condemned by Sir
Robert Phillimore in the suit of Sumner \. Wix (3 A. and E.
L.R. 58).
INCEST— INCHBALD
353
Notwithstanding these decisions, it was insisted by those
who defended the revival of the ceremonial use of incense that
it was a legal custom of the Church of England. The question
was once more elaborately argued in May 1899 before an informal
tribunal consisting of the archbishop of Canterbury (Dr. Temple)
and the archbishop of York (Dr. Maclagan), at Lambeth Palace.
On the 3ist of July 1899 the archbishops decided that the liturgi-
cal use of incense was illegal. The Lambeth " opinion," as it was
called, failed to convince the clergy against whom it was directed
any better than the judgments of the ecclesiastical courts, but
at first a considerable degree of obedience, to the archbishops'
view was shown. Various expedients were adopted, as, e.g.,
the use of incense just before the beginning of service, by which
it was sought to retain incense without infringing the law as
laid down by the archbishops. There remained, nevertheless,
a tendency on the part of the clergy who used incense, or desired
to do so, to revert to the position they occupied before the
Lambeth hearing — that is, to insist on the ceremonial use of
incense as a part of the Catholic practice of the Church of England
which it is the duty of the clergy to maintain, notwithstanding
the decisions of ecclesiastical judges or the opinions or arch-
bishops to the contrary. (L. T. D.)
Manufacture. — For the manufacture of the incense now used
in the Christian churches of Europe there is no fixed rule. The
books of ritual are agreed that Ex. xxx. 34 should be taken as
a guide as much as possible. It is recommended that frank-
incense should enter as largely as possible into its composition,
and that if inferior materials be employed at all they should
not be allowed to preponderate. In Rome olibanum alone is
employed; in other places benzoin, storax, lign, aloes, cascarilla
bark, cinnamon, cloves and musk are all said to be occasionally
used. In the Russian Church, benzoin is chiefly employed.
The Armenian liturgy, in its benediction of the incense, speaks
of " this perfume prepared from myrrh and cinnamon."
The preparation of pastils of incense has probably come down
in a continuous tradition from ancient Egypt, Babylonia and
Phoenicia. Cyprus was for centuries famous for their manu-
facture, and they were still known in the middle ages by the
names of pastils or osselets of Cyprus.
Maimonides, in his More Nevochim, states that the use of
incense in the worship of the Jews originated as a corrective
of the disagreeable odours arising from the slaughter and burning
of the animals offered in sacrifice. There can be no doubt that
its use throughout the East is based on sanitary considerations;
and in Europe even, in the time when the dead were buried in
the churches, it was recognized that the burning of incense
served essentially to preserve their salubrity. But evidently
the idea that the odour of a burnt-offering (cf. the KCIOTJS rfdiis
avrnTi of Odyss. xii. 369) is grateful to the deity, being indeed
the most essential part of the sacrifice, or at least the vehicle
by which alone it can successfully be conveyed to its destination,
is also a very early one, if not absolutely primitive; and survivals
of it are possibly to be met with even among the most highly
cultured peoples where the purely symbolical nature of all
religious ritual is most clearly understood and maintained.
Some such idea plainly underlies the familiar phrase " a sweet
savour," more literally "a savour of satisfaction," whereby an
acceptable offering by fire is so often .denoted in the Bible (Gen.
viii. 21 ; Lev. i. 9, et passim; cf. Eph. v. 2). It is easy to imagine
how, as men grew in sensuous appreciation of pleasant perfumes,
and in empirical knowledge of the sources from which these
could be derived, this advance would naturally express itself,
not only in their domestic habits, but also in the details of their
religious ceremonial, so that the custom of adding some kind
of incense to their animal sacrifices, and at length that of offering
it pure and simple, would inevitably arise. Ultimately, with the
development of the spiritual discernment of men, the " offering
of incense " became a mere symbolical phrase for prayer (see
Rev. v. 8, viii. 3, 4). Clement of Alexandria expresses this, in
his well-known words: " The true altar of incense is the just
soul, and the perfume from it is holy prayer." (So also Origen,
Cont. Cels. viii. 17, 20.) The ancients were familiar with
the sanitary efficacy of fumigations. The energy with which
Ulysses, after the slaughter of the suitors, calls to Euryclea for
" fire and sulphur " to purge (literally " fumigate ") the dining-
hall from the pollution of their blood (Od. xxii. 481, 482) would
startle those who imagine that sanitation is a peculiarly modern
science. There is not the slightest doubt that the censing of
things and persons was first practised as an act of purification,
and thus became symbolical of consecration, and finally of the
sanctification of the soul. The Egyptians understood the use
of incense as symbolical of the purification of the soul by prayer.
Catholic writers generally treat it as typifying contrition, the
preaching of the Gospel, the prayers of the faithful and the
virtues of the saints. (G. B.)
INCEST (Lat. inceslus, unchaste), sexual intercourse between
persons so related by kindred or affinity that legal marriage
cannot take place between them (see MARRIAGE, especially the
section Canon Law), In England incest formerly was not
generally treated as a crime, although, along with other offences
against morals, it was made punishable by death in 1650. Since
the Restoration it had, to use Blackstone's phrase, been left
to the " feeble coercion of the spiritual courts," but bills to
make it a criminal offence have at various times been unsuccess-
fully introduced in Parliament. In 1908 however, an act (The
Punishment of Incest Act 1908) was passed, under which sexual
intercourse of a male with his grand-daughter, daughter, sister
or mother is made punishable with penal servitude for not less
than 3 or more than 7 years, or with imprisonment for not more
than two years with or without hard, labour. It is immaterial
that the sexual intercourse was had with the consent of the
female; indeed, by s. 2 a female who consents is on conviction
liable to the same punishment as the male. The act also makes
an attempt to commit the offence of incest a misdemeanour,
punishable by imprisonment for not more than two years with
or without hard labour. The terms " brother " and " sister "
include half-brother and half-sister, whether the relationship
is or is not traced through lawful wedlock. All proceedings
under the act are held in camera (s. 5). The act does not apply
to Scotland, incest being punishable in Scots law. Under the
Matrimonial Causes Act 1857, s. 27, incestuous adultery is per se
sufficient ground to entitle a wife to divorce her husband. The
Deceased Wife's Sister's Marriage Act 1907, s. 3, retained wives'
sisters in the class of persons with whom adultery is incestuous.
In the law of Scotland, it was, until the Criminal Procedure
(Scotland) Act 1887, a crime nominally punishable with death,
but the penalty usually inflicted was penal servitude for life.
This sentence was actually pronounced on a man in 1855. In
the United States incest is not an indictable offence at common
law, but, generally speaking, it has been made punishable by
fine and imprisonment by state legislation. It is also a punish-
able offence in some European countries, notably Germany,
Austria and Italy.
INCH (O. Eng.ywce from Lat. uncia, a twelfth part ;cf. "ounce,"
and see As), the twelfth part of a linear foot. As a measure of
rainfall an " inch of rain " is equivalent to a fall of a gallon
of water spread over a surface of about 2 sq. ft., or 100 tons
to an acre.
INCHBALD, MRS ELIZABETH (1753-1821), English novelist,
playwright and actress, was born on the isth of October 1753
at Standingfield, Suffolk, the daughter of John Simpson, a
farmer. Her father died when she was eight years old. She and
her sisters never enjoyed the advantages of school or of any
regular supervision in their studies, but they seem to have
acquired refined and literary tastes at an early age. Ambitious
to become an actress, a career for which an impediment in her
speech hardly seemed to qualify her, she applied in vain for an
engagement; and finally, in 1772, she abruptly left home to
seek her fortune in London. Here she married Joseph Inchbald
(d. 1779), an actor, and on the 4th of September made her
debut in Bristol as Cordelia, to his Lear. For several years she
continued to act with him in the provinces. Her r&les included
Anne Boleyn, Jane Shore, Calista, Calpurnia, Lady Anne in
Richard III., Lady Percy, Lady Elizabeth Grey, Fanny in
XIV. 12
354
INCHIQUIN, EARL OF— INCLINOMETER
The Clandestine Marriage, Desdemona, Aspasia in Tamerlane,
Juliet and Imogen; but notwithstanding her great beauty
and her natural aptitude for acting, her inability to acquire
rapid and easy utterance prevented her from attaining to more
than very moderate success. After the death of her husband
she continued for some time on the stage; making her first
London appearance at Covent Garden as Bellario in Philaster
on the 3rd of October 1780. Her success, however, as an author
led her to retire in 1789. She died at Kensington House on the
ist of August 1821.
Mrs. Inchbald wrote or adapted nineteen plays, and some
of them, especially Wives as They Were and Maids as They Are
(1797), were for a. time very successful. Among the others may
be mentioned /'// tell you What (translated into German, Leipzig,
1798); Such Things Are (1788); The Married Man; The
•Wedding Day; The Midnight Hour; Everyone has his Fault;
and Lover's Vows. She also edited a collection of the British
Theatre, with biographical and critical remarks (25 vols., 1806-
1809); a Collection of Farces (7 vols., 1809); and The Modern
Theatre (10 vols., 1809). Her fame, however, rests chiefly on
her two novels: A Simple Story (1791), and Nature and Art
(1796). These works possess many minor faults and inaccuracies,
but on the whole their style is easy, natural and graceful; and
if they are tainted in some degree by a morbid and exaggerated
sentiment, and display none of that faculty of creation possessed
by the best writers of fiction, the pathetic situations, and the
deep and pure feeling pervading them, secured for them a wide
popularity.
Mrs Inchbald destroyed an autobiography for which she had been
offered £1000 by Phillips the publisher; but her Memoirs, compiled
by J. Boaden, chiefly from her private journal, appeared in 1833 in
two volumes. An interesting account of Mrs Inchbald is contained
in Records of a Girlhood, by Frances Ann Kemble (1878). Her
portrait was painted by Sir Thomas Lawrence.
INCHIQUIN, MURROUGH O'BRIEN, IST EARL OF (c. 1614-
1674), Irish soldier and statesman, was the son of Dermod
O'Brien, 5th Baron Inchiquin (d. 1624). He belonged to a great
family which traced its descent to Brian Boroimhe, king of Ireland,
and members of which were always to the forefront in Irish
public life. The first baron of Inchiquin was another Murrough
O'Brien (d. 1551) who, after having made his submission to
Henry VIII., was created baron of Inchiquin and earl of Thomond
in 1543. When Murrough died in November 1551 by a curious
arrangement his earldom passed to his nephew Donogh, son of
Conor O'Brien (d. 1539), the last independent prince of Thomond
(see THOMOND, EARLS OF), leaving only his barony to be inherited
by his son Dermod (d. 1557), the ancestor of the later barons of
Inchiquin.
Murrough O'Brien, who became 6th baron of Inchiquin in
1624, gained some military experience in Italy, and then in
1640 was appointed vice-president of Munster. He took an
active and leading part in suppressing the great Irish rebellion
which broke out in the following year, and during the Civil War
the English parliament made him president of Munster. Early in
1648, however, he declared for his former master Charles I., and
for about two years he sought to uphold the royalist cause in
Ireland. In 1654 Charles II. made him an earl. His later years
were partly spent in France and in Spain, but he had returned
to Ireland when he died on the 9th of September 1674.
His son William, the 2nd earl (c. 1638-1692), served under
his father in France and Spain, and for six years was governor
of Tangier. He was a partisan of William III. in Ireland, and in
1690 he became governor of Jamaica where he died in January
1692. In 1800 his descendant Murrough, the sth earl (d. 1808),
was created marquess of Thomond, but on the death of James,
the 3rd marquess, in July 1855 both the marquessate and the
earldom became extinct. The barony of Inchiquin, however,
passed to a kinsman, Sir Lucius O'Brien, Bart. (1800-1872),
a descendant of the first baron and a brother of William Smith
O'Brien (q.v.).
INCLEDON, CHARLES BENJAMIN (1763-1826), English
singer, son of a doctor in Cornwall, began as a choir-boy at
Exeter, but then went into the navy. His fine tenor voice,
however, attracted general attention, and in 1783 he determined
to seek his fortune on the stage. After various provincial
appearances he made a great success in 1790 at Covent Garden,
and thenceforth was the principal English tenor of his day. He
sang both in opera and in oratorio, but his chief popularity lay
in his delivery of ballads, such as " Sally in our Alley," " Black-
eyed Susan," " The Arethusa," and anything of a bold and manly
type. He toured in America in 1817; and on retiring in 1822
from the operatic stage, he travelled through the provinces
with an entertainment called " The Wandering Melodist."
He died of paralysis at Worcester on the nth of February
1826.
INCLINOMETER (Dn> CIRCLE). Two distinct classes of
instruments are used for measuring the dip (see MAGNETISM,
TERRESTRIAL) or inclination of the earth's magnetic field to the
horizontal, namely (i) dip circles, and (2) induction inclino-
meters or earth inductors.
Dip Circles. — In the case of the dip circle the direction or
the earth's magnetic field is obtained by observing the position
of the axis of a magnetized needle so supported as to be free
to turn about a horizontal axis passing through its centre of
gravity. The needles now used consist of flat lozenge-shaped
pieces of steel about 9 cm. long and o-i cm. thick, and
weigh about 4-1 grams. The axle, which is made of hard
steel, projects on either side of the needle and has a diameter
of about 0-05 cm. Needles considerably larger than the above
have been used, but experience showed that the values for the
dip observed with needles 23 cm. long, was about i' less than
with the 9 cm. needles, and A. Schuster (Phil. Mag., 1891 [5],
31, p. 275) has shown that the difference is due to the appreciable
bending of the longer needles owing to their weight.
When in use the dip needle is supported on two agate knife-
edges, so that its axle is on the axis of a vertical divided circle,
on which the positions of the ends of the needle are either directly
observed by means of two reading lenses, in which case the circle
is generally divided into thirds of a degree so that it can by
estimation be read to about two minutes, or a cross arm carries
two small microscopes and two verniers, the cross wires of
each microscope being adjusted so as to bisect the image of the
corresponding end of the needle. Two V-shaped lifters actuated
by a handle serve to raise the needle from the agates, and when
lowered assure the axle being at the centre of the vertical circle.
INCLINOMETER
355
The supports for the needle, and a box to protect the needle
from draughts, as well as the vertical circle, can be rotated
about a vertical axis, and their azimuth read off on a horizontal
divided circle. There are also two adjustable stops which can
be set in any position, and allow the upper part of the instrument
to be rotated through exactly 180° without the necessity of
reading the horizontal circle.
When making a determination of the dip with the dip circle,
a number of separate readings have to be made in order to
eliminate various instrumental defects. Thus, that side of the
needle on which the number is engraved being called the face
of the needle, and that side of the protecting box next the vertical
circle the face of the instrument, both ends of the needle are
observed in the following relative positions, the instrument
being in every case so adjusted in azimuth that the axle of the
needle points magnetic east and west: —
i. Face of instrument east and face of needle next to face of
instrument ;
ii. Face of instrument west and face of needle next to face of
instrument ;
iii. Face of instrument west and face of needle away from face of
instrument;
iv. Face of instrument east and face of needle away from face of
instrument. .
Next the direction of magnetization of the needle is reversed
by stroking it a number of times with two strong permanent
magnets, when the other end of the needle dips and the above
four sets of readings are repeated. The object in reading both
ends of the needle is to avoid error if the prolongation of the axle
of the needle does not pass through the centre of the vertical
circle, as also to avoid error due to the eccentricity of the arm
which carries the reading microscopes and verniers. The
reversal of the instrument between (i.) and (ii.) and between (iii.)
and (iv.) is to eliminate errors due to (a) the line joining the
zeros of the vertical circle not being exactly horizontal, and (b)
the agate knife-edges which support the needle not being exactly
horizontal. The reversal of the needle between (ii.) and (iii.) is
to eliminate errors due to (a) the magnetic axis of the needle
not coinciding with the line joining the two points of the needle,
and (h) to the centre of gravity of the. needle being displaced
from the centre of the axle in a direction at right angles to the
length of the needle. The reversal of the poles of the needle
is to counteract any error produced by the centre of gravity
of the needle being displaced from the centre of the axle in a
direction parallel to the length of the needle.
For use at sea the dip circle was modified by Robert Were
Fox (Annals of Electricity, 1839, 3, p. 288), who used a needle
having pointed axles, the points resting in jewelled holes carried
by two uprights, so that the movement of the ship does not
cause the axle of the needle to change its position with reference
to the vertical divided circle. To counteract the tendency of
the axle to stick in the bearings, the instrument is fitted with
a knob on the top of the box protecting the needle, and when a
reading is being taken this knob is rubbed with an ivory or horn
disk, the surface of which is corrugated. In this way a tremor is
caused which is found to assist the needle in overcoming the
effects of friction, so that it takes up its true position. In the
Creak modification of the Fox dip circle, the upper halves of
the jewels which form the bearings are cut away so that the
needle can be easily removed, and thus the reversals necessary
when making a complete observation can be performed (see
also MAGNETO-METER).
Induction Inclinometers. — The principle on which induction
inclinometers depend is that if a coil of insulated wire is spun about
a diameter there will be an alternating current induced in the
coil, unless the axis about which it turns is parallel to the lines
of force of the earth's field. Hence if the axis about which such
a coil spins is adjusted till a sensitive galvanometer connected
to the coil through a commutator, by which the alternating
current is converted into a direct current, is undeflected, then
the axis must be parallel to the lines of force of the earth's field,
and hence the inclination of the axis to the horizontal is the dip.
The introduction and perfection of this type of inclinometer
is almost entirely due to H. Wild. His form of instrument
for field observations1 consists of a coil 10 cm. in diameter,
containing about 1000 turns of silk-covered copper wire, the
resistance being about 40 ohms, which is pivoted inside a metal
ring. This ring can itself rotate about a horizontal axle in its
own plane, this axle being at right angles to that about which
the coil can rotate. Attached to the axle of the ring is a divided
circle, by means of which and two reading microscopes the
inclination of the axis of rotation of the coil to the horizontal
can be read. The bearings which support the horizontal axle
of the ring are mounted on a horizontal annulus which can be
rotated in a groove attached to the base of the instrument,
as so to allow the azimuth of the axle of the ring, and hencfe
also that of the plane in which the axis of the coil can move,
to be adjusted. The coil is rotated by means of a flexible shaft
worked by a small cranked handle and a train of gear wheels.
The terminals of the coil are taken to a two-part commutator
of the ordinary pattern on which rest two copper brushes which
are connected by flexible leads to a sensitive galvanometer.
The inclination of the axis of the coil can be roughly adjusted
by hand by rotating the supporting ring. The final adjustment
is made by means of a micrometer screw attached to an arm
which is clamped on the axle of the ring.
When making a measurement the azimuth circle is first set
horizontal, a striding level placed on the trunnions which carry
the ring being used to indicate when the adjustment is complete.
The striding level is then placed on the axle which carries the
coil, and when the bubble is at the centre of the scale the micro-
scopes are adjusted to the zeros of the vertical circle. A box
containing a long compass needle and having two feet with
inverted V's is placed to rest on the axle of the coil, and the
instrument is turned in azimuth till the compass needle points
to a lubber line on the box. By this means the axis of the coil
is brought into the magnetic meridian. The commutator being
connected to a sensitive galvanometer, the coil is rotated, and
the ring adjusted till the galvanometer is undeflected. The
reading on the vertical circle then gives the dip. By a system
of reversals slight faults in the adjustment of the instrument
can be eliminated as in the case of the dip circle. With such
an instrument it is claimed that readings of dip can be made
accurate to ±0-1 minutes of arc.
The form of Wild inductor for use in a fixed observatory
differs from the above in that the coil consists of a drum-wound
armature, but without iron, of which the length is about three
times the diameter. This armature has its axle mounted in a
frame attached to the sloping side of a stone pillar, so that the
axis of rotation is approximately parallel to the lines of force
of the earth's field. By means of two micrometer screws the
inclination of the axis to the magnetic meridian and to the
horizontal can be adjusted. The armature is fitted with a com-
mutator and a system of gear wheels by means of which it can
be rapidly rotated. The upper end of the axle carries a plane
mirror, the normal to which is adjusted parallel to the axis of
rotation of the armature. A theodolite is placed on the top of
the pillar and the telescope is turned so that the image of the
cross-wires, seen by reflection in the mirror, coincides with the
wires themselves. In this way the axis of the theodolite telescope
is placed parallel to the axis of the armature, and hence the dip
can be read off on the altitude circle of the theodolite.
AUTHORITIES. — In addition to the references already given the
following papers may be consulted: (i) Admiralty Manual of
Scientific Inquiry, which contains directions for making observations
with a dip circle; (2) Stewart and Gee, Elementary Practical Physics,
which contains a full description of the dip circle and instructions for
making a set of observations; (3) L. A. Bauer, Terrestrial Magnetism
(1901), 6, p. 31, a memoir which contains the results of a comparison
of the values for the dip obtained with a number of different circles;
(4) E. Leyst, Repertorium fur Meteorologie der kaiserl. Akad. der Wiss.
(St Petersburg, 1887), 10, No. 5, containing a discussion of the errors
of dip circles; (5) H. Wild, Butt, de I'Acad. Imp. des Sci. de St
Petersbourg (March 1895), a paper which considers the accuracy
obtainable with the earth inductor. (W. WN.)
1 Repertorium fur Meteorologie der kaiserl. A kad. der Wissensch.
(St Petersburg, 1892), 16, No. 2, or Meteorolog. Zeits. (1895), 12, p. 41.
356
INCLOSURE— INCOME TAX
INCLOSURE, or ENCLOSURE, in law, the fencing in of waste
or common lands by the lord of the manor for the purpose of
cultivation. For the history of the inclosure of such lands, and
the legislation, dating from 1235, which deals with it, see
COMMONS.
IN COENA DOMINI, a papal bull, so called from its opening
words, formerly issued annually on Holy Thursday (in Holy
Week), or later on Easter Monday. Its first publication was in
1363. It was a statement of ecclesiastical censure against
heresies, schisms, sacrilege, infringement of papal and ecclesiasti-
cal privileges, attacks on person and property, piracy, forgery
and other crimes. For two or three hundred years it was varied
from time to time, receiving its final form from Pope Urban
VIII. in 1627. Owing to the opposition of the sovereigns of
Europe both Protestant and Catholic, who regarded the bull
as an infringement of their rights, its publication was discon-
tinued by Pope Clement XIV. in 1770.
INCOME TAX, in the United Kingdom a general tax on income
derived from every source. Although a graduated tax on income
from certain fixed sources was levied in 1435 and again in 1450,
it may be said that the income tax in its present form dates in
England from its introduction by W. Pitt in 1798 "granting
to His Majesty an aid and contribution for the prosecution
of the war." This act of 1798 merely increased the duties of
certain assessed taxes, which were regulated by the amount of
income of the person assessed, provided his income amounted
to £60 or upwards. These duties were repealed by an act of
1799 (39 Geo. III. c. 13), which imposed a duty of 10% on all
incomes from whatever sources derived, incomes under £60
a year being exempt, and reduced rates charged on incomes
between that amount and £200 a year. The produce of this
tax was £6,046,624 for the first year, as compared with £1,855,996,
the produce of the earlier tax. This income tax was repealed
after the peace of Amiens, but the renewal of the war in 1803
caused its revival. At the same time was introduced the principle
of " collection at the source " (i.e. collection before the income
reaches the person to whom it belongs), which is still retained
in the English Revenue system, and which, it has been said,
is mainly responsible for the present development of income
tax and the ease with which it is collected. The act of 1803
(43 Geo. III. c. 122) distributed the various descriptions of in-
come under different schedules, known as A, B, C, D and E.
A rate of 5 % was imposed on all incomes of £i 50 a year and over,
with graduation on incomes between £60 and £i 50. This income
tax of 5 % collected at the source yielded almost as much as
the previous tax of 10% collected direct from each taxpayer.
The tax was continued from year to year with the principle
unchanged but with variations in the rate until the close of
the war in 1815, when it was repealed. It was, during its first
imposition, regarded as essentially a war tax, and in later days,
when it was reimposed, it was always considered as an emergency
tax, to be levied only to relieve considerable financial strain,
but it has now taken its place as a permanent source of national
income, and is the most productive single tax in the British
financial system. The income tax was revived in 1842 by Sir
R. Peel, not as a war tax, but to enable him to effect important
financial reforms (see TAXATION). Variations both in the rate
levied and the amount of income exempted have taken place
from time to time, the most important, probably, being found
in the Finance Acts of 1894, 1897, 1898, 1907 and 1909-1910.
It will be useful to review the income tax as it existed before the
important changes introduced in 1909. It was, speaking broadly, a
tax levied on all incomes derived from sources within the United
Kingdom, or received by residents in the United Kingdom from other
sources. Incomes under £160 were exempt ; an abatement allowed
of £160 on those between £160 and £400; of £150 on those between
£400 and £500 ; of £120 on those between £500 and £600, and of £70
on those between £600 and £700. An abatement was also allowed
on account of any premiums paid for life insurance, provided they
did not exceed one-sixth of the total income. The limit of total
exemption was fixed in 1894, when it was raised from £150; and
the scale of abatements was revised in 1898 by admitting incomes
between ^£500 and £700 ; the Finance Act 1907, distinguished
between ' earned " and " unearned " income, granting relief to the
former over the latter by 3d. in the pound, where the income from all
sources did not exceed £2000. The tax was assessed as mentioned
above, under five different schedules, known as A, B, C, D and E.
Under schedule A was charged the income derived from landed
property, including houses, the annual value or rent being the basis
of the assessment. The owner is the person taxed, whether he is or is
not in occupation. In England the tax under this schedule is ob-
tained from the occupier, who, if he is not the owner, recovers from
the latter by deducting the tax from the rent. In Scotland this tax
is usually paid by the owner as a matter of convenience, but in Ire-
land it is by law chargeable to him. All real property is subject to the
tax, with certain exceptions:— (o) crown property, such as public
offices, prisons, &c. ; (6) certain properties belonging to charitable
and educational bodies, as hospitals, public schools, colleges, alms-
houses, &c. ; (c) public parks or recreation grounds; (d) certain
realities of companies such as mines, quarries, canals, &c., from
which no profit is derived beyond the general profit of the concern to
which they belong. Under schedule B were charged the profits
arising from the occupation of land, the amount of such profits being
assumed to be one-third of the annual value of the land as fixed for
the purposes of schedule A. This applies principally to farmers who
might, if they chose, be assessed on schedule D on their actual
profits. Schedule C included income derived from interest, &c.,
payable out of the public funds of the United Kingdom or any other
country. Schedule D, the most important branch of the income tax
and the most difficult to assess, included profits arising from trade,
from professional or other employment, and from foreign, property,
the assessment in most cases being made on an average of the
receipts for three years. .Schedule E covered the salaries and
pensions of persons in the employment of the state or of public
bodies, and of the officials of public companies, &c. The method of
assessment and collection of the tax is uniformly the same. Under
schedules A, B and D it is in the hands of local authorities known as
the General or District Commissioners of Taxes. They are appointed
by the Land Tax Commissioners out of their own body, and, as
regards assessment, are not in any way controlled by the executive
government. They appoint a clerk, who is their principal officer and
legal adviser, assessors for each parish and collectors. There is an
appeal from their decisions to the High Court of Justice on points of
law, but not on questions of fact. Assessments under schedules A
and B are usually made every five years, and under schedule D
every year. The interests of the revenue are looked after by officers
of the Board of Inland Revenue, styled surveyors of taxes, who are
stationed in different parts of the country. They are in constant
communication with the Board, and with the public on all matters
relating to the assessment and collection of the tax ; they attend the
meetings of the local commissioners, examine the assessments and
the taxpayers' returns, and watch the progress of the collection.
There are also certain officers, known as special commissioners, who
are appointed by the crown, and receive fixed salaries from public
funds. For the purpose of schedule D, any taxpayer may elect to be
assessed by them instead of by the local commissioners; and those
who object to their affairs being disclosed to persons in their own
neighbourhood may thus have their assessments made without any
risk of publicity. The special commissioners also assess the profits
of railway companies under schedule D, and profits arising from
foreign or colonial sources under schedules C and D. The greater
part of the incomes under schedule E is assessed by the commis-
sioners for public offices, appointed by the several departments of
the government.
Previously to 1909 the rate of income tax has been as high
as i6d. (in 1855-1857), and as low as 2d. (in 1874-1876). Each
penny of the tax was estimated to produce in 1906-1907 a revenue
of £2,666,867.!
It had long been felt that there were certain inequalities in
the income tax which could be adjusted without any considerable
difficulty, and from time to time committees have met and re-
ported upon the subject. Select committees reported in 1851-
1852 and in 1861, and a Departmental Committee in 1905. In
1906 a select committee was appointed to inquire into and report
upon the practicability of graduating the income tax, and of
differentiating, for the purpose of the tax, between permanent
and precarious incomes. The summary of the conclusions
contained in their Report (365 of 1906) was: —
i. Graduation of the income tax by an extension of the existing
system of abatements is practicable. But it could not be applied to
all incomes from the highest to the lowest, with satisfactory results.
The limits of prudent extension would be reached when a large in-
crease in the rate of tax to be collected at the source was necessitated,
and the total amount which was collected in excess of what was
ultimately retained became so large as to cause serious inconvenience
to trade and commerce and to individual taxpayers. Those limits
1 Full statistics of the yield of income tax and other information
pertaining thereto will be found in the Reports of the Commissioners
of His Majesty's Inland Revenue (published annually) ; those issued
in 1870 and in 1885 are especially interesting.
INCOME TAX
357
would not be exceeded by raising the amount of income on which
an abatement would be allowed to £ 1000 or even more.
2. Graduation by a super-tax is practicable. If it be desired to
levy a much higher rate of tax upon large incomes (say of £5000
and upwards) than has hitherto been charged, a super-tax based
on personal declaration would be a practicable method.
3. Abandonment of the system of " collection at the source " and
adoption of the principle of direct personal assessment of the whole
of each person's income would be inexpedient.
4. Differentiation between earned and unearned incomes is prac-
ticable, especially if it be limited to earned incomes not exceeding
£3000 a year, and effect be given to it by charging a lower rate of tax
upon them.
5. A compulsory personal declaration from each individual of
total net income in respect of which tax is payable is expedient, and
would do much to prevent the evasion and avoidance of income tax
which at present prevail.
Acting upon the report of this committee the Finance Bill of
1909 was framed to give effect to the principles of graduation
and differentiation. The rate upon the earned portion of incomes
of persons whose total income did not exceed £3000 was left
unchanged, viz. pd. in the pound up to £2000, and is. in the
pound between £2000 and £3000. But the rate of is. in the
pound on all unearned incomes and on the earned portion of
incomes over £2000 from all sources was raised to is. 2d. In
addition to the ordinary tax of is. 2d. in the pound, a super-
tax of 6d. in the pound was levied on all incomes exceeding
£5000 a year, the super-tax being paid upon the amount by which
the incomes exceed £3000 a year. A special abatement of £10
a child for every child under the age of sixteen was allowed upon
all incomes under £SCXD a year. No abatements or exemptions
were allowed to persons not resident in the United Kingdom,
except in the case of crown servants and persons residing abroad
on. account of their health. Certain abatements for improve-
ments were also allowed to the owners of land or houses.
The estimated increased yield of the income tax for 1909-1910 on
these lines was £2,500,000, which excluded the abatements allowed
for improvements. The super-tax was estimated to yield a sum of
£500,000, which would be increased ultimately to £2,500,000, when
all returns and assessments were made.
The following accounts show the operation of the same system
of taxation in other countries: — l
Austria. — The income tax dates from 1849, but the existing tax,
which is arranged on a progressive system, came into force on the
1st of January 1898. The tax is levied on net income, deductions
from the gross income being allowed for upkeep of business, houses
and lands, for premiums paid for insurance against injuries, for
interest on business and private debts, and for payment of taxes
other than income tax. Incomes under £50 a year are exempt, the
rate of taxation at the first stage (£52) being 0-6 of the income; at
the twelfth stage (£100) the rate is I %, at the twenty-seventh stage
(£300) it rises to 2 %,at the forty-third stage (£1000) it is 3 %, and
at the fifty-sixth (£2500) it is 3^ %; an income of £4000 pays 4%;
from £4000 up to £8333 per annum progression rises at £166 a step,
and for every step £8, 6s. 8d. taxation is assessed. Incomes between
£8333 and £8750 pay £387, IDS. ; incomes over £8750 are taxed
£20, 6s. 8d. at each successive stage of £417, los. Certain persons
are exempt from the tax, viz. : — (a) the emperor; (6) members of the
imperial family, as far as regards such sums as they receive as allow-
ances; (c) the diplomatic corps, the consular corps who are not
Austrian citizens, and the official staffs and foreign servants of the
embassies, legations and consulates ; (d) such people as are exempted
by treaty or by the law of nations; (e) people in possession of pensions
from the Order of Maria Theresa, and those who receive pensions on
account of wounds or the pension attached to the medal for bravery,
are exempted as far as the pensions are concerned ; (/) officers,
chaplains and men of the army and navy have no tax levied on their
PaY ; (g) a'l other military persons, and such people as are included
in the scheme of mobilization are exempted from any tax on their
pay. Special allowances are made for incomes derived from labour,
either physical or mental, as well as for a family with several children.
There are also special exemptions in certain cases where the annual
income does not exceed £4167, ios., viz. — (a) special charges for
educating children who may be blind, deaf, dumb or crippled; (b)
expense in maintaining poor relations; (c) perpetual illness; (d)
debts; (e) special misfortunes caused by fire or floods; (/) being
called out for military service. The tax is assessed usually on a direct
return from the individual taxpayer, except in the cases of fixed
1 In Appendix No. 4 to the Report from the Select Committee on
Income Tax (1906), will be found a valuable list (prepared in the
Library of the London School of Economics) of references to the
graduation of the income tax and the distribution of incomes both
in the United Kingdom and in other countries.
salaries and wages, on which the tax is collected from the employer,
who either deducts it from the salary of the employee or pays it out
of his own pocket. The tax, which is assessed on the income of the
previous year, is paid direct to the collector's office in two instal-
ments-^-one on the ist of June and the other on the 1st of December.
Belgium. — No income tax proper exists in Belgium, but there is a
state tax of 2 % on the dividends of joint stock companies.
Denmark. — Income tax is levied under a law of the 151)1 of May
1903. Incomes under 2000 kroner pay a tax of 1-3 %; under 3000
kroner, 1-4 %; under 4000 kroner, 1-5 %; under 6000 kroner, 1-6 %;
under 8000 kroner, 1-7 %; under 10,000 kroner, 1-8 %; under
15,000 kroner, 1-9 %; under 20,000 kroner, 2-0 % and for every
additional 10,000 kroner up to 100,000 kroner I %, incomes of 100,000
kroner and upwards paying 2-5 %. Exempt from the duty are —
the king, members of the royal family and the civil list; the legations,
staffs and consular officers of foreign powers (not being Danish
subjects) ; foreigners temporarily resident in the country ; mortgage
societies, credit institutions, savings and loan banks. The increase
in capital resulting from an increase in value of properties is not
deemed income^— on the other hand no deduction in income is made
if such properties decrease in value — nor are daily payments and
travelling expenses received for the transaction of business on public
service, if the person has thereby been obliged to reside outside his
own parish. Certain deductions can be made in calculating income
— such as working expenses, office expenses, pensions and other
burthens, amounts paid for direct taxation, dues to commune and
church, tithe, tenant and farming charges, heirs' allowances and
similar burthens; interest on mortgages and other debts, and what
has been spent for necessary maintenance or insurance of the
property of the taxpayer. There are also certain exemptions with
respect to companies not having an establishment in the country.
France. — There is no income tax in France corresponding exactly
to that levied in the United Kingdom. There are certain direct
taxes, such as the taxes on buildings, personnelle mobtiiere,a.nd doors
and windows (impots de repartition) — the tax levied on income from
land and from all trades and professions (impots de quolite) which
bear a certain resemblance to portions of the British income tax
(see FRANCE : Finance). From time to time a graduated income tax
has been under discussion in the French Chambers, the proposal being
to substitute such a tax forthe existing (personnelle mobiliere) and doors
and windows taxes, but no agreement on the matter has been reached.
German Empire. — In Prussia the income tax is levied under a law
of the 24th of June 1891. All persons with incomes of over £150 per
annum are required to send in an annual declaration of their full
income, divided according to four main sources — (a) capital; (b)
landed property; (c) trade and industry; (d) employment bringing
gain, this latter including the salary or wages of workmen, servants
and industrial assistants, military persons and officials; also the
receipts of authors, artists, scientists, teachers and tutors. Liability
for income tax, however, begins with an income of £45, and rises by
a regular system of progression, the rate being about 3 % of the
income. Thus an income of more than £45, but under £52, ios. pays
a tax of 6s. and so on up to £475, an income over that sum but under
£525 paying a tax of 153. Incomes over £525 rise by steps of £50
up to £1525, for every step £l, ios. being paid. Incomes between
£1526 and £1600 rise by steps of £75, £3 being paid for every step.
Between £1601 and £3900, the steps are £100, and the tax £4 a step;
from £3901 to £5000 the steps are the same (£100), but the tax is £5
a step. There is also a supplementary tax on property of about
j'jjth % of the assessed value. This supplementary tax is not levied
on those whose taxable property does not exceed a total value of
£300, nor on those whose annual income does not exceed £45, if the
total value of their taxable property does not exceed £1000, nor on
women who have members of their own family under age to maintain,
nor on orphans under age, nor on persons incapable of earning
incomes if their taxable property does not exceed £1000 nor their
income £60. There are a number of exemptions from the income
tax, some of the more important being — (a) the military incomes of
non-commissioned officers and privates, also' of all persons on the
active list of the army or navy as long as they belong to a unit in war
formation; (6) extraordinary receipts from inheritances, presents,
insurances, from the sale of real estate not undertaken for purposes
of industry or speculation, and similar profits (all of which are
reckoned as increases of capital) ; (c) expenses incurred for the
purpose of acquiring, assuring and maintaining income; (d) interest
on debts; (e) the regular annual depreciation arising from wear
of buildings, machines, tools, &c., in so far as they are not included
under working expenses; (/) the contributions which taxpayers are
compelled by law or agreement to pay to invalid, accident, old
age insurance, widow, orphan and pension funds; (g) insurance
premiums. Moreover, persons liable to taxation with an income of
not more than £150 may deduct from that income £2, ios. for every
member of their family under fourteen years of age, and abatement
is also allowed to persons with incomes up to £475 whose solvency
has been unfavourably affected by adverse economic circumstances.
The income tax is both levied at the source (as in the case of com-
Eanies) and assessed on a direct return by the taxpayer of his income
•om all sources. Salaries are not taxed before payment. Fixed
receipts are assessed according to their amount for the taxation
year in which the assessment is made, and variable incomes on an
358
INCOME TAX
average of the three years immediately preceding the assessment.
The income tax and the supplementary tax are collected in the
first half of the second month of each quarter by the communities
(Gemeinden) who bear the whole cost.
In Saxony a graduated tax is in force on all incomes of £20 per
annum and upwards. All corporate bodies and individuals who
derive their income or any portion of it from Saxony are liable to
the extent of that income, except those serving religious, charitable
or public purposes. Incomes between £20 and £5000 are divided into
118 classes, m which the rate rises progressively. From £500 to
£5000 the classes rise by £50, and above £5000 by £100. The rate of
income tax begins at \ %, i.e. is. on an income of £20. An abatement
is allowed to those whose incomes do not exceed £155 of £2, los. for
each child between the ages of six and fourteen years, provided such
abatements do not reduce the income by more than one class. In
the case of persons with incomes not exceeding £290 abatement (not
exceeding three classes) is allowed — (a) when the support of children
or indigent relations involves a burden of such a nature as to affect
the general standard of living; (b) on account of long-continued
illness, involving heavy expense, and, on restoration to health,
temporary decrease of wage-earning power; (c) in the case of
accidents which have had the same effect.
In Bavaria the existing system of income tax came into force on
the 1st of January 1900. The rate on earned income varies according
to a scale laid down in article 5 of the law, beginning at • I % for
incomes up to £37, los. (is.), being -66% (£2, 53.) for incomes between
£230 and £250; 1-03% (£4) for incomes between £350 and £375;
1-30% (£6, i6s.) for incomes between £475 and £500 and 1-38%
(£10) for incomes between £650 and £700. Incomes exceeding £700
and not exceeding £1100 pay £i on every £50; those between £1100
and £1700, £l, los., on every £50, between £1700 and £2050, £2 on
every £50; between £2050 and £2500, £2, los. on every £50 and
beyond £2500, 3 % on every £50. Exemptions from earned income
tax are similar to those already mentioned in the case of Prussia.
Special abatement in the case of incomes not exceeding £250 from
all sources is given in consideration of education of children, pro-
tracted illness, maintenance of poor relations, serious accidents, &c.
The tax on unearned income is at the rate of ij % on incomes from
£3, los. to £5; from £6 to £20, 2%; from £21 to £35, 2j%; from
£36 to £50, 3%; from £51 to £150, 3}%; from £151 to £5000,
3 J %, and over £5000, 4 %. There is a differentiation in assessment
on fluctuating and fixed incomes. Fluctuating incomes (e.g. those
derived from literary, scientific or artistic work) are assessed at the
average receipts of the two past years. Fixed income is returned at
the actual amount at the time of assessment, and the assessment for
earned income, both fixed and fluctuating, takes place every four
years. Income tax is not levied at the source, but on a direct return
by the taxpayer. In the case of unearned income, where a person's
yearly unearned income does not exceed £100 and he has no other
or only an insignificant additional income, he is required to pay only
half the assessed tax. Also in the case where a total income, earned
and unearned, does not exceed £250 it may, by claiming abatement
on such grounds as the education of children, maintenance of indigent
relations, &c., he assessed at the lowest rate but one, or be entirely
exempt.
In Wurttemberg the General Income Tax Act came into force on
the 1st of April 1905. Article 18 provides a graduated scale of rates
on incomes from £25 upwards. Abatements are allowed for the edu-
cation and support of children, support of indigent relatives, active
service in the army and navy, protracted illness and severe accidents
or reverses. There is a supplementary tax of 2% on unearned
jncome from certain kinds of property, such as interest or other
income derived from invested capital, dividends, &c., from joint-
stock companies and annuities of all kinds. The income tax is not
levied at the source, but on a direct return by the ratepayers;
assessments are made on the current year, except in the case of
fluctuating incomes, when they are made on the income of the pre-
ceding year. ,
Hungary. — There is no income tax in Hungary at all corresponding
to that of the United Kingdom, although proposals for such a tax
have from time to time been made.
/to/y.-^-Graduated income tax in Italy dates from 1864. Incomes
are classified according to their characters, and the rate of the tax
varies accordingly. In class A l are placed incomes derived from
interests on capital, and perpetual revenues owned by the state,
interests and premiums on communal and provincial loans, dividends
of shares issued by companies guaranteed or subsidized by the state
lottery prizes. These incomes are assessed at their integral value
and pay the full tax of 20 %. In class A 1 are placed incomes derived
from capital alone and all perpetual revenues. The assessments on
these are reduced to 3O/4Oths of the actual income and taxed at a rate
of 15%. In class B are incomes derived from the co-operation of
labour and capital, i.e. those produced by industries and commerce.
The assessments of these are reduced to 2O/4Oths and taxed at 10 %.
In class C are placed incomes derived from labour alone (private
employment) and those represented by temporary revenues or life
annuities. Assessments on these are reduced to 1 8/4oths and taxed at
a rate of 9%. In class D are placed incomes from salaries, pensions
and all personal allowances made by the state, the provinces and
communes. Assessments on these are reduced to is/4Oths and taxed
at 7i %. Certain abatements are allowed on small incomes in
classes B, C and D. Incomes are assessed (i) on the average of the
two preceding years in the case of private industries, professions or
companies in which liability is unlimited; (b) on the income of the
current year in the case of incomes from dividends, salaries, pensions
and fixed allowances, as well as in the case of incomes of communes,
provinces and corporations; (c) on the basis of the account closed
before the previous July of the current year in the case of incomes of
limited liability companies, banks and savings banks.
Netherlands. — In the Netherlands there is a property tax imposed
upon income derived from capital, as well as a tax on income earned
by labour.
Norway. — In Norway under the state income tax incomes under
1000 kroner are exempt, those between 1000 and 4000 kroner pay
2 % on that part liable to taxation ; those between 4000 and 7000
kroner pay 3%; those between 7000 and 10,000 kroner pay 4%,
and those above 10,000 kroner 5 %. Persons liable to taxation are
divided into (a) those who have no one to support, as companies and
the like; (b) those who have from one to three persons to support;
(c) those who have from four to six persons to support ; (d) those who
have seven or more persons to support. Those who are counted as
dependent upon the taxpayer are his children, own or adopted, his
parents, brothers and sisters, and other relations and connexions by
marriage who might have a reasonable claim to his support. A
certain part of the income liable to taxation is abated by a graduated
scale according to the class into which the ratepayer falls.
Spain. — In Spain the income tax is divided into (a) that de-
rived from personal exertion^ and (6) that derived from property.
Directors, managers and representatives of banks, companies and
societies pay 10%; those employed in banks, &c., commercial
houses, and those in private employment, as well as actors, bull-
fighters, professional pelota-players, acrobats, conjurers, &c., pay
5%. Those employed by the day or those whose salary is under
£45 are exempt, as are also masters in primary schools. Income
derived from property is taxed according to the source from which
the income is derived, e.g. income from shares in public works is
rated at 20 %, income from shares in ordinary companies, railways,
tramways or canals at 3 %, from dividends on bank shares at 5 %,
from mining shares at only 2 %. There is also an industry tax, i.e.
on the exercise of industrial, commercial and professional enter-
prises, which tax is divided into five different tariffs, of which I.
applies to commerce (vendors), II. also to commerce (middlemen),
III. to industry (machinery), IV. to professions and V. to licences
(retail and itinerant vendors). Tariff I. is differentiated according
to the importance of the business and of the locality in which it is
carried on, the rate being fixed by a consideration of the two com-
bined. Tariff II. is differentiated according to the character of the
enterprise, its importance and the importance of the locality.
Tariff III. is differentiated according to either motive power, output,
method, product or locality ; Tariff IV. according to the character of
the profession and the importance of the locality; Tariff V. is also
differentiated according to the locality and the importance of the
business.
Switzerland. — The system of income tax varies in the different
cantons. Broadly speaking, these may be divided into four
different kinds: (i) a graduated property tax, in which the rate
applicable to each class of fortune is definitely fixed; (2) a propor-
tional tax, under which property and income are chargeable, each at
a fixed rate, while the total amount of the tax is liable to a pro-
portionate increase according to scale if it exceeds certain specified
amounts; (3) a system by which property and income are divided
into three classes, the rate of the tax being increased by a graduated
rise, according to the class to which the property or income belongs,
and (4) a uniform rate of tax, with progression in the amount of
income liable to taxation.
United States. — One of the means adopted by the Federal Govern-
ment for meeting its expenses during the Civil War was the levying
of an income tax. By the Act of Congress of the 5th of August 1861
a tax of 3 % was imposed on all incomes, with an exemption of $800,
and was made payable on or before the 3oth of June 1862. No tax,
however, was assessed under the law. In March 1862 a new income
tax bill was introduced into the House of Representatives. This,
act, which was signed on the 1st of July 1862, imposed a tax of 3%'
on all incomes not over $10,000, and 5 % on all incomes above that
sum, with an exemption of $600. It was also provided that divi-
dends of banks, insurance companies and railways should be assessed
directly; but the bond-holder was allowed to deduct the dividend so
assessed from his taxable income. In the case of government salaries,
the tax was deducted before the salaries were paid. The income tax
was first levied in 1863.- The rate was changed by act of Congress in
1865, 1867 and 1870, and a joint resolution in 1864 imposed a special
additional tax of 5 % for that year. The tax was finally abolished in
1872. The total amount produced by the tax from the beginning
was 8376,150,209. The constitutionality of the act was subse-
quently brought into question, but was upheld by a unanimous
decision of the Supreme Court in 1880, which held that the tax was
not a direct tax but an excise tax, and that Congress had a right to
impose it so long as it was made uniform throughout the United
States. On the 27th of August 1894 an income tax act was passed as
part of the Wilson Bill. By this act it was provided that a tax of
INCORPORATION— INCUBATION AND INCUBATORS 359
2% on all incomes should be levied from the 1st of January 1895 to
the 1st of January 1900, with an exemption of $4000. The legality
of the tax was assailed, chiefly on the ground that it was a direct tax,
and not apportioned among the several states in proportion to their
population. On the 2Oth of May 1 895 the Supreme Court, by a vote
of five to four, declared the tax to be unconstitutional. Accordingly,
before any federal income tax could be imposed, there was needed an
amendment of the constitution, and a movement in this direction
gradually began. In the first year of the presidency of Mr W. H.
Taft both Houses of Congress passed by the necessary two-thirds
majority a resolution to submit the proposal to the 46 states, the
wording of the amendment being " That Congress shall have power
to lay and collect taxes on incomes from whatever source derived,
without apportionment among the several States, and without regard
to any census enumeration."
Cape Colony.— Cape Colony was the only South African colony
which, prior to the Union in 1910, had a system of income tax, which
was first imposed by an act of the 3ist of May 1904. Incomes not
exceeding £1000 per annum were exempt from taxation; incomes
exceeding £1000 but not exceeding £2000 were taxed 6d. in the
pound on the excess beyond £1000; those between £2000 and £5000
were exempt for the first £1000, paid 6d. in the pound on the next
£1000 and gd. in the pound on the remainder; those exceeding
£5000 paid 6d. in the pound on the second £1000, <)d. in the pound
on the next £3000 and is. in the pound on the remainder.
New South Wales. — Income tax in New South Wales first came into
operation on the 1st of January 1896. It is complementary with a
land tax, assessed on the unimproved value of freehold lands (with
certain exemptions and deductions). Incomes of £200 per annum
and under are exempt, and all other incomes (except those of com-
panies) are entitled to a reduction of £200 in their assessments.
The rate of tax is 6d. in the pound. There are certain incomes,
revenues and funds which are exempt from taxation, such as those
of municipal corporations or other local authorities, of mutual life
insurance societies and of other companies or societies not carrying
on business for purposes of profit or gain, and of educational, ecclesi-
astical and charitable institutions of a public character, &c.
New Zealand, — In New Zealand the income tax is also comple-
mentary with a land tax. Incomes up to £300 per annum are
exempt; incomes up to £1000 per annum are taxed 6d. in the
pound, with an exemption of £300 and life insurance premiums up
to £50; incomes over £1300 pay is. in the pound, which is also the
tax on the income of trading companies, to whom no exemption is
allowed. The income of friendly societies, savings banks, co-operative
dairy companies, public societies not carrying on business for
profit, &c., are exempt from income tax.
Queensland. — In Queensland income tax is levied on (a) income
derived from property such as rents, interest, income from com-
panies, royalties, &c., and (6) on income derived from personal
exertion. On income derived from property all incomes not ex-
ceeding £100 are exempt; incomes between £100 and £120 pay £l
tax; those over £120 but under £300 have £100 exempt and pay is.
in each and every pound over £100, while incomes over £300 pay is.
in each and every pound. Incomes from personal exertion pay los.
between £100 and £125; £i between £126 and £150; between £151
and £300 have £100 exempt and pay 6d. in each and every pound
over £100; between £301 and £500 6d. in every pound; between
£501 and £1000 6d. in every pound of the first £500 and 7d. in every
pound over £500, between £1001 and £1500 7d. in every pound of
the first £1000, and 8d. in every pound over £1000; incomes over
£1500 pay 8d. in every pound; is. in every pound is charged on the
incomes of all companies and of all absentees.
South Australia. — The income tax dates from 1884 and is levied on
all incomes arising, accruing in or derived from South Australia,
except municipal corporations, district councils, societies, &c., not
carrying on business for the purpose ot gain, and all friendly societies.
Where the income is derived from personal exertion the rate of tax
is 4sd. in the pound up to £800, and 7d. in the pound over £800.
For income derived from property the rate is gd. in the pound up to
£800, and is. l^d. in the pound over £800. There is an exemption ol
£150 on incomes up to £400, but no exemption over that limit.
Tasmania. — In Tasmania there is (a) an income tax proper, and
(b) a non-inquisitorial ability tax, one complementary to the other.
The income tax proper is levied on all income of any company, at the
rate of is. for every pound of the taxable amount; on all income of
any person, at the rate of is. for every pound of the taxable amount
derived from property, and on every dividend at the same rate.
Personal incomes of £400 and over are assessed at the full amount,
but an abatement of £10 for every £50 of income is allowed on
incomes below £400 down to incomes of £150, which thus have £50
deducted; incomes between £120 and £150 have £60 deducted;
incomes between £110 and £120, £70, and incomes between £100 and
£i 10, £80. The ability tax is paid by (a) occupiers and sub-occupiers
of property and (6) by lodgers. The amount of tax paid by occupiers
or sub-occupiers is calculated upon the assessed annual value of the
property occupied, and that of lodgers from the assessed annual value
of their board and lodging. A detailed account of both taxes will be
found in House of Commons Papers, No. 282 of 1905.
Victoria. — In Victoria the rate of income tax is fixed annually by
act. The rate charged on income derived from property is exactly
double that charged on income derived from personal exertion, the
rate for which for 1905 was: on the first £500 or fractional part
thereof, 3d. in the pound; on the second £500 or fractional part
thereof, 4d. in the pound; on the third £500 or fractional part
thereof, sd. in the pound; on all incomes in excess of £1500, 6d. in
the pound. All companies, except life insurance companies, were
charged yd. in the pound on their incomes ; life insurance companies
were charged 8d. in the pound.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The Annual Reports of the Commissioners of
Inland Revenue, the Reports of Committees and other references
mentioned in the article, as well as Dowell's History of Taxation in
England (1884); Dowell's Acts relating to the Income Tax (6th ed.,
1908), and Robinson's Law relating to Income Tax (2nd ed., 1908).
INCORPORATION (from Lat. incorporate, to form into a body),
in law, the embodying or formation of a legal corporation,
brought about either by a general rule contained in such laws,
e.g. as the Companies acts, and applicable wherever its con-
ditions are satisfied; or by a special act of sovereign power,
e.g. an incorporating statute or charter. The word is used also
in the sense of uniting, e.g. a will may incorporate by reference
other papers, which may be then taken as part of the will, as
much as if they were set out at length in it.
INCUBATION and INCUBATORS. The subject of "in-
cubation " (Lat. incubare, to brood; in-cumbere, to lie on),
a term which, while strictly signifying the action of a hen in
sitting on her eggs to hatch them, is also used in pathology
for the development within the body of the germs of disease,
is especially associated with the artificial means, or " incubators,"
devised for hatching eggs, or for analogous purposes of an artificial
foster-mother nature, or for use in bacteriological laboratories.
Life is dependent, alike for its awakening and its maintenance,
upon the influence of certain physical and chemical factors,
among which heat and moisture may be regarded as the chief.
It is therefore obvious that any method of incubation must
provide for a due degree of temperature and moisture. And
this degree must be one within limits, for while all organisms
are plastic and can attune themselves to a greater or less range
of variation in their physical environment, there is a given degree
at which the processes of life in each species proceed most
favourably. It is this particular degree, which differs for different
species, which must be attained, if artificial incubation is to be
successfully conducted. In other words, the degree of tempera-
ture and moisture within the incubation drawer must remain
uniform throughout the period of incubation if the best results
are to be reached. It is not easy to attain these conditions, for
there are many disturbing factors. We may therefore next
consider the more important of them.
The chief causes which operate to make the temperature
within the incubator drawer variable are the changes of the
temperature of the outer air, fluctuations in the pressure of the
gas when that is used as the source of heat, or the gradual
diminution of the oxidizing power of the flame and wick when
an oil lamp is substituted for gas. Also, the necessary opening
of the incubator drawer, either for airing or for sprinkling the
eggs with water when that is necessary, tends to reduce the
temperature. But there is another equally important though
less obvious source of disturbance, and this resides within the
organism undergoing incubation. In the case of the chick,
at about the ninth or tenth days of incubation important changes
are occurring. Between this period and the fourteenth day
the chick becomes relatively large and bulky, and the temporary
respiratory organ, the allantois, together with its veins, increases
greatly in size and extent. As a consequence, the respiratory
processes are enabled to proceed with greater activity, and
the chemical processes of oxidation thus enhanced necessarily
largely increase the amount of heat which the chick itself pro-
duces. Thus an incubator, to be successful, must be capable
of automatically adjusting itself to this heightened temperature.
The drawer of an incubator is a confined space and is usually
packed as closely as possible with the contained eggs. The eggs
are living structures and consequently need air. This necessitates
some method of direct ventilation, and this in its turn necessarily
increases the evaporation of water vapour from the surface of
the egg. Unless, therefore, this evaporation is checked, the eggs
will be too dry at the period — from the tenth day onwards —
36°
INCUBATION AND INCUBATORS
when moisture is more than ever an important factor. There
is, according to some poultry authorities, reason to believe that
•the sitting hen secretes some oily substance which, becoming
diffused over the surface of the egg, prevents or retards evapora-
tion from within; presumably, this oil is permeable to oxygen.
In nature, with the sitting hen, and in the " Mamal " artificial
incubating establishments of the Egyptians, direct air currents
do not exist, owing to the large size of the chambers, and con-
sequently incubation can be successfully achieved without any
special provision for the supply of moisture.
Artificial incubation has been known to the Egyptians and
the Chinese from almost time immemorial. In Egypt, at Berme
on the Delta, the trade of artificial hatching is traditionally
transmitted from father to son, and is consequently confined to
particular families. The secrets of the process are guarded with
a religious zeal, and the individuals who practise it are held
under plighted word not to divulge them. It is highly probable
that the process of artificial incubation as practised by the
Egyptians is not so simple as it is believed to be. But as far
as the structures and processes involved have been ascertained
by travellers, it appears that the " Mamal " is a brick building,
consisting of four large ovens, each of such a size that several
men could be contained within it. These ovens are in pairs,
in each pair one oven being above the other, on each side of a
long passage, into which they open by a circular aperture,
just large enough for a man to obtain access to each. The eggs
are placed in the middle of the floor of the oven, and in the
gutters round the sides the fire is lighted. The material for this
latter, according to one account, consists of camels' dung and
chopped hay, and according to another of horses' dung. The
attainment of the right degree of heat is apparently reached
wholly by the skill of the persons employed. When this has been
attained, they plug the entrance hole with coarse tow. On the
tenth to twelfth days they cease to light the fires.
Each " Mamal " may contain from 40,000 to 80,000 eggs.
There are 386 " Mamals " in the country, which are only worked
for six months of the year, and produce in that time eight
broods. Many more than two-thirds of the eggs put in are
successfully hatched. It is estimated that 90,000,000 eggs are
annually hatched by the Bermeans.
A method of incubating that appears to have been altogether
overlooked in England — or at least never to have been practised
— is that carried on by the Couveurs or professional hatchers in
France. They make use of hen-turkeys for the purpose, and
each bird can be made to sit continuously for from three to six
months. The modus operandi is as follows: a dark room which
is kept at a constant temperature throughout the year contains
a number of boxes, just large enough to accommodate a turkey.
The bottom of the box is filled with some vegetable material,
bracken, hay, heather, straw or cocoa-fibres. Each box is covered
in with lattice-work wire, so arranged that the freedom of the
sitting bird is limited and its escape prevented. Dummy
eggs, made by emptying addled ones and filling with plaster
of Paris, are then placed in the nest and a bird put in. At first
it endeavours to escape, but after an interval of a few days it
becomes quiet, and the dummy eggs being then removed, fresh
ones are inserted. As soon as the chickens are hatched, they
are withdrawn and fresh eggs substituted. The hen turkeys
are also used successfully as foster-mothers. Each bird can
adequately cover about two dozen eggs.
Incubation as an industry in Europe and America is of recent
development. The growing scarcity of game birds of all kinds,
coincident with the increase of population, and the introduction
of the breech-loading gun, together with the marked revival
of interest in fancy poultry about the year 1870, led, however,
to the production of a great variety of appliances designed to
render artificial incubation successful.
Previously to this, several interesting attempts had been made.
As long ago as 1824, Walthew constructed an incubator designed
to be used by farmers' wives with the aid of no more than ordinary
household conditions. It consisted of a double-walled metal
box, with several pipes opening into the walled space round the
sides, bottom and top of the incubator. These pipes were con-
nected with an ordinary kitchen boiler. Walthew, however,
constructed a fire grate, with a special boiler adapted to the
requirements of the incubator. Into the walled space of the
incubator, steam from the kitchen boiler passed; the excess
steam escaped from an aperture in the roof, and the condensed
steam through one in the floor. Ventilating holes and also plugs,
into which thermometers were placed, pierced the door of the
incubator.
In 1827, J. H. Barlow successfully reared hens and other
birds by means of steam at Drayton Green, Ealing. He con-
structed very large rooms and rearing houses, expending many
thousands of pounds upon the work. He reared some 64,000
game birds annually. The celebrated physician Harvey, and
the famous anatomist Hunter were much interested in his results.
To John Champion, Berwick-on-Tweed, in 1870, belongs, how-
ever, the credit of instituting a system which, when extended,
may become the system of the future, and will rival the ancient
" Mamals " in the success of the incubation and in the largeness
of the numbers of eggs incubated. He used a large room through
which passed two heated flues, the eggs being placed upon a
table in the centre. The flues opened out into an adjoining
space. The temperature of the room was adjusted by personal
supervision of the fire. This system, more elaborated and refined,
is now in use in some parts of America.
Bird Incubators.
Owing to the great variety in the details of construction, it
is difficult to arrange a classification of incubators which shall
include them all. They may, however, be classified in one of
two ways. We may either consider the method by which they
are heated or the method by which their temperature is regulated.
In the former case we may divide them into " hot-air "
incubators and into " hot-water " or " tank " incubators. In
the latter case we may classify them according as their thermostat
or temperature-regulator is actuated by a liquid expanding
with rising temperature, or by solids, usually metals.
In America incubators of the hot-air type with solid and
metallic thermostats are most used, while in Europe the " tank "
type, with a thermostat of expansible liquid, prevails.
For the purpose of more adequately considering the various
forms which have been in use, or are still used, we shall here
divide them into the " hot-air " and " hot-water " (or " tank ")
classes.
In the hot-air types the incubator chamber is heated by
columns of hot air, while in the tank system this chamber is
heated by a tank of warmed water.
(a) Hot-Water Incubators. — In 1866 Colonel Stuart Wortley de-
scribed in The Field an incubator constructed upon a novel principle,
but which appears never to have been adopted by breeders. The
descriptive article is illustrated with a sketch. Essentially the in-
cubator consists of four pipes which extend across the egg chamber
some little distance above the eggs. The pipes pass through holes in
the side of the incubator, which are furnished with pads, so as to
render their passage air-tight. Externally they are connected with
a boiler. This is provided with a dome through which steam escapes,
and also with a glass gauge to show the height of the water within
the boiler. The water in the boiler is kept at the boiling point, and
the temperature of the incubator is regulated by adjustment of the
length of the hot-water pipes within the egg chamber. To raise the
temperature, a greater length of the pipes is pushed into the chamber,
and to reduce it, more of their length is pulled outwards. It is
claimed for this instrument that since the temperature of boiling
water at any particular locality remains practically constant, the
disadvantages due to fluctuations in the activity of a lamp flame
or the size of a gas flame are obviated. But it has the serious dis-
advantage that there is no automatic adjustment to compensate
for fluctuations of atmospheric temperature. And experiments by
C. Hearson have shown that even if the temperature of the tank or
source of heat be constant, that of the incubator drawer will never-
theless vary with fluctuations of external temperature. Probably if
the mechanical difficulties of providing a self-regulator were over-
come, it would prove an efficient and reliable incubator. The diffi-
culties do not seem to be insuperable, and it appears possible that
a thermostatic bar could be so arranged as to automatically increase
or decrease the length of hot-water pipes within the incubator, and
therefore the incubator temperature.
Another early form of incubator is Brindley's, which was first in
INCUBATION AND INCUBATORS
361
use about 1845, and in his hands it appeared occasionally to act
successfully, but it never became generally used. The egg chamber
was lined with felt, and was placed beneath a heated air chamber,
the floor and roof of which were composed of glass. The air chamber
was heated by a number of hot-water pipes which were connected
with a copper boiler. This latter was heated by means of a lamp
so constructed as to burn steadily. The temperature of the air
chamber was regulated within certain limits by means of a balanced
valve, which could be so adjusted that it would open at any desired
temperature.
In Colonel Stuart Wortley's incubator the hot- water tubes passed
directly into the egg chamber, and in Brindley 's into a chamber above
it. But in other forms of incubators in which the principle of an
external boiler connected with water tubes is adopted, the latter pass
not into the egg chamber nor into an air chamber, but open into and
from a tank of water. The floor of this tank forms the roof of the
egg chamber, so that the eggs are heated from above. This device
of warming the eggs from above was adopted in imitation of the
processes that presumably occur with the sitting hen; for it is
generally assumed that the surface of the eggs in contact with the
hen is warmer than that in contact with the damp soil or with the
material of the nest.
One of the earliest of this form of incubator is that invented by
F. Schroder, manager of the now extinct British National Poultry
Company. In this incubator the form is circular, and there are four
egg drawers, so that each one occupied the quadrant of a circle, and
the inner corner of each drawer meets in the middle of the incubator.
From the centre of the incubator a vertical chimney passes upwards
and opens out from the inner corners of the four egg drawers. This
chimney acts as a ventilator to the incubating chambers. These
latter are open above, but their floors are made of perforated zinc,
and when in use they are partially filled with chaff or similar material.
Under them is a tank containing cold water and common to all four
drawers; the slight vapour rising from the surface of the water
diffuses through the egg drawers and thus insures a sufficient degree
of humidity to the air within. Above the egg drawers is a circular
tank containing warm water. The floor of this tank constitutes the
roof of the egg drawers, while the roof forms the floor of a circular
chamber above it, the side wall of which is composed of perforated
zinc. This upper chamber is used to dry the chicks when they are
just hatched and to rear them until they are strong enough for
removal. It is partially filled with sand, which serves the double
purpose of retaining the heat in the warm-water tank beneath and
of forming a bed for the chicks. The water in the warm-water tank
is heated by means of a boiler which is external to the incubator, and
in communication with the tank by means of an inlet and an outlet
pipe. There is no valve to regulate the temperature, and the latter
is measured by means of a thermometer, the bulb of which is situated
not in the incubator drawers, but in the warm-water tank. This is a
wrong position for the thermometer, since it is now known that the
temperature of the water tank may be different by several degrees
to that of the egg drawer; for with a fall of external temperature
that of the latter necessarily tends to fall more rapidly than the
former. But, none the less, in skilful hands this incubator gave good
results.
T. Christy's incubator, which we shall describe next, has passed
through several forms. We shall consider the most recent one (1894).
The incubator (fig. i) is double walled, and the space between the
two walls is packed with a non-conducting material. In the upper
FIG. i. — Christy's Improved Incubator.
part of the incubator there is a water tank (T) divided by a hori-
zontal partition into two chambers, communicating with each other
at the left-hand side. Below the tank is the incubation drawer (E),
which contains the eggs and also a temperature regulator or thermo-
stat (R). The tank is traversed by a ventilating shaft (V), and in-
serted into this is a smaller sliding tube passing up to it from a hole
in the bottom of the incubator drawer. The floor of the incubator
drawer is perforated, and beneath it is an enclosed air space which
opens into the sliding air shaft just described. Fresh air is let into
the incubator drawer from a few apertures (I) at its top. The
ventilating shaft (V) is closed externally by a cap (C), which can be
raised from or lowered down upon its orifice by the horizontal arm
(H) working upon pivot joints at (P). This arm is operated by the
thermostat (R), through the agency of a vertical rod. The water in
the tank is heated by an external boiler (B) through two pipes, one
of which (T) serves as an inlet, and the other (L) as an outlet channel
from the tank. These two pipes do not open directly into the tank,
but into an outer vessel (O) communicating with it. Communication
between this vessel and the tank may be made or broken by means
of a sliding valve (S) , which is pierced by an aperture that corresponds
in position with the upper of the two in the wall of the tank when the
valve is up. When this valve is in its upper position, the tank (T)
communicates with the outer vessel (O) by two apertures (A and A'),
the top one being the inlet and the lower one the outlet. These
coincide in position with the tubes from the boiler. This latter (B)
is a conical vessel containing two spaces. The heated water is con-
tained in the outer of these spaces, while the central space is an air
shaft heated by a lamp flame. This particular form of the boiler results
in the water at its top part being more heated than that in its lower.
As a consequence of this, a continual circulation of water through
the tank ensues. The more heated water, being specifically lighter,
passes into the outer vessel, where it remains among the higher strata,
and therefore enters the tank through the upper aperture. In passing
along the upper division of the tank it becomes slightly cooled and
sinks therefore into the lower compartment, passes along it, and out
through the aperture A'. Hence it passes into the lower portion pit
the boiler, where it becomes warmed and specifically lighter; in
consequence it becomes pushed upwards in the boiler by the cooler
and heavier water coming in behind and below it.
Should the temperature in the incubator drawer rise, the bimetallic
thermostat (R) opens out its coil and pulls down the vertical rod.
This simultaneously effects two things: it raises the cap (C) over the
ventilating shaft and allows of a more rapid flow of fresh air through
the incubator drawer, and it also lowers the slide-valve (S) so that
the tank becomes cut off from communication with the outer vessel
(O) and therefore with the boiler. The temperature thereupon begins
to fall and the thermostat, coiling closer, raises the vertical rod,
closes the ventilating shaft, and once more places the tank in com-
munication with the boiler.
The structure of the thermostat is given below.
The Chantry Incubator (Sheffield) is also an incubator with a hot-
water tank, the circulation of which is maintained by an outside
boiler. Its temperature is regulated by a metal regulator.
In Schroder's and Christy's incubators the hot-water pipes from
the boiler simply entered the warm-water tank but did not traverse
it. In the two incubators to be next 'described the hot-water pipes
are made to pass through the water in the tank, and are so arranged
as to minimize the possibility that the outside of the tank may become
colder than the centre. Both of them are also fitted with an in-
genious though slightly complex valve for maintaining an approxi-
mately constant temperature.
Halsted's incubator was the earliest of this type. Since his
original form was constructed he has designed an improved one, and
it is this latter which will be described.
The egg drawer (E, fig. 2) lies beneath the warm-water tank (T),
and above this is a nursery (N). The egg drawer is ventilated by two
tubular shafts (V), of which
only one is represented in the
illustration ; the tubesareabout
2j in. in diameter, and each
one is fitted at its upper end,
where it opens into the nursery,
with a swing-valve (V) which
turns upon a horizontal axis
(A), in its turn connected, by
means of cranks (C) and shafts
(S), with the heat regulating
apparatus (R). A space of
about 2 in. between the top
of the incubating drawer and
the warm-water tank is neces-
sary for the insertion of this
apparatus. The water in the
tank (T) is heated by means
of the boiler (B); the tank
and boiler are connected by
the two pipes (I) and (O), of
which one is the inlet and
the other the outlet channel.
The boiler consists of an p.,, n-i,.*,,,!' r u 4
inner (I') and an outer (O)
division in communication with each other below. The latter is
cylindrical inform, while the outer wall of the former is cylindrical
and its inner wall conical. The conical wall of the inner boiler is the
surface which is heated by the lamp (L). The arrangement of the
inlet and outlet tubes is important. In the illustration, for the sake
of clearness, they are represented as one above the other. In
reality they lie in the same plane, and the fork (F) of the inlet pipe
similarly lies in the horizontal plane and not vertically as repre-
sented. The inlet pipe not only differs from the outlet pipe in the
XIV. I2d
362
INCUBATION AND INCUBATORS
possession of a forked end, but it is carried to the farther end (not
shown in the diagram) of the water tank, while the outlet pipe opens
from about the middle of the tank. The inlet pipe is connected with
the inner portion of the boiler and the outlet one with the outer
portion. The result of this adjustment of the parts is that the
warmer water of the inner boiler, being specifically lighter than the
cooler water of the outer boiler, rises up and passes through the
inlet pipe (I) and is discharged into the tank through the two
divergent orifices of the fork (F). Here the water strikes the side wall
of the farther end of the tank and is reflected back along the back
and front walls towards the nearer side. Hence it is again reflected,
but in the opposite direction, and now forms a central current, which
is directed towards the centrally situated orifice of the outlet tube
(O). Through this it passes to the outer boiler, and sinking towards
the bottom, reaches the base of the inner boiler. Here it becomes
heated and lighter and consequently rises to the top, and once more
passes through the inlet pipe to the water tank. The warm water
thus travels round the outer walls of the tank and the cooled water
is conducted away along the middle portion. A more equable
distribution of temperature over the roof of the incubating chamber
is thus ensured than would be the case if the heated water were dis-
charged either into the centre or at any other single point only of the
tank.
To a very large extent, the efficiency of this apparatus depends
upon the approximately perfect performance of the lamp. A good,
steadily burning one should be employed, and only the best oil used;
for, should the wick become fouled the flame cannot freely burn.
For this reason it is better to use gas, whenever obtainable.
The maintenance of an approximately uniform temperature is
obtained by allowing the heated air of the egg-drawer to escape
through the two ventilating shafts (V). The swing-valves of these
are opened or closed by means of the regulator (R). This latter
consists of a glass bowl prolonged into a tube, about 8 in. long and
three-eighths of an inch in diameter. The glass tube swings upon
an axis (A) which is situated as near as possible to the bowl of the
regulator. The axis is connected with a crank (C') which is disposed
so as to act as a lever upon the vertical shaft (S), which in its turn is
connected with the upper crank (C) ; this works the axis (A') of the
swing- valves, and so can open or close the apertures of the ventilat-
ing pipes. The bowl of the regulator is filled with mercury to such an
extent that at the temperature of 100° F., and when the tube is
slightly inclined upwards from the horizontal it just flows slightly
into the tube from the bowl. On the lever-crank (C') a weight is
slung by a sliding adj ustment, and is so placed that when the tempera-
ture of the egg-drawer is 103° it just balances the tube of the regu-
lator when it is slightly inclined upwards. Should the temperature
of the drawer now rise higher the mercury flows towards the distant
end of the tube and, causing it to fall down, brings about a rotation
of the regulator axis and as a consequence the opening of the ventilat-
ing valves. A transverse stay prevents the limb of the regulator
from quite reaching the horizontal when it falls. As the temperature
cools down the mercury contracts and retraces to the nearer end of
the tube and to the bowl, and consequently results in the upward
inclination of the limb; the valves are thus closed again.
The egg-drawer (E) is specially constructed so as to imitate as
nearly as possible the natural conditions that exist under a sitting
hen. The drawer is of wood and contains a zinc tray (Z) into which
cold water is placed. Fitting into the zinc tray is another zinc
compartment, the floor of which is made of a number of zinc strips
(X) transversely arranged and placed in relation to each other like
the limbs of an inverted A. The limbs are so disposed that those
of one series do not touch the adjacent ones, and in fact a space is
left between them. Thus a number of parallel troughs are formed,
each of which opens below into the moist air chamber of the cold
water tray beneath. In practice these troughs are covered with
flannel which is allowed to dip into the water of the tray. Thus the
eggs lie in a series of damp troughs and their lower surfaces are
therefore damper and colder than their upper ones. This incubator,
if carefully worked and the necessary practical details observed, has
the reputation of being an efficient machine.
Somewhat similar to the Halsted incubator, but differing from it
in the nature of the boiler and in the temperature regulator is the
Graves incubator, made in Boston, U.S.A. The incubator itself
(fig. 3) consists of an incubating or egg-drawer (E) heated from
above by a warm-water tank (T). Below the egg-drawer is a tank
containing cold water, the vapour of which passes through the
perforated floor of the former and keeps the air of the egg-chamber
slightly humid. Above the warm-water tank is an air chamber (AC)
to serve as a non-conducting medium and to prevent therefore undue
loss of heat. Above this is a nursery or drying chamber (N). closed
in, with a movable lid.
The warm-water tank is heated by means of a simple boiler (B)
from which an inlet tube (I) carries heated water to the tank- the
tube traverses the length of the tank and discharges at its farther
end (not shown in the diagram). From the nearer end of the tank
an outlet tube (O) passes out and opens into the boiler at a slightly
higher level than the inlet one. The boiler is heated by an evenly
burning lamp below, of special construction. The rectangular tube
through which the wick passes is bevelled at its outer end, and upon
this bevelled edge a metal flap (F) is allowed to rest more or less
closely, according as the flame is to be smaller or larger respectively.
The wick is, of course, bevelled to correspond to the form of its tube.
The metal flap is raised or depressed by means of levers connected
with the heat-regulator. When it is depressed upon the wick the
flame is lessened ; and it becomes proportionately bigger as the flap
is raised more and more.
The heat-regulator consists of a glass tube (T) which runs the
whole width of the incubation chamber and lies in contact with the
floor of the warm- water tank;
it is filled with alcohol. Exter-
nally to the incubator this tube
is connected with a U-shaped
one containing mercury. The
free limb of the U-tube contains
a piston (P) which rests upon
the surface of the mercury in
that limb. From the piston a
piston rod (PR) passes vertic-
ally upwards and is connected
with a lever (I .) which operates,
through the agency of a second
lever (L') the movements of
the ventilating valve (V) in
serted over the orifice of the
ventilating shaft (A) which
opens from the roof of the
incubator drawer. The lever
(L) is further connected with
a spiral spring (S) which
works the metal flap of the
lamp already described. The
FIG. 3. — Graves's Incubator.
height of the piston in the U tube can be so adjusted, by varying
the quantity of mercury in the tube, that when the temperature
of the incubation drawer is 103° F., the ventilating valves
are closed and the wick is burning to its full extent. Should the
temperature rise, the alcohol in the glass tube (T) expands and
causes the mercury in the free limb of the U tube to rise. This
carries with it the piston, and this movement brings about the opening
of the ventilating valves, and at the same time, through the agency
of the lever (L) and the spiral spring (S) the metal flap is brought
down upon the wick, cutting off more or less of the flame. Should
the temperature then fall to 103° or lower, the contraction of the
alcohol reverses these movements, the valve closes, and the wick
once more burns to its full extent.
In practice, the boiler and the temperature regulator are duplicated,
there being a set on both sides of the incubator. Any slight irregu-
larity on the one side may be thus compensated for by the other side.
Graves's incubator has the reputation of being a good machine.
Among the most recent type of incubators made in England is
that of Charles Hearson. This differs from any of those described
FIG. 4. — Hearson's Incubator.
in the simplicity and ingenuity of the heat regulator, and in that the
tubes which traverse the water tank are hot-air flues, carrying the air
heated by the_ flame and not warm water. Consequently a further
simplification is introduced inasmuch as no boiler is required.
The essential features of this incubator are shown in fig. 4. The
internal parts of the incubator are insulated by a double wall, the
interspace being packed by a non-conducting material, which is not
shown in the figure. The incubation or egg-drawer (E) is heated by
the warm-water tank (T). Beneath the egg-drawer is a zinc tray (Z),
so constructed that in the central part the floor is raised up into a
short cylinder. Around the raised cylinder is a wide trough contain-
ing water and into this dips a canvas cloth which is stretched out
over a perforated zinc support (F). By this means an extended
moistened surface is produced which allows of a rapid evaporation.
INCUBATION AND INCUBATORS
363
The floor ol the incubator, which is raised by short feet from the table
on which it stands, is perforated in the central portion by a number
of holes, and which are so situated that they lie beneath the raised
cylinder of the cold-water tray (Z). The incubation-drawer is thus
supplied continuously by a slow current of moistened air because the
air in the upper part of the drawer, i.e. in contact with the floor of
the warm-water tank, is the warmest and lightest. It therefore
tends to diffuse or pass through the narrow slits between the drawer
and the walls of the incubator, and also through the aperture in the
front wall of the egg-drawer, through which a thermometer is
placed. To replace the air thus lost, fresh air passes in through the
holes in the bottom of the incubator, and on its way must pass
through the pores of the damp canvas which dips into the water in
the zinc tray (Z).
The warm-water tank is heated by an inlet (I) and outlet (O) flue
which are, however, continuous. The inlet flue opens out from a
vertical chimney (C), the air in which is heated either by a gas flame
or that of an oil lamp. The outlet or return flue passes back through
the width of the tank and opens independently to the exterior.
The vertical chimney (C) is capped by a lid (L} capable of being
raised or lowered upon its orifice by the lever (L'). When the cap
is resting upon the chimney all the heated air from within the latter
passes through the flues and heats the water in the tank. If the cap
is widely raised, practically all the heated air passes directly upwards
through the chimney and none goes through the flues. If the cap
be but slightly raised, part of the heated air goes through the flues
and part directly escapes through the aperture of the chimney.
The movement of the lever (L') which raises the cap (L) is deter-
mined by the thermostatic capsule (S), situated within the egg-
drawer.
The principle upon which this capsule is designed is that the
boiling point of a liquid depends not only upon temperature but also
upon pressure. A given liquid at ordinary atmospheric pressure will
boil at a certain degree of temperature, which varies for different
substances. But if the pressure be increased the boiling point of
the liquid is raised to a higher degree of temperature. A liquid when
it boils passes into a gaseous condition and in this state will occupy
a very much larger volume — some two or three hundred times —
than in the liquid condition. If, therefore, a hermetically sealed
capsule with flexible sides be filled with some liquid which boils at a
given temperature, the sides of the capsule will distend when the
temperature of the air round the capsule has been raised to the
boiling point of the liquid within it. The distension of this capsule
can be used to raise the lever (L'). The thermostatic capsule is
placed on a fixed cradle (F) and is filled with a mixture of ether and
alcohol, the proportions being such that the boiling point of the
mixed liquid is 100° F. Between the capsule and the lever (L') is a
vertical rod (V), articulating with the lever as close as possible to its
fulcrum (M). The articulation with the lever is by means of a screw,
so that the necessary nice adjustment between the height of the rod
(V), the thickness of the capsule and the position of rest of the
damper (L) upon the chimney, can be accurately made. The
temperature at which it is desired that the liquid in the capsule shall
boil can be determined by sliding the weight (W) nearer or farther to
the fulcrum of the lever (L'). The farther it is moved outwards, the
greater is the pressure upon the thermostatic capsule and conse-
quently the higher will be the boiling point of its contained liquid.
By means of the milled-head screw (A), the height of the lever at its
outer end can be so adjusted that when the liquid of the capsule is
not boiling the damper (L) closes the chimney, but that when it does
boil the damper will be raised sufficiently high from it. If the weight
is pushed as far as it will go towards the fulcrum end of the lever,
the temperature of the egg-drawer will never rise more than 1 00° F.
because at this temperature and under the pressure to which it is
then subjected, the liquid in the capsule boils, and consequently
brings about the raising of the damper. It matters not, therefore,
how high the flame of the gas or lamp be turned, the temperature of
the egg-drawer will not increase, because the extra heat of the en-
larged flame is passing directly outwards through the chimney, and
is not going through the flues in the tank. In order to raise the
temperature within the incubation chamber to 102° or 103°, or any
other desired degree, the weight (W) must be moved outwards along
the lever (L'), about I in. for every degree of temperature increase
desired. This thermostatic capsule works admirably, and the in-
cubator will work for months at a time and requires no adjustment,
however much, within the limits of our climate, the external
temperature may vary. The capsule, like all other thermostats in
which the expansible substance is a liquid, is, however, dependent
upon external pressure for the point at which its contained liquid
boils and therefore, for the degree of temperature prevailing within
the incubator drawer. It is therefore responsive to variations in
atmospheric pressure, and as the barometer may fall I or 2 in., this
may possibly make a difference of two or three degrees in the
fluctuation of temperature within the egg-drawer. It is not, of course,
often that such large oscillations of the barometer occur, and as a
matter of practical experience, under ordinary conditions, this
incubator will work for months together without attention with only
half a degree variation round the point at whir', it was set.
Greenwood's incubator (fig. 5), named t^e Bedford, resembles
Hearson's in that hot-air flues (F and F') a'id not hot-water pipes,
:raverse the water tank (T). And the method of regulation of the
temperature is much the same, i.e. a thermostat (V) operating upon
a lever which raises a cap (C) from off the aperture of the main flue
(F) and thus allows all the heat of the flame to pass directly outwards,
without passing through the series of flues (F) which horizontally
traverse the water-
tank. Fresh air enters
through a wide circu- W™
lar aperture (A)
which surrounds the
main flue, and it thus
becomes partially
warmed before enter-
the egg-chamber.
FIG. 5. — The Bedford (Greenwood's)
Incubator.
The eggs are placed
upon a perforated
floor (E) lying over
water baths (B). The
water tank (T) lies in
the centre of the incu-
bation chamber and is
traversed through its
central axis by the
main hot-air flue (F).
From this, four horizontal flues pass outwards through the water
and open into small vertical flues, which in their turn communicate
with the exterior.
The thermostat (V) consists of a glass tube of peculiar form.
This is closed at the end of its short limb and open at its other
extremity on the long limb. The bent portion of the tube is filled
with mercury and between the mercury column and the closed end
is a small quantity of ether. The thermostat is lodged in a box (G),
which forms part of the lever (L). At one end this lever is pivoted
to a fixed arm, and at the other to the vertical rod which operates the
ventilating cap (C). If the temperature should rise, the ether in the
thermostat expands and pushes the mercury column up along the
inclined long limb. This disturbs the equilibrium of the lever (L),
and it descends downwards, pulling with it the vertical rod, and thus
raising the cap over the main flue. If the temperature falls the
reverse series of changes occur. The temperature at which the cap
will be raised can be adjusted within limits by the position of the
weight (W) and by the adjustment of the degree of inclination of the
thermostat.
The Proctor incubator, made at Otley, is apparently, in its main
features, similar to the Greenwood.
Somewhat similar, in certain features, to the Greenwood is the
Winchcombe. Its improved form, in which metal replaces the wood
casing, is named the Gladstone. In it there is a combination of the
hot-air and the water-tank systems of warming the incubation
chamber. The wall of the incubator is double, and the space between
the outer and inner wall is packed with a non-conducting material.
The incubation chamber is heated above by a water-tank (fig. 6 T)
-a-
FIG. 6. — The Winchcombe Incubator.
which is traversed by a main vertical flue (F) and four subsidiary
horizontal ones which discharge externally. The main flue, how-
ever, iri passing up to enter the water tank traverses the egg-chamber,
and therefore serves to warm it, as in the hot-air type of incubator,
by the heat of the flue itself. Around the lower half of the flue is a
water vessel consisting of two concentric containers (C), holding
water. In the space between these concentric containers, fresh air
passes in through the aperture (A), and before it reaches the egg-
chamber it passes through coarse canvas which dips into the water
in the containers, and is therefore kept permanently moist. The
containers are filled from a water tank (S) outside the incubator.
Air passes out from the egg-chamber through the aperture (O).
The temperature is regulated by a bimetallic thermostat (see below),
which operates two levers, that by their arrangement can raise or
depress the cap (D) over the main flue (F). The temperature at
which this occurs will be determined, within limits, by the position
of the adjustable weight (W).
Tomlinson's incubator, designed in 1880, is novel in principle.
364
INCUBATION AND INCUBATORS
It possesses a very large water tank, holding 15 gallons for every
hundred eggs. Through this tank there pass two hot-air horizontal
flues, lying in the same plane. The novelty of the construction lies
in the great volume of water used and in the disposition of the flues
towards the top of the tank. It is said that very little circulation
of water takes place beneath the flues, because warmed water rises
instead of falling. The great body of water below the flues will
therefore only take up heat relatively slowly, and will, on account
of its bulk and its physical properties, but slowly lose it. Should the
flame fall in power, or even go out for ten or twelve hours, it is
claimed that no serious loss of efficiency of the apparatus will
result.
Regulation of the temperature is by means of an air tube, the air
in which expanding bulges out an indiarubber diaphragm and this
moves a lever. The lever operates a valve which allows more or less
of the heated air to escape from the egg-drawer.
(b) Hot-air Incubators— -W '. H. Hillier's Incubator (fig. 7) is circular
in form and is constructed of a double-walled metal case. The space
between the two walls is packed with a non-conducting material.
The incubation or
egg-chamber (C) is
warmed by a circular
heating box (H), and
the air in this is heated
by a lamp. The roof of
this box forms part of
the floor of the incuba-
tion chamber and from
it a main flue (F) and
four smaller ones (F')
pass upwards through
the roof of the incu-
bator and discharge
to the exterior.
Fresh air passes in to
FIG. 7. — Hillier's Incubator.
the incubator through two tubular channels (A and A') on either
side of the heating box and escapes through a hole in the roof, which
serves at the same time as a passage for one of the rods (D) in con-
nexion with the temperature regulating apparatus.
This apparatus (T) consists of a glass tube of j in. bore, and which
is bent into the form of a circle of 5 in. diameter. The tube is fastened
to a wooden disk, which rotates upon a pivot and in so doing operates
a vertical rod (D), which in its turn works the cap (V) which covers
the orifice of the main flue. The tube is partly filled with mercury
and is closed at one end. At this end there is contained some spirit.
As the temperature rises, this expands and pushes the mercury
column farther along the tube. The equilibrium of the position of
rest is thus disturbed, and the wooden disk consequently rotates,
carrying with it the vertical arm, the downward movement of which
raises the cap (V) of the flue. The temperature at which it is desired
that this valve shall uncover the flue, can be adjusted within the
necessary limits by sliding the weight (W) along the horizontal arm
and by the amount of mercury present in the bent tube. The air of
the incubation chamber is rendered sufficiently moist by the evapora-
tion of water in the vessel (G).
In the Cornell incubator (New York) more personal attention is
required than in other forms, since the ventilation of the egg-
chamber is not wholly automatic but is regulated according to the
results of observation. The great difficulty in ventilation is the
proper combination of fresh air and moisture. The Cornell Incubator
Company has endeavoured to obviate this difficulty by carrying out
a series of observations on the rate at which evaporation occurs in
incubating eggs under natural conditions. The rate of evaporation
is measured by the size of the air-space within the egg-shell at
successive days. This they have ascertained, and with their incu-
bators they furnish a book of instructions in which diagrams showing
the size of the air space on the 1st, 5th, loth, I4th and i8th days are
given. Examination of the eggs should therefore be made every two
or three days, and the result compared with the diagrams. The
incubator is provided with an adjustable ventilator and this should
be so arranged that evaporation is neither too great nor too little.
The ventilator should never be wholly closed, and if when closed to
its minimum evaporation is still too great, then water should be
placed in the moisture pans. In all cases lukewarm water should be
placed in these on the 1 8th day and the ventilating slide opened
wide.
It will thus be seen that in this machine there is an attempt to do
away with the addition of water to the incubator drawer during the
greater part of the period of incubation, and to rely upon the aqueous
vapour naturally present in the atmosphere. This attempt is based
upon the fact that water vapour is lighter than air, and will therefore
rise to the top in any enclosed volume of air. If the direction of the
ventilating current is downwards in the incubation chamber, and if
it is slow enough, it is thought that the water vapour will be sifted
out and tend to accumulate to a sufficient extent in the chamber..
In the Cornell incubator consequently the ventilating current passes
first upward through an external heater in order to warm it, whence
it is then deflected downwards into the egg-chamber and diffuses
through its perforated bottom. Then it passes along a space beneath
the chamber into a space in the left-hand wall of the incubator and
out to the exterior through an adjustable and graduated ventilating
slide.
These incubators are hot-air machines, and the hot-air chamber is
situated above the egg-drawer and is traversed by several flues
opening out from a mam one. The temperature regulating apparatus
appears to be similar to that of Hearson's machine and operates by a
thermostat, which through the agency of levers opens or closes a
valve over the main flue.
The Westmeria incubators (Leighton Buzzard) are of two patterns.
One type is built on the hot-air principle and the other on the hot-
water system. In both forms the heated air from the heating surfaces
is deflected down on the eggs and escapes through the perforated
bottom of the egg-drawer. The inlet air is first warmed by contact
with the main flue. The thermostat is similar to that in the Hillier
machine (fig. 7) and consists of a coil mounted on an axis, round
which it can rotate. The coil is filled with mercury and is closed at
one end. Between this end and the mercury column is a short column
of air. By expansion of the air under a rising temperature, the
mercury column is displaced and brings about a rotation of the disk
to which the coiled tube containing it is attached. This rotation
raises the cap over the main flue.
All the incubators so far described have been constructed with the
idea of obtaining as nearly as possible a uniform temperature.
But in E. S. Renwick's incubator (America) no attempt is made to
obtain uniformity in temperature. On the other hand, it is designed
to give a periodical oscillation from one extreme to the other of a
limited range, about 3°, of temperature. This is accomplished by
means of a thermostatic bar made of plates of brass and vulcanite
fastened together. This is connected with a clockwork and detent
arrangement, which simultaneously opens a valve and actuates the
lamp flame. The temperature falls to the lower limit of its range
before the thermostatic bar is sufficiently bent to set the clockwork
arrangement operating in the reverse direction, by which the valve
is closed and the lamp flame increased. The temperature then rises
to the higher limit, when the bending of the thermostatic bar again
releases the detent and the clockwork opens the valve and reduces
the flame.
The incubator is said to succeed well. It also possesses a
mechanical arrangement by which all the eggs can be periodically
turned on rollers at once.
Size. — The incubators which have been described are of relatively
small size, and the numbers of eggs which they can incubate are
strictly limited. For commercial purposes, however, operations of a
much larger magnitude are desirable and necessary. And there can
be no doubt that for these purposes the incubators of the future will
be of great size and will contain from 15,000 to 30,000 eggs or more
at a time. Already, at Aratoma Farm, Stamford, New York State,
there is established a large incubation room, containing several
thousands of eggs, and in which the heat regulation is controlled in
part by the personal efforts of attendants. It constitutes almost a
complete return, with added accessories, to the methods of the
Egyptians, and to those of John Champion.
Bacteriological Incubators.
These differ from bird incubators in that the heating surface
of the incubation chamber generally surrounds all sides of it
and there is, as a rule, no special arrangement for bringing
about a more or less humid condition of the contained air. In
some forms there is an arrangement to ensure a continuous
supply of fresh and moist air, but in the majority the incubation
chamber obtains its supply of fresh air vicariously. In some
forms the chamber of the incubator is heated byawarmwaler
tank of a simple kind, which extends round all its sides. But
in other forms a series of tubes or flues passes through the water
in this tank and thus simulates in principle the tube boiler.
This latter form utilizes the heat of the flame to a greater degree
than the former kind. In yet other forms the incubation
chamber is heated by warm air chambers which surround it
or flues which traverse it. Most bacteriological incubators are
square or rectangular in form, but some bacteriologists prefer
cylindrical forms, presumably on account of the ratio of volume
to surface in connexion with the water tank.
One of the best known and most generally used of the cylindrical
and water-tank kind is that of Dr d'Arsonyal. It consists of two
copper cylinders (fig. 8 C and C'), each terminating in a cone below.
Between the cylinders is a wide interspace, in order that a large
volume of water may be contained. This interspace therefore consti-
tutes the water-tank of the incubator. The upper orifice of the inner
cylinder is closed by a movable double lid, which contains an inter-
space filled with water. The outer cylinder has an oblique form at
its upper end and is permanently closed. The result attained by this
slope of the lid of th • outer cylinder is that the water tank, which is
fed from the highest j-oint, becomes completely filled. The aperture
at the highest point of t.ie outer cylinder is plugged with a caoutchouc
plug anof through a pert, ration in this a glass tube (T) is placed. In
INCUBATION AND INCUBATORS
the side of the outer cylinder below this, there is a wide and rimmed
aperture, to which a gas regulator of special construction is fixed.
This regulator was designed by Theophile Schloesing, and consists
of a brass box, supplied with a rim (L) which fits on to the corre-
sponding rim (L') on the aperture of the incubator. Stretching
across the orifice thus connecting the brass box of the regulator with
the water-tank of the incubator
is a thin india-rubber diaphragm
(D). At its outer end a perfor-
ated cap (R) screws on to the
brass box. Through the per-
foration the inlet gas tube
passes (I) ; the outlet gas tube
(O) leaves the brass box below
and passes direct to the gas
burners. The inlet gas tube is
fitted at its inner end with a
sliding flanged collar (F), which
is kept pressed against the
rubber diaphragm by a spiral
spring. Just behind the collar
the inlet tube is perforated by
a small hole, so that the gas
supply is never wholly cut off,
even though the rubber dia-
phragm completely occludes the
inner aperture of the pipe.
The mode of working of the
FIG. 8.-D'Arsonval Incubator. Jf*!^* ^ rfSHncuS
is filled with distilled or rain water at the temperature required,
it presses upon the india-rubber diaphragm with a certain degree
of pressure. By screwing the inlet pipe in or out, as required, it
can be so adjusted that the diaphragm does not occlude its inner
aperture, and consequently the full volume of gas can pass
through to the burners below. The temperature of the water in
the water-tank therefore begins to rise, and in consequence the
volume of the water to increase. This results in the water rising
up into the tube (T), and therefore the dynamical pressure which is
exercised by the water upon every part of the two cylinders of the
incubator and consequently also upon the india-rubber diaphragm
of the regulator is increased. As this pressure increases, the dia-
phragm becomes bulged outwardly and reduces the volume of gas
passing through the aperture of the inlet pipe. At a certain point,
of course, the diaphragm completely occludes the aperture, and the
gas supply is wholly cut off, except for the very small hole, forming a
by- pass, in the pipe, behind the collar. This hole is just sufficiently
big to allow the minimum amount of gas requisite to keep the flames
burning to pass through. The temperature will, therefore, begin to
fall, the volume of water to decrease with its resulting descent from
the glass tube (T) and consequent decrease in the dynamical pressure
of the water upon the diaphragm. The latter therefore retracts
away from the aperture of the inlet tube, and more gas consequently
passes through ; the flames again increase in size and the temperature
rises once more. And as soon as the volume of water, owing to the
rising temperature, has increased to the extent correlated with the
temperature at which the apparatus has been set to work, it will
have risen once more in the tube (T), and the gas will be again cut
off. The three burners are placed upon a support that can be moved
vertically up or down along one of the legs of the incubator. The
flames are protected from draughts by mica chimneys. Ventilation
is provided by an adjustable valve (V) in the cylindrical termination
of the incubator at its lower end, and by tubular orifices, also fitted
with valves (V) in the lid above.
The incubator is very reliable and may be worked within very
narrow limits of variation, provided that the gas-supply be regulated
by a gas-pressure regulator, that the height of the water in the tube
(T) is maintained by daily additions of a few drops of distilled water,
and that the incubator itself be protected from draughts.
Another form of d'Arsonval incubator has a glass door in the side of
it and a slightly modified form of the heat regulator.
Other cylindrical forms of incubators are made by Lequeux of
Paris. In one of these the heat regulator is a bimetallic thermostat,
the movements of which are enlarged by a simple series of levers, so
that a valve can be automatically adjusted to allow more or less heat
from the flame to pass through the heating flue.
In another form there is a movable interior, and an arrangement
for keeping the air in the incubation chamber saturated. It is
governed by a bimetallic thermostat of the Roux type.
In Dr Hiippe's improved form of his incubator, which is approxi-
mately square in form, the double-walled water tank is completely
surrounded externally by an air chamber, which is heated by the
passage through it of the products of combustion of the two flames.
The heated gases escape through an adjustable aperture at the top.
In the earlier form the water tank was traversed by a number of hot-
air flues, and there was consequently no external hot-air chamber.
There is an arrangement of tubes for ventilation, which allow fresh
air to enter the lower part of the incubation chamber and to leave
it at the top. The incoming air is warmed before it enters. The walls
are made of lead-coated steel, and externally the incubator is covered
with linoleum. In the more expensive forms the inner chamber is of
copper. The temperature may be controlled by any of the simpler
mercury thermostats described below.
Dr Babes' incubator is somewhat similar, but the water tank is
not surrounded by a hot-air chamber. Instead it is traversed by a
number of vertical flues through which the heated gases from the
flames pass. Ventilation is provided for and there is an apparatus
for controlling the humidity of the air in the incubation chamber.
As in Hiippe's incubator, the bottom is conical in form. The walls
of the incubator are of lead-coated steel, and externally they are
covered with linoleum; there are two doors, an inner one of glass
and an outer one of metal. The temperature may be controlled as in
Hiippe's incubator.
Hearson has designed several forms of bacteriological (biological)
incubators, made by Chas. Hearson & Co., Ltd. Some are heated by
a petroleum lamp and others by a gas flame. In the form heated by
a lamp, for which, however, gas can be substituted, the incubation
chamber is surrounded by a water tank (fig. 9, A) and the lowest part
FIG. 9. — Hearson's Bacteriological Incubator. (Heated by a
petroleum lamp.)
of this is traversed by an in-going (L) and an out-going flue. The
mode of regulation of the temperature is by means of a thermostat
which operates the movements of a cap (F) over the main flue (V),
and it is identical in its chief features with the method employed in
the chicken incubator. The thermostat (S) is situated in the upper
part of the incubation chamber.
In the other form (fig. 10) for which gas is used exclusively, there
are no flues traversing the water tank. This latter is heated from its
conical floor by a burner beneath the incubator. The heat regulation
is controlled by a thermostat of the same nature as in the form of
incubator just described, but instead of operating by lowering or
raising a cap over a main flue, so as to direct the heated gases either
through the water tank if the temperature is falling, or through the
main flue directly to the exterior if it is rising, it actuates a gas-
governor, so that the flame itself is increased or diminished in size
according to the needs of the incubator. The gas-governor (fig. 1 1) is
fixed to the roof of the incubator. The horizontal arm (D) is the same
that raises the cap (fig. 9, F) over the flue in the other form of
incubator, but in this case it simply acts as the bearer of the sliding
weight. Beyond its fulcrum (fig. n, G) it is continued into a detent-
like spur (B) which pushes down upon a button attached to a rubber
diaphragm, when the thermostat within the incubator is expanded
by a rise in temperature. The button thus forced down, more or less
completely closes the inlet gas aperture, and so reduces or cuts off
the gas supply to the flame. There is a by-pass to prevent the flame
from going out completely, and the size of this can be adjusted by
the screw (S). Hearson's incubators have the reputation of very
accurate performance and practically need no attention for months,
or even years.
Schribaux's incubator is a hot-air form. Its walls are of metal,
366
INCUBATION AND INCUBATORS
but it is cased externally with wood, which serves as the insulating
material. Against the inner metal wall of the incubator, and upon
its internal surface, there are disposed a number of vertical tubes,
FIG. 10. — Hearson's Bacteriological Incubator (heated by a
gas flame).
which open through the roof above into a common discharging
funnel. Below, at the bottom of the incubator they receive the
heated gases 'of several burners, which as they pass through them
radiate their heat evenly throughout the incubation chamber.
In each side wall, at
the bottom of the cham-
ber, is an adjustable
ventilating valve.
Inside the incubation
chamber, and situated
against its left-hand
wall, is a U-shaped
bi-metallic thermostat
of the Roux design, de-
scribed below. This
very accurately controls
the temperature of the
V
FIG. ii. — Gas-governor.
incubator.
(c) Cool Incubators. — In bacteriological laboratories there are two
standards of temperature, one chiefly for the culture of non-patho-
genic organisms and the other for the pathogenic forms. The first
standard of temperature lies between 18° and 20° C., and the second
between 35° and 38° C. But in hot countries, and even in temperate
regions during the summer, the external temperature is much higher
than the former of these two standards, with the result that many
cultures, especially the gelatine ones, are spoiled. The difficulty is
often partially overcome by running cold water through the
incubator.
Hearson, however, has constructed a " cool biological incubator,"
in which by an ingenious device the expansion or contraction of the
thermostatic capsule deflects a horizontal pipe (C) (fig. 12), through
which cold water from an ordinary tap is kept running, in one of two
directions. If it is deflected so as to open into the tube (D), the cold
water passes into the tank (F), where it is warmed by a gas flame,
and thence it passes into the water-jacket of the incubator. If it is
deflected so as to open into the pipe (E), it then runs through the ice
tank (B), containing broken ice, before passing through the water-
jacket of the incubator. If it poured into neither of these pipes it
then simply passes out through the pipe (H) to the waste pipe (N).
By this device the temperature of the incubator can be kept constant
at any desired point, even though it may be some 30° to 40° C. below
that of the external air.
Dr Roux has also designed an incubator which can be maintained
at a constant temperature below that of the surrounding air. This
also depends upon the principle of carrying water through an ice-
safe, which then traverses a pipe within the incubator chamber
before passing into the water-jacket of the machine. The heat-
regulating apparatus is a bimetallic thermostat. The incubator is
made by Lequeux of Paris.
The most recent forms of all kinds of incubators, made by Hearson
of London, Lequeux of Paris and Lautenschlager of Berlin are both
heated and regulated by electricity. The heating is accomplished by
electric radiators.
In Hearson's machines the regulation of the temperature is brought
about by the breaking or making of the electric current, through the
FIG. 12.— H
n's Cool Biological Incubator.
lifting or depression of a platinum contact, actuated by the expansion
or contraction of the thermostatic capsule.
In Roux's apparatus, made by Lequeux, the make and break is
attained by the movement of one limb of a bimetallic thermostat,
and in some forms a resistance coil and rheostat are placed in the
circuit.
At the Pasteur Institute in Paris, and at other large laboratories in
France, the bacteriological incubator is raised to the dimensions of a
room. In the centre of this room is a large boiler heated by gas-
burners, the fumes from which pass through a large flue to the
outside. The flame of the burners is regulated by a bimetallic
thermostat. The gas by-pass can be regulated by an attendant.
The cultures are contained in vessels placed on shelves, which are
ranged round the side of the room.
Human Incubators.
The first incubator designed for rearing children who are too
weak to survive under normal conditions, or who are prematurely
born, is that of Dr Tarnier. It was constructed in 1880 and
was first used at the Paris Maternity Hospital. Its form is that
of a rectangular box mea-
suring 65X30X50 centi-
metres (fig. 13). It is
divided into an upper and
lower chamber; the
former contains the infant,
while the latter serves as
a heating chamber, and in
reality is simply a modified
water-tank. The partition
(P) which divides the in-
cubator into two chambers
does not extend the whole
length of it, so that the
FIG. 13. — Tarnier's Incubator.
upper and lower chambers are at one end of the apparatus in
communication with each other. It is through this passage that
the heated air from the lower chamber passes into the upper one
containing the infant. The narrow bottom chamber C serves to
prevent loss of heat from the base of the water-bottles. The
INCUBATION AND INCUBATORS
367
outside air is admitted into the lower chamber at the opposite
end, through an aperture (A), and passing over a series of bottles
(B) containing warm water, becomes heated. The air is
rendered adequately moist by means of a wetted sponge (S)
which is placed at the entrance of the lower chamber into the
upper. The warmed and moistened air is determined in its
direction by the position of the outlet aperture (O), which is
situated above and just behind the head of the infant. It
contains a helix valve (H) and the rotation of this is an indica-
tion that the air is circulating within the incubator.
The child is kept under observation by means of a sliding
glass door (G) situated in the upper or roof wall of the incubator.
Immediately beneath this, and attached to one of the side walls,
is a thermometer (T) which records the temperature of the air
in the infant-chamber. The temperature should be maintained
at 31° to 32° C. The precise limit of temperature must of course
be determined by the condition of the child; the smaller and
weaker it is, the higher the temperature must be.
The warm water vessels contain three-quarters of a pint of
water and four of them are sufficient to maintain the required
temperature, provided that the external air does not fall below
16° C. The vessels are withdrawn and replaced through an
entrance to the lower chamber, and which can be opened or
closed by a sliding door (D).
The walls of the incubator, with the exception of the glass
sliding door, are made of wood 25 millimetres thick.
The apparatus appears to have been successful, if by success
is understood the indiscriminate saving of life apart from all
other considerations, since the mortality of infants under 2000
grammes has been reduced by about 30%, and about 45% of
children who are prematurely born are saved.
Dr Tarnier's apparatus requires constant attention, and the
water in the warm water vessels needs renewing sufficiently
often. It is not provided with a temperature regulator and
consequently fluctuations of internal temperature, due to external
thermal variations, are liable to occur.
In Hearson's Thermostatic Nurse these drawbacks are to a
large extent obviated. This " Nurse " consists fundamentally
of an application of the arrangements for heating and moistening
the air and for regulating the temperature of Hearson's chick
incubator to Dr Tarnier's human incubator. As in this latter
form, there are two chambers (fig. 14), an upper (A) and a lower
(B), connected with each other in the same way as in Tarnier's
FIG. 14.— Hearson's " Thermostatic Nurse."
apparatus. The upper chamber contains the infant, but the
lower is not a heating but a moistening chamber. Through
apertures (M) in the bottom of the lower chamber, the external
air passes through, and as in the chick incubator it then passes
through perforations in the inner cylinder of a water tray (0)
and thence over the surface of the water in the tray, through a
sheet of wet canvas, to the chamber itself. Hence it passes
to the infant chamber and ultimately leaves this through a
series of perforations round the top. The air in both chambers
is heated by a warm-water tank. This tank forms the partition
which divides the incubator into upper and lower chambers and
is made of metal. Through the water contained in it, an incoming
(R) and an outgoing (R) to the left flue, continuous with each
other, pass. These two flues are related to each other as in the
chick incubator (see above) and the inlet flue is heated in the
same way and the outlet flue discharges similarly. The heat-
regulating apparatus is identical with that in the chick incubator,
and the thermostatic capsule (S) is placed in the upper chamber,
near the head of the infant.
The child is placed in a basket which has perforated walls, and
is open above. The basket rests upon two shallow supports
(D) situated on the upper surface of the water-tank partition.
The child is kept under observation through a glass door in the
upper or roof-wall of the incubator.
In Great Britain this apparatus is in use at various hospitals
and workhouses throughout the country, and provided there is
no great fluctuation of barometric pressure, it maintains a uniform
temperature.
Thermo-Regidators or Thermostats.
Certain special forms of thermo-regulators, adapted to the
requirements of the particular incubators to which they are
attached, have already been described. It remains now to de-
scribe other forms which are of more general application. Only
those kinds will be described which are applicable to incubators.
The special forms used for investigations in physical-chemistry
are not described. There are various types of thermo-regulators,
all of which fall into one of two classes. Either they act through
the expansion of a solid, or through that of a liquid. They are
so adjusted, that, at a certain temperature, the expansion of
the material chosen causes the gas supply to be nearly completely
cut off. The gas flame is prevented from being wholly ex-
tinguished by means of a small by-pass.
We will first describe those which act through the expansion of a
liquid. A very efficient and cheap form is that described by F. J. M.
Page in the Journal of the Chemical Society for
1876. The regulator consists of a glass bulb
(fig. 15 B), continuous above with a tubular
limb (L). At the upper part of the limb is a
lateral tubular arm (A) which bends down-
wards and constitutes the outlet pipe. At
the upper extremity of the limb there is a
short and much wider tube (T), the lower end
of which slides upwards or downwards along
it. The upper end of this wider tube is
closed by a cork and through a perforation
in this a very small glass tube (G) passes
downwards into the limb of the regulator to
a point a short distance below the exit of the
outlet tube. The exact height of the lower
aperture of the small tube can be varied by
sliding the wider tube up or down along the
limb. The by-pass (P) consists of a trans-
verse connexion between the inlet and outlet
gas pipes, and the amount of gas which
travels through the short circuit thus formed
is regulated by means of a stopcock. The
by-pass, however, can be formed, as sug-
gested by Schafer (Practical Histology, 1877,
p. 80), by making an extremely small hole
in the small inlet tube, a little way above its
lower extremity. But unless this hole be
small enough, too much gas will be allowed
to pass, and a sufficiently low temperature
therefore unattainable. The regulator is filled
with mercury until the top of the column
reaches within J in. of the exit of the outlet
tube, the bulb is placed in the incubator
chamber, and gas is allowed to pass through
it. By pushing down the inner inlet tube
(G) until its aperture is immersed beneath the
mercury, the gas supply is cut off, with the
-L
B
FIG. 15. — Page's
Thermostat.
exception of that passing through the by-pass. The stopcock is
now turned until only the smallest flame exists. The inlet pipe is
then raised again above the mercury, and the flame consequently
increases in size. The temperature of the incubator gradually rises,
and when the desired degree is reached, the inlet tube is pushed
down until the end is just beneath the surface of the mercury. The
368
INCUBATION AND INCUBATORS
FIG. 16. — Reichert's
Thermo-Regulator.
gas supply is thus cut off at the desired temperature. If the tempera-
ture of the incubator falls, the mercury contracts, the aperture of the
inlet tube is uncovered, the gas supply is renewed and the flame
increased. The temperature will then rise until the required point is
reached, when the gas supply will again be cut off. A uniform
temperature which oscillates within a range of half a degree is thus
attained.
Reichert's Thermo-regulator (fig. 16) is another simple and also
an earlier form. The stem (S) of the regulator is enlarged above and
receives a hollow T-piece (P), the vertical
limb of which fits accurately into the en-
larged end of the stem, and one end of the
cross-limb receives the inlet gas pipe; the
other end is closed. The vertical limb of
the T-piece is narrowed down at its lower
extremity and opens by a small aperture.
Above this terminal aperture is a lateral
one of the smallest size. From the enlarged
end of the stem there passes out a lateral
arm (A) which is connected with the outlet
pipe to the burner, and lower down another
arm (L), which is closed at its outer ex-
tremity by a screw (R), is also attached.
The stem and lower arm are filled with
mercury and the bulb of the stem is placed
in the incubator chamber, and gas allowed
to pass. When the desired temperature is
reached, the mercury in the stem is forced
upwards until it closes the aperture of the
T-piece, by screwing in the screw (R) of the lower lateral arm (L).
There are several modifications of Reichert's original form. In
one of these the screw arrangement in the lower arm is replaced by a
piston rod working in a narrow bore of a vertically bent limb of the
arm. In another form, the other end of the cross bar of the T-piece
is open and leads through a stopcock to a third arm, which opens into
the enlarged upper end of the stem opposite to the outlet arm (A) ;
this modification acts as an adjustable by-pass and replaces the
minute aperture in the side of the vertical limb of the T-piece.
In Babes' modification the gas supply is cut off, not by the occlusion
by the rising mercury of the aperture of the T-piece, but by a floating
beaded wire-valve. The aperture of the vertical limb of the T-piece
(P) is traversed by a fine wire which is enlarged at both ends into a
bead-like knob. The wire fits loosely in the aperture and not only
therefore works easily in it, but allows gas to freely pass. When the
lower bead-like knob, however, is raised by the expansion of the
mercury, the gas supply is cut off by the bead being carried up
against the orifice.
Cuccatti's thermo-regulator (fig. 17) is an exceedingly simple and
ingenious form. The stem (S) of the regulator is enlarged below
into a bulb, while above it divides
into a V. The two limbs of the V
are of course traversed by a canal and
they are connected above by a tubular
cross bar (C). In the middle of this
there is a stopcock situated between
the two points where the bar joins the
limbs of the V. One end of the cross-
tube serves as an inlet and the other
as an outlet for the gas. The stop-
cock serves as an adjustable by-pass.
About an inch below the point where
the two limbs of the V join the stem,
the bore of the latter is enlarged, and
Fir. 17 — Curratti's Thprmrv. lt leads into a lateral arm (A), con-
ReeuTator taining a ?°rew (*}' similar to the
corresponding arm in Reichert's regu-
lator. When the mercury in the bulb and stem expands, it
rises, and reaching the point when the two limbs of the V meet
occludes the orifice to both and thus cuts off the gas supply,
except that which is passing through the by-pass of the stopcock.
The temperature at which this occlusion will take place can be
determined by the screw in the lateral arm. The more this is screwed
in, the lower will be the temperature at which the gas becomes cut
off, and vice versa.
Bunsen's, Kemp's and Muenke's regulators are in reality of the
nature of air-thermometers, and act by the expansion and contraction
of air, which raises or lowers respectively a column of mercury; this
in its turn results in the occlusion or opening of the gas aperture.
Such forms, however, are subject to the influence of barometric
pressure and an alteration of 0-5 in. of the barometer column may
result in the variation of the temperature to as much as 2°.
Lothar Meyer's regulator is described in the Berichte of the German
Chemical Society, 1883, p. 1089. It is essentially a liquid ther-
mometer, the mercury column being raised by the expansion of a
liquid of low boiling-point. The liquid replaces the air in Bunsen's
and other similar forms. The boiling-point of this liquid must be
below the temperature required as constant.
The solid forms of thermostats are constructed upon the same
principle as the compensation balance of a watch or the compensa-
tion pendulum of a clock. This depends upon the fact that the
FIG. 18. — Dr Roux's Ther-
mostat (straight bar).
co-efficient of expansion is different for different metals. It therefore
results that if two bars of different metals are fastened together
along their lengths (fig. 1 8, Z and ST) with the same rise of tempera-
ture one of these will expand or lengthen more than the other.
And since both are fastened together
and must therefore accommodate
themselves within the same linear
area, it follows that the compound rod
must bend into a curved form, in order
that the bar of greater expansion may
occupy the surface of greater length, i.e.
the convex one. Conversely, when the
temperature falls, the greater degree
of contraction will be in the same bar,
and the surface occupied by it will tend
to become the concave one. If, then,
one end of this compound rod be fixed
and the other free, the latter end will
describe a backward and forward
movement through an arc of a circle,
which will correspond with the oscilla-
tions of temperature. This movement
can be utilized by means of simple
mechanical arrangements, to open or
close the stopcock of a gas supply pipe.
In the construction of this type of
thermostat it is obvious that the
greater the difference in the co-efficient
of expansion of the two metals used,
the larger will be the amplitude of the
movement obtained. Steel and zinc are
two metals which satisfy this condition.
The co-efficient of steel is the lowest of all metals and is comparable
in its degree with that of glass. Substances which are not metals,
such as vulcanite and porcelain, are sometimes used to replace steel,
as the substance of low co-efficient of expansion.
The bimetallic thermostat most commonly employed is one of the
two forms designed by Dr Roux. In one of these forms the compound
bar is straight (fig. 18) and in the other it is U-shaped (fig. 19). In
the former type the bar itself is enclosed in a tube (T) of metal, the
wall of which is perforated. Towards the open end of this tube
the gas box or case (C) is fixed. In the U-shape form it is attached
to the outer surface (zinc) of one limb of the bar. The gas box is
capable of adjustment with respect to its distance from the bar, by
means of a screw (S) and
a spiral spring (SP),
which moves the box
outwards orinwards
along a rod (R). This
adjustment enables the
degree of temperature at
which it is desired that
the gas shall be cut off
to be fixed accurately,
and within a certain
more or less extended
range. The inlet and the
outlet pipe are discon-
nected from each other
in the gas box by means
of a piston-like rod (P)
and valve (V), which
slides backwards and
forwards in the tubular
part (T) of the box,
from which the outlet
pipe emerges. When the
valve (V) rests upon the
edge of this box, the gas
is completely cut off
from passing through
the outlet pipe, with
the exception of that
which passes through an
FIG. 19.— Dr Roux's Thermostat
(U-shaped bar).
exceedingly small aperture (B), serving as a by-pass. This is just
large enough to allow sufficient gas to pass to maintain a small flame.
The piston-like rod and valve, when free, is kept pressed outwards
by means of a spiral spring. This ensures that the valve shall
follow the movements of the compound bar. When this bar bends
towards the gas box owing to a fall of temperature, the valve is
pushed back away from the orifice and gas in increasing quantity
passes through. The temperature of the incubator begins then to
rise, and the zinc bar (Z) expanding more than the steel one (ST),
the bar bends outwards and the valve once more cuts off the gas
supply.
(d) Gas-Pressure Regulators. — The liquid form of thermo-regulators
especially work with a greater degree of accuracy if they are combined
with some apparatus which controls the variations in gas pressure.
There are various forms of these regulators, most of which are figured
and sometimes partially described in the catalogues of various
INCUBUS— INCUNABULA
369
FIG. 20. — Buddicom's Gas
Regulator.
makers of scientific instruments. It will suffice if we describe two
forms, one of which (that of Buddicom) can be made by a laboratory
attendant of average intelligence.
In R. A. Buddicom's gas regulator (fig. 20) the inlet (I) and outlet
(O) gas pipe open into a metal bell (B), the lower and open end of
which is immersed beneath water contained in a metal tray (T).
The bell is suspended upon the arm of a balance (B) and the other
arm is poised by a weight (W). This weight may be made of any
convenient material. In the original apparatus a test-tube partially
filled with mercury was used. The weight dips into one limb of a
U-shaped glass tube (U), which con-
tains mercury. Into the other limb
of this tube the gas from the meter
enters through a glass tube (G) which
is held in position by a well-fitting
cork. The internal aperture of the
tube (G) is very oblique, and it rests
just above the level of the mercury
when the instrument is finally
adjusted. This adjustment is better
made in the morning when the gas
pressure in the main is at its lowest.
Just above the internal aperture of
the tube (G), a lateral tube (L) passes
out from the limb of the U and is
connected with the inlet pipe (I) of the bell. If the gas pressure
rises, the bell (B) is raised and the counter-poising weight (W) is
proportionately lowered. This forces the mercury up in the other
limb of the U-tube and consequently diminishes the size of the
oblique orifice in the tube (G). Some of the gas is thus cut off and
the pressure maintained constant. Should the pressure fall, the re-
verse processes occur, and more gas passes through the orifice of G
and consequently to the burner by the outlet tube (O).
Moitessier's regulator (fig. 21 ) is more complex, and needs more
skilled work in its construction. It consists of an outer and closed
cylinder (O), which is filled about half-way up with a mixture of
acid-free glycerine and distilled water in the proportion of two to
one respectively. Within the cylinder is a bell (B), the lower and
open end of which dips under the glycerine-water mixture. From
the top of the bell a vertical rod (R) passes up through an aperture
in the cover of the outer cylinder, and
supports the weighted dish (D). The
inlet (I) and outlet (O) pipes enter the
chamber of the bell above the level of
the glycerine-water mixture. The out-
let tube is a simple one; but the inlet
tube is enlarged into a relatively capa-
cious cylinder (C), and its upper end is
fitted with a cover which is perforated
by an aperture having a smooth surface
and concave form. Into this aperture
an accurately fitting ball- or socket-valve
1 (V) fits. The ball-valve is supported
by a suspension thread (T) from the
roof of the bell (B). The apparatus
should be adjusted in the morning when
the pressure is low, and the dish (D)
should be then so weighted that the full amount of gas passes
through. The size of the flame should then be adjusted. Should
the pressure increase, the bell (B) is raised and with it the ball-valve
(V). The aperture in the cover of the inlet cylinder is consequently
reduced and some of the gas cut off. When the pressure falls again,
the ball- valve is lowered and more gas passes through. The relative
pressure in the inlet and outlet pipes can be read off on the mano-
meter (M) placed on each of these tubes.
Levelling screws allow of the apparatus being horizontally ad-
justed. The friction engendered by the working of the vertical rod
(R) through the aperture in the collar of the cylinder cover is reduced
to a minimum by the rod being made to slide upwards or downwards
on three vertical knife-edge ridges within the aperture of the collar.
AUTHORITIES. — Charles A. Cyphers, Incubation and its Natural
Laws (1776); J. H. Barlow, The Art and Method of Hatching and
Rearing all Kinds of Domestic Poultry and Game Birds by Steam
(London, 1827); and Daily Progress of the Chick in the Egg during
Hatching in Steam Apparatus (London, 1824); Walthew, Artificial
Incubation (London, 1824); William Bucknell, The Eccaleobin. A
Treatise on Artificial Incubation, in 2 parts (published by the author,
London, 1839); T. Christy, jun., Hydro- Incubation (London, 1877);
L. Wright, The Book of Poultry (2nd ed. London, 1893); A. Forget,
L' Aviculture et I'incubation artificielle (Paris, 1896); J. H. Sutcliffe,
Incubators and their Management (Upcott Gill, London, 1896);
H. H. Stoddard, The New Egg Farm (Orange Judd Co.; New York,
1900) ; Edward Brown, Poultry Keeping as an Industry (sth ed.,
1904); F. J. M. Page, " A Simple Form of Gas Regulator,'' Journ.
Chem. Soc. i. 24 (London, 1876) ; V. Babes, " Uber einige Apparate
zur Bacterienuntersuchung," Centralblatt fur Bacteriologie, iv. (1888);
T. Hilppe, Methoden der Bacterienforschungen (Berlin, 1889). For
further details of bacteriological incubators and accessories see
catalogues of Gallenkamp, Baird & Tatlock, Hearson of London,
FIG. 21. — Moitessier's
Gas Regulator.
and of the Cambridge Scientific Instrument Company, Cambridge;
of P. Lequeux of Paris; and of F. & M. Lautenschlager of Berlin.
That of Lequeux and of the Cambridge Company are particularly
useful, as in many instances they give a scientific explanation of the
principles upon which the construction -of the various pieces of
apparatus is based. (G.r. M.)
INCUBUS (a Late Latin form of the classical incubo, a night-
mare, from inctibare, to lie upon, weigh down, brood), the name
given in the middle ages to a male demon which was supposed
to haunt women in their sleep, and to whose visits the birth
of witches and demons was attributed. The female counter-
parts of these demons were called succubae. The word is also
applied generally to an oppressive thing or person.
INCUMBENT (from Lat. incumbere, to lean, lie upon), a general
term for the holder (rector, vicar, curate in charge) of an ecclesi-
astical benefice (see BENEFICE). In Scotland the title is generally
confined to clergy of the Episcopal Church. The word in this
application is peculiar to English. Du Cange (Glossarium, s.ii.
" Incumbens ") says that the Jurisconsulti use incumbere in
the sense of oblinere, possidere, but the sense may be transferred
from the general one of that which rests or is laid on one as a duty
which is also found in post-classical Latin; to be " diligently
resident " in a parish or benefice, has also been suggested as
the source of the meaning.
INCUNABULA, a Latin neuter-plural meaning " swaddling-
clothes," a "cradle," "birthplace," and so the beginning of
anything, now curiously specialized to denote books printed in
the i sth century. Its use in this sense may have originated
with the title of the first separately published List of i sth-century
books, Cornelius a Beughem's Incunabula typographiae (Amster-
dam, 1688). The word is generally recognized all over Europe
and has produced vernacular forms such as the French incunables,
German Inkunabeln (Wiegendrucke), Italian incunaboli, though
the anglicized incunables is not yet fully accepted. If its original
meaning had been regarded the application of the word would
have been confined to books printed before a much earlier date,
such as 1475, or to the first few printed in any country or town.
By the end of the i5th century book-production in the great
centres of the trade, such as Venice, Lyons, Paris and Cologne, had
already lost much of its primitive character, and in many coun-
tries there is no natural halting-place between 1490 and 1520 or
later. The attractions of a round date have prevailed, however,
over these considerations, and the year 1 500 is taken as a halting-
place, or more often a terminus, in all the chief works devoted
to the registration and description of early printed books. The
most important of these are (i.) Panzer's Annales typographici
ab artis inventae origine ad annum MD., printed in five volumes
at Nuremberg in 1793 and subsequently in 1803 carried on to
1536 by six additional volumes; (ii.) Hain's Repertorium
bibliographicum in quo libri omnes ab arle typographica imienta
usque ad annum MD. typis expressi ordine alphabetico iiel simpli-
citer enumerantur vel adcuratius, recensentur (Stuttgart, 1826-
1838). In Panzer's Annales the first principle of division is
that of the alphabetical order of the Latin names of towns in
which incunabula were printed, the books being arranged under
the towns by the years of publication. In Hain's Repertorium
the books are arranged under their authors' names, and it was
only in 1891 that an index of printers was added by Dr Konrad
Burger. In 1898 Robert Proctor published an Index to the Early
Printed Books in the British Museum: from the invention of
printing to the year MD., with notes of those in the Bodleian Library.
In this work the books were arranged as far as possible chrono-
logically under their printers, the printers chronologically under
the towns in which they worked, and the towns and countries
chronologically in the order in which printing was introduced
into them, the total number of books registered being nearly
ten thousand. Between 1898 and 1902 Dr W. Copinger published
a Supplement to Hain's Repertorium, described as a collection
towards a new edition of that work, adding some seven
thousand new entries to the sixteen thousand editions enumer-
ated by Hain. From the total of about twenty-three thousand
incunabula thus registered considerable deductions must be
made for duplicate entries and undated editions which probably
370
INCUNABULA
belong to the i6th century. On the other hand Dr
Copinger's Supplement had hardly appeared before additional
lists began to be issued registering books unknown both to him
and to Hain, and the new Repertorium, begun in 1905, under
the auspices of the German government, seemed likely to
register, on its completion, not fewer than thirty thousand
different incunabula as extant either in complete copies or
fragments.
In any attempt to estimate the extent to which the incunabula
still in existence represent the total output of the 15th-century
presses, a sharp distinction must be drawn between the weightier
and the more ephemeral literature. Owing to the great religious
and intellectual upheaval in the i6th century much of the
literature previously current went out of date, while the cum-
brous early editions of books still read were superseded by handier
ones. Before this happened the heavier works had found their
way into countless libraries and here they reposed peacefully,
only sharing the fate of the libraries themselves when these
were pillaged, or by a happier fortune amalgamated with other
collections in a larger library. The considerable number of copies
of many books for whose preservation no special reason can be
found encourages a belief that the proportion of serious works
now completely lost is not very high, except in the case of books
of devotion whose honourable destiny was to be worn to pieces
by devout fingers. On the other hand, of the lighter literature
in book-form, the cheap romances and catchpenny literature
of all kinds, the destruction has been very great. Most of the
broadsides and single sheets generally which have escaped
have done so only by virtue of the 16th-century custom of
using waste of this kind as a substitute for wooden boards to
stiffen bindings. Excluding these broadsides, &c., the total
output of the 15th-century presses in book form is not likely
to have exceeded forty thousand editions. As to the size of
the editions we know that the earliest printers at Rome favoured
225 copies, those at Venice 300. By the end of the century these
numbers had increased, but the soft metal in use then for types
probably wore badly enough to keep down the size of editions,
and an average of 500 copies, giving a possible total of twenty
million books put on the European market during the isth
century is probably as near an estimate as can be made.
Very many incunabula contain no information as to when,
where or by whom they were printed, but the individuality of
most of the early types as compared with modern ones has
enabled typographical detectives (of whom Robert Proctor,
who died in 1903, was by far the greatest) to track most of them
down. To facilitate this work many volumes of facsimiles have
been published, the most important being K. Burger's Monu-
menta Germaniae et Italiae Typographica (1892, &c.), J. W.
Holtrop's Monuments typographiques des Pays-Bas (1868),
O. Thierry-Poux's Premiers monuments de I'imprimerie en
France au XV' siecle (1890), K. Haebler's Typographic ibtrique
du quinzieme siecle (1901) and Gordon Duff's Early English
Printing (1896), the publications of the Type Facsimile Society
(1700, &c.)and the Woolley Facsimiles, a collection of five hundred
photographs, privately printed.
In his Index to the Early Printed Books at the British Museum
Proctor enumerated and described all the known types used by
each printer, and his descriptions have been usefully extended
and made more precise by Dr Haebler in his Typenrepertorium
der Wiegendrucke (1905, &c.). With the aid of these descriptions
and of the facsimiles already mentioned it is usually possible
to assign a newly discovered book with some certainty to the
press from which it was issued and often to specify within a few
weeks, or even days, the date at which it was finished.
As a result of these researches it is literally true that the out-
put of the isth-century presses (excluding the ephemeral publica-
tions which have very largely disappeared) is better known to
students than that of any other period. Of original literature of
any importance the half -century 1450-1500 was singularly barren,
and the zeal with which isth-century books have been collected
and studied has been criticized as excessive and misplaced.
No doubt the minuteness with which it is possible to make an
old book yield up its secrets has encouraged students to pursue
the game for its own sake without any great consideration of
practical utility, but the materials which have thus been made
available for the student of European culture are far from
insignificant. The competition among the i sth-century printers
was very great and they clearly sent to press every book for which
they could hope for a sale, undaunted by its bulk. Thus the
great medieval encyclopaedia, the Specula (Speculum naturale,
Speculum historiale, Speculum morale, Speculum doctrinale] of
Vincent de Beauvais went through two editions at Strassburg
and found publishers and translators elsewhere, although it
must have represented an outlay from which many modern
firms would shrink. It would almost seem, indeed, as if some
publishers specially affected very bulky works which, while they
remained famous, had grown scarce because the scribes were
afraid to attempt them. Hence, more especially in Germany,
it was not merely the output of a single generation which came
to the press before 1500, but the whole of the medieval literature
which remained alive, i.e. retained a reputation sufficient to
attract buyers. A study of lists of incunabula enables a student
to see just what works this included, and the degree of their
popularity. On the other hand in Italy the influence of the
classical renaissance is reflected in the enormous output of Latin
classics, and the progress of Greek studies can be traced in the
displacement of Latin translations by editions of the originals.
The part which each country and city played in the struggle
between the old ideals and the new can be determined in extra-
ordinary detail by a study of the output of its presses, although
some allowance must be made for the extent to which books
were transported along the great trade routes. Thus the fact
that the Venetian output nearly equalled that of the whole
of the rest of Italy was no doubt mainly due to its export trade.
Venetian books penetrated everywhere, and the skill of Venetian
printers in liturgical books procured them commissions to print
whole editions for the English market. From the almost
complete absence of scholarly books in the lists of English
incunabula it would be too much to conclude that there was
no demand for such books in England. The demand existed
and was met by importation, which a statute of Richard III.'s
expressly facilitated. But that it was not commercially possible
for a scholarly press to be worked in England, and that no man
of means was ready to finance one, tells its own tale. The total
number of incunabula printed in England was probably upwards
of four hundred, of which Caxton produced fully one-fourth.
Of the ten thousand different incunabula which the British
Museum and Bodleian library possess between them, about
4100 are Italian, 3400 German,iooo French, 700 from the Nether-
lands, 400 from Switzerland, 150 from Spain and Portugal,
50 from other parts of the continent of Europe and 200 English,
the proportion of these last being about doubled by the special
zeal with which they have been collected. The celebration in
1640 of the second centenary (as it was considered) of the in-
vention of printing may be [taken as the date from which
incunabula began to be collected for their own sake, apart
from their literary interest, and the publication of Beughem's
Incunabula typographiae in 1688 marks the increased attention
paid to them. But up to the end of the I7th century Caxtons
could still be bought for a few shillings. The third centenary
of the invention of printing in 1740 again stimulated enthusiasm,
and by the end of the i8th century the really early books were
eagerly competed for. Interest in books of the last ten or fifteen
years of the century is a much more modern development,
hut with the considerable literature which has grown up round
the subject is not likely to be easily checked.
The chief collections of incunabula are those of the BibliothSque
Nationale at Paris, Royal library, Munich, and British Museum,
London, the number of separate editions in each library exceeding
nine thousand, with numerous duplicates. The number of separate
editions at the Bodleian library is about five thousand. Other
important collections are at the fJniversity library, Cambridge, and
the John Rylands library, Manchester, the latter being based on the
famous Althorp library formed by Earl Spencer (see BOOK-
COLLECTING). (A. W. Po.)
INDABA— INDEPENDENCE
INDABA, a Zulu-Bantu word, formed from the inflexional
prefix in and daba, business, news, for an important conference
held by the " indunas " or principal men of the Kaffir (Zulu-Xosa)
tribes of South Africa. Such " indabas " may include only the
" indunas " of a particular tribe, or may be held with the repre-
sentatives of other tribes or peoples.
INDAZOLES (BENZOPYRAZOLES), organic substances con-
taining the ring system | ">NH. The parent substance
\/\ N/
indazole, C7H6N2, was obtained by E. Fischer (Ann. 1883, 221,
p. 280) by heating ortho-hydrazine cinnamic acid,
CTT ^^CH = CH'COOH r1 u n i r* u XT
«"4<^NH NH = L2ri«Uj-t-l-7H6iNj.
It has also been obtained by heating ortho-diazoaminotoluene
with acetic acid and benzene (F. Heusler, Ber., 1891, 24, p. 4161).
It crystallizes in needles (from hot water), which melt at 146-5° C.
and boil at 2f>g°-2io° C. It is readily soluble in hot water,
alcohol and dilute hydrochloric acid. Nitrous acid converts it
into nitrosoindazole; whilst on heating with the alkyl iodides
it is converted into alkyl indazoles.
A series of compounds isomeric with these alkyl derivatives
is known, and can be considered as derived from the ring system
These isomers are called isindazoles, and may
be prepared by the reduction of the nitroso-ortho-alkylamino-
acetophenones with zinc dust and water or acetic acid. The
indazoles are weak bases, which crystallize readily. Phenyl
indazole, on reduction with sodium and absolute alcohol, gives
a dihydro derivative (K. L. Paal, Ber., 1891, 24, p. 963).
For other derivatives, see E. Fischer and J. Tafel, Ann. 1885, 227,
P- 314.
INDEMNITY (through Fr. indemnile, Lat. indemnis, free from
damage or loss; in-, negative, and damnum, loss), in law, an
undertaking, either express or implied, to compensate another
for loss or damage, or for trouble or expense incurred; also the
sum so paid (see CONTRACT ; and INSURANCE : Marine). An
act of indemnity is a statute passed for the purpose either of
relieving persons from disabilities and penalties to which they
have rendered themselves liable or to make legal transactions
which, when they took place, were illegal. An act or bill of
indemnity used to be passed every session by the English par-
liament for the relief of those who had unwittingly neglected to
qualify themselves in certain respects for the holding of offices,
&c., as, for example, justices, without taking the necessary oaths.
The Promissory Oaths Act 1868 rendered this unnecessary.
INDENE, CgHg, a hydrocarbon found in the fraction of the
coal tar distillate boiling between 176° and 182° C., and from
which it may be extracted by means of its picrate (G. Kramer,
A. Spilker, Ber., 1890, 23, p. 3276). It may also be obtained
by distilling the calcium salt of hydrindene carboxylic acid,
C6H4(CH2)2-CH-COOH. It is an oil which boils at I79'5°-
1 80- 5°, and has a specific gravity i -04 ( 1 5° C.) . Dilute nitric acid
oxidizes it to phthalic acid, and sodium reduces it in alcoholic solu-
tion to hydrindene, CgHio. A. v. Baeyer and W. H. Perkin (Ber.,
1884, 17, p. 125) by the action of sodiomalonic ester on ortho-
xylylene bromide obtained a hydrindene dicarboxylic ester,
C6H4(CH2Br)2-r-2CHNa(CO2C2H6)2 = 2NaBr+CH2(CO2C2H6)2
+CoH4:[CH2]2:C(C02C2H6)2;
this ester on hydrolysis yields the corresponding acid, which on
heating loses carbon dioxide and gives the monocarboxylic
acid of hydrindene. The barium salt of this acid, when heated,
yields indene and not hydrindene, hydrogen being liberated
(W. H. Perkin, Jour. Chem. Soc., 1894, 65, p. 228). Indene
vapour when passed through a red hot tube yields chrysene.
It combines with nitrosyl chloride to form indene nitrosate
(M. Dennstedt and C. Ahrens, Ber., 1895, 28, p. 1331) and it
reacts with benzaldehyde, oxalic ester and formic ester (J.
Thiele, Ber., 1900, 33, p. 3395).
On the derivatives of indene see W. v. Miller, Ber., 1890, 23, p.
1883; Th. Zincke, Ber., 1887, 20, p. 2394, 1886, 19, p. 2493; and
W. Roser and E. Haselhoff, Ann., 1888, 247, p. 140.
INDENTURE (through O. Fr. endenture from a legal Latin
term indenture., indenture, to cut into teeth, to give a jagged
edge, in modum denlium, like teeth), a law term for a special
form of deed executed between two or more parties, and having
counterparts or copies equal to the number of parties. These
copies were all drawn on one piece of vellum or paper divided
by a toothed or " indented " line. The copies when separated
along this waved line could then be identified as " tallies " when
brought together. Deeds executed by one party only had a
smooth or " polled " edge, whence the name " deed poll." By
the Real Property Act 1845, § 5, all deeds purporting to be
" indentures " have the effect of an " indenture," even though
the indented line be absent. The name " chirograph " (Gr. x«'P,
hand, fp&4>av, to write) was also early applied to such a form
of deed, and the word itself was often written along the indented
line (see further DEED and DIPLOMATIC) . The term "'indenture "
is now used generally of any sealed agreement between two or
more parties, and specifically of a contract of apprenticeship,
whence the phrase " to take up one's indentures," on completion
of the term, and also of a contract by labourers to serve in
a foreign country or colony (see COOLIE).
INDEPENDENCE, a city and the county-seat of Jackson
county, Missouri, U.S.A., 3 m. S. of the Missouri river and
10 m. E. of Kansas City. Pop. (1890) 6380, (1900) 6974,
of whom 937 were negroes. The city is served by the Missouri
Pacific, the Chicago & Alton, and the Kansas City Southern
railways, and by an electric line and fine boulevard to Kansas
City. It is situated about 1000 ft. above the sea, and is sur-
rounded by a fertile agricultural district. The city has a small
public square (surrounding the court-house) and a public library,
and is the seat of St Mary's Academy, under the control of the
Sisters of Mercy. Among its manufactures are farming imple-
ments, flour and lumber. The municipality owns its electric
lighting plant. Independence was laid out as a town and chosen
as the county-seat in 1827, first chartered as a city in 1849 and
made a city of the third-class in 1889. About 150x3 Mormons,
attracted by the " revelation " that this was to be a Zion,
settled in and about Independence in 1831 and 1832. They
contemplated building their chief temple about % m. W. of the
site of the present court house, but in 1833 (partly because
they invited free negroes to join them) were expelled by the
" gentile " inhabitants of Independence. In 1867 a settlement
of about 1 50 Hedrickites, or members of the " Church of Jesus
Christ " (organized in Illinois in 1835), came here and secretly
bought up parts of the " Temple Lot." The heirs of the settlers
of 1831-1832 conveyed the lot by deed to the Reorganized Church
of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (with headquarters at
Lamoni, Iowa), which brought suit against the Hedrickites,
but in 1894 the U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals decided the case
on the ground of laches in favour of the Hedrickites, who fifteen
years afterwards had nearly died out. In 1867-1869 a few
families belonging to the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ
of Latter Day Saints (monogamists) settled in Independence,
and in 1908 their church here had about 2000 members. Besides
a large church building, they have here a printing establishment,
from which is issued the weekly Zion's Ensign (founded in 1891),
and the " Independence Sanitarium " (completed in 1908).
The faithful Mormons still look to Independence as the Zion
of the church. In 1907 a number of Mormons from Utah settled
here, moving the headquarters of the " Central States' Mission "
from Kansas City to Independence, and founded a periodical
called Liahona, the Elder's Journal. From about 1831 to 1844,
when its river landing was destroyed by flood, Independence was
the headquarters and outfitting point of the extensive caravan
trains for the Santa Fe, Oregon and Old Salt Lake trails. During
the Civil War about 300 Federals under Lieut.-Colonel D.H.Buel,
occupying the town, were captured on the i6th of August 1862
by Colonel Hughes in command of 1500 Confederates, and on
the 22nd of October 1864 a part of General Sterling Price's
372
INDEPENDENCE, DECLARATION OF
Confederate army was defeated a few miles E. of Independence
by General Alfred Pleasonton.
INDEPENDENCE, DECLARATION OF, in United States
history, the act (or document) by which the thirteen original
states of the Union broke their colonial allegiance to Great Britain
in 1776. The controversy preceding the war (see AMERICAN
INDEPENDENCE, WAR OF) gradually shifted from one primarily
upon economic policy to one upon issues of pure politics and
sovereignty, and the acts of Congress, as viewed to-day, seem
to have been carrying it, from the beginning, inevitably into
revolution; but there was apparently no general and conscious
drift toward independence until near the close of 1775. The
first colony to give official countenance to separation as a solution
of colonial grievances was North Carolina, which, on the I2th of
April 1776, authorized its delegates in Congress to join with
others in a declaration to that end. The first colony to instruct
its delegates to take the actual initiative was Virginia, in accord-
ance with whose instructions — voted on the isth of May —
Richard Henry Lee, on the 7th of June, moved a resolution
" that these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be,
free and independent States." John Adams of Massachusetts
seconded the motion. The conservatives could only plead the
unpreparedness of public opinion, and the radicals conceded
delay on condition that a committee be meanwhile at work on
a declaration " to the effect of the said . . . resolution," to
serve as a preamble thereto when adopted. This committee
consisted of Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, Benjamin Franklin,
Roger Sherman and Robert R. Livingston. To Jefferson the
committee entrusted the actual preparation of the paper. On
the 2nd of July, by a vote of 12 states — -10 voting unanimously,
New York not voting, and Pennsylvania and Delaware casting
divided ballots (3 votes in the negative) — Congress adopted the
resolution of independence; and on the 4th, Jefferson's " De-
claration." The 4th has always been the day celebrated;1 the
decisive act of the 2nd being quite forgotten in the memory of
the day on which that act was published to the world. It should
also be noted that as Congress had already, on the 6th of
December 1775, formally disavowed allegiance to parliament,
the Declaration recites its array of grievances against the crown,
and breaks allegiance to the crown. Moreover, on the loth of
May 1776, Congress had recommended to the people of the
colonies that they form such new governments as their repre-
sentatives should deem desirable; and in the accompanying
statement of causes, formulated on the i5th of May, had declared
it to be " absolutely irreconcilable to reason and good conscience
for the people of these colonies now to take the oaths and affirma-
tions necessary for the support of any government under the
crown of Great Britain," whose authority ought to be " totally
suppressed " and taken over by the people — a determination
which, as John Adams said, inevitably involved a struggle for
absolute independence, involving as it did the extinguishment
of all authority, whether of crown, parliament or nation.
Though the Declaration reads as " In Congress, July 4, 1776.
The unanimous Declaration of the thirteen united States of
America," New York's adhesion was in fact not voted until the
9th, nor announced to Congress until the isth — the Declaration
being unanimous, however, when it was ordered, on thei9th,to
be engrossed and signed under the above title.2 Contrary to the
inference naturally to be drawn from the form of the document,
no signatures were attached on the 4th. As adopted by Con-
gress, .the Declaration differs only in details from the, draft
prepared by Jefferson; censures of the British people and a noble
denunciation of slavery were omitted, appeals to Providence
were inserted, and verbal improvements made in the interest of
terseness and measured statement. The document is full of
Jefferson's fervent spirit and personality, and its ideals were
those to which his life was consecrated. It is the best known
and ( the noblest of American state papers. Though open to
" Independence Day " is a holiday in all the states and territories
of the United States.
2 As read before the army meanwhile, it was headed " In Congress,
July 4, 1776. A Declaration by the representatives of the United
States of America in General Congress assembled."
controversy on some issues of historical fact, not flawless in
logic, necessarily partisan in tone and purpose, it is a justificatory
preamble, a party manifesto and appeal, reasoned enough to
carry conviction, fervent enough to inspire enthusiasm. It
mingles — as in all the controversy of the time, but with a literary
skill and political address elsewhere unrivalled — stale disputation
with philosophy. The rights of man lend dignity to the rights
of Englishmen, and the broad outlook of a world-wide appeal,
and the elevation of noble principles, relieve minute criticisms
of an administrative system.
Jefferson's political theory was that of Locke, whose words the
Declaration echoes. Uncritical critics have repeated John Adams's
assertion that its arguments were hackneyed: so they un-
doubtedly were — in Congress, and probably little less so without,
— but that is certainly pre-eminent among its great merits.
As Madison said, " The object was to assert, not to discover
truths." Others have echoed Rufus Choate's phrase, that the
Declaration is made up of "glittering and sounding generalities
of natural right." In truth, its long array of " facts . . .
submitted to a candid worM " had its basis in the whole develop-
ment of the relations between England and the colonies; every
charge had point in a definite reference to historical events,
and appealed primarily to men's reason; but the history is
to-day forgotten, while the fanciful basis of the " compact "
theory does not appeal to a later age. It should be judged,
however, by its purpose and success in its own time. The
" compact " theory was always primarily a theory of political
ethics, a revolutionary theory, and from the early middle ages
to the French Revolution it worked with revolutionary power.
It held up an ideal. Its ideal of " equality " was not realized
in America in 1776 — nor in England in 1688 — but no man
knew this better than Jefferson. Locke disclaimed for him in
i6go3 the shallower misunderstandings still daily put upon his
words. Both Locke and Jefferson wrote simply of political
equality, political freedom. Even within this limitation, the
idealistic formulas of both were at variance with the actual
conditions of their time. The variance would have been greater
had their phrases been applied as humanitarian formulas to
industrial and social conditions. The Lockian theory fitted
beautifully the question of colonial dependence, and was applied
to that by America with inexorable logic; it fitted the question
of individual political rights, and was applied to them in 1776,
but not in 1690; it did not apply to non-political conditions of
individual liberty, a fact realized by many at the time — and it
is true that such an application would have been more incon-
sistent in America in 1776 as regards the negroes than in England
in 1690 as regarded freemen. Beyond this, there is no pertinence
in the stricture that the Declaration is made up of glittering
generalities of natural right. Its influence upon American legal
and constitutional development has been profound. Locke, says
Leslie Stephen, popularized " a convenient formula for enforcing
the responsibility of governors " — but his theories were those of
an individual philosopher — while by the Declaration a state,
for the first time in history, founded its life on democratic
idealism, pronouncing governments to exist for securing the
happiness of the people, and to derive their just powers from
the consent of the governed. It was a democratic instrument,
and the revolution a democratic movement; in South Carolina
and the Middle Colonies particularly, the cause of independence
was bound up with popular movements against aristocratic
elements. Congress was fond of appealing to " the purest
maxims of representation "; it sedulously measured public
opinion; took no great step without an explanatory address
to the country; cast its influence with the people in local
struggles as far as it could; appealed to them directly over the
heads of conservative assemblies; and in general stirred up
democracy. The Declaration gave the people recognition
equivalent to promises, which, as fast as new governments were
instituted, were converted by written constitutions into rights,
which have since then steadily extended.
3 Two Treatises of Government, No, ii. § 54, as to age, abilities,
virtue, &c.
INDEPENDENTS— INDEX
373
The original parchment of the Declaration, preserved in the
Department of State (from 1841 to 1877 in the Patent Office, once
a part of the Department of State), was injured — the injury was
almost wholly to the signatures — in 1823 by the preparation of a
facsimile copper-plate, and since 1894, when it was already
partly illegible, it has been jealously guarded from light and air.
The signers were as follows: John Hancock (1737-1792), of
Massachusetts, president; Button Gwinnett (c. 1732-1777),
Lyman Hall (1725-1790), George Walton (1740-1804), of
Georgia; William Hooper (1742-1790), Joseph Hewes (1730-
1779), John Penn (1741-1788), of North Carolina; Edward
Rutledge (1749-1800), Thomas Heyward, Jr. (1746-1809),
Thomas Lynch, Jr. (1749-1779), Arthur Middleton (1742-1787),
of South Carolina; Samuel Chase (1741-1811), William Paca
(1740-1799), Thomas Stone (1743-1787), Charles Carroll (1737-
1832) of Carrollton, of Maryland; George Wythe (1726-1806),
Richard Henry Lee (1732-1794), Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826),
Benjamin Harrison (1740-1791), ThomasNelson,Jr.(i738-i789),
Francis Lightfoot Lee (1734-1797), Carter Braxton (1736-1797),
of Virginia; Robert Morris (1734-1806), Benjamin Rush (1745-
1813), Benjamin Franklin (1706-1 790), John Morton (1724-1 777),
George Clymer (1739-1813), James Smith (c. 1719-1806), George
Taylor (1716-1781), James Wilson (1742-1798), George Ross
(1730-1779), of Pennsylvania; Caesar Rodney (1728-1784),
George Read (1733-1798), Thomas McKean (1734-1817), of
Delaware; William Floyd (1734-1821), Philip Livingston
(1716-1778), Francis Lewis (1713-1803), Lewis Morris (1726-
1798), of New York; Richard Stockton (1730-1781), John
Witherspoon (1722-1794), Francis Hopkinson (1737-1791), John
Hart (1708-1780), Abraham Clark (1726-1794), of New Jersey;
Josiah Bartlett (1729-1795), William Whipple (1730-1785),
Matthew Thornton (1714-1803), of New Hampshire; Samuel
Adams (1722-1803), John Adams (1735-1826), Robert Treat
Paine (1731-1814), Elbridge Gerry (1744-1814), of Massa-
chusetts; Stephen Hopkins (1707-1785), William Ellery (1727-
1820), of Rhode Island; Roger Sherman (1721-1793), Samuel
Huntington (1732-1796), William Williams (1731-1811), Oliver
Wolcott (1726-1797), of Connecticut. Not all the men who
rendered the greatest services to independence were in Congress
in July 1776; not all who voted for the Declaration ever signed
it; not all who signed it were members when it was adopted.
The greater part of the signatures were certainly attached on the
2nd of August; but at least six were attached later. With one
exception — that of Thomas McKean, present on the 4th of
July but not on the 2nd of August, and permitted to sign in
1781 — all were added before printed copies with names attached
were first authorized by Congress for public circulation in
January 1777.
See H. Friedenwald, The Declaration of Independence, An Inter-
pretation and an Analysis (New York, 1904) ; J. H. Hazleton, The
Declaration of Independence: its History (New York, 1906); M.
Chamberlain, John Adams . . . with other Essays and Addresses
(Boston, 1898), containing, " The Authentication of the Declaration
of Independence " (same in Massachusetts Historical Society,
Proceedings, Nov. 1884); M. C. Tyler, Literary History of the American
Revolution, vol. i. (New York, 1897), or same material in North
American Review, vol. 163, 1896, p. I ; W. F. Dana in Harvard
Law Review, vol. 13, 1900, p. 319; G. E. Ellis in J. Winsor,
Narrative and Critical History of America, vol. vi. (Boston, 1888);
R. Frothingham, Rise of the Republic, ch. ii. (Boston, 1872). There
are various collected editions of biographies of the signers; probably
the best are John Sanderson's Biography of the Signers of the Declara-
tion of Independence (7 vols., Philadelphia, 1823-1827), and William
Brotherhead's Book of the Signers (Philadelphia, 1860, new ed.,
1875). The Declaration itself is available in the Revised Statutes of
the United States (1878), and many other places. A facsimile of
the original parchment in uninjured condition is inserted in P.
Force's American Archives, 5th series, vol. i. at p. 1595 (Washington,
1848). The reader will find it interesting to compare a study of the
French Declaration: G. Jellinek, The Declaration of the Rights
of Man and of Citizens (New York, 1901 ; German edition, Leipzig,
1895; French translation preferable because of preface of Professor
Larnande). (F. S. P.)
INDEPENDENTS, in religion, a name used in the i7th century
for those holding to the autonomy of each several church or
congregation, hence otherwise known as Congregationalists.
Down to the end of the i8th century the former title prevailed
in England, though not in America; while since then " Con-
gregationalist " has obtained generally in both. (See CON-
GREGATIONALISM.)
INDEX, a word that may be understood either specially as
a table of references to a book or, more generally, as an indicator
of the position of required information on any given subject.
According to classical usage, the Latin word index denoted a
discoverer, discloser or informer; a catalogue or list; an
inscription; the title of a book; and the fore or index-finger.
Cicero also used the word to express the table of contents to a
book, and explained his meaning by the Greek form syllabus.
Shakespeare uses the word with the general meaning of a table
of contents or preface— thus Nestor says (Troilus and Cressida,
i. 3):—
" And in such indexes, although small pricks
To their subsequent volumes, there is seen
The baby figure of the giant mass."
Table was the usual English word, -and index was not thoroughly
naturalized until the beginning of the i7th century, and even
then it was usual to explain it as " index or table." By the
present English usage, according to which the word " table "
is reserved for the summary of the contents as they occur in a
book, and the word " index " for the arranged analysis of the
contents for the purpose of detailed reference, we obtain an
advantage not enjoyed in other languages; for the French table
is used for both kinds, as is indice in Italian and Spanish. There
is a group of words each of which has its distinct meaning but
finds its respective place under the general heading of index
work; these are calendar, catalogue, digest, inventory, register,
summary, syllabus and table.1 The value of indexes was
recognized in the earliest times, and many old books have full
and admirably constructed ones. A good index has sometimes
kept a dull book alive by reason of the value or amusing character
of its contents. Carlyle referred to Prynne's Histrio-Mastix
as " a book still extant, but never more to be read by mortal ";
but the index must have given amusement to many from the
curious character of its entries, and Attorney-General Noy
particularly alluded to it in his speech at Prynne's trial. Indexes
have sometimes been used as vehicles of satire, and the witty
Dr William King was the first to use them as a weapon of attack.
His earliest essay in this field was the index added to the second
edition of the Hon. Charles Boyle's attack upon Bentley's
Dissertation on the Epistles of Phalaris (169%).
To serve its purpose well, an index to a book must be compiled
with care, the references being placed under the heading that
the reader is most likely to seek. An index should be one and
indivisible, and not broken up into several alphabets; thus
every work, whether in one or more volumes, ought to have its
complete index. The mode of arrangement calls for special
attention; this may be either chronological, alphabetical or
according to classes, but great confusion will be caused by uniting
the three systems. The alphabetical arrangement is so simple,
convenient and easily understood that it has naturally super-
seded the other forms, save in some exceptional cases. Much
of the value of an index depends upon the mode in which it is
printed, and every endeavour should be made to set it out with
clearness. In old indexes the indexed word was not brought to
the front, but was left in its place in the sentence, so that the
alphabetical order was not made perceptible to the eye. There
are few points in which the printer is more likely to go wrong
than in the use of marks of repetition, and many otherwise good
indexes are full of the most perplexing cases of misapplication
in this respect. The oft-quoted instance,
Mill on Liberty
on the Floss
actually occurred in a catalogue. But in modern times there
1 Another old word occasionally used in the sense of an index is
" pye." SirT. Duffus Hardy, in some observations on the derivation
of the word " Pye-Book " (which most probably comes from the Latin
pica), remarks that the earliest use he had noted of pye in this sense
is dated 1547 — " a Pye of all the names of such Bahves as been to
accompte pro anno regni regis Edwardi Sexti primo."
374
INDEX LIBRORUM PROHIBITORUM
has been a great advance in the art of indexing, especially since
the foundation in 1877 in England of the Index Society; and
the growth of great libraries has given a stimulus to this method
of making it easy for readers and researchers to find a ready
reference to the facts or discussions they require. Not only has
it become almost a sine qua non that any good book must have
its own index, but the art of indexing has been applied to those
books which are really collections of books (such as the Encyclo-
paedia Britannica) , to a great newspaper like the London Times,
and to the cataloguing of great libraries themselves. The work
in these more elaborate cases has been enormously facilitated by
the modern devices by means of which separate cards are used,
arranged in drawers and cases, American enterprise in this
direction having led the way. And the value of the work done
in this respect by the Congressional Library at Washington,
the British Museum and the London Library (notably by its
Subject Index published in 1909) cannot well be exaggerated.
(See also BIBLIOGRAPHY).
There are numerous books on Indexing, but the best for any one
who wants to get a general idea is H. B. Wheatley's How to make an
Index (1902).
INDEX LIBRORUM PROHIBITORUM, the title of the official
list of those books which on doctrinal or moral grounds the
Roman Catholic Church authoritatively forbids the members of
her communion to read or to possess, irrespective of works
forbidden by the general rules on the subject. Most govern-
ments, whether civil or ecclesiastical, have at all times in one
way or another acted on the general principle that some control
may and ought to be exercised over the literature circulated
among those under their jurisdiction. If we set aside the
heretical books condemned by the early councils, the earliest
known instance of a list of proscribed books being issued with
the authority of a bishop of Rome is the Notitia librorum apocry-
phorum qui non recipiuntur, the first redaction of which, by
Pope Gelasius (494), was subsequently amplified on several
occasions. The document is for the most part an enumeration
of such apocryphal works as by their titles might be supposed
to be part of Holy Scripture (the " Acts " of Philip, Thomas
and Peter, and the Gospels of Thaddaeus, Matthias, Peter,
James the Less and others).1 Subsequent pontiffs continued to
exhort the episcopate and the whole body of the faithful to be
on their guard against heretical writings, whether old or new;
and one of the functions of the Inquisition when it was estab-
lished was to exercise a rigid censorship over books put in circula-
tion. The majority of the condemnations were at that time of a
specially theological character. With the discovery of the art
of printing, and the wide and cheap diffusion of all sorts of books
which ensued, the need for new precautions against heresy and
immorality in literature made itself felt, and more than one
pope (Sixtus IV. in 1479 and Alexander VI. in 1501) gave
special directions to the archbishops of Cologne, Mainz, Trier
and Magdeburg regarding the growing abuses of the printing
press; in 1515 the Lateran council formulated the decree De
Impressione Librorum, which required that no work should be
printed without previous examination by the proper ecclesiastical
authority, the penalty of unlicensed printing being excommunica-
tion of the culprit, and confiscation and destruction of the books.
The council of Trent in its fourth session, 8th April 1546, forbade
the sale or possession of any anonymous religious book which
had not previously been seen and approved by the ordinary;
in the same year the university of Louvain, at the command
of Charles V., prepared an " Index " of pernicious and forbidden
books, a second edition of which appeared in 1550. In 1557,
and again in 1559, Pope Paul IV., through the Inquisition at
Rome, published what may be regarded as the first Roman
Index in the modern ecclesiastical use of that term (Index
auctorum et librorum qui tanquam haeretici aut suspecti aut
perversi ab Officio S. R. Inquisitionis reprobanlur et in universa
Christiana republica interdicuntur). In this we find the three
'Hardouin, Cone. ii. 940; Labbe', Cone. ii. 938-941. The whole
document has also been reprinted in Smith's Diet, of Chr. Antiq.,
art. " Prohibited Books."
classes which were to be maintained in the Trent Index:
authors condemned with all their writings; prohibited books,
the authors of which are known; pernicious books by anonymous
authors. An excessively severe general condemnation was
applied to all anonymous books published since 1519; and a
list of sixty-two printers of heretical books was appended.
This excessive rigour was mitigated in 1561. At the i8th session
of the council of Trent (26th February 1562), in consideration
of the great increase in the number of suspect and pernicious
books,.and also of the inefficacy of the many previous " censures "
which had proceeded from the provinces and from Rome itself,
eighteen fathers with a certain number of theologians were
appointed to inquire into these " censures," and to consider
what ought to be done in the circumstances. At the 25th session
(4th December 1 563) this committee of the council was reported
to have completed its work, but as the subject did not seem
(on account of the great number and variety of the books) to
admit of being properly discussed by the council, the result
of its labours was handed over to the pope (Pius IV.) to deal with
as he should think proper. In the following March accordingly
were published, with papal approval, the Index librorum prohibi-
torum, which continued to be reprinted and brought down to
date, and the " Ten Rules " which, supplemented and explained
by Clement VIII., Sixtus V., Alexander VII., and finally by
Benedict XIV. (loth July 1753), regulated the matter until the
pontificate of Leo XIII. The business of condemning pernicious
books and of correcting the Index to date has been since the
time of Pope Sixtus V. in the hands of the " Congregation of
the Index," which consists of several cardinals, one of whom
is the prefect, and more or less numerous " consultors "
and " examiners of books." An attempt has been made to
publish separately the Index Librorum Expurgandorum or Expur-
gatorius, a catalogue of the works which may be read after the
deletion or amending of specified passages; but this was soon
abandoned.
With the alteration of social conditions, however, the Rules
of Trent ceased to be entirely applicable. Their application
to publications which had no concern with morals or religion
was no longer conceivable; and, finally, the penalties called for
modification. Already, at the Vatican Council, several bishops
had submitted requests for a reform of the Index, but the Council
was not able to deal with the question. The reform was accom-
plished by Leo XIII., who, on the 25th of January 1897, published
the constitution Officiorum, in 49 articles. In this constitution,
although the writings of heretics in support of heresy are con-
demned as before (No. i), those of their books which contain
nothing against Catholic doctrine or which treat other subjects
are permitted (Nos. 2-3). Editions of the text of the Scriptures
are permitted for purposes of study; translations of the Bible
into the vulgar tongue have to be approved, while those published
by non-Catholics are permitted for the use of scholars (Nos. 5-8).
Obscene books are forbidden; the classics, however, are author-
ized for educational purposes (Nos. 9-10). Articles 11-14 forbid
books which outrage God and sacred things, books which
propagate magic and superstition, and books which are pernicious
to society. The ecclesiastical laws relating to sacred images,
to indulgences, and to liturgical books and books of devotion are
maintained (Nos. 15-20). Articles 21-22 condemn immoral
and irreligious newspapers, and forbid writers to contribute to
them. Articles 23-26 deal with permissions to read prohibited
books; these are given by the bishop in particular cases, and
in the ordinary course by the Congregation of the Index. In
the second part of the constitution the pope deals with the
censorship of books. After indicating the official publications
for which the authorization of the divers Roman congregations
is required, he goes on to say that the others are amenable to the
ordinary of the editor and, in the case of regulars, to their
superior (Nos. 30-37). The examination of the books is entrusted
to censors, who have to study them without prejudice; if their
report is favourable, the bishop gives the imprimatur (Nos.
38-40). All books concerned with the religious sciences and
with ethics are submitted to preliminary censorship, and in.
PHYSICAL FEATURES]
INDIA
375
addition to this ecclesiastics have to obtain a personal authoriza-
tion for all their books and for the acceptance of the editorship
of a periodical (Nos. 41-42). The penalty of excommunication
ipso facto is only maintained for reading books written by
heretics or apostates in defence of heresy, or books condemned
by name under pain of excommunication by pontifical letters
(not by decrees of the Index). By the same constitu-
tion Leo XIII. ordered the revision of the catalogue of the Index.
The new Index, which omits works anterior to 1600 as well as a
great number of others included in the old catalogue, appeared
in 1900. The encyclical Pascendi of Gius X. (8th September
1907) made it obligatory for periodicals amenable to the
ecclesiastical authority to be submitted to a censor, who sub-
sequently makes useful observations. The legislation of Leo
XIII. resulted in the better observance of the rules for the publi-
cation of books, but apparently did not modify the practice as re-
gards the reading of prohibited books. It is to be regretted
that the catalogue does not discriminate among the prohibited
works according to the motive of their condemnation and the
danger ascribed to reading them. The tendency of the practice
among Catholics at large is to reduce these condemnations to
the proportions of the moral law.
See H. Reusch, Der Index der verbotenen Biicher (Bonn, 1883);
A. Arndt, De Libris prohibitis commentarii (Ratisbon, 1895); A.
Boudinhon, La Nouvelle Legislation de I'index (Paris, 1899); J.
Hilgers, Der Index der verbotenen Biicher (Freiburg in B., 1904);
A. Vermeersch, De prohibition et censura librorum (Tournai, 1907) ;
T. Hurley, Commentary on the Present Index Legislation (Dublin,
1908). (A. Bo.*)
INDIA,1 a great country and empire of Asia under British
rule, inhabited by a congeries of different races, speaking upwards
of fifty different languages. The whole Indian empire, includ-
ing Burma, has an area of 1,766,000 sq. m., and a population
of 294 million inhabitants, being about equal to the area
and population of the whole of Europe without Russia. The
population more than doubles Gibbon's estimate of 120
millions for all the races and nations which obeyed imperial
Rome.
The natives of India can scarcely be said to have a word of
their own by which to express their common country. In
Sanskrit, it would be called " Bharata-varsha," from Bharata,
a legendary monarch of the Lunar line; but Sanskrit is no
more the vernacular of India than Latin is of Europe. The
name " Hindustan," which was at one time adopted by European
geographers, is of Persian origin, meaning " the land of the
Hindus," as Afghanistan means " the land of the Afghans."
According to native usage, however, " Hindustan " is limited
either to that portion of the peninsula lying north of the Vindhya
mountains, or yet more strictly to the upper basin of the Ganges
where Hindi is the spoken language. The " East Indies," as
opposed to the " West Indies," is an old-fashioned and in-
accurate phrase, dating from the dawn of maritime discovery,
and still lingering in certain parliamentary papers. " India,"
the abstract form of a word derived through the Greeks from
the Persicized form of the Sanskrit sindhu, a " river," pre-
eminently the Indus, has become familiar since the British
acquired the country, and is now officially recognized in the
imperial title of the sovereign.
THE COUNTRY
India, as thus defined, is the middle of the three irregularly
shaped peninsulas which jut out southwards from the mainland
of Asia, thus corresponding roughly to the peninsula
of Iuly in the map o{ Europe Its form js tnat Of a
shape. great triangle, with its base resting upon the Himalayan
range and its apex running far into the ocean. The
chief part of its western side is washed by the Arabian Sea, and
the chief part of its eastern side by the Bay of Bengal. It extends
from the 8th to the 37th degree of north latitude, that is to say,
from the hottest regions of the equator to far within the temperate
'The spelling throughout all the articles dealing with India is
that adopted by the government of India, modified in special
instances with deference to long-established usage.
zone. The capital, Calcutta, lies in 88° E., so that when the sun
sets at six o'clock there, it is just past mid-day in England and
early morning in New York. The length of India from north to
south, and its greatest breadth from east to west, are both about
1900 m.; but the triangle tapers with a pear-shaped curve to a
point at Cape Comorin, its southern extremity. To this compact
dominion the British have added Burma, the strip of country
on the eastern shores of the Bay of Bengal. But on the other
hand the adjacent island of Ceylon has been administratively
severed and placed under the Colonial Office. Two groups of
islands in the Bay of Bengal, the Andamans and the Nicobars;
one group in the Arabian Sea, the Laccadives; and the outlying
station of Aden at the mouth of the Red Sea, with Perim, and
protectorates over the island of Sokotra, along the southern
coast of Arabia and in the Persian Gulf, are all politically included
within the Indian empire; while on the coast of the peninsula
itself, Portuguese and French settlements break at intervals
the continuous line of British territory.
India is shut off from the rest of Asia on the north by a vast
mountainous region, known in the aggregate as the Himalayas, amid
which lie the independent states of Nepal and Bhutan, Bound-
with the great table-land of Tibet behind. The native aries.
principality of Kashmir occupies the north-western angle of
India. At this north-western angle (in 35° N., 74° E.) the mountains
curve southwards, and India is separated by the well-marked ranges
of the Safed Koh and Suliman from Afghanistan; and by a southern
continuation of lower hills from Baluchistan. Still farther south-
wards, India is bounded along the W. and S.W. by the Arabian Sea
and Indian Ocean. Turning northwards from the southern ex-
tremity at Cape Comorin (8° 4' 20" N., 77° 35' 35' E.), the long
sea-line of the Bay of Bengal forms the main part of its eastern
boundary. But on the north-east, as on the north-west, India has
again a land frontier. The Himalayan ranges at the north-eastern
angle (in about 28° N., 97° E.) throw off spurs and chains to the
south-east, which separate Eastern Bengal from Assam and Burma.
Stretching south-eastwards from the delta of the Irrawaddy, a con-
fused succession of little explored ranges separates the Burmese
division of Tenasserim from the native kingdom of Siam. The
boundary line runs down to Point Victoria at the extremity of
Tenasserim (9° 59' N., 98° 32' E.), following in a somewhat rough
manner the watershed between the rivers of the British territory on
the west and of Siam on the east.
The empire included within these boundaries is rich in varieties
of scenery and climate, from the highest mountains in the world to
vast river deltas raised only a few inches above the level Three
of the sea. It practically forms a continent rather than re»/0ns.
a country. But if we could look down on the whole from
a balloon, we should find that India (apart from Burma, for which
see the separate article) consists of three separate and well-defined
tracts.
The first of the three regions is the Himalaya (q.v.) mountains and
their off -shoots to the southward, comprising a system of stupendous
ranges, the loftiest in the world. They are the Emodus Hlma-
of Ptolemy (among other names), and extend in the shape lay as.
of a scimitar, with its edge facing southwards, for a dis-
tance of 1500 m. along the northern frontier of India. At the north-
eastern angle of that frontier, the Dihang river, the connecting link
between the Tsanpo of Tibet and the Brahmaputra of Assam,
bursts through the main axis of the range. At the opposite or north-
western angle, the Indus in like manner pierces the Himalayas, and
turns southwards on its course through the Punjab. This wild
region is in many parts impenetrable to man, and nowhere yields a
passage for a modern army. Ancient and well-known trade routes
exist, by means of which merchandise from the Punjab finds its way
over heights of 18,000 ft. into Eastern Turkestan and Tibet. The
Muztagh (Snowy Mountain), the Karakoram (Black Mountain), and
the Changchenmo are the most famous of these passes.
The Himalayas not only form a double wall along the north of
India, but at both their eastern and western extremities send out
ranges to the south, which protect its north-eastern and north-
western frontiers. On the north-east, those offshoots, under the
name of the Naga and Patkoi mountains, &c., form a barrier between
the civilized districts ef Assam and the wild tribes of Upper Burma.
On the opposite or north-western frontier of India, the mountainous
offshoots run down the entire length of the British boundaries from
the Himalayas to the sea. As they proceed southwards, their best
marked ranges are in turn known as the Safed Koh, the Suliman
and the Hala mountains. These massive barriers have peaks of
great height, culminating in the Takht-i-Suliman or Throne of
Solomon, 11,317 ft. above the level of the sea. But the mountain
wall is pierced at the corner where it strikes southwards from the
Himalayas by an opening through which the Kabul river flows into
India. An adjacent opening, the Khyber Pass, the Kurram Pass
to the south of it, the Gomal Pass near Dera Ismail Khan, the Tochi
Pass between the two last-named, and the famous Bolan Pass
37^
INDIA
[GEOLOGY
still farther south, furnish the gateways between India and Afghan-
istan. The Hala, Brahui and Pab mountains, forming the southern
hilly offshoots between India and Baluchistan, have a much less
elevation.
The wide plains watered by the Himalayan rivers form the second
of the three regions into which we have divided India. They extend
from the Bay of Bengal on the east to the Afghan frontier
and the Arabian Sea on the west, and contain the richest
plains. an(j most densely crowded provinces of the empire. One
set of invaders after another has from prehistoric times entered
by the passes at their eastern and north-western frontiers. They
followed the courses of the rivers, and pushed the earlier comers
southwards before them towards the sea. About 167 millions of
people now live on and around these river plains, in the provinces
known as the lieutenant-governorship of Bengal, Eastern Bengal and
Assam, the United Provinces, the Punjab, Sind, Rajputana and
other native states'.
The vast level tract which thus covers northern India is watered
by three distinct river systems. One of these systems takes its rise
„. in the hollow trough beyond the Himalayas, and issues
through their western ranges upon the Punjab as the
Sutlej and Indus. The second of the three river systems
also takes its rise beyond the double wall of the Himalayas, not very
far from the sources of the Indus and the Sutlej. It turns, however,
almost due east instead of west, enters India at the eastern extremity
of the Himalayas, and becomes the Brahmaputra of Eastern Bengal
and Assam. These rivers collect the drainage of the northern slopes
of the Himalayas, and convey it, by long and tortuous although
opposite routes, into India. Indeed, the special feature of the
Himalayas is that they send down the rainfall from their northern as
well as from their southern slopes to the Indian plains. The third
river system of northern India receives the drainage of their southern
slopes, and eventually unites into the mighty stream of the Ganges.
In this way the rainfall, alike from the northern and southern slopes
of the Himalayas, pours down into the river plains of Bengal.
The third division of India comprises the three-sided table-land
which covers the southern half or more strictly peninsular portion
Northern °^ India. This tract, known in ancient times as the
table- Deccan (Dakshin), literally " the right hand or south,"
comprises the Central Provinces and Berar, the presidencies
of Madras and Bombay, and the territories of Hyderabad,
Mysore and other feudatory states. It had in 1901 an aggregate
population of about 100 millions.
The northern side rests on confused ranges, running with a general
direction of east to west, and known in the aggregate as the Vindhya
mountains. The Vindhyas, however, are made up of several distinct
hill systems. Two sacred peaks guard the flanks in the extreme east
and west, with a succession of ranges stretching 800 m. between.
At the western extremity, Mount Abu, famous for its exquisite Jain
temples, rises, as a solitary outpost of the Aravalli hills 5650 ft. above
the Rajputana plain, like an island out of the sea. On the extreme
east, Mount Parasnath — like Mount Abu on the extreme west,
sacred to Jain rites — rises to 4400 ft. above the level of the Gangetic
plains. The various ranges of the Vindhyas, from 1500 to over
4000 ft. high, form, as it were, the northern wall and buttresses
which support the central table-land. Though now pierced by road
and railway, they stood in former times as a barrier of mountain and
jungle between northern and southern India, and formed one of the
main obstructions to welding the whole into an empire. They
consist of vast masses of forests, ridges and peaks, broken by
cultivated valleys and broad high-lying plains.
The other two sides of the elevated southern triangle are known
as the Eastern and Western Ghats. These start southwards from
Ghats the eastern and western extremities of the Vindhya
system, and run along the eastern and western coasts of
India. The Eastern Ghats stretch in fragmentary spurs and ranges
down the Madras presidency, here and there receding inland and
leaving broad level tracts between their base and the coast. The
Western Ghats form the great sea-wall of the Bombay presidency,
with only a narrow strip between them and the shore. In many
parts they rise in magnificent precipices and headlands out of the
ocean, and truly look like colossal " passes or landing-stairs " (ghdts)
from the sea. The Eastern Ghats have an average elevation of
1 500 ft. The Western Ghats ascend more abruptly from the sea to an
average height of about 3000 ft. with peaks up to 4700, along the
Bombay coast, rising to 7000 and even 8760 in the upheaved angle
which they unite to form with the Eastern Ghats, towards their
southern extremity.
The inner triangular plateau thus enclosed lies from 1000 to 3000
ft. above the level of the sea. But it is dotted with peaks and
seamed with ranges exceeding 4000 ft. in height. Its best known
hills are the Nilgiris, with the summer capital of Madras, Ootaca-
mund, 7000 ft. above the sea. The highest point is Dodabetta Peak
(8760 ft.), at the upheaved southern angle.
On the eastern side of India, the Ghats form a series of spurs and
buttresses for the elevated inner plateau, rather than a continuous
mountain wall. They are traversed by a number of
broad and easy passages from the Madras coast. Through
these openings the rainfall of the southern half of the inner
plateau reaches the sea. The drainage from the northern or Vindhyan
Eastern
Ghats.
edge of the three-sided table-land falls into the Ganges. The
Nerbudda and Tapti carry the rainfall of the southern slopes of the
Vindhyas and of the Satpura hills, in almost parallel lines, into the
Gulf of Cambay. But from Surat, in 21° 9', to Cape Comorin, in
8° 4', no large river succeeds in reaching the western coast from the
interior table-land. The Western Ghats form, in fact, a lofty un-
broken barrier between the waters of the central plateau and the
Indian Ocean. The drainage has therefore to make its way across
India to the eastwards, now turning sharply round projecting ranges,
now tumbling down ravines, or rushing along the valleys, until the
rain which the Bombay sea-breeze has dropped upon the Western
Ghats finally falls into the Bay of Bengal. In this way the three great
rivers of the Madras Presidency, viz., the Godavari, the Kistna and
the Cauvery, rise in the mountains overhanging the western coast,
and traverse the whole breadth of the central table-land before they
reach the sea on the eastern shores of India.
%Of the three regions of India thus briefly surveyed, the first, or
ttie Himalayas, lies for the most part beyond the British frontier,
but a knowledge of it supplies the key to the ethnology and history of
India. The second region, or the great river plains in the north,
formed the theatre of the ancient race-movements which shaped the
civilization and the political destinies of the whole Indian peninsula.
The third region, or the triangular table-land in the south, has a
character quite distinct from either of the other two divisions, and
a population which is now working out a separate development of
its own. Broadly speaking, the Himalayas are peopled by Mongoloid
tribes; the great river plains of Hindustan are still the home of the
Aryan race; the triangular table-land has formed an arena for a
long struggle between that gifted race from the north and what is
known as the Dravidian stock in the south.
Geology.
Geologically, as well as physically, India consists of three distinct
regions, the Himalayas, the Peninsula, and — between these two —
the Indo-Gangetic plain with its covering of alluvium and wind-
blown sands. The contrast between the Himalayas and the
Peninsula is one of fundamental importance. The former, from the
Tertiary period even to the present day, has been a region of com-
pression; the latter, since the Carboniferous period at least, has
been a region of equilibrium or of tension. In the former even the
Pliocene beds are crumpled and folded, overfolded and overthrust
in the most violent fashion; in the latter none but the oldest beds,
certainly none so late as the Permian, have been crumpled or crushed
— occasionally they are bent and frequently they are faulted, but
the faults, though sometimes of considerable magnitude, are simple
dislocations, unaccompanied by any serious disturbance of the
strata. The greater part of the Himalayan region lay beneath the
sea from early Palaeozoic times to the Eocene period, and the
deposits are accordingly marine ; the Peninsula, on the other hand,
has been land since the Permian period at least — there is, indeed,
no evidence that it was ever beneath the sea — only on its margins
are any marine deposits to be found. It should, however, be men-
tioned that in the eastern part of the Himalayas some of the beds
resemble those of the Peninsula, and it appears that a part of the old
Indian continent has here been involved in the folds of the mountain
chain.
The geology of the Himalayas being described elsewhere (see
HIMALAYAS), the following account deals only with the Indo-
Gangetic plain and the Peninsula.
The Indo-Gangetic Plain covers an area of about 300,000 sq. m.,
and varies in width from 90 to nearly 300 m. It rises very gradually
from the sea at either end ; the lowest point of the watershed
between the Punjab rivers and the Ganges is about 924 ft. above the
sea. This point, by a line measured down the valley, but not follow-
ing the winding of the river, is about 1050 m. from the mouth of the
Ganges and 850 m. from the mouth of the Indus, so that the average
inclination of the plain, from the central watershed to the sea, is
only about I ft. per mile. It is less near the sea, where for long
distances there is no fall at all. Near the watershed it is generally
more; but there is here no ridge of high ground between the Indus
and the Ganges, and a very trifling change of level would often turn
the upper waters of one river into the other. It is not unlikely that
such changes have in past time occurred; and if so an explanation
is afforded of the occurrence of allied fofms of freshwater dolphins
(Platanista) and of many other animals in the two rivers and in the
Brahmaputra.
The alluvial deposits of the plain, as made known by the boring
at Calcutta, prove a gradual depression of the area in recent times.
There are peat and forest beds, which must have grown quietly at
the surface, alternating with deposits of gravel, sand and clay. The
thickness of the delta deposit is unknown; 481 ft. was proved at
the bore hole, but probably this represents only a small part of the
deposit. Outside the delta, in the Bay of Bengal, is a deep depression
known as the " swatch of no ground "; all around it the soundings
are only of 5 to 10 fathoms, but they very rapidly deepen to over
300 fathoms. Mr J. Ferguson has shown that the sediment is
carried away from this area by the set of the currents; probably
then it has remained free from sediment whilst the neighbouring
sea bottom has gradually been filled up. If so, the thickness of the
alluvium is at least 1800 ft., and may be much more. At Lucknow
INDIA
(NORTHERN PART)
Scale 1:7,500,000
&s
:it
34
Political Colouring
British •• | Chinese _J
Russian •• : Afghanistan •• '-=-*— ^a
French ^M | Nepal ••
Portuguese •• i Bhutan .- :
The Indian^ ya&rf ffajfs are shown, with a solid,
colour- r"S ; and the main territorial divisions of
the Empire are (tilt'erentiated oy the heavier ooimdary
lines in colour.
Capitals of provinces and areater dependent states, thus,
CALCUTTA. Divisions thus, Patna, Districts tfm.r. Karachi:
in cases where these, names coincide with those of the
chief towns, the town-name onifisawm and similarly
underlined.
RaittfTCfs «—
Highways — -—
Forts. ....... *
Deserts :
Reefs ***
Passes..
The termination, -pur in town-names is retained throuah-
out the map, though written -pore in, ca
the text.
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GEOLOGY]
INDIA
z boring was driven through the Gangetic alluvium to a depth of
1336 ft. from the surface, or nearly 1000 ft. below sea-level. Even
at this depth there was no indication of an approach to the base of
the alluvial deposits.
The deposits of the Indc-Gangetic plain are of modern date and
the formation of the depression which they fill is almost certainly
connected with the elevation of the Himalayas. Both movements
are probably still going on. The alluvial deposits prove depression
in quite recent geological times; and within the Himalayan region
earthquakes are still common, whilst in Peninsular India they are
rare.
Peninsular India. — The oldest rocks of this region consist of
gneiss, granite and other crystalline rocks. They cover a large area
in Bengal and Madras and extend into Ceylon ; and they are found
ologicil Survey of I
also in Bundelkhand and in Gujarat. Upon them rest the unfossil-
iferous strata known to Indian geologists as the Transition and
Vindhyan series. The Transition rocks are often violently folded
and are frequently converted into schists. In the south, where they
are known as the Dharwar series, they form long and narrow bands
running from north-north-west to south-south-west across the
ancient gneiss; and it is interesting to note that all the quartz-reefs
which contain gold in paying quantities occur in the Dharwar series.
The Transition rocks are of great but unknown age. The Vindhyan
rocks which succeed them are also of ancient date. But long before
the earliest Vindhyan rocks were laid down the Transition rocks
had been altered and contorted. Occasionally the Vindhyan beds
themselves are strongly folded, as in the east of the Cuddapah
basin; but this was the last folding of any violence which has
occurred in the Peninsula. In more recent times there have been
local disturbances, and large faults have in places been formed;
but the greater part of the Peninsula rocks are only slightly disturbed.
The Vindhyan series is generally sharply marked off from older
rocks; but in the Godavari valley there is no well-defined line
between them and the Transition rocks. The Vindhyan beds are
divided into two groups. The lower, with an estimated thickness
of only 2000 ft., or slightly more, cover a large area — extending,
with but little change of character, from the Sone valley in one
direction to Cuddapah, and in a diverging line to near Bijapur — in
each case a distance of over 700 m. The upper Vindhyans cover a
much smaller area, but attain a thickness of about 12,000 ft. The
Vindhyans are well-stratified beds of sandstone and shale, with some
limestones. As yet they have yielded no trace of fossils, and their
exact age is consequently unknown. They are however certainly
Pre-Permian, and it is most probable that they belong to the early
377
part of the Palaeozoic era. The total absence of fossils is a remark-
able fact, and one for which it is difficult to account, as the beds are
for the most part quite unaltered. Even if they are entirely of
freshwater origin, we should expect that some traces of life from the
waters or neighbouring land would be found.
The Gondwana series is in many respects the most interesting and
important series of the Indian Peninsula. The beds are almost
entirely of freshwater origin. Many subdivisions have been made,
but here we need only note the main division into two great groups:
Lower Gondwanas, 13,000 ft. thick; Upper Gondwanas, ll,oooft.
thick. The series is mainly confined to the area of country between
the Nerbudda and the Sone on the north, and the Kistna on the
south ; but the western part of this region is in great part covered
by newer beds. The lowest Gondwanas are very constant in char-
acter, wherever they are found; the upper members of the lower
division show more variation, and this divergence of character in
different districts becomes more marked in the Upper Gondwana
series. Disturbances have occurred in the lower series before the
formation of the upper.
The Gondwana beds contain fossils which are of very great interest.
In large part these consist of plants which grew near the margins of
the old rivers, and which were carried down by floods, and deposited
in the alluvial plains, deltas and estuarine areas of the old Gondwana
period. The plants of the Lower Gondwanas consist chiefly of
acrogens(Equisetaceae and f erns)and gymnogens(cycads and conifers) ,
the former being the more abundant. The same classes of plants
occur in the Upper Gondwanas; but there the proportions are
reversed, the conifers, and still more the cycads, being more numerous
than the ferns, whilst the Equiselaceae are but sparingly found.
But even within the limits of the Lower Gondwana series there are
great diversities of vegetation, three distinct floras occurring in the
three great divisions of that formation. In many respects the flora
of the highest of these three divisions (the Panchet group) is more
nearly related to that of the Upper Gondwanas than it is to the other
Lower Gondwana floras. Although during the Gondwana period
the flora of India differed greatly from that of Europe, it was strik-
ingly similar to the contemporaneous floras of South America, South
Africa and Australia. It is somewhat remarkable that this char-
acteristically southern flora, known as the Glossopteris Flora (from
the name of one of the most characteristic genera), has also been
found in the north of Russia.
One of the most interesting facts in the history of the Gondwana
series is the occurrence near the base (in the Talchir group) of large
striated boulders in a fine mud or silt, the boulders in one place
resting upon rock (of Vindhyan age) which is also striated. These
beds are the result of ice-action, and it is interesting to note
that a similar boulder bed is associated with the Glossopteris-
bearing deposits of Australia, South Africa and probably South
America.
The Damuda series, the middle division of the Lower Gondwanas,
is the chief source of coal in Peninsular India, yielding more of that
mineral than all other formations taken together. The Karharbari
group is the only other coal-bearing formation of any value. The
Damudas are 8400 ft. thick in the Raniganj coal-field, and about
1 0,000 ft. thick in the Satpura basin. They consist of three divisions ;
coal occurs in the upper and lower, ironstone (without coal) in the
middle division. The Raniganj coal-field is the most important in
India. It covers an area of about 500 sq. m. and is traversed by
the Damuda river, along which run the road from Calcutta to
Benares and the East Indian railway. From its situation and
importance this coal-field is better known than any other in India.
The upper or Raniganj series (stated by the Geological Survey to
be 5000 ft. thick) contains eleven seams, having a total thickness
of 120 ft., in the eastern district, and thirteen seams, IOO ft. thick,
in the western district. The average thickness of the seams worked
is from 12 to 18 ft., but occasionally a seam attains a great thickness
— 20 to 80 ft. The lower or Barakar series (2000 ft. thick) contains
four seams, of a total thickness of 69 ft. Compared with English
coals those of this coal-field are of but poor quality; they contain
much ash, and are generally non-coking. The seams of the lower
series are the best, and some of these at Sanktoria, near the Barakar
river, are fairly good for coke and gas. The best coal in India is in
the small coal-field at Karharbari. The beds there are lower in the
series than those of the Raniganj field; they belong to the upper
part of the Talchir group, the lowest of the Gondwana series. The
coal-bearing beds cover an area of only about II sq. m. ; there are
three seams, varying from 9 to 33 ft. thick. The lowest seam is the
5est, and this is as good as English steam coal. This coal-field, now
largely worked, is the property of the East Indian railway, which
is thus supplied with fuel at a cheaper rate than any other railway
"n the world. Indian coal usually contains phosphoric acid, which
jreatly lessens its value for iron-smelting.
The Damuda series, which, as we have seen, is the chief source of
coal in India, is also one of the most important sources of iron. The
ore occurs in the middle division, coal in the highest and lowest.
The ore is partly a clay ironstone, like that occurring in the Coal-
measures of England, partly an oxide of iron or haematite, and it
generally contains phosphorus. Excellent iron-ore occurs in the
crystalline rocks south of the Damuda river as also in many other
parts of India. Laterite (see below) is sometimes used as ore. It
378
INDIA
[METEOROLOGY
is very earthy and of a low percentage; but it contains only a
comparatively small proportion of phosphorus.
The want of limestone for flux, within easy reach, is generally a
great drawback as regards iron-smelting in India. Kankar or ghutin
(concretionary carbonate of lime) is collected for this purpose from
the river-beds and alluvial deposits. It sometimes contains as much
as 70% of carbonate of lime; but generally the amount is much
less and the fluxing value proportionally diminished. The real
difficulty in India is to find the ore, the fuel, and the flux in sufficiently
close proximity to yield a profit.
Contemporaneously with the formation of the upper part of the
Gondwana series marine deposits of Jurassic age were laid down in
Cutch. Cretaceous beds of marine origin are also found in Cutch,
Kathiawar and the Nerbudda valley on the northern margin of the
Peninsula, and near Pondicherry and Trichinopoly on its south-
eastern margin. There is a striking difference between the Cretaceous
faunas of the two .areas, the fossils from the north being closely
allied to those of Europe, while those of the south (Pondicherry and
Trichinopoly) are very different and are much more nearly related
to those from the Cretaceous of Natal. It is now very generally
believed that in Jurassic and Cretaceous times a great land-mass
stretched from South Africa through Madagascar to India, and that
the Cretaceous deposits of Cutch, &c., were laid down upon its
northern shore, and those of Pondicherry and Trichinopoly upon its
southern shore. The land probably extended as far as Assam, for
the Cretaceous fossils of Assam are similar to those of the south.
The enormous mass of basaltic rock known as the Deccan Trap
is of great importance in the geological structure of the Indian
Peninsula. It now covers about 200,000 sq. m., and formerly
extended over a much wider area. Where thickest, the traps are at
least 6000 ft. thick. They form some of the most striking physical
features of the Peninsula, many of the most prominent hill ranges
having been carved out of the basaltic flows. The great volcanic
outbursts which produced this trap commenced in the Cretaceous
period and lasted on into the Eocene period.
Laterite is a ferruginous and argillaceous rock, varying from 30 to
200 ft. thick, which often occurs over the trap area and also over
the gneiss. As a rule it makes rather barren land; it is highly
porous, and the rain rapidly sinks into it. Laterite may be roughly
divided into two kinds, high-level and low-level laterites. It has
usually been formed by the decomposition in situ of the rock on which
it rests, but it is often broken up and re-deposited elsewhere.
Meteorology.
The great peninsula of India, with its lofty mountain ranges
behind and its extensive seaboard exposed to the first violence of
the winds of two oceans, forms an exceptionally valuable and interest-
ing field for the study of meteorological 'phenomena.
From the gorge of the Indus to that of the Brahmaputra, a distance
of 1400 m., the Himalayas form an unbroken watershed, the northern
flank of which is drained by the upper valleys of these
/ma/ayas. two rjvers; while the Sutlej, starting from the southern
foot of the Kailas Peak, breaks through the watershed, dividing it
into two very unequal portions, that to the north-west being the
smaller. The average elevation of the Himalaya crest may be
taken at not less than 19,000 ft., and therefore equal to the height
of the lower half of the atmosphere; and indeed few of the passes
are under 16,000 or 17,000 ft. Across this mountain barrier there
appears to be a constant flow of air, more active in the day-time
than at night, northwards to the arid plateau of Tibet. There is
no reason to believe that any transfer of air takes place across the
Himalayas in a southerly direction, unless indeed in those most
elevated regions of the atmosphere which lie beyond the range of
observation ; but a nocturnal now of cooled air, from the southern
slopes, is felt as a strong wind where the rivers debouch on the plains,
more especially in the early morning hours; and this probably
contributes in some degree to lower the mean temperature of that
belt of the plains which fringes the mountain zone.
At the foot of the great mountain barrier, and separating it from
the more ancient land which now forms the highlands of the peninsula,
a broad plain, for the most part alluvial, stretches from
sea to sea. On the west, in the dry region, this is occupied
partly by the alluvial deposits of the Indus and its tribu-
taries and the saline swamps of Cutch, partly by the rolling sands
and rocky surface of the desert of Jaisaimer and Bikaner, and the
more fertile tracts to the eastward watered by the Luni. Over the
greater part of this region rain is of rare occurrence; and not in-
frequently more than a year passes without a drop falling on the
parched surface. On its eastern margin, however, in the neighbour-
hood of the Aravalli hills, and again in the northern Punjab, rain is
more frequent, occurring both in the south-west monsoon and also
at the opposite season in the cold weather. As far south as Sirsa and
Multan the average rainfall does not much exceed 7 in.
The alluvial plain of the Punjab passes into that of the Gangetic
valley without visible interruption. Up or down this plain, at
a n tie °PP°s'te seasons, sweep the monsoon winds, in a direction
at right angles to that of their nominal course ; and thus
vapour which has been brought by winds from the Bay of
Bengal is discharged as snow and rain on the peaks and hillsides of
the Western Himalayas. Nearly the whole surface is under cultiva-
tion, and it ranks among the most productive as well as the most
densely populated regions of the world. The rainfall diminishes,
from 100 in. in the south-east corner of the Gangetic delta to less
than 30 in. at Agra and Delhi, and there is an average difference of
from 15 to 25 in. between the northern and southern borders of the
plain.
Eastward from the Bengal delta, two alluvial plains stretch up
between the hills which connect the Himalayan system with that of
the Burmese peninsula. The first, or the valley of Assam
and the Brahmaputra, is long and narrow, bordered on Eastern
the north by the Himalayas, on the south by the lower Bengal.
Clateau of the Garo, Khasi and Naga hills. The other, short and
road, and in great part occupied by swamps and jhils, separates-
the Garo, Khasi and Naga hills from those of Tippera and the
Lushai country. The climate of these plains is damp and equable,
and the rainfall is prolonged and generally heavy, especially on the
southern slopes of the hills. A meteorological peculiarity of some
interest has been noticed, more especially at the stations of Sibsagar
and Silchar, viz. the great range of the diurnal variation of baro-
metric pressure during the afternoon hours, — which is the more
striking, since at Rurki, Lahore, and other stations near the foot
of the Western Himalayas this range is less than in the open plains.
The highlands of the peninsula, which are cut off from the encircling
ranges by the broad Indo-Gangetic plain, are divided into two
unequal parts by an almost continuous chain of hills
running across the country from west by south to east by Central
north, just south of the Tropic of Cancer. This chain may
be regarded as a single geographical feature, forming one •'""•
of the principal watersheds of the peninsula, the waters to the north
draining chiefly into the Nerbudda and the Ganges, those to the
south into the Tapti, the Mahanadi, the Godavari and some smaller
streams. In a meteorolgical point of view it is of considerable
importance. Together with the two parallel valleys of the Nerbudda
and Tapti, which drain the flanks of its western half, it gives, at
opposite seasons of the year, a decided easterly and westerly direction
to the winds of this part of India, and condenses a tolerably copious-
rainfall during the south-west monsoon.
Separated from this chain by the valley of the Nerbudda on the
west, and that of the Sone on the east, the plateau of Malwa and
Baghelkhand occupies the space intervening between these valleys
and the Gangetic plain. On the western edge of the plateau are the
Aravalli hills, which run from near Ahmedabad up to the neighbour-
hood of Delhi, and include one hill, Mount Abu, over 5000 ft. in
height. This range exerts an important influence on the direction
of the wind, and also on the rainfall. At Ajmer, an old meteoro-
logical station at the eastern foot of the range, the wind is pre-
dominantly south-west, and there and at Mount Abu the south-west
monsoon rains are a regularly recurrent phenomenon, — which can
hardly be said of the region of scanty and uncertain rainfall that
extends from the western foot of the range and merges in the Bikaner
desert.
The peninsula south of the Satpura range consists chiefly of the
triangular plateau of the Deccan, terminating abruptly on the west
in the Sahyadri range (Western Ghats), and shelving to
the east (Eastern Ghats). This plateau is swept by the Southen>
south-west monsoon, but not until it has surmounted the Plateau-
western barrier of the Ghats; and hence the rainfall is, as a rule,
light at Poona and places similarly situated under the lee of the
range, and but moderate over the more easterly parts of the plateau.
The rains, however, are prolonged some three or four weeks later
than in tracts to the north of the Satpuras, since they are also
brought by the easterly winds which blow from the Bay of Bengal in
October and the early part of November, when the recurved southerly
wind ceases to blow up the Gangetic valley, and sets towards the
south-east coast.
At the junction of the Eastern and Western Ghats rises the bold
triangular plateau of the Nilgiris, and to the south of them come
the Anamalais, the Palnis, and the hills of Travancore.
These ranges are separated from the Nilgiris by a broad Southern
depression or pass known as the Palghat Gap, some 25 m. '"aia-
wide, the highest point of which is only 1500 ft. above the sea. This
gap affords a passage to the winds which elsewhere are barred by the
hills of the Ghat chain. The country to the east of the gap receives
the rainfall of the south-west monsoon; and during the north-east
monsoon ships passing Beypur meet with a stronger wind from the
land than is felt elsewhere on the Malabar coast. In the strip of low
country that fringes the peninsula below the Ghats the rainfall is.
heavy and the climate warm and damp, the vegetation being dense
and characteristically tropical, and the steep slopes of the Ghats,
where they have not been artificially cleared, thickly clothed with
forest.
In Lower Burma the western face of the Arakan Yoma hills, like
that of the Western Ghats in India, is exposed to the full force of
the south-western monsoon, and receives a very heavy
rainfall. At Sandoway this amounts to an annual mean Burma.
of 212 in. It diminishes to the northwards, but even at Chittagong
it is over 104 in. annually.
The country around Mandalay, as well as the hill country to the
north, has suffered from severe earthquakes, one of which destroyed
Ava in 1839. The general meridional direction of the ranges and
FLORA]
INDIA
379
valleys determines the direction of the prevailing surface winds, this
being, however, subject to many local modifications. But it would
appear that throughout the year there is, with but slight interrup-
tion, a steady upper current from the south-west, such as has been
already noticed over the Himalayas. The rainfall in the lower part
of the Irrawaddy valley, viz. the delta and the neighbouring part of
the province of Pegu, is very heavy; and the climate is mild and
equable at all seasons. But higher up the valley, and especially
north of Pegu, the country is drier, and is characterized by a less
luxuriant vegetation and a retarded and more scanty rainfall.
Within the boundaries of India almost any extreme of climate
that is known to the tropics or the temperate zone can be found. It
is influenced from outside by two adjoining areas. On
Climate. ^e nortjli the Himalaya range and the plateau of Afghan-
istan shut it off from the climate of central Asia, and give it a con-
tinental climate, the characteristics of which are the prevalence of
land winds, great dryness of the air, large diurnal range of tem-
perature, and little or no precipitation. On the south the ocean
gives it an oceanic climate, the chief features of which are great
uniformity of temperature, small diurnal range of temperature,
great dampness of the air, and more or less frequent rain. The
continental type of weather prevails over almost the whole of India
from December to May, and the oceanic type from June to November,
thus giving rise to the two great divisions of the year, the dry season
or north-east monsoon, and the rainy season or south-west monsoon.
India thus becomes the type of a tropical monsoon climate. For
the origin of the monsoon currents and their distribution see
MONSOON.
The two monsoon periods are divided by the change of tempera-
ture, due to solar action upon the earth's surface, into two separate
seasons; and thus the Indian year may be divided into four
seasons: the cold season, including the months of January and
February; the hot season, comprising the months of March, April
and May ; the south-west monsoon period, including the months of
June, July, August, September and October; and the retreating
monsoon period, including the months of November and December.
The temperature is nearly constant in southern India the whole year
round, but in northern India, where the extremes of both heat and
cold are greatest, the variation is very large.
In the cold season the mean temperature averages about 30°
lower in the Punjab than in southern India. In the Punjab, the
United Provinces, and northern India generally the climate
The cold resembles that of the Riviera, with a brilliant cloudless
weather. s^y antj COQ| ^^ weather. This is the time for the tourist
to visit India. In south India it is warmer on the west coast than on
the east, and the maximum temperature is found round the head-
waters of the Kistna. Calcutta, Bombay and Madras all possess
the equable climate that is induced by proximity to the sea, but
Calcutta enjoys a cold season which is not to be found in the other
presidency towns, while the hot season is more unendurable there.
The hot season begins officially in the Punjab on the I5th of March,
and from that date there is a steady rise in the temperature, induced
by the fiery rays of the sun upon the baking earth, until
The hot tne break of the rains in June. During this season the
weather. interior of the peninsula and northern India is greatly
heated; and the contrast of temperature is not between northern
and southern India, but between the interior of India and the coast
districts and adjacent seas. The greater part of the Deccan and the
Central Provinces are included within the hottest area, though in
May the highest temperatures are found in Upper Sind, north-west
Rajputana, and south-west Punjab. At Jacobabad the thermo-
meter sometimes rises to 125° in the shade.
The south-west monsoon currents usually set in during the first
fortnight of June on the Bombay and Bengal coasts, and give more
or less general rain in every part of India during the next
Tl>e three months. But the distribution of the rainfall is
monsoon verv uneven. On the face of the Western Ghats, and on
period. tne p^asi hills, overlooking the Bay of Bengal, where the
mountains catch the masses of vapour as it rises off the sea, the
rainfall is enormous. At Cherrapunji in the Khasi hills it averages
upwards of 500 in. a year. The Bombay monsoon, after surmounting
the Ghats, blows across the peninsula as a west and sometimes in
places a north-west wind; but it leaves with very little rain a strip
loo to 200 m. in width in the western Deccan parallel with the Ghats,
and it is this part of the Deccan, together with the Mysore table-land
and the Carnatic, that is most subject to drought. Similarly the
Bengal monsoon passes by the Coromandel coast and the Carnatic
with an occasional shower, taking a larger volume to Masulipatam
and Orissa, and abundant rain to Bengal, Assam and Cachar. The
same current also supplies with rain the broad band across India,
which includes the Satpura range, Chota Nagpur, the greater part
of the Central Provinces and Central India, Orissa and Bengal.
Rainfall rapidly diminishes to the north-west from that belt. A
branch of the Bombay current blows pretty steadily through
Rajputana to the Punjab, carrying some rain to the latter province.
But the greater part of north-west India is served as a rule by cyclonic
storms between the two currents. In September the force of the
monsoon begins rapidly to decline, and after about the middle of the
month it ceases to carry rain to the greater part of north-western
India. In its rear springs up a gentle steady north-east wind, which
gradually extends over the Bay of Bengal, and is known as the
north-east monsoon. A wind similar in character, but rather more
easterly in direction, simultaneously takes possession of the Arabian
Sea. The months of November and December form a transition
Ceriod between the monsoon and the cold season. The most un-
ealthy period of the year follows immediately after the rains, when
malaria is prevalent, especially in northern India.
Flora.
Unlike many other large geographical areas, India is remarkable
for having no distinctive botanical features peculiar to itself. It
differs conspicuously in this respect from such countries as Australia
or South Africa. Its vegetation is in point of fact of a composite
character, and is constituted by the meeting and more or less blend-
ing of adjoining floras, — those of Persia and the south-eastern
Mediterranean area to the north-west, of Siberia to the north, of
China to the east, and of Malaya to the south-east. Regarded
broadly, four tolerably distinct types present themselves.
1. The upper levels of the Himalayas slope northwards gradually
to the Tibetan uplands, over which the Siberian temperate vegetation
ranges. This is part of the great temperate flora which, ffimaiayas
with locally individualized species, but often with identical
genera, ranges over the whole of the temperate zone of the northern
hemisphere. In the western Himalayas this upland flora is marked
by a strong admixture of European species, such as the columbine
(Aquilegia) and hawthorn (Crataegus Oxyacantha). These disappear
rapidly eastward, and are scarcely found beyond Kumaon. The
base of the Himalayas is occupied by a narrow belt forming an
extreme north-western extension of the Malayan type described
below. Above that there is a rich temperate flora which in the
eastern chain may be regarded as forming an extension of that of
northern China, gradually assuming westwards more and more of a
European type. Magnolia, Aucuba, Abelia and Skimmia may be
mentioned as examples of Chinese genera found in the eastern
Himalayas, and the tea-tree grows wild in Assam. The same
coniferous trees are common to both parts of the range. Pinus
longifolia extends to the Hindu-Kush ; P. excelsa is found universally
except in Sikkim, and has its European analogue in P. Pence, found
in the mountains of Greece. Abies smithiana extends into Afghan-
istan; Abies webbiana forms dense forests at altitudes of 8000 to
12,000 ft., and ranges from Bhutan to Kashmir; several junipers and
the common yew (Taxus baccata) also occur. The deodar (Cedrus
Deodara), which is indigenous to the mountains of Afghanistan and
the north-west Himalaya, is nearly allied to the Atlantic cedar and
to the cedar of Lebanon, a form of which is found in Cyprus. A
notable further instance of the connexion of the western Himalayan
flora with that of Europe is the holm oak (Quercus Ilex), which is
characteristic of the Mediterranean region.
2. The north-western area is best marked in Sind and the Punjab,
where the climate is very dry (the rainfall averaging less than 15 in.),
and where the soil, though fertile, is wholly dependent on
irrigation for its cultivation. The flora is a poor one in
number of species, and is essentially identical with that
of Persia, southern Arabia and Egypt. The low scattered jungle
contains such characteristic species as Capparis aphylla, Acacia
arabica (babul), Populus euphratica (the " willows " of Ps. cxxxvii. 2),
Salvadora persica (erroneously identified by Royle with the mustard
of Matt. xiii. 31), tamarisk, Zizyphus, Lotus, &c. The dry flora
extends somewhat in a south-east direction, and then blends in-
sensibly with that of the western peninsula; some species repre-
senting it are found in the upper Gangetic plain, and a few are widely
distributed in dry parts of the country.
3. For the Malayan area, which Sir Joseph Hooker describes as
forming " the bulk of the flora of the perennially humid
regions of India, as of the whole Malayan peninsula, Upper V.s^ra
Assam valley, the Khasi mountains, the forests of the base
of the Himalaya from the Brahmaputra to Nepal, of the pec
Malabar coast, and of Ceylon," see ASSAM, CEYLON and MALAY
PENINSULA.
4. The western India type is difficult to characterize, and is in
many respects intermediate between the two just preceding. It
occupies a comparatively dry area, with a rainfall under
75 in. In respect to positive affinities, Sir Joseph Hooker , j?'e
pointed out some relations with the flora of tropical Africa
as evidenced by the prevalence of such genera as Grewia and 7m-
patiens, and the absence, common to both countries, of oaks and pines
which abound in the Malayan archipelago. The annual vegetation
which springs up in the rainy season includes numerous genera,
such as Sida and Indigofera, which are largely represented both in
Africa and Hindustan. Palms also in both countries are scanty,
the most notable in southern India being the wild date (Phoenix
sylvestris) ; Borassus and the coco-nut are cultivated. The forests,
though occasionally very dense, as in the Western Ghats, are usually
drier and more open than those of the Malayan type, and are often
scrubby. The most important timber trees are the tun (Cedrela
Toona), sal (Shorea robusta), the present area of which forms two
belts separated by the Gangetic plain; satin wood (Chloroxylon
Swietenia), common in the drier parts of the peninsula; sandalwood,
especially characteristic of Mysore; iron-wood (Mesua ferrea), and
teak (Tectona grandis).
38o
INDIA
[FAUNA
Fauna.
Mammals.— First among the wild animals of India must be
mentioned the lion (Felis leo), which is known to have been not
uncommon within historical times in Hindustan proper
and the Punjab. At present the lion is confined to the
Gir, or rocky hill-desert and forest of Kathiawar. A peculiar variety
is there found, marked by the absence of a mane; but whether this
variety deserves to be classed as a distinct species, naturalists have
not yet determined. These lions at one time were almost extinct,
but after being preserved since about 1890 by theNawabof Juriagarh,
they have once more become comparatively plentiful. A good lion
measures from 9 to 9! ft. in length.
The characteristic beast of prey in India is the tiger (F. tigns),
which is found in every part of the country, from the slopes of the
_. Himalayas to the Sundarbans swamps. The average
length of a tiger from nose to tip of tail is 9 ft. to 10 Ft.
for tigers, and 8 ft. to 9 ft. for tigresses, but a tiger of 12 ft. 4 in.
has been shot. The advance of cultivation, even more than the
incessant attacks of sportsmen, has gradually caused the tiger to
become a rare animal in large tracts of country; but it is scarcely
probable that he will ever be exterminated from India. The
malarious tardi fringing the Himalayas, the uninhabitable swamps
of the Gangetic delta, and the wide jungles of the central plateau
are at present the chief home of the tiger. His favourite food appears
to be deer, antelope and wild hog. When these abound he will
disregard domestic cattle. Indeed, the natives are disposed to
consider him as in some sort their protector, as he saves their crops
from destruction by the wild animals on which he feeds. But when
once he develops a taste for human blood, then the slaughter he
works becomes truly formidable. The confirmed man-eater, which
is generally an old beast, disabled from overtaking his usual prey,
seems to accumulate his tale of victims in sheer cruelty rather than
for food. A single tiger is known to have killed 108 people in the
course of three years. Another killed an average of about 80 persons
per annum. A third caused thirteen villages to be abandoned, and
250 sq. m. of land to be thrown out of cultivation. A fourth, in 1869,
killed 127 people, and stopped a public road for many weeks, until
the opportune arrival of an English sportsman, who at last killed
him. Such cases are, of course, exceptional, and generally refer
to a period long past, but they explain and justify the superstitious
awe with which the tiger is regarded by the natives. The favourite
mode of shooting the tiger is from the back of elephants, or from
elevated platforms (machdns) of boughs in the jungle. In Central
India they are shot on foot. In Assam they are sometimes speared
from boats, and in the Himalayas they are said to be ensnared by
bird-lime. Rewards are given by government to native shikaris
for the heads of tigers, varying in time and place according to the
need. In 1903 the number of persons killed by tigers in the whole
of India was 866, while forty years previously 700 people were said
to be killed annually in Bengal alone.
The leopard or panther (F. pardus) is far more common than the
tiger in all parts of India, and at least equally destructive to life
L an/ anc' ProPerty- The greatest length of the leopard is
about 7 ft. 6 in. A black variety, as beautiful as it is
rare, is sometimes found in the extreme south of the peninsula, and
also in Java.
The cheetah or hunting leopard (Gynaelurus jubatus) must be
carefully distinguished from the leopard proper. This animal
appears to be a native only of the Deccan, where it is trained for
hunting the antelope. In some respects it approaches the dog more
nearly than the cat tribe. Its limbs are long, its hair rough, and its
claws blunt and only partially retractile. The speed with which it
bounds upon its prey, when loosed from the cart, exceeds the swift-
ness of any other mammal. If it misses its first attack, it scarcely
ever attempts to follow, but returns to its master. Among other
species of the family Felidae found in India may be mentioned the
ounce or snow leopard (F. uncia), the clouded leopard (F. nebulosa),
the marbled cat (F. marmorata), the jungle cat (F. chaus), and
the viverrine cat (F. viverrina).
Wolves (Cants lupus) abound throughout the open country, but
are rare in the wooded districts. Their favourite prey is sheep, but
Wolf tribe. t^Y are a'so ^'^ to r"n down antelopes and hares, or
rather catch them by lying in ambush. Instances of their
attacking man are not uncommon, and the story of Romulus
and Remus has had its counterpart in India within comparatively
recent times. The Indian wolf has a dingy reddish-white fur,
some of the hairs being tipped with black. By some naturalists
it is regarded as a distinct species, under the name of Canis pallipes.
Three distinct varieties, the white, the red and the black wolf, are
found in the Tibetan Himalayas. The Indian fox ( Vulpes bengalensis)
is comparatively rare, but the jackal (C. aureus) abounds everywhere,
making night hideous by its never-to-be-forgotten yells. The jackal,
and not the fox, is usually the animal hunted by the packs of hounds
occasionally kept by Europeans.
The wild dog, or dhole (Cyan), is found in all the wilder jungles of
India, including Assam and Lower Burma. Its characteristic is that
Dog. **• nunts in packs, sometimes containing thirty dogs, and
does not give tongue. When once a pack of wild dogs
has put up any animal, that animal's doom is sealed. They do not
leave it for days, and finally bring it to bay, or run it down exhausted,
A peculiar variety of wild dog exists in the Karen hills of Burma,
thus described from a specimen in confinement. It was black and
white, as hairy as a skye-terrier, and as large as a medium-sized
spaniel. It had an invariable habit of digging a hole in the ground,
into which it crawled backwards, remaining there all day with only
its nose and ferrety eyes visible. Among other dogs of India are the
pariah, which is merely a mongrel, run wild and half starved ; the
poligar dog, an immense creature peculiar to the south; the grey-
hound, used for coursing; and the mastiff of Tibet and Bhutan.
The striped hyaena (Hyaena striata) is common, being found wherever
the wolf is absent. Like the wolf, it is very destructive both to the
flocks and to children.
Of bears, the common black or sloth bear (Melursus ursinus) is
common throughout India wherever rocky hills and forests occur.
It is distinguished by a white horse-shoe mark on its B
breast. Its food consists of ants, honey and fruit. When
disturbed it will attack man, and it is a dangerous antagonist, for
it always strikes at the face. The Himalayan or Tibetan sun bear
( Ursus torquatus) is found along the north, from the Punjab to Assam.
During the summer it remains high up in the mountains, near the
limit of snow, but in the winter it descends to 5000 ft. and even lower.
Its congener, the Malayan sun bear (U. malayanus), is found in
Lower Burma.
The elephant (Elephas indicus) is found in many parts of India,
though not in the north-west. Contrary to what might be anticipated
from its size and from the habits of its African cousin, ™ haat
the Indian elephant is now<- at any rate, an inhabitant,
not of the plains, but of the hills; and even on the hills it is usually
found among the higher ridges and plateaus, and not in the valleys.
From the peninsula of India the elephant has been gradually exter-
minated, being only found now in the primeval forests of Coorg,
Mysore and Travancore, and in the tributary state of Orissa. It
still exists in places along the tardi or submontane fringe of the
Himalayas. The main source of supply at the present time is the
confused mass of hills which forms the north-east boundary of British
India, from Assam to Burma. Two varieties are there distinguished,
the gunda or tusker, and the makna or hine, which has no tusks.
The reports of the height of the elephant, like those of its intelligence,
seem to be exaggerated. The maximum is probably 12 ft. If
hunted, the elephant must be attacked on foot, and the sport is
therefore dangerous, especially as the animal has but few parts
vulnerable to a bullet. The regular mode of catching elephants is
by means of a keddah, or gigantic stockade, into which a wild herd is
driven, then starved into submission, and tamed by animals already
domesticated. The practice of capturing them in pitfalls is dis-
couraged as cruel and wasteful. Elephants now form a government
monopoly everywhere in India. The shooting of them is prohibited,
except when they become dangerous to man or destructive to the
crops; and the right of capturing them is only leased out upon
conditions. A special law, under the title of " The Elephants
Preservation Act " (No. VI. of 1879), regulates this licensing system.
Whoever kills, captures or injures an elephant, or attempts to do so,
without a licence, is punishable by a fine of 500 rupees for the first
offence; and a similar fine, together with six months' imprisonment,
for a second offence. Though the supply is decreasing, elephants
continue to be in great demand. Their chief use is in the timber
trade and for government transport. They are also bought up by
native chiefs at high prices for purposes of ostentation.
Of the rhinoceros, three distinct varieties are enumerated, two with
a single and one with a double horn. The most familiar is the
Rhinoceros unicornis, commonly found in the Brahmaputra
valley. It has but one horn, and is covered withjmassive
folds of naked skin. It sometimes attains a height of 6 ft. ;
its horn, which is much prized by the natives for medicinal purposes,
seldom exceeds 14 in. in length. It frequents swampy, shady spots,
and wallows in mud like a pig. The traditional antipathy of the
rhinoceros to the elephant seems to be mythical. The Jayan rhino-
ceros (R. sondaicus) is found in the Sundarbans and also in Burma.
It also has but one horn, and mainly differs from the foregoing in
being smaller, and having less prominent " shields." The Sumatran
rhinoceros (R. sumatrensis) is found from Chittagong southwards
through Burma. It has two horns and a bristly coat.
The wild hog (Sus cristatus) is well known as affording the most
exciting sport in the world — •" pig-sticking." It frequents cultivated
situations, and is the most mischievous enemy of the \vild hog
villager. A rare animal, called the pigmy hog (S. sal-
vanius), exists in the tardi of Nepal anoTSikkim, and has been shot
in Assam. Its height is only 10 in., and its weight does not exceed
12 Ib.
The wild ass (Equus hemionus) is confined to the sandy deserts
of Sind and Cutch, where, from its speed and timidity, „,„ .
it is almost unapproachable.
Many wild species of the sheep and goat tribe are to be found in
the Himalayan ranges. The Ovis ammon and O. poll are Tibetan
rather than Indian species. The urial and the sliapuare gheeo aaa
kindred species of wild sheep (Ovis vignei), found rcspec- !,0a<s
tively in Ladakh and the Suleiman range. The former
comes down to 2000 ft. above the sea, the latter is never seen
at altitudes lower than 12,000 ft. The barhal, or blue wild sheep
Rhino-
POLITICAL DIVISIONS]
INDIA
(0. nahura), and the markhor and tahr (both wild goats), also inhabit
the Himalayas. A variety of the ibex is also found there, as well as
in the highest ranges of southern India. The sarau (Nemorhaedus
bubalinus), allied to the chamois, has a wide range in the mountains
of the north, from the Himalayas to Assam and Burma.
The antelope tribe is represented by comparatively few species, as
compared with the great number peculiar to Africa. The antelope
Antelopes. Pr°Per (Antilope), the " black buck " of sportsmen, is very
generally distributed. Its special habitat is salt plains,
as on the coast-line of Gujarat and Orissa, where herds of fifty does
may be seen, accompanied by a single buck. The doe is of a light
fawn colour and has no horns. The colour of the buck is a deep
brown-black above, sharply marked off from the white of the belly.
His spiral horns, twisted for three or four turns like a corkscrew,
often reach the length of 30 in. The flesh is dry and unsavoury, but
is permitted meat for Hindus, even of the Brahman caste. The
nilgai, or blue cow (Boselaephus tragocamelus) is also widely dis-
tributed, but specially abounds in Hindustan Proper and Gujarat.
As with the antelope, the male alone has the dark-blue colour. The
nilgai is held peculiarly sacred by Hindus, from its fancied kinship
to the cow, and on this account its destructive inroads upon the crops
are tolerated. The four-horned antelope (Tetracerus quadricornis)
and the gazelle (Gazella bennetti), the chinkara or " ravine deer " of
sportsmen, are also found in India.
The king of the deer tribe is the sdmbhar orjarau (Cervus unicolor),
erroneously called " elk " by sportsmen. It is found on the forest-
Dggf. clad hills in all parts of the country. It is of a deep-brown
colour, with hair on its neck almost like a mane; and it
stands nearly 5 ft. high, with spreading antlers nearly 3 ft. in length.
Next in size is the swamp deer or bara-singha, signifying " twelve
points" (C. dwvauceli), which is common in Lower Bengal and
Assam. The chitdl or spotted deer (C. axis) is generally admitted
to be the most beautiful inhabitant of the Indian jungles. Other
species include the hog deer (C. porcinus), the barking deer or muntjac
(Cenulus muntjac), and the chevrotain or mouse deer (Tragulus
meminna). The musk deer (Moschus moschiferus) is confined to
Tibet.
The ox tribe is represented in India by some of its noblest species.
The gaur (Bos gaurus), the " bison " of sportsmen, is found in all
Blsoa the hi" JunSles pf the country, in the Western Ghats, in
Central India, in Assam, and in Burma. This animal
sometimes attains the height of 20 hands (close on 7 ft.), measuring
from the hump above the shoulder. Its short curved horns and skull
are enormously massive. Its colour is dark chestnut, or coffee-brown.
From the difficult nature of its habitat, and from the ferocity with
which it charges an enemy, the pursuit of the bison is no less danger-
ous and no less exciting than that of the tiger or the elephant. Akin
to the gaur, though not identical, are the gaydlor mithun(B.frontalis'),
confined to the hills of the north-east frontier, where it is domesti-
cated for sacrificial purposes by the aboriginal tribes, and the tsine
or banting (B. sondaicus), found in Burma. The wild buffalo (Bos
Buffalo bubalus) differs from the tame buffalo only in being larger
and more fierce. The finest specimens come from Assam
and Burma. The horns of the bull are thicker than those of the cow,
but the horns of the cow are larger. A head has been known to
measure 13 ft. 6 in. in circumference, and 6 ft. 6 in. between the tips.
The greatest height is 6 ft. The colour is a slaty black; the hide is
immensely thick, with scanty hairs. Alone perhaps of all wild
animals in India, the buffalo will charge unprovoked. Even tame
buffaloes seem to have an inveterate dislike to Europeans.
The rat and mouse family is only too numerous. Conspicuous in
it is the loathsome bandicoot (Nesocia bandicota), which sometimes
measures 2 ft. in length, including its tail, and weighs 3 Ib.
It burrows under houses, and is very destructive to plants,
More interesting is the tree mouse ( Vande-
Rat tribe.
fruit and even poultry.
leusia), about 7 in. long, which makes its nest in palms and
bamboos. The field rats (Mus mettada) occasionally multiply so
exceedingly as to diminish the out-turn of the local harvest, and
to require special measures for their destruction.
Birds. — The ornithology of India, though it is not considered so
rich in specimens of gorgeous and variegated plumage as that of
Birds other tropical regions, contains many splendid and
curious varieties. Some are clothed in nature's gay attire,
others distinguished by strength, size and fierceness. The parrot
tribe is the most remarkable for beauty. Among birds of prey, four
vultures are found, including the common scavengers (Gyps indicus
and G. bengalensis). The eagles comprise many species, but none to
surpass the golden eagle of Europe. Of falcons, there are the pere-
grine (F. peregrinus), the shain (F. peregrinator) , and the lagar
(F. jugger), which are all trained by the natives for hawking; of
hawks, the shikar a (Astur badius), the goshawk (A. palumbarius) ,
and the sparrow-hawk (Accipiter nisus). Kingfishers of various
kinds and herons are sought for their plumage. No bird is more
popular with natives than the maina (Acridotheres tristis), a member
of the starling family, which lives contentedly in a cage, and can be
taught to pronounce words, especially the name of the god Rama.
Water-fowl are especially numerous. Of game-birds, the floriken
(Sypheotis aurita) is valued as much for its rarity as for the delicacy
of its flesh. Snipe (Gallinago coelestis) abound at certain seasons, in
such numbers that one gun has been known to make a bag of one
hundred brace in a day. Pigeons, partridges, quail, plover, duck,
teal, sheldrake, widgeon-^-all of many varieties — complete the list of
small game. The red jungle fowl (Callus ferrugineus), supposed
to be the ancestor of our own poultry, is not good eating; and the
same may be said of the peacock (Pavo cristatus), except when young.
The pheasant does not occur in India Proper, though a white variety
is found in Burma.
Reptiles. — The serpent tribe in India is numerous; they swarm
in all the gardens, and intrude into the dwellings of the inhabitants,
especially in the rainy season. Most are comparatively Reptiles.
harmless, but the bite of others is speedily fatal. The
cobra di capello (Naia tripudians) — the name given to it by the
Portuguese, from the appearance of a hood which it produces by
the expanded skin about the neck — is the most dreaded. It seldom
exceeds 3 or 4 ft. in length, and is about ii in. thick, with a small
head, covered on the forepart with large smooth scales; it is of a
pale brown colour above, and the belly is of a bluish-white tinged
with pale brown or yellow. The Russelian snake (Vipera russellii),
about 4 ft. in length, is of a pale yellowish-brown, beautifully
variegated with large oval spots of deep brown, with a white edging.
Its bite is extremely fatal. Itinerant showmen carry about these
serpents, and cause them to assume a dancing motion for the amuse-
ment of the spectators. They also give out that they render snakes
harmless by the use of charms or music, — in reality it is by extracting
the venomous fangs. But, judging from the frequent accidents
which occur, they sometimes dispense with this precaution. All
the salt-water snakes in India are poisonous, while the fresh- water
forms are wholly innocuous.
The other reptiles include two species of crocodile (C. porosus
and C. palustris) and the ghariyal (Gamalis gangeticus). These are
more ugly in appearance than destructive to human life. Scorpions
also abound.
Fishes. — All the waters of India — the sea, the rivers and the tanks
— swarm with a great variety of fishes, which are caught in every
conceivable way, and furnish a considerable proportion of pishes
the food of the poorer classes. They are eaten fresh, or
as nearly fresh as may be, fdr the art of curing them is not generally
practised, owing to the exigencies of the salt monopoly. In Burma
the favourite relish of nga-pi is prepared from fish; and at Goalanda,
at the junction of the Brahmaputra with the Ganges, and along the
Madras coast many establishments exist for salting fish in bond.
The indiscriminate slaughter of fry, and the obstacles opposed by
irrigation dams to breeding fish, are said to be causing a sensible
diminution in the supply in certain rivers. Measures of conservancy
have been suggested, but their execution would be almost impractic-
able. Among Indian fishes, the Cyprinidae or carp family and the
Siluridae or cat-fishes are best represented. From the angler's
point of view, by far the finest fish is the mahseer (Barbustor), found
in all hill streams, whether in Assam, the Punjab or the South. One
has been caught weighing 60 Ib, which gave play for more than seven
hours. Though called the salmon of India, the mahseer is really
a species of barbel. One of the richest and most delicious of Indian
fishes is the hilsa (Clupea ilisha), which tastes and looks like a fat
white salmon. But the enhanced price of fish and the decreased
supply throughout the country are matters of grave concern both to
the government and the people.
Insects. — The insect tribes in India may be truly said to be in-
numerable. The heat and the rains give incredible activity to noxious
or troublesome insects, and to others of a more showy class, whose
large wings surpass in brilliancy the most splendid colours of art.
Mosquitoes are innumerable, and moths and ants of the most
destructive kind, as well as others equally noxious and disagreeable.
Amongst those which are useful are the bee, the silk-worm, and the
insect that produces lac. Clouds of locusts occasionally appear,
which leave no trace of green behind them, and give the country
over which they pass ^ he appearance of a desert. Their size is about
that of a man's finger, and their colour reddish. They are swept
north by the wind till they strike upon the outer ranges of the
Himalayas.
POLITICAL DIVISIONS
India (including Burma) has a total area of 1,766,597 sq. m.,
and a population (1901) of 294,361,056. Of this total, 1,087,204
sq. m., with a population of 231,899,515, consists of British
territory, administered directly by British officers; while the
remaining 679,393 SQ- m-> with a population of 62,461,549, is
divided up among various native states, all of which acknowledge
the suzerainty of the paramount power, but are directly adminis-
tered by semi-independent rulers, usually assisted by a British
resident.
The British possessions are distributed into thirteen provinces
of varying size, each with a separate head, but all under the
supreme control of the governor-general in council.
These thirteen provinces or local governments are
Ajmer-Merwara, Andaman and Nicobar Islands,
British Baluchistan, Bengal, Bombay, Burma, Central Provinces.
382
INDIA
[PEOPLE
with Berar, Coorg, Eastern Bengal and Assam, Madras, North-
West Frontier Province, Punjab, and the United Provinces of
Agra and Oudh. Each of these provinces is described under its
separate name.
The native states are governed, as a rule, by native princes
with the help of a political officer appointed by the British
government and residing at their courts. Some of
lative tnem administer the internal affairs of their states
states. with almost complete independence; others require
more assistance or a stricter control. These feudatory
rulers possess revenues and armies of their own, and the more
important exercise the power of life and death over their subjects;
but the authority of each is limited by treaties or engagements,
or recognized practice by which their subordinate dependence
on the British government is determined. That government,
as suzerain in India, does not allow its feudatories to form
alliances with each other or with foreign states. It interferes
when any chief misgoverns his people; rebukes, and if needful
removes, the oppressor; protects the weak; and firmly imposes
peace upon all. There are in all nearly 700 distinct units, which
may be divided into the following groups.
The most important states are Hyderabad, Mysore, Baroda,
Kashmir and Jammu, the Rajputana Agency, and the Central
India Agency. The first four of these are single units,
each under its separate ruler; but Rajputana and
Central India are political groups consisting of many
states, enjoying different degrees of autonomy. Rajputana is
the name of a great territorial circle, containing twenty states
in all; while under the Central India Agency there are grouped
148 states and petty chiefs.
Amongst the minor states, subordinate to the various provincial
governments, five are controlled by Madras; 354 by Bombay,
many of them being quite petty; 26 by Bengal, of
which Kuch Behar is the chief; 34 by the Punjab,
amongst which the Phulkian Sikh states and Bhawalpur
are the most important; 2 under Eastern Bengal and Assam;
15 under the Central Provinces; and 2 under the United
Provinces. Burma contains a number of Shan states, which
technically form part of British India, but are administered
through their hereditary chiefs. All the most important of
these native states are separately described.
In addition to the internal states, which have a fixed status,
there are several frontier tracts of India, whose status is fluc-
tuating or not strictly defined. In Baluchistan there
are tne native states of Kalat and Las Bela, and also
tribal areas belonging to the Marri and Bugti tribes.
On the north-west frontier, in addition to the chiefshipsof Chitral
and Dir, there are a number of independent tribes which reside
within the political frontier of British India, but over which
effective control has never been exercised. The territory belong-
ing to these tribes, of whom the chief are the Waziris, Afridis,
Orakzais, Mohmands, Swatis and Bajouris, is attached to, but
is not strictly within, the North-West Frontier Province.
Kashmir possesses as feudatories Gilgit and a number of petty
states, of which the most important are Hunza-Nagar and
Chilas, but effective control over these outlying states has only
been asserted in comparatively recent years for political reasons.
Nepal and Bhutan, though independent, are under various
commercial and other agreements with the government of India.
On the north-east frontier, as on the north-west, semi-inde-
pendent tribes extend across the frontier into independent
country. Similarly Karenni, on the Burmese border, is not
included in British territory, but the superintendent of the Shan
states exercises some judicial and other powers over it.
THE PEOPLE
According to the census of 1901 the population of India
(including Burma) was 294,361,056. But this vast mass of
people does not constitute a single nationality, neither is it
divided into a number of different nations of distinct blood
and distinct language. They are drawn, indeed, from four well-
marked elements: the non- Aryan tribes or aborigines of the
country; the Aryan or Sanskrit-speaking race; the great mixed
population which has grown out of a fusion of the two previous
elements; and the Mahommedan invaders from the north-west.
These four elements, however, have become inextricably mixed
together, some predominating in one portion of the country,
some in another, while all are found in every province and native
state. The chief modern divisions of the population, therefore,
do not follow the lines of blood and language, but of religion and
caste.
Of the four elements already enumerated the oldest are the
wild tribes of central India, such as the Bhils and Gonds, who
probably represent the original inhabitants of the country.
These number some 11,000,000. Second come the Dravidians
of the south, amounting to about 54,000,000. Thirdly come the
Aryans, inhabiting mainly that portion of India north of the
Nerbudda which is known as Hindustan proper. Of these only
the Brahmans and Rajputs, about 20,000,000, are of pure Aryan
blood. The remaining 135,000,000 Hindus represent the fusion
of Aryan and non-Aryan elements. Fourthly come the Mahom-
medans, numbering some 62,000,000. Many of them are the
descendents of Arab, Afghan, Mogul and Persian invaders, and
the remainder are converts made to Islam in the course of the
centuries of Mahommedan rule.
The census report of 1901 divided the population of India into
seven distinct racial types: the Turko-Iranian type, represented by
the Baluch, Brahui and Afghans of the Baluchistan „
Agency and the North-West Frontier Province; the
Indo-Aryan type, occupying the Punjab, Rajputana and
Kashmir, and having as its characteristic members the Rajputs,
Khatris and Jats; the Scytho-Dravidian type of western India,
comprising the Mahrattas ; the Kunbis, and the Coorgs, probably
formed by a mixture of Scythian and Dravidian elements; the
Aryo-Dravidian type found in the United Provinces, in parts of
Rajputana, and in Behar, represented in its upper strata by the
Hindustani Brahman, and in its lower by the Chamar. This type
is probably the result of the intermixture, in varying proportions,
of the Indo-Aryan and Dravidian types, the former element pre-
dominating in the higher groups and the latter in the lower. The
fifth type is the Mongolo-Dravidian of Bengal and Orissa, comprising
the Bengal Brahmans and Kayasths, the Mahommedans of Eastern
Bengal, and other groups peculiar to this part of India. It is pro-
bably a blend of Dravidian and Mongoloid elements with a strain of
Indo-Aryan blood in the higher groups. The sixth type is the Mongo-
loid of the Himalayas, Nepal, Assam and Burma, represented by
the Kanets of Lahoul and Kulu, the Lepchas of Darjeeling, the
Limbus, Murmis and Gurungs of Nepal, the Bodo of Assam, and
the Burmese. Seventh and last comes the Dravidian type, extending
from Ceylon to the valley of the Ganges, and pervading the whole of
Madras and Mysore and most of Hyderabad, the Central Provinces,
Central India and Chota Nagpur. Its most characteristic repre-
sentatives are the Paniyans of the south Indian hills and the Santals
of Chota Nagpur. This is probably the original type of the popula-
tion of India, now modified to a varying extent by the admixture of
Aryan, Scythian and Mongoloid elements.
It is apparently from the differences in civilization and political
power resulting from these successive strata of conquerors over the
conquered that the Hindu system of caste arose. A Caste
caste is denned in the census report of 1901 as a collection
of families or groups of families bearing a common name, which
usually denotes or is associated with a specific occupation ; claiming
common descent from a mythical ancestor, human or divine, pro-
fessing to follow the same calling, and regarded by those who are
competent to give an opinion as forming a single homogeneous
community. A caste is almost invariably endogamous, in the sense
that a member of the large circle denoted by the common name may
not marry outside that circle, but within the circle there are usually
a number of smaller circles, each of which is also endogamous. Thus
it is not enough to say at the present day that a Brahman cannot
marry any woman who is not a Brahman ; his wife must not only
be a Brahman, but must also belong to the same endogamous
division of the Brahman caste. The origin of caste was described
by Sir Denzil Ibbetson in the Punjab Census Report of 1881 in the
following terms: " We have the following steps in the process by
which caste has been evolved in the Punjab — (i) the tribal divisions
common to all primitive societies ; (2) the gilds based upon hereditary
occupation common to the middle life of all communities; (3) the '
exaltation of the priestly office to a degree unexampled in other
countries; (4) the exaltation of the Levitical blood by a special
insistence upon the necessarily hereditary nature of occupation;
(5) the preservation and support of this principle by the elaboration
from the theories of the Hindu creed or cosmogony of a purely
artificial set of rules regulating marriage and intermarriage, declaring
certain occupations and foods to be impure and polluting, and
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RELIGION: LANGUAGES]
INDIA
383
Religion.
prescribing the conditions and degree of social intercourse permitted
between the several castes. Add to these the pride of social rank
and the pride of blood, which are natural to man, and which alone
could reconcile a nation to restrictions at once irksome from a
domestic and burdensome from a material point of view, and it is
hardly to be wondered at that caste should have assumed the rigidity
which distinguishes it in India." Caste has, in fact, come to be the
chief dominating factor in the life of the ordinary native of India.
All a man's actions from the cradle to the grave are regulated by it ;
and the tendency in modern India is for tribes to turn into castes.
So widespread is its influence that, though originally a purely Hindu
institution, it has come to exercise considerable influence over their
Mahommedan neighbours (see CASTE).
The chief Indian religions with the numbers of their followers
according to the census of 1901 are: Hindu (207,147,026),
Mahommedan (62,458,077), Buddhist (9,476,759), Sikh
(2,i9S,339), Jain (1,334,148), Christian (2,923,241),
Parsee (94,190), and Animist (8,584,148). The oldest of these
religions is Animism (q.v.), which represents the beginnings of
religion in India, and is still professed by the more primitive
tribes, such as Santals, Bhils and Gonds. The transition from
this crude form of religion to popular Hinduism (q.v.) is compara-
tively easy. The most obvious characteristics of the ordinary
Hindu are that he worships a plurality of gods, looks upon the
cow as a sacred animal, and accepts the Brahmartical supremacy
(see BRAHMANISM) and the caste system; and when it is a question
whether one of the animistic tribes has or has not entered the
fold of Hinduism, these two latter points seem to be the proper
test to apply. On the other hand there are various offshoots from
orthodox Hinduism, the distinguishing feature of which, in their
earlier history at least, is the obliteration of caste distinctions
and the rejection of the Brahmanical hierarchy. It is doubtful
if Buddhism, and still more so if Jainism and Sikhism, all
of which are commonly recognized as distinct religions, ever
differed from Hinduism to a greater extent than did the tenets
of the earlier followers of Chaitanya in Bengal or those of the
Lingayats in Mysore; and yet these latter two are regarded
only as sects of Hinduism. Considerations of their history
and past political importance have led to the elevation of
Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism to the rank of independent
religions, while the numerous other schismatic bodies are held
to be only sects. But there is a marked tendency both on the
part of the sects and of the distinct religions to lapse into the
parent religion from which they sprang. In this way both
Buddhism (q.v.) and Jains (q.v.) have almost been swallowed
up by Hinduism; Sikhism (q.v.) is only preserved by the military
requirements of the British, and even the antagonism between
Hindu and Mahommedan is much less acute than it used to be.
The bewildering diversity of religious beliefs collected under
the name of Hinduism has no counterpart amongst the Mahom-
medans (see MAHOMMEDAN RELIGION) , who are limited as to their
main tenets by the teaching of a single book, the Koran. The two
main sects are the Sunnis and the Shiahs. In India the Sunnis
greatly preponderate, but they usually share with the Shiahs
their veneration for Hasan and Husain and strictly observe
the Mohurrum.
The Mahommedans of India may be divided into two classes,
pure Mahommedans from the Mogul and Pathan conquering races,
and Mahommedan converts, who differ very little from the
surrounding Hindu population from which they originally sprang.
The pure Mahommedans may again be subdivided into four
sections: Moguls, or the descendants of the last conquering race,
including Persians; Afghans or Pathans, who from their prox-
imity to the frontier are much more strongly represented,
chiefly in the Punjab and in the Rohilkhand division of the United
Provinces; Sayads, who claim to be lineally descended from the
Prophet; and Sheikhs, which is a name often adopted by con-
verts. The remainder are unspecified, but the following tribes
or classes among Indian Mussulmans are worthy of notice. In
Bengal the vast majority of the Mahommedans manifestly belong
to the same race as the lowest castes of Hindus. They are them-
selves subdivided into many classes, which in their devotion to
hereditary occupations are scarcely to be distinguished from
Hindu castes. In the Punjab, besides the Pathan immigrants
from across the frontier, Islam has taken a strong hold of the
native population. The census returned large numbers of Jats,
Rajputs and Gujars among the Mussulmans. Here, again,
the Mahommedans are not strongly distinguished from their
Hindu brethren. Bombay possesses three peculiar classes of
Mussulmans, each of which is specially devoted to maritime
trade — the Memoris, chiefly in Sind; the Borahs, mainly in
Gujarat; and the Khojahs, of whom half live in the island of
Bombay. In southern India the majority are known as Deccani
Mussulmans, being descendants of the armies led by the kings
and nawabs of the Deccan. But the two peculiar races of the
south are the Moplahs and the Labbays, both of which are seated
along the coast and follow a seafaring life. They are descended
from the Arab traders who settled there in very early times, and
were recruited partly by voluntary adhesions and partly by
forcible conversions during the persecutions of Hyder Ali and
Tippoo Sultan. The Moplahs of Malabar are notorious for
repeated outbreaks of bloody fanaticism. In proportion to the
total population Islam is most strongly represented in the North-
West Frontier Province, where it is the religion of 92% of the
inhabitants; then follow Kashmir and Sind with about 75%
each, Eastern Bengal and Assam with 58%, the Punjab with
49%, Bengal with 18%, and the United Provinces with 14%.
In the great Mahommedan state of Hyderabad the proportion is
only 10%. It appears that the Mahommedans generally tend
to increase at a faster rate than the Hindus.
The Sikh religion is almost entirely confined to the Punjab. Of
the total number of 2,195,339 Sikhs all but 64,352 are found in the
Punjab, and two-thirds of the remainder are in the United Provinces
and Kashmir which adjoin it.
Buddhism had disappeared from India long before the East India
Company gained a foothold in the country, and at the present day
there are very few Buddhists in India proper. Of the 9,476,759
enumerated in the census of 1901 all bu± some three hundred thousand
were in Burma. The greater part of the remainder are found in
Bengal on the borders of Burma, on the borders of Nepal, Tibet and
Bhutan, and in the Spiti, Lahul and Kanawar districts of the Punjab
Himalayas, where many of the inhabitants are of Tibetan origin.
More than two-fifths of the Jains in India are found in Bombay
and its native states, including Baroda. They are proportionally
most numerous in central and western Rajputana and in Gujarat
and Central India.
The Parsees, though influential and wealthy, are a very small
community, numbering only 94,000, of whom all but 7000 are found
in Bombay. The remainder are scattered all over India, but are
most numerous in Hyderabad, the Central India Agency, and the
Central Provinces.
The Christian community numbers 2,923,241, of whom, 2,664,313
are natives and the remainder Europeans and Eurasians. Of the
native Christians about two-fifths are Roman Catholics and one-
eighth Uniat Syrians; one-ninth belong to the Anglican communion,
one-eleventh are Jacobite Syrians, and one-twelfth are Baptists;
while Lutherans, Methodists and Presbyterians are also represented.
Nearly two-thirds of the total number are found in the Madras.
Presidency, including its native states. In Cochin and Travancore,
where the Syrian church has most of its adherents, nearly a quarter
of the entire population profess the Christian faith. More than four-
fifths of the Christians in Madras proper are found in the eight
southernmost districts, the scene of the labours of St Francis Xavier
and the Protestant missionary Schwarz. The adherents of the Syrian
church, known as" Christians of St Thomas, "in Malabar, Travancore
and Cochin are the most ancient Christian community in the south.
After these come the Roman Catholics, who trace their origin to the
teaching of St Francis Xavier and the Madura Jesuits. The Pro-
testant churches date only from about the beginning of the igth
century, but their progress since that time has been considerable.
As is to be expected in the case of a religion with a strong proselytizing
agency, the growth of Christianity is far more rapid than that of
the general population. Taking native Christians alone, their
numbers increased from 1,246,288 in 1872 to 2,664,313 in 1901,
and the rate of increase in the thirty years was even greater than
these figures would show, because they include the Syrian church,
whose numbers are practically constant. The classes most receptive
of Christianity are those who are outside the Hindu system, or whom
Hinduism regards as degraded. Amongst the Hindu higher castes
there are serious obstacles in the way of conversion, of which family
influence and the caste system are the greatest.
Languages. — According to the linguistic survey of India
no fewer than 147 distinct languages are recorded as verna-
cular in India. These are grouped according to the following
system : —
INDIA
[EDUCATION
Number of
languages spoken.
2
4
79
9
14
10
3
22
I
I
2
Vernaculars of India.
Malayo-Polynesian Family —
Malay Group (7831)
Mon-Khmer Family (427,760) ....
Tibeto-Chinese Family —
Tibeto-Burman Sub-family (9,560,454)
Siamese-Chinese Sub-family (1,724,085) .
Dravidian Family (56,514,524).
Munda Family (3,179.275)
Indo-European Family, Aryan Sub-family—
Iranian Branch (l,377.°23) ....
Indo-Aryan Branch (219,780,650)
Semitic Family (42,881)
Hamitic Family (553°)
Unclassed Languages
Andamanese (1882)
Gipsy Languages (344,143)
Others (125)
Total Vernaculars of India 147
The only representatives of the Malayo-Polynesian group in India
are the Selungs of the Mergui Archipelago and the Nicpbarese.
The Mon-Khmer family, which is most numerous in Indo-China, is
here represented by the Talaings of southern Burma and the Khasis
of Assam. Of the Tibeto-Chinese family, the Tibeto-Burman sub-
family, as its name implies, is spoken from Tibet to Burma ; while
the Siamese-Chinese subfamily is represented by the Karens
and Shans of Burma. The Munda or Kolarian family, which is
now distinguished from the Dravidian, is almost confined to Chpta
Nagpur, its best-known tribe being the Santals. The Dravidian
family includes the four literary languages of the south, as well as
many dialects spoken by hill tribes in central India, and also the
isolated Brahui in Baluchistan. Of the Indo-European family, the
Iranian branch inhabits Persia, Afghanistan and Baluchistan;
while the Indo-Aryan branch is spoken by the great mass of the
people of northern India. The only Semitic language is Arabic,
found at Aden, where also the Hamitic Somali was returned. Gipsy
dialects are used by the nomadic tribes of India, while Andamanese
has not been connected by philologists with any recognized family
of speech.
All the chief languages of India are described under their separate
names.
Education. — The existing system of education in India is
mainly dependent upon the government, being directly organized
.by the state, at least in its higher departments, assisted through-
out by grants-in-aid and under careful inspection. But at no
period of its history has India been an altogether unenlightened
country. The origin of the Deva-Nagari alphabet is lost in
antiquity, though that is generally admitted not to be of indi-
genous invention. Inscriptions on stone and copper, the palm-
leaf records of the temples, and in later days the widespread
manufacture of paper, all alike indicate, not only the general
knowledge, but also the common use, of the art of writing.
From the earliest times the caste of Brahmans has preserved,
by oral tradition as well as in MSS., a literature unrivalled alike
in its antiquity and in the intellectual subtlety of its contents.
The Mahommedan invaders introduced the profession of the
historian, which reached a high degree of excellence, even as
•compared with contemporary Europe. Through all changes
•of government vernacular instruction in its simplest form has
always been given, at least to the children of respectable classes,
in every large village. On the one hand, the1 tols or seminaries for
teaching Sanskrit philosophy at Benares and Nadiya recall the
schools of Athens and Alexandria; on the other, the importance
attached to instruction in accounts reminds us of the picture
which Horace has left of a Roman education. Even at the
present day knowledge of reading and writing is, owing to the
teaching of Buddhist monks, as widely diffused throughout
Burma as it is in some countries of Europe. English efforts
to stimulate education have ever been most successful when
based upon the existing indigenous institutions.
During the early days of the East India Company's rule the
promotion of education was not recognized as a duty of govern-
ment. The enlightened mind of Warren Hastings did indeed
anticipate his age by founding the Calcutta madrasa for Mahom-
medan teaching, and by affording steady patronage alike to
Hindu pundits and European students. But Wellesley's schemes
•of imperial dominion did not extend beyond the establishment
of a college for English officials. Of the Calcutta colleges, that
of Sanskrit was founded in 1824, when Lord Amherst was
jovernor-general, the medical college by Lord William Bentinck
in 1835, the Hooghly madrasa by a wealthy native gentleman
in 1836. The Sanskrit college at Benares had been established
in 1791, the Agra college in 1823. Meanwhile the missionaries
made the field of vernacular education their own. Discouraged
by the official authorities, and ever liable to banishment or
deportation, they not only devoted themselves with courage
to their special work of evangelization, but were also the first
to study the vernacular dialects spoken by the common people.
Just as two centuries earlier the Jesuits at Madura, in the
extreme south, composed works in Tamil, which are still acknow-
ledged as classical by native authors, so did the Baptist mission
at Serampur, near Calcutta, first raise Bengali to the rank of a
literary dialect. The interest of the missionaries in education,
which has never ceased to the present day, though now compara-
tively overshadowed by government activity, had two distinct
aspects. They studied the vernacular, in order to reach the
people by their preaching and to translate the Bible; and they
taught English, as the channel of non-sectarian learning.
At last the governmenr awoke to its own responsibility
in the matter of education, after the long and acrimonious
controversy between the advocates of English and vernacular
teaching had worn itself out. The present system dates from
1854, being based upon a comprehensive despatch sent out by
Sir C. Wood (afterwards Lord Halifax) in that year. At that
time the three universities were founded at Calcutta, Madras
and Bombay; English-teaching schools were established in
every district; the benefit of grants-in-aid was extended to the
lower vernacular institutions and to girls' schools; and public
instruction was erected into a department of the administration
in every province, under a director, with a staff of inspectors.
In some respects this scheme may have been in advance of the
time; but it supplied a definite outline, which has gradually
been filled up with each succeeding year of progress. A network
of schools has now been spread over the country, graduated from
the indigenous village institutions up to the highest colleges.
All alike receive some measure of pecuniary support, which is
justified by the guarantee of regular inspection; and a series
of scholarships at once stimulates efficiency and opens a path to
the university for children of the poor.
During Lord Curzon's term of office the whole system of
education in India was examined, reported upon and improved.
The five universities of Calcutta, Madras, Bombay, Allahabad
and Lahore, which were formerly merely examining bodies,
had their senates reformed by the introduction of experts;
while hostels or boarding-houses for the college students were
founded, so as to approach more nearly to the English ideal
of residential institutions. The schools for secondary education
were found to be fairly prosperous, owing to the increasing
demand for English education; but more teachers and more
inspectors were provided. In the primary schools, however,
which provide vernacular teaching for the masses, there were
only 4! million pupils to the 300 millions of India. In 1901 three
out of every four country villages had no school, only 3,000,000
boys, or less than one-fifth of the total number of school-going
age, were in receipt of primary education, and only one girl for
every ten of the male sex, or 2\% of the female population of
school-going age. In order to remedy these defects primary
education was made a first charge upon provincial revenues,
and a permanent annual grant of £213,000 was made from the
central government, with the result that thousands of new
primary schools have since been opened. The technical schools
may be divided into two classes, technical colleges and schools
and industrial schools. The former include colleges of engineering
and agriculture, veterinary colleges, schools of art and similar
institutions. Several of these, such as the Rurki and Sibpur
engineering colleges, the college of science at Poona, the Victoria
Jubilee Institute at Bombay and some of the schools of art, have
shown excellent results. The agricultural colleges have been
less successful. The industrial schools were largely engaged in
ADMINISTRATION]
INDIA
385
1901 in teaching carpentry and smithy-work to boys who never
intended to be carpenters or smiths; but this misdirection of
industry has since been remedied, and the industrial schools
have been made the first stepping-stone towards a professional
career. In addition a number of technical scholarships of £150
each have been founded tenable in Europe or America.
ADMINISTRATION
By the act of parliament which transferred the government
of India from the company to the crown, the administration
in England is exercised by the sovereign through a secretary
of state, who inherits all the powers formerly belonging to
the Court of Directors and the Board of Control, and who, as
a member of the cabinet, is responsible to parliament. In
administrative details he is assisted by the Council of India, an
advisory body, with special control over finance. This council
consists of not more than fifteen and not fewer than ten members,
appointed by the secretary of state for a term of seven years,
of whom at least nine must have served or resided in India for
ten years. A Hindu and a Mahommedan were for the first
time appointed to the council in 1907.
At the head of the government in India is the governor-
general, styled also viceroy, as representative of the sovereign.
Tlle He is appointed by the crown, and his tenure of office
Supreme is five years. The supreme authority, civil and
Govern- military, including control over all the local govern-
meat- ments, is vested in the governor-general in council,
commonly known as " the Government of India," which has
its seat at Calcutta during the cold season from November to
April, and migrates to Simla in the Punjab hills for the rest of
the year. The executive council of the governor-general is
composed of six ordinary members, likewise appointed by the
crown for a term of five years, of whom three must have served
for ten years in India and one must be a barrister, together
with the commander-in-chief as an extraordinary member.
A Hindu barrister was first appointed a member of council in
1909. The several departments of administration — Foreign,
Home, Finance, Legislative, Army, Revenue and Agriculture
(with Public Works), Commerce and Industry, Education
(added in 1910) — are distributed among the council after
the fashion of a European cabinet, the foreign portfolio being
reserved by the viceroy; but all orders and resolutions are
issued in the name of the governor-general in council and
must be signed by a secretary.
For legislative purposes the executive council is enlarged
into a legislative council by the addition of other members,
The ex °ffici°! nominated and elected. In accordance
Legisia- with regulations made under the Indian Councils Act
tive 1909, these additional members number 61, making
Council. gg jn ajj wjtjl tjje vjceroVj so arrangeci as to give
an official majority of three. The only ex-officio additional
member is the lieutenant-governor of the province in which the
legislative council may happen to meet; nominated members
number 35, of whom not more than 28 may be officials; while 25
are elected, directly or indirectly, with special representation
for Mahommedans and landholders. Apart from legislation, the
members of the council enjoy the right to interpellate the
government on all matters of public interest, including the
putting of supplementary questions; the right to move and
discuss general resolutions, which, if carried, have effect only
as recommendations; and the right to discuss and criticize
in detail the budget, or annual financial statement.
The local or provincial governments are fifteen in all, with
varying degrees of responsibility. First stand the two presi-
dencies of Madras (officially Fort St George) and Bombay, each
of which is administered by a governor and council appointed
by the crown. The governor is usually sent from England; the
members of council may number four, of whom two must have
served in India for ten years. Next follow the five lieutenant-
governorships of Bengal, the United Provinces of Agra and
Oudh, the Punjab, Burma, and Eastern Bengal and Assam,
for each of which a council may be appointed, beginning with
Bengal. Last come the chief commissionerships, of which
the Central Provinces (with Berar) rank scarcely below the
lieutenant-governorships, while the rest — the North-West
Frontier Province, British Baluchistan, Ajmer-Merwara, Coorg
and the Andamans — are minor charges, generally associated with
political supervision over native states or frontier tribes. The
two presidencies and also the five lieutenant-governorships
each possesses a legislative council, modelled on that of the
governor-general, but so that in every case there shall be a
majority of non-official members, varying from 13 to 3.
Within the separate provinces the administrative unit is
the district, of which there are 249 in India. In every province
except Madras there are divisions, consisting of three
or more districts under a commissioner. The title
of the district officer varies according to whether the province
is " regulation " or " non-regulation." This is an old dis-
tinction, which now tends to become obsolete; but broadly
speaking a larger measure of discretion is allowed in the non-
regulation provinces, and the district officer may be a military
officer, while in the regulation provinces he must be a member
of the Indian civil service. In a regulation province the
district officer is styled a collector, while in a non-regulation
province he is called a deputy-commissioner. The chief non-
regulation provinces are the Punjab, Central Provinces and
Burma; but non-regulation districts are also to be found in
Bengal, Eastern Bengal and Assam, the United Provinces
and Sind.
The districts are partitioned out into lesser tracts, which
are strictly units of administration, though subordinate ones.
The system of partitioning, and also the nomenclature, vary in
the different provinces; but generally it may be said that
the subdivision or tahsil is the ultimate unit of administration.
The double name indicates the twofold principle of separation:
the subdivision is properly the charge of an assistant magistrate
or executive officer, the tahsil is the charge of a deputy-collector
or fiscal officer; and these two offices may or may not be in the
same hands. Broadly speaking, the subdivision is characteristic
of Bengal, where revenue duties are in the background, and
the tahsil of Madras, where the land settlement requires attention
year by year. There is no administrative unit below the sub-
division or tahsil. The lhana, or police division, only exists
for police purposes. The pargana, or fiscal division, under
native rule, has now but an historical interest. The village
still remains as the agricultural unit, and preserves its inde-
pendence for revenue purposes in most parts of the country.
The township is peculiar to Burma.
Bengal (including Eastern Bengal and Assam), Madras,
Bombay and the old North-Western Provinces each has a
high court, established by charter under an act of
parliament, with judges appointed by the crown. Tl>e
Of the other provinces the Punjab and Lower Burma
have chief courts, and Oudh, the Central Provinces,
Upper Burma, Sind and the North-West Frontier Province
have judicial commissioners, all established by local legislation.
From the high courts, chief courts and judicial commissioners
an appeal lies to the judicial committee of the privy council
in England. Below these courts come district and sessions
judges, who perform the ordinary judicial work of the country,
civil and criminal. Their jurisdictions coincide for the most
part with the magisterial and fiscal boundaries. But, except
in Madras, where the districts are large, a single civil and sessions
judge sometimes exercises jurisdiction over more than one
district. In the non-regulation territory judicial and executive
functions are to a large extent combined in the same hands.
The law administered in the Indian courts is described in
the article INDIAN LAW.
The chief of the Indian services is technically known as the
Indian civil service. It is limited to about a thousand members,
who are chosen by open competition in England
between the ages of twenty-one and twenty-four, services.
Nearly all the higher appointments, administrative
and judicial, are appropriated by statute to this service, with
xiv. 13
386
INDIA
[ADMINISTRATION
The
Army.
the exception of a few held by military officers on civil duty
in the non-regulation provinces. Other services mainly or
entirely recruited in England are the education department,
police, engineering, public works, telegraph and forest services.
In addition to the British officials employed in these services,
there is a host of natives of India holding superior or subordinate
appointments in the government service. According to a
calculation made in 1904, out of 1370 appointments with a salary
of £800 a year and upwards, 1263 were held by Europeans, 15
by Eurasians and 92 by natives of India. But below that line
natives of India greatly preponderate; of 26,908 appointments
ranging between £800 and £60 a year, only 5205 were held by
Europeans, 5420 by Eurasians and 16,283 by natives.
These figures show that less than 6500 Englishmen are
employed to rule over the 300 millions of India. On the other
hand, natives manage the greater part of the administration
of the revenue and land affairs and magisterial work. The
subordinate courts throughout India are almost entirely manned
by native judges, who sit also on the bench in each of the High
Courts. Similarly in the other services. There are four engineer-
ing colleges in India, which furnish to natives access to the
higher grades of the public works department; and the pro-
vincial education services are recruited solely in India.
Though the total strength of the army in India has undergone
little change, important reforms of organization have been
effected in recent years which have greatly improved
its efficiency. In 1895, after long discussion, the
old presidency system was abolished and the whole
army was placed under one commander-in-chief, though it
was not till 1904 that the native regiments of cavalry and
infantry were re-numbered consecutively, and the Hyderabad
contingent and a few local battalions were incorporated with
the rest of the army. About the same time (1903) the designa-
tion of British officers serving with native troops was changed
from " Indian Staff Corps " to " Indian Army." The entire
force, British and native, is now subdivided into a Northern
and a Southern Army, with Burma as an independent command
attached to the latter. Each of these armies is organized in
divisions, nine in number, based on the principles that the troops
in peace should be trained in units of command similar to those
in which they would take the field, and that much larger powers
should be entrusted to the divisional commanders. At the
same time large sums of money have been expended on strategic
works along the north-west frontier, supply and transport
has been reorganized, rifle, gun and ammunition factories have
been established, and a Staff College at Quetta.
In 1907-1908 the actual strength of the army in India numbered
227,714 officers and men, of whom 73,947 were British troops;
and the total military expenditure amounted to £17,625,000, of
which £2,996,000 was for non-effective charges. In addition, the
reserve of the native army numbered 34,846 men, the volunteers
34,962, the frontier militia (including the Khyber Rifles)
about 6000, the levies (chiefly in Baluchistan) about 6000,
and the military police (chiefly in Burma) about 22,000. These
figures do not include the Imperial Service troops, consisting
of cavalry, infantry and transport corps, about 18,000 in all,
which are paid and officered by the native states furnishing
them, though supervised by British inspectors. The military
forces otherwise maintained by the several native states are
estimated to number about 100,000 men, of varying degrees
of efficiency.
The police, it is admitted, still form an unsatisfactory part
of the administration, though important reforms have recently
Police. keen mtroduceci. The present system, which is
modelled somewhat on that of the Irish constabulary,
dates from shortly after the Mutiny, and is regulated for the
greater part of the country by an act passed in 1861. It provides
a regular force in each district, under a superintendent who is
almost always a European, subordinate for general purposes
to the district magistrate. For the preservation of order this
force is by no means inefficient, but it fails as a detective agency
and also in the prosecution of crime, being distrusted by the
people generally. As the result of a Commission appointed
in 1902, a considerable addition has been made to the expenditure
on police, which is being devoted to increasing the pay of all
the lower grades and to augmenting the number of investigating
officers. In 1901 the total strength of the civil police force
was about 145,000 men, maintained at a total cost of about
£2,200,000. In addition, the village watchmen or chaukidars,
a primitive institution paid from local sources but to some
extent incorporated in the general system, aggregated about
700,000; while a special force of military police, numbering
about 20,000 under officers seconded from the army, is main-
tained along the frontier, more especially in Burma.
The administration of gaols in India can be described more
favourably. As a rule, there is one gaol in each district, under
the management of the civil surgeon. Discipline
is well maintained, though separate confinement
is practically unknown; and various industries (especially
carpet-weaving) are profitably pursued wherever possible.
So much attention has been directed to diet and sanitation
that the death-rate compares well with that of the general working
population: in 1907 it was as low as r8 per 1000. Convicts
with more than six years to serve are transported to the Andaman
Islands, where the penal settlement is organized on an elaborate
system, permitting ultimately self-support on a ticket of leave
and even marriage. In 1907 the daily average gaol population
in India was 87,306, while the convicts in the Andamans numbered
14,235-
Local self-government, municipal and rural, in the form in which
it now prevails in India, is essentially a product of British rule.
Viliage communities and trade gilds in towns existed „
previously, but these were only rudimentary forms of
self-government. The beginnings of municipal govern- Polities.
ment occurred in the Presidency towns. Apart from these the act
of 1850 respecting improvements in towns initiated consultative
committees. In 1870 Lord Mayo delegated to local committees the
control over these improvement funds. But the system at present
in force is based upon legislation by Lord Ripon in 1882, providing
for the establishment of municipal committees and local boards,
whose members should be chosen by election with a preponderance
of non-official members. The large towns of Calcutta, Bombay and
Madras have municipalities of this character, and there are large
numbers of municipal committees and local boards all over the
country. There are also Port Trusts in the great maritime cities
of Calcutta, Bombay, Madras, Karachi and Rangoon.
As the land furnishes the main source of Indian revenue,
so the assessment of the land tax is the main work of Indian
administration. No technical term is more familiar
to Anglo-Indians, and none more strange to the
English public, than that of land settlement. No
subject has given rise to more voluminous controversy.
It will be enough in this place to explain the general principles
upon which the system is based, and to indicate the chief differ-
ences of application in the several provinces. That the state
should appropriate to itself a direct share in the produce of the
soil is a fundamental maxim of Indian finance that has been
recognized throughout the East from time immemorial. The
germs of rival systems can be traced in the old military and
other service tenures of Assam, and in the poll tax of Burma,
&c. The exclusive development of the land system is due to
two conditions, — a comparatively high state of agriculture
and an organized plan of administration, — both of which are
supplied by the primitive village community. During the
lapse of untold generations, despite domestic anarchy and
foreign conquest, the Hindu village has in many parts preserved
its simple customs, written in the imperishable tablets of tradition.
The land was not held by private owners but by occupiers under
the petty corporation; the revenue was not due from individuals,
but from the community represented by its head-man. The
aggregate harvest of the village fields was thrown into a common
fund, and before the general distribution the head-man was
bound to set aside the share of the state. No other system of
taxation could be theoretically more just, or in practice less
obnoxious to the people. Such is an outline of the land system
as it may be found at the present day throughout large portions
of India both under British and native rule; and such we mav
ADMINISTRATION]
INDIA
387
fancy it to have been universally before the Mahommedan
conquest. The Mussulmans brought with them the avarice
of conquerors, and a stringent system of revenue collection.
Under the Mogul empire, as organized by Akbar the Great,
the share of the state was fixed at one-third of the gross produce
of the soil; and a regular army of tax-collectors was permitted
to intervene between the cultivator and the supreme government.
The entire vocabulary of the present land system is borrowed
from the Mogul administration. The zamindar himself is a
creation of the Mahommedans, unknown to the early Hindu
system. He was originally a mere tax-collector, or farmer
of the land revenue, who agreed to furnish a lump sum from
the tract of country assigned to him. If the Hindu village
system may be praised for its justice, the Mogul farming system
had at least the merit of efficiency. Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb
extracted a larger land revenue than the British do. When
the government was first undertaken by the East India Company,
no attempt was made to understand the social system upon
which the land revenue was based. The zamindar was con-
spicuous and useful; the village community and the cultivating
ryot did not force themselves into notice. The zamindar seemed
a solvent person, capable of keeping a contract; and his official
position as tax-collector was confused with the proprietary
rights of an English landlord. The superior stability of the
village system was overlooked, and in the old provinces of
Bengal and Madras the village organization has gradually
been suffered to fall into decay. The consistent aim of the
British authorities has been to establish private property in
the soil, so far as is consistent with the punctual payment of
the revenue. The annual government demand, like the succes-
sion duty in England, is universally the first liability on the
land ; when that is satisfied, the registered landholder has powers
of sale or mortgage scarcely more restricted than those of a
tenant in fee-simple. At the same time the possible hardships,
as regards the cultivator, of this absolute right of property
vested in the owner have been anticipated by the recognition
of occupancy rights or fixity of tenure, under certain conditions.
Legal rights are everywhere taking the place of unwritten
customs. Land, which was before merely a source of livelihood
to the cultivator and of revenue to the state, has now become
the subject of commercial speculation. The fixing of the revenue
demand has conferred upon the owner a credit which he never
before possessed, by allowing him a certain share of the unearned
increment. This credit he may use improvidently, but none the
less has the land system of India been raised from a lower to
a higher stage of civilization.
The means by which the land revenue is assessed is known as
settlement, and the assessor is styled a settlement officer. In Bengal
the assessment has been accomplished once and for all, but through-
out the greater part of the rest of India the process is continually
going on. The details vary in the different provinces; but, broadly
speaking, a settlement may be described as the ascertainment of
the agricultural capacity of the land. Prior to the settlement is the
work of survey, which first determines the area of every village and
frequently of every field also. Then comes the settlement officer,
whose duty it is to estimate the character of the soil, the kind of
crop, the opportunities for irrigation, the means of communication
and their probable development in the future, and all other circum-
stances which tend to affect the value of the produce. With these
facts before him, he proceeds to assess the government demand
upon the land according to certain general principles, which may
vary in the several provinces. The final result is a settlement report,
which records, as in a Domesday Book, the entire mass of agricultural
statistics concerning the district.
Lower Bengal and a few adjoining districts of the United
Provinces and of Madras have a permanent settlement, i.e.
the land revenue has been fixed in perpetuity. When the
Company obtained the diwani or financial administration of
Bengal in 1765, the theory of a settlement, as described above,
was unknown. The existing Mahommedan system was adopted
in its entirety. Engagements, sometimes yearly, sometimes
for a term of years, were entered into with the zamindars to
pay a lump sum for the area over which they exercised control.
If the offer of the zamindar was not deemed satisfactory, another
contractor was substituted in his place. But no steps were
taken, and perhaps no steps were possible, to ascertain in detail
the amount which the country could afford to pay. For more
than twenty years these temporary engagements continued,
and received the sanction of Warren Hastings, the first titular
governor-general of India. Hasting's great rival, Francis,
was among those who urged the superior advantages of a per-
manent assessment. At last, in 1789, a more accurate investiga-
tion into the agricultural resources of Bengal was commenced,
and the settlement based upon this investigation was declared
perpetual by Lord Cornwallis in 1793. The zamindars of that
time were raised to the status of landlords, with rights of transfer
and inheritance, subject always to the payment in perpetuity
of a rent-charge. In default of due payment, their lands were
liable to be sold to the highest bidder. The aggregate assess-
ment was fixed at sikkd Rs. 26,800,989, equivalent to Co.'s
Rs. 28,587,722, or say i\ millions sterling. While the claim of
Government against the zamindars was thus fixed for ever,
it was intended that the rights of the zamindars over their own
tenants should be equally restricted. But no detailed record
of tenant-right was inserted in the settlement papers, and,
as a matter of fact, the cultivators lost rather than gained
in security of tenure. The same English prejudice which made
a landlord of the zamindar could recognize nothing but a tenant-
at-will in the ryot. By two stringent regulations of 1799 and
1812 the tenant was practically put at the mercy of a rack-
renting landlord. If he failed to pay his rent, however excessive,
his property was rendered liable to distraint and his person
to imprisonment. At the same time the operation of the revenue
sale law had introduced a new race of zamindars, who were
bound to their tenants by no traditions of hereditary sympathy,
but whose sole object was to make a profit out of their newly
purchased property. The rack-rented peasantry found no
protection In the law courts until 1859, when an act was passed
which restricted the landlord's powers of enhancement in certain
specified cases. Later the Bengal Tenancy Act of 1885, since
amended by an act of 1898, created various classes of privileged
tenants, including one class known as " settled ryots," in which
the qualifying condition is holding land, not necessarily the
same land, for twelve years continuously in one village. Outside
the privileged classes of tenants the act gives valuable protection
to tenants-at-will. The progress in the acquisition of occupancy
rights by tenants may be judged from the fact that, whereas
in 1877 it was stated of the Champaran district that the culti-
vator had hardly acquired any permanent interest in the soil,
the settlement officer in 1900 reported that 87% of the occupied
area was in the possession of tenants with occupancy rights
or holding at fixed rates. It is believed that the ryots will eventu-
ally be able to secure, and to hold against all comers, the strong
legal position which the Bengal Tenancy Act has given them.
The permanent settlement was confined to the three provinces
of Bengal, Behar and Orissa, according to their boundaries
at that time. Orissa proper, which was conquered from the
Mahrattas in 1803, is subject to a temporary settlement, which
expired in 1897 and a re-settlement was made in 1900. The
enhancement in the revenue amounted to 52% of the previous
demand; but in estates in which the increase was specially
large it was decided to introduce the new rates gradually.
The prevailing system throughout the Madras presidency
is the ryotwari, which takes the cultivator or peasant proprietor
as its rent-paying unit, somewhat as the Bengal system
takes the zamindar. This system cannot be called r^otwart
indigenous to the country, any more than the zamin- system.
dari of Bengal. If any system deserves that name,
it is that of village assessment, which still lingers in the memories
of the people in the south. When the British declared them-
selves heir to the nawab of the Carnatic at the opening of the
1 9th century, they had no adequate experience of revenue
management. The authorities in England favoured the zamin-
dari system already at work in Bengal, which appeared at least
calculated to secure punctual payment. The Madras Govern-
ment was accordingly instructed to enter into permanent
engagements with zamindars, and, where no zamindars could be
388
INDIA
[ADMINISTRATION
found, to create substitutes out of enterprising contractors.
The attempt resulted in failure in every case, except where
the zamindars happened to be the representatives of ancient
lines of powerful chiefs. Several of such chiefs exist in the
extreme south and in the north of the presidency. Their estates
have been guaranteed to them on payment of a peshkash or
permanent tribute, and are saved by the custom of primogeniture
from the usual fate of subdivision. Throughout the rest of
Madras there are no zamindars either in name or fact. The
influence of Sir Thomas Munro afterwards led to the adoption
of the ryotwari system, which will always be associated with
his name. According to this system, an assessment is made
with the cultivating proprietor upon the land taken up for
cultivation year by year. Neither zamindar nor village officer
intervenes between the cultivator and the state, which takes
directly upon its own shoulders all a landlord's responsibility.
The early ryotwari settlements in Madras were based upon
insufficient experience. They were preceded by no survey,
but adopted the crude estimates of native officials. Since 1858
a department of revenue survey has been organized, and the
old assessments have been everywhere revised.
Nothing can be more complete in theory and more difficult of
exposition than a Madras ryotwari settlement. First, the entire
area of the district, whether cultivated or uncultivated, and of each
field within the district is accurately measured. The next step is
to calculate the estimated produce of each field, having regard to
every kind of both natural and artificial advantage. Lastly, a rate
is fixed upon every field, which may be regarded as roughly equal
to one-third of the gross and one-half of the net produce. The
elaborate nature of these inquiries and calculations may be inferred
from the fact that as many as thirty-five different rates are some-
times struck for a single district, ranging from 6d. to £l, 43. per acre.
The rates thus ascertained are fixed for a term of thirty years; but
during that period the aggregate rent-roll of a district is liable to be
affected by several considerations. New land may be taken up for
cultivation, or old land may be abandoned; and occasional re-
missions are permitted under no less than eighteen specified heads.
Such matters are discussed and decided by the collector at the
jamabandi or court held every year for definitely ascertaining the
amount of revenue to be paid by each ryot for the current season.
This annual inquiry has sometimes been mistaken by careless
passers-by for an annual reassessment of each ryot's holding. It is
not, however, a change in the rates for the land which he already
holds, but an inquiry into and record of the changes in his former
holding or of any new land which he may wish to take up.
In the early days of British rule no system whatever prevailed
throughout the Bombay presidency; and even at the present
time there are tracts where something of the old confusion
survives. The modern " survey tenure," as it is called, dates
from 1838, when it was first introduced into one of the tdlukas
of Poona district, and it has since been gradually extended
over the greater part of the presidency. As its name implies,
the settlement is preceded by survey. Each field is measured,
and an assessment placed upon it according to the quality of
the soil without any attempt to fix the actual average produce.
This assessment holds good, without any possibility of modifica-
tion, for a term of thirty years. The Famine Commission of 1901
suggested the following measures with a view to improving
the position of the Bombay ryot: (i) A tenancy law to protect
expropriated ryots, (2) a bankruptcy law, (3) the limitation
of the right of transfer, in the interests of ryots who are still
in possession of their land.
In the other provinces variations of the zamindari and ryotwari
systems are found. In the United Provinces and the Punjab
the ascertainment of the actual rents paid is the
Pm-0t ' necessary preliminary to the land revenue demand.
vlnces. In the Central Provinces, where the landlords (mal-
guzars) derive their title from the revenue settlements
made under British rule, the rents are actually fixed by the
settlement officer for varying periods. In addition nearly
every province has its own laws regulating the subject of tenancy ;
the tenancy laws of the United Provinces and of the Central
Provinces were revised and amended during the decade 1891-
1901.
The principles of the land revenue settlement and administra-
tion were reviewed by the government of India in a resolution
presented to parliament in 1902, in which its policy is sum-
marised as follows: —
"In the review of their land revenue policy which has Tenures
now been brought to a close, the Government of I ndia claim and
to have established the following propositions, which, for Settle-
convenience' sake, it may be desirable to summarize before meats.
concluding this Resolution: —
(1) That a Permanent Settlement, whether in Bengal or elsewhere,
is no protection against the incidence and consequences of
famine.
(2) That in areas where the State receives its land revenue from
landlords, progressive moderation is the key-note of the policy
of Government, and that the standard of 50 % of the assets is
one which is almost uniformly observed in practice, and is more
often departed from on the side of deficiency than of excess.
(3) That in the same areas the State has not objected, and does
not hesitate, to interfere by legislation to protect the interests
of the tenants against oppression at the hands of the landlord.
(4) That in areas where the State takes the land revenue from the
cultivators, the proposal to fix the assessment at one-fifth
of the gross produce would result in the imposition of a greatly
increased burden upon the people.
(5) That the policy of long term settlements is gradually being
extended, the exceptions being justified by conditions of
local development. .
(6) That a simplification and cheapening of the proceedings
connected with new settlements and an avoidance of the
harassing invasion of an army of subordinate officials, are a
part of the deliberate policy of Government.
(7) That the principle of exempting or allowing for improvements
is one of general acceptance, but may be capable of further
extension.
(8) That assessments have ceased to be made upon prospective
assets.
(9) That local taxation as a whole, though susceptible of some
redistribution, is neither immoderate nor burdensome.
(10) That over-assessment is not, as alleged, a general or wide-
spread source of poverty and indebtedness in India, and that
it cannot fairly be regarded as a contributory cause of famine.
The Government of India have further laid down liberal principles
for future guidance and will be prepared, where the necessity is
established, to make further advance in respect of : —
(n) The progressive and graduated imposition of large enhance-
ments.
(12) Greater elasticity in the revenue collection, facilitating its
adjustment to the variations of the seasons, and the
circumstances of the people.
(13) A more general resort to reduction of assessments in cases of
local deterioration, where such reduction cannot be claimed
under the terms of settlement."
In 1900-1901 the total land revenue realized from territory
under British administration in India amounted to £17,325,000,
the rate per cultivated acre varying from 33. id. in Madras
to tod. in the Central Provinces. The general conclusion of
the Famine Commission of 1901 was that " except in Bombay,
where it is full, the incidence of land revenue is low to moderate
in ordinary years, and it should in no way per se be the cause
of indebtedness."
Prior to the successive reductions of the salt duty in 1903,
1905 and 1907, next to land, salt contributed the largest share
to the Indian revenue; and, where salt is locally manu-
factured, its supervision becomes an important part of ^jmiai-
administrative duty. Up to within quite recent times stratton.
the tax levied upon salt varied extremely in different
parts of the country, and a strong preventive staff was required
to be stationed along a continuous barrier hedge, which almost
cut the peninsula into two fiscal sections. The reform of Sir
J. Strachey in 1878, by which the higher rates were reduced
and the lower rates raised, with a view to their ultimate equaliza-
tion over the whole country, effectually abolished this old
engine of oppression. Communication is now free; and it
has been found that prices are absolutely lowered by thus
bringing the consumer nearer to his market, even though the rate
of taxation be increased. Broadly speaking the salt consumed
in India is derived from four sources: (i) importation by sea,
chiefly from England and the Red Sea and Aden; (2) solar
evaporation in shallow tanks along the seaboard; (3) the salt
lakes in Rajputana; (4) quarrying in the salt hills of the northern
Punjab. The salt lakes in Rajputana have been leased by the
government of India from the rulers of the native states in
which they lie, and the huge salt deposits of the Salt Range
COMMERCE AND INDUSTRIES]
INDIA
389
mines are worked under government control, as also are the
brine works on the Runn of Cutch. At the Kohat mines, and in
the salt evaporation works on the sea-coast, with the exception of
a few of the Madras factories, the government does not come
between the manufacturer and the merchant, except in so far
as is necessary in order to levy the duty from the salt as it
issues from the factory. The salt administration is in the
hands of (i) the Northern India Salt Department, which is
directly under the government of India, and controls the salt
resources of Rajputana and the Punjab, and (2) the salt revenue
authorities of Madras and Bombay.
The consumption of salt per head in India varies from 7 Ib
in Rajputana to 16-02 Ib in Madras. The salt duty, which
stood in 1888 at Rs. i\ per maund, was reduced in 1903 to Rs. 2,
in 1905 to Rs. ij and in 1907 to R. i per maund, the rate being
uniform all over India. In 1907-1908 the gross yield of the
salt duty was £3,339,000, of which more than one-fourth was
derived from imported salt.
The heading Opium in the finance accounts represents the
duty on the export of the drug. The duty on local consumption,
Opium which is included under excise, yielded £981,000 in
1907-1908. The opium revenue proper is derived
from two sources: (i) a monopoly of production in the valley
of the Ganges, and (2) a transit duty levied on opium grown
in the native states of western India, known as Malwa opium.
Throughout British territory the growth of the poppy is almost
universally prohibited, except in a certain tract of Bengal and
the United Provinces, where it is grown with the help of advances
from government and under strict supervision. The 'opium,
known as " provision opium," is manufactured in government
factories at Patna and Ghazipur, and sold by auction at Calcutta
for export to China. The net opium revenue represents the
difference between the sum realized at these sales and the
cost of production. Malwa opium is exported from Bombay,
the duty having previously been levied on its passage into
British territory. In 1907-1908 the net opium revenue from
both sources amounted to £3,576,000. The Chinese government
having issued an edict that the growth and consumption of
opium in China should be entirely suppressed within ten years,
the government of India accordingly agreed in 1908 that the
export of opum from India should be reduced year by year,
so that the opium revenue would henceforth rapidly decline
and might be expected to cease altogether. In 1908 an inter-
national commission that met at Shanghai passed resolutions
inviting all the states there represented to take measures for
the gradual suppression of the manufacture, sale and distribution
of opium, except for medicinal purposes.
Excise. — Excise, like salt, is not only a department of revenue
collection, but also to a great extent a branch of the executive. In
other words, excise duties in India are not a mere tax upon the
consumer, levied for convenience through the manufacturer and
retail dealer, but a species of government monopoly. The only
excisable articles are intoxicants and drugs; and the avowed object
of the state is to check consumption not less than to raise revenue.
The limit of taxation and restriction is the point at which top great
encouragement is given to smuggling. Details vary in the different
provinces, but the general plan of administration is the same. The
right to manufacture and the right to retail are both monopolies of
government permitted to private individuals only upon terms.
Distillation of country spirits is allowed according to two systems — •
either to the highest bidder under strict supervision, or only upon
certain spots set apart for the purpose. The latter is known as the
sadr or central distillery system. The right of sale is also usually
farmed out to the highest bidder, subject to regulations fixing the
minimum quantity of liquor that may be sold at one time. The
brewing of beer from rice and other grains, which is universal among
the hill tribes and other aboriginal races, is practically untaxed
and unrestrained. The European breweries at several hill stations
pay the same tax as imported beer. Apart from spirits, excise duties
are levied upon the sale of a number of intoxicating or stimulant
drugs, of which the most important are opium, bhang, ganja and
charas. Opium is issued for local consumption in India from the
government manufactories at Ghazipur and Patna in the Behar and
Benares Agencies, and sold through private retailers at a monopoly
price. Bhang, ganja and charas are three different narcotic drugs
prepared from the hemp plant (Cannabis saliva, var. indica).
Scientifically speaking, bhang consists of the dried leaves and small
stalks, with a few fruits; ganja of the flowering and fruiting heads of
the female plant ; while charas is the resin itself, coljected in various
ways as it naturally exudes. The plant grows wild in many parts of
India; but the cultivation of it for ganja is practically confined to
a limited area in the Rajshahi district of eastern Bengal, and charas
is mainly imported from Central Asia. The use of bhang in modera-
tion is comparatively harmless; ganja and charas when taken in
excess are undoubtedly injurious, leading to crime and sometimes
to insanity. In accordance with the recommendations of the Hemp
Drugs Commission, the government of India passed an act in 1896
providing that, in regard to ganja and charas, cultivation of the plants
should be restricted as much as possible, and that a direct quantita-
tive duty should be levied on the drugs on issue from the warehouse
in the province of consumption; while as regards bhang, cultivation
of the hemp for its production should be prohibited or taxed, and
collection of the drug from wild plants permitted only under licence,
a moderate quantitative duty being levied in addition to vend fees.
No duty whatever is now levied upon tobacco in any part of India.
The plant is universally grown by the cultivators for their own
smoking, and, like everything else, was subject to taxation under
native rule; but the impossibility of accurate excise supervision
has caused the British government to abandon the impost. In
1907-1908 the total gross revenue from excise amounted to
£6,214,000, of which more than two-thirds was derived from spirits
and toddy.
Since 1894 a uniform customs duty of 5% ad valorem has been
levied generally on imported goods, certain classes being placed on
the free list, of which the most important are food-grains, machinery,
railway material, coal, and cotton twist and yarn (exempted in 1896).
Most classes of iron and steel are admitted at the lower rate of I %.
Cotton goods are taxed at 3J%, whether imported or woven in
Indian mills. Special duties are imposed on liquors, arms and
ammunition and petroleum, while imported salt pays the same
duty as salt manufactured locally. From 1899 to 1904 a counter-
vailing duty was imposed on bounty-fed beet sugar. There is also
a customs duty at the rate of about 3d. per 82 ft on exported rice.
In 1907-1908 the total customs revenue amounted to £4,910,000,
of which £664,000 was derived from the export duty on rice and
£223,730 from the excise on cotton manufactures.
Since 1886 an assessed tax has been levied on all sources of income
except that derived from land. The rate is a little more than -2\ %
on all incomes exceeding £133 a year, and a little more than 2 % on
incomes exceeding £66, the minimum income liable to assessment
having been raised in 1903 from £33. The total number of persons
assessed is only about 260,000. In 1907-1908 the gross receipts
from income tax amounted to £1,504,000.
Other sources of revenue are stamps, levied on judicial proceedings
and commercial documents; registration of mortgages and other
instruments; and provincial rates, chiefly in Bengal and the United
Provinces for public works or rural police. The rates levied at a
certain percentage of the land revenue for local purposes are now
excluded from the finance accounts. In 1907-1908 the gross receipts
amounted to: from stamps, £4,259,000, of which more than two-
thirds was derived from the sale of court fee stamps; from registra-
tion, £415,000; and from provincial rates, £526,000.
Commerce and Industries.
India may almost be said to be a country of a single industry,
that industry being agriculture. According to the census of
1901 two-thirds of the total population were employed in occupa-
tions connected with the land, while not one-tenth of that
proportion were supported by any other single industry. The
prosperity of agriculture therefore is of overwhelming importance
to the people of India, and all other industries are only sub-
sidiary to this main occupation. This excessive dependence
upon a single industry, which is in its turn dependent upon
the accident of the seasons, upon a favourable or unfavourable
monsoon, has been held to be one of the main causes of the
frequent famines which ravage India.
Agriculture. — The cultivation of the soil is the occupation of the
Indian people in a sense which is difficult to realize in England, and
which cannot be adequately expressed by figures. As the land tax
forms the mainstay of the imperial revenue, so the ryot or cultivator
constitutes the unit of the social system. The organized village
community contains many other members besides the cultivators;
but they all exist for his benefit, and all alike are directly maintained
from the produce of the village fields. Even in considerable towns,
the traders and handicraftsmen almost always possess plots of land
of their own, on which they raise sufficient grain to supply their
families with food. The operations of rural life are familiar to every
class. They are enveloped in a cloud of religious sanctions, and serve
to mark out by their recurring periods the annual round of common
life.
But though agriculture thus forms the staple industry of the
country, its practice is pursued in different provinces with infinite
variety of detail. Everywhere the same perpetual assiduity is found,
but the inherited experience of generations has taught the cultivators
390
INDIA
[COMMERCE AND INDUSTRIES
to adapt their simple methods to differing circumstances. For
irrigation, native patience and ingenuity have devised means which
compare not unfavourably with the colossal projects of government.
Manure is copiously applied to the more valuable crops whenever
manure is available, its use being limited by poverty and not by
ignorance. The rotation of crops is not adopted as a principle of
cultivation; but in practice it is well known that a succession of
exhausting crops cannot be taken in consecutive seasons from the
same field, and the advantage of fallows is widely recognized. The
periodicity of the seasons usually allows two, and sometimes three,
harvests m the year, but not necessarily, nor indeed usually, from
the same fields. For inexhaustible fertility, and for retentiveness
of moisture in a dry year, no soil in the world can surpass the " black
cotton-soil " of the Deccan. In the broad river basins the in-
undations deposit annually a fresh top-dressing of silt, thus super-
seding the necessity of manures.
Wheat. — Within recent years wheat has become one of the most
important crops in India, more especially for export. The canal
colonies of the Punjab have turned northern India into one of the
great grain-fields of the British empire; and in 1904 India took the
first place in supplying wheat to the United Kingdom, sending
nearly 25! million cwts. out of a total of 97! millions. In 1905,
however, it fell back again into the third place, being passed by Russia
and Argentina. Wheat is grown chiefly in the Punjab, the United
Provinces, and the Central Provinces. In 1905-1906 there were
23 million acres under wheat in the whole of India, of which 8J
million were in the Punjab alone.
Rice. — The name of rice has from time immemorial been so closely
associated with Indian agriculture that it is difficult to realize how
comparatively small an area is planted with this crop. With the
exception of the deltas of the great rivers and the long strip of land
fringing the western coast, rice may be called an occasional crop
throughout the remainder of the peninsula. But where it is grown
it is grown to the exclusion of all other crops. The rice crop is most
important in Burma, Bengal and Madras, and there is an average
of 20 million acres under rice in the other provinces of British India.
In Bengal the area varies from 36 to 40 million acres according to
the season. In Burma, where the large waste area is being gradually
brought under cultivation, there has been an almost uninterrupted
increase in the area of the rice crop, and the rice export is one of
the main industries of the province. In ordinary years most of this
rice goes either to Europe or to the Farther East ; but in famine
seasons a large part is diverted to peninsular India, and Burma is
the most important of the outside sources from which the deficient
crops are supplemented. In 1905-1906 the export of rice from India
was valued at 125 millions sterling.
Millets. — Taking India as a whole, the staple food grain is neither
rice nor wheat, but millets, which are probably the most prolific
grain in the world, and the best adapted to the vicissitudes of a
tropical climate. Excluding the special rice-growing tracts, different
kinds of millet are grown more extensively than any other crop from
Madras in the south at least as far as Rajputana in the north. The
sorghum or great millet, generally known as jowar or cholum, is the
staple grain crop of southern India. The spiked millet, known as
bajra or cumbu, which yields a poorer food, is grown on dry sandy
soil in the Deccan and the Punjab. A third sort of millet, ragi or
mania, is cultivated chiefly in Madras and Bengal. There are also
other kinds, which are included as a rule under the general head of
" other food grains." Millet crops are grown for the most part on
unirrigated land. In the Bombay Deccan districts they cover
generally upwards of 60% of the grain area, or an even larger
proportion in years of drought. In Gujarat about half the grain area
is under millets or maize in ordinary years. The grain is consumed
almost entirely in India, though a small amount is exported.
Pulses. — Among pulses gram covers in ordinary years more than
10 millions of acres, chiefly in the United Provinces, the Punjab
and Bengal. Gram is largely eaten by the poorer classes, but it is
also used as horse-food. Other pulses, lentils, &c., are extensively
grown, but the area under these crops is liable to great contraction
in years of drought, as it consists for the most part of unirrigated
lands.
Oil-seeds. — Oil-seeds also form an important crop in all parts of
the country, being perhaps more universally grown than any other,
as oil is necessary, according to native custom, for application to the
person, for food, and for burning in lamps. In recent years the
cultivation of oil-seeds has received an extraordinary stimulus
owing to the demand for export to Europe, especially to France;
but as they can be grown after rice, &c., as a second crop, this increase
has hardly at all tended to diminish the production of food grains.
The four chief varieties grown are mustard or rape seed, linseed, til
or gingelly (sesamum), and castor-oil. Bengal and the United
Provinces are at present the chief sources of supply for the foreign
demand, but gingelly is largely exported from Madras, and, to a
smaller extent, from Burma. These seeds are for the most part
pressed in India either in bullock presses or in oil-mills. The refuse
or cake is of great value to agriculturists, as it forms a food .for
cattle, and in the case of sesamum it is eaten by the people. But a
very large quantity of the seeds is exported. The total value of oils
and oil-seeds exported in 1905-1906 was over 7$ millions sterling.
Vegetables. — Vegetables are everywhere cultivated in garden plots
for household use, and also on a larger scale in the neighbourhood
of great towns. Among favourite native vegetables, the following
may be mentioned : — the egg-plant, called brinjal or baigan (Solanum
Melongena), potatoes, cabbages, cauliflower, radishes, onions, garlic,
turnips, yams, and a great variety of cucurbitaceous plants, including
Cucumis sativus, Cucurbita maxima, Lagenaria vulgaris, Trichosanthes
dioica, and Benincasa cerifera. Of these, potatoes, cabbages, and
turnips are of comparatively recent introduction. Almost all
English vegetables can be raised by a careful gardener. Potatoes
thrive best on the higher elevations, such as the Khasi hills, the
Nilgiris, the Mysore uplands, the Shan States, and the slopes of the
Himalayas ; but they are also grown even in lowland districts.
Fruits. — Among cultivated fruits are the following: — Mango
(Mangifera indica), plantain (Musa paradisiaca) , pine-apple (Ana-
nassa saliva), pomegranate (Punica Granatum), guava (Psidium
pomiferum and P. pyriferum), tamarind (Tamarindus indica), jack
(Artocarpus integrifolia), custard-apple (Anona squamosa), papaw
(Carica Papaya), shaddock (Citrus decumana), and several varieties
of fig, melon, orange, lime and citron. According to the verdict of
Europeans, no native fruits can compare with those of England.
But the mangoes of Bombay, of Multan, and of Malda in Bengal,
and the oranges of Nagpur and the Khasi hills, enjoy a high reputa-
tion ; while the guavas of Madras are made into an excellent preserve.
Spices. — Among spices, for the preparation of curry and other hot
dishes, turmeric and chillies .hold the first place, being very generally
cultivated. Next in importance come ginger, coriander, aniseed,
black cummin, and fenugreek. Pepper proper is confined to the
Malabar coast, from Kanara to Travancore. Cardamoms are a
valuable crop in the same locality, and also in the Nepalese
Himalayas. Pan or betel-leaf is grown by a special caste in most
parts of the country. Its cultivation requires constant care, but
is highly remunerative. The betel-nut or areca palm is chiefly
grown in certain favoured localities, such as the deltaic districts of
Bengal and the highlands of southern India.
Palms. — Besides betel-nut (Areca Catechu), the palms of India
include -the coco-nut (Cocos nucifera), the bastard date (Phoenix
sylvestris), the palmyra (Borassus flabellifer), and the true date
(Phoenix dactylifera). The coco-nut, which loves a sandy soil and
a moist climate, is found in greatest perfection along the strip of
coast-line that fringes the west of the peninsula, where it ranks next
to rice as the staple product. The bastard date, grown chiefly in
the country round Calcutta and in the north-east of the Madras
presidency, supplies both the jaggery sugar of commerce and in-
toxicating liquors for local consumption. Spirit is also distilled from
the palmyra, especially in the neighbourhood of Bombay and in
the south-east of Madras. The true date is almost confined to Sind.
Sugar. — Sugar is manufactured both from the sugar-cane and
from the bastard date-palm, but the total production is inadequate
to the local demand. The best cane is grown in the United Provinces,
on irrigated land. It is an expensive crop, requiring much attention,
and not yielding a return within the year; but the profits are pro-
portionately large. The normal area under sugar-cane in India is
generally about 3 million acres, chiefly in the United Provinces, Ben-
gal, and the Punjab. A large share of the produce is consumed in
the form of gur or unrefined sugar, and the market for this prepara-
tion i» independent of foreign competition. The total import of
sugar in 1905—1906 was valued at £5,182,000, chiefly from Java and
Mauritius.
Indigo. — Owing to the manufacture of synthetic indigo by German
chemists the export trade in indigo, which was formerly the most
important business carried on by European capital in India, has
been almost entirely ruined. In the early years of the igth century
there were colonies of English planters in many districts of Bengal,
and it was calculated that the planters of North Behar alone had a
turnover of a million sterling. The industry suffered depression
owing to the indigo riots of 1860 and the emancipation of the
peasantry by the Land Act of 1859; but in the closing decade of
the century it received a much more disastrous blow from the
invention of the German chemists. In 1895—1896 the area under
indigo was 1,570,000 acres, and the value of the exports £3,569,700,
while in 1905-1906 the area had sunk to 383,000 acres, and the value
of the exports to £390,879. The only hope of rescuing the industry
from total disappearance lies in the fact that the natural indigo gives
a faster dye than the manufactured product, while an effort has also
been made to introduce the Java-Natal seed into India, which gives
a much heavier yield, and so may be better able to compete in price
with synthetic indigo.
Tea.— The cultivation of tea in India began within the memory of
men still living, and now has replaced indigo as the chief article for
European capital, more particularly in Assam. Unlike coffee-plant-
ing the enterprise owes its origin to the initiation of government,
and has never attracted the attention of the natives. Early travellers
reported that the tea-plant was indigenous to the southern valleys
of the Himalayas; but they were mistaken in the identity of the
shrub, which was the Osyris nepalensis. The real tea (Thea viridis), a
plant akin to the camellia, grows wild in Assam, being commonly
found throughout the hilly tract between the valleys of the Brahma-
putra and the Barak. There it sometimes attains the dimensions of
a large tree ; and from that, as well as from other indications, it has
been plausibly inferred that Assam is the original home of the plant,
COMMERCE AND INDUSTRIES]
INDIA
391
which was thence introduced at a prehistoric date into China. The
real progress of tea-planting in Assam dates from about 1851, and
was greatly assisted by the promulgation of the Waste-land Rules
of 1854. By 1859 there were already fifty-one gardens in existence,
owned by private individuals; and the enterprise had extended
from its original headquarters in Lakhimpur and Sibsagar as far
down the Brahmaputra as Kamrup. In 1856 the tea-plant was
discovered wild in the district of Cachar in the Barak valley, and
European capital was at once directed to that quarter. At about the
same time tea-planting was introduced into the neighbourhood of
the sanatorium of Darjeeling, among the Sikkim Himalayas. The
success of these undertakings engendered a wild spirit of speculation
in tea companies both in India and at home, which reached its climax
in 1865. The industry recovered but slowly from the effects of this
disastrous crisis, and did not again reach a stable position until 1869.
Since that date it has rapidly but steadily progressed, and has been
ever opening new fields of enterprise. At the head of the Bay of
Bengal in Chittagong district, side by side with coffee on the Nilgiri
hills, on the forest-clad slopes of Kumaon and Kangra, amid the
low-lying jungle of the Bhutan Dwars, and even in Arakan, the
energetic pioneers of tea-planting have established their industry.
Different degrees of success may have rewarded them, but in no case
have they abandoned the struggle. The area under tea, of which
nine-tenths lies in the new province of Eastern Bengal and Assam,
expanded by 85% during the sixteen years from 1885 to 1901, while
the production increased by 167%. This great rise in the supply,
unaccompanied by an equal expansion of the market for Indian tea,
involved the industry in great difficulties, to meet which it became
necessary to restrict the area under tea as far as possible, and to
reduce the quantity of leaf taken from the plant, thus at the same
time improving the quality of the tea. The area under tea in 1885
was 283,925 acres and the yield 71,525,977 Ib, while in 1905 the area
had increased to 527,290 acres and the yield to 222,360,132 ft, while
the export alone was 214,223,728 ft. As much as 92 % of the export
goes to the United Kingdom, where China tea has been gradually
ousted by tea from India and Ceylon. The other chief countries that
afford a market for Indian tea are Canada, Russia, Australia, Turkey
in Asia, Persia, and the United States. India's consumption of tea
is computed to average 8j million pounds, of which 5j millions are
Indian and the remainder Chinese. There should therefore be
considerable room for expansion in the home market. In 1905 there
were 134 tea-planting companies registered in India, about 80% of
the capital being held by shareholders in London.
Coffee. — The cultivation of coffee is confined to southern India,
though attempts have been made to introduce the plant both into
Lower Burma and into the Eastern Bengal district of Chittagong.
The coffee tract may be roughly defined as a section of the landward
slope of the Western Ghats, extending from Kanara in the north to
Travancore in the extreme south. That tract includes almost the
whole of Coorg, the districts of Kadur and Hassan in Mysore, the
Nilgiri hills, and the Wynaad. The cultivation has also extended to
the Shevaroy hills in Salem district and to the Palni hills in Madura.
Unlike tea, coffee was not introduced into India by European
enterprise; and even to the present day its cultivation is largely
followed by the natives. The Malabar coast has always enjoyed a
direct commerce with Arabia, and at an early date gave many con-
verts to Islam. One of these converts, Baba Budan by name, is
said to have gone on a pilgrimage to Mecca and to have brought
back with him the coffee berry, which he planted on the hill range
in Mysore still called after him. According to local tradition this
happened more than two centuries ago. The shrubs thus sown lived
on, but the cultivation did not spread until the beginning of the igth
century. The state of Mysore and the Baba Budan range also
witnessed the first opening of a coffee-garden by an English planter
about 1840. The success of this experiment led to the extension of
coffee cultivation into the neighbouring tract of Manjarabad, also
in Mysore, and into the Wynaad subdivision of the Madras district
of Malabar. From 1840 to 1860 the enterprise made slow progress;
but since the latter date it has spread with great rapidity along the
whole line of the Western Ghats, clearing away the primeval forest,
and opening a new era of prosperity to the labouring classes. The
export of coffee in 1905 was 360,000 cwt., being the highest for sixteen
years. The over-supply of cheap Brazilian coffee in the consuming
markets caused a heavy fall in prices at the beginning of the decade,
the average price in London in 1901 being 473. per cwt. compared
with lots, in 1894. The United Kingdom and France are the chief
consumers. An agreement with France at the beginning of the
decade secured to Indian produce imported into that country the
benefits of the minimum tariff, thus protecting the coffee industry
from taxation in French ports on a scale which would have seriously
hampered the trade. There is practically no local market for coffee
in India.
Cinchona. — The cultivation of cinchona was introduced into India
in the year 1860 under the auspices of government, owing to the
efforts of Sir Clements Markham, and a stock of plants was prepared
and distributed to planters in the Nilgiris and in Cporg. At the same
time governmental plantations were established in the Nilgiri hills
and at Darjeeling, and these have been continued up to the present
time. A considerable amount of the bark from private plantations
is bought by the government and treated at the government factories.
The sulphate of quinine and the cinchona febrifuge thus produced are
issued for the most part to medical officers in the various provinces,
to gaols, and to the authorities of native states; but a large and
increasing amount is disposed of in the form of 5-grain packets,
costing a farthing each, through the medium of the post-offices.
This system brings the drug easily within the reach of the people.
Cattle. — Throughout the whole of India, except in Sind and the
western districts of the Punjab, horned cattle are the only beasts
used for ploughing. The well-known humped species of cattle pre-
dominates everywhere, being divided into many varieties. Owing
partly to unfavourable conditions of climate and soil, partly to the
insufficiency of grazing ground, and partly to the want of selection
in breeding, the general condition of the cattle is miserably poor.
As cultivation advances, the area of waste land available for grazing
steadily diminishes, and the prospects of the poor beasts are becoming
worse rather than better. Their only hope lies in the introduction of
fodder crops as a regular stage in the agricultural course. There are,
however, some fine breeds in existence. In Mysore the amrit mahal,
a breed said to have been introduced by Hyder Ali for military
purposes, is still kept up by the state. In the Madras districts of
Nellore and Kurnool the indigenous breed has been greatly improved
under the stimulus of cattle shows and prizes founded by British
officials. In the Central Provinces there is a peculiar breed of trotting
bullocks which is in great demand for wheeled carriages. The large
and handsome oxen of Gujarat in Bombay and of Hariana in the
Punjab are excellently adapted for drawing heavy loads in a sandy
soil. The fodder famines that accompanied the great famines of
1897 and 1900 proved little short of disastrous to the cattle in the
affected provinces. In Gujarat and the arid plains of the south-east
Punjab the renowned herds almost disappeared. In the affected
districts of the Punjab the loss of cattle averaged from 17 to 45 % of
the whole. In Rajputana more than half of its thirteen or fourteen
millions of stock is said to have perished in 1900 alone. In one state
the loss amounted to 90%, and in four others to 70%. In Gujarat
half of its 1 5 million cattle perished in spite of the utmost efforts to
obtain fodder. The worst cattle are to be found always in the deltaic
tracts, but there their place is to a large extent taken by buffaloes.
These last are more hardy than ordinary cattle; their character is
maintained by crossing the cows with wild bulls, and their milk yields
the best ghi or clarified butter. Along the valley of the Indus, and
in the sandy desert which stretches into Rajputana, camels supersede
cattle for agricultural operations. The breed of horses has generally
deteriorated since the demand for military purposes has declined with
the establishment of British supremacy. In Bengal Proper, and also
in Madras, it may be broadly said that horses are not bred. But
horses are still required for the Indian army, the native cavalry,
and the police; and in order to maintain the supply of remounts a
civil veterinary department was founded in 1892, transferred in 1903
to the army remount department. Horse-breeding is carried on
chiefly in the Punjab, the United Provinces, and Baluchistan, and
government keep a number of stallions in the various provinces.
Formerly Norfolk trotters held the first place in point of number,
but their place has been taken in recent years by English thorough-
breds, Arabs, and especially Australians. For the supply of ordnance,
baggage, and transport mules a large number of donkey stallions
have been imported by the government annually from various
European and other sources. But the supply of suitable animals is
not good, and their cost is large; so the breeding of donkey stallions
has been undertaken at the Hissar farm in the Punjab.
Forests. — The forests of India, both as a source of natural wealth
and as a department of the administration, are beginning to receive
their proper share of attention. Up to the middle of the igth century
the destruction of forests by timber-cutters, by charcoal-burners,
and above all by shifting cultivation, was allowed to go on every-
where unchecked. The extension of cultivation was considered as
the chief care of government, and no regard was paid to the im-
provident waste going on on all sides. But as the pressure of popula-
tion on the soil became more dense, and the construction of railways
increased the demand for fuel, the question of forest conservation
forced itself into notice. It was recognized that the inheritance of
future generations was being recklessly sacrificed to satisfy the im-
moderate desire for profit. And at the same time the importance of
forests as affecting the general meteorology of a country was being
learned from bitter experience in Europe. On many grounds,
therefore, it became necessary to preserve what remained of the
forests in India, and to repair the mischief of previous neglect even
at considerable expense. In 1844 and 1847 the subject was actively
taken up by the governments of Bombay and Madras. In 1864 Dr
Brandis was appointed inspector-general of forests to the government
of India, and in the following year an act of the legislature was
passed (No. VII. of 1865). The regular training of candidates for
the Forest Department in the schools of France and Germany dates
from 1867. In the interval that has since elapsed, sound principles
of forest administration have been gradually extended. Indiscrimin-
ate timber-cutting has been prohibited, the burning of the jungle by
the hill tribes has been confined within bounds, large areas have been
surveyed and demarcated, plantations have been laid out, and,
generally, forest conservation has become a reality. Systematic
conservancy of the Indian forests received a great impetus from the
passing of the Forest Law in 1878, which gave to the government
392
INDIA
MANUFACTURES
powers of dealing with private rights in the forests of which the chief
proprietary right is vested in the state. The Famine Commission of
1878 urged the importance of forest conservancy as a safeguard to
agriculture, pointing out that a supply of wood for fuel was necessary
if cattle manure was to be used to any extent for the fields, and also
that forest growth served to retain the moisture in the subsoil. They
also advised the protection and extension of communal rights of
pasture, and the planting of the higher slopes with forest, with a view
to the possible increase of the water-supply. These recommendations
embody the principle upon which the management of the state
forests is based. In 1894 the government divided forests into four
classes: forests the preservation of which is essential on climatic or
physical grounds, forests which supply valuable timber for commercial
purposes, minor forests, and pasture lands. In the first class the
special purpose of the forests, such as the protection of the plains
from devastation by torrents, must come before any smaller interests.
The second class includes tracts of teak, sal or deodar timber and the
like, where private or village rights of user are few. In these forests
every reasonable facility is afforded to the people concerned for the
full and easy satisfaction of their needs, which are generally for small
timber for building or fuel, fodder and grazing for their cattle, and
edible products for themselves; and considerations of forest income
are subordinated to those purposes. Restrictions_ necessary for the
proper conservancy of the forests are, however, imposed, and the
system of shifting cultivation, which denudes a large area of forest
growth in order to place a small area under crops, is held to cost more
to the community than it is worth, and is only permitted, under due
regulation, where forest tribes depend on it for their sustenance.
In the third place, there are minor forests, which produce inferior or
smaller timber. These are managed mainly in the interests of the
surrounding population, and supply grazing or fuel to them at
moderate rates, higher charges being levied on consumers who are
not inhabitants of the locality. The fourth class includes pastures
and grazing grounds. In these even more than in the third class
the interests of the local community stand first. The state forests,
which are under the control of the forest department, amounted in
1901—1902 to about 217,500 sq. m., or more than one-fifth of the
total area of British India, varying from 61 % in Burma to 4% in
the United Provinces.
Timbers. — A large part of the reserved forests, where the control of
the forest department is most complete, consists of valuable timber,
in which the first place is held by teak, found at its best in Burma,
especially in the upper division, and on the south-west coast of India,
in Kanara and Malabar. It is also the most prevalent and valuable
product of the forests at the foot of the Ghats in Bombay, and along
the Satpura and Vindhya ranges, as far as the middle of the Central
Provinces. Here it meets the sal, which however is more especially
found in the sub-Himalayan tracts of the United Provinces and
Eastern Bengal and Assam. In the Himalayas themselves the
deodar and other conifers form the bulk of the timber, while in the
lower ranges, such as the Khasi hills in Assam, and those of Burma,
various pines are prominent. In the north-east of Assam and in the
north of Upper Burma the Ficus elastica, a species of india-rubber tree,
is found. The sandal-wood flourishes all along the southern portion
of the Ghats, especially about Mysore and Coorg; and in the same
regions, as well as in Upper India, the blackwood occurs. A valuable
tree, known as the padouk, is at present restricted almost entirely
to the Andaman Islands, with a scattering in Lower Burma. There
are many other timber trees that are in general demand in different
parts of India, but the above are the best known outside that country.
There is also the universal bamboo, and in the north-western tracts
the equally useful rattan. The annual timber yield of the Indian
forests is about fifty millions of cubic feet, excluding what is used for
local purposes. About half of this quantity comes from the forests
of Burma, where large amounts of teak and other woods are annually
extracted, chiefly through the agency of private firms. It is, how-
ever, only the more valuable of the woods, such as teak, sandal-wood,
ebony and the like, which find a market abroad. The total value of
the export trade in forest produce averages between ij and 2
millions annually.
Manufactures.
Manufacturing industries are being slowly developed in
India, though their growth has not yet materially affected
the pressure on the land. Next to agriculture, weaving is the
most important industry in the country, the cotton-mills of
Bombay and the jute mills of Bengal having increased greatly
of recent years. On the other hand, the old indigenous industries
of India decayed greatly during the latter part of the igth
century. The colonies of hand-workers in silk, cotton, carpets,
brass and silver ware, wood and ivory, and other skilled crafts-
men, which formerly existed in various parts of India, have
fallen off both in the extent of their output and in the artistic
excellence of their work. An attempt has been made to
remedy the evil by means of schools of art, but with little
result.
Cotton. — Cotton is the staple article of clothing in Eastern countries,
and Indian cotton and other piece goods used to find a ready market
in Europe before the English cotton manufacturer had arisen. When
European adventurers found the way to India, cotton and silk always
formed part of the rich cargoes that they brought home, and the early
settlers were always careful to fix their abode amid a weaving
population, at Surat, Calicut, Masulipatam or Hugli. But now the
larger part of the cotton goods used in India is manufactured in mills
in that country or in England, and the handloom weavers' output
is confined to the coarsest kinds of cloth, or to certain special kinds
of goods, such as the turbans and " saris " of Bombay, or the muslins
of Arni, Cuddapah, and Madura in Madras, and of Dacca in Bengal.
The extent to which village industries still survive is shown by the
fact that according to the census of 1901 there were 5,800,000 hand-
loom weavers in India against only 350,000 workers in cotton mills.
The present importance of the cotton crop dates only from the
crisis in Lancashire caused by the American War. Prior to 1860 the
exports of raw cotton from India used to average less than 3 millions
sterling a year, mostly to China; but after that date they rose by
leaps, until in 1866 they reached the enormous total of 37 millions.
Then came the crash, caused by the restoration of peace in the
United States, and the exports fell, until they now average little more
than 8 millions a year. The fact is that Indian cotton has a short
staple, and cannot compete with the best American cotton for
spinning the finer qualities of yarn. But while the cotton famine
was at its height, the cultivators were intelligent enough to make
the most of their opportunity. The area under cotton increased
enormously, and the growers managed to retain in their own hands a
fair share of the profit. The principal cotton-growing tracts are the
plains of Gujarat and Kathiawar, whence Indian cotton has received
in the Liverpool market the historic name of " Surat "; the high-
lands of the Deccan, and the valleys of the Central Provinces and
Berar. The total area under cotton in 1905-1906 was 2oJ million
acres, and the export was 7,396,000 cwt.
It was estimated in 1905 that the world's output of cotton was
19,000,000 bales, of which 13! millions were produced in the United
States, 3 millions in India, and nearly ij millions in Egypt, Japan
and China being India's best customers for the raw article. At the
same time the total number of spindles employed in working up the
world's raw cotton was 1 16 millions, of which 48 millions were in the
United Kingdom, 24 millions in the United States, and a little over
5 millions in India. There were 203 cotton mills in India, employing
a daily average of 196,369 persons. The Bombay Presidency pos-
sessed 70% of the mills and much the same percentage of spindles and
looms. The industry dates from 1851, when the first mill wasstarted.
But though India has special advantages in home-grown cotton and
cheap labour, the labour is so inefficient as to make competition
with Europe difficult. It is calculated that an Indian power-loom
weaver working 72 hours a week can turn out TO Ib of cloth, while a
European working 54 hours can turn out 468 Ib, and that one Lan-
cashire weaver can do the work of six Indian power-loom weavers
and nine hand-loom weavers. While these figures hold good, India
cannot be a serious competitor with Europe in the cotton industry.
Jute. — Next to cotton, jute is the most important and prosperous
of Indian manufactures. With the advance of commerce it is more
and more required for its best-known use, as sacking for produce.
Australia and Argentina need it for wool and wheat, Chili and Brazil
for nitrates and coffee, Asiatic countries for rice, and the world as a
whole for its increased output of produce. The supply has not kept
pace with the demand, and the consequence was a steady apprecia-
tion in price from 1901 onwards. The cultivation of jute is confined
to a comparatively restricted area, more than three-fourths of the
total acreage being in eastern Bengal and Assam, while nearly the
whole of the remaining fourth is in Bengal. In 1907, however,
experiments were made towards growing it in other parts of India.
In Behar it has begun to replace indigo, and some success was achieved
in Orissa, Assam and Madras; but jute is a very exhausting crop,
and requires to be planted in lands fertilized with silt or else with
manure. About half the total crop is exported, and the remainder
used in the jute mills centred round Calcutta, which supply cloth and
bags for the grain export trade. The number of jute mills in 1904
was 38, employing 124,000 hands, and since then the number has
tended constantly upwards. The export of jute in 1905-1906 was
14,480,000 cwt. with a value of £12,350,000.
Silk. — The silk industry in India has experienced many vicissi-
tudes. Under the East India Company large quantities of mulberry
silk were produced chiefly in Bengal, and exported to Europe; and
Malda, Murshidabad, and other places in that province have long
been famous for their silk manufactures. Other kinds of silk are
native to certain parts of India, such as those produced by the
" castor oil " _and the muga silkworms of Assam; but the chief of
the wild silks is the tussore silk, which is found in the jungles nearly
throughout India. Large quantities of comparatively coarse silk are
made from silk so produced. In Assam silk is still the national dress,
and forms the common costume of the women, but the men are
relinquishing it as an article of daily wear in favour of cotton.
Amongst the Burmese, however, silk still holds its own. Owing to
disease among the silk-worms the industry has declined of recent
years; and in 1886 an inquiry was held, which resulted in putting
the silk-rearing industry of Bengal on a better basis. The most hopeful
MINERALS]
INDIA
393
ground, however, for the industry is Kashmir, where Sir Thomas
Wardle reported that the silk was of as high a quality as from any
part of the world. The most important seat of the silk-weaving
industry is Bengal, but there are few parts of India where some silk
fabrics are not woven. The silk weavers of India possess the very
highest skill in their craft, and with competent and energetic manage-
ment and increased capital the industry could be revived and extended.
Other Manufactures. — The demand of the Indian population for
woollen fabrics is very small in comparison with that for cotton, and
although the manufacture of blankets is carried on in many parts of
India, the chief part of the indigenous woollen industry was origin-
ally concerned with shawls. Kashmir shawls were at one time
famous, but the industry is practically extinct. The chief seat of
the woollen industry now is the Punjab, where a considerable number
of weavers, thrown out of work by the decline of the shawl industry,
have taken to carpet-making. The chief centre of this industry is
Amritsar. The output of the woollen mills is chiefly used for the
army and the police. In addition to these and the cotton and jute
mills there are indigo factories, rice mills, timber mills, coffee works,
oil mills, iron and brass foundries, tile factories, printing presses,
lac factories, silk mills, and paper mills. There is a large trade in
wood-carving, the material being generally Indian ebony in northern
India, sandal-wood in southern India, and teak in Burma and else-
where.
From an artistic point of view the metal manufactures are one of
the most important products of India.
Brass and Copper Work. — The village brazier, like the village
smith, manufactures the necessary vessels for domestic use. Chief
among these vessels is the lota, or globular bowl, universally used in
ceremonial ablutions. The form of the lota, and even the style of
ornamentation, has been handed down unaltered from the earliest
times. Benares enjoys the first reputation for work in brass and
copper. In the south, Madura and Tanjore have a similar fame;
and in the west, Ahmedabad, Poona and Nasik. At Bombay itself
large quantities of imported copper are wrought up by native braziers.
The temple bells of India are well known for the depth and purity of
their note. In many localities the braziers have a special repute
either for a peculiar alloy or for a particular process of ornamenta-
tion. Silver is sometimes mixed with the brass, and in rarer cases
gold. The brass or rather bell-metal ware of Murshidabad, known
as khagrai, has more than a local reputation, owing to the large ad-
mixture of silver in it.
Pottery is made in almost every village, from the small vessels
required in cooking to the large jars used for storing grain and
Pott rv occasionally as floats to ferry persons across a swollen
stream. But, though the industry is universal, it has
hardly anywhere risen to the dignity of a fine art. Sind is the only
province of India where the potter's craft is pursued with any regard
to artistic considerations; and there the industry is said to have
been introduced by the Mahommedans. Sind pottery is of two kinds,
encaustic tiles and vessels for domestic use. In both cases the
colours are the same, — turquoise blue, copper green, dark purple or
golden brown, under an exquisitely transparent glaze. The usual
ornament is a conventional flower pattern, pricked in from paper and
dusted along the pricking. The tiles, which are evidently of the
same origin as those of Persia and Turkey, are chiefly to be found in
the ruined mosques and tombs of the old Mussulman dynasties;
but the industry still survives at the little towns of Saidpur and
Bubri. Artistic pottery is made at Hyderabad, Karachi, Tatta and
Hala, and also at Multan and Lahore in the Punjab. The Madura
pottery deserves mention from the elegance of its form and the
richness of its colour. The United Provinces have, among other
specialties, an elegant black ware with designs in white metal worked
into its surface.
Mineral Resources.
Putting aside salt, which has been already treated, the chief
mining resources of India at the present day are the coal mines,
the gold mines, the petroleum oil-fields, the ruby mines, man-
ganese deposits, mica mines in Bengal, and the tin ores and
jade of Burma. Other minerals which exist but have not
yet been developed in paying quantities are copper ore, alum,
gypsum and plumbago.
Coal. — Coal has been known to exist in India since 1774. The
first mine at Raniganj dates from 1820, and has been regularly
worked up to the present time. Coal of varying quality exists under
a very extensive area in India, being found in almost every province
and native state with the exception of Bombay and Mysore. In
respect, however, of both the number and size of its mines Bengal
comes easily first, with seven-eighths of the total output, the largest
mines being those of Raniganj, Jherria, and Giridih, while the
Singareni mine in Hyderabad comes next. Many of the Bengal
mines, however, are very small. There are some important mines in
Assam and the Central Provinces. The importance of the Indian
coal production lies in the hope that it holds out for the development
of Indian industries, especially in connexion with the nascent iron
and steel industry. Coal and iron are found in conjunction in the
Central Provinces, and the Tata Company has recently been formed
to work them on a large scale. The railways already use Indian coal
almost exclusively, and Indian coal is being taken yearly in greater
quantities by ships trading to Eastern ports. The total output in
1905-1906 was 8,417,739 tons; while there were 47 companies
engaged in coal-mining, of which 46 were in Bengal.
Gold. — The production of gold in India is practically confined to
the Kolar gold fields in Mysore. An uncertain but unimportant
amount is annually procured by sand-washing in various tracts of
northern India and Burma; and there have been many attempts,
including the great boom of 1880, to work mines in the Wynaacl
district of the Madras Presidency. There are also mines in the
Hyderabad state from which a small amount of gold is produced.
But the output of gold in Mysore represents 99% of the annual
Indian yield. Modern mining at Kolar dates from 1 88 1, but there
are extensive old workings showing that much gold had been ex-
tracted under native rule. The mines are worked under leases from
the Mysore government, which secure to the state a royalty of 5%
of the gold produced. Up to the end of 1903 the total output of the
Kolar mines reached the value of £19,000,000.
Iron. — In purity of ore, and in antiquity of working, the iron
deposits of India probably rank first in the world. They are to be
found in every part of the country, from the northern mountains of
Assam and Kumaun to the extreme south of the Madras Presidency.
Wherever there are hills, iron is found and worked to a greater or
less extent. The indigenous methods of smelting the ore, which are
everywhere the same, and have been handed down unchanged through
countless generations, yield a metal of the finest quality, in a form
well suited to native wants. But they require an extravagant supply
of charcoal ; and even with the cheapness of native labour the pro-
duct cannot compete in price with imported iron from England.
European enterprise, attracted by the richness of the ore and the
low rate of wages, has repeatedly tried to establish iron-works on a
large scale; but hitherto every one of these attempts has ended in
failure with the exception of the iron-works at Barrakur in Bengal,
first started in 1865, which after many years of struggle seem to have
turned the corner of success. The principal sources of iron-stone at
present are the Madras ores, chiefly at Salem, the Chanda ores in the
Central Provinces, and the ores obtained at and near Raniganj in
Bengal.
Petroleum. — The great oilfields of the Indian empire are in Burma,
which supplies 98 % of the total output. Of the remainder nearly
all comes from Assam. In both provinces the growth of the yield has
been very great, the total output in 1901 being six times as large as in
1892; but even so it has failed to keep pace with the demand. A
regular service of steamers carries oil in bulk from Rangoon to
Calcutta, and now Burmese oil competes with the Russian product,
which had already driven the dearer American oil from the market
(see BURMA).
Other Ores. — Manganese ore is found in very large quantities on a
tract on the Madras coast about midway between Calcutta and
Madras. Most of the ore goes to Great Britain. There are also
valuable deposits of manganese in the Central Provinces and, it is
believed, in Burma. The export of manganese, which had been only
about ten years in existence in 1905-1906, amounted then to 316,694
tons, with a value of £250,000. Mica has long been obtained in
Bengal, chiefly in the Hazaribagh district, and there is a ruby-
coloured variety which is held in great estimation. In Madras also
a mica industry has recently grown up. Tin is found in the Tavoy
and Mergui districts of Lower Burma, and has for many years been
worked in an unprogressive manner chiefly by Chinese labour. In
1900 tin of good quality was found in the Southern Shan States.
Copper ore is found in many tracts throughout India, plumbago in
Madras, and corundum in southern India.
Precious Stones. — Despite its legendary wealth, which is really due
to the accumulations of ages, India cannot be said to be naturally
rich in precious stones. Under the Mahommedan rule diamonds
were a distinct source of state revenue; and Akbar is said to have
received a royalty of £80,000 a year from the mines of Panna. But
at the present day the search for them, if carried on anywhere in
British territory, is an insignificant occupation. The name of
Golconda has passed into literature; but that city, once the Mussul-
man capital of the Deccan, was rather the home of diamond-cutters
than the source of supply. It is believed that the far-famed
diamonds of Golconda actually came from the sandstone formation
which extends across the south-east borders of the nizam's dominions
into the Madras districts of Ganjam and Godavari. A few poor
stones are still found in that region. Sambalpur, on the upper
channel of the Mahanadi river in the Central Provinces, is another
spot once famous for diamonds. So late as 1818 a stone is said to
have been found there weighing 84 grains and valued at £500. The
river-valleys of Chota Nagpur are also known to have yielded a
tribute of diamonds to their Mahommedan conquerors. At the
present day the only place where the search for diamonds is pursued
as a regular industry is the native state of Panna in Bundelkhand
The stones are found by digging down through several strata of
gravelly soil and washing the earth. Even there, however, the
pursuit is understood to be unremunerative, and has failed to attract
European capital. At the present day the only important indus-
tries are the rubies and jade of Burma. The former are worked by
the Ruby Mines Company or by licensed native miners under the
Xiv. 130
394
INDIA
[TRADE
company. The value of the rubies found has increased rapidly, and
the company, which was for some time worked unprofitably under the
lease granted in 1896, has now, with the aid of favourable treatment
from the government, become more prosperous. Pearls are found off
the southern coast of Madras and also in the Mergui archipelago.
Trade.
The trade of India with foreign countries is conducted partly
by sea and partly across the land frontiers; but the frontier
trade, though capable of much extension, is only a small fraction
of the whole. The sea-borne trade is carried on chiefly through
the four great ports of Calcutta, Bombay, Karachi, and Rangoon,
of which Calcutta serves the fertile valley of the Ganges and
Brahmaputra, Bpmbay serves the cotton-trade of western
India, Karachi exports the wheat crop of the Punjab, and
Rangoon the rice crop of Burma. Madras, which has been
supplied with an artificial harbour, serves southern India, and
Chittagong is rising into prominence as the point of departure
for the tea and jute of eastern Bengal and Assam. The land
trade is carried on with Persia, Afghanistan, Nepal, Tibet
and western China. The new caravan route to Persia from
Quetta by way of the Nushki railway offers facilities to traders,
of which increasing advantage has been taken, but the trade
is still small. Afghanistan under Abdur Rahman imposed
prohibitive imposts upon trade, and the present amir followed
his father's policy, but his visit to India in 1907 may result in
improved relations. The trade with the tribes lying north of
the Malakand Pass has improved considerably since the frontier
war of 1897-98, but they are a poor community. Nepal takes
the largest share of the frontier trade. The trade with Tibet has
slightly improved since the treaty of Lhasa of 1904, but it
still amounts to only £90,000 annually. The trade with western
China is about half a million annually, and shows signs of
development.
A review of Indian trade by the director-general of the statistical
department in India is annually presented to parliament, and there-
p H fore it is only necessary here to mention the main channels
Exports. tjjat jt jlas t^gn Of recent years. The chief exports are
raw cotton, cotton goods and yarn, rice, wheat, oil-seeds, raw jute
and jute-manufactures, hides and skins, tea, opium and lac. In
1905—1906 there was great activity in both the cotton and jute
industries. In Bombay new cotton mills were erected, and old ones
extended, high-speed machinery was widely introduced, and 12,000
new looms were set up. Similarly the jute trade far surpassed all
records. The crop was a record one, but the demand far exceeded
the supply, the cultivators reaped profits of eight millions more than
the previous year, and 2000 new looms were set up in Calcutta.
The tea outlook was good, and the coffee industry was recovering
from the effects of plant disease and Brazilian competition. But
both the indigo and opium trades are declining industries, which
mean a serious loss to the Indian exchequer. Indigo fell to about
one-tenth of its value in the previous decade ; and an agreement was
come to with China in 1907, by which the»area under opium is to be
gradually reduced. The total exports for 1905-1906 were valued at
£112,000,000.
The chief articles of import are cotton goods, cotton yarn, metals,
sugar, mineral oils, machinery and mill-work, woollen manufactures,
1m arts provisions, hardware and cutlery, silk, liquors, apparel,
railway material and chemicals. Cotton manufactures
and yarns are imported almost exclusively from the United Kingdom,
and amount to about 40% of the total trade. Metals, including
hardware and cutlery, railway material, &c., supply about a fifth.
The only other important article of import is sugar, which came to
about 5 millions in 1905-1906. The balance of trade is always against
India, because she is a debtor country, and has to pay interest on
borrowed capital, and the " home charges " for the upkeep of the
civil and military services and of the secretary of state's establish-
ment in London. The total imports for 1905-1906 were valued at
82j millions sterling, including 14 millions of gold and silver, which
are continually hoarded by the people of India.
Broadly speaking, the greater part of the internal trade remains
in the hands of the natives. Europeans control the shipping business
_ .. and have a share in the collection of some of the more
classes valuable staples of exports, such as cotton, jute, oil-seeds
and wheat. But the work of distribution and the adaptation
of the supply to the demand of the consumer naturally fall to those
who are best acquainted with native wants. The Vaisya, or trading
caste of Manu, has no longer any separate existence; but its place is
occupied by several well-marked classes. On the western coast the
Parsees, by the boldness and extent of their operations, tread close
upon the heels of the most prosperous English houses. In the
interior of the Bombay presidency, business is mainly divided between
Local
trade.
two classes, the Bunniahs of Gujarat and the Marwaris from
Rajputana. Each of these profess a peculiar form of religion, the
former being Vishnuvites of the Vallabhachari sect, the latter Jains.
In the Deccan their place is taken by Lingayats from the south, who
again follow their own form of Hinduism, which is an heretical
species of Siva worship. Throughout Mysore, and in the north of
Madras, Lingayats are still found, but along the eastern sea-board the
predominating classes of traders are those named Chetties and
Komatis. In Bengal many of the upper castes of Sudras have
devoted themselves to general trade; but there again the Jain
Marwaris from Rajputana occupy the front rank. Their head-
quarters are in Murshidabad district, and their agents are to be
found throughout the valley of the Brahmaputra, as far up as the
unexplored frontier of China.
Local trade is conducted either at the permanent bazaars of great
towns, at weekly markets held in certain villages, at annual gather-
ings primarily held for religious purposes, or by means of
travelling brokers and agents. The cultivator himself,
who is the chief producer and also the chief customer,
knows little of the great towns, and expects the dealer to come to his
own door. Each village has at least one resident trader, who usually
combines in his own person the functions of money-lender, grain
dealer and cloth seller. The simple system of rural economy is
entirely based upon the dealings of this man, whom it is the fashion
sometimes to decry as a, usurer, but who is really the one thrifty
person among an improvident population. Abolish the money-
lender, and the general body of cultivators would have nothing to
depend upon but the harvest of a single year. The money-lender deals
chiefly in grain and in specie. In those districts where the staples of
export are largely grown, the cultivators commonly sell their crops
to travelling brokers, who re-sell to larger dealers, and so on until
the commodities reach the hands of the agents of the great shipping
houses. The wholesale trade thus rests ultimately with a com-
paratively small number of persons, who have agencies, or rather
corresponding firms, at the great central marts. Buying and selling
in their aspects most characteristic of India are to be seen, not at
these great towns, nor even at the weekly markets, but at the fairs
which are held periodically at certain spots in most districts. Re-
ligion is always the original pretext of these gatherings or melds, at
some of which nothing is done beyond bathing in the river, or per-
forming various superstitious ceremonies. But in the majority of
cases religion has become a mere excuse for secular business. Crowds
of petty traders attend, bringing all those miscellaneous articles that
can be packed into a pedlar's wallet ; and the neighbouring villagers
look forward to the occasion to satisfy alike their curiosity and their
household wants.
The control of the revenues of Indiatis vested by act of parliament
in the secretary of state for India in council. Subject to his control
the government of India enjoys a certain discretionary „.
power, but no new expenditure may be incurred without
his sanction. There is a special member for finance in the governor-
general's council, and all important matters are brought before the
council. The central government keeps in its own hands certain
revenues, such as salt, the post-office, telegraphs, railways, army
and Indian Marine, in addition to the districts of Coorg, Ajmere
and the North- West Frontier province. The other provinces raise
and administer their own revenues, subject to the central control ;
they are allowed a certain proportion of the revenue to meet their
own administrative charges, and so have an interest in economical
expenditure. The apportionment of the revenues is settled afresh
every five years. In 1893 the Indian mints were closed to the free
coinage of silver, and in 1899 the British sovereign was made legal
tender at the rate of is. 4d. per rupee; so that since that year the
finances of India have been practically upon a gold basis. The
principal heads of revenue are land, opium, salt, stamps, excise,
customs, assessed taxes, forests, registration and tributes from native
states; and the chief heads of expenditure are charges of collection,
interest, post-office, telegraph and mint, civil departments, famine
relief and insurance, railways, irrigation, other public works and
army. The point most frequently criticized in the finances of India
is the " home charges " which amount on an average to about l8J
millions a year. Of this total about oj millions are for interest on
railways and other public works, 5 millions for pensions and furlough
pay for civil and military officers, 2$ millions for stores and I -J millions
miscellaneous. These charges constitute the home expenditure on
revenue account, but there are also other remittances from India
on capital account which bring up the total disbursements in England
to an annual average of about 2 1 J millions.
Public Works.
Public works in India fall under three categories — railways,
irrigation, and roads and buildings. The railways are managed
in various ways, the other two classes of works are carried out
through the agency of separate departments in Madras and
Bombay, and of officers of the government of India public
works department, either under local or central control, in
other provinces.
HISTORY]
INDIA
395
Railways in India serve different purposes — the ordinary
purpose of trade and passenger communication, and also the
special purposes of the safeguarding the internal and
'' external peace of the country, and of protecting
special districts against famine by facilitating the movement
of- grain. For this reason the interest on capital expended on
all the lines cannot be judged by a purely commercial standard.
They are administered in three separate ways — as guaranteed,
state or assisted lines. In the early days of railway enterprise
the agency of private companies guaranteed by the state was
exclusively employed, and nearly all the great trunk lines were
made under this system, but the leases of the last three of these
lines, the Great Indian Peninsula, the Bombay Baroda and
Central India, and the Madras companies, fell in respectively
in 1900, 1905 and 1907. In 1870 a new policy of railway de-
velopment by the direct agency of the state was inaugurated;
and in 1880 the system of encouraging private enterprise by state
assistance was again resorted to. Both agencies are now em-
ployed side by side. The administration of railways was formerly
under a secretary in the public works department; but since
1905 it has been placed in charge of a railway board, consisting
of a president and two members, which is connected with,
though not subordinate to, the department of commerce and
industry. In 1908 the total length of railways open in India
was 30,578, m., which carried 330 million passengers and 64
million tons of goods, and yielded a net profit exceeding 4%.
Facilities for irrigation (q.v.) vary widely, and irrigation
works differ both in extent and in character. The main distinction
arises from the fact that the rivers of northern India
!' are fed by the Himalayan snows, and, therefore, afford
a supply of water which surpasses in constancy and volume
any of the rivers of the south. In Bombay and Madras almost
all the irrigation systems, except in the deltas of the chief rivers,
are dependent on reservoirs or " tanks," which collect the
rainfall of the adjacent hills. In Sind and the Punjab there
are many canals which act merely as distributaries of the overflow
of the great rivers at the time of inundation; but where the
utility of the canals has been increased by permanent head-
works the supply of water is perennial and practically inex-
haustible, thus contrasting favourably with the less certain
protection given by tanks. The Irrigation Commission of 1901
advised an expenditure of 30 millions sterling, spread over a term
of twenty years, and irrigating 6| million acres in addition
to the 47 millions already irrigated at that time; but it was
estimated that that programme would practically exhaust
the irrigable land in India, and that some of the later works
would be merely protective against the danger of famine, and
would not be financially productive.
In addition to the provision and maintenance of roads and the
construction of public buildings, the department of public works also
provides all works of a public nature, such as water-supply,
'.uildmgs sanitation, embankments, lighthouses, ferries and bridges,
which require technical skill. Road-making is an ordinary
roads. form of relief work in times of famine. In the famine of
1896-1-1897, for instance, 579 m. of new roads were made in the Central
Provinces alone, and 819 m. were repaired. One of the finest roads
in the world is the Grand Trunk Road which stretches across India
from Calcutta to Peshawar, and which is metalled most of the way
with kankar, a hard limestone outgrowth. The great buildings of
ancient India are described under the names of the different cities
which contain them.
The post-office of India is under the control of a director-general, in
subordination to the department of commerce and industry ; and this
officer has under him a postmaster-general or deputy post-
master-general in each province. In 1906 thedistrict post,
originally provided for local convenience and maintained by
a local cess, was amalgamated with the imperial post. The mileage
over which mails are carried by railway has been constantly increasing
with the development of the railway system, but a far larger number
are still carried by runners and boats. The total number of letters,
&c., carried by the post exceeds 800 millions, and the service yields a
small profit to the state. In connexion with the post-office there are
inland money order and savings-bank businesses ; and in addition the
value-payable system, by which the post-office undertakes to
recover from the addressee the value of an article sent by post and
to remit the amount to the sender, has found great popularity.
Excluding the Indo European telegraph wire, the whole telegraph
Post
Office.
system of India forms an imperial charge, administered through a
director-general. The total length of line is about 69,000
m., and the net profits of the service approximately pay '* le'
for new expenditure on capital account.
Telegraphic communication with Europe is maintained by the
cable of the Eastern Telegraph Company via Aden, and by the Indo-
European system, of which the eastern portion from Teheran and
Fao to Karachi belongs to the government of India. The adminis-
tration of the Indo-European department is in London under the
direct control of the secretary of state. The system comprises two
sections. The first, called the Persian Gulf section, runs from
Karachi to Bushire, from Jask to Muscat, and from Bushire to Fao,
where a connexion is made with the Ottoman government line. It
includes also the Makran coast lines, running from Jask to Guadur,
and thence to Karachi. The second section, known as the Persian
section, consists of land lines running from Bushire to Teheran.
These land lines, as well as the Makran coast lines, are worked under
a treaty with the Persian government. A connexion for extending
the system through Persia was signed in 1901, the route to be followed
being from Kashan near Teheran to the Baluchistan frontier via
Yezd and Kerman.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Imperial Gazetteer of India (new edition, 1907-
1909); Census of India (1901); Statistical Atlas of India (1895);
G. A. Grierson, Linguistic Survey of India (1903) ; Sir Thomas
Holdich, India (" Regions of the World " series) (1902) ; Sir John
Strachey, India (1903) ; W. Crooke, Natives of Northern India (1907) ;
W. S. Lilly, India and its Problems (1902); Sidney Low, A Vision of
India (1906); R. D. Oldham, Geology of India (1893); W. T.
Blanford, Geology of India (1880), and Fauna of British India (1888);
R. Lydekker, Great and Small Game of India (1900); Sir J. D.
Hooker, Flora of British India (1875); J. S. Gamble, Manual of
Indian Timbers (1902) ; Indian Land Revenue Policy (Calcutta,
1902); B. H. Baden-Powell, The Indian Village Community (1896);
Abdullah Yusuf Ali, Life and Labour of the People of India (1907);
Theodore Morison, Industrial Organization of an Indian Province
(1906) ; Professor Wyndham Dunstan, Coal Resources of India
(Society of Arts, 1902); Sir George Watt, Dictionary of Economic
Products of India (1908); Sir George Birdwood, Industrial Arts of
India (1880); R. H. Mahon, Iron and Steel in India (1899); Lord
Curzon in India (1906); India Office List; The Statesman's Year-
Book; and the government of India's annual reports.
(W. W. H.; J. S. Co.)
HISTORY
For an orthodox Hindu the history of India begins more than
three thousand years before the Christian era with the events
detailed in the great epic of the Mahabharata; but by the sober
historian these can only be regarded as legends. See the article
INSCRIPTIONS: section Indian, for a discussion of the scientific
basis of the early history. It is needless to repeat here the
analysis given in that article. The following account of the
earlier period follows the main outlines of the traditional facts,
corrected as far as possible by the inscriptional record; and
further details will be found in the separate biographical, racial
and linguistic articles, and those on the geographical areas into
which India is administratively divided.
Our earliest glimpses of India disclose two races struggling for
the soil, the Dravidians, a dark-skinned race of aborigines, and
the Aryans, a fair-skinned people, descending from
the north-western passes. Ultimately the Dravidians
were driven back into the southern tableland, and the great
plains of Hindustan were occupied by the Aryans, who dominated
the history of India for many centuries thereafter.
The Rig-Veda forms the great literary memorial of the early
Aryan settlements in the Punjab. The age of this primitive
folk-song is unknown. The Hindus believe, without evidence,
that it existed " from before all time," or at least 3001 years
B.C. — nearly 5000 years ago. European scholars have inferred
from astronomical dates that its composition was going on about
1400 B.C. But these dates are themselves given in writings of
later origin, and might have been calculated backwards. We
only know that the Vedic religion had been at work long before
the rise of Buddhism in the 6th century B.C. Nevertheless, the
antiquity of the Rig-Veda, although not to be expressed in
figures, is abundantly established. The earlier hymns exhibit
the Aryans on the north-western frontiers of India just starting
on their long journey. They show us the Aryans on the banks
of the Indus, divided into various tribes, sometimes at war with
each other, sometimes united against the " black-skinned "
aborigines. Caste, in its later sense, is unknown. Each father
396
INDIA
[BUDDHIST PERIOD
of a family is the priest of his own household. The chieftain
acts as father and priest to the tribe; but at the greater festivals
he chooses some one specially learned in holy offerings to conduct
the sacrifice in the name of the people. The chief himself seems
to have been elected. Women enjoyed a high position, and some
of the most beautiful hymns were composed by ladies and
queens. Marriage was held sacred. Husband and wife were
both " rulers of the house " (dampati), and drew near to the
gods together in prayer. The burning of widows on their
husbands' funeral-pile was unknown, and the verses in the
Veda which the Brahmans afterwards distorted into a sanction
for the practice have the very opposite meaning.
The Aryan tribes in the Veda are acquainted with most of the
metals. They have blacksmiths, coppersmiths and goldsmiths
among them, besides carpenters, barbers and other artisans.
They fight from chariots, and freely use the horse, although not
yet the elephant, in war. They have settled down as husband-
men, till their fields with the plough, and live in villages or
towns. But they also cling to their old wandering life, with
their herds and " cattle-pens." Cattle, indeed, still form their
chief wealth, the coin (Lat. pecunia) in which payments of fines
are made; and one of their words for war literally means " a
desire for cows." They have learned to build " ships," perhaps
large river-boats, and seem to have heard something of the sea.
Unlike the modern Hindus, the Aryans of the Veda ate beef,
used a fermented liquor or beer made from the soma plant,
and offered the same strong meat and drink to their gods.
Thus the stout Aryans spread eastwards through northern
India, pushed on from behind by later arrivals of their own
stock, and driving before them, or reducing to bondage, the
earlier " black-skinned " races. They marched in whole com-
munities from one river-valley to another, each house-father a
warrior, husbandman and priest, with his wife and his little
ones, and cattle.
About the beginning of the 6th century B.C. the settled
country between the Himalaya mountains and the Nerbudda
river was divided into sixteen independent states,
some monarchies and some tribal republics, the most
important of which were the four monarchies of
Kosala, Magadha, the Vamsas and Avanti. Kosala. the
modern kingdom of Oudh, appears to have been the premier
state of India in 600 B.C. Later the supremacy was reft from
it by the kingdom of Magadha, the modern Behar (q.v.). South
of Kosala lay the kingdom of the Vamsas, and south of that
again the kingdom of Avanti. In the north-west was Gandhara,
on the banks of the Indus, in the neighbourhood of Peshawar.
The history of these early states is only a confused record of
war and intermarriages, and is still semi-mythical. The list of the
sixteen states ignores everything north of the Himalayas, south
of the Vindhyas, and east of the Ganges where it turns south.
The principal cities of India at this date were Ayodhya, the
capital of Kosala at the time of the Ramayana, though it after-
wards gave place to SravastI, which was one of the
s'x 8reat cities of India in the time of Buddha:
archaeologists differ as to its position. Baranasi, the
modern Benares, had in the time of Megasthenes a circuit of
25 m. Kosambi, the capital of the Vamsas, lay on the Jumna,
230 m. from Benares. Rajagriha (Rajgir), the capital of
Magadha, was built by Bimbisara, the contemporary of Buddha.
Roruka, the capital of Sovira, was an important centre of the
coasting trade. Saketa was sometime the capital of Kosala.
UjjayinI, the modern Ujjain, was the capital of Avanti. None
of these great cities has as yet been properly excavated.
In those early days the Aryan tribes were divided into four
social grades on a basis of colour: the Kshatriyas or nobles,
who claimed descent from the early leaders; the
Brahmans or sacrificing priests; the Vaisyas, the
peasantry; and last of all the Sudras, the hewers
of wood and drawers of water, of non-Aryan descent. Even
below these there were low tribes and trades, aboriginal tribes
and slaves. In later documents mention is made of eighteen
gilds of work-people, whose names are nowhere given, but they
Early
states.
Capital
Social
Ute.
probably included workers in wood, workers in metal, workers
in stone, weavers, leather-workers, potters, ivory-workers,
dyers, fisher-folk, butchers, hunters, cooks, barbers, flower-
sellers, sailors, basket-makers and painters.
It is supposed that sea-going merchants, mostly Dravidians,
and not Aryans, availing themselves of the monsoons, traded
in the 7th century B.C. from the south-west ports of India to
Babylon, and that there they became acquainted with a Semitic
alphabet, which they brought back with them, and from which
all the alphabets now used in India, Burma, Siam and Ceylon
have been gradually evolved. For the early inscriptional re-
mains, see INSCRIPTIONS: India, The earliest written records
in India, however, are Buddhist. The earliest written books are
in Pali and Buddhist Sanskrit.
The Buddhist Period.
The systems called Jainism (see JAINS) and Buddhism (q.v.)
had their roots in prehistoric philosophies, but were founded
respectively by Vardhamana Mahavira and Gotama Buddha,
both of whom were preaching in Magadha during the reign of
Bimbisara (c. 520 B.C.).'
During the next two hundred years Buddhism spread over
northern India, perhaps receiving a new impulse from the
Greek kingdoms in the Punjab. About the middle of the 3rd
century B.C. Asoka, the king of Magadha or Behar, who reigned
from 264 B.C. to 227 B.C., became a zealous convert to Buddhism.
He is said to have supported 64,000 Buddhist priests; he founded
many religious houses, and his kingdom is called the Land of the
Monasteries (Vihara or Behar) to this day. He did for Buddhism
what Constantine effected for Christianity; he organized it on
the basis of a state religion. This he accomplished by five
means — by a council to settle the faith, by edicts promulgating
its principles, by a state department to watch over its purity,
by missionaries to spread its doctrines, and by an authoritative
collection of its sacred books. In 246 B.C. Asoka is said J to
have convened at Pataliputra (Patna) the third Buddhist council
of one thousand elders (the tradition that he actually convened
it rests on no actual evidence that we possess). Evil men,
taking on them the yellow robe of the order, had given forth
their own opinions as the teaching of Buddha. Such heresies
were now corrected; and the Buddhism of southern Asia
practically dates from Asoka's council. In a number of edicts,
both before and after the synod, he published throughout India
the grand principles of the faith. Such edicts are still found
graven deep upon pillars, in caves and on rocks, from the
Yusafzai valley beyond Peshawar on the north-western frontier,
through the heart of Hindustan, to Kathiawar and Mysore on
the south and Orissa in the east. Tradition states that Asoka
set up 64,000 memorial columns; and the thirty-five inscriptions
extant in our own day show how widely these royal sermons were
spread over India. In the year of the council, the king also
founded a state department to watch over the purity and to
direct the spread of the faith. A minister of justice and religion
(Dharma Mahamatra) directed its operations; and, one of its
first duties being to proselytize, he was specially charged with
the welfare of the aborigines among whom its missionaries were
sent. Asoka did not think it enough to convert the inferior
races without looking after their material interests. Wells were
to be dug and trees planted along the roads; a system of medical
aid was established throughout his kingdom and the conquered
provinces, as far as Ceylon, for both man and beast. Officers
were appointed to watch over domestic life and public morality,
and to promote instruction among the women as well as the
youth.
Asoka recognized proselytism by peaceful means as a state
duty. The rock inscriptions record how he sent forth mission-
aries " to the utmost limits of the barbarian countries," to
intermingle among all unbelievers" for the spread of religion.
They shall mix equally with Brahmans and beggars, with the
1 The historicity of this convention, not now usually admitted by
scholars, is maintained by Bishop Coplcston of Calcutta in his
| Buddhism, Primitive and Present (1908).
HINDU PERIOD]
INDIA
397
dreaded and the despised, both within the kingdom " and in
foreign countries, teaching better things." Conversion is to be
effected by persuasion, not by the sword. This character of a
proselytizing faith which wins its victories by peaceful means
has remained a prominent feature of Buddhism to the present
day. Asoka, however, not only took measures to spread the
religion; he also endeavoured to secure its orthodoxy. He
collected the body of doctrine into an authoritative version, in
the Magadhi language or dialect of his central kingdom in
Behar — a version which for two thousand years has formed the
canon (pitakas) of the southern Buddhists.
The fourth and last of the great councils was held in Kashmir
under the Kushan king Kanishka (see below). This council,
which consisted of five hundred members, compiled three com-
mentaries on the Buddhist faith. These commentaries supplied
in part materials for the Tibetan or northern canon, drawn up
at a subsequent period. The northern canon, or, as the Chinese
proudly call it, the " greater vehicle of the law," includes many
later corruptions or developments of the Indian faith as originally
embodied by Asoka in the " lesser vehicle," or canon of the
southern Buddhists.
The Kanishka commentaries were written in the Sanskrit
language, perhaps because the Kashmir and northern priests
who formed his council belonged to isolated Aryan colonies,
which had been little influenced by the growth of the Indian
vernacular dialects. In this way Kanishka and his Kashmir
council became in some degree to the northern or Tibetan
Buddhists what Asoka and his council had been to the Buddhists
of Ceylon and the south.1
Buddhism never ousted Brahmanism from any large part of
India. The two systems co-existed as popular religions during
more than a thousand years (250 B.C. to about A.D.
Buddhism goo), and modern Hinduism is the joint product of
"maoism. ' both. Certain kings and certain eras were intensely
Buddhistic; but the continuous existence of Brah-
manism is abundantly proved from the time of Alexander
(327 B.C.) downwards. The historians who chronicled his march,
and the Greek ambassador Megasthenes, who succeeded them
(300 B.C.) in their literary labours, bear witness to the pre-
dominance of the old faith in the period immediately preceding
Asoka. Inscriptions, local legends, Sanskrit literature, and the
drama disclose the survival of Brahman influence during the
next six centuries (250 B.C.-A.D. 400). From A.D. 400 we have
the evidence of the Chinese pilgrims, who toiled through Central
Asia into India as the birthplace of their faith. Fa-Hien entered
India from Afghanistan, and journeyed down the whole Gangetic
valley to the Bay of Bengal in A.D. 399-413. He found Brahman
priests equally honoured with Buddhist monks, and temples to
the Indian gods side by side with the religious houses of his
own faith. Hsiian Tsang also travelled to India from China
by the Central Asia route, and has left a fuller record of the
state of the two religions in the 7th century. His journey
extended from A.D. 629 to 645, and everywhere throughout India
he found the two faiths eagerly competing for the suffrages of
the people. By that time, indeed, Brahmanism was beginning to
assert itself at the expense of the other religion. The monuments
of the great Buddhist monarchs, Asoka and Kanishka, confronted
him from the time he neared the Punjab frontier; but so also
did the temples of Siva and his " dread " queen Bhima. Through-
out north-western India he found Buddhist convents and monks
surrounded by " swarms of heretics." The political power was
also divided, although Buddhist sovereigns predominated. A
Buddhist monarch ruled over ten kingdoms in Afghanistan.
At Peshawar the great monastery built by Kanishka was de-
serted, but the populace remained faithful. In Kashmir king
and people were devout Buddhists, under the teaching of five
hundred monasteries and five thousand monks. In the country
identified with Jaipur, on the other hand, the inhabitants were
devoted to heresy and war.
1 In 1909 the excavation of a ruined stupa near Peshawar dis-
closed a casket, with an inscription of Kanishka, and containing
fragments of bones believed to be those of Buddha himself.
During the next few centuries Brahmanism gradually became
the ruling religion. There are legends of persecutions instigated
by Brahman reformers, such as Kumarila Bhatta and
Sankar-Acharjya. But the downfall of Buddhism
seems to have resulted from natural decay, and from hism.
new movements of religious thought, rather than
from any general suppression by the sword. Its extinction is
contemporaneous with the rise of Hinduism, and belongs to a
subsequent part of this sketch. In the nth century, only
outlying states, such as Kashmir and Orissa, remained faithful;
and before the Mahommedans fairly came upon the scene
Buddhism as a popular faith had disappeared from India.
During the last ten centuries Buddhism has been a banished
religion from its native home. But it has won greater triumphs
in its exile than it could ever have achieved in the land of its
birth. It has created a literature and a religion for more than
a third of the human race, and has profoundly affected the
beliefs of the rest. Five hundred millions of men, or 35% of
the inhabitants of the world, still follow the teaching of Buddha.
Afghanistan, Nepal, Eastern Turkestan, Tibet, Mongolia,
Manchuria, China, Japan, the Eastern Archipelago, Siam,
Burma, Ceylon and India at one time marked the magnificent
circumference of its conquests. Its shrines and monasteries
stretched in a continuous line from the Caspian to the Pacific,
and still extend from the confines of the Russian empire to the
equatorial archipelago. During twenty-four centuries Buddhism
has encountered and outlived a series of powerful rivals. At
this day it forms one of the three great religions of the world,
and is more numerously followed than either Christianity or
Islam. In India its influence has survived its separate existence:
it supplied a basis upon which Brahmanism finally developed
from the creed of a caste into the religion of the people. The
noblest survivals of Buddhism in India are to be found, not
among any peculiar body, but in the religion of the people;
in that principle of the brotherhood of man, with the reassertion
of which each new revival of Hinduism starts; in the asylum
which the great Hindu sects afford to women who have fallen
victims to caste rules, to the widow and the out-caste; in the
gentleness and charity to all men, which takes the place of a
poor-law in India, and gives a high significance to the half
satirical epithet of the " mild " Hindu.
Hindu Period.
The external history of India may be considered to begin
with the Greek invasion in 327 B.C. Some indirect trade be-
tween India and the Levant seems to have existed from very
ancient times. Homer was acquainted with tin and other
articles of Indian merchandise by their Sanskrit namesj~~and
a long list has been made of Indian products mentioned in the
Bible. In the time of Darius (see PERSIA) the valley of the
Indus was a Persian satrapy. But the first Greek historian who
speaks clearly of India was Hecataeus of Miletus (540-486 B.C.);
the knowledge of Herodotus (450 B.C.) ended at the Indus;
and Ctesias, the physician (401 B.C.), brought back from his
residence in Persia only a few facts about the products of India,
its dyes and fabrics, its monkeys and parrots. India to the
east of the Indus was first made known in Europe by the
historians' and men of science who accompanied Alexander the
Great in 327 B.C. Their narratives, although now lost, are con-
densed in Strabo, Pliny and Arrian. Soon afterwards Megas-
thenes, as Greek ambassador resident at a court in Bengal
(306-298 B.C.), had opportunities for the closest observation.
The knowledge of the Greeks and Romans concerning India
practically dates from his researches, 300 B.C.
Alexander the Great entered India early in 327 B.C. Crossing
the lofty Khawak and Kaoshan passes of the Hindu Kush, he
advanced by Alexandria, a city previously founded
in the Koh-i-Daman, and Nicaea, another city to
the west of Jalalabad, on the road from Kabul to march.
India. Thence he turned eastwards through the
Kunar valley and Bajour, and crossed the Gouraios (Panjkora)
river. Here he laid siege to Mount Aornos, which is identified
by some authorities with the modern Mahaban, though thi
identification was rejected by Dr Stein after an exhaustiv
survey of Mount Mahaban in 1904. Alexander crossed th
Indus at Ohind, 16 m. above Attock, receiving there the sub
mission of the great city of Taxila, which is now represente
by miles of ruins near the modern Rawalpindi. Crossing th
Hydaspes (Jhelum) he defeated Porus in a great battle, ani
crossing the Acesines (Chenab) near the foot of the hills and th
Hydraotes (Ravi), reached the Hyphasis (Beas). Here he wa
obliged by the temper of his army to retrace his steps, an
retreat to the Jhelum, whence he sailed down the river to it
confluence with the Indus, and thence to Patala, probably th
modern Hyderabad. From Patala the admiral Nearchos wa
to sail round the coast to the Euphrates, while Alexande
himself marched through the wilds of Gedrosia, or modern
Makran. Ultimately, after suffering agonies of thirst in the
desert, the army made its way back to the coast at the modern
harbour of Pasin, whence the return to Susa in Persia wai
comparatively easy.
During his two years' campaign in the Punjab and Sind
Alexander captured no province, but he made alliances, founde<
cities and planted garrisons. He had transferred much territory
to chiefs and confederacies devoted to his cause; every petty
court had its Greek faction; and the detachments which he
left behind at various positions, from the Afghan frontier to
the Beas, and from near the base of the Himalaya to the Sine
delta, were visible pledges of his return. At Taxila (Dehri-
Shahan) andNicaea (Mong) in the northern Punjab, at Alexandria
(Uchch) in the southern Punjab, at Patala (Hyderabad) in Sind
and at other points along his route, he established military settle-
ments of Greeks or allies. A large body of his troops remained
in Bactria; and, in the partition of the empire which followed
Alexander's death in 323 B.C., Bactria and India eventually
fell to Seleucus Nicator, the founder of the Syrian monarchy
(see SELEUCID).
Meanwhile a new power had arisen in India. Among the
Indian adventurers who thronged Alexander's camp in the
Chandra- •PunJab> eacn witn his plot for winning a kingdom
gupta or crushing a rival, Chandragupta Maurya, an exile
Aiaurya. from the Gangetic valley, seems to have played a
somewhat ignominious part. He tried to tempt the
wearied Greeks on the banks of the Beas with schemes of conquest
in the rich south-eastern provinces; but, having personally
offended their leader, he had to fly the camp (326 B.C.). In
the confused years which followed, he managed with the aid of
plundering bands to form a kingdom on the ruins of the Nanda
dynasty in Magadha or Behar (321 B.C.). He seized the capital,
Pataliputra, the modern Patna, established himself firmly in
the Gangetic valley, and compelled the north-western princi-
palities, Greeks and natives alike, to acknowledge his suzerainty.
While, therefore, Seleucus was winning his way to the Syrian
monarchy during the eleven years which followed Alexander's
death, Chandragupta was building up an empire in northern
India. Seleucus reigned in Syria from 312 to 280 B.C., Chandra-
gupta in the Gangetic valley from 321 to 296 B.C. In 312 B.C.
the power of both had been consolidated, and the two new
sovereignties were brought face to face. In that year Seleucus,
having recovered Babylon, proceeded to re-establish his authority
in Bactria (q.v.) and the Punjab. In the latter province he
found the Greek influence decayed. Alexander had left behind
a mixed force of Greeks and Indians at Taxila. No sooner was
he gone than the Indians rose and slew the Greek governor;
the Macedonians massacred the Indians; a new governor,'
sent by Alexander, murdered the friendly Punjab prince, Porus'
and was himself driven out of the country by the advance of
Chandragupta from the Gangetic valley. Seleucus, after a
war with Chandragupta, determined to ally himself with the
new power in India rather than to oppose it. In return for
five hundred elephants, he ceded the Greek settlements in
the Punjab and the Kabul valley, gave his daughter to Chandra-
gupta in marriage, and stationed an ambassador, Megasthenes,
at the Gangetic court (302 B.C.). Chandragupta became familiar
INDIA [HINDU PERIOD
to the Greeks as Sandrocottus, king of the Prasii; his capital,
Pataliputra was called by them Palimbothra. On the other
hand, the names of Greeks and kings of Grecian dynasties
appear in the rock inscriptions, under Indian forms.
Previous to the time of Megasthenes the Greek idea of India was
a very vague one. Their historians spoke of two classes of Indians —
certain mountainous tribes who dwelt in northern Afghanistan under
the Caucasus or Hindu Kush, and a maritime race living on the coast
of Baluchistan. Of the India of modern geography lying beyond the
Indus they practically knew nothing. It was this India to the east of
the Indus that Megasthenes opened up to the western world. He
describes the classification of the people, dividing them, however,
into seven castes instead of four, namely, philosophers, husband-
men, shepherds, artisans, soldiers, inspectors and the counsellors
of the king. The philosophers were the Brahmans, and the pre-
scribed stages of their life are indicated. Megasthenes draws a dis-
tinction between the Brahmans (BpaxMai/es) and the Sarmanae
(Sop/javai), from which some scholars have inferred that the Bud-
dhist Sarmanas were a recognized class fifty years before the council
of Asoka. But the Sarmanae also include Brahmans in the first
and third stages of their life as students and forest recluses. The
inspectors or sixth class of Megasthenes have been identified with
Asoka's Mahamatra and his Buddhist inspectors of morals.
The Greek ambassador observed with admiration the absence of
slavery in India, the chastity of the women, and the courage of the
men. In valour they excelled all other Asiatics; they required no
locks to their doors; above all, no Indian was ever known to tell a
lie. Sober and industrious, good farmers and skilful artisans, they
scarcely ever had recourse to a lawsuit, and lived peaceably under
their native chiefs. The kingly government is portrayed almost as
described in Manu, with its hereditary castes of councillors and
soldiers. Megasthenes mentions that India was divided into one
hundred and eighteen kingdoms; some of which, such as that of the
Prasii under Chandragupta, exercised suzerain powers. The village
system is well described, each little rural unit seeming to be an in-
dependent republic. Megasthenes remarked the exemption of the
husbandmen (Vaisyas) from war and public services, and enumer-
ates the dyes, fibres, fabrics and products (animal, vegetable and
mineral) of India. Husbandry depended on the periodical rains;
and forecasts of the weather, with a view to " make adequate pro-
vision against a coming deficiency," formed a special duty of the
Brahmans. " The philosopher who errs in his predictions observes
silence for the rest of his life."
Before the year 300 B.C. two powerful monarchies had thus
begun to act upon the Brahmanism of northern India, from the
east and from the west. On the east, in the Gangetic valley,
Chandragupta (320-296 B.C.) firmly consolidated the dynasty
which during the next century produced Asoka (264-228 or
227 B.C.), and established Buddhism throughout India. On
:he west, the Seleucids diffused Greek influences, and sent forth
Sraeco-Bactrian expeditions to the Punjab. Antiochus Theos
(grandson of Seleucus Nicator) and Asoka (grandson of Chandra-
gupta), who ruled these two monarchies in the 3rd century B.C.,
made a treaty with each other (256). In the next century
Eucratides, king of Bactria, conquered as far as Alexander's
royal city of Patala, and possibly sent expeditions into Cutch
and Gujarat, 181-161 B.C. Of the Graeco-Indian monarchs,
Menander (q.v.) advanced farthest into north-western India,
and his coins are found from Kabul, near which he probably
had his capital, as far as Muttra on the Jumna.1 The Buddhist
dynasty of Chandragupta profoundly modified the religion of
lorthern India from the east; the Seleucid empire, with its
Jactrian and later offshoots, deeply influenced the science and
art of Hindustan from the west.
Brahman astronomy owed much to the Greeks, and what
he Buddhists were to the architecture of northern India, that
he Greeks were to its sculpture. Greek faces and
>rofiles constantly occur in ancient Buddhist statuary,
nd enrich almost all the larger museums in India, on art.
"he purest specimens have been found in the North-
west frontier province (the ancient Gandhara) and the Punjab,
where the Greeks settled in greatest force. As we proceed
astward from the Punjab, the Greek type begins to fade,
"urity of outline gives place to lusciousness of form. In the
'In 1909 an inscription in Brahmi characters was discovered near
ihilsa in Central India recording the name of a Greek, Heliodorus.
ie describes himself as a worshipper of Bhagavata ( = Vishnu), and
tates that he had come from Taxila in the name of the great king
\ntialcidas, who is known from his coins to have lived c. 170 B.C.
HINDU PERIOD]
INDIA
399
female figures, the artists trust more and more to swelling
breasts and towering chignons, and load the neck with con-
stantly accumulating jewels. Nevertheless, the Grecian type
of countenance long survived in Indian art. It is entirely
unlike the present coarse conventional ideal of sculptured
beauty, and may even be traced in the delicate profiles on the
so-called sun temple at Kanarak, built in the I2th century A.D.
on the remote Orissa shore.
Chandragupta (q.v.) was one of the greatest of Indian kings.
The dominions that he had won back from the Greeks he ad-
ministered with equal power. He maintained an
™e army of 600,000 infantry, 30,000 horsemen, 36,000
Dynasty. men witn the elephants, and 24,000 men with the
chariots, which was controlled by an elaborate war-
office system. The account given of his reign by Megasthenes
makes him better known to us than any other Indian monarch
down to the time of Akbar. In 297 B.C. he was succeeded by his
son, Bindusara, who is supposed to have extended his dominions
down to Madras. In 272 B.C. he in turn was succeeded by Asoka,
the Buddhist emperor, the religious side of whose reign has
already been described. Asoka's empire included the greater
part of Afghanistan, a large part of Baluchistan, Sind, Kashmir,
Nepal, Bengal to the mouths of the Ganges, and peninsular
India down to the Palar river. After Asoka the Mauryas dwindled
away, and the last of them, Brihadratha, was treacherously
assassinated in 184 B.C. by his commander-in-chief, Pushya-
mitra Sunga, who founded the Sunga dynasty.
During the 2nd century B.C. north-western India was invaded
and partially conquered by Antiochus III. the Great, Demetrius
Sun i (Q-V-)> Eucratides (q.v.) and Menander (q.v.). With
Kaova, the last of these Pushyamitra Sunga waged successful
and war, driving him from the Gangetic valley and con-
o"nas«es ^n'n8 nml to his conquests in the west. Pushyamitra
established his own paramountcy over northern
India; but his reign is mainly memorable as marking the
beginning of the Brahmanical reaction against Buddhism, a
reaction which Pushyamitra is said to have forwarded not only
by the peaceful revival of Hindu rites but by a savage persecution
of the Buddhist monks. The Sunga dynasty, after lasting 112
years, was succeeded by the Kanva dynasty, which lasted 45
years, i.e. until about 27 B.C., when it was overthrown by an
unknown king of the Andhra dynasty of the Satavahanas, whose
power, originating in the deltas of the Godavari and Kistna
rivers, by A.D. 200 had spread across India to Nasik and gradu-
ally pushed its way northwards.
About A.D. loo there appeared in the west three foreign tribes
from the north, who conquered the native population and
established themselves in Malwa, Gujarat and Kathia-
Safraps. war- These tribes were the Sakas, a horde of pastoral
nomads from Central Asia (see SAKA), the Pahlavas,
whose name is supposed to be a corruption of " Parthiva "
(i.e. Parthians of Persia), and the Yavanas (lonians), i.e.
foreigners from the old Indo-Greek kingdoms of the north
west frontier, all of whom had been driven southwards by the
Yue-chi (q.v.). Their rulers, of whom the first to be mentioned is
Bhumaka, of the Kshaharata family, took the Persian title of
satrap (Kshatrapa). They were hated by the Hindus as bar-
barians who disregarded the caste system and despised the
holy law, and for centuries an intermittent struggle continued
between the satraps and the Andhras, with varying fortune.
Finally, however, about A.D. 236, the Andhra dynasty, after an
existence of some 460 years, came to an end, under circum-
stances of which no record remains, and their place in western
India was taken by the Kshaharata satraps, until the last of
them was overthrown by Chandragupta Vikramaditya at the
close of the 4th century.
Meanwhile, the Yue-chi had themselves crossed the Hindu
Kush to the invasion of north-western India (see YUE-CHI).
They were originally divided into five tribes, which were united
under the rule of Kadphises I.1 (? A.D. 45-85), the founder of
1 This is the conventional European form of the name. For other
forms see YuE-C»l.
the Kushan dynasty, who conquered the Kabul valley,
annihilating what remained there of the Greek dominion,
and swept away the petty Indo - Greek and Indo- The
Parthian principalities on the Indus. His successors Kushan
completed the conquest of north-western India from the Dynasty
delta of the Indus eastwards probably as far as Benares. ^^' 45'
One effect of the Yue-chi conquests was to open up
a channel of commerce with the Roman empire by the northern
trade routes; and the Indian embassy which, according to Dion.
Cassius (ix. 58), visited Trajan after his arrival at Rome in
A.D. 99, was probably 2 sent by Kadphises II. (Ooemokadphises)
to announce his conquest of north-western India. The most
celebrated of the Kushan kings, however, was Kanishka, whose
date is still a matter of controversy.3 From his capital at
Purushapura (Peshawar) he not only maintained his hold on
north-western India, but conquered Kashmir, attacked Patali-
putra, carried on a successful war with the Parthians, and led
an army across the appalling passes of the Taghdumbash Pamir
to the conquest of Kashgar, Yarkand and Khotan. It is not,
however, as a conqueror that Kanishka mainly lives on in
tradition, but as a Buddhist monarch, second in reputation only
to Asoka, and as the convener of the celebrated council of
Kashmir already mentioned.
The dynasties of the Andhras in the centre and south and of
the Kushans in the north came to an end almost at the same
time (c. A.D. 236-225 respectively). The history of India
during the remainder of the 3rd century is all but a blank, a
confused record of meaningless names and disconnected events;
and it is not until the opening of the 4th century that the veil
is lifted, with the rise to supreme power in Magadha (A.D. 320)
of Chandragupta I., the founder of the Gupta dynasty and
empire (see GUPTA), the most extensive since the days of
Asoka. He was succeeded by Chandragupta II. Vikramaditya,
whose court and administration are described by the Chinese
pilgrim Fa-hien, and who is supposed to have been the original
of the mythical king Vikramaditya, who figures largely in
Indian legends. The later Guptas were overwhelmed (c. 470)
by the White Huns, or Ephthalites (q.v.), who after breaking
the power of Persia and assailing the Kushan kingdom of Kabul,
had poured into India, conquered Sind, and established their
rule as far south as the Nerbudda. The dominion of the Huns
in India, as elsewhere, was a mere organization for brigandage
on an imperial scale and it did not long survive. It was shaken
(c. 528) by the defeat, at the hands of tributary princes goaded
to desperation, of Mihiragula, the most powerful and blood-
thirsty of its rulers — the " Attila of India." It collapsed with
the overthrow of the central power of the White Huns on the
Oxus (c. 565) by the Turks. Though, however, this stopped the
incursions of Asiatic hordes from the north-west, and India
was to remain almost exempt from foreign invasion for some
500 years, the Ephthalite conquest added new and permanent
elements to the Indian population. After the fall of the central
power, the scattered Hunnish settlers, like so many before them,
became rapidly Hinduized, and are probably the ancestors of
some of the most famous Rajput clans.4
The last native monarch, prior to the Mahommedan conquest,'
to establish and maintain paramount power in the north was
Harsha, or Harshavardhana (also known as Siladitya), for
whose reign (606-648) full and trustworthy materials exist in
the book of travels written by the Chinese pilgrim Hsiian Tsang
and the Harsha-charita (Deeds of Harsha) composed by Bana,
a Brahman who lived at the royal court. Harsha was the
younger son of the raja of Thanesar, and gained his first ex-
perience of campaigning while still a boy in the successful wars
2 V. A. Smith, Early Hist, of India, p. 238.
3 Smith, op. cit. pp. 239, &c., says that he probably succeeded
Kadphises II. about A.D. 120. Dr Fleet dates the beginning of
Kamshka's reign 58 B.C. (see INSCRIPTIONS: Indian). Mr Vincent
Smith (Imp. Gaz. of India, The Indian Empire, ed. 1908, vol. ii.
p. 289, note) dissents from this view, which is also held by Dr Otto
Franke of Berlin, stating that Dr Stein's discoveries in Chinese
Turkestan " strongly confirm the view " held by himself.
4 See V. A. Smith, op. cit. pp. 297, &c.
4-oo
INDIA
[MAHOMMEDAN PERIOD
waged by his father and brother against the Huns on the north-
western frontier. After the treacherous murder of his brother
by Sasanka, king of Central Bengal, he was confirmed as raja,
though still very young, by the nobles of Thanesar in 606,
though it would appear that his effective rule did not begin till
six years later.1 His first care was to revenge his brother's
death, and though it seems that Sasanka escaped destruction
for a while (he was still ruling in 619), Harsha's experience of
warfare encouraged him to make preparations for bringing all
India under his sway. By the end of five and a half years he
had actually conquered the north-western regions and also,
probably, part of Bengal. After this he reigned for 34! years,
devoting most of his energy to perfecting the administration of
his vast dominions, which he did with such wisdom and liberality
as to earn the commendation of Hsttan Tsang. In his campaigns
he was almost uniformly successful; but in his attempt to
conquer the Deccan he was repulsed (620) by the Chalukya
king, Pulikesin II., who successfully prevented him from forcing
the passes of the Nerbudda. Towards the end of his reign
Harsha's empire embraced the whole basin of the Ganges from
the Himalayas to the Nerbudda, including Nepal,2 besides
Malwa, Gujarat and Surashtra (Kathiawar) ; while even Assam
(Kamarupa) was tributary to him. The empire, however, died
with its founder. His benevolent despotism had healed the
wounds inflicted by the barbarian invaders, and given to his
subjects a false feeling of security. For he left no heir to
carry on his work; his death " loosened the bonds which
restrained the disruptive forces always ready to operate in
India, and allowed them to produce their normal result, a
medley of petty states, with ever-varying boundaries, and
engaged in unceasing internecine war." 3
In the Deccan the middle of the 6th century saw the rise of
the Chalukya dynasty, founded by Pulikesin I. about A.D. 550.
The most famous monarch of this line was Pulikesin
Deceaa. ^-> wno repelled the inroads of Harsha (A.D. 620),
and whose court was visited by Hsiian Tsang (A.D.
640); but in A.D. 642 he was defeated by the Pallavas of Con-
jeeveram, and though his son Vikramaditya I. restored the
fallen fortunes of his family, the Chalukyas were finally super-
seded by the Rashtrakutas about A.D. 750. The Kailas temple
at Ellora was built in the reign of Krishna I. (c, A.D. 760). The
last of the Rashtrakutas was overthrown in A.D. 973 by Taila II.,
a scion of the old Chalukya stock, who founded a second dynasty
known as the Chalukyas of Kalyani, which lasted like its pre-
decessor for about two centuries and a quarter. About A.D.
1000 the Chalukya kingdom suffered severely from the invasion
of the Chola king, Rajaraja the Great. Vikramanka, the hero
of Bilhana's historical poem, came to the throne in A.D. 1076
and reigned for fifty years. After his death the Chalukya power
declined. During the i2th and i3th centuries a family called
Hoysala attained considerable prominence in the Mysore country,
but they were overthrown by Malik Kafur in A.D. 1310. The
Yadava kings of Deogiri were descendants of feudatory nobles
of the Chalukya kingdom, but they, like the Hoysalas, were
overthrown by Malik Kafur, and Ramachandra, the last of the
line, was the last independent Hindu sovereign of the Deccan.
According to ancient tradition the kingdoms of the south
were three — Pandya, Chola and Chera. Pandya occupied the
The extremity of the peninsula, south of Pudukottai,
Kingdoms Chola extended northwards to Nellore, and Chera
of the lay to the west, including Malabar, and is identified
with the Kerala of Asoka. All three kingdoms were
occupied by races speaking Dravidian languages. The authentic
history of the south does not begin until the 9th and loth
centuries A.D., though the kingdoms are known to have existed
in Asoka's time.
The most ancient mention of the name Pandya occurs in the
4th century B.C., and in Asoka's time the kingdom was inde-
1 His era, however, is dated from 606.
8 So V. A. Smith, op. cit. p. 314, who on this point differs from
Sylvain Levi and Ettinghausen.
8 For Harsha's reign see Smith, op. cit. xiii. 311-331.
pendent, but no early records survive, the inscriptions of the
dynasty being of late date, while the long lists of kings in
Tamil literature are untrustworthy. During the early
centuries of the Christian era the Pandya and Chera ™e
kingdoms traded with Rome. The most ancient Kingdom.
Pandya king to whom a definite date can be ascribed is
Rajasimha (c. A.D. 920). Records begin towards the end of the
1 2th century, and the dynasty can be traced from then till the
middle of the i6th century. The most conspicuous event in its
history was the invasion by the Sinhalese armies of Parakrama-
bahu, king of Ceylon (c. A.D. 1175). The early records of the
Chera kingdom are still more meagre; and the authentic list
of the rajas of Travancore does not begin till A.D. 1335, and the
rajas of Cochin two centuries later.
The Chola kingdom, like the Pandya, is mentioned by the
Sanskrit grammarian Katyayana in the 4th century B.C., and
was recognized by Asoka as independent. The
dynastic history of the Cholas begins about A.D. 860, JjJ"*fa
and is known from then until its decline in the middle Kingdom.
of the I3th century. During those four centuries
their history is [intertwined with that of the Pallavas,
Chalukyas, Rashtrakutas and other minor dynasties. In A.D.
640 the Chola country was visited by Hsiian Tsang, but the
country at that time was desolate, and the dynasty of small
importance. In A.D. 985 Rajaraja the Great came to the throne,
and after a reign of twenty-seven years died the paramount
ruler of southern India. He conquered and annexed the island
of Ceylon, and was succeeded by four equally vigorous members
of the dynasty; but after the time of Vikrama (A.D. 1120) the
Chola power gradually declined, and was practically extinguished
by Malik Kafur.
The name of the Pallavas appears to be identical with that
of the Pahlavas, a foreign tribe, frequently mentioned in in-
scriptions and Sanskrit literature. It is supposed, The
therefore, that the Pallavas came from the north, Pailava
and gradually worked their way down to Malabar Co"~
and the Coromandel coast. When first heard of in federacy-
the 2nd century A.D. they are a ruling race. The Pallavas appear,
like the Mahrattas in later times, to have imposed tribute on
the territorial governments of the country. The first Pailava
king about whom anything substantial is known was Siva-
skanda-varman (c. A.D. 150), whose capital was Kanchi (Con-
jeeveram), his power extending into the Telugu country as far
as the Kistna river. Two centuries later Samudragupta con-
quered eleven kings of the south, of whom three were Pallavas.
It appears that in the 4th century three Pailava chiefs were
established at Kanchi, Vengi and Palakkada, the latter two
being subordinate to the first, and that Pailava rule extended
from the Godavari on the north to the Southern Vellaru river
on the south, and stretched across Mysore from sea to sea.
About A.D. 609 Pulikesin II., the Chalukya king, defeated
Mahendra-Varman, a Pailava chief, and drove him to take
refuge behind the walls of Kanchi. About A.D. 620 a prince
named Vishnuvardhana founded the Eastern Chalukya line in
the province of Vengi, which was taken from the Pallavas.
Hsiian Tsang visited Kanchi, the Pailava capital, in the year
A.D. 640; the country was, according to his account, 1000 m.
in circumference, and the capital was a large city 5 or 6 m. in
circumference. In A.D. 642 the Pallavas defeated in turn
Pulikesin II. The conflict became perennial, and when the
Rashtrakutas supplanted the Chalukyas in the middle of the
8th century, they took up the old quarrel with the Pallavas.
Towards the end of the loth century the Pailava power, which
had lasted for ten centuries, was destroyed by the Chola monarch,
Rajaraja the Great. Pailava nobles existed to the end of the
1 7th century, and the raja of Pudukottai claims descent from
the ancient royal family.
M 'ahommedan Period.
At the time that Buddhism was being crushed out of India
by the Brahmanic reaction, a new faith was being born in
Arabia, destined .to supply a youthful fanaticism which should
MAHOMMEDAN PERIOD]
INDIA
401
sweep the country from the Himalayas to Cape Comorin, and
from the western to the eastern sea. Mahomet, the founder of
Islam, died at Medina in A.D. 632, while the Chinese pilgrim
Hsttan Tsang was still on his travels. The first Mahommedan
invasion of India is placed in 664, only thirty-two years after
the death of the prophet. The Punjab is said to have been
ravaged on this occasion with no permanent results. The first
Mahommedan conquest was the outlying province of Sind.
In 711, or seventy-nine years after the death of Mahomet, an
Arab army under Mahommed b. Kasim invaded and conquered
the Hindus of Sind in the name of Walid I., caliph of Damascus,
of the Omayyad line. In the same year Roderic, the last of the
Goths, fell before the victorious Saracens in Spain. But in
India the bravery of the Rajputs and the devotion of the Brah-
mans seem to have afforded a stronger national bulwark than
existed in western Europe. In 750 the Hindus rose in rebellion
and drove out the Mussulman tyrant, and the land had rest for
one hundred and fifty years.
The next Mahommedan invasion of India is associated with
the name of Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni. Mahmud was the
eldest son of Sabuktagin, surnamed Nasr-ud-din, in
Mahmud origin a Turkish slave, who had established his rule
Ghazni. over the greater part of modern Afghanistan and
Khorassan, with Ghazni as his capital. In 977
Sabuktagin is said to have defeated Jaipal, the Hindu raja of
Lahore, and to have rendered the Punjab tributary. But his
son Mahmud was the first of the great Mussulman conquerors
whose names still ring through Asia. Mahmud succeeded to
the throne in 997. During his reign of thirty-three years he
extended the limits of his father's kingdom from Persia on the
east to the Ganges on the west; and it is related that he led
his armies into the plains of India no fewer than seventeen times.
In 1001 he defeated Raja Jaipal a second time, and took him
prisoner. But Anandpal, son of Jaipal, raised again the standard
of national independence, and gathered an army of Rajput allies
from the farthest corners of Hindustan. The decisive battle
was fought in the valley of Peshawar. Mahmud won the day
by the aid of his Turkish horsemen, and thenceforth the Punjab
has been a Mahommedan province, except during the brief period
of Sikh supremacy. The most famous of Mahmud's invasions
of India was that undertaken in 1025-1026 against Gujarat.
The goal of this expedition was the temple dedicated to Siva
at Somnath, around which so many legends have gathered. It
is reported that Mahmud marched through Ajmere to avoid
the desert of Sind; that he found the Hindus gathered on the
neck of the peninsula of Somnath in defence of their holy city;
that the battle lasted for two days; that in the end the Rajput
warriors fled to their boats, while the Brahman priests retired
into the inmost shrine; that Mahmud, introduced into this
shrine, rejected all entreaties by the Brahmans to spare their
idol, and all offers of ransom; that he smote the image with
his club, and forthwith a fountain of precious stones gushed out.
Until the British invasion of Afghanistan in 1839, the club of
Mahmud and the wood gates of Somnath were preserved at the
tomb of the great conqueror near Ghazni. The club has now
disappeared, and the gates brought back to India by Lord
Ellenborough are recognized to be a clumsy forgery. To
Mahommedans Mahmud is known, not only as a champion of
the faith, but as a munificent patron of literature. The dynasty
that he founded was not long-lived. Fourteen of his descendants
occupied his throne within little more than a century, but none
of them achieved greatness. A blood-feud arose between them
and a line of Afghan princes who had established themselves
among the mountains of Ghor. In 1155 Bahram, the last of the
Ghaznivide Turks, was overthrown by Ala-ud-din of Ghor, and
the wealthy and populous city of Ghazni was razed to the ground.
But even the Ghoride conqueror spared the tomb of Mahmud.
Khusru, the son of Bahram, fled to Lahore, and there estab-
lished the first Mahommedan dynasty within India. It speedily
ended with his son, also called Khusru, whom Mahommed
Ghori, the relentless enemy of the Ghaznivide house, carried
away into captivity in 1186.
The Afghans of Ghor thus rose to power on the downfall
of the Turks of Ghazni. The founder of the family is said to
have been Izzud-din al Husain, whose son Ala-ud-din destroyed
Ghazni, as already mentioned. Ala-ud-din had two nephews,
Ghiyas-ud-din and Muiz-ud-din, the latter of whom, also called
Shahab-ud-din by Mussulman chroniclers, and generally known
in history as Mahommed Ghori, is the second of the great Mahom-
medan conquerors of India. In 1175 he took Multan and Uchch;
in 1 1 86 Lahore fell into his hands; in 1191 he was repulsed
before Delhi, but soon afterwards he redeemed this disaster.
Hindustan proper was at that period divided between the two
Rajput kingdoms of Kanauj and Delhi. Mahommed Ghori
achieved his object by playing off the rival kings against each
other. By 1193 he had extended his conquests as far east as
Benares, and the defeated Rajputs migrated in a body to the
hills and deserts now known as Rajputana. In 1199 one of his
lieutenants, named Bakhtiyar, advanced into Bengal, and
expelled by an audacious stratagem the last Hindu raja of
Nadia. The entire northern plain, from the Indus to the
Brahmaputra, thus lay under the Mahommedan yoke. But
Mahommed Ghori never settled permanently in India. His
favourite residence is said to have been the old capital of Ghazni,
while he governed his Indian conquests through the agency of a
favourite slave, Kutb-ud-din. Mahommed Ghori died in 1206,
being assassinated by some Ghakkar tribesmen while sleeping in
his tent by the bank of the Indus; on his death both Ghor
and Ghazni drop out of history, and Delhi first appears as the
Mahommedan capital of India.
On the death of Mahommed Ghori, Kutb-ud.-din at once
laid aside the title of viceroy, and proclaimed himself sultan
of Delhi. He was the founder of what is known as
the slave dynasty, which lasted for nearly a century Ive
(1206-1288). The name of Kutb is preserved in the Dynasty.
minar, or pillar of victory, which still stands amid
the ruins of ancient Delhi, towering high above all later struc-
tures. Kutb himself is said to have been successful as a general
and an administrator, but none of his successors has left a mark
in history.
In 1294 Ala-ud-din Khilji, the third of the great Mahommedan
conquerors of India, raised himself to the throne of Delhi by
the treacherous assassination of his uncle Feroz II.
who had himself supplanted the last of the slave
dynasty. Ala-ud-din had already won military re-
nown by his expeditions into the yet unsubdued south. He
had plundered the temples at Bhilsa in central India, which
are admired to the present day as the most interesting examples
of Buddhist architecture in the country. At the head of a small
ban of horsemen, he had ridden as far south as Deogiri (Daula-
tabad) in the Deccan (q.v.), and plundered the Yadava capital.
When once established as sultan, he planned more extensive
schemes of conquest. One army was sent to Gujarat under
Alaf Khan, who conquered and expelled the last Rajput king
of Anhalwar or Patan. Another army, led by the sultan in
person, marched into the heart of Rajputana, and stormed the
rock-fortress of Chitor, where the Rajputs had taken refuge
with their women and children. A third army, commanded
by Malik Kafur, a Hindu renegade and favourite of Ala-ud-din,
penetrated to the extreme south of the peninsula, scattering
the unwarlike Dravidian races, and stripping every Hindu
temple of its accumulations of gold and jewels. To this day
the name of Malik Kafur is remembered in the remote district
of Madura, in association with irresistible fate and every form
of sacrilege.
Ala-ud-din died in 1316, having subjected to Islam the Deccan
and Gujarat. Three successors followed him upon the throne, but
their united reigns extended over only five years. In
1321 a successful revolt was headed by Ghiyas-ud-din ^^°"'
Tughlak, governor of the Punjab, who is said to have Tughlak.
been of Turkish origin. The Tughlak dynasty lasted for
about seventy years, until it was swept away by the invasion of
Timur, the fourth Mahommedan conqueror of India, in 1398.
Tughlak's son and successor, Mahommed b. Tughlak, who reigned
Ala-ud-
ain.
402
INDIA
[MAHOMMEDAN PERIOD
from 1325 to 1351, is described by Elphinstone as " one of the
most accomplished princes and one of the most furious tyrants
that ever adorned or disgraced human nature." He wasted the
treasure accumulated by Ala-ud-din in purchasing the retire-
ment of the Mogul hordes, who had already made their appearance
in the Punjab. When the internal circulation failed, he issued
a forced currency of copper, which is said to have deranged the
whole commerce of the country. At one time he raised an army
for the invasion of Persia. At another he actually despatched
an expedition against China, which perished miserably in the
Himalayan passes. When Hindustan was thus suffering from
his misgovernment, he conceived the project of transferring the
seat of empire to the Deccan, and compelled the inhabitants
of Delhi to remove a'distance of 700 m. to Deogiri or Daulatabad.
And yet during the reign of this sultan both the Tughlak dynasty
and the city of Delhi are said to have attained their utmost
growth. Mahommed was succeeded by his cousin Feroz, who
likewise was not content without a new capital, which he placed
a few miles north of Delhi, and called after his own name.
He was a kind-hearted and popular, but weak, ruler. Mean-
while the remote provinces of the empire began to throw off
their allegiance to the sultans of Delhi. The independence
of the Afghan kings of Bengal is generally dated from 1336,
when Mahommed Tughlak was yet on the throne. The com-
mencement of the reign of Ala-ud-din, the founder of the Bah-
mani dynasty in the Deccan, is assigned to 1347. Zafar Khan,
the first of the Ahmedabad kings, acted as an independent
ruler from the time of his first appointment as governor of
Gujarat in 1391. These and other revolts prepared the way
for the fourth great invasion of India under Timur (Tamerlane).
Accordingly, when Timur invaded India in 1398, he en-
countered but little organized resistance. Mahmud, the last of
the Tughlak dynasty, being defeated in a battle out-
to^ston. side the walls of Delhi> fled into Gujarat. The city was
sacked and the inhabitants massacred by the victorious
Moguls. But the invasion of Timur left no permanent impress
upon the history of India, except in so far as its memory fired
the imagination of Baber, the founder of the Mogul dynasty.
The details of the fighting and of the atrocities may be found
related in cold blood by Timur himself in the Malfuzat-i- Timuri,
which has been translated in Elliot's History of India as told
by its own Historians, vol. iii. Timur marched back to Samarkand
as he had come, by way of Kabul, and Mahmud Tughlak ven-
tured to return to his desolate capital. He was succeeded by
what is known as the Sayyid dynasty, which held Delhi and a
few miles of surrounding country for about forty years. The
Sayyids were in their turn expelled by Bahlol, an Afghan of the
Lodi tribe, whose successors removed the seat of government
to Agra, which thus for the first time became the imperial city.
In 1526 Baber, the fifth in descent from Timur, and also the
fifth Mahommedan conqueror, invaded India at the instigation
of the governor of the Punjab, won the victory of Panipat over
Ibrahim, the last of the Lodi dynasty, and founded the Mogul
empire, which lasted, at least in name, until 1857.
In southern India at this time authentic history begins with
the Hindu empire of Vijayanagar, which exercised an ill-defined
sovereignty over the entire south from the I4th to
the 1 6th century. The empire of Vijayanagar repre-
sents the last stand made by the national faith in
India against conquering Islam. For at least two centuries
its sway over the south was undisputed, and its rajas waged
wars and concluded treaties of peace with the sultans of the
Deccan on equal terms.
The earliest of the Mahommedan dynasties in the Deccan
was that founded by Ala-ud-din in 1347, which has received
Bahmani ^ name °f trie Bahmani dynasty. The capital
Dynasty. was first at Gulbarga, and was afterwards removed
to Bidar, both which places still possess magnificent
palaces and mosques in ruins. Towards the close of the
1 4th century the Bahmani empire fell to pieces, and five
independent kingdoms divided the Deccan among them. These
were — (i) the Adil Shahi dynasty, with its capital at Bijapur,
Vijaya-
nagar.
founded in 1490 by a Turk; (2) the Kutb Shahi dynasty, with
its capital at Golconda, founded in 1512 by a Turkoman ad-
venturer; (3) the Nizam Shahi dynasty, with its capital at
Ahmednagar, founded in 1490 by a Brahman renegade; (4) the
Imad Shahi dynasty of Berar, with its capital at Ellichpur,
founded in 1484 also by a Hindu from Vijayanagar; (5) the
Barid Shahi dynasty, with its capital at Bidar, founded about
1492 by one who is variously described as a Turk and a Georgian
slave. It is, of course, impossible here to trace in detail the
history of these several dynasties. In 1 565 they combined against
the Hindu raja of Vijayanagar, who was defeated and slain
in the decisive battle of Talikota. But, though the city was
sacked and the supremacy of Vijayanagar for ever destroyed,
the Mahommedan victors did not themselves advance far into
the south. The Naiks or feudatories of Vijayanagar everywhere
asserted their independence. From them are descended the
well-known Palegars of the south, and also the present raja of
Mysore. One of the blood-royal of Vijayanagar fled to Chandra-
giri, and founded a line which exercised a prerogative of its
former sovereignty by granting the site of Madras to the English
in 1639. Another scion claiming the same high descent lingers
to the present day near the ruins of Vijayanagar, and is known
as the raja of Anagundi, a feudatory of the nizam of Hyderabad.
Despite frequent internal strife, the sultans of the Deccan re-
tained their independence until conquered by the Mogul emperor
Aurangzeb in the latter half of the i7th century. To complete
this sketch of India at the time of Baber's invasion it remains
to say that an independent Mahommedan dynasty reigned at
Ahmedabad in Gujarat for nearly two centuries (from 1391
to 1573), until conquered by Akbar; and that Bengal was
similarly independent, under a line of Afghan kings, with Gaur
for their capital, from 1336 to 1573.
When, therefore, Baber invaded India in 1525, the greater
part of the country was Mahommedan, but it did not recognize
the authority of the Afghan sultan of the Lodi dynasty,
who resided at Agra, and also ruled the historical
capital of Delhi. After having won the battle of
Panipat (1526) Baber was no more acknowledged as emperor
of India than his ancestor Timur had been. Baber, how-
ever, unlike Timur, had resolved to settle in the plains of
Hindustan, and carve out for himself a new empire with the help
of his Mogul followers. His first task was to repel an attack
by the Rajputs of Chitor, who seem to have attempted to re-
establish at this time a Hindu empire. The battle was fought
at Sikri near Agra, and is memorable for the vow made by the
easy-living Baber that he would never again touch wine. Baber
was again victorious, but died shortly afterwards in 1530. He
was succeeded by his son Humayun, who is chiefly known as
being the father of Akbar. In Humayun's reign the subject
Afghans rose in revolt under Sher Shah, a native of Bengal,
who for a short time established his authority over all Hindustan.
Humayun was driven as an exile into Persia; and, while he was
flying through the desert of Sind, his son Akbar was born to him
in the petty fortress of Umarkot. But Sher Shah was killed
at the storming of the rock-fortress of Kalinjar, and Humayun,
after many vicissitudes, succeeded in re-establishing his authority
at Lahore and Delhi.
Humayun died by an accident in 1556, leaving but a circum-
scribed kingdom, surrounded on every side by active foes,
to his son Akbar, then a boy of only fourteen years. Akbar
Akbar the Great, the real founder of the Mogul empire
as it existed for two centuries, was the contemporary of Queen
Elizabeth of England. He was born in 1542, and his reign lasted
from 1556 to 1605. When his father died he was absent in the
Punjab, fighting the revolted Afghans, under the guardianship
of Bairam Khan, a native of Badakshan, whose military skill
largely contributed to recover the throne for the Mogul line.
For the first seven years of his reign Akbar was perpetually
engaged in warfare. His first task was to establish his authority
in the Punjab, and in the country around Delhi and Agra. In
1567 he stormed the Rajput stronghold of Chitor, and conquered
Ajmere. In 1570 he obtained possession of Oudh and Gwalior,
MAHOMMEDAN PERIOD]
INDIA
403
In 1572 he marched in person into Gujarat, defeated the last
of the independent sultans of Ahmedabad, and formed the pro-
vince into a Mogul viceroyalty or subah. In the same year his
generals drove out the Afghans from Bengal, and reunited
the lower valley of the Ganges to Hindustan. Akbar was then
the undisputed ruler of a larger portion of India than had ever
before acknowledged the sway of one man. But he continued
to extend his conquests throughout his lifetime. In 1578 Orissa
was annexed to Bengal by his Hindu general Todar Mall, who
forthwith organized a revenue survey of the whole province.
Kabul submitted in 1581, Kashmir in 1587, Sind in 1592, and
Kandahar in 1594. At last he turned his arms against the
Mahommedan kings of the Deccan, and wrested from them Berar;
but the permanent conquest of the south was reserved for
Aurangzeb.
If the history of Akbar were confined to this long list of
conquests, his name would on their account alone find a high
place among those which mankind delights to remember. But
it is as a civil administrator that his reputation is cherished in
India to the present day. With regard to the land revenue,
the essence of his procedure was to fix the amount which the
cultivators should pay at one-third of the gross produce, leaving
it to their option to pay in money or in kind. The total land
revenue received by Akbar amounted to about 165 millions
sterling. Comparing the area of his empire with the correspond-
ing area now under the British, it has been calculated that
Akbar, three hundred years ago, obtained 153 millions where
they obtain only 135 millions — an amount representing not
more than one-half the purchasing power of Akbar's 155 millions.
The distinction between khalsa land, or the imperial demesne,
and jagir lands, granted revenue free or at quit rent in reward
for services, also dates from the time of Akbar. As regards his
military system, Akbar invented a sort of feudal organization,
by which every tributary raja took his place by the side of his
own Mogul nobles. In theory it was an aristocracy based only
upon military command; but practically it accomplished the
object at which it aimed by incorporating the hereditary chief-
ships of Rajputana among the mushroom creations of a Mahom-
medan despotism. Mussulmans and Hindus were alike known
only as mansabdars or commanders of so many horse, the highest
title being that of amir, of which the plural is umrah or omrah.
The third and last of Akbar's characteristic measures were those
connected with religious innovation, about which it is difficult
to speak with precision. The necessity of conciliating the proud
warriors of Rajputana had taught him toleration from his
earliest days. His favourite wife was a Rajput princess, and
another wife is said to have been a Christian. Out of four
hundred and fifteen of his mansabdars whose names are recorded,
as many as fifty-one were Hindus. Starting from the broad
ground of general toleration, Akbar was gradually led on by the
stimulus of cosmopolitan discussion to question the truth of his
inherited faith. The counsels of his friend Abul Fazl, coinciding
with that sense of superhuman omnipotence which is bred of
despotic power, led him at last to promulgate a new state
religion, based upon natural theology, and comprising the best
practices of all known creeds. In this strange faith Akbar
himself was the prophet, or rather the head of the church.
Every morning he worshipped the sun in public, as being the
representative of the divine soul that animates the universe,
while he was himself worshipped by the ignorant multitude.
Akbar died in 1605, in his sixty-third year. He lies buried
beneath a plain slab in the magnificent mausoleum which he
had reared at Sikandra, near his capital of Agra. As his name
is still cherished in India, so his tomb is still honoured, being
covered by a cloth presented by Lord Northbrook when viceroy
in 1873.
The reign of Jahangir, his son, extended from 1605 to 1627. It
is chiefly remarkable for the influence exercised over the emperor
Jahansir ^v n's favourite wife, surnamed Nur Jahan. The
currency was struck in her name, and in her hands
centred all the intrigues that made up the work of administration.
She lies buried by the side of her husband at Lahore, whither the
seat of government had been moved by Jahangir, just as Akbar
had previously transferred it from Delhi to Agra. It was in the
reign of Jahangir that the English first established themselves
atSurat,and also sent their first embassy to the Mogul court.
Jahangir was succeeded by his son Shah Jahan, who had
rebelled against his father, as Jahangir had rebelled against
Akbar. Shah Jahan's reign is generally regarded as
the period when the Mogul empire attained its greatest jabaa
magnificence, though not its greatest extent of
territory. He founded the existing city of Delhi, which is still
known to its Mahommedan inhabitants as Shahjahanabad. At
Delhi also he erected the celebrated peacock throne; but his
favourite place of residence was Agra, where his name will
ever be associated with the marvel of Indian architecture, the
Taj Mahal. That most chaste and most ornamental of buildings
was erected by Shah Jahan as the mausoleum of his favourite
wife Mumtaz Mahal, and he himself lies by her side (see AGRA).
Shah Jahan had four sons, whose fratricidal wars for the suc-
cession during their father's lifetime it would be tedious to dwell
upon. Suffice it to say that Aurangzeb, by mingled treachery
and violence, supplanted or overthrew his brothers and pro-
claimed himself emperor in 1658, while Shah Jahan was yet
alive.
Aurangzeb's long reign, from 1658 to 1707, may be regarded
as representing both the culminating point of Mogul power and
the beginning of its decay. Unattractive as his
character was, it contained at least some elements
of greatness. None of his successors on the throne
was any thing higher than a debauchee or a puppet. He was
the first to conquer the independent sultans of the Deccan,
and to extend his authority to the extreme south. But even
during his lifetime two new Hindu nationalities were being
formed in the Mahrattas and the Sikhs; while immediately
after his death the nawabs of the Deccan, of Oudh, and of
Bengal raised themselves to practical independence. Aurangzeb
had indeed enlarged the empire, but he had not strengthened
its foundations. During the reign of his father Shah Jahan he
had been viceroy of the Deccan or rather of the northern portion
only, which had been annexed to the Mogul empire since the
reign of Akbar. His early ambition was to conquer the Mahom-
medan kings of Bijapur and Golconda, who, since the down-
fall of Vijayanagar, had been practically supreme over the south.
This object was not accomplished without many tedious
campaigns, in which Sivaji, the founder of the Mahratta con-
federacy, first comes upon the scene. In name Sivaji
was a feudatory of the house of Bijapur, on whose
behalf he held the rock-forts of his native Ghats; but power.
in fact he found his opportunity in playing off the
Mahommedan powers against one another, and in rivalling
Aurangzeb himself in the art of treachery. In 1680 Sivaji died,
and his son and successor, Sambhaji, was betrayed to Aurangzeb
and put to death. The rising Mahratta power was thus for a
time checked, and the Mogul armies were set free to operate in
the eastern Deccan. In 1686 the city of Bijapur was taken by
Aurangzeb in person, and in the following year Golconda also
fell. No independent power then remained in the south, though
the numerous local chieftains, known as palegars and naiks,
never formally submitted to the Mogul empire. During the
early years of his reign Aurangzeb had fixed his capital at Delhi,
while he kept his dethroned father, Shah Jahan, in close con-
finement at Agra. In 1682 he set out with his army on his
victorious march into the Deccan, and from that time until
his death in 1707 he never again returned to Delhi. In this
camp life Aurangzeb may be taken as representative of one
aspect of the Mogul rule, which has been picturesquely de-
scribed by European travellers of that day. They agree in
depicting the emperor as a peripatetic sovereign, and the empire
as held together by its military highways no less than by the
strength of its armies. The Grand Trunk road running across
the north of the peninsula, is generally attributed to the Afghan
usurper, Sher Shah. The other roads branching out south-
ward from Agra, to Surat and Burhanpur and Golconda, were
404
INDIA
[EARLY EUROPEAN SETTLEMENTS
undoubtedly the work of Mogul times. Each of these roads was
laid out with avenues of trees, with wells of water, and with
frequent sardis or rest-houses. Constant communication be-
tween the capital and remote cities was maintained by a system
of foot-runners, whose aggregate speed is said to have surpassed
that of a horse. Commerce was conducted by means of a caste
of bullock-drivers, whose occupation in India is hardly yet
extinct.
On the death of Aurangzeb in 1707, the decline of the Mogul
empire set in with extraordinary rapidity. Ten emperors after
Aurangzeb are enumerated in the chronicles, but
Decline ot none of them has left any mark on history. His son
Empire and successor was Bahadur Shah, who reigned only
five years. Then followed in order three sons of
Bahadur Shah, whose united reigns occupy only five years more.
In 1739 Nadir Shah of Persia, the sixth and last of the great
Mahommedan conquerors of India, swept like a whirlwind over
Hindustan, and sacked the imperial city of Delhi. Thenceforth
the Great Mogul became a mere name, though the hereditary
succession continued unbroken down to the time of the Mutiny.
Real power had passed into the hands of Mahommedan courtiers
and Mahratta generals, both of whom were then carving for
themselves kingdoms out of the dismembered empire, until at
last British authority placed itself supreme over all. From the
time of Aurangzeb no Mussulman, however powerful, dared to
assume the title of sultan or emperor, with the single exception
of Tippoo's brief paroxysm of madness. The name of naivdb,
corrupted by Europeans into " nabob," appears to be an in-
vention of the Moguls to express delegated authority, and as
such it is the highest title conferred upon Mahommedans at the
present day, as maharaja is the highest title conferred upon
Hindus. At first nawabs were only found in important cities,
such as Surat and Dacca, with the special function of administer-
ing civil justice; criminal justice was in the hands of the kotwdl.
The corresponding officials at that time in a large tract of
country were the subahdar and the faujdar. But the title of
subahdar, or viceroy, gradually dropped into desuetude, as the
paramount power was shaken off, and nawab became a territorial
title with some distinguishing adjunct. During the troubled
period of intrigue and assassination that followed on the death
of Aurangzeb, two Mahommedan foreigners rose to high position
as courtiers and generals, and succeeded in transmitting their
power to their sons. The one was Chin Kulich Khan, also called
Asaf Jah, and still more commonly Nizam-ul-Mulk, who was of
Turkoman origin, and belonged to the Sunni sect. His inde-
pendence at Hyderabad in the Deccan dates from 1712. The
other was Saadat Ah' Khan, a Persian, and therefore a Shiah,
who was appointed subahdar or nawab of Oudh about 1720.
Thenceforth these two important provinces paid no more
tribute to Delhi, though their hereditary rulers continued to
seek formal recognition from the emperor on their succession.
The Mahrattas were in possession of the entire west and great
part of the centre of the peninsula; while the rich and unwarlike
province of Bengal, though governed by an hereditary line of
nawabs founded by Murshid Kuli Khan in 1704, still continued
to pour its wealth into the imperial treasury. The central
authority never recovered from the invasion of Nadir Shah in
1739, who carried off plunder variously estimated at from 8 to
30 millions sterling. The Mahrattas closed round Delhi from
the south, and the Afghans from the west. The victory of
Panipat, won by Ahmad Shah Durani over the united Mahratta
confederacy in 1761, gave the Mahommedans one more chance of
rule. But Ahmad Shah had no ambition to found a dynasty of
his own, nor were the British in Bengal yet ready for territorial
conquest.
Shah Alam, the lineal heir of the Mogul line, was thus per-
mitted to ascend the throne of Delhi, where he lived during the
great part of a long life as a puppet in the hands of
Mogul Mahadji Sindhia. He was succeeded by Akbar II.,
line. who lived similarly under the shadow of British
protection. Last of all came Bahadur Shah, who
atoned for his association with the mutineers in 1857 by banish-
ment to Burma. Thus ended the Mogul line, after a history
which covers three hundred and thirty years. Mahommedan
rule remodelled the revenue system, and has left behind fifty
millions of Mussulmans in British India.
Early European Settlements.
Mahommedan invaders have always entered India from the
north-west. Her new conquerors approached from the sea
and from the south. From the time of Alexander to that of
Vasco da Gama, Europe had enjoyed little direct intercourse
with the East. An occasional traveller brought back stories of
powerful kingdoms and of untold wealth; but the passage by
sea was unthought of, and by land many wide deserts and
warlike tribes lay between. Commerce, indeed, never ceased
entirely, being carried on chiefly by the Italian cities on the
Mediterranean, which traded to the ports of the Levant. But
to the Europeans of the i5th century India was practically an
unknown land, which powerfully attracted the imagination of
spirits stimulated by the Renaissance and ardent for discovery.
In 1492 Christopher Columbus set sail under the Spanish flag
to seek India beyond the Atlantic, bearing with him a letter to
the great khan of Tartary. The expedition under Vasco da
Gama started from Lisbon five years later, and, doubling the
Cape of Good Hope, cast anchor off the city of Calicut on the
2oth of May 1498, after a prolonged voyage of nearly eleven
months. From the first da Gama encountered hostility from the
" Moors," or rather Arabs, who monopolized the sea-borne
trade; but he seems to have found favour with the zamorin,
or Hindu raja of Malabar. It may be worth while to recall the
contemporary condition of India at that epoch. An Afghan of
the Lodi dynasty was on the throne of Delhi, and another
Afghan king was ruling over Bengal. Ahmedabad in Gujarat,
Gulbarga, Bijapur, Ahmednagar and Ellichpur in the Deccan
were each the capital of an independent Mahommedan kingdom ;
while the Hindu raja of Vijayanagar was recognized as para-
mount over the entire south. Neither Mogul nor Mahratta had
yet appeared above the political horizon.
After staying nearly six months on the Malabar coast, da
Gama returned to Europe by the same route as he had come,
bearing with him the following letter from the zamorin Portu-
to the king of Portugal: " Vasco da Gama, a noble- guese
man of your household, has visited my kingdom and expert-
has given me great pleasure. In my kingdom there is
abundance of cinnamon, cloves, ginger, pepper, and precious
stones. What I seek from thy country is gold, silver, coral,
and scarlet." The arrival of da Gama at Lisbon was celebrated
with national rejoicings scarcely less enthusiastic than had
greeted the return of Columbus. If the West Indies belonged
to Spain by priority of discovery, Portugal might claim the East
Indies by the same right. Territorial ambition combined with
the spirit of proselytism and with the greed of commerce to fill
all Portuguese minds with the dream of a mighty Oriental
empire. The early Portuguese discoverers were not traders or
private adventurers, but admirals with a royal commission to
conquer territory and promote the spread of Christianity. A
second expedition, consisting of thirteen ships and twelve
hundred soldiers, under the command of Cabral, was despatched
in 1500. " The sum of his instructions was to begin with preach-
ing, and, if that failed, to proceed to the sharp determination of
the sword." On his outward voyage Cabral was driven by stress
of weather to the coast of Brazil. Ultimately he reached Calicut,
and established factories both there and at Cochin, in the face
of active hostility from the natives. In 1 502 the king of Portugal
obtained from Pope Alexander VI. a bull constituting him
" lord of the navigation, conquest, and trade of Ethiopia,
Arabia, Persia, and India." In that year Vasco da Gama
sailed again to the East, with a fleet numbering twenty vessels.
He formed an alliance with the rajas of Cochin and Cannanore
against the zamorin of Calicut, and bombarded the latter in his
palace. In 1503 the great Alfonso d'Albuquerque is first heard
of, as in command of one of three expeditions from Portugal.
In 1305 a large fleet of twenty sail and fifteen hundred men was
EARLY EUROPEAN SETTLEMENTS]
INDIA
405
sent under Francisco de Almeida, the first Portuguese viceroy of
India. In 1 509 Albuquerque succeeded as governor, and widely
extended the area of Portuguese influence. Having failed in an
attack upon Calicut, he seized Goa, which from 1530 became
the capital of Portuguese India. Then, sailing round Ceylon, he
captured Malacca, the key of the navigation of the Indian
archipelago, and opened a trade with Siam and the Spice Islands
(Moluccas). Lastly, he sailed back westwards, and, after pene-
trating into the Red Sea, and building a fortress at Ormuz in
the Persian Gulf, returned to Goa only to die in 1515. In 1524
Vasco da Gama came out to the East for the third time, and he
too died at Cochin.
For exactly a century, from 1500 to 1600, the Portuguese
enjoyed a monopoly of Oriental trade.
Their three objects were conquest, commerce and conversion,
and for all three their position on the Malabar coast strip was
Decline remarkably well adapted. Shut off by the line of
oTthT the Ghats from Mahommedan India of that day, they
Porto- were able to dominate the petty chiefs of Malabar,
guese. wno welcomed maritime commerce, and allowed
religious freedom in their domains. Their trade relations
with Vijayanagar were very close, when that great empire
was at the height of its power; but in 1564 Vijayanagar went
down before the five Mahommedan states of southern India on
the field of Talikota, and with its fall began the decline of
Portugal. During the whole of the i6th century the Portuguese
disputed with the Mahommedans the supremacy of the Indian
seas, and the antagonism between Christianity and Islam became
gradually more intense, until the Portuguese power assumed
a purely religious aspect. In 1560 the Inquisition with all its
horrors was introduced into Goa. But Portugal was too small
a country to keep up the struggle for long. The drain of men
told upon her vitality, their quality deteriorated, and their
bigotry and intolerance raised even a fiercer opposition to them
within the bounds of India; and as the Dutch and British came
into prominence the Portuguese gradually faded away. In 1603
and 1639 the Dutch blockaded Goa; during the first half of the
1 7th century they routed the Portuguese everywhere in India,
Ceylon and Java. Similarly in 1611 the British defeated them
off Cambay and in 1615 won a great victory at Swally. After
the middle of the i7th century the Asiatic trade of Portugal
practically disappeared, and now only Goa, Daman and Diu
are left to her as relics of her former greatness.
The Dutch were the first European nation to break through
the Portuguese monopoly. During the i6th century Bruges,
Antwerp and Amsterdam became the great emporia
Dutch whence Indian produce, imported by the Portuguese,
was distributed to Germany and even to England.
At first the Dutch, following in the track of the English,
attempted to find their way to India by sailing round the north
coasts of Europe and Asia. William Barents is honourably
known as the leader of three of these arctic expeditions, in the
last of which he perished. The first Dutchman to double the
Cape of Good Hope was Cornelius Houtman, who reached
Sumatra and Bantam in 1596. Forthwith private companies
for trade with the East were formed in many parts of the United
Provinces, but in 1602 they were all amalgamated by the states-
general into " The United East India Company of the Nether-
lands." Within a few years the Dutch had established factories
on the continent of India, in Ceylon, in Sumatra, on the Persian
Gulf and on the Red Sea, besides having obtained exclusive
possession of the Moluccas. In 1618 they laid the foundation
of the city of Batavia in Java, to be the seat of the supreme
government of the Dutch possessions in the East Indies. At
about the same time they discovered the coast of Australia,
and in North America founded the city of New Amsterdam
or Manhattan, now New York. During the i7th century the
Dutch maritime power was the first in the world. The massacre
of Amboyna in 1623 led the English East India Company to
retire from the Eastern seas to the continent of India, and thus,
though indirectly, contributed to the foundation of the British
Indian empire. The long naval wars and bloody battles between
settle-
meats.
British
"
the English and the Dutch within the narrow seas were not
terminated until William of Orange united the two crowns
in 1689. In the far East the Dutch ruled without a rival, and
gradually expelled the Portuguese from almost all their territorial
possessions. In '1635 they occupied Formosa; in 1641 they
took Malacca, a blow from which the Portuguese never recovered ;
in 1652 they founded a colony at the Cape of Good Hope, as a
half-way station to the East; in 1658 they captured Jaffna,
the last stronghold of the Portuguese in Ceylon; by 1664 they
had wrested from the Portuguese all their earlier settlements
on the pepper-bearing coast of Malabar.
The rapid and signal downfall of the Dutch colonial empire
is to be explained by its short-sighted commercial policy. It was
deliberately based upon a monopoly of the trade
in spices, and remained from first to last destitute Decline
of the true imperial spirit. Like the Phoenicians of Dutch.
old, the Dutch stopped short of no acts of cruelty
towards their rivals in commerce; but, unlike the Phoenicians,
they failed to introduce a respect for their own higher civilization
among the natives with whom they came in contact. The
knell of Dutch supremacy was sounded by Clive, when in 1758
he attacked the Dutch at Chinsura both by land and water,
and forced them to an ignominious capitulation. In the great
French war from 1781 to 1811 England wrested from Holland
every one of her colonies, though Java was restored in 1816
and Sumatra in exchange for Malacca in 1824. At the present
time the Dutch flag flies nowhere on the mainland of India,
though the quaint houses and regular canals at Chinsura,
Negapatam, Jaffna, and many petty ports on the Coromandel
and Malabar coasts remind the traveller of familiar scenes in
the Netherlands.
The earliest English attempts to reach the East were the
expeditions under John Cabot in 1497 and 1498. Their objective
was not so much India as Japan (Cipangu), of which
they only knew vaguely as a land of spices and silks,
and which they hoped to reach by sailing westward.
They failed, but discovered Newfoundland, and sailed
along the coast of America from Labrador to Virginia. In 1553
the ill-fated Sir Hugh Willoughby attempted to force a passage
along the north of Europe and Asia. Sir Hugh himself perished
miserably, but his second in command, Chancellor, reached a
harbour on the White Sea, now Archangel. Thence he penetrated
by land to the court of the grand-duke of Moscow, and laid the
foundation of the Russia Company for carrying on the overland
trade with India through Persia, Bokhara and Moscow. Many
subsequent attempts were made at the North-West Passage
from 1576 to 1616, which have left on our modern maps the
imperishable names of Frobisher, Davis, Hudson and Baffin.
Meanwhile, in 1577, Sir Francis Drake had circumnavigated
the globe, and on his way home had touched at Ternate, one of
the Moluccas, the king of which island agreed to supply the
English nation with all the cloves it produced. The first English-
man who actually visited India was Thomas Stephens in 1579.
He had been educated at Winchester, and became rector of the
Jesuits' College in Goa. His letters to his father are said to
have roused great enthusiasm in England to trade directly with
India. In 1583 four English merchants, Ralph Fitch, John
Newbery, William Leedes and James Story, went out to India
overland as mercantile adventurers. The jealous Portuguese
threw them into prison at Ormuz, and again at Goa. At length
Story settled down as a shopkeeper at Goa, Leedes entered the
service of the Great Mogul, Newbery died on his way home over-
land, and Fitch, after a lengthened peregrination in Bengal, Pegu,
Siam and other parts of the East Indies, returned to England.
The defeat of the "Invincible Armada" in 1588, at which
time the crowns of Spain and Portugal were united, gave a
fresh stimulus to maritime enterprise in England;
and the successful voyage of Cornelius Houtman in East.
1596 showed the way round the Cape of Good Hope company.
into waters hitherto monopolized by the Portuguese.
The " Governor and Company of Merchants of London
trading into the East Indies " was founded by Queen Elizabeth
406
INDIA
[EARLY EUROPEAN SETTLEMENTS
on the aist of December 1600, and the first expedition of four
ships under James Lancaster left Torbay towards the end of
April 1601, and reached Achin in Sumatra on the 5th of June
1602, returning with a cargo of spices. Between 1600 and 1612
there were twelve separate voyages, but in the latter year a
joint-stock system began involving continual communication
with the Indies. At first the trade was mainly with the Indian
archipelago, but soon the English began to feel their way towards
the mainland of India itself. In 1608 Captain Hawkins visited
Jahangir at Agra, and obtained permission to build a factory
at Surat, which was subsequently revoked, and in 1609 some
English merchants obtained an unstable footing at Surat.
Wherever the English went they were met by the hostility of the
Portuguese; and on the 2pth of November 1612 the Portuguese
admiral with four ships attempted to capture the English vessels
under Captain Best at Swally, off the mouth of the Tapti river;
but the Portuguese were severely defeated, to the great astonish-
ment of the natives, and that action formed the beginning of
British maritime supremacy in Indian seas. The first fruits
of the victory were the foundation of a factory at Surat and at
other places round the Gulf of Cambay and in the interior.
From the imperial firman of December 1612 dates the British
settlement on the mainland of India. At this point begins the
Indian history of the company, for the domestic history of which
see EAST INDIA COMPANY.
The ten years that elapsed between the battle of Swally in
1612 and the British capture of Ormuz in 1622 sufficed to
decide the issue in the struggle for supremacy between
w'tth^ tne Britisn and tne Portuguese. The latter, un-
Portugai. willingly linked to the dying power of Spain, were
already decadent, and on the 2oth of January 1615
a great Portuguese armada, consisting of six great galleons,
three smaller ships, two galleys and sixty rowed barges, was
defeated for the second time in Swally roads by Captain Nicholas
Downton, in command of four British vessels. In 1618 the
English opened trade between Surat and Jask in the Persian
Gulf, and in 1620 gained a victory over the Portuguese fleet there.
Early in 1622 the English fleet gained a second decisive victory,
and captured Ormuz, the pearl of the Portuguese possessions in
Asia. From this date onwards India and the Persian Gulf lay
open to the English as far as Portugal was concerned, and before
Portugal broke loose from Spain in 1640 her supremacy in
Asiatic seas was hopelessly lost. In 1642 she partially and in
1654 finally accepted the situation, and opened all her Eastern
possessions to English trade.
The struggle with the young and growing power of Holland
was destined to be a much more serious affair than that with
the exhausted power of Portugal. The Dutch had
»-;<ft'<Ae ^'ust emer8ed victorious from the struggle with Spain,
Dufc/t. and were pulsing with national life. In 1602 the
Dutch routed the Portuguese near Bantam, and
opened the road to the Spice Islands. In 1603 they threatened
Goa, in 1619 they fixed their capital at Batavia, in 1638 they
drove the Portuguese from Ceylon and in 1641 from Malacca.
When Portugal emerged in 1640 from her sixty years' captivity
to Spain, she found that her power in the Eastern seas had
passed to the Dutch, and thenceforward the struggle lay between
the Dutch and the English. The Dutch were already too
strongly entrenched in the Indian archipelago for English
competition to avail there, and the intense rivalry between the
two nations led to the tragedy of Amboyna in 1623, when
Governor Van Speult put to torture and death nine Englishmen
on a charge of conspiring to take the Dutch forts. This outrage
was not avenged until the time of Cromwell (1654), and in the
meantime the English abandoned the struggle for the Spice
Islands, and turned their attention entirely to the mainland of
India. In 1616 the Dutch began to compete with the English
at Surat, and their piracies against native vessels led to the
Mogul governor seizing English warehouses; but soon the
native authorities learnt to discriminate between the different
European nations, and the unscrupulous methods of the Dutch
cast them into disfavour.
In 1611 Captain Hippon in the seventh separate voyage
essayed a landing at Pulicat, but was driven off by the Dutch,
who were already settled there, and sailed farther
up the coast to Pettapoli, where he founded the first
English settlement in the Bay of Bengal, which
finally perished through pestilence in 1687. Captain
Hippon, however, also touched at Masulipatam, the chief sea-
port of the kings of Golconda. In 1628 the Dutch won over the
native governor there, and the English were compelled to retreat
to Armagon, where they built the first English fort in India.
In 1639 Francis Day, the chief at Armagon, founded Madras,
building Fort St George (1640), and transferring thither the
chief factory from Masulipatam. Here the English obtained
their first grant of Indian soil, apart from the plots on which
their factories were built. In 1653 Madras was raised to an
independent presidency, and in 1658 all the settlements in
Bengal and on the Coromandel coast were made subordinate to
Fort St George.
In 1633 eight Englishmen from Masulipatam, under Ralph
Cart wright, sailed northward to Harishpur near Cuttack on the
mouth of the Mahanadi, and entered into negotiations
to trade with the governor of Orissa; and' in June Bengal
1633 Cartwright founded a factory at Balasore, which
proved very unhealthy. In 1651 the English reached
Hugli, which was at that time the chief port of Bengal; about
that year Gabriel Boughton, a surgeon, obtained from the Mogul
viceroy permission for the English to trade in Bengal. In 1657
Hugli became the head agency in Bengal, with Balasore and
Cossimbazar in the Gangetic delta and Patna in Behar under
its control. In that year the name of Job Charnock, the future
founder of Calcutta, appeared in the lowest grade of the staff.
The company had long fixed an eye on Bombay. Its position
half way down the Indian seaboard gave it both strategic and
commercial importance, while it lay beyond the
authority of the Moguls, and so could be fortified tion'of'
without offending them. In 1626 the company Bombay.
joined with the Dutch under Van Speult in attacking
Bombay, but could not retain possession. In 1661 Charles II.
received Bombay from Portugal as part of the Infanta
Catherine's dowry, but effective possession was not taken until
1665, and in 1668 Charles handed the island over to the com-
pany. At first the loss of life, owing to the unhealthiness of the
climate, was appalling; but in spite of that fact it gradually
prospered, until it reached its present position as the second
port and city of India. In 1670 Gerald Aungier fortified the
island, and so became the true founder of its prosperity. In
1674 a treaty was entered into with Sivaji. In 1682 Sir Josiah
Child at home and Sir John Child in India formed a combination,
which recognized that in the struggle between the Mogul and
the Mahrattas the English must meet force with force; and in
1687 Bombay supplanted Surat as the chief seat of the English
in India.
In 1664 Shaista Khan, the brother of the empress Nur Jahan,
became viceroy of Bengal, and though a strong and just ruler
from the native point of view, was not favourable The
to the foreign traders. In 1677 the president of found-
Madras had to warn him that unless his exactions i"got
ceased, the company would be obliged to withdraw
from Bengal. In 1679 the English obtained from the Mogul
emperor a firman exempting them from dues everywhere except
at Surat; but Shaista Khan refused to recognize the document,
and on the I4th of January 1686 the court of directors resolved
to have recourse to arms to effect what they could not obtain by
treaty. This was the first formal repudiation of the doctrine of
unarmed traffic laid down by Sir Thomas Roe in 1616. An
expedition was despatched to India consisting of six companies
of infantry and ten ships under Captain Nicholson. Two of the
ships with 308 soldiers arrived at the Hugli river in the autumn
of 1686. At this time Job Charnock was the chief of the Bengal
council, and, owing to an affray with the Mogul troops at Hugli
on the 28th of October 1686, he embarked the company's goods
and servants on board light vessels and dropped down the
UNDER THE COMPANY]
INDIA
407
river to Sutanati, the site of the modern Calcutta. At this
place, about 70 m. from the sea and accessible at high tide to
heavily armed ships, the stream had scooped for itself a long
deep pool, now Calcutta harbour, while the position was well
chosen to make a stand against the Bengal viceroy. On the
2oth of December 1686 Charnock first settled at Calcutta, but
in the following February Shaista Khan despatched an army
against him, and he was forced to drop farther down the river
to Hijili. In June Charnock was obliged to make an honourable
capitulation, and returned to Ulubaria, 16 m. below Calcutta,
thence moving in September to Calcutta for the second time.
On the 8th of November 1688 Captain Heath arrived with orders
from England, and took away Charnock against his will; but
after peace was restored between the Mogul emperor and the
company in February 1690, Charnock returned to Calcutta for
the third and last time on the 24th of August of that year. It
was thus by his courage and persistence that the modern capital
of India was eventually founded. As the result of the war with
the Mogul empire, which lasted from 1686 to 1690, the company
perceived that a land war was beyond their strength, but their
sea-power could obtain them terms by blockading the customs
ports and threatening the pilgrim route to Mecca. From this
time onwards they saw that they could no longer trust to de-
fenceless factories. During this first period of their dealings with
India the aims of the British were purely those of traders,
without any aspirations to military power or territorial aggrand-
izement; but in the period that followed, the gradual decay of
the Mogul empire from within, and the consequent anarchy,
forced the English to take up arms in their own defence, and
triumphing over one enemy after another they found themselves
at last in the place of the Moguls.
India under the Company.
The political history of the British in India begins in the
i8th century with the French wars in the Carnatic. The British
at Fort St George and the French at Pondicherry for many years
traded side by side without either active rivalry or territorial
ambition. The British, especially, appear to have been sub-
missive to the native powers at Madras no less than in Bengal.
They paid their annual rent of 1200 pagodas (say £500) to the
deputies of the Mogul empire when Aurangzeb annexed the
south, and on two several occasions bought off a besieging army
with a heavy bribe.
On the death of Aurangzeb in 1707, the whole of southern
India became practically independent of Delhi. In the Deccan
proper, the Nizam-ul-Mulk founded an independent dynasty,
with Hyderabad for its capital, which exercised a nominal
sovereignty over the entire south. The Carnatic, or the lowland
tract between the central plateau and the eastern sea, was
ruled by a deputy of the nizam, known as the nawab of Arcot,
who in his turn asserted claims to hereditary sovereignty.
Farther south, Trichinopoly was the capital of a Hindu raja,
and Tanjore formed another Hindu kingdom under a degenerate
descendant of the line of Sivaji. Inland, Mysore was gradually
growing into a third Hindu state, while everywhere local
chieftains, called palegars or naiks, were in semi-independent
possession of citadels or hill-forts.
In that condition of affairs the flame of war was kindled
between the British and the French in Europe in 1745. Dupleix
Preach was a*- that time governor of Pondicherry and Clive
and was a young writer at Madras. A British fleet first
British appeared on the Coromandel coast, but Dupleix by
a judicious present induced the nawab of Arcot to
interpose and prevent hostilities. In 1746 a French squadron
arrived, under the command of La Bourdonnais. Madras
surrendered almost without a blow, and the only settlement
left to the British was Fort St David, a few miles south of
Pondicherry, where Clive and a few other fugitives sought
shelter. The nawab, faithful to his policy of impartiality,
marched with 10,000 men to drive the French out of Madras,
but he was signally defeated by a French force of only four
hundred men and two guns. In 1748 a British fleet arrived
under Admiral Boscawen and attempted the siege of Pondicherry,
while a land force co-operated under Major Stringer Lawrence,
whose name afterwards became associated with that of Clive.
The French successfully repulsed all attacks, and at last peace
was restored by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, which gave back
Madras to the British (1748).
The first war with the French was merely an incident in the
greater contest in Europe. The second war had its origin in
Indian politics, while England and France were at
peace. The easy success of the French arms had
inspired Dupleix with the ambition of founding a French empire
in India, under the shadow of the existing Mahommedan powers.
Disputed successions at Hyderabad and at Arcot supplied his
opportunity. On both thrones he placed nominees of his own,
and for a short time posed as the supreme arbiter of the entire
south. In boldness of conception, and in knowledge of Oriental
diplomacy, Dupleix has had probably no rival. But he was
no soldier, and he was destined in that sphere to encounter
the " heaven-born genius " of Clive. For the British of Madras,
under the instinct of self-preservation, were compelled to
maintain the cause of another candidate to the throne of Arcot
in opposition to the nominee of Dupleix. This candidate was
Mahommed Ali, afterwards known in history as Wala-jah.
The war that then ensued between the French and British,
each with their native allies, has been exhaustively^described
in the pages of Orme. The one incident that stands out con-
spicuously is the capture and subsequent defence of Arcot by
Clive in 1751. This heroic feat, even more than the battle of
Plassey, established the reputation of the British for valour
throughout India. Shortly afterwards Clive returned to England
in ill-health, but the war continued fitfully for many years.
On the whole, British influence predominated in the Carnatic,
and their candidate, Mahommed Ali, maintained his position
at Arcot. But the French were no less supreme in the Deccan,
whence they were able to take possession of the coast tract
called " the Northern Circars." The final struggle was postponed
until 1760, when Colonel (afterwards Sir Eyre) Coote won the
decisive victory of Wandiwash over the French general Lally,
and proceeded to invest Pondicherry, which was starved into
capitulation in January 1761. A few months later the hill-
fortress of Gingee (Chenji) also surrendered. In the words of
Orme, " That day terminated the long hostilities between the
two rival European powers in Coromandel, and left not a single
ensign of the French nation avowed by the authority of its
Government in any part of India."
Meanwhile the interest of history shifts with Clive to Bengal.
At the time of Aurangzeb 's death in 1707 the nawab or
governor of Bengal was Murshid Kuli Khan, known also as
Jafar Khan. By birth a Brahman, and brought
up as a slave in Persia, he united the administrative
ability of a Hindu to the fanaticism of a renegade. Calcutta.
Hitherto the capital of Bengal had been at Dacca on
the eastern frontier of the empire, whence the piratical attacks
of the Portuguese and of the Arakanese or Mughs could be
most easily checked. Murshid Kuli Khan transferred his
residence to Murshidabad, in the neighbourhood of Cossimbazar,
the river port of all the Ganges trade. The British, the French
and the Dutch had each factories at Cossimbazar, as well as at
Dacca, Patna and Malda. But Calcutta was the headquarters
of the British, Chandernagore of the French, and Chinsura
of the Dutch, all three towns being situated close to each other
in the lower reaches of the Hugli, where the river is navigable
for large ships. Murshid Kuli Khan ruled over Bengal prosper-
ously for twenty-one years, and left his power to a son-in-law
and a grandson. The hereditary succession was broken in 1740
by Ali Vardi Khan, who was the last of the great nawabs of
Bengal. In his days the Mahratta horsemen began to ravage
the country, and the British at Calcutta obtained permission
to erect an earth-work, which is known to the present day as
the Mahratta ditch. Ali Vardi Khan died in 1756, and was
succeeded by his grandson, Suraj-ud-Dowlah, a youth of only
nineteen years, whose ungovernable temper led to a rupture
4o8
INDIA
[UNDER THE COMPANY
with the British within two months after his accession. In
pursuit of one of his own family who had escaped from his
vengeance, he marched upon Calcutta with a large army. Many
of the British fled down the river in their ships. The remainder
surrendered after a feeble resistance, and were thrown as prisoners
into the " black hole " or military jail of Fort William, a room
18 ft. by 14 ft. 10 in. in size, with only two small windows barred
with iron. It was the month of June, in which the tropical
heat of Calcutta is most oppressive. When the door of the
prison was opened in the morning, only twenty-three persons
out of one hundred and forty-six were found alive.
The news of this disaster fortunately found Clive returned
to Madras, where also was a squadron of king's ships under
Admiral Watson. Clive and Watson promptly sailed
to the mouth of the Ganges with all the troops that
could be got together. Calcutta was recovered with
little fighting, and the nawab consented to a peace which restored
to the company all their privileges, and gave them compensation
for their losses of property. It is possible that matters might
have ended here if a fresh cause of hostilities had not suddenly
arisen. War had just been declared between the British and
French in Europe, and Clive, following the traditions of his
early warfare in the Carnatic, attacked and captured Chander-
nagore. Suraj-ud-Dowlah, exasperated by this breach of
neutrality within his own dominions, took the side of the French.
But Clive, again acting upon the policy he had learned from
Dupleix, had provided himself with a rival candidate to the
throne. Undaunted, he marched out to the battlefield of Plassey
(Palasi), at the head of about 900 Europeans and 2000 sepoys,
with 8 pieces of artillery. The Mahommedan army is said to
have consisted of 35,000 foot, 15,000 horse and 50 pieces of
cannon. But there was a traitor in the Mahommedan camp
in the person of Mir Jafar, who had married a sister of the late
nawab, Ali Vardi Khan. The battle was short but decisive.
After a few rounds of artillery fire, Suraj-ud-Dowlah fled, and
the road to Murshidabad was left open.
The battle of Plassey was fought on the 23rd of June 1757, an
anniversary afterwards remembered when the mutiny was at
its height in 1857. History has agreed to adopt this date as the
beginning of the British empire in the East; but the immediate
results of the victory were comparatively small, and several
more hard-won fights were fought before even the Bengalis
would admit the superiority of the British arms. For the
moment, however, all opposition was at an end. Clive, again
following in the steps of Dupleix, placed his nominee, Mir Jafar,
upon the masnod at Murshidabad, being careful to obtain a
patent of investiture from the Mogul court. Enormous sums
were exacted from Mir Jafar as the price of his elevation. The
company claimed 10,000,000 rupees as compensation for losses;
for the British, the Armenian and the Indian inhabitants of
Calcutta there were demanded the sums of 5,000,000, 2,000,000
and 1,000,000 rupees; for the squadron 2,500,000 rupees, and
an equal sum for the army. The members of the council received
the following amounts: Mr Drake, the governor, and Colonel
Clive 280,000 rupees each; and Mr Becher, Mr Watts and
. Major Kilpatrick 240,000 rupees each. The whole amounted to
£2,340,000. The British, deluded by their avarice, still cherished
extravagant ideas of Indian wealth; nor would they listen
to the unwelcome truth. But it was found that there were no
funds in the treasury to satisfy their inordinate demands, and
they were obliged to be contented with one-half the stipulated
sums, which, after many difficulties, were paid in specie and in
jewels, with the exception of 584,905 rupees. The shares of the
council were, however, paid in full. At the same time the
nawab made a grant to the company of the zamindari rights
over an extensive tract of country round Calcutta, now known
as the district of the Twenty-four Parganas. The area of this
tract was about 882 sq. m., and it paid a revenue or quit rent of
about £23,000. The gross rental at first payable to the company
was £53,000, but within a period of ten years it had risen to
£146,000. Originally the company possessed only the zamindari
rights, i.e. revenue jurisdiction. The superior lordship, or right
to receive the quit rent, remained with the nawab; but in 1759
this also was parted with by the nawab in favour of Clive, who
thus became the landlord of his own masters, the company.
At that time also Clive was enrolled among the nobility of the
Mogul empire, with the rank of commander of 6000 foot and
5000 horse, dive's jagir, as it was called, subsequently became
a matter of inquiry in England, and on his death it passed to
the company, thus merging the zamindari in the proprietary
rights.
In 1758 Clive was appointed by the court of directors to be
governor of all the company's settlements in Bengal. From
two quarters troubles threatened, which perhaps Clive alone
was capable of overcoming. On the west the shahzada or
imperial prince, known afterwards as the emperor Shah Alam,
with a mixed army of Afghans and Mahrattas, and supported
by the nawab wazir of Oudh, was advancing his own claims to
the province of Bengal. In the south the influence of the French
under Lally and Bussy was overshadowing the British at Madras.
But the name of Clive exercised a decisive effect in both directions.
Mir Jafar was anxious to Buy off the shahzada, who had already
invested Patna. But Clive in person marched to the rescue,
with an army of only 450 Europeans and 2500 sepoys, and the
Mogul army dispersed without striking a blow. In the same
year Clive despatched a force southwards under Colonel Forde,
which captured Masulipatam from the French, and permanently
established British influence throughout the Northern Circars,
and at the court of Hyderabad. He next attacked the Dutch,
the sole European nation that might yet be a formidable rival to
the English. He defeated them by both land and water; and
from that time their settlement at Chinsura existed only on
sufferance.
From 1760 to 1765, while Clive was at home, the history of
the British in Bengal contains little that is creditable. Clive
had left behind him no system of government, but
merely the tradition that unlimited sums of money
might be extracted from the natives by the mere terror
of the British name. In 1761 it was found expedient and profit-
able to dethrone Mir Jafar, the nawab of Murshidabad, and
substitute his son-in-law, Mir Kasim, in his place. On that
occasion, besides private donations, the British received a grant
of the three districts of Burdwan, Midnapur and Chittagong,
estimated to yield a net revenue of half a million sterling. But
Mir Kasim proved to possess a will of his own, and to cherish
dreams of independence. He retired from Murshidabad to
Monghyr, a strong position on the Ganges, which commanded
the only means of communication with Upper India. There he
proceeded to organize an army, drilled and equipped after
European models, and to carry on intrigues with the nawab
wazir of Oudh. The company's servants claimed the privilege
of carrying on private trade throughout Bengal, free from
inland dues and all other imposts. The assertion of this claim
caused frequent affrays between the customs'oflicers of the nawab
and those traders who, whether falsely or not, represented that
they were acting on behalf of the servants of the company.
The nawab alleged that his civil authority was everywhere being
set at nought. The majority of the council at Calcutta would
not listen to his statements. The governor, Mr Vansittart, and
Warren Hastings, then a junior member of council, attempted
lo effect some compromise. But the controversy had become
too hot. The nawab's officers fired upon a British boat, and
forthwith all Bengal was in a blaze. A force of 2000 sepoys was
cut to pieces at Patna, and about 200 Englishmen in various
parts of the province fell into the hands of the Mahommedans,
and were subsequently massacred. But as soon as regular
warfare commenced Mir Kasim met with no more successes.
His trained regiments were defeated in two pitched battles by
Major Adams, at Gheria and at Udha-nala, and he himself took
refuge with the nawab wazir of Oudh, who refused to deliver
him up. This led to a prolongation of the war. Shah Alam,
who had now succeeded his father as emperor, and Shuja-ud-
Daula, the nawab wazir of Oudh, united their forces, and
threatened Patna, which the British had recovered. A more
UNDER THE COMPANY]
INDIA
409
Olive's
reforms.
formidable danger appeared in the British camp, in the form
of the first sepoy mutiny. This was quelled by Major (afterwards
Sir Hector) Munro, who ordered twenty-four of the ringleaders
to be blown from guns, an old Mogul punishment. In 1764
Major Munro won the decisive battle of Buxar, which laid Oudh
at the feet of the conquerors, and brought the Mogul emperor
as a suppliant to the British camp.
Meanwhile the council at Calcutta had twice found the oppor-
tunity they desired of selling the government of Bengal to a
new nawab. But in 1765 Clive (now Baron Clive of
Plassey, in the peerage of Ireland) arrived at Calcutta,
as governor of Bengal for the second time, to settle
the entire system of relations with the native powers. Two
objects stand out conspicuously in his policy. First, he sought
to acquire the substance, though not the name, of territorial
power, by using the authority of the Mogul emperor for so
much as he wished, and for no more; and, secondly, he desired
to purify the company's service by prohibiting illicit gains, and
at the same time guaranteeing a reasonable remuneration from
honest sources. In neither respect were the details of his plans
carried out by his successors. But the beginning of the British
administration of India dates from this second governorship
of Clive, just as the origin of the British empire in India dates
from his victory at Plassey. Clive's first step was to hurry up
from Calcutta to Allahabad, and there settle in person the fate
of half northern India. Oudh was given back to the nawab
wazir, on condition of his paying half a million sterling towards
the expenses of the war. The provinces of Allahabad and Kora,
forming the lower part of the Doab, were handed over to Shah
Alam himself, who in his turn granted to the company the
diwani or financial administration of Bengal, Behar and Orissa,
together with the Northern Circars. A puppet nawab was still
maintained at Murshidabad, who received an annual allowance
of about half a million sterling; and half that amount was
paid to the emperor as tribute from Bengal. Thus was constituted
the dual system of government, by which the British received
all the revenues and undertook to maintain an army for the
defence of the frontier, while the criminal jurisdiction vested
in the nawab. In Indian phraseology, the company was diwan
and the nawab was nazim. As a matter of general administration,
the actual collection of the revenues still remained for some years
in the hands of native officials. In attempting to reorganize
and purify the company's service, Clive undertook a task yet
more difficult than to partition the valley of the Ganges. The
officers, civil and military alike, were all tainted with the common
corruption. Their legal salaries were absolutely insignificant,
but they had been permitted to augment them ten and a hundred-
fold by means of private trade and gifts from the native powers.
Despite the united resistance of the civil servants, and an actual
mutiny of two hundred military officers, Clive carried through
his reforms. Both private trade and the receipt of presents
were absolutely prohibited for the future, while a substantial
increase of pay was provided out of the monopoly of salt.
Lord Clive quitted India for the third and last time in 1767.
Between that date and the arrival of Warren Hastings in 1772
nothing of importance occurred in Bengal beyond
Hastings 'he terrible famine of 1770, which is officially reported
to have swept away one-third of the inhabitants. The
dual system of government, however, established by Clive, hatl
proved a failure. Warren Hastings, a tried servant of the
company, distinguished alike for intelligence, for probity and
for knowledge of oriental manners, was nominated governor
by the court of directors, with express instructions to carry out a
predetermined series of reforms. In their own words, the court
had resolved to " stand forth as diwan, and to take upon them-
selves, by the agency of their own servants, the entire care and
administration of the revenues." In the execution of this plan,
Hastings removed the exchequer from Murshidabad to Calcutta,
and for the first time appointed European officers, under the now
familiar title of collectors, to superintend the revenue collections
and preside in the civil courts. The urgency of foreign affairs,
and subsequently internal strife at the council table, hindered
Hastings from developing farther the system of civil ad-
ministration, a task finally accomplished by Lord Cornwallis.
Though Hastings always prided himself specially upon that
reform, as well as upon the improvements he introduced into
the collection of the revenues from salt and opium,
his name will be remembered in history for the boldness ,
. _ •* Governor'
and success of his foreign policy. From 1772 to 1774 oenerai.
he was governor of Bengal; from 1774 to 1785 he was
the first titular governor-general of India, presiding over a
council nominated, like himself, not by the company, but by an
act of parliament, known as the Regulating Act. In his domestic
policy he was greatly hampered by the opposition of Sir Philip
Francis; but, so far as regards external relations with Oudh,
with the Mahrattas, and with Hyder Ali, he was generally able
to compel assent to his own measures. His treatment of Oudh
may here be passed over as not being material to the general
history of India, while the personal aspects of his rule are dis-
cussed in a separate article (see HASTINGS, WARREN). To explain
his Mahratta policy, it will be necessary to give a short retro-
spective sketch of the history of that people.
Sivaji the Great, as already mentioned, died in 1680, while
Aurangzeb was still on the throne. The family of Sivaji pro-
duced no great names, either among those who con-
tinued to be the nominal chiefs of the Mahratta
confederacy, with their capital at Satara, or among
the rajas of Kolhapur and Tanjore. All real power
passed into the hands of the peshwa, or Brahman minister,
who founded in his turn an hereditary dynasty at Poona, dating
from the beginning of the i8th century. Next rose several
Mahratta generals, who, though recognizing the suzerainty
of the peshwa, carved out for themselves independent kingdoms
in different parts of India, sometimes far from the original home
of the Mahratta race. Chief among these generals were the
gaikwar in Gujarat, Sindhia and Holkar in Malwa, and the
Bhonsla raja of Berar and Nagpur. At one time it seemed
probable that the Mahratta confederacy would expel the Mahom-
medans even from northern India; but the decisive battle of
Panipat, won by the Afghans in 1761, gave a respite to the
Delhi empire. The Mahratta chiefs never again united heartily
for a common purpose, though they still continued to be the
most formidable military power in India. In especial, they
dominated over the British settlement of Bombay on the western
coast, which was the last of the three presidencies to feel the lust
of territorial ambition. For more than a hundred years, from
its acquisition in 1661 to the outbreak of the first Mahratta
war in 1775, the British on the west coast possessed no territory
outside the island of Bombay and their fortified factory at
Surat.
The Bombay government was naturally emulous to follow
the example of Madras and Bengal, and to establish its influence
at the court of Poona by placing its own nominee upon
the throne. The attempt took form in 1775 in the
treaty of Surat, by which Raghunath Rao, one of the war.
claimants to the throne of the peshwa, agreed to cede
Salsette and Bassein to the British, in consideration of being
himself restored to Poona. The military operations that followed
are known as the first Mahratta War. Warren Hastings, who
in his capacity of governor-general claimed a right of control
over the decisions of the Bombay government, strongly dis-
approved of the treaty of Surat, but, when war once broke out,
he threw the whole force of the Bengal army into the scale. One
of his favourite officers, General Goddard, marched across the
peninsula, and conquered the rich province of Gujarat almost
without a blow. Another, Captain Popham, stormed the rock-
fortress of Gwalior, which was regarded as the key of Hindustan.
These brilliant successes atoned for the disgrace of the convention
of Wargaon in 1779, when the Mahrattas dictated terms to a
Bombay force, but the war was protracted until 1782. It was
then closed by the treaty of Salbai, which practically restored
the status quo. Raghunath Rao, the English claimant, was set
aside; Gujarat was restored, and only Salsette and some other
small islands were retained by the English.
4-IO
INDIA
[UNDER THE COMPANY
Mysore
War.
Meanwhile Warren Hastings had to deal with a more formidable
enemy than the Mahratta confederacy. The reckless conduct
of the Madras government had roused the hostility
Flrst both of Hyder Ali of Mysore and of the nizam of the
Deccan, the two strongest Mussulman powers in India,
who attempted to draw the Mahrattas into an alliance
against the British. The diplomacy of Hastings won over the
nizam and the Mahratta raja of Nagpur, but the army of Hyder
Ali fell like a thunderbolt upon the British possessions in the
Carnatic. A strong detachment under Colonel Baillie was cut
to pieces at Perambakam, and the Mysore cavalry ravaged
the country unchecked up to the walls of Madras. For the
second time the Bengal army, stimulated by the energy of
Hastings, saved the honour of the British name. Sir Eyre
Coote, the victor of Wandiwash, was sent by sea to relieve
Madras with all the men and money available, while Colonel
Pearse marched south overland to overawe the raja of Berar
and the nizam. The war was hotly contested, for Sir Eyre
Coote was now an old man, and the Mysore army was well-
disciplined and equipped, and also skilfully handled by Hyder
and his son Tippoo. Hyder died in 1782, and peace was finally
concluded with Tippoo in 1784, on the basis of a mutual restitu-
tion of all conquests.
It was Warren Hastings's merit to organize the empire which
Clive founded. He was governor or governor-general for thir-
Perma- teen years> a longer period than any of his successors.
neat During that time the British lost the American colonies,
settle- but in India their reputation steadily rose to its
Beo'af highest pitch. Within a year Hastings was succeeded
by Lord Cornwallis, the first English nobleman of
rank who undertook the office of governor-general. His rule
lasted from 1786 to 1793, and is celebrated for two events— the
introduction of the permanent settlement into Bengal and the
second Mysore war. If the foundations of the system of civil
administration were laid by Hastings, the superstructure was
erected by Cornwallis. It was he who first entrusted criminal
jurisdiction to Europeans, and established the Nizamat Sadr
Adalat, or appellate court of criminal judicature, at Calcutta;
and it was he who separated the functions of collector and judge.
The system thus organized in Bengal was afterwards extended
to Madras and Bombay, when those presidencies also acquired
territorial sovereignty. But the achievement most familiarly
associated with the name of Cornwallis is the permanent settle-
ment of the land revenue of Bengal. Up to this time the revenue
had been collected pretty much according to the old Mogul
system. Zamindars, or government farmers, whose office
always tended to become hereditary, were recognized as having
a right of some sort to collect the revenue from the actual
cultivators. But no principle of assessment existed, and the
amount actually realized varied greatly from year to year.
Hastings had the reputation of bearing hard upon the zamindars,
and was absorbed in other critical affairs of state or of war.
On the whole he seems to have looked to experience, as acquired
from a succession of quinquennial settlements, to furnish the
standard rate of the future. Francis, on the other hand,
Hastings's great rival, deserves the credit of being among the
first to advocate a limitation of the state demand in perpetuity.
The same view recommended itself to the authorities at home,
partly because it would place their finances on a more stable
basis, partly because it seemed to identify the zamindar with
the more familiar landlord. Accordingly, Cornwallis took out
with him in 1787 instructions to introduce a permanent settle-
ment. The process of assessment began in 1789 and terminated
in 1791. No attempt was made to measure the fields or calculate
the out-turn, as had been done by Akbar, and is now done when
occasion requires in the British provinces; but the amount
payable was fixed by reference to what had been paid in the past.
At first the settlement was called decennial, but in 1793 it was
declared permanent for ever. The total assessment amounted
to sikka 1^3.26,800,989, or about i\ millions sterling. Though
Lord Cornwallis carried the scheme into execution, all praise
or blame, so far as details are concerned, must belong to Sir
John Shore, afterwards Lord Teignmouth, whose knowledge
of the country was unsurpassed by that of any civilian of his
time. Shore would have proceeded more cautiously than
Cornwallis's preconceived idea of a proprietary body and the
court of directors' haste after fixity permitted.
The second Mysore War of 1790-92 is noteworthy on two
accounts: Lord Cornwalh's, the governor-general, led the
British army in person, with a pomp and lavishness of
supplies that recalled the campaigns of Aurangzeb;
and the two great native powers, the nizam of the War.
Deccan and the Mahratta confederacy, co-operated
as allies of the British. In the result, Tippoo Sultan submitted
when Lord Cornwallis had commenced to beleaguer his capital.
He agreed to yield one-half of his dominions to be divided among
the allies, and to pay three millions sterling towards the cost of
the war. Those conditions he fulfilled, but ever afterwards he
burned to be revenged upon his conquerors.
The period of Sir John Shore's rule as governor-general, from
1793 to 1798, was uneventful. In 1798 Lord Mornington, better
known as the marquis Wellesley, arrived in India,
already inspired with imperial projects that were
destined to change the map of the country. Mornington was
the friend and favourite of Pitt, from whom he is thought to
have derived the comprehensiveness of his political vision and
his antipathy to the French name. From the first he laid down
as his guiding principle that the British must be the one para-
mount power in the peninsula, and that the native princes
could only retain the insignia of sovereignty by surrendering
the substance of independence. The subsequent political history
of India has been but the gradual development of this policy,
which received its finishing touch when Queen Victoria was
proclaimed empress of India in 1877.
To frustrate the possibility of a French invasion of India,
led by Napoleon in person, was the governing idea of Wellesley's
foreign policy; for France at this time, and for many
years later, filled the place afterwards occupied by
Russia in the imagination of British statesmen. Nor menace.
was the possibility so remote as might now be thought.
French regiments guarded and overawed the nizam of Hyderabad:
The soldiers of Sindhia, the military head of the Mahratta
confederacy, were disciplined and led by French adventurers.
Tippoo Sultan carried on a secret correspondence with the French
directorate, and allowed a tree of liberty to be planted in his
dominions. The islands of Mauritius and Bourbon afforded a
convenient half-way house both for French intrigue and for
the assembling of a hostile expedition. Above all, Napoleon
Buonaparte was then in Egypt, dreaming of the conquests of
Alexander; and no man knew in what direction he might turn
his hitherto unconquered legions. Wellesley first addressed
himself to the nizam, where his policy prevailed without serious
opposition.' The French battalions at Hyderabad were disbanded
and the nizam bound himself by treaty not to take any European
into his service without the consent of the British government —
a clause since inserted in every engagement entered into with
native powers. Next, the whole weight of Wellesley's resources
was turned against Tippoo, whom Cornwallis had defeated but
not subdued. His intrigues with the French were laid bare,
and he was given an opportunity of adhering to the new sub-
sidiary system. On his refusal war was declared, and Wellesley
came down in state to Madras to organize the expedition in
person and watch over the course of events. One British army
marched into Mysore from Madras, accompanied by a contingent
from the nizam. Another advanced from the western coast.
Tippoo, after offering but a feeble resistance in the field, retired
into Seringapatam, and, when his capital was stormed, died
fighting bravely in the breach (1799). Since the battle of Plassey
no event so greatly impressed the native imagination as the
capture of Seringapatam, which won for General Harris a peerage
and for Wellesley an Irish marquisate. In dealing with the
territories of Tippoo, Wellesley acted with moderation. The
central portion, forming the old state of Mysore, was restored to
an infant representative of the Hindu rajas, whom Hyder Ali
UNDER THE COMPANY]
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411
had dethroned, while the rest was partitioned between the
nizam and the British. At about the same time the province
of the Carnatic, or all that large portion of southern India ruled
by the nawab of Arcot, and also the principality of Tanjore,
were placed under direct British administration, thus constituting
the Madras presidency almost as it has existed to the present
day.
The Mahrattas had been the nominal allies of the British in
both their wars with Tippoo, but they had never given active
Wars with assistance, nor were they secured to the British side
siodhia as the nizam now was. The Mahratta powers at this
aad time were five in number. The recognized head of
Hoikar. ^ confederacy was the peshwa of Poona, who ruled
the hill country of the Western Ghats, the cradle of the Mahratta
race. The fertile province of Gujarat was annually harried by
the horsemen of the gaekwar of Baroda. In central India two
military leaders, Sindhia of Gwalior and Hoikar of Indore,
alternately held the pre-eminency. Towards the east the
Bhonsla raja of Nagpur reigned from Berar to the coast of
Orissa. Wellesley tried assiduously to bring these several
Mahratta powers within the net of his subsidiary system. At last,
in 1802, the necessities of the peshwa, who had been defeated by
Hoikar, and driven as a fugitive into British territory, induced
him to sign the treaty of Bassein, by which he pledged himself
to hold communications with no other power, European or
native, and ceded territory for the maintenance of a subsidiary
force. This greatly extended the British territorial influence
in western India, but led directly to the second Mahratta war,
for neither Sindhia nor the raja of Nagpur would tolerate this
abandonment of Mahratta independence. The campaigns that
followed are perhaps the most glorious in the history of the
British arms in India. The general plan and the adequate
provision of resources were due to the marquis Wellesley, as
also the indomitable spirit that could not anticipate defeat.
The armies were led by General Arthur Wellesley (afterwards
duke of Wellington) and General (afterwards Lord) Lake.
Wellesley operated in the Deccan, where, in a few short months,
he won the decisive victories of Assaye and Argaum. Lake's
campaign in Hindustan was no less brilliant, though it has
received less notice from historians. He won pitched battles
at Aligarh and Laswari, and captured the cities of Delhi and
Agra, thus scattering the French troops of Sindhia, and at the
same time coming forward as the champion of the Mogul emperor
in his hereditary capital. Before the year 1803 was out, both
Sindhia and the Bhonsla raja were glad to sue for peace. Sindhia
ceded all claims to the territory north of the Jumna, and left
the blind old emperor Shah Alam once more under British
protection. The Bhonsla raja forfeited Orissa to the English,
who had already occupied it with a flying column, and Berar to
the nizam, who gained a fresh addition by every act of complais-
ance to the British government. The freebooter, Jaswant Rao
Hoikar, alone remained in the field, supporting his troops by
ravages through Malwa and Rajputana. The concluding years
of Wellesley's rule were occupied with a series of operations
against Hoikar, which brought no credit to the British name.
The disastrous retreat of Colonel Monson through Central India
(1804) recalled memories of the convention of Wargaum, and of
the destruction of Colonel Baillie's force by Hyder Ali. The
repulse of Lake in person at the siege of Bharatpur (Bhurtpore)
(1805) is memorable as an instance of a British army in India
having to turn back with its object unaccomplished.
The ambitious policy and the continuous wars of Lord Wellesley
exhausted the patience of the court of directors at home. In
Barlow J8o4 Lord Cornwallis was sent out as governor-general
a second time, with instructions to bring about peace
at any price, while Hoikar was still unsubdued, and Sindhia
was threatening a fresh war. But Cornwallis was now an old
man and broken down in health. Travelling up to the north-
west during the rainy season, he sank and died at Ghazipur,
before he had been ten weeks in the country. His immediate
successor was Sir George Barlow, a civil servant of the company,
who, as a locum tenens, had no alternative but to carry out
faithfully the orders of his employers. He is charged with
being, under these orders, the only governor-general who
diminished the area of British territory, and with violating
engagements by abandoning the Rajput chiefs to the tender
mercies of Hoikar and Sindhia. During his administration also
occurred the mutiny of the Madras sepoys at Vellore, which,
though promptly suppressed, sent a shock of insecurity through
the empire.
Lord Minto, governor-general from 1807 to 1813, consolidated
the conquests which Wellesley had acquired. His only military
exploits were the occupation of the island of Mauritius, and the
conquest of Java by an expedition which he accompanied in
person. The condition of central India continued to be disturbed,
but Lord Minto succeeded in preventing any violent outbreaks
without himself having recourse to the sword. The company
had ordered him to follow a policy of non-intervention, and he
managed to obey his orders without injuring the prestige of the
British name. In his time the Indian government first opened
relations with a new set of foreign powers by sending embassies
to the Punjab, to Afghanistan and to Persia. The ambassadors
were all trained in the school of Wellesley, and formed perhaps
the most illustrious trio of " politicals " that the Indian service
has produced. Sir Charles Metcalfe was the envoy to the court
of Ran jit Singh at Lahore; Mountstuart Elphinstone met the
shah of Afghanistan at Peshawar; and Sir John Malcolm was
despatched to Persia. If it cannot be said that any of these
missions were fruitful in permanent results, at least they intro-
duced the English to a new set of diplomatic relations, and
widened the sphere of their influence.
The successor of Lord Minto was Lord Moira, better known
as the marquis of Hastings, who governed India for the long
period of nine years, from 1814 to 1823. This period
was marked by two wars of the first magnitude, the <wor *
campaigns against the Gurkhas of Nepal, and the third
and last Mahratta War. The Gurkhas, the present ruling race
in Nepal, are Hindu immigrants who claim a Rajput origin.
Their sovereignty dates only from 1767, in which year they over-
ran the valley of Katmandu, and gradually extended their
power over all the hills and valleys of Nepal. Organized upon
a sort of military and feudal basis, they soon became a terror
to all their neighbours, marching east into Sikkim, west into
Kumaon, and south into the Gangetic plains. In the last quarter
their victims were British subjects, and at last it became im-
peratively necessary to check their advance. Sir George Barlow
and Lord Minto had remonstrated in vain, and nothing was
left to Lord Moira but to take up arms. The campaign of 1814
was little short of disastrous. After overcoming the natural
difficulties of a malarious climate and precipitous hills, the
sepoys were on several occasions fairly worsted by the unexpected
bravery of the little Gurkhas, whose heavy knives or kukris
dealt terrible execution. But in 1815 General Ochterlony, who
commanded the army operating by way of the Sutlej, stormed
one by one the hill forts which still stud the Himalayan states
now under the Punjab government, and compelled the Nepal
darbar to sue for peace. In the following year the same general
advanced from Patna into the valley of Katmandu, and finally
dictated the terms which had before been rejected, within a few
miles of the capital. By the treaty of Segauli, which defines
the English relations with Nepal to the present day, the Gurkhas
withdrew on the one hand from Sikkim, and on the other from
those lower ranges of the western Himalayas which have supplied
the health-giving stations of Naini Tal, Mussoorie and Simla.
Meanwhile the condition of central India was every year
becoming more unsatisfactory. Though the great Mahratta
chiefs were learning to live rather as peaceful princes
than as leaders of predatory bands, the example of
lawlessness they had set was being followed, and bettered in
the following, by a new set of freebooters, known as the Pindaris.
As opposed to the Mahrattas, who were at least a nationality
bound by some traditions of a united government, the Pindaris
were merely irregular soldiers, corresponding most nearly to the
free companies of medieval Europe. Of no common race and
412
INDIA
[UNDER THE COMPANY
of no common religion, they welcomed to their ranks the outlaws
and broken tribes of all India— Afghans, Mahrattas or Jats.
Their headquarters were in Malwa, but their depredations were
not confined to central India. In bands, sometimes numbering
a few hundreds, sometimes many thousands, they rode out on
their forays as far as the Coromandel coast. The most powerful
of the Pindari captains, Amir Khan, had an organized army
of many regiments, and several batteries of cannon. Two other
leaders, known as Chitu and Karim, at one time paid a ransom
to Sindhia of £100,000. To suppress the Pindari hordes, who
were supported by the sympathy, more or less open, of all the
Mahratta chiefs, Lord Hastings (1817) collected the strongest
British army that had been seen in India, numbering nearly
120,000 men, half to o'perate from the north, half from the south.
Sindhia was overawed, and remained quiet. Amir Khan con-
sented to disband his army, on condition of being guaranteed
the possession of what is now the principality of Tonk. The
remaining bodies of Pindaris were attacked in their homes,
surrounded, and cut to pieces. Karim threw himself upon the
mercy of the conquerors. Chitu fled to the jungles, and was
killed by a tiger.
In the same year (1817) as that in which the Pindaris were
crushed, and almost in the same month (November), the three
great Mahratta powers at Poona, Nagpur and Indore
Mahratta rose agamst 'ne English. The peshwa, Baji Rao,
War. had long been chafing under the terms imposed by the
treaty of Bassein (1802), and the subsequent treaty
of Poona (1817), which riveted yet closer the chains of dependence
upon the paramount power. Elphinstone, then resident at his
court, foresaw what was coming and ordered up a European
regiment from Bombay. The next day the residency was burned
down, and Kirkee was attacked by the whole army of the peshwa.
The attack was bravely repulsed, and the peshwa immediately
fled from his capital. Almost the same plot was enacted at
Nagpur, where the honour of the British name was saved by
the sepoys who defended the hill of Sitabaldi against enormous
odds. The army of Holkar was defeated in the following month
at the pitched battle of Mehidpur. All open resistance was
now at an end. Nothing remained but to follow up the fugitives,
and determine the conditions of the general pacification. In
both these duties Sir John Malcolm played a prominent part.
The peshwa himself surrendered, and was permitted to reside
at Bithur, near Cawnpore, on a pension of £80,000 a year. His
adopted son was the infamous Nana Sahib. To fill the peshwa 's
place to some extent at the head of the Mahratta confederacy,
the lineal descendant of Sivaji was brought forth from obscurity,
and placed upon the throne of Satara. The greater part of
the peshwa's dominions was ultimately incorporated in the
Bombay presidency, while the nucleus of the Central Provinces
was formed out of territory taken from the peshwa and the
raja of Nagpur. An infant was recognized as the heir of Holkar,
and a second infant was proclaimed raja of Nagpur under British
guardianship. At the same time the several states of Rajputana
accepted the position of feudatories of the paramount power.
The map of India, as thus drawn by Lord Hastings, remained
substantially unchanged until the time of Lord Dalhousie. But
the proudest boast of Lord Hastings and Sir John Malcolm was,
not that they had advanced the pomoerium, but that they had
conferred the blessings of peace and good government upon
millions who had suffered unutterable things from Mahratta
and Pindari tyranny.
The marquis of Hastings was succeeded by Lord Amherst,
after the interval of a few months, during which Mr Adam,
plnt a civil servant, acted as governor-general. Lord
Burmese Amherst's administration lasted for five years, from
War. 1823 to 1828. It is known in history by two prominent
events, the first Burmese War and the capture of
Bharatpur. For some years past the north-east frontier had
been disturbed by the restlessness of the Burmese. The suc-
cessors of Alompra, after having subjugated all Burma, and over-
run Assam, which was then an independent kingdom, began
a series of encroachments upon British territory in Bengal.
As all peaceful proposals were scornfully rejected, Lord Amherst
was compelled to declare war in 1824. Little military glory
could be gained by beating the Burmese, who were formidable
only from the pestilential character of their country. One
expedition with gunboats proceeded up the Brahmaputra into
Assam; another marched by land through Chittagong into
Arakan, for the Bengal sepoys refused to go by sea; a third,
and the strongest, sailed from Madras direct to the mouth of
the Irrawaddy. The war was protracted over two years. At
last, after the loss of about 20,000 lives and an expenditure
of £14,000,000, the king of Ava consented to sign the treaty
of Yandabu, by which he abandoned all claim to Assam, and
ceded the provinces of Arakan and Tenasserim, which were
already in the military occupation of the British. He retained
all the valley of the Irrawaddy, down to the sea at Rangoon.
The capture of Bharatpur in central India by Lord Combermere
in 1826 wiped out the repulse which Lord Lake had received
before that city in January 1805. A disputed succession necessi-
tated British intervention. Artillery could make little impression
upon the massive walls of mud, but at last a breach was effected
by mining, and the city was taken by storm, thus losing its
general reputation throughout India for impregnability, which
had threatened to become a political danger.
The next governor-general was Lord William Bentinck,
who had been governor of Madras twenty years earlier at the
time of the mutiny of Vellore. His seven years' rule
(from 1828 to 1835) is not signalized by any of those
victories or extensions of territory by which chroniclers delight
to measure the growth of empire. But it forms an epoch in
administrative reform, and in the benign process by which
the hearts of a subject population are won over to venerate as
well as obey their alien rulers. The modern history of the
British in India, as benevolent administrators ruling the country
with an eye to the good of the natives, may be said to begin
with Lord William Bentinck. According to the inscription upon
his statue at Calcutta, from the pen of Macaulay: " He abolished
cruel rites; he effaced humiliating distinctions; he gave liberty
to the expression of public opinion; his constant study it was
to elevate the intellectual and moral character of the nations
committed to his charge." His first care on arrival in India
was to restore equilibrium to the finances, which were tottering
under the burden imposed upon them by the Burmese War.
This he effected by reductions in permanent expenditure,
amounting in the aggregate to ij millions sterling, as well
as by augmenting the revenue from land that had escaped
assessment, and from the opium of Malwa. He also widened
the gates by which educated natives could enter the service
of the company. Some of these reforms were distasteful to the
covenanted service and to the officers of the army, but Lord
William was always staunchly supported by the court of directors
and by the Whig ministry at home.
His two most memorable acts are the abolition of suttee
and the suppression of the Thugs. At this distance of time
it is difficult to realize the degree to which these
two barbarous practices had corrupted the social
system of the Hindus. European research has clearly proved
that the text in the Vedas adduced to authorize the immolation
of widows was a wilful mistranslation. But the practice had
been engrained in Hindu opinion by the authority of centuries,
and had acquired the sanctity of a religious rite. The emperor
Akbar is said to have prohibited it by law, but the early British
rulers did not dare so far to violate the religious customs of the
people. In the year 1817 no fewer than seven hundred widows
are said to have been burned alive in the Bengal presidency
alone. To this day the most holy spots of Hindu pilgrimage
are thickly dotted with little white pillars, each commemorating
a suttee. In the teeth of strenuous opposition, from both
Europeans and natives, Lord William carried the regulation in
council on the 4th of December 1829, by which all who abetted
suttee were declared guilty of " culpable homicide." The
honour of suppressing Thuggism must be shared between Lord
William and Captain Sleeman. Thuggism was an abnormal
Suttee.
UNDER THE COMPANY]
INDIA
excrescence upon Hinduism, in so far as the bands of secret
assassins were sworn together by an oath based on the rites of
the bloody goddess Kali. Between 1826 and 1835 as many as
1562 Thugs were apprehended in different parts of British India,
and by the evidence of approvers the moral plague spot was
gradually stamped out.
Two other historical events are connected with the admini-
stration of Lord William Bentinck. In 1833 the charter of the
East India Company was renewed for twenty years, but only
upon the terms that it should abandon its trade and permit
Europeans to settle freely in the country. At the same time
a legal or fourth member was added to the governor-general's
council, who might not be a servant of the company, and a
commission was appointed to revise and codify the law.
Macaulay was the first legal member of council, and the first
president of the law commission. In 1830 it was found necessary
to take the state of Mysore under British administration, where
it continued until 1881, when it was restored to native rule;
and in 1834 the frantic misrule of the raja of Coorg brought
on a short and sharp war. The raja was permitted to retire
to Benares, and the brave and proud inhabitants of that
mountainous little territory decided to place themselves under
the rule of the company; so that the only annexation effected
by Lord William Bentinck was " in consideration of the un-
animous wish of the people."
Sir Charles (afterwards Lord) Mctcalfe succeeded Lord William
as senior member of council. His short term of office is memor-
able for the measure which his predecessor had initiated,
but which he willingly carried into execution, for
giving entire liberty to the press. Public opinion in India,
as well as the express wish of the court of directors at home,
pointed to Metcalfe as the most fit person to carry out the policy
of Bentinck, not provisionally, but as governor-general for a
full term. Party exigencies, however, led to the appointment
of Lord Auckland. From that date commences a new era of
war and conquest, which may be said to have lasted for twenty
years. All looked peaceful until Lord Auckland, prompted
by his evil genius, attempted by force to place Shah Shuja upon
the throne of Kabul, an attempt which ended in gross mis-
management and the annihilation of the British garrison in
that city. The disaster in Afghanistan was quickly followed
by the conquest of Sind, the two wars in the Punjab, the second
Burmese War, and last of all the Mutiny.
The attention of the British government had been directed
to Afghan affairs ever since the time of Sir John Shore, who
feared that Zaman Shah, then holding his court at
Lahore, might follow in the path of Ahmed Shah,
and overrun Hindustan. The growth of the powerful
Sikh kingdom of Ranjit Singh effectually dispelled
any such alarms for the future. Subsequently, in 1809, while
a French invasion of India was still a possibility to be guarded
against, Mountstuart Elphinstone was sent by Lord Minto on
a mission to Shah Shuja to form a defensive alliance. Before
the year was out Shah Shuja had been driven into exile, and a
third brother, Mahmud Shah, was on the throne. In 1837,
when the curtain rises upon the drama of British interference
in Afghanistan, the usurper, Dost Mahommed Barakzai, was
firmly established at Kabul. His great ambition was to recover
Peshawar from the Sikhs; and when Captain Alexander Burnes
arrived on a mission from Lord Auckland, with the ostensible
object of opening trade, the Dost was willing to promise every-
thing, if only he could get Peshawar. But Lord Auckland
had another and more important object in view. At this time
the Russians were advancing rapidly in Central Asia, and a
Persian army, not without Russian support, was besieging
Herat, the traditional bulwark of Afghanistan on the east. A
Russian envoy was at Kabul at the same time as Burnes. The
latter was unable to satisfy the demands of Dost Mahommed
in the matter of Peshawar, and returned to India unsuccessful.
Lord Auckland forthwith resolved upon the hazardous plan of
placing a more subservient ruler upon the throne of Kabul.
Shah Shuja, now in exile at Ludhiana, was selected for the
War.
purpose. At this time both the Punjab and Sind were independent
kingdoms. Sind was the less powerful of the two, and, therefore,
a British army escorting Shah Shuja made its way by that
route to enter Afghanistan through the Bolan Pass. Kandahar
surrendered, Ghazni was taken by storm, Dost Mahommed
fled across the Hindu Kush, and Shah Shuja was triumphantly
led into the Bala Hissar at Kabul in August 1839. During
the two years that followed Afghanistan remained in the military
occupation of the British. The catastrophe occurred in November
1841, when Sir Alexander Burnes was assassinated in the city
of Kabul. The troops in the cantonments were then under the
command of General Elphinstone (not to be confounded with
the civilian Mountstuart Elphinstone), with Sir William
Macnaghten as chief political adviser. Elphinstone was an old
man, unequal to the responsibilities of the position. Macnaghten
was treacherously murdered at an interview with the Afghan
chief, Akbar Khan, eldest son of Dost Mahommed. After
lingering in their cantonments for two months, the British army
set off in the depth of winter to find its way back to India
through the passes. When they started they numbered 4000
fighting men, with 12,000 camp followers. A single survivor,
Dr Brydon, reached the friendly walls of Jalalabad, where
General Sale was gallantly holding out. The rest perished in
the defiles of Khurd Kabul and Jagdalak, either from the
knives and matchlocks of the Afghans or from the effects of
cold. A few prisoners, mostly women, children and officers,
were considerately treated by the orders of Akbar Khan. (See
AFGHANISTAN.)
Within a month after the news reached Calcutta, Lord Auckland
had been superseded by Lord Ellenborough, whose first impulse
was to be satisfied with drawing off in safety the garrisons
from Kandahar and Jalalabad. But bolder counsels prevailed.
General Pollock, who was marching straight through the Punjab
to relieve General Sale, was ordered to penetrate to Kabul,
while General Nott was only too glad not to be forbidden to
retire from Kandahar through Kabul. After a good deal of
fighting, the two'British forces met at their common destination
in September 1842. The great bazar at Kabul was blown up
with gunpowder to fix a stigma upon the city; the prisoners
were recovered; and all marched back to India, leaving Dost
Mahommed to take undisputed possession of his throne. The
drama closed with a bombastic proclamation from Lord Ellen-
borough, who had caused the gates from the tomb of Mahmud
of Ghazni to be carried back as a memorial of " Somnath
revenged."
Lord Ellenborough, who loved military display, had his
tastes gratified by two more wars. In 1843 the Mahommedan
rulers of Sind, known as the " meers " or amirs, whose
only fault was that they would not surrender their Aaaexa-
independence, were crushed by Sir Charles Napier. s°nd°
The victory of Meeanee, in which 3000 British troops
defeated 20,000 Baluchis, is perhaps the most brilliant feat of
arms in Indian history; but an honest excuse can scarcely be
found for the annexation of the country. In the same year
a disputed succession at Gwalior, fomented by feminine intrigue,
resulted in an outbreak of the overgrown army which the
Sindhia family had been allowed to maintain. Peace was
restored by the battles of Maharajpur and Punniar, at the former
of which Lord Ellenborough was present in person.
In 1844 Lord Ellenborough was recalled by the court of
directors, who differed from him on many points of administra-
tion, and distrusted his erratic genius. He was
succeeded by Sir Henry (afterwards Lord) Hardinge,
who had served through the Peninsular War and had
lost a hand at Ligny. It was felt on all sides that a trial of
strength between the British and the Sikhs was at hand. (For
the origin of the Sikh power see PUNJAB.)
Ranjit Singh, the founder of the Sikh kingdom in the Punjab,
had faithfully fulfilled all his obligations towards the British.
But on his death in 1839 no successor was left to curb the
ambition of the Sikh nationality.
In 1845 the khalsa, or Sikh army, numbering 60,000 men with
INDIA
[UNDER THE COMPANY
Dal-
housie.
150 guns, crossed the Sutlej and invaded British territory.
Sir Hugh Gough, the commander-in-chief, together with the
governor-general, hurried up to the frontier. Within three
weeks four pitched battles were fought, at Mudki, Ferozeshah,
Aliwal and Sobraon. The British loss on each occasion was
heavy; but by the last victory the Sikhs were fairly driven into
and across the Sutlej, and Lahore surrendered to the British.
By the terms of peace then dictated the infant son of Ranjit,
Dhuleep Singh, was recognized as raja; the Jullundur Doab,
or tract between the Sutlej and the Ravi, was annexed; the
Sikh army was limited to a specified number; Major Henry
Lawrence was appointed to be resident at Lahore; and a British
force was detailed to garrison the Punjab for a period of eight
years.
Lord Dalhousie succeeded Lord Hardinge, and his eight years'
administration (from 1848 to 1856) was more pregnant of results
than that of any governor-general since Wellesley.
Though professedly a man of peace, he was compelled
to fight two wars, in the Punjab and in Burma. These
both ended in large acquisitions of territory, while Nagpur, Oudh
and several minor states also came under British rule. But
Dalhousie's own special interest lay in the advancement of the
moral and material condition of the country. The system
of administration carried out in the conquered Punjab by the
two Lawrences and their assistants is probably the most successful
piece of difficult work ever accomplished by Englishmen. Lower
Burma prospered under their rule scarcely less than the Punjab.
In both cases Lord Dalhousie deserves a large share of the
credit. No branch of the administration escaped his reforming
hand. He founded the public works department, to pay special
attention to roads and canals^ He opened the Ganges canal,
still the largest work of the kind in the country, and he turned
the sod of the first Indian railway. He promoted steam com-
munication with England via the Red Sea, and introduced
cheap postage and the electric telegraph. It is Lord Dalhousie's
misfortune that these benefits are too often forgotten in the
vivid recollections of the Mutiny, which avenged his policy of
annexation.
Lord Dalhousie had not been six months in India before the
second Sikh war broke out. Two British officers were treacher-
ously assassinated at Multan. Unfortunately Henry
sz*A°w«r-. Lawrence was at home on sick leave. The British
army was not ready to act in the hot season, and,
despite the single-handed exertions of Lieutenant (afterwards
Sir Herbert) Edwardes, this outbreak of fanaticism led to a
general rising. The kholsa army again came together, and
more than once fought on even terms with the British. On the fatal
field of Chillianwalla, which patriotism prefers to call a drawn
battle, the British lost 2400 officers and men, besides four guns
and the colours of three regiments. Before reinforcements could
come out from England, with Sir Charles Napier as commander-
in-chief, Lord Gough had restored his own reputation by the
crowning victory of Gujrat, which absolutely destroyed the Sikh
army. Multan had previously fallen; and the Afghan horse
under Dost Mahommed, who had forgotten their hereditary anti-
pathy to the Sikhs in their greater hatred of the British name,
were chased back with ignominy to their native hills. The
Punjab henceforth became a British province, supplying a virgin
field for the administrative talents of Dalhousie and the two
Lawrences. Raja Dhuleep Singh received an allowance of
£50,000 a year, on which he retired as a country gentleman to
Norfolk in England. (See PUNJAB.)
The second Burmese war of 1852 was caused by the ill-treat-
ment of European merchants at Rangoon, and the insolence
offered to the captain of a frigate who had been sent
second to remonstrate- xne wnoie vaiiey of the Irrawaddy,
ifurmesc .,.
War. from Rangoon to Prome, was occupied in a few
months, and, as the king of Ava refused to treat, it
was annexed, under the name of Pegu, to the provinces of Arakan
and Tenasserim, which had been acquired in 1826.
Lord Dalhousie's dealings with the feudatory states of India,
though actuated by the highest motives, seem now to have
proceeded upon mistaken lines. His policy of annexing each
native state on the death of its ruler without natural heirs pro-
duced a general feeling of insecurity of tenure among the
.princes, and gave offence to the people of India. This T£^trtae
policy was reversed when India was taken over by 0fJapse.
the crown after the Mutiny; and its reversal has led
to the native princes being amongst the most loyal subjects
of the British government. The first state to escheat to the
British government was Satara, which had been reconstituted
by Lord Hastings on the downfall of the peshwa Baji Rao in
1818. The last direct representative of Sivaji died without
a male heir in 1848, and his deathbed adoption was set aside.
In the same year the Rajput state of Karauli was saved by the
interposition of the court of directors, who drew a fine distinction
between a dependent principality and a protected ally. In 1853
Jhansi suffered the same fate as Satara. But the most con-
spicuous application of the doctrine of lapse was the case of
Nagpur. The last of the Bhonslas, a dynasty older tha.1 the
British government itself, died without a son, natural or adopted,
in 1853. That year also- saw British administration extended
to the Berars, or the assigned districts which the nizam of
Hyderabad was induced to cede as a territorial guarantee
for the subsidies which he perpetually kept in arrear. Three
more distinguished names likewise passed away in 1853, though
without any attendant accretion to British territory. In the
extreme south the titular nawab of the Carnatic and the titular
raja of Tanjore both died without heirs. Their rank and their
pensions died with them, though compassionate allowances
were continued to their families. In the north of India, Baji
Rao, the ex-peshwa who had been dethroned in 1818, lived on
till 1853 in the enjoyment of his annual pension of £80,000.
His adopted son, Nana Sahib, inherited his accumulated savings,
but could obtain no further recognition.
The annexation of the province of Oudh was justifiable on
the ground of morals, though not on that of policy. Ever since
the nawab wazir, Shuja-ud-Dowlah, received back his
forfeited territories from the hands of Lord Clive in
1765, the very existence of Oudh as an independent Oudh.
state had depended only upon the protection of
British bayonets. Thus, preserved alike from foreign invasion
and from domestic rebellion, the long line of subsequent nawabs
had given way to that neglect of public affairs and those private
vices which naturally flow from irresponsible power. Their only
redeeming virtue was steady loyalty to the British government.
Warning after warning had been given to the nawabs, who had
assumed the title of king since 1819, to put their house in order;
but every warning was neglected, and Lord Dalhousie at last
carried into effect what both the previous governors-general
had threatened. In 1856, the last year of his rule, he issued
orders to General (afterwards Sir James) Outram, then resident
at the court of Lucknow, to assume the direct administration
of Oudh, on the ground that " the British government would
be guilty in the sight of God and man, if it were any longer to
aid in sustaining by its countenance an administration fraught
with suffering to millions." The king, Wajid Ali, bowed to
irresistible force, though he ever refused to recognize the justice
of his deposition. After a mission to England, by way of protest
and appeal, he settled down in the pleasant suburb of Garden
Reach near Calcutta, where he lived in the enjoyment of a
pension of £120,000 a year. Oudh was thus annexed without
a blow; but it may be doubted whether the one measure of
Lord Dalhousie upon which he looked back himself with the
clearest conscience was not the very one that most alarmed
native public opinion.
Lord Dalhousie was succeeded by his friend, Lord Canning,
who, at the farewell banquet in England given to him by the
court of directors, uttered these prophetic words:
" I wish for a peaceful term of office. But I cannot Mutiny.
forget that in the sky of India, serene as it is, a small
cloud may arise, no larger than a man's hand, but which, growing
larger and larger, may at last threaten to burst and overwhelm
us with ruin." In the following year the sepoys of the Bengal
UNDER THE CROWN]
INDIA
army mutinied, and all the valley of the Ganges from Patna to
Delhi rose in open rebellion.
The various motives assigned for the Mutiny appear inadequate
to the European mind. The truth seems to be that native
opinion throughout India was in a ferment, predisposing men to
believe the wildest stories, and to act precipitately upon their
fears. The influence of panic in an Oriental population is greater
than might be readily believed. In the first place, the policy
of Lord Dalhousie, exactly in proportion as it had been dictated
by the most honourable considerations, was utterly distasteful
to the native mind. Repeated annexations, the spread of
education, the appearance of the steam engine and the telegraph
wire, all alike revealed a consistent determination to substitute
an English for an Indian civilization. The Bengal sepoys,
especially, thought that they could see into the future farther
than the rest of thejr countrymen. Nearly all men of high caste,
and many of them recruited from Oudh, they dreaded tendencies
which they deemed to be denationalizing, and they knew at first
hand what annexation meant. They believed it was by their
prowess that the Punjab had been conquered, and all India was
held quiet. The numerous dethroned princes, their heirs and
their widows, were the first to take advantage of the spirit of
disaffection that was abroad. They had heard of the Crimean
War, and were told that Russia was the perpetual enemy of
England. Owing to the silladar system, under which the native
cavalry provided their own horses and accoutrements, many of
the sowars were in debt, and were in favour of a change which
would wipe out the existing regim« and with it the money-
lender.
But in addition to these general causes of unrest the condition
of the native army had long given cause for uneasiness to acute
observers. During the course of its history it had broken out
into mutiny at recurrent intervals, the latest occasion being the
winter of 1843-1844, when there were two separate mutinies
in Sind and at Ferozepur. Moreover the spirit of the sepoys
during the Sikh wars was unsatisfactory, and led to excessive
casualties amongst the British officers and soldiers. Both General
Jacob and Sir Charles Napier had prophesied that the Mutiny
would take place. Sir Hugh Gough and other commanders-in-
chief had petitioned for the removal of India's chief arsenal from
Delhi to Umballa; and Lord Dalhousie himself had protested
against the reduction of the British element in the army. But
all these warnings were disregarded with a blindness as great
as was the incapacity that allowed the Mutiny to gather head
unchecked after its first outbreak at Meerut. Moreover the
outbreak was immediately provoked by an unparalleled in-
stance of carelessness. It has recently been proved by Mr
G. W. Forrest's researches in the Government of India re-
cords that the sepoys' belief that their cartridges were greased
with the fat of cows and pigs had some foundation in
fact. Such a gross violation of their caste prejudices would
alone be sufficient to account for the outbreak that followed.
(For the military incidents of the Mutiny see INDIAN
MUTINY.)
The Mutiny sealed the fate of the East India company, after
a life of more than two and a half centuries. The Act for the
Better Government of India (1858), which finally
transferred the entire administration from the company
Crown. to the crown, was not passed without an eloquent
protest from the directors, nor without acrimonious
party discussion in parliament. It enacts that India shall be
governed by, and in the name of, the sovereign of England
through a principal secretary of state, assisted by a council.
The governor-general received the new title of viceroy. The
European troops of the company, numbering about 24,000
officers and men, were amalgamated with the royal service,
and the Indian navy was abolished. By the Indian Councils
Act 1 86 1 the governor-general's council and also the councils
at Madras and Bombay were augmented by the addition of
non-official members, either natives or Europeans, for legislative
purposes only; and by another act passed in the same year
high courts of judicature were constituted out of the existing
supreme courts and company's courts at the presidency
towns.
India under the Crown.
It fell to the lot of Lord Canning both to suppress the Mutiny
and to introduce the peaceful revolution that followed. As
regards his execution of the former part of his duties, it is
sufficient to say that he preserved his equanimity undisturbed
in the darkest hours of peril, and that the strict impartiality
of his conduct incurred alternate praise and blame from the
fanatics on either side. The epithet then scornfully applied
to him of "Clemency" Canning is now remembered only to his
honour. On November i, 1858, at a grand durbar held at
Allahabad the royal proclamation was published which announced
that the queen had assumed the government of India. This
document, which has been called the Magna Charta of the Indian
people, went on to explain the policy of political justice and
religious toleration which it was her royal pleasure to pursue,
and granted an amnesty to all except those who had directly
taken part in the murder of. British subjects. Peace was pro-
claimed throughout India on the 8th of July 1859; and in the
following cold season Lord Canning made a viceregal progress
through the upper provinces, to receive the homage of loyal
princes and chiefs, and to guarantee to them the right of adoption.
The suppression of the Mutiny increased the debt of India by
about 40 millions sterling, and the military changes that ensued
augmented the annual expenditure by about 10 millions. To
grapple with this deficit, James Wilson was sent out from the
treasury as financial member of council. He reorganized the
customs system, imposed an income tax and licence duty and
created a state paper currency. The penal code, originally
drawn up by Macaulay in 1837, passed into law in 1860, together
with codes of civil and criminal procedure.
Lord Canning left India in March 1862, and died before he
had been a month in England. His successor, Lord Elgin, only
lived till November 1863, when he too fell a victim to the exces-
sive work of the governor-generalship, dying at the Himalayan
station of Dharmsala, where he lies buried. He was succeeded
by Sir John Lawrence, the saviour of the Punjab. The chief
incidents of his administration were the Bhutan war and the
terrible Orissa famine of 1866. Lord Mayo, who succeeded him
in 1869, carried on the permanent British policy of moral and
material progress with a special degree of personal energy. The
Umballa durbar, at which Shere Ali was recognized as amir of
Afghanistan, though in one sense the completion of what Lord
Lawrence had begun, owed much of its success to the personal
influence of Lord Mayo himself. The same quality, combined
with sympathy and firmness, stood him in good stead in all his
dealings both with native chiefs and European officials. His
example of hard work stimulated all to their best. While
engaged in exploring with his own eyes the furthest corners
of the empire, he fell by the hand of an assassin in the convict
settlement of the Andaman islands in 1872. His successor was
Lord Northbrook, whose ability showed itself chiefly in the
department of finance. During the time of his administration a
famine in Lower Bengal in 1874 was successfully obviated by
government relief and public works, though at an enormous
cost; the gaekwar of Baroda was dethroned in 1875 for mis-
government and disloyalty, while his dominions were continued
to a nominated child of the family; and the prince of Wales
(Edward VII.) visited the country in the cold season of 1875-1876.
Lord Lytton followed Lord Northbrook in 1876. On the ist of
January 1877 Queen Victoria was proclaimed empress of India
at a durbar of great magnificence, held on the historic "Ridge"
overlooking the Mogul capital Delhi. But, while the princes
and high officials of the country were flocking to this gorgeous
scene, the shadow of famine was already darkening over the south
of India. Both the monsoons of 1876 had failed to bring their
due supply of rain, and the season of 1877 was little better.
The consequences of this prolonged drought, which extended
from Cape Comorin to the Deccan, and subsequently invaded
northern India, were more disastrous than any similar calamity
4.16
INDIA
[UNDER THE CROWN
up to that time from the introduction of British rule. Despite
unparalleled importations of grain by sea and rail, despite the
most strenuous exertions of the government, which incurred a
total expenditure on this account of 1 1 millions sterling, the loss
of life from actual starvation and its attendant train of diseases
was lamentable. In the autumn of 1878 the affairs of Afghanistan
again forced themselves into notice. Shere Ali, the amir, who
had been hospitably entertained by Lord Mayo, was found to be
favouring Russian intrigues. A British envoy was refused
admittance to the country, while a Russian mission was received
with honour. This led to a declaration of war. British armies
advanced by three routes — the Khyber, the Kurram and the
Bolan — and without much opposition occupied the inner
entrances of the passes. Shere Ali fled to Afghan Turkestan, and
there died. A treaty was entered into with his son, Yakub Khan,
at Gandamak, by which the British frontier was advanced to
the crests or farther sides of the passes and a British officer was
admitted to reside at Kabul. Within a few months the British
resident, Sir Louis Cavagnari, was treacherously attacked and
massacred, together with his escort, and a second war became
necessary. Yakub Khan abdicated, and was deported to India,
while Kabul was occupied in force.
At this crisis of affairs a general election in England resulted
in a change of government. Lord Lytton resigned with the
Conservative ministry, and the marquis of Ripon was
Ripon nominated as his successor in 1880. Shortly after-
wards a British brigade was defeated at Maiwand by
the Herati army of Ayub Khan, a defeat promptly and com-
pletely retrieved by the brilliant march of General Sir Frederick
Roberts from Kabul to Kandahar, and by the total rout of
Ayub Khan's army on the ist of September 1880. Abdur
Rahman Khan, the eldest male representative of the stock of
Dost Mahommed, was then recognized as amir of Kabul. Lord
Ripon was sent out to India by the Liberal ministry of 1880 for
the purpose of reversing Lord Lytton's policy in Afghanistan,
and of introducing a more sympathetic system into the adminis-
tration of India. The disaster at Maiwand, and the Russian
advance east of the Caspian, prevented the proposed withdrawal
from Quetta; but Kandahar was evacuated, Abdur Rahman
was left in complete control of his country and was given an
annual subsidy of twelve lakhs of rupees in 1883. In the second
purpose of his administration Lord Ripon's well-meant efforts
only succeeded in setting Europeans and natives against each
other. His term of office was chiefly notable for the agitation
against the Ilbert Bill, which proposed to subject European
offenders to trial by native magistrates. The measure aroused
a storm of indignation amongst the European community
which finally resulted in the bill being shorn of its most objection-
able features. Lord Ripon's good intentions and personal
sympathy were recognized by the natives, and on leaving
Bombay he received the greatest ovation ever accorded to an
Indian viceroy.
After the arrival of Lord Dufferin as governor-general the
incident known as the Panjdeh Scare brought Britain to the
verge of war with Russia. During the preceding
decades Russia had gradually advanced her power
from the Caspian across the Turkoman steppes to
the border of Afghanistan, and Russian intrigue was
largely responsible for the second Afghan war. In February
1884 Russia annexed Merv. This action led to an arrangement in
August of the same year for a joint Anglo-Russian commission to
delimit the Afghan frontier. In March 1885, while the commis-
sion was at work, Lord Dufferin was entertaining the amir
Abdur Rahman at a durbar at Rawalpindi. The durbar was
interrupted by the news that a Russian general had attacked
and routed the Afghan force holding the bridge across the river
Kushk, and the incident might possibly have resulted in war
between Britain and Russia but for the slight importance
that Abdur Rahman attributed to what he termed a border
scuffle.
The incident, however, led to military measures being taken
by the government of Lord Dufferin, which had far-reaching
effects on Indian finance. The total strength of the army was
raised by 10,000 British and 20,000 native troops, at an annual
cost of about two millions sterling; and the frontier
post of Quetta, in the neighbourhood of Kandahar,
was connected with the Indian railway system by
a line that involved very expensive tunnelling.
The Panjdeh incident was likewise the cause of the establish-
ment of Imperial Service tropps in India. At the moment when
war seemed imminent, the leading native princes
made offers of pecuniary aid. These offers were imperial
declined, but it was intimated to them at a later date troops.
that, if they would place a small military force in each
state at the disposal of the British government, to be commanded
by state officers, but drilled, disciplined and armed under the
supervision of British officers and on British lines, the government
would undertake to find the necessary supervising officer, arms
and organization. The proposal was widely accepted, and the
Imperial Service troops, as they are called, amount at present to
some 20,000 cavalry, infantry and transport, whose efficiency
is very highly thought of.- They have rendered good service in
the wars on the north-west frontier, and also in China and
Somaliland. Later in the same year (1885) occurred the third
Burmese war. For the causes of the dispute with King Thebaw,
and a description of the military operations which ensued
before the country was finally pacified, see BURMA.
From 1885 onwards the attention of the Indian government
was increasingly devoted to the north-west frontier. Between
the years 1885 and 1895 there were delimited at various times by
joint commissions the Russo-Afghan frontier between the Oxus
and Sarakhs on the Persian frontier, the Russo-Afghan frontier
from Lake Victoria to the frontier of China and the Afghan-
Indian frontier from the Kunar river to a point in the neighbour-
hood of the Nawa Kotal. To the westward, after various
disagreements and two military expeditions, the territories
comprising the Zhob, Barhan and Bori valleys, occupied by
Pathan tribes, were in 1890 finally incorporated in the general
system of the Trans-Indus protectorate. About the same time
in the extreme north the post of British resident in Gilgit was
re-established, and the supremacy of Kashmir over the adjoining
petty chiefships of Hunza-Nagar was enforced (1891-1892).
In 1893 the frontiers of Afghanistan and British India were
defined by a joint agreement between the two governments,
known as the Durand agreement. There followed on the part
of the British authorities, interference in Chitral, ending in an
expedition in 1895 and the ejection of the local chiefs in favour
of candidates amenable to British influence. A more formidable
hostile combination, however, awaited the government of India.
By the agreement of 1893 with the amir most of the Waziri clan
and also the Afridis had been left outside the limits of the amir's
influence and transferred to the British zone. Soon after that
date the establishment by the British military authorities of
posts within the Waziri country led to apprehension on the part
of the local tribesmen. In 1895 the occupation of points within
the Swat territory for the safety of the road from India to
Chitral similarly roused the suspicion of the Swatis. The
Waziris and Swatis successively rose in arms, in June and July
1897, and their example was followed by the Mohmands. Finally,
in August the powerful Afridi tribe joined the combination and
closed the Khyber Pass, which runs through their territory, and
which was held by them, on conditions, in trust for the govern-
ment of India. This led to the military operations known as
the Tirah campaign, which proved very costly both in men and
money.
Meanwhile considerable difficulties had been experienced
with the Indian currency, which was on a purely silver basis.
Before 1873 the fluctuations in the value of silver as
compared with gold had been comparatively small, currency.
and the exchange value of the rupee was rarely less
than two shillings. But after 1873, in consequence of changes
in the monetary systems of France and Germany, and the
increased production of silver, this stability of exchange no longer
continued, and the rupee sank steadily in value, till it was worth
COSTUME]
INDIA
417
little more than half its face value. This great shrinkage in
exchange caused considerable loss to the Indian government
in remitting to Europe, and entailed hardship upon Anglo-Indians
who received pensions or other payments in rupees, while on
the other hand it supplied an artificial stimulus to the export
trade by increasing the purchasing power of gold. This
advantage, however, was outweighed by the uncertainty as to
what the exchange value of the rupee might be at any particular
date, which imported a gambling element into commerce.
Accordingly in June 1893 an act was passed closing the Indian
mints to the free coinage of silver. Six years later, in 1899, the
change was completed by an act making gold legal tender at the
rate of £i for Rs.i5, or at the rate of is. 4d. per rupee, and both
the government and the individual now know exactly what
their obligations will be.
When Lord Curzon became viceroy in 1898, he reversed the
policy on the north-west frontier which had given rise to the
Tirah campaign, withdrew outlying garrisons in
Curzon's iT^a^ country, substituted for them tribal militia,
re "forms. and created the new North- West Frontier province,
for the purpose of introducing consistency of policy
and firmness of control upon that disturbed border. In addition,
after making careful inquiry through various commissions,
he reformed the systems of education and police, laid down a
comprehensive scheme of irrigation, improved the leave rules
and the excessive report-writing of the civil service, encouraged
the native princes by the formation of the Imperial Cadet Corps
and introduced many other reforms. His term of office was also
notable for the coronation durbar at Delhi in January 1903, the
expedition to Lhasa in 1904, which first unveiled that forbidden
city to European gaze, and the partition of Bengal in 1905.
In December 1904 Lord Curzon entered upon a second term of
office, which was unfortunately marred by a controversy with
Lord Kitchener, the commander-in-chief, as to the position of
the military member of council. Lord Curzon, finding himself
at variance with the secretary of state, resigned before the end
of the first year, and was succeeded by Lord Minto.
The new viceroy, who might have expected a tranquil time
after the energetic reforms of his predecessor, soon found himself
^ace to ^ace w'tk t^le most serious troubles, euphemistic-
ally called the "unrest," that British rule has had
The to encounter in India since the Mutiny. For many
unrest. years the educated class among the natives had been
claiming for themselves a larger share in the administration,
and had organized a political party under the name of the
National Congress, which held annual meetings at Christmas
in one or ether of the large cities of the peninsula. This class
also exercised a wide influence through the press, printed both
in the vernacular languages and in English, especially among
young students. There is no doubt too that the adoption of
Western civilization by the Japanese and their victorious war
with Russia set in motion a current through all the peoples of
the East. The occasion though not the cause of trouble arose
from the partition of Bengal, which was represented by Bengali
agitators as an insult to their mother country. While the first
riots occurred in the Punjab and Madras, it is only in Bengal
and eastern Bengal that the unrest has been bitter and con-
tinuous. This is the centre of the swadeshi movement for the
boycott of English goods, of the most seditious speeches and
writings and of conspiracies for the assassination of officials.
At first the government attempted to quell the disaffection by
means of the ordinary law, with fair success outside Bengal;
but there, owing to the secret ramifications of the conspiracy, it
has been found necessary to adopt special measures. Recourse
has been had to a regulation of the year'iSiS, by which persons
may be imprisoned or " deported " without reason assigned;
and three acts of the legislature have been passed for dealing
more directly with the prevalent classes of crime: (i) an
Explosives Act, containing provisions similar to those in force
in England; (2) a Prevention of Seditious Meetings Act, which
can only be applied specially by proclamation; and (3) a
Criminal Law Amendment Act, of which the two chief provisions
Mv. 14
Lord
Minto.
Reforms.
are — a magisterial inquiry in private (similar to the Scotch
procedure) and a trial before three judges of the High Court
without a jury.
While the law was thus sternly enforced, important acts of
conciliation and measures of reform were carried out simultane-
ously. In 1907 two natives, a Hindu and a Mahom-
medan, were appointed to the secretary of state's
council; and in 1909 another native, a Hindu barrister, was for
the first time appointed, as legal member, to the council of the
viceroy. Occasion was taken of the fiftieth anniversary of the
assumption by the crown of the government of India to address
a message (on November 2, 1908) by the king-emperor to the
princes and peoples, reviewing in stately language the later
development, and containing these memorable words: —
" From the first, the principle of representative institutions began
to be gradually introduced, and the time has come when, in the
judgment of my viceroy and governor-general and others of my
counsellors, that principle may be prudently extended. Important
classes among you, representing ideas that have been fostered and
encouraged by British rule, claim equality of citizenship, and a
greater share in legislation and government. The politic satisfaction
of such a claim will strengthen, not impair, existing authority and
power. Administration will be all the more efficient if the officers
who conduct it have greater opportunities of regular contact with
those whom it affects and with those who influence and reflect
common opinion about it."
The policy here adumbrated was (at least partly) carried
into effect by parliament in the Indian Councils Act 1909,
which reconstituted all the legislative councils by the addition
of members directly elected, and conferred upon these councils
wider powers of discussion. It further authorized the addition
of two members to the executive councils at Madras and Bombay,
and the creation of an executive council in Bengal and also
(subject to conditions) in other provinces under a lieutenant-
governor. Regulations for bringing the act into operation were
issued by the governor-general in council, with the approval
of the secretary of state, in November 1909. They provided
(inter alia) for a non-official majority in all of the provincial
councils, but not in that of the governor-general; for an elaborate
system of election of members by organized constituencies; for
nomination where direct election is not appropriate; and for
the separate representation of Mahommedans and other special
interests. They also contain provisions authorizing the asking
of supplementary questions, the moving and discussion of
resolutions on any matter of public interest and the annual
consideration of the contents of the budget. In brief, the
legislative councils were not only enlarged, but transformed
into debating bodies, with the power of criticizing the executive.
The first elections took place during December 1909, with results
that showed wide-spread interest and were generally accepted
as satisfactory. The new council of the governor-general met
in the following month.
AUTHORITIES. — Vincent A. Smith, The Early History of India
(Oxford, 1904., and ed., 1908) ; and Asoka (" Rulers of India series,
Oxford, 1901); J. W. McCrindle, Ancient India (1901); T. W. Rhys
Davids, Buddhist India (1903); Imperial Gazetteer of India (1907-
1909); Sir J. Campbell, Gazetteer of Bombay (1896); Stanley Lane-
Poole, Medieval India (" Story of the Nations " series, 1903); The
Mohammedan Dynasties (1894) and The Mogul Emperors (1892);
H. C. Fanshawe, Delhi Past and Present (1902); Sir H. M. Elliot,
History of India as told by its own Historians (1867). For the " un-
rest," its causation and history, see the series of articles in The Times,
beginning July 16, 1910. (W. W. H.; J. S. Co.)
INDIAN COSTUME
Personal attire in India so far resembles a uniform that a
resident can tell from a garb alone the native place, religion
and social standing of the wearer. This is still true, though the
present facility of intercommunication has had its effect in
tending to assimilate the appearance of natives. Together
with costume it is necessary to study the methods of wearing
the hair, for each race adopts a different method.
The population of India, of which the main divisions are
religious, falls naturally into four groups, (i) Mahommedans,
(2) Hindus, (3) Sikhs, (4) Parsees. To these may be added
5
8
INDIA
[COSTUME
aboriginal races such as Bhils, Sonthals, Gonds, &C., whose
costume is chiefly noticeable from its absence.
Mahommedan Men. — Apart from the two sects, Sunnis and
Shias, whose garb differs in some respects, there are four families
of Moslems, viz. Pathans, Moguls, Syeds and Sheiks. The first
came to India with Sultan Mahmud Ghaznavi in A.D. 1002;
the second are of Tatar origin and came to India with Baber;
the Syeds claim descent from Mahomet, while Sheiks comprise
all other Mussulmans, including converted Hindus. It is now
no longer possible to distinguish these families by their turbans
as was formerly the case.
Hair. — In the had is, or traditional sayings of Mahomet other
than those to be found in the Koran, it is laid down that the
head is to be shaved and the beard to be allowed to grow naturally
to " a legal " length, i.e. 7 or 8 in. long. This is known as
fitrah or the custom of prophets. The beard is frequently dyed
with henna and indigo for much the same reasons as in Europe
by elderly men; this is entirely optional. The wearing of
whiskers while shaving the chin was a Mogul fashion of the I7th
and 1 8th centuries and is now seldom seen except among Deccani
Mahommedans. The mustachios must not grow below the line
of the upper lip, which must be clearly seen; a division or parting
is made below the nose. The lower lip is also carefully kept
clear. Hair under the arms or elsewhere on the body except
the breast is always removed.
Mahommedan clothing for indoor wear consists of three pieces:
(a) Head-dress, (b) body-covering, (c) covering for the legs.
Head-dress. — This is of two kinds: the turban and the cap.
The former is chiefly worn in northern India, the latter in Oudh
and the United Provinces. What is known in Europe as a turban
(from the Persian sarband, a binding for the head) is in India
divided into two classes. The first, made of a single piece of
cloth 20 to 30 in. wide and from 6 to 9 yds. long, is bound round
the head from right to left or from left to right indifferently
and quite simply, so as to form narrow angles over the forehead
and at the back. This form is called amamah (Arabic), dastar
(Persian), shimla or shamld, safd, lu'ngi, seld, rumdl, or dopaltd.
The terms amamah and dastar are used chiefly with reference
to the turbans of priests and ulema, that is learned and religious
persons. They are usually white; formerly Syeds wore them
of green colour. They are never of bright hue. The lungi is
made of cloth of a special kind manufactured mostly in Ludhiana.
It is generally blue and has an ornamented border. In the case
of Pathans and sometimes of Punjabi Moslems it is bound round
a tall red conical cap called a kullah (Plate I. fig. i) . The ends are
frequently allowed tc hang down over the shoulders, and are called
shimla or shamla, terms which also apply to the whole head-dress.
The names safa, sela, » umal and dopatta are sometimes given to
this form of turban. Ihe sela is gaudier and more ornamental
generally; it is worn by the nobles and wealthier classes.
The second form of the turban is known as the pagri.1 This
head-dress is of Hindu origin but is much worn by Mahommedans.
It is a single piece of cloth 6 to 8 in. wide, and of any length from
i o to 50 yds. The methods of binding the pagri are innumerable,
each method having a distinctive name as arabi (Arab fashion) ;
mansabi (official fashion, much used in the Deccan) ; mushakhi
(sheik fashion); chakridar (worn by hadjis, that is those who
have made the pilgrimage to Mecca); khirki-dar (a fashion of
piling the cloth high, adopted by retainers of great men) ; latudar
(top-shaped, worn by kdyaslhs or writers); joridar (the cloth
twisted into rope shape) (Plate I. fig. 6) ; siparali ( shield-shaped,
worn by the Shia sect) ; murassa, or nastalikh (ornately bound) ,
latpati (carelessly bound) (Plate I. fig. 4). Many other fashions
which it would be difficult to describe can best be learned by
studying pictures with the help of a competent teacher. The
chird is a pagri of checked cloth. The mandtt is of gold or
highly ornamented cloth; it is worn by nobles and persons of
distinction.
The cap or topi is not bound round the head, but is placed
1 This has been Englished by Anglo-Indians into " puggaree " or
" pugree " and applied to a scarf of white cotton or silk wound round
a hat or helmet as a protection against the sun.
upon it. It is made of cut and sewn cloth. Some varieties are
dopallari, a skull-cap; kishtinuma, or boat-shaped cap; goltopi,
a round cap of the kind known in England as "pork-pie";
bezwi, or egg-shaped cap; sigoshid, or three-cornered cap;
chaugoshia, or four-cornered cap; tdjddr, or crown-shaped cap;
&c. Many other caps are named after the locality of manufacture
or some peculiarity of make, e.g. Kashmire-kitopi; jhdlarddr,
fringed cap, &c.
A form of cap much worn in Bengal and western India is
known as Irani kullah, or Persian cap. It is made of goatskin
and is shaped like a tdrbush but has no tassel. The cap worn in
cold weather is called top, topa, or kantop (ear-cover) (Plate I.
fig. 2) ; these are sometimes padded with cotton. Caps are much
worn by Mussulmans of Delhi, Agra, Lucknow and other cities
of the United provinces!
The tdrbush or tiirki-topi was introduced into India by Sir Sayyid
Ahmad (Plate I. fig. 3). It must not be confused with the Moorish
" fez," which is skull-shaped. The tdrbush is of Greek origin
and was adopted by Sultan Mahmud of Turkey in the early
part of the igth century" To remove the head-dress of whatever
kind is, in the East, an act of discourtesy; to strike it off is a
deep insult.
Clothing. — The following rules from the hadith or traditional
sayings of the prophet are noteworthy: — " Wear white garments,
for verily they are full of cleanliness, and pleasant to the eye."
" It is lawful for the woman of my people to clothe herself in
silken garments, and to wear ornaments of gold; but it is
forbidden to man: any man who shall wear silken garments
in this world, shall not wear them in the next." " God will not
be merciful to him who through vanity wears long trousers "
(i.e. reaching below the ankle). The foregoing rules are now
only observed by the ultra-orthodox, such as the WahabI sect
and by ulemas, or learned elderly men. The Mogul court of
Delhi, especially during the reign of Mahommed Shah, nick-
named Rangila or the " dandy," greatly influenced change in
these matters. Coloured clothing, gold ornaments and silken
raiment began to be worn commonly by Mussulman men in his
reign.
For the upper part of the body the principal article of clothing
is the kurtd. The Persian name for this is pairahan and the
Arabic kamis, whence "chemise." This kurtd is the equivalent
for the shirt of Europe. It is usually of white cotton, and has
the opening or gold in front, at the back, or on either side in-
differently. It was formerly fastened with strings, but now
with the ghundi (the old form of button) and tukmah or loop.
In southern India, Gujarat and in the United Provinces the
kurtd is much the same as to length and fit as the English shirt ;
as the traveller goes northward from Delhi to the Afghan border
he sees the kurtd becoming longer and looser till he finds the
Pathan wearing it almost to his ankles, with very full wide
sleeves. The sleeves are everywhere long and are sometimes
fastened with one or two buttons at the wrist.
Mussulmans always wear some form of trousers. They are
known as izdr (Arabic) or pa'ejama* (Persian). This article
of clothing is sometimes loose, sometimes tight all the way,
sometimes loose as far as the knee and tight below like Jodhpur
riding breeches. They are fastened round the waist with a
scarf or string called kamarband (waistband) or izdrband, and
are usually of white cotton. The varieties of cut are sharai or
canonical, orthodox, which reach to the ankles and fit as close
to the leg as European trousers; rumi or ghardreddr, which
reach to the ankles but are much wider than European trousers
(this pattern is much worn by the Shias); and tang or chust,
reaching to the ankles, .from which to the knee they fit quite
close. When this last kind is " rucked " at the ankle it is called
churiddr (Plate I. fig. 4). They are sometimes buttoned at the
ankle, especially in the Meerut district. The shalwdr pattern,
1 Anglicized as " pyjamas " (in America " pajamas "), the term
is used of a form of night-wear for men which has now generally
superseded the night-shirt. This consists of a loose coat and trousers
of silk, wool or other material; the trousers are fastened by a cord
round the waist.
INDIA
PLATE I.
FIG. I. — Punjabi Mahommcdan wearing lungi
bound round a red or gold kullah.
FIG. 4. — Punjabi Mahommedan wearing
pagri, with shimla, achkan izar or
paejamas.
FIG. 2. — Mahommedan Saint, pir, wearing
the kantop, ear-cap.
\
•
FIG. 5. — Bombay or Gujarati Bora wearing
white and gold turban with red top.
FIG. 3. — Student of the Aligarh College
wearing the tarbush.
FIG. 5. — Mahommcdan Jat cultivators. Wife:
— with izar, kurta, and orhni or chadar;
husband : — with majba, chadar, and joridar
FIG. 7. — The Pars! khoka, a tall hat of FIG. 8. — Parsi woman wear- FIG. 9. — Parsi schoolgirl.
glazed chintz. ing Parsi sari and matha-
bana or white hair cover.
FIG. 10. — Parsi pith hat with felt brim.
XIV. 418.
From Pen and Ink Drawings by J. Lockwood Kipling, C.l.E.
PLATE II.
INDIA
FIG. I. — Deccan Brahman wearing pagri,
dhoti or pitamber, anga and dopatta.
FlG. 2. — Brahman wearing dhoti and janeo or
sacred thread. This is the dining and
sacrificial dress of most Hindus.
FIG.
3. — Rajput wearing chapkan, which
is worn both by Mussulmans and
Hindus, buttoning on different sides.
FIG. 4. — Hindu woman showing
method of wearing the sari.
•~-jf
FIG. 5. — Bengali Babii wearing the most popular form of FIG. 6.— Sikh devotee, Akali or
the embroidered cap. Nihung, vowed to the wearing
of blue and steel, &c.
From Pen and Ink Drawings by J. Lock-wood Kipling, C.I.B.
COSTUME]
INDIA
419
very large round the waist and hanging in folds, is worn by
Pathans, Baluchis, Sindis, Multanis, &c.
The new fashion in vogue amongst the younger generation
of Mussulman is called the ikbdrah or patalunnumd, which is
like the European trousers. They are usually made of calico;
they have no buttons but are fastened with string (kamarband).
Bathing drawers are called ghulannah and reach to the knee.
The tight drawers worn by wrestlers are called janghiah.
Garments for outdoor wear are the angd, or angarkha, the
chapkan, the achkan or sherwdni; the angd, a coat with full
sleeves, is made of any material, white or coloured. It is slit
at the sides, has perpendicularly cut side-pockets, and is fastened
with strings just below the breast. It is opened on the right
or left side according to local custom. The angd is now considered
old-fashioned, and is chiefly worn by elderly men or religious
persons. It is still not uncommon in Delhi, Agra, Lucknow and
at native courts, but is being superseded by the achkan (Plate I.
fig. 4) , which is buttoned straight down the front. Both angd and
achkan reach to a little below the knee, as also does the chapkan,
a relic of Mogul court dress, best known as the shield-like and
highly adorned coat worn by government chaprasis (Plate II.
fig. 3). Over the angd is sometimes worn an overcoat called a
chogd; this is made of any material, thick or thin, plain or orna-
mented; it has one or two fastenings only, loops below the
breast whence it hangs loosely to below the knees. The chogd is
sometimes known by its Arabic names aba or kabd, terms applied
to it when worn by priests or ulemas. In cold weather Pathans
and other border residents wear posleens, sleeved coats made of
sheepskin with the woolly side in. In India farther south in cold
weather an overcoat called dagld is worn ; this is an angd padded
with cotton wool. A padded chogd is called labddd; when
very heavily padded farghul. Whereas the European wears his
waistcoat under his coat, the Indian wears his over his angd or
chapkan (not over the achkan). A sleeveless waistcoat generally
made of silk is called a sadari; when it has half sleeves it is
called nimdstln; the full-sleeved waistcoat worn in winter
padded with cotton is called mirzdi. For ceremonial purposes
a coat called jdmd is worn. This fits closely as to the upper part
of the body, but flows loosely below the waist. It is generally
white, and is fastened in front by strings.
In Gujarat and other parts of western India are to be found
classes of Moslems who differ somewhat from those met with
elsewhere, such as Memans, Boras and Khojas. The first
are Sunnis; the two last Shias. Memans wear (i) a gold
embroidered skull-cap, (2) a long kamis fastened at the neck
with 3 or 4 buttons on a gold chain, (3) sadariya, i.e. a tight
waistcoat without sleeves, fastened in front with small silk
buttons and loops, (4) an over-waistcoat called shdyd-sadriya
instead of the angd, with sleeves, and slits at the sides (probably
of Arab origin). When he does not wear a skull-cap his amdmdh
is made after the arched Arab form, or is a Kashmir scarf wound
round a skull-cap made of Java straw. The Bora adopts one
of four forms of pagri; the Ujjain, a small neatly bound one;
the Ahmaddbdd, a loose high one; the Surat, fuller and higher
than the Ujjain pattern (Plate I. fig. 5) ; or the Kathidwddd, a
conical turban with a gold stripe in the middle of the cone. The
Bora wears the angd, otherwise he resembles the Meman. The
Khoja wears a pagri smaller than the Meman's, called a Moghaldi
phentd; this leaves a portion of the head bare at the back. The
material is always of kashida, a kind of embroidered cloth.
Amongst Mahommedans only Pathans wear ear-rings.
MAHOMMEDAN WOMEN. Head-dress. — The rupatta (also called
dopatta), or veil, is of various colours and materials. Its length
is about 3 yds., its width about 15. It is worn over the head
and thrown over the left shoulder. It is considered essential
to modesty to cover the head. This head-dress is also known
as orhna, orhni, pochan, pochni (Baluchistan and western India)
chundri, reo (Sind), sipatta, takrai or chadar (Pathan). Among
the poorer classes it is called pacholi. Farther south in India
when of thicker material it is called chadar or chaddar. It is
called pachedi, potra or maldyd by Meman, Bora and Khoja
women. As a rule married women wear brighter colours than
unmarried ones. In Kashmir a small round cap, goltopi, is worn.
The kassawa is a handkerchief bound over the head and tied at
the back, and is worn by Mahommedan women indoors to keep
the hair tidy; Mahommedan women plait their hair and let
it hang down behind (Plate I. fig. 6).
Clothing. — A short jacket fastened at the back and with
short sleeves is worn. It may be of any material. In Sind,
Gujarat and other parts of western India it is called a choli.
It is also very generally known as angiyd. Other common
names are mahram and sindband (breast-cover). The kurtd is a
sort of sleeveless shirt, open in front and reaching to the waist.
It may be of any material. When this is worn with the angiya
it is worn over it. This combination of dress is worn only by
young married women. In Kashmir and northern India
generally the angiya is not worn, and the kurtd is worn instead.
This is like the kamis of the man, already described; it has
full sleeves, is open at the front, which is embroidered, and
reaches to the knee or lower. Among Pathans there are two
kinds of kurtd (kamis or khat); one worn by married women
called girdddnd khat is dark red or blue, embroidered with silk
in front; the j aland khat worn by unmarried women is less
conspicuous for colour and ornament. A large pocket (jeb) is
often sewn on in front like the Highlander's sporran.
The Pa'ejdmds, also called izdr, are cut like those of men, and
known by the same names. They differ only in being of silk or
other fine material and being coloured (Plate I. fig. 6). Among
Pathans they are called partog or partek (pardek), and those of
unmarried girls are of white, while married women wear them of
susi , a kind of coloured silk or cotton. As a general rule the wear-
ing of paijdmds is the chief distinction between Mussulman and
Hindu women. In the Shahpur and other districts, however,
where Mahommedans have followed Hindu customs, Moslem
women wear the majld, a cloth about 3 yds. long by 15 wide tied
tightly round the waist so as to fall in folds over the legs. Even
Mahommedan men sometimes wear the majld in these districts.
This form of dress is known among Moslems as tahband [lower
binding] (Plate I. fig. 6) . In Rajputana, Gujarat and the southern
Punjab, Mahommedan women sometimes wear a Ihenga or ghagra
skirt without trousers; in the Sirsa district and parts of Gujarat
the ghagra is worn over the trousers. The sadari or waistcoat
is worn by women as well as men. The tillak or peshwaz is a
dress or robe the skirt and bodice of which are made in one piece,
usually of red or other coloured material; it is common in
Gujarat, Rajputana and the Sirsa district, and is the style usually
adopted by nautch girls when dancing. Meman women wear also
the aba, or overcoat, which differs from that worn by men in
that it has loose half sleeves, and fastens with two buttons at
each side of the neck over the shoulders; it is embroidered
on the breast, and adorned with gold lace on the skirts.
In Delhi, Lucknow, Agra and other towns in the Punjab
and the United Provinces a special wedding dress is worn by the
bride, called rlt-kdjord, the " dress of custom." It is worn on the
wedding night only; and it is a rule that no scissors are employed
in making it. The trouser string of this dress is not the usual
kamarband, but is made of untwisted cotton thread called
kaldwd. Out of doors Mahommedan women wear the burkd,
a long loose white garment entirely covering the head and body.
It has two holes for the eyes. Mahommedan women pencil the
eyes with kohl or surma, use missi for the teeth and colour the
palms and nails of the hand with henna. A nose-ring is a sign
of marriage.
HINDUS. — Caste does not influence dress amongst Hindus
as much as might be expected. The garment distinctive of the
Hindus of all castes, men and women, all over India, is the dhoti
or loin cloth. It is a very ancient dress, and their gods are
represented as clothed in it in old sculptures.
The general term used for clothing is kaprd, laid or lugd.
Under Mahommedan influence Hindu clothing developed into
" suits," consisting of five pieces for men, hence called pancho
tuk kapra — (i) head-dress, (2) dhoti, (3) coat, (4) chaddar or
sheet, (5) bathing cloth; and three for women, hence called
tin tuk — (i) dhoti, (2) jacket, (3) shawl.
420
INDIA
[COSTUME
Men. — The Hindu (except the Rajput) shaves his head, leaving
only a top-knot on the point of the skull. He shaves the face
(except the eye-brows) and his body. The Rajput wears a full
beard and whiskers, usually parted in the middle. He sometimes
draws the beard and whiskers to the side of the head, and to
keep it tidy wraps round it a cloth called dhdtd or galmochd.
Head-dress. — Hindus wear sometimes turbans and sometimes
caps. When the turban is worn it is always of the pagri form,
never the amamah. Hindus wind the pagri in various ways as
described for Mussulmans, but the angles are formed over the
ears and not from front to back. Mahrattas wear flat red
pagris, with a small conical peak variously shaped and placed.
The pagri is known in different parts of India as pdg, phentd,
phag, phagdi and many other names. In Bengal a sort of turban
is worn which can be taken off like a hat. When Hindus wear
caps or topis they resemble those worn by Mahommedans, but
they never wear the fez, tdrbush or irdni topi. In Gaya a peculiar
cap made of tal leaves is worn in rainy weather, called ghungd.
Bengalis, whether Brahmans or of other castes, frequently go
bareheaded.
Body Clothing. — The dhoti is a simple piece of cloth (cotton),
generally white. It is wound round the loins, the end passed
between the legs from front to back and tucked in at the waist
behind (Plate II. fig. 2). Thesmall form of dhoti worn by men of
the lower class is called langoti. It does not fall below mid-thigh.
A Brahman's dhoti, as also that of some other castes, reaches to
a little below the knee; a Rajput's to his ankles. The dhoti is
known under many names, dhutia, pitambar, lungi, &c. In some
parts of India half the dhoti only is wound round the loins, the
other half being thrown over the left shoulder. Some upper classes
of Hindus wear for coat the kurta; most wear the angharkd
(Plate II. fig. i), a short angd reaching to the waist. It is also
known as kamri, baktari, badan or bandi. Hindus wear the ang-
harkhd or angd as Mahommedans do, but whereas theMahommedan
has the opening on the left the Hindu wears it on the right. When
the kurta is worn it is worn under the angd. The chaddar (chadar
or dopatta) is of various kinds. It is a piece of cotton cloth 3 yds.
long by i yd. wide. It is worn across the shoulders, or wrapped
round the body, but when bathing, round the loins. Hindus,
both men and women, wear ear-rings.
The Brahminical thread (janeo) (Plate II. fig. 2) is a cord made of
twisted cotton prepared with many ceremonies. It is worn over
the left shoulder and hangs down to the right hip. It is of three
strands till the wearer is married, when it becomes six or nine.
It is 96 handbreadths in length, and is knotted. Rajputs also
wear this thread, similar in make and length, but the knots are
different.
Caste and sect marks also distinguish Hindus from each other.
Women. — The hair is sometimes worn plaited (choti), usually
an odd number of thin plaits made into one large one, falling
down the back and fastened at the end with ribbons. Another
style is wearing it in a knot after the ancient Grecian fashion;
it is always worn smooth in front and parted in the middle.
Over the head is worn the orhna or veil. The end is thrown over
the left shoulder in such a manner as to conceal the breast.
On the upper part of the body the kurta is sometimes worn.
A bodice called angiyd is worn. This covers the breast and
shoulder; it has half sleeves, is very short, and is fastened at
the back with strings.
The skirt is called Ihenga or ghagra. It is worn mostly in
Rajputana hanging in full flounces to the knee or a little below.
In Bengal, Madras and Bombay Presidencies women do not wear
a skirt, only a choli and sari. This last is a long piece of cotton
or silk cloth. Half is draped round the waist and hangs to the
feet in folds; the remainder is passed over the head and thrown
over the left shoulder (Plate II. fig. 4).
SIKH. — The Sikh does not shave or cut his hair. The beard
is parted in the middle and carried up each side of the face to
the top of the head. A piece of cloth called dhata or galmochd
is wound round the chin and head so as to keep the hair clean
and tidy. The hair of the head is tied into a knot (kes) at the
top of the head or at the back, a distinguishing mark of the
Sikh. His religion requires the Sikh to carry five articles — kes,
the knot of hair on the head; the kanga, a comb; the kard, a
knife; the kach, a pair of short trousers peculiar to the Sikh;
and the khara, an iron bangle on the wrist. It is de rigueur
that he should carry some piece of iron on his person. His head-
dress he calls a pdg; it is a turban of amamah shape but enorm-
ously large. The Sikh nobility and gentry wear two turbans,
either both of pagri form or one of pagri and one of amamah
form. Each is of a different colour.
The Sikh calls his kurta jhaggd; it is very large and loose,
bound with a scarf round the waist. The kach is a sort of knicker-
bockers reaching to just below the knee, which they encircle
tightly. Over all the Sikh wears the choga. In outlying villages
he wears instead of the kurta a chadar or cloth, which he calls
khes, on the upper part of his body. Some village Sikhs wear
a lahband or waistcloth instead of the kach. Sikhs are fond of
jewelry and wear ear-rings. The dress of Sikh women does not
differ greatly from that of Hindu women; but in the Sirsa
district and some other parts she wears the Mahommedan
sutan or trousers, under the Ihenga or skirt. There is a small
sect of Sikh known as Akali or Nihang. Their dress is entirely
of dark blue colour, the turban being also blue, high and pointed;
on it are fastened three steel quoits. The quoit was the ancient
weapon of the Sikh, who calls it chakar. Certain steel blades
are stuck through the body of the turban. The Akalis also
wear large flat iron rings round the neck and arms (Plate II.
fig. 6).
PARSIS. — When the Parsis were first admitted into India,
certain, conditions were imposed upon them by the Hindus;
among others they were not to eat beef, and they were to follow
the Hindu custom of wearing a top-knot of hair. Old-fashioned
Parsis in country districts still follow these customs. To uncover
the head is looked upon as a sin; hence Parsis of both sexes
always wear some head covering whether indoors or out. In
the house the man wears a skull cap; out of doors the older
Parsis wear the khoka, a tall hat, higher in front than at the
back, made of a stiff shiny material, with a diaper pattern
(Plate I. fig. 7). The younger generation adopted a round pith
hat with a rolled edge of felt, but, under the influence of the
swadeshi movement, they have generally reverted to the older
form (Plate I. fig. 10). Next to the skin the Parsi wears a
sadra or sacred shirt, with a girdle called kasti. Over the sadra a
white cotton coat is worn, reaching to a little below the waist.
The Parsi wears loose cotton trousers like a Mussulman. In
country districts he wears a jama, and over the jama a pechodi
or shoulder cloth. The young Parsi in Bombay has adopted
European dress to a great extent, except as to head-gear. The
Parsi woman dresses her hair in the old Greek fashion with a
knot behind. She also wears a sadra or sacred shirt. Country
Parsis in villages wear a tight-fitting sleeveless bodice, and
trousers of coloured cloth. Over all she winds a silken sari or
sheet round the body; it is then passed between the legs and
the end thrown over the right shoulder. Out of doors she covers
her head and right temple (Plate I. fig. 8). In towns the sari
is not passed between the legs, but hangs in loose folds so as to
hide the trousers. The upper classes wear a sleeved polka jacket
instead of the bodice. Parsi children up to the age of seven
wear cotton frocks called jabhlan. They wear long white
trousers of early Victorian cut, with frills at the bottom. They
wear a round cap like a smoking-cap. The little girls wear their
hair flowing loose (Plate I. fig. 9).
SHOES. — There is no distinction between the shoes worn by
Hindus, Moslems, Sikhs or Parsis, but Hindus will not wear
them when made of cow's leather. Shoes are called jula, juti
or jute by Mahommedans, and jore or zore by Hindus. Shoes
are usually distinguished by the name of the material, as ndri
kdjuid, leather shoes, banatijutd, felt shoes, and so on.
There are innumerable styles of cut of shoe, three being the
commonest: (i) Salimshahi, these are shaped like English
slippers, but are pointed at the toe, terminating in a thin wisp
turned back and fastened to the instep. They are mostly made
of thin re'd leather, plain in the case of poorer people and richly
INDIA, FRENCH— INDIANA
421
embroidered in the case of rich people. This cut of shoe is most
in vogue amongst Moslems. (2) Gol panje ki juti, like English
slippers, but rounded at the toes. (3) Ghelta or nagphani (snake's
head) juta, the toe is turned up, while the back part is folded
inwards and trodden under the heel. Ladies usually wear
shoes of this fashion, known as phiri juti. Women's shoes differ
only in size and in being made of finer material, and in being
embroidered. Hindu women seldom wear shoes. On the
northern frontier the pattern known as the kafshi is worn; this
is a slipper having neither sides nor back; the sole towards the
heel is narrow and raised by a small iron-shod heel. In the hills
shoes resembling sandals, called chaplis, made of wood, straw
or grass are worn. The soles are very thick, and are secured
with straps; there is generally a loop for the big toe. They
are known as phulkarru in Kashmir, and pula in Kulu and
Chamba.
Shoes are invariably removed on entering mosques or other
holy places. It is also customary to remove them when entering
a house. Orientals sit on the floor in preference to" chairs; hence
it is thought very necessary by them that the carpet should be
kept clean, which could not be done were persons to keep their
shoes on. While it would be considered a breach of good manners
to enter a room with the shoes on, an exception has been made
in favour of those natives who have adopted European boots
or shoes. The babus of Bengal have taken to English-made
shoes of patent leather worn over white socks or stockings.
AUTHORITIES. — The Indian section of the Victoria and Albert
Museum (London) includes an exhibition of oriental dress; and the
library of the India Office many prints and photographs. The following
books may be consulted : Coloured Drawings illustrating the Manners
and Customs of Natives of India (originally prepared by order of the
marquess Wellesley, Governor-General; vide Council minute dated
l6th August, 1866) (i vol.); J. Forbes Watson and J. W. Kaye,
The People of India; F. Baltazar Solvyns, Les Hindous (4 vols.
illustrated, Paris, 1808); India Office Library, 3 small portfolios of
pictures of Katch and Bombay men and women; Costume of Bala
Ghat (Carnatic), S.E. India (large water-colours, India Office
Library) ; Illustrations of various trades in Kashmir, by Indian
artists (India Office Library); R. H. Thalbhoy, Portrait Gallery of
Western India (1886) (chiefly portraits of Parsi notables); Edward
Tuite Dalton, C.S.I., Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal (l vol., 1872);
Talboys Wheeler, History of the Imperial Assembly at Delhi, 1st
January 1877; Queen Victoria's Jubilee, 6th February 1887
(in Urdu, illustrated); T. H. Hendley, C.I.E., V.D., Rulers of
India and Chiefs of Rajputana (London, 1897) — the last three are
useful for the study of ceremonial dress; G. A. Grierson, Bihar
Peasant Life (Calcutta, 1 885 ; this is a most valuable work of learning
and research; in division 2, subdivision 3, chapter I, on clothes, will
be found names and descriptions of every article of clothing used in
south, central and eastern India); H. B. Baden-Powell, Handbook
of Manufactures and Arts of the Punjab (Lahore, 1872); W.W. Hunter,
Statistical Account of Bengal (1875); Hughes' Dictionary of Islam
(London, 1895); Sir Denzil Ibbetson, Outlines of Punjab Ethno-
graphy; E. Thurston, Castes and Tribes of Southern India. It is
to be hoped that steps will shortly be taken to arrange articles of
costume now displayed at the Indian Section, Victoria and Albert
Museum, in some systematic order so as to assist students in arriving
at a scientific knowledge of the subject. (C.G.)
INDIA, FRENCH, a general name for the French possessions
in India — on the Coromandel coast, Pondicherry, Karikal and
Yanaon; on the Malabar coast, Mahe; and in Bengal, Chander-
nagore. In addition there are a few " lodges " elsewhere, but
they are merely nominal remnants of French factories. The
total area amounts to 203 sq. m., of which 113 sq. m. belong to
the territory of Pondicherry. In 1901 the total population
amounted to 273,185. By decree of the 25th of January 1879
French India was provided with an elective general council
and elective local councils. The results of this measure have
not been very satisfactory, and the qualifications for and the
classes of the franchise have been modified. The governor
resides at Pondicherry, and is assisted by a council. There are
two tribunals of first instance (at Pondicherry and Karikal),
one court of appeal (at Pondicherry) and five justices of the
peace. The agricultural produce consists of rice, earth-nuts,
tobacco, betel nuts and vegetables.
History. — The first French expedition to India is believed
to have taken place in the reign of Francis I., when two ships
were fitted out by some merchants of Rouen to trade in eastern
seas; they sailed from Havre in that year and were never
afterwards heard of. In 1604 a company was granted letters
patent by Henry IV., but the project failed. Fresh letters patent
were issued in 1615, and two ships went to India, only one
returning. La Compagnie des Indes was formed under the auspices
of Richelieu (1642) and reconstructed under Colbert (1664),
sending an expedition to Madagascar. In 1667 the French
India Company sent out another expedition, which reached
Surat in 1668, where the first French factory in India was
established. In 1672 Saint Thome was taken, but the French
were driven out by the Dutch and retired to Pondicherry (1674).
In 1741 Dupleix became governor of Pondicherry and in 1744
war broke out between France and England; for the remaining
history of the French in India see INDIA.
See Haurigot, French India (Paris, 1887); Henrique, Les Colonies
franqaises (Paris, 1889); Lee, French Colonies (Foreign Office Report,
1900); L'Annee coloniale (Paris, 1900); and F. C. Danvers, Records
of the India Office (1887).
INDIANA, a north-central state of the United States of
America, the second state to be erected from the old North- West
Territory; popularly known as the " Hoosier State." It is
located between latitudes 37° 47' and 41° 50' N. and longitudes
84° 49' and 88° 2' W. It is bounded on the N. by Michigan
and Lake Michigan, on the E. by Ohio, on the S. by Kentucky
from which it is separated by the Ohio river, and on the W. by
Illinois. Its total area is 36,350 sq. m., of which 440 sq. m. are
water surface.
Physiography. — Topographically, Indiana is similar to Ohio and
Illinois, the greater part of its surface being undulating prairie land,
with a range of sand-hills in the N. and a chain of picturesque and
rocky hills, known as " Knobs," some of which rise to a height of
500 ft., in the southern counties along the Ohio river. This southern
border of hills is the edge of the " Cumberland Plateau " physio-
graphic province. In the northern portion of the state there are a
number of lakes, of glacial origin, of which the largest are English
Lake in Stark county, James Lake and Crooked Lake in Steuben
county, Turkey Lake and Tippecanoe Lake in Kosciusko county and
Lake Maxinkuckee in Marshall county. In the limestone region of the
south there are numerous caves, the most notable being Wyandotte
Cave in Crawford county, next to Mammoth Cave the largest in the
United States. In the southern and south-central part of the state,
particularly in Orange county, there are many mineral springs, of
which the best known are those at French Lick and West Baden.
The larger streams flow in a general south-westerly direction, and the
greater part of the state is drained into the Ohio through the Wabash
river and its tributaries. The Wabash, which has a total length of
more than 500 m., has its head waters in the western part of Ohio, and
flows in a north-west, south-west, and south direction across the state,
emptying into the Ohio river and forming for a considerable distance
the boundary between Indiana and Illinois. It is navigable for river
steamboats at high water for about 350 m. of its course. Its principal
tributaries are the Salamanie, M ississinewa, Wild Cat, Tippecanoe
and White rivers. Of these the White river is by far the most im-
portant, being second only to the Wabash itself in extent of territory
drained. It is formed by the confluence of its East and West Forks,
almost 50 m. above its entrance into the Wabash, which it joins about
100 m. above the Ohio. Other portions of the state are drained by
the Kankakee, a tributary of the Illinois, the St Joseph and its
principal branch, the Elkhart, which flow north through the south-west
corner of Michigan and empty into Lake Michigan; the St Mary's
and another St Joseph, whose confluence forms the Maumee, which
empties into Lake Erie; and the White Water, which drains a
considerable portion of the south-west part of the state into the Ohio.
Flora and Fauna. — The flora of the state is varied, between 1400
and 1500 species of flowering plants being found. Among its native
fruits are the persimmon, the paw-paw, the goose plum and the fox
grape. Cultivated fruits, such as apples, pears, peaches, plums,
grapes and berries, are raised in large quantities for the market.
The economic value of the forests was originally great, but there has
been reckless cutting, and the timber-bearing forests are rapidly dis-
appearing. As late as 1880 Indiana was an important timber-pro-
ducing state, but in 1900 less than 30 % of the total acreage of the
state — only about 10,800 sq. m. — was woodland, and on very little
of this land were there forests of commercial importance. There are
about no species of trees in the state, the commonest being the oak.
The bald cypress, a southern tree, seems to be an anomalous growth.
Blue grass is valuable for grazing and hay-making. The principal
crops include Indian corn, wheat, oats, potatoes, buckwheat, rye
and clover.
The fauna originally included buffalo, elk, deer, wolves, bear, lynx,
beaver, otter, porcupine and puma, but civilization has driven them
all out entirely. Rattlesnakes and copperheads were formerly common
in the south. The game birds include quail (Bob White), ruffed
422
INDIANA
grouse and a few pinnated grouse (once very plentiful, then nearly
exterminated, but now apparently reappearing under strict pro-
tection), and such water birds as the mallard duck, wood duck, blue-
and green-winged teals, Wilson's snipe, and greater and lesser yellow
legs (snipe). The song birds and insectivorous birds include the
cardinal grosbeak, scarlet and summer tanagers, meadow lark, song
sparrow, catbird, brown thrasher, wood thrush, house wren, robin,
blue bird, goldfinch, red-headed woodpecker, flicker (golden-winged
woodpecker), and several species of warblers. The game fish include
the bass (small-mouth and large-mouth), brook trout, pike, pickerel,
and muskallonge, and there are many other large and small food
fishes.
Climate. — The climate of Indiana is unusually equable. The mean
annual temperature is about 52° F., ranging from 49° F. in the north to
54° in the south. The mean monthly temperature varies from 25° in
the months of December and January to 77°-79° in July and August.
Cold winds from the Great Lakes region frequently cause a fall in tem-
perature to an extreme of-25°F. in the north and north central parts
of the state. The mean annual rainfall for the entire state is about
43 in., varying from 35 in. in the north to 46 in. in the Ohio Valley.
The soil of the greater part of the state consists of a drift deposit
of loose calcareous loam, which extends to a considerable depth, and
which is exceedingly fertile. In the Ohio and White Water river
valleys a sandstone and limestone formation predominates. The
north and north central portions of the state, formerly rather swampy,
have become since the clearing of the forests as productive as the
south central. The most fertile part of the state is the Wabash
valley; the least fertile the sandy region, of small extent, im-
mediately south of Lake Michigan.
Industry and Manufactures. — Agriculture has always been and still
is the chief industry of the state of Indiana. According to the
census of 1900, 94-1 % of the land area was included in farms, and
of this 77-2 % was improved. The proportion of farms rented
comprised 28-6% of the whole number, four-fifths of these being
rented on a share basis. The average size of farms, which in 1850 was
136-2 acres, had decreased to 105-3 acres in 1880 and to 97-4 acres in
1900. The value of the farm property increased from $726,781,857
in 1880 to $978,616,47 1 in 1900. The farms are commonly cultivated
on the three-crop rotation system. The proximity of such good
markets as Chicago, Cincinnati, St Louis and Louisville, in addition
to the local markets, and the unusual opportunities afforded by the
railways that traverse every portion of the state, have been im-
portant factors in the rapid agricultural advance which has enabled
Indiana to keep pace with the newly developed states farther west.
Indiana was ninth in the value of its agricultural products in 1889,
and retained the same relative rank in 1899, although the value had
considerably more than doubled, increasing from $94,759,262 in 1889
to $204,450,196 in 1899. The principal crops in which the state has
maintained a high relative rank are Indian corn, wheat and hay;
the acreage devoted to each of these increased considerably in the
decade 1890—1900. In 1907, according to the Department of
Agriculture, the acreage of Indian corn was 4,690,000 acres (7th of
the states), and the yield was 168,840,000 bushels (sth of the states) ;
of wheat, 2,362,000 acres (6th of the states) was planted, and the
crop was 34,013,000 bushels (7th of the states); and 2,328,000 acres
of hay (the Sth largest acreage among the states of the United
States) produced 3,143,000 tons (the Sth largest crop). Other im-
portant staple crops are oats, rye and potatoes, of which the crops in
1907 were respectively 36,683,000 bushels, 961,000 bushels, and
7,308,000 bushels. There are no well-defined crop belts, the pro-
duction of the various crops being general throughout the state,
except in the case of potatoes, most ofwhich are raised in the sandy
regions of the north. The value of the orchard products is large, and
is steadily increasing: in the decade 1890-1900 the number of pear
trees increased from 204,579 to 868,184, and between 1889 and 1899
the crop increased from 157,707 to 231,713 bushels. Of apple trees,
which surpass all other orchard trees in number, there were more than
8,600,000 in 1900. The total value of the state's orchard products
in 1899 was $3,166,338, and the value of small fruits was $1,113,527.
The canning industry both for fruits and small vegetables has become
one of much importance since 1890.
Stock-raising is an industry of growing importance, the value of
the live stock in the state increasing from $71,068,758 in 1880 to
$93.361,422 in 1890 and $100,550,761 in 1900. Sheep-raising, how-
ever, which is confined largely to the north and east portions of the
state, decreased slightly in importance between 1890 and 1900.
The value of the dairy products sold in 1899 (census of 1900) was
$8,027,370, nearly one-half of which was represented by butter; and
the total value of dairy products was $15,739,594.
In the value, extent and producing power of her manufacturing
Industries Indiana has made remarkable advance since 1880. This
increase, which more than kept pace with that of the country as a
whole, was due largely to local causes, among which may be mentioned
the unusual shipping facilities afforded by the network of railways,
the discovery and development of natural gas, and the proximity of
coal fields, the gas and the coal together furnishing an ample supply
of cheap fuel. The number of manufacturing establishments (under
the " factory " system) within the state was 7128 in 1900, 7044
in 1905; their invested capital was $219,321,080 in 1900 and
$312,071,234 in 1905, an increase of 42-3%; and the value of their
total product was $337,071,630 in 1900 and $393,954,405 in 1905,
an increase of 16-9%. The most important manufactured products
in 1905 were flour and grist mill products, valued at $36,473,543; in
1900, when they were second in importance to slaughter-house
products and packed meats, they were valued at $29,037,843.
Next in importance in 1905 was the slaughtering and meat-packing
industry, of which the total product was valued at $29,352,593; in
1900 it was valued at $43,862,273. Other important manufactured
products were: those of machine shops and foundries, the value of
which increased from $17,228,096 in 1900 to $23,108,516 in 1905,
or 34-1 %; distilled liquors, the value of which had increased from
$16,961,058 in 1900 to $20,520,261 in 1905, an increase of 21 %;
iron and steel, valued at $19,338,481 in 1900 and at $16,920,326 in
1905; carriages and wagons, valued at $12,661,217 in 1900 and at
$15,228,337 in 1905; lumber and timber products, valued at
$19,979,971 in 1900 and at $14,559,662 in 1905; and glass, valued
at $14,757,883 in 1900 and at $14,706,929 in 1905 — this being
3'7% of the product value of all manufactures in the state in 1905,
and. 18-5% of the value of glass .produced in. the United States in
that year. The growth in the preceding decade of the iron and steel
industry, the products of which increased in value from $4,742,760
in 1890 to $19,338,481 in 1900 (307-7%), and of the manufacture of
glass, the value of which increased from $2,995,409 in 1890 to
$14,757,883 in 1900 (392-7%), is directly attributable to the de-
velopment of natural gas as fuel; the decrease in the value of the
products of these same industries in 1900-1905 is partly due to the
growing scarcity of the natural gas supply. As compared with the
other states of the United States in value of manufactured products,
Indiana ranked second in 1900 and in 1905 in carriages and wagons,
glass and distilled liquors; was seventh in 1900 and fourth in 1905
in furniture; was fourth in 1900 and seventh in 1905 in wholesale
slaughtering and meat-packing; was fifth in 1900 and sixth in 1905
in agricultural implements; and in iron and steel and flour and grist
mill products was fifth in 1900 and eighth in 1905. The most im-
portant manufacturing centres are Indianapolis, Terre Haute,
Evansville, South Bend, Fort Wayne, Anderson, Hammond, Rich-
mond, Muncie, Michigan City and Elwood, each having a gross
annual product of more than $6,000,000.
According to the annual report on Mineral Resources of the United
States for 1906, Indiana ranked fifth in the Union in the value of
natural gas produced, sixth in petroleum, and sixth in coal. Natural
gas was discovered in 1886 in the east-central part of the state, and
its general application to manufacturing purposes caused an in-
dustrial revolution in the immediate region. Pipe lines carried it to
various manufacturing centres within the state and to Chicago,
111., and Dayton, Ohio. During the early years an enormous amount
was wasted ; this was soon prohibited by law, and a realization that
the supply was not unlimited resulted in a better appreciation of its
great value. The gas, which is found in the Trenton limestone, had
an initial pressure at the point of discovery of 325 Ib; this pressure
had decreased in the field centre by January 1896 to 230 ft, and by
January 1901 to 115 ft, the general average of pressure at the latter
date being 80 ft. The gas field extends over Hancock, Henry,
Hamilton, Tipton, Madison, Grant and Delaware counties. The
value of the output fell from $7,254,539 in 1900 to $1,750,715 in 1906,
when the state's product was only 4-2 % of that of the entire country.
On the 1st of January 1909 there were 3223 wells in operation, some
of which were 1200 ft. deep. It has been found that " dead " gas
wells, if drilled somewhat deeper, generally become active oil wells.
The development of the petroleum field, which extends over Adams,
Wells, Jay, Blackfprd and Grant counties, was rapid up to 1904.
The annual output increased from 33,375 barrels in 1889 to 11,339,124
barrels in 1904, the latter amount being valued at $12,235,674
and being 12-09 % of the value of the product of the entire country.
In 1906 there was an output of only 7,673,477 barrels, valued at
$6,770,066, being 7-3% of the product value of the entire country.
The Indiana coal fields which cover an area of between 7000 and
7500 sq. m. in the west and south-west, chiefly in Clay, Vigo,
Sullivan, Vermilion and Greene counties, yielded in 1902 9,446,424
tons, valued at $10,399,660; in 1907, 13,985,713 tons, valued at
$15,114,300; the production more than trebled since 1896, when it
was 3,905,779 tons. The deposits consist of workable veins, 50 to
220 ft. in depth, and averaging 80 ft. below the surface. It is a high
grade block, or " splint " coal, remarkably free from sulphur and
rich in carbon, peculiarly adapted to blast furnace use. The quarries
and clay beds of the state are of great value. The quarries of sand-
stone and limestone are chiefly in the south and south-central portions
of the state. The value of the limestone quarried in 1908 was
$3,643,261, as compared with $2,553,502 in 1902. The Bedford
oolitic limestone quarries in Owen, Monroe, Lawrence, Washington
and Crawford counties furnish one of the most valuable and widely
used building stones in the United States, the value of the product
in 1905 being $2,492,960, of which $2,393,475 was from Lawrence
and Monroe counties and $1,550,076 from Lawrence county alone.
Beds of brick-clays and potters' clay are widely distributed throughout
the state, the total value of pottery products in 1902 being $5,283,733
and in 1906 $7,158,234. Marls adapted to the manufacture of Port-
land cement are found along the Ohio river, and in the lake region
in the north. In 1905 and 1906 Indiana ranked third among the states
in the production of Portland cement, which in 1908 was 6.478,165
INDIANA
423
barrels, valued at $5,386,563 — an enormous advance over 1903,
when the product was 1,077,137 barrels, valued at Si, 347, 797- The
production of natural rock cement, chiefly in Clark county, is one of
the two oldest industries in the state, but in Indiana as elsewhere it
is falling off — from an output in 1903 of about 1,350,000 barrels to
212,901 barrels (valued at $240,000) in 1908. There are many
mineral springs in the state, and there are famous resorts at French
Lick and West Baden in Orange county. A large part of the water
bottled is medicinal : hence the high average price per gallon
($0-99 in 1907 when 514,366 gallons were sold, valued at $507,746,
only 2 % being table waters). In 1907 19 springs were reported at
which mineral waters were bottled and sold; they were in Allen,
Hendricks, Pike, Bartholomew, Warren, Clark, Martin, Brown,
Gibson, Wayne, Orange, Vigo and Dearborn counties. A law of
1909 prohibited the pumping of certain mineral waters if such
pumping diminished the flow or injured the quality of the water of
any spring.
Communications. — During the early period, the settlement of the
northern and central portions of the state was greatly retarded by
the lack of high ways or navigable waterways. The Wabash and Erie
canal (184^3), which connected Lake Erie with theOhio river, entering
the state in Allen county, east of Fort Wayne, and following the Wa-
bash river to Terre Haute and the western fork of the White river from
Worthington, Greene county, to Petersburg, Pike county, whence it
ran south-south-west to Evansville; and the White Water canal
from Hagerstown, Wayne county, mostly along the course of the
White Water river, to Lawrenceburg, on the Ohio river, in the
south-eastern corner of the state, although now abandoned, served
an important purpose in their day. The completion (about 1850) of
the National Road, which traversed the state, still further aided the
internal development. With the beginning of railway construction
(about 1847), however, a new era was opened. Indiana is unusually
well served with railways, which form a veritable network of track
in every part of the state. It is traversed by nearly all the great
transcontinental trunk line systems, and also by important north
and south lines. The total railway mileage in January 1909 was
7286-20 m. There has been a great development also in interurban
electric lines, which have been adapted both to passenger and to light
freight and express traffic; in 1908 there were 31 interurban electric
lines within the state with a mileage of 1500 m. Indianapolis is the
centre of this interurban network. The first trolley sleeping cars
were those used on the Ohio and Indiana interurban railways.
The deepening of the channel of the Wabash river was begun in 1872.
Below Vincennes before 1885 boats of 3-ft. draft could navigate the
river, but after work was concentrated in 1885 on the lock at Grand
Rapids, near Mt Carmel, 111., the channel was soon clogged again,
and in 1909 it was impossible for boats with a greater draft than
20 in. to go from Mt Carmel to Vincennes, although up to June 1909
about $810,000 had been spent by the Federal government on
improving this river. In 1879 an appropriation was made for the
improvement of the channel of the White river, but no work was
done here between 1895 and 1909, and although the lower 13 m. of
the river was navigable for boats with a draft of 3 ft. or less, there
was practically no traffic up to 1909 on the White, because there
was no outlet for it by the Wabash river.
Population. — The population of Indiana, according to the
Federal Census of 1910, was 2,700,876, and the rank of the state
in the Union as regards population was ninth. In 1810, the
year following the erection of the western part of Indiana into
Illinois Territory, the population was 24,520, in 1820 it had in-
creased to 147,178, in 1850 to 988,416, in 187010 1,680,637, in 1890
to 2, 19 2,404, and in 1900 to 2,516,462. In 1900 34-3% was urban,
i.e. lived in places of 2500 inhabitants and over. The foreign-born
population in the same year amounted to 142,121, or 5-6% of
the whole, and the negro population to 57,505, or 2-3%. There
were in 1900 five cities with a population of more than 35,000,
viz. Indianapolis (169,164), Evansville (59,007), Fort Wayne
(45,115), Terre Haute (36,673), and South Bend (35,999). In
the same year there were 14 cities with a population of less than
35,000 (all less than 21,000) and more than 10,000; and there
were 21 places with a population of less than 10,000 and more
than 5000. In 1906 it was estimated that there were 938,405
members of different religious denominations; of this total
233>443 were Methodists (210,503 of the Northern Church),
174,849 were Roman Catholics, 108,188 were Disciples of Christ
(and 10,259 members of the Churches of Christ), 92,705 were
Baptists (60,203 of the Northern Convention, 13,526 of the
National (Colored) Convention, 8132 Primitive Baptists, and
6671 General Baptists), 58,633 were Presbyterians (49,041 of
the Northern Church, and 6376 of the Cumberland Church —
since united with the Northern), 55,768 were Lutherans (34,028
of the Evangelical Lutheran Synodical Conference, 8310 of the
Evangelical Lutheran Joint Synod of Ohio and other states),
52,700 were United Brethren (48,059 of the Church of the
United Brethren in Christ; the others of the " Old Constitution ")
and 21,624 of the German Evangelical Synod.
Constitution. — Indiana is governed under a constitution
adopted in 1851, which superseded the original state constitution
of 1816. An amendment to the constitution may be proposed
by either branch of the General Assembly; if a majority of both
houses votes in favour of an amendment and it is favourably
voted upon by the General Assembly chosen by the next general
election, the amendment is submitted to popular vote and a
majority vote is necessary for its ratification. The constitution
of 1816 had conferred the suffrage upon all " white male citizens
of the United States of the age of twenty-one and upward,"
had prohibited slavery, and had provided that no alteration of
the constitution should ever introduce it. The new constitution
contained similar suffrage restrictions, and further by Article
XIII., which was voted upon separately, prohibited the entrance
of negroes or mulattoes into the state and made the encourage-
ment of their immigration or employment an indictable offence.
This prohibition was held by the United States Supreme Court
in 1866 to be in conflict with the Federal Constitution and
therefore null and void. It was not until 1881 that the restriction
of the suffrage to " white " males, which was in conflict with
the Fifteenth Amendment (1870) to the Federal Constitution,
was removed by constitutional amendment. Since that date
those who may vote have been all male citizens twenty-one years
old and upward who have lived in Indiana six months immedi-
ately preceding the election, and every foreign-born male of
the requisite age who has lived in the United States one year
and in Indiana six months immediately preceding the election,
and who has declared his intention of becoming a citizen of the
United States; but the General Assembly has the power to
deprive of the suffrage any person convicted of an infamous
crime. The Australian ballot was adopted in 1889. The
general state election (up to 1881, held in October) takes place
on the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November of
even-numbered years. The governor and lieutenant-governor
(minimum age, 30 years) and the clerk of the Supreme Court
are chosen in presidential years for a term of four years,1 the
other state officers — secretary of state, attorney-general, auditor,
treasurer and superintendent of public instruction — every two
years. The state legislature, known as the General Assembly,
which meets biennially in odd-numbered years and in special
session summoned by the governor, consists of a Senate of fifty
members (minimum age, 25 years) elected for four years, and
a House of Representatives of one hundred members (minimum
age, 21 years) elected for two years. Two-thirds of each house
constitute a quorum to do business. The governor has the veto
power, but the provision that a bill may be passed over his veto
by a majority of all elected members renders it little more than
an expression of opinion.
Law. — The judiciary consists of a Supreme Court of five
members elected for districts by the state at large for a term
of six years, an appellate court (first constituted in 1891), and
a system of circuit and minor criminal and county courts. The
system of local government has undergone radical changes in
recent years. A law of 1899, aimed to separate the legislative
and executive functions, provided for the election of legislative
bodies in every township and county. These bodies have control
of the local expenditures and tax levies, and without their consent
the local administrative officers cannot contract debts. In
1905 a new municipal code, probably the most elaborate and
complete local government act in the United States, providing for
a uniform system of government in all cities and towns, went into
effect. It was constructed on the lines of the Indianapolis city
charter, adopted in 1891, and repealed all individual charters
and special corporation acts. Its controlling principle is the
more complete separation of the executive, legislative and
judicial powers. For this purpose all cities are divided into
1 No man can serve as governor for more than four years in any
period of eight years.
424
INDIANA
five classes according to population, the powers being con-
centrated and simplified by degrees in the case of the smaller
cities, and reaching a maximum of separation and completeness
in class i, i.e. cities of 100,000 and over, which includes only
Indianapolis. In all classes the executive officer is a mayor
elected for four years and ineligible to succeed himself. There
are six administrative departments (the number is often less
in cities of the lower classes, where several departments may be
combined under one head) — departments of public works,
public safety, public health and charities, law, finance, and
collection and assessment. There is a city court with elected
judge or judges, and an elected common council, which may
authorize the municipal ownership of public utilities by ordinance,
and can pass legislation over the mayor's veto by a two-thirds
vote. Communities under 2500 in population are regarded as
towns, and have a separate form of government by a board
of trustees.
Until 1908 the state had a prohibition law " by remonstrance,"
under which if a majority of the legal voters of a township or
city ward remonstrated against the granting of licences for the
sale of liquor, no licence could be granted by the county com-
missioners in that township or ward. Under this system 800
out of 1016 townships and more than 30 entire counties were
in 1908 without saloons. In 1908, when the Republican party
had declared in favour of county option and the Democratic
party favoured township and ward option, a special session of
the legislature, called by the Republican governor, passed the
Cox Bill for county options.
Education. — Indiana has a well-organized free public school
system. Provision was made for such a system in the first
state constitution, to utilize the school lands set aside in all the
North- West Territory by the Ordinance of 1787, but the existing
system is of late growth. The first step toward such a system
was a law of 1824 which provided for the election of school
trustees in every township and for the erection of school buildings,
but made, no provision for support. Therefore, before 1850
what schools there were were not free. The constitution of
1851 made further and more complete provisions for a uniform
system, and on that basis the general school law of 1852 erected
the framework of the existing system. It provided for the
organization of free schools, supported by a property tax, and
for county and township control. The movement, however,
was retarded in 1858 by a decision of the supreme court holding
that under the law of 1852 the system was not " uniform " as
provided for by the constitution. In 1865 a new and more
satisfactory law was passed, which with supplemental legislation
is still in force. Under the existing system supreme administra-
tive control is vested in a state superintendent elected biennially.
County superintendents, county boards, and township trustees
are also chosen, the latter possessing the important power of
issuing school bonds. Teachers' institutes are regularly held,
and a state normal school, established in 1870, is maintained
at Terre Haute. There are normal schools at Valparaiso,
Angola, Marion and Danville, and a Teachers' College at Indian-
apolis, which are on the state's " accredited " list and belong
to the normal school system. In 1897 a compulsory education
law was enacted. In 1906-1907 the state school tax was in-
creased from n-6 cents per $100 to 13-6 cents per $100; an
educational standard was provided, coming into effect in August
1908, for public school teachers, in addition to the previous
requirement of a written test; a regular system of normal
training was authorized; uniform courses were provided for
the public high schools; and small township schools with twelve
pupils or less were discontinued, and transportation supplied
for pupils in such abandoned schools to central school houses.
The proportion of illiterates is very small, in 1900, 95-4% of the
population (of 10 years old or over) being able to read and write.
The total school revenue from state and local sources in 1905
amounted to $10,642,638, or $13-85 per capita of enumeration
($19-34 per capita of enrolment). In 1824 a state college
was opened at Bloomington; it was re-chartered in 1838 as the
State University. Purdue University (1874) at Lafayette,
maintained under state control, received the benefit of the
Federal grant under the Morrill Act. Other educational institu-
tions of college rank include Vincennes University (non-sectarian),
at Vincennes; Hanover College (1833, Presbyterian), at Hanover;
Wabash College (1832, non-sectarian), at Crawfordsville; Franklin
College (1837, Baptist), at Franklin; De Pauw University
(1837, Methodist Episcopal), at Greencastle; Butler University
(1855, Christian), at Indianapolis; Earlham College (1847,
Friends), at Richmond; Notre Dame University (1842, Roman
Catholic), at Notre Dame; Moore's Hill College (1856, Methodist
Episcopal), at Moore's Hill; the University of Indianapolis (non-
sectarian), a loosely affiliated series of schools at Indianapolis,
centring around Butler University; and Rose Polytechnic
Institute (1883, non-sectarian), at Terre Haute.
The charitable and correctional institutions of Indiana are well
administered in accordance with the most improved modern methods,
and form one of the most complete and adequate systems possessed
by any state in the Union. The state was one of the first to establish
schools for the deaf and the blind. Its Institution for the Education
of the Deaf was established in 1844, and its Institution for the Educa-
tion of the Blind in 1847, both being in Indianapolis. The first State
Hospital for the Insane was opened in Indianapolis in 1848 and
became the Central Indiana Hospital for the Insane in 1883; other
similar institutions are the Northern Indiana Hospital at Logansport
(1888), the Eastern at Richmond (1890), the Southern at Evansville
(1890), and the South-eastern at North Madison (1905). There area
Soldiers' and Sailors' Orphans' Home at Knightstown (1868), and a
State Soldiers' Home at Lafayette (1896); a School for Feeble-
Minded Youth (1879), removed from Knightstown to Fort Wayne in
1890; a village for epileptics at New Castle (1907) ; and a hospital for
the treatment of tuberculosis, authorized in 1907, for which a site
at Rockville was purchased in 1908. There are five state penal and
correctional institutions: the Indiana Boys' School (1868-1883, the
House of Refuge; 1883-1903, the Reform School for Boys), at
Plainfield; the Indiana Girls' School, established at Indianapolis
('873)1 and removed to Clermont in 1907; a woman's prison (the
first in the United States, authorized in 1869 and opened in 1873 at
Indianapolis), which is entirely under the control of women (as is also
the Indiana Girls' School) and has a correctional department (1908),
in reality a state workhouse for women, formed with a view to
removing as far as possible sentenced women from the county jails;
a reformatory (1897), at Jeffersonville, conducted upon a modification
of the " Elmira plan," formerly the State Prison (1822), later (1860)
the State Prison South, so called to distinguish it from the State
Prison North (1860) at Michigan City; and the prison at Michigan
City, which became the Indiana State Prison in 1897. The old State
Prison at Jeffersonville was at first conducted on the lease system,
but public opinion compelled the abandonment of that system some
years before the Civil War. The prisoners of the reformatory work
under a law providing for trade schools; the product of the work is
sold to the state institutions and to the civil and political divisions of
the state, the surplus being disposed of on the market. At the
State Prison practically one half the prisoners are employed on con-
tracts. Not more than loo may be employed on any one contract,
and the day's work is limited to eight hours. The remainder of the
population of the prison is employed on state account. The policy of
indeterminate sentence and paroles was adopted in 1897 in the two
prisons and the reformatory. Prisoners released upon parole are
carefully supervised by state agents. Indiana has an habitual-
criminal law, and a law providing for the sterilization of mental
degenerates, confirmed criminals, and rapists. There are also an
adult probation law and a juvenile court law, the latter applying to
every county in the state. Each of the state institutions mentioned
above is under the control of a separate bi-partisan board of four
members. The whole system of public charities is under the super-
vision of a bi-partisan Board of State Charities (1889), which is
appointed by the governor, and to which the excellent condition of
state institutions is largely due. In the counties there are un-
salaried boards of county charities and correction and county boards
of children's guardians, appointed by the circuit judges. The town-
ship trustees, 1016 in number, are ex-officio overseers of the poor.
They dispense official outdoor relief. Nowhere else have the
principles of organized charities in the administration of public
outdoor relief been applied to an entire state. Each county provides
for the indoor care of the poor in poor asylums and children's homes,
and for local prisoners in county jails. Provision is made for truant,
dependent, neglected and delinquent children. No child can be made
a public ward except upon order of the juvenile court, and all such
children may be placed in family homes by agents of the Board of
State Charities.
Finance. — The total true value of taxable property in the state
was, according to the tax levy of 1907, $1,767,815,487, and the total
taxes, including delinquencies, in the same year amounted to
$38,880,257. The total net receipts for the fiscal year ending
September 30, 1908, were $4,771,628, and the total net ex-
penditure $5,259,002, the cash balance in the treasury for the year
INDIANA
425
ending September 30, 1907, amounted to $1,096,459, leaving a cash
balance on September 30, 1908, of $609,085. Thetotal.statedebton
September 30, 1908, was $1,389,615.
History. — Of the prehistoric inhabitants of Indiana little is
known, but extensive remains in the form of mounds and
fortifications abound in every part of the state, being particularly
numerous in Knox and Sullivan counties. Along the Ohio river
are remnants of several interesting stone forts. Upon the earliest
arrival of Europeans the state was inhabited chiefly by the
various tribes of the Miami Confederacy, a league of Algonquian
Indians formed to oppose the advance of the Iroquois. The
first Europeans to visit the state were probably French coureurs
des bois or Jesuit missionaries. La Salle, the explorer, it is
contended, must have passed through parts of Indiana during
his journeys of 1669 and the succeeding years. Apparently
a French trading post was in existence on the St Joseph river
of Michigan about 1672, but it was in no sense a permanent
settlement and seems soon to have been abandoned. It seems
probable that the Wabash-Maumee portage was known to Father
Claude Jean Allouez as early as 1680. When, a few years later,
this portage came to be generally used by traders, the necessity
of establishing a base on the upper Wabash as a defence against
the Carolina and Pennsylvania traders, who had already reached
the lower Wabash and incited the Indians to hostility against
the French, became evident; but it was not, apparently, until
the second decade of the i8th century that any permanent
settlement was made. About 1720 a French post was probably
established at Ouiatenon (about 5 m. S.W. of the present city
of Lafayette), the headquarters of the Wea branch of the Miami,
on the upper Wabash. The military post at Vincennes was
founded about 1731 by Francois Margane, Sieur de Vincennes
(or Vincent), but it was not until about 1735 that eight French
families were settled there. Vincennes, which thus became the
first actual white settlement in Indiana, remained the only one
until after the War of Independence, although military posts
were maintained at Ouiatenon and at the head of the Maumee,
the site of the present Fort Wayne, where there was a French
trading post (1680) and later Fort Miami. After the fall of Quebec
the British took possession of the other forts, but not at once
of Vincennes, which remained for several years under the
jurisdiction of New Orleans, both under French and Spanish
rule. The British garrisons at Ouiatenon and Fort Miami
(near the site of the later Fort Wayne) on the Maumee were
captured by the Indians as a result of the Pontiac conspiracy.
All Indiana was united with Canada by the Quebec Act (1774),
but it was not until three years later that the forts and Vincennes
were occupied by the British, who then realized the necessity
of ensuring possession of the Mississippi Valley to prevent its
falling into the hands of the rebellious colonies. Nevertheless,
in 1778 Vincennes fell an easy prey to agents sent to occupy it
by George Rogers Clark, and although again occupied a few
months later by General Henry Hamilton, the lieutenant-
governor at Detroit, it passed finally into American control
in February 1779 as a result of Clark's remarkable march from
Kaskaskia. Fort Miami remained in British hands until the
close of the war.
The first American settlement was made at Clarksville,
between the present cities of Jeffersonville and New Albany, at
the Falls of the Ohio (opposite Louisville), in 1784. The decade
following the close of the war was one of ceaseless Indian warfare.
The disastrous defeats of General Josiah Harmar (1753-1813)
in October 1790 on the Miami river in Ohio, and of Governor
Arthur St Clair on the 4th of November 1791 near Fort Recovery,
Ohio, were followed in 1792 by the appointment of General
Anthony Wayne to the command of the frontier. By him the
Indians were signally defeated in the Battle of Fallen Timbers
(or Maumee Rapids) on the 2oth of August 1794, and Fort
Wayne, Indiana, was erected on the Maumee river. On the
3rd of August 1795, at Greenville, Ohio, a treaty was concluded
between Wayne and twelve Indian tribes, and a narrow slice of the
east-south-eastern part of the present state (the disputed lands
in the valley of the Maumee) and various other small but not
unimportant tracts were ceded to the United States. Then
came several years' respite from Indian war, and settlers began
at once to pour into the region. The claims of Virginia (1784)
and the other eastern states having been extinguished, a clear
field existed for the establishment of Federal jurisdiction in the
" Territory North- West of the Ohio," but it was not until 1787
that by the celebrated Ordinance of that year such jurisdiction
became an actuality. The North- West Territory was governed
by its first governor, Arthur St Clair, until 1799, when it was
accorded a representative government. In 1800 it was divided,
and from its western part (including the present states of Indiana,
Illinois and Wisconsin, the north-east part of Minnesota, and a
large part — from 1803 to 1805 all — of the present state of
Michigan) Indiana Territory was erected, with General William
Henry Harrison — who had been secretary of the North-West
Territory since 1798 — as its first governor, and with Vincennes as
the seat of government. Harrison made many treaties with the
Indians, the most important being that signed at Fort Wayne on
the 7th of June 1803, defining the Vincennes tract transferred to
the United States by the Treaty of Greenville; those signed at
Vincennes on the i8th and the 2 7th of August 1804, transferring
to the United States a strip north of the Ohio river and south of the
Vincennes tract; that concluded at Grouseland on the 2ist of
August 1805, procuring from the Dela wares and others a tract
along the Ohio river between the parcels of 1795 and 1804; and
the treaties of Fort Wayne, signed on the 3oth of September
1809, and securing one tract immediately west of that of 1795
and another north of the Vincennes tract defined in 1803. In
January 1805 Michigan Territory was erected from the northern
part of Indiana Territory, and in July following the first General
Assembly of Indiana Territory met at Vincennes. In March
1809 the Territory was again divided, Illinois Territory being
established from its western portion; Indiana was then reduced
to its present limits. In 1810 began the last great Indian war
in Indiana, in which the confederated Indians were led by
Tecumseh, the celebrated Shawnee chief; it terminated with
their defeat at Tippecanoe (the present Battle Ground) by
Governor Harrison on the 7th of November 1811. After the
close of the second war with Great Britain, immigration began
again to flow rapidly into the Territory, and, having attained
a sufficient population, Indiana was admitted to the Union as
a state by joint resolution of Congress on the nth of December
1816. The seat of government was established at Corydon,
whither it had been removed from Vincennes in 1813. In 1820
the site of the present Indianapolis was selected for a new capital,
but the seat of government was not removed thither until 1825.
The first great political problem presenting itself was that
of slavery, and for a decade or more the only party divisions
were on pro-slavery and anti-slavery lines. Although the Ordin-
ance of 1787 actually prohibited slavery, it did not abolish that
already in existence. Slavery had been introduced by the
French, and was readily accepted and perpetuated by the early
American settlers, almost all of whom were natives of Virginia,
Kentucky, Georgia or the Carolinas. According to the census
of 1800 there were 175 slaves in the Territory. The population
of settlers from slave states was considerably larger than in
Illinois, the proportion being 20% as late as 1850. It was but
natural, therefore, that efforts should at once have been made
to establish the institution of slavery on Indiana soil, and as
early as 1802 a convention called to consider the expediency
of slavery asked Congress to suspend the prohibitory clause
of the Ordinance for ten years, but a committee of which John
Randolph of Virginia was chairman reported against such
action. Within the Territory there were several attempts to
escape, by means of legislation, the effects of the Ordinance.
These efforts consisted in (i) a law regulating the status of
" servants," by which it was sought to establish a legal relation
between master and slave; (2) a law by which it was sought
to establish practical slavery by a system of indenture. By
1808 the opponents of slavery, found chiefly among the Quaker
settlers in the south-eastern counties, began to awake to the
danger that confronted them, and in 1809 elected their candidate,
426
INDIANA
Jonathan Jennings (1776-1834) to Congress on an anti-slavery
platform. In 1810, by which year the number of slaves had
increased to 237, the anti-slavery party was strong enough to
secure the repeal of the indenture law, which had received the
unwilling acquiescence of Governor Harrison. Jennings was
re-elected in 1811, and subsequently was chosen first governor
of the state on the same issue, and the state constitution of
1816 pronounced strongly against slavery. The liberation of
most of the slaves in the eastern counties followed; and some
slave-holders removed to Kentucky. In 1830 there were only
three slaves in the state, and the danger of the establishment
of slavery as an institution on a large scale was long past.
The problem of- "internal improvements" came to be of
paramount importance in the decade 1820-1830. In 1827
Congress granted land to aid in the construction of a canal to
connect Lake Erie and the Ohio river. This canal was com-
pleted from the St Joseph river to the Wabash in 1835, opened
in 1843, and later abandoned. In 1836 the state legislature
passed a law providing for an elaborate system of public improve-
ments, consisting largely of canals and railways. The state
issued bonds to the value of $10,000,000, a period of wild specula-
tion followed, and the financial panic of 1837 forced the abandon-
ment of the proposed plan and the sale to private persons of
that part already completed. The legislature authorized the issue
of $1,500,000 in treasury bonds, which by 1842 had fallen in
value to 40 or 50% of their face value. A new constitution was
adopted in February 1851 by a vote of 109,319 against 26,755.
Despite its large Southern population, Indiana's answer to
President Lincoln's first call for volunteers at the outbreak
of the Civil War was prompt and spirited. From first to last
the state furnished 208,000 officers and men for the Union
armies, besides a home legion of some 50,000, organized to protect
the state against possible invasion. The efficiency of the state
military organization, as well as that of the civil administration
during the trying years of the war, was largely due to the extra-
ordinary ability and energy of Governor Oliver P. Morton, one
of the greatest of the " war governors " of the North. The
problems met and solved by Governor Morton, however, were
not only the comparatively simple ones of furnishing troops
as required. The legislature of 1863 and the state officers were
opposed to him politically, and did everything in their power
to thwart him and deprive him of his control of the militia.
The Republican members seceded, legislative appropriations
were blocked, and Governor Morton was compelled to take the
extraconstitutional step of arranging with a New York banking
house for the payment of the interest on the state debt, of
borrowing money for state expenditure on his own responsibility,
and of constituting an unofficial financial bureau, which dis-
bursed money in disregard of the state officers. Furthermore
Indiana was the principal centre of activity of the disloyal
association known as the Knights of the Golden Circle, or Sons
of Liberty, which found a ready growth among the large Southern
population. Prominent among Southern sympathisers was
Senator Jesse D. Bright (1812-1875), who on the 5th of February
1862 was expelled from the United States Senate for writing a
letter addressed to Jefferson Davis, as President of the Con-
federacy, in which he recommended a friend who had an improve-
ment in fire-arms to dispose of. The Knights of the Golden
Circle at first confined their activities to the encouragement
of desertion, and resistance to the draft, but in 1864 a plot to
overthrow the state government was discovered, and Governor
Morton's prompt action resulted in the seizure of a large quantity
of arms and ammunition, and the arrest, trial and conviction
of several of the leaders. In June 1863 the state was invaded
by Confederate cavalry under General John H. Morgan, but most
of his men were captured in Indiana and he was taken in Ohio.
There were other attempts at invasion, but the expected rising,
on which the invaders had counted, did not take place, and in
every case the home legion was able to capture or drive out the
hostile bands.
Politically Indiana has been rather evenly divided between
the great political parties. Before the Civil War, except when
William Henry Harrison was a candidate for the presidency,
its electoral vote was generally given to the Democratic party,
to which also most of its governors belonged. After the war
the control of the state alternated with considerable regularity
between the Republican and Democratic parties, until 1896,
between which time and 1904 the former were continuously
successful. In 1908 a Democratic governor was elected, but
Republican presidential electors were chosen.
GOVERNORS OF INDIANA
Territorial.
Arthur St Clair (North- West Territory) . 1787-1800
John Gibson, Territorial Secretary (acting) 1800-1801
William Henry Harrison 1801-1812
John Gibson, Territorial Secretary (acting) 1812-1813
Thomas Posey 1813-1816
State.
Jonathan Jennings .... 1816-1822 Democratic-
Republican
Ratliff Boone (acting) . . . 1822
William Hendricks .... 1822-1825
James B. Ray, President of
Senate (acting) .... 1825
James B.Ray 18.25-1831
Noah Noble 1831-1837
David Wallace 1837-1840 Whig
Samuel Bigger 1840-1843 ,,
James Whitcomb .... 1843-1848 Democrat
Paris C. Dunning, Lt.-Gov.
(acting) 1848-1849
Joseph A. Wright .... 1849-1857
Ashbel P. Willard .... 1857-1860
Abram A. Hammond, Lt.-Gov.
(acting) 1860-1861 ,,
Henry S. Lane 1861 Republican
Oliver P. Morton, Lt.-Gov.
(acting) 1861-1865 ..
Oliver P. Morton .... 1865-1867 ,,
Conrad Baker, Lt-Gov. (acting) 1867-1869
Conrad Baker 1869-1873
Thomas A. Hendricks . . . 1873-1877 Democrat
James D. Williams .... 1877-1880 „
Isaac P. Gray, Lt.-Gov. (acting) 1880-1881
Albert G. Porter 1881-1885 Republican
Isaac P. Gray 1885-1889 Democrat
AlvinP. Hovey 1889-1891 Republican
Ira J. Chase, Lt.-Gov. (acting) . 1891-1893
Claude Matthews .... 1893-1897 Democrat
JamesA. Mount 1897-1901 Republican
Winfield T. Durbin . . . . 1901-1905 „
J. Frank Hanly .... 1905-1909 „
Thomas R. Marshall . . . 1909- Democrat
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — There is a bibliography of Indiana history, by
Isaac S. Bradley, in the Proceedings of the Wisconsin State Historical
Society for 1897. The History of Indiana by William Henry Smith
(2 vols., Indianapolis, 1897) is the best general account of Indiana
history and institutions. J. B. Dillon's History of Indiana (Indiana-
polis, 1859) is the most authoritative account of the early history to
1816. J. P. Dunn's Indiana, a Redemption from Slavery (Boston,
1888) in the " American Commonwealth " series, as its secondary
title indicates, is devoted principally to the struggle over the provision
in the Ordinance of 1787 prohibiting slavery. For the Civil War
period consult T. A. Woodburn, " Party Politics in Indiana during
the Civil War ' in Annual Report of the American Historical Associa-
tion (Washington, 1902) ; W. H. H. Terrell, " Indiana in the War of
the Rebellion "(Official Report of the Adjutant-General Indianapolis,
1869); and E. B. Pitman, Trials for Treason at Indianapolis (Indiana-
polis, 1865). See also De W. C. Goodrich and C. R. Tuttle, Illustrated
History of the State of Indiana (Chicago, 1875) ; the same, revised and
enlarged by W. S. Haymond (Indianapolis, 1879); O. H. Smith,
Early Indiana Trialsand Sketches (Indianapolis, 1858) ; and Nathaniel
Bolton, " Early History of Indianapolis and Central Indiana," in
Indiana Historical Society Publications, No. 5. " The Executive
Journal of Indiana Territory " has been reprinted in the Indiana
Historical Society's Publications, vol. iii., 1900. For government and
administration see E. L.Hendricks, History and Government of Indiana
(New York, 1908), The Legislative and State Manual of Indiana
(Indianapolis, published biennially by the State librarian), Constitu-
tions of 1816 and 1851 of the State of Indiana with Amendments
( Indianapolis, 1897), School Law of Indiana, with Annotations
(Indianapolis, 1904), and Wm. A. Rawles, Centralizing Tendencies in
the A dministration of Ind iana (New York and London, 1903), Columbia
Univ. Press. " The New Municipal Code of Indiana " is explained in
an article by H. O. Stechhan in the Forum (October-December, 1905).
For education see Fassett A. Cotton's Education in Indiana (I ndiana-
polis, 1905), and James A. Woodburn, Higher Education in Indiana
(Washington, 1891), U.S. Documents, Bureau of Education, Circulars
INDIANAPOLIS
427
of Information, No. I. For resources, industries, &c., consult the
Reports of the Chief of the Bureau of Statistics of Indiana (biennial,
Indianapolis, 1886 to date), Annual Report of the Department of
Geology and Natural Resources (Indianapolis, 1869 to date), and
Reports of the State Agricultural Society. See also the Reports of the
Twelfth Federal Census for detailed statistical matter as to produc-
tion, industries and population.
INDIANAPOLIS, the capital and largest city of Indiana,
U.S.A., situated on the W. fork of the White river, in Marion
county, of which it is the county-seat, and at almost the exact
geographical centre of the state. It is 824 m. W. of New York
by rail, and 183 m. S.E. of Chicago, and is about 710 ft. above
sea-level, and about 138 ft. above Lake Erie. Its area is 30-77
sq. m., of which 29-95 SQ- m- is land. Pop. (1880) 75,074;
(1890) 105,436; (1900) 169,164, of whom 17,122 were foreign-
born (8362 being by birth German, 3765 Irish, and 1154 English)
and 15,931 were negroes; (1910 census) 233,650. Indiana-
polis is near the centre of population of the United States.
From 1847, when the first railway entered the city, Indianapolis
has steadily grown in importance as a railway centre. It is
served by the Chicago, Indianapolis & Louisville, the Cincinnati,
Hamilton & Dayton, the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St
Louis (New York Central System), the Lake Erie & Western
(New York Central System), the Pittsburg, Cincinnati, Chicago
& St Louis (Pennsylvania System) and the Vandalia (Penn-
sylvania System) railways. At the Union Station more than
150 trains enter and depart daily, carrying more than 30,000
passengers. Outside the city there is a "belt line," 155 m.
long, connecting the several railways and carrying more than
1,000,000 freight cars annually; and an extensive electric
street railway system, with more than 150 m. of track and with
interurban connexions, serves every part of the city and its
suburbs. The city has a large traction terminal station, and is
the principal centre for the interurban electric lines of Indiana,
which handle freight as well as passengers; in 1908 twenty-five
interurban electric lines entered the city and operated about
400 cars every 24 hours.
Physically Indianapolis is one of the most attractive inland
cities in America. It is built on a level plain surrounded by
low, gently sloping and beautifully wooded hills. Four principal
avenues radiate from points near a central circle to the four
corners of the city. The other streets run at right angles to one
another. Streets and avenues are 90 ft. wide, except Washington
Street, which has a width of 120 ft. An excellent system of
parks — 8 within the city with an aggregate area of 1311 acres,
and 3 with an aggregate area of 310 acres just outside the city
limits — adds to the beauty of the city, among the most attractive
being the Riverside, the St Clair, the University, the Military,
the Fair View, the Garfield and the Brookside. The city is
lighted by gas and electricity, — it was one of the first cities in the
United States to adopt electric lighting, — and has a good water-
supply system, owned by a private corporation, with a 45 acre
filter plant of 18,000,000 gallons per diem capacity and an
additional supply of water pumped from deep wells outside the
city. The public buildings and business blocks are built mostly
of Indiana building stone. The state capitol stands in a square
8 acres in extent, and has a central tower and dome 240 ft.
high. It covers 2 acres of ground and cost $2,000,000. The
Marion county court-house cost $1,750,000. Other noteworthy
buildings are the Federal building (containing post-office,
custom-house and Federal court-rooms; erected at a cost of
$3,000,000); Tomlinson Hall, capable of seating 3000 persons,
given to the city by Daniel Tomlinson; the Propylaeum, a
club-house for women; the Commercial club; Das Deutsche
Haus, belonging to a German social club; the Maennerchor
club-house; the Union railway station; the traction terminal
building; the city hall, and the public library. Near the city
is the important United States army post, Fort Benjamin
Harrison, named in honour of President Benjamin Harrison,
whose home was in Indianapolis. In or near the city are the
Central Indiana Hospital for the Insane, the Indiana Institution
for the Education of the Blind, the Indiana Institution for the
Education of the Deaf, the Indiana Girls' School (included with
the Women's prison until 1899, and under the same management
as the prison from 1899 to 1903, when it became a separate
institution, — it was removed to Clermont, 10 m. from Indianapolis,
in 1907), and a Women's prison (opened in 1873, the first in the
United States), which is under female management. The public
library, founded in 1871, contains more than 100,000 volumes.
There are ten other libraries, the most important of which are
the state law library (about 40,000 volumes) and the state
library (about 46,000 volumes).
The city is an educational centre of considerable importance.
The university of Indianapolis (1896) is a loose association of
three really independent institutions — the Indiana Law School
(1894), the Indiana Dental College (1879), and Butler University
(chartered in 1849 and opened in 1855 as the North-western
Christian University, and named Butler University in 1877
in honour of Ovid Butler, a benefactor). Other educational
institutions are the Indianapolis College of Law (1897), the
Indiana Medical College (the School of Medicine of Purdue
University, formed in 1905 by the consolidation of the Medical
College of Indiana, the Central College of Physicians and Surgeons
and the Fort Wayne College of Medicine), the State College of
Physicians and Surgeons (the medical school of Indiana Univer-
sity), the Indiana Veterinary College (1892), the Indianapolis
Normal School, the Indiana Kindergarten and Primary Normal
Training School (private), and the Winona Technical Institute.
The last named was opened in 1904, and is controlled by the
Winona Lake corporation, having official connexion with
several national trade unions. It has departments of pharmacy,
chemistry, electrical wiring, lithography, house-painting, printing,
carpentry, moulding, tile-setting, bricklaying, machinery
and applied science. The art association of Indianapolis was
founded in 1883; and under its auspices is conducted an art
school (1902) in accordance with the bequest of John Herron
(1817-1895), the school and museum of the association being
housed in the John Herron Art Institute, dedicated in 1906.
The city has several fine monuments, among which are
statues of Oliver P. Morton, George Rogers Clark, William
Henry Harrison, Benjamin Harrison, Thomas A. Hendricks
and Major-General Henry W. Lawton. The Soldiers' and
Sailors' Monument, erected by the state, stands in the circle
in the centre of the city, rises to a height of 284-5 ft. above
the street level, and is surmounted by a statue of Victory 38 ft.
high. On the east and west faces of the base are two great
stone groups of Peace and War respectively. The monument
was erected after designs by Bruno Schmidt of Berlin, with
fountains at the base said to be among the largest in the world,
their capacity being 20,000 gallons per minute.
The city's central geographical position, its extensive railway
connexions, and its proximity to important coal-fields have
combined to make it one of the principal industrial centres of
the Middle West. The value of its " factory " products was
17-6% of the state's total in 1900 and 20-9% of the total in
1905. The increase in the value of the " factory " product
between 1900 and 1905 was from $59,322,234 to $82,227,950,
or 38-6%. Indianapolis is the principal live stock centre of
the Ohio Valley, and has extensive stock-yards covering more
than 100 acres. Slaughtering and meat-packing is the most
important industry, the value of the product amounting to
$24,458,810 in 1905; this industry dates from about 1835.
Among other important manufactures are foundry and machine
shop products ($6,944,392 in 1905); flour and grist-mill pro-
ducts ($4,428,664); cars and shop construction and repairs
by steam railways ($2,502,789); saws; waggons and carriages
($2,049,207); printing and publishing (book and job, $1,572,688;
and newspapers and periodicals, $2,715,666); starch; cotton
and woollen goods; furniture ($2,528,238); canned goods
($1,693,818); lumber and timber ($1,556,466); structural
iron work ($1,541,732); beer ($1,300,764); and planing-mill
products, sash, doors and blinds ($1,111,264).
Indianapolis is governed under a form of government adopted
originally in a special charter of 1891 and in 1905 incorporated
in the new state municipal code, which was based upon it,
428
INDIAN ARCHITECTURE
It provides for a mayor elected every four years, a single legisla-
tive chamber, a common council, and various administrative
departments — of public safety, public health, &c. The guiding
principle of the charter, which is generally accepted as a model
of its kind, is that of the complete separation of powers and the
absolute placing of responsibility.
On the admission of Indiana as a state, Congress gave to it
four sections of public land as a site on which to establish a state
capital. This was located in 1820 in almost the exact geographi-
cal centre of the state, where a small settlement had recently
been made, and the town of Indianapolis was laid out in the
following year. It was then in the midst of dense forests and
was wholly unconnected by roads with other parts of the state.
Upon its final acceptance as the capital, there was some activity
in land speculation, but Indianapolis had only 600 inhabitants
and a single street when the seat of government was removed
thither in 1824. The legislature met here for the first time in
1825. Some impetus was given to the city's growth by the
completion of the National Road, and later by the opening of
railways, but until after the Civil War its advancement was slow.
It was incorporated as a town in 1832, its population then being
1000. The first state capitol was completed in 1836. Indiana-
polis suffered severely from the business panic of 1837, and ten
years later, when it received its first city charter, it had only
about 6000 inhabitants; in the same year a free public school
system was inaugurated.
AUTHORITIES. — B. R. Sulgrove, History of Indianapolis and
Marion County (Philadelphia, 1884); M. R. Hyman, Handbook of
Indianapolis (Indianapolis, 1907) ; Nathaniel Bolton, " Early History
of Indianapolis and Central Indiana " (Indiana Historical Society's
Publications, No. 5, 1897); W. R. Holloway, Indianapolis, a
Historical and Statistical Sketch (Indianapolis, 1870); the Indiana-
polis Board of Trade's Report on the Industries of Indianapolis (1889) ;
Civic Studies of Indianapolis (Indianapolis, 1907 seq.), edited by
Arthur W. Dunne; and P. S. Heath's sketch of Indianapolis in
L. P. Powell's Historic Townsofthe Western States (New York, 1901).
INDIAN ARCHITECTURE. The development of architectural
art in India is of the highest interest for the history of the
subject; and whatever may be our estimate of its aesthetic
qualities, we can hardly fail to realize that Indian builders
attained with marked success the aims they had before them,
though they employed arrangements and adopted forms and
details very different from those of western builders in ancient
and medieval times. These forms and adaptations, of course,
require study properly to understand them, and to recognize the
adjustment of the designs to their purposes. But besides the
scientific advantages of such a study, it has been well remarked
by Fergusson, to whose genius the history of Indian architecture
is so specially due as its creator, that " it will undoubtedly be
conceded by those who are familiar with the subject that, for
certain qualities, the Indian buildings are unrivalled. They
display an exuberance of fancy, a lavishness of labour, and an
elaboration of detail to be found nowhere else." Besides, if
anywhere the history of a country is imprinted in its architecture,
it is in India that it throws the most continuous, distinct and
varied light on that history.
In the early architecture of India, as in that of Burma, China
and Japan till the present day, wood was solely or almost
solely employed; and it was only about the 3rd century B.C.
that stone became largely used as the material for important
structures; if brick or stone were in use previously, it was only
for foundations and engineering purposes. Even at the end of
the 4th century B.C. Megasthenes states that Pataliputra, the
capital of Chandragupta — the Sandrokottos of Greek writers —
was " surrounded by a wooden wall pierced with loop-holes for
the discharge of arrows." And if the capital were defended by
such palisading, we may fairly infer that the architecture of
the time was wholly wooden. On the Sanchi gateways, brick
walk are indeed represented, but apparently only as fences or
limits with serrated copings, but not in architectural structures.
And at whatever date stone came to be introduced, the Hindus
continued and repeated the forms they had employed in the
earlier material, and preserved their own style, so that it bore
witness to the general antecedent use of wood. Hence we are
able to trace its conversion into lithic forms until finally its
origin disappears in its absorption in later styles.
India possesses no historical work to afford us a landmark
previous to the invasion of Alexander' the Great in the 4th
century B.C., nor do we know of an architectural monument of
earlier date. For later periods there are fortunately a few
examples dated by inscriptions, and for others by applying the
scientific principles developed by Thomas Rickman for the
discrimination of other styles and the relative ages of archi-
tectural works, we are enabled to arrange the monuments of
India approximately in chronological sequence or order of
succession.
The invasion of Alexander and the westward spread of Bud-
dhism brought India into contact with Persia, where the Achae-
menian kings had hewn out mausolea in the rocks, and built
palaces with stone basements, doorways and pillars, filling in the
walls with bricks. These works would attract the attention
of Indian visitors — ambassadors, missionaries and merchants;
and the report of such magnificent works would .lead to their
imitation.
About the middle of the 3rd century B.C. we find the great
Asoka, the grandson of Chandragupta, in communication with
the contemporary kings of Syria, Egypt, Macedonia, Epirus
and Cyrene; and to his reign belong the great stone pillars,
with capitals of Persian type, that are engraved with his religious
edicts. A convert to Buddhism, Asoka is credited with the
construction all over the country of vast numbers of stupas —
monumental structures enshrining relics of Sakyamuni Buddha
or other Buddhist saints; and with them were erected
monasteries and chapels for the monks.
On the monumental pillars, known as lats, set up by this
emperor, besides the Persepolitan form of capital, we find the
honeysuckle with the bead and reel and the cable ornaments
that were employed in earlier Persian carvings; and though not
continued later in India proper, these prevailed in use in Afghani-
stan for some centuries after the Christian era. This seems to indi-
cate that these forms first came from Persia along with the ideas
that led to the change of wooden architecture for that of stone.
The stupas were structures that may be regarded as con-
ventional architectural substitutes for funeral tumuli, and were
constructed to enshrine relics of Buddha or of his more notable
disciples, or even to mark the scene of notable events in the tradi-
tion of his life. How relic-worship originated and came to hold
so large a place in the Buddhist cult we can hardly conjecture:
the sentiment could not have arisen for the first time on the
death of Gotama Buddha, when, we are told, eight stupas were
built over his corporeal relics, a ninth over the vessel with which
they were divided, and a tenth over the charcoal of the funeral
pile.
These stupas, known as dagabas in Ceylon, and chaityas in
Nepal, are called topes in the ordinary patois of upper India.
They consisted of a low circular drum supporting a hemispherical
dome of less diameter and leaving a ramp or berme round it of a
few feet in width. Round the drum was an open passage for
circumambulation, and the whole was enclosed by a massive stone
railing with lofty gates on four sides. These railings and gate-
ways are their principal architectural features; the rails are
constructed as closely as possible after wooden patterns, and
examples are still found at Sanchi and Buddh-Gaya1; what
remained of the Bharahat stupa was transferred to the Calcutta
Museum, and portions of the Amravatl rail are now in the
British and Madras museums. The uprights and cross bars
of the rails were in many cases covered with elaborate carvings
of scenes of the most varied kinds, and are illustrative of manners
and customs as well as of the art of sculpture.
The great stupa at Sanchi in Bhopal is now the most entire of
the class, as it still retains the gateways — styled torans — which
must have been a feature of all stupas, though perhaps mostly
1 The restoration of the shrine at Buddh-Gaya was begun in 1908
under the auspices of the Buddhist Shrine Restoration Society, of
which the Tashi Lama was first president and the eldest son of the
maharaja of Sikkim vice-president.
INDIAN ARCHITECTURE
PLATE I.
FIG. 8.— SANCHI NORTH GATEWAY.
Photo, F. Frith & Co.
FIG. 9.— THE KUTB MINAR NEAR DELHI.
Photo lent by the India Office.
FIG. io.— SHER SHAH'S MOSQUE AT DELHI.
XIV. 42 8.
PLATE n.
INDIAN ARCHITECTURE
FIG. ii.— GREAT TEMPLE AT HALEBiD
r\>'
FIG. 12.— ROOF OF DOME OF VIMALA'S TEMPLE ON MOUNT ABU.
(From Photographs kindly lent by the India Office.)
INDIAN ARCHITECTURE
429
in wood (see Plate I. fig. 8). The whole of the superstructure
of the Sanchi examples is essentially wooden in character, and
we are astonished that it should have stood " for twenty centuries
nearly uninjured." These torans reappear to this day in Japan
as tori-i and in China as p'ai-lus or p'ai-fangs. The whole of
the surfaces, inside and out, are carved with elaborate sculptures
of much interest. A cast of the eastern toran from Sanchi is
to be seen in the museums at S. Kensington, Edinburgh, Dublin,
Paris and Berlin. On the southern one, an inscription appears
to indicate that it was erected about 150 B.C.
The earlier cave temples are of about the same age as the
stupas; some of those in Behar bear inscriptions of Asoka and
of his successor in the 2nd century B.C. And the earlier cave
facades in western India indicate the identity of style and
construction in the patterns from which both must have been
copied. These Buddhist rock excavations are of two types:
the chaitya or chapel caves, with vaulted roofs of considerable
height, the earliest with wooden fronts and later with a screen
wall left in the rock, but in both forms with a large horse-shoe
shaped window over the entrance. The interior usually consisted
FIG. I. — Cave at Karli near Bombay. Section and plan.
of a nave, separated from the side aisles by pillars, and containing
a chaitya or small stupa at the inner and circular end. The
facades of these chaitya chapels were covered with sculpture —
some of them very richly; and to protect them from the weather
a screen was contrived and cut in the rock in front of the facade,
with large windows in the upper half for the entrance of light.
This mode of lighting by a great arch over the entrance has
attracted considerable attention, as being admirably adapted
for its purpose. As Fergusson remarked, " nothing invented
before or since is lighted so perfectly, and the disposition of
the parts or interior for an assembly of the faithful ... is
what the Christians nearly reached in after-times but never
quite equalled."
The second type of rock excavations are known as viharas
or monasteries devoted to the residence of monks and ascetics.
They usually consisted of a hall surrounded by a number of
cells — the earliest with stone beds in them. In the later viharas
there was a shrine in the centre of the back wall containing a
large image of the Buddha. In the Orissa caves, near Cuttach,
we have a series of excavations that do not conform to these
arrangements: they are early, dating as far back as the 2nd
century B.C., but they belong to the Jain sect, which dates from
the same age as the Buddhist.
On the north-west frontiers of India, about the Swat and
Yusufzai districts, anciently known as Gandhara, are found a
remarkable class of remains, much ruined, but that must have
abounded in sculptures belonging to the Buddhist cult. It is
among these we find the first representations of Buddha and of
the characters belonging to the Buddhist pantheon. The in-
fluence of classical art manifested in these images leaves no
doubt that they were modelled after western patterns, carried
thither by Greeks or brought from the Levant by Buddhist
emissaries. The scenes depicted, however, have frequently
an architectural setting in which we find represented facades
with pillars fashioned with distinctly Corinthian capitals. These
sculptures we can now assign with confidence, from dated
epigraphs, to dates from the last years of the century B.C. till
the 4th century A.D. One inscription of A.D. 47 is of a king
Gondophernes, who is mentioned in the legend of the apostle
Thomas.
In the time of the great Gupta dynasty, from about A.D.
320 to 500, the architectural forms developed in variety and
richness of decoration. To the columns were given higher square
bases than before, and sometimes a sur-base; the capitals,
which previously had a vase as the chief member, were developed
by a foliaged ornament, springing from the mouth of the vase
and falling down upon it from the four corners, and so lending
strength to the neck whilst converting the round capital into
a square support for the abacus. Often, too, a similar arrange-
ment of foliage was applied to the early bases; and this form
quite superseded the Persepolitan pillar, with its bell-shaped
capital, which now disappeared from Indian art. The shafts
were round or of sixteen or more sides; pilasters were orna-
mented on the shafts; and the spires of the temple were simple
in outline and rose almost vertically at first and curving inwards
towards the summit, which was always capped by a large
circular fluted disk supporting a vase, whilst the surface of the
tower was covered with a peculiar sort of horse-shoe diaper.
This style prevailed all over Hindustan, and was continued
with modifications varying with age and locality down almost
to the Mahommedan conquest.
In Kashmir from the 8th century, if not earlier, till the
Mahommedan conquest we find a style of architecture possessing
a certain quasi-classical element which has little if any connexion
with the art of the rest of India. The best-known example of
this Kashmir style is the temple of Martand, about 3 m. east
from Islamabad or Anatnag,
- ; ; : ; ; -. i t ; i ; ; i ; i i i
the old capital. It stands in
a court 220 ft. long by 142
ft. wide surrounded by the
ruins of some eighty small
cells, with a large entrance
porch at the east end. The
temple itself was 60 ft. long
by 38 ft. wide, with two
wings, and consisted of two
apartments — a naos and
cella. The trefoiled or cusped
arch on the doors of the
temple and cells is a strik-
ing peculiarity of the style,
and may have been derived
from the section of the
Buddhist chaitya. It is
used decoratively, however,
rather than constructively.
The pillars and pilasters of
the portico and temple bear
a close resemblance to some
of the later forms of the Roman Doric, and have usually
sixteen shallow flutes on the shafts, with numerous members
in the base and capital. A triangular pediment surmounts
the doorways, and on gable-ends or projecting faces are repre-
sentations of double sloping roofs, much in the style of modern
Kashmir wooden roofs, of which also many of the temple-roofs
in Nepal are exaggerated examples. The Martand temple
was, in all probability, built in the 8th century, between A.D.
725 and 760, and was erected as a temple of the Sun, one of
whose names is Martand. For, till the I2th century at least,
Sun-worship was quite prevalent in the north and west of India.
At a remote village called Buniar is a much better preserved
FIG. 2. — Plan of Temple of
Martand.
43°
INDIAN ARCHITECTURE
specimen of the style: and at Avantipur, Vangath, Payer and
Pandrethan are other interesting examples of the style. That
at Pandrethan about 3 m. from Srinagar is a well-preserved
little temple, built between A.D. 906 and 921, and perhaps
exhibits the most clearly the characteristics of the style.
In the Himalayas the architecture is still largely wooden,
raised on stone basements and is often picturesque. In the
Nepal valley we meet with hemispherical chaityas or stupas
on low bases with
lofty brick spires, and
some of them of great
antiquity, along with
temples having three
or four storeys
divided by sloping
roofs, and others in
the modern Hindu
style of northern
India.
In South Kanara,
especially at Mudbi-
dare (Mudbidri), there
are also Jain temples
and tombs with double
and triple sloping
roofs that resemble the
native temples of
Nepal, with which,
however, they had no
FIG. 3. — Temple of Pandrethan.
connexion. The whole style is closely in imitation of wooden
originals, the forms of which have been derived from the local
thatched dwellings of the district. The interiors of the Kanara
temples are often very rich in carving, the massive pillars being
carved like ivory or the precious metals. Associated with these
and other temples are elegant, monolithic pillars placed on
square bases, the shafts richly carved and the capitals wide-
spreading, some of them supporting, on four very small colon-
nettes, a square roof elaborately modelled. These stambhas or
pillars are the representatives of the early Buddhist lats or
columns raised at their temples, and bear emblems distinctive
of the sects to which they respectively belong.
The southern portion of the peninsula is peopled by a race
known as Dravidians, and to the style of architecture practised
over most of this area we may conveniently apply the name of
the race. This Dravidian architecture was essentially different
from that of other regions of India and is of one type. One of
the best-known groups of monuments in this style is that of the
t
FIG. 4.— Kailas at Ellora.
" Seven Pagodas " or the Mamallapuram raths, on the seashore,
south from Madras. These raths are each hewn out of a block
of granite, and are rather models of temples than such. They are
the earliest forms of Dravidian architecture and belong to the
7th century. To the same age belongs the temple of Kailasanath
at Conjeeveram, and to the following century some of the
temples in the south of the Bombay Presidency, and the famous
monolithic temple of the Kailas at Ellora near Aurangabad.
Buildings in the Dravidian style are very numerous in propor-
tion to the extent of the area in which they are found. The
temples generally consist of a square base, ornamented externally
by thin tall pilasters, and containing the cell in which the image
is kept. In front of this may be added a mantapam or hall, or
even two such. Over the shrine rises the spire, of pyramidal
form, but always divided into storeys and crowned by a small
dome, either circular or polygonal in shape. The cornices are
of double curvature, whilst in other Indian styles they are
mostly straight with a downward slope. Another feature of
these temples, especially those of later date, is the gopurams or
great gateways, ^__
placed at the en-
trances to the sur-
rounding courts,
and often on all
four sides. In
general design
they are like the
spires over the
shrines, but about
twice as wide as
deep, and very fre-
quently far more
imposing than the
temples them-
selves.
The style is dis-
tinctly of wooden
origin, and of this
the very attenu-
ated pilasters on
the outer walls
and the square
pillars of small
section are evi-
dences. As the
contemporary
northern Styles are Reproduced, by permission of Mr John Murray, from Dr
, . . Burgess's The Cave Temples of India.
characterized by FJG 5>_Plan of j^;^ at Ellora.
the prevalence of
vertical lines, the
Dravidian is marked by horizontal mouldings and shadows, and
the towers and gopurams are storeyed. The more important
temples are also surrounded by courts enclosing great corridors
and pillared halls.
One of the best examples of this style is the great temple at
Tanjore. It would appear to have been begun on a definite plan,
and not as a series of extensions of some small temple which, by
accident, had grown famous and acquired wealth by which
successively to enlarge its courts, as that at Tiruvallur seems to
have grown by a series of accretions. The body of the Tanjore
temple is of two storeys and fully 80 ft. high, whilst the sikhara
or pyramidal tower rises in eleven storeys to a total height of
190 ft. This dominates the gopurams over the entrances to the
court in which it stands, and to an outer court, added in front of
the first, but which docs not, as in other cases, surround it. The
central shrine, so far as we know, was erected about A.D. 1025.
The Srirangam temple in Trichinopoly, the largest in India,
is architecturally the converse of this: it is one of the latest in
date, the fifth court having been left unfinished in the middle
of the 1 8th century. The shrine is quite insignificant and
distinguished only by a gilt dome, whilst proceeding outwards,
the gopurams to each court are each larger and more decorative
than the preceding. The successive independent additions,
however, proved incompatible with any considered design or
arrangement of parts.
Most of the Deccan was ruled by the Chalukya dynasty from
early in the 6th century, and the style prevailing over this area,
INDIAN ARCHITECTURE
from the Tungabhadra and Krishna rivers to the Tapti and
MahanadI, may be styled, from them, as Chalukyan.
The earliest temples in this style, however, are not very clearly
marked off from the Dravidian and the more northern styles.
Some of them have distinctly northern spires, others are closely
FIG. 6. — Temple at Tanjore.
allied to the southern style; and it was perhaps only gradually
that the type acquired its distinctive characteristics. Till a late
date we find temples with towers differing so little in form from
Dravidian vimanas that, other details apart, they might readily
be ascribed to that order.
Among Chalukyan temples a prevalent form is that of three
shrines round one central hall. The support of the roofs of these
halls is almost always after the Dravidian plan of four pillars,
FIG. 7. — Temple at Tiruvallur, near Tanjore.
or multiples of four, in squares, so that larger domes were never
attempted. Both in Dravidian and northern temples the
projections on the walls are generally formed by increments of
slight thickness added flatly to their faces, and, however thick,
they are so placed as to leave the true corners of the shrines,
&c., more or less recessed. In the Chalukyan temples the sides
are often made prominent by increments placed over them,
or the whole plan is star-shaped, the projecting angles having
equal adjacent faces lying in a circle, as in the temple of Belur
in Mysore, built about A.D. 1120, and in others. The roofs are
stepped and more or less pyramidal in form, with breaks corre-
sponding to the minor angles made on the walls.
Some of the details of this style are very elaborate; in fact,
many of the finer temples were completely overlaid with sculp-
tural ornament. The pillars are markedly different from the
earlier Dravidian forms: they are massive, richly carved,
often circular and highly polished. Their capitals are usually
spread out, with a number of circular mouldings immediately
below; and under these is a square block, while the middle
section of the shaft is richly carved with mouldings in the round.
In many cases the capitals and circular mouldings have been
actually turned in a sort of lathe. They are almost always in
pairs of the same design, the whole effect being singularly varied
and elegant.
The great temple at Halebid (see Plate II. fig. u), begun
about A.D. 1250, was left unfinished at the Mahommedan conquest
in 1310. It is a double temple, measuring 160 ft. by 122 ft.,
and is covered with an amazing amount of the richest sculpture.
But the spires were never raised over the shrines. The Kedares-
vara temple at Balagamvi is perhaps one of the oldest of the
style in Mysore, and there are other good examples at Kubattur,
Harnhalli, Arsikere, Harihar, Koravangala and elsewhere;
but their plans vary greatly.
Coming now to Northern India, we find the Hindu architectural
style more widely spread and more varied than in the south,
but wanting somewhat in individuality. Examples of the same
order, however, are to be found also far to the south in the
Chalukyan area. The characteristic that first appeals to our
notice is the curvilinear spires of the temples, and the absence
of that exuberance of sculpture seen in the great Chalukyan
temples of the South; whilst in many cases, as in the Jain temples,
a greater central area has been obtained in the halls by arranging
twelve columns so as to support a dome on an octagonal disposi-
tion of lintels. The shrines are square in plan and only slightly
modified by additions to the walls of parallel projections; the
walls were raised on a moulded plinth of some height, over
which was a deep base, the two together rising, roughly, to about
half the height of the walls. Over this is the panelled face
devoted to figure sculptures in compartments, but the tall,
thin pilasters of the southern style have disappeared. Above
is the many-membered architrave and cornice supporting the
roof and spire. The latter follow the vertical lines of the walls,
presenting no trace of divisions into storeys or steps, but they
vary in other details with the age.
In Rajputana and Western India a variety of this northern
style has been known as the Jain order. Though used by the
Hindus and Jains alike, it was employed in its most ornate form
by the Jains in their famous temples on Mount Abu and else-
where. A striking feature of this style is the elaborately carved
roofs over their corridors and the domes of their porches and
halls (see Plate II. fig. 12). Nothing can exceed the delicacy and
elaboration of details in these sculptured roofs and vaults. Com-
bined with the diversified arrangement of the variously spaced
and highly sculptured pillars supporting them, these convey an
impression of symmetry and beauty that is highly pleasing.
Gujarat must have been rich in splendid temples before the
1 2th century, but it was devastated so often by the Moslems
that the more notable have all perished, though the once magnifi-
cent Sun Temple at Mudhera still witnesses, in its ruins, to the
architectural style and grandeur of the period — the early part
of the nth century — when it was erected. A notable group of
between thirty and forty temples in this style exists at Khajuraho
in Bundelkhand. They belong to both the Hindu and the Jain
cults, and mostly date from the loth and nth centuries. Many
of them are covered, inside and out, with the richest sculpture,
and may be regarded architecturally as " the most beautiful
in form as well as the most elegant in detail " of the temples
of Northern India. With these, the temples at Bhuvaneswar
in Orissa exhibit this style at its best. The latter have the
earlier form of spire, nearly perpendicular below, but curving
inwards near the summit.
The temple of Kanarak, known as the " Black Pagoda "
432
INDIAN ARCHITECTURE
see Plate III. fig. 13), which for its size is, externally at least,
the most richly ornamented building in the world. It has lately
been filled up with stones and sand, as the only method the
Archaeological Survey could devise to prevent its threatened
collapse.
In the later examples of the style the spire is still a square
curvilinear pyramid, to the faces of which are added smaller
copies of the same form, carrying up the offsets of the walls;
and in some examples these are multiplied to an extraordinary
extent.
The Mahommedan architecture, also known as Indian
Saracenic, begins in India with the I3th century and varied
much at different periods and under the various dynasties,
imperial and local. The imperial rulers at Delhi, for the first
three centuries, were Pathans, and were succeeded in 1526 by
Baber, who founded the Mogul dynasty. Under the earlier
Pathan emperors the style of building was massive but profusely
ornamented and of extreme beauty in its details. Among the
examples of this style may be instanced the Qutb Minar at
Delhi (see Plate I. fig. 9), one of the finest pillars in the world,
built in the first quarter of the i3th century. It is still 240 ft.
high and ornamented by projecting balconies and richly carved
belts between; the three lower storeys are cut up by projecting
vertical ribs that add to its beauty. Beside it the tomb of
Altamsh is also profusely sculptured and of extreme beauty of
detail, and other examples are seen in the eastern portion of the
adjoining mosque, the tomb of Ala-ud-din Khilji, and the
Alai Darwaza. After about 1320 the Pathan architecture is
marked' by a stern simplicity of design and a solemn gloom and
nakedness, in marked contrast to the elaborate richness of
ornamentation of the preceding period. The tomb of Ghiyas-ud
din Tughlak at New Delhi, with its sloping walls and massive
solidity, is a typical example of this period, as is also the Kalan
mosque at Delhi completed in 1386.
Early in the isth century, however, a reaction had set in,
and the later style was hardly less rich and much more appropriate
for its purposes than the earlier in the end of the 1 2th and early
I3th century. The facades of the mosques became more orna-
mental, were often encrusted with marble, and usually adorned
with rich and beautiful sculpture. This was clearly a return
to the elaborateness of the past, but with every detail fitted
to its place and purpose and presenting one of the completest
architectural styles of the world.
About the beginning of the i sth century several local dynasties
arose, each of which developed a style more or less their own.
Of the Sharki dynasty of Jaunpur only three great mosques
in that city have come down to us, with several tombs. The
cloisters surrounding the open courts of the mosques and the
galleries within are closely allied to the Hindu style, being
constructed with short square pillars having bracket capitals
supporting lintels and roof of flat slabs. But the gateways and
main features of the mosques are arched. The mosque itself
consists of a central square hall covered by a lofty dome of the
whole width of it, in front of which stands the great propylon
or gate, of massive outline and rising to the full height of the
central dome. This propylon had a large recessed arch between
the two piers, in the lower portion of which was the entrance
to the mosque, whilst the upper formed a pierced screen. On
each side of the dome is a compartment divided into two storeys
by a stone floor supported on pillars, and beyond this, on each
side, is a larger apartment covered by a pointed ribbed vault.
The ornamental work is bold and striking rather than delicate,
and the mihrabs or qiblas are marked by severe simplicity, and
form a link in the evolution of the later form under Mogul rule.
These buildings afford a marked expression of strength combined
with a degree of refinement that is rare in other styles. Other
examples of this style are met with at Benares, Kanauj and
places within the Jaunpur kingdom.
In 1401 Dilawar Khan assumed independence in Malwa,
of which Mandu became the capital, and his son Hoshang
adorned it with important buildings. They are of a modified
form of the Pathan style of the I4th century. Among them
the finest is the great Jama Masjid, which was finished by
Mahmud Shah I. in 1454. It covers a nearly square area, 290
ft. from east to west by 275 ft. from north to south, exclusive
of the porch on the east, which projects about 56 ft. Inside,
the court is an almost exact square, surrounded by arches on
each side, standing on plain square piers 10 ft. high, each of
a single block of red sandstone; behind these are triple arcades
on the north and south, a double one on the east, and on the
west the mosque, having three great domes on its west side.
This court, in its simple grandeur and expression of power,
may be regarded as one of the very best specimens of this style
to be found in India. The tombs and palaces of Mandu, mostly
much ruined, it would occupy too much space to describe.
But here, as elsewhere, the available materials have exercised
a marked influence upon the architecture; the prevalence of
a red sandstone is emphasized in the piers of the Jama Masjid,
more than 300 of them being each of a single block of thi&
material; and for more decorative purposes marble, both
white and coloured, was freely used to revet the walls and
piers. The style is strictly arcuate, without admixture of
the general trabeate structural methods followed by the native
Hindus; and while at Jaunpur and Ahmedabad, at the same
period, we find the strong influence of native methods copied
in the Mahommedan architecture, at Mandu the builders clung
steadily to the pointed arch style, without any attempt, however,
at groining.
The capital of the Bengal kingdom was at Gaur, which had
been the metropolis of a native kingdom probably since the
9th century. As the country is practically without stone,
the Hindu buildings would be chiefly of brick, but pillars,
images and details were of hard potstone or hornblende;
and these would afford materials for the Moslem conquerors.
The construction of large buildings of brick required heavy
piers for the arches and thicker walls than those constructed
of stone. Then such piers and walls, when enriched by a facing
of moulded or glazed tiles, would appear still heavier; and
sometimes for tiles a casing of carved stone was substituted.
Hence this style is a purely local one with short, heavy pillars
faced with stone and supporting pointed brick arches and
vaults. The use of brick further forced the builders to employ
an arched style of their own and a mode of roofing in which
a curvilinear form was given to the eaves descending at the
corners of the structures. This form spread later up through
Hindustan as far as the Punjab.
The capital at one time was moved to Pandua, north of Gaur,
and there was built (1358-1368) the great Adina mosque, 500 ft.
in length by 285 in depth containing a large court surrounded
by a thick wall of brick. The roof was supported by 266 stone
pillars and covered by 378 domes, all of one form. Such a design
has little architectural merit, but its size and the richness of
its details make it an interesting study, and the same char-
acter belongs to most of the works of the Bengal Moslem
rulers.
The Bahmani dynasty, founded in 1347, had its capital
at Gulbarga till 1428, when it was moved to Bldar. During
this period the city was adorned with important buildings
of which the most notable now remaining is the great mosque,
one of the most striking in India. It measures over all 216 ft.
from east to west by 176 from north to south. It differs from
all the great mosques in India in having the whole central
area covered over as in the great mosque at Cordova — what
in others would be an open court being roofed by sixty-three
small domes. The light is admitted through the side-walls,
which are pierced by great arches on all sides except the west.
The study is plain and substantial, with but little ornament.
The tombs of the kings are massive square-domed buildings,
with handsome stone tracery on their outer walls, and are
elaborately finished inside. At Bldar, mosques, palaces and
tombs were also erected, but most of them have perished, the
great mosque in the fort being the only one fairly entire. The
ten tombs of the later Bahmani kings, 5 m. from the city, are
of like pattern with those of Gulbarga and of considerable
INDIAN ARCHITECTURE
PLATE III.
FIG. 13.— KANARAK TEMPLE OF SURYA, OR BLACK
PAGODA, FROM THE EAST.
FIG. 14.— TOMB OF MAHOMMED ADIL SHAH,
BIJAPUR.
XIV. 43».
FIG. 15.— JAMA MASJID AT AHMEDABAD.
From Photographs kindly lent by the India Office.
PLATE IV.
INDIAN ARCHITECTURE
Photo, F. Frith & Co.
FIG. 16.— TOMB OF PRINCE ITIMAD-UD-DAULA, AGRA.
Photo, Johnston & Hoffmann.
FIG. I7.-THE TAJ MAHAL, AGRA.
INDIAN ARCHITECTURE
433
splendour. They are not much ornamented, but are structurally
good and impressive by their massive proportions.
Of the various forms which the Moslem architecture assumed,
" that of Ahmedabad," Fergusson has justly remarked, " may
probably be considered as the most elegant, as it certainly
is the most characteristic of all. No other form is so essentially
Indian, and no one tells its tale with the same unmistakable
distinctness." Under the Mahommedan rule the Hindu archi-
tects employed introduced forms and ornaments into the works
they constructed for their rulers, superior in elegance to any
the latter knew or could have invented. Hence there arose
a style combining all the beauty and finish of the previous native
art with a certain magnificence of conception which is deficient
in their own works. The elevations of the mosques have usually
been studiously arranged with a view to express at once the
structural arrangements, and to avoid monotony of outline
by the varied elevation of each division. The central portion
of the facade was raised by a storey over the roof of the wings,
and to the front of this was attached the minarets, in the earliest
mosques forming only small turrets over the facade, but soon after
they became richly carved towers of considerable height. The
upper storey formed a gallery under the central dome which
was supported on pillars connected by open stone trellis work,
admitting a subdued light, and providing perfect ventilation
(see Plate III. fig. 1 5) . At first the facades were pierced by arched
entrances, but at a later date a screen of columns formed an
open front and the minarets were removed to the corners, no
longer for the mu'azzin, but simply as architectural ornaments.
The tombs were pillared pavilions of varying dimensions,
the central area over the grave covered by a dome standing
on twelve pillars. These pillars connected by screens of stone
trellis work carved in ever-varying patterns, and round this
there might be a verandah with twenty pillars in the periphery,
or a double aisle with thirty-two in the outer square. And as
these were irregularly spaced in order to allow the inner-twelve
to support the lintels of a regular octagon for the dome, the
monotony of equal spacing was avoided. For further details
and examples of this style, however, we must refer the reader
to the published volumes of the archaeological survey of Western
India relating to Ahmedabad and Gujarat.
The Adil Shahi dynasty of Bijapur (1492-1686) was of foreign
extraction and held the Shiah form of Islam, prevalent in
Persia, whilst they largely employed Persian officers. This
probably influenced their architecture and led to that large-
ness of scale and grandeur which characterized the style, differing
markedly from that of the buildings of Agra and Delhi, but
scarcely, if at all, inferior in originality of design and boldness
of execution. There is no trace of Hindu forms or details; the
style was their own, and was worked out with striking boldness
and marked success. The mode in which the thrusts are pro-
vided for in the giant dome (see Plate III. fig. 14) of Mahommed
Adil Shah's tomb (A.D. 1650), by the use of massive pendentives,
hanging the weight inside, has drawn the admiration of European
architects. And this dome, rising to about 1 7 5 ft. from the floor,
roofs over an area 130 ft. square, or 2500 sq. ft. larger than the
Pantheon at Rome, where stability is secured only by throwing
a great mass of masonry on the haunches. The Jami masjid,
begun by All Adil Shah, 1567, but never quite completed, is
one of the finest mosques in India. The central area of the
mosque proper is covered by a large dome, supported in the
same way as that on Mahommed Shah's tomb. This dome,
like all the earlier ones in India, perhaps wants in outside eleva-
tion; but in the splendid Ibrahim Rauza and mosque we find
the domes elevated above mere segments. In this latter group,
erected about 1626, the domes are more elevated, and we have
every detail of the structure covered with the most delicate
and exquisitely elaborate carving, the windows filled with
tracery, and the cornices supported by wonderfully rich brackets.
In the tomb too — as if in defiance of constructional demands —
the room, 40 ft. sq., is covered by a perfectly level stone roof,
supported only by a cove projecting on each side from the
walls.
The Indian Saracenic style of the Mogul dynasty began under
;he emperor Baber, 1526; but one of the first and most character-
stic examples that remain is the mosque of Sher Shah (1541)
near Delhi (see Plate I. fig. 10), and others exist at Rohtas.
These earlier structures are interesting as the initial forms of
:he style, but are little known to Europeans. The emperor
Akbar (1356-1605) built largely, and the style developed so
vigorously during his reign that it would be difficult to enumerate
the peculiarities of his numerous buildings. As in the Gujarat
and other styles, there is a combination of Hindu and Mahom-
medan features in his works which were never perfectly blended.
Like their predecessors, the Pathans, the Moguls were a tomb-
building race, and those of the latter are even more splendid
than those of the former, more artistic in design, and more
elaborately decorated. The fine tomb of Akbar's father,
Humayun, and the numerous structures at Fatehpur Sikri
best illustrate the style of his works, and the great mosque there
is scarcely matched in elegance and architectural effect; the
south gateway is well known, and from its size and structure
excels any similar entrance in India. And his tomb at Sikandra,
near Agra, is a unique structure of the kind and of great merit.
Under Jahangir the Hindu features vanished from the style;
his great mosque at Lahore is in the Persian style, covered with
enamelled tiles; his tomb near by (1630-1640) was made a
quarry of by the Sikhs from which to build their temple at
Amritsar. At Agra, the tomb of Itimad-ud-daula (see Plate IV.
fig. 1 6), completed in 1628, built entirely of white marble and
covered wholly by pielra dura mosaic, is one of the most splendid
examples of that class of ornamentation anywhere to be found.
The force and originality of the (style gave way under Shah
Jahan (1627-1658) to a delicate elegance and refinement of
detail, illustrated in the magnificent palaces erected in his reign
at Agra and Delhi, the latter once the most exquisitely beautiful
in India. The most splendid of the Mogul tombs, and the most
renowned building in India, is the far-famed mausoleum, the Taj
Mahal at Agra (see Plate IV. fig. 17), the tomb of Mumtaz Mahal,
the wife of Shah Jahan. It is surrounded by a garden, as were
almost all Moslem tombs. The extreme delicacy of the Taj
Mahal, the richness of its material, and the complexity of its
magnificent design have been dwelt on by writers of all countries.
So also of the surpassingly pure and elegant Moti Masjid in the
Agra fort, all of white marble: these are among the gems of the
style. The Jama Masjid at Delhi is an imposing building,
and its position and architecture have been carefully considered
so as to produce a pleasing effect and feeling of spacious elegance
and well-balanced proportion of parts. In his works Shah
Jahan presents himself as the most magnificent builder of Indian
sovereigns.
In Aurangzeb's reign squared stone and marble gave way
to brick or rubble with stucco ornament, and the decline of taste
rapidly set in.
The buildings at Seringapatam and Lucknow are of still later
date, and though in certain respects they are imposing, they are
too often tawdry in detail.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — J. Fergusson, History of Indian and Eastern
Architecture (new ed., in press) ; Fergusson and Burgess, Cave Temples
of India, 8vo (London, 1880); J. Burgess, Reports of the Archaeo-
logical Survey of Western India (9 vols. 4to, London, 1874-1905);
Rock-cut Temples of Elephanta (Bombay, 1871); Buddhist Stupas of
Amaravati, &c, (4to, 1887); Ancient Monuments, Temples, Sculp-
tures, &c., in India, 170 plates (fol. Griggs, London, 1897); Gen.
Sir A. Cunningham, Archaeological Survey of India Reports 1862-1885
(23 vols. 8vo, Calcutta, 1871-1886) ; H. Cole, Preservation of Ancient
Monuments in India, 100 plates (fol. Griggs, London, 1896); G. le
Bon, Les Monuments de Vlnde (fol. Paris, 1893); E. W. Smith,
Mughal Architecture of Fathpur-Sikri (4 vols. 410, Allahabad, 1894-
1898); Sir Lepel Griffin, Famous Monuments of Central India (fol.
1886); A. Rea, Chalukyan Architecture of Southern India (410,
Madras, 1896) ; A. Fiihrer, Monumental Antiquities, &c., in the N.W.
Provinces and Oudh (4to, Allahabad, 1891); A. Foucher, L'Arf
grico-bouddhique du Gandhdra, 2 tomes (8vo, Paris, 1905-1908) ;
Grunwedel, Buddhist Art in India (Eng. trans., 8vo, 1901); R.
Phen6 Spiers, Architecture East and West (8vo, 1905); H. C. Fan-
shawe, Delhi, Past and Present (8vo, 1902); J. H. Ravenshaw, Gaur:
its Ruins and Inscriptions (4to, 1878); Sayyid Muhammad Latif,
Lahore: its History, Architectural Remains, &c. (8vo, Lahore, 1892);
434
INDIAN LAW
H Cousens, Bijapur, the Old Capital of the Ai.il Shahi Kings (8vo,
Poona, 1908); G. W. Forrest, Cities of India (8vo, 1903); Dr W. H.
and Mrs Workman, Through Town and Jungle, among the Temples and
People of the Indian Plains (8vo, 1904). (J- Bs.)
INDIAN LAW. — The law in force in British India may be
conveniently divided into five heads: (i) The law expressly
made for India by the British parliament, or by the sovereign.
(2) English law in force in India though not expressly made for
India. (3) The law made by persons or bodies having legislative
authority in India. (4) Hindu law. (5) Mahommedan law.
The first three of these are frequently described as Anglo-Indian
law. They are with rare exceptions territorial, i.e. they apply
generally, either to the whole of India, or to a given area, and
to all persons within- those limits. The last two are personal,
i.e. they apply only to persons who answer a given description.
1. The Law expressly made for India by the British Parliament
or the Sovereign. — There are in existence about 120 acts of
parliament containing provisions relating to India. The greater
portion of these provisions relate to what may be called con-
stitutional law, such as. the power of the East India company, the
transfer of these powers to the crown, the powers of the secretary
of state, of the Indian council, of the council of the governor-
general, and of the other councils in India, and so forth.
The law made by the sovereign consists mainly of charters
granted to the four high courts of Bengal, Madras, Bombay and
the North-West Provinces. A great many charters were granted
to the East India Company, and some of the earlier ones contained
very important provisions as to the legislative and judicial
authority to be exercised in India, but these provisions are now
obsolete.
2. The English Law in force in India though not made expressly
for India. — A considerable portion of the law of England, both
statute law and common law, was introduced into India by the
assumption that when courts of justice were established in
India, to be presided over by English judges, it followed that
they were to administer English law as it stood at the time of
the granting of the charter so far as it was applicable. There
has been considerable doubt as to when this assumption ceased,
but the date generally assigned for this purpose is 1726. It
only applied, however, to courts established before this date
under the direct authority of the crown, that is to the charter
courts of Calcutta, Madras and Bombay, and at a very early
date (21 Geo. III. c. 70) the jurisdiction of these courts was limited,
practically, to the inhabitants of the presidency towns and to
suitors of European origin residing elsewhere. Moreover, even
in the presidency towns, these courts were directed to apply
to Hindus and Mahommedans their own laws in regard to all
matters of inheritance and succession, family law and matters
relating to religion or caste. In the territories outside the
presidency towns where courts of justice were established by
the East India company, acting under the authority of the
emperor of Delhi, the only assumption that could be made as
to the law to be administered was that it was the law already
in existence. Acting on this assumption the company's courts ad-
ministered the Mahommedan criminal law which was the general
law of the subjects of the Mogul emperor: the revenue system
remained, as did also the existing relations of zemindar and ryot,
i.e. of the cultivator and of the persons intermediate between
the state and the cultivator. In regard to matters of family
law, inheritance and succession, religion and caste the company's
courts were expressly enjoined to apply the Hindu law to the
Hindus, and the Mahommedan law to the Mahommedans.
Of course it was also the duty of these courts to recognize well-
established local usages. Thus practically all the topics of
litigation at that time likely to arise were provided for. It was
as time went on, when by intercourse with Europeans new ideas,
and with them new wants, sprang up in the native populations,
that gaps came to be discovered in the law. To such cases the
judges had been vaguely told that they were to apply " the rules
of equity and good conscience," which they naturally sought
in the English law. The matters in which the notions of English
law have most affected India are the power of completely
separating the ownership of property from the enjoyment of
it by means of trusts, the testamentary power, the creation of
life estates, the substitution of one owner of property for another
on the happening of some future event, the rules of evidence,
criminal law, civil and criminal procedure and the subordination
of the executive to the ordinary law. Upon all of these topics
the law of India is mainly English. Not that the whole of it
rests upon the slender authority above described. Much of it, as
will appear presently, was introduced by the Indian legislatures;
much of it also, although originally introduced by the courts,
has since received legislative sanction.
3. The Law made by Persons or Bodies in India having Legisla-
tive Authority. — As a general proposition it would be true to say
that wherever a British authority has legislated in India it has
been largely influenced by the English law. The legislative
authorities in India are very numerous. Those now existing are
(i) the governor-general of India in council; (2) the governor
of Madras in council; (3) the governor of Bombay in council;
(4) the lieutenant-governor of Bengal in council; (5) the
lieutenant-governor of the North-Western Provinces in council;
(6) the lieutenant-governor of the Punjab in council; (7) the
lieutenant-governor of Burma in council; (8) the lieutenant-
governor of Eastern Bengal and Assam in council. No legislative
enactments of any kind passed in India before 1793 are now
in force. In Bengal in the year 1793 forty-eight regulations
(as they were then called) were passed in a single day, and it was
assumed that all previous legislation in Bengal was thereby
superseded. Similar regulations were passed about the same
time, and the same assumption was made, in Madras and Bombay.
As new territories were acquired by the government of India,
the existing regulations were in some cases extended to them,
but in other cases this was thought not to be convenient, and
for these territories the governor -general in council issued
general orders, not in the regular way of legislation but in
exercise of his executive power. Hence the distinction between
" regulation " and " non-regulation " provinces. Any doubt
as to the validity of the orders so made was removed by the
Indian Councils Act 1861. The term " regulations " was
dropped after the passing of the 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 85 (1833), and
since that time the word " Acts " has been in use. Acts are
referred to by the year of their enactment.
Several attempts at extensive legislation in India, intended
apparently as a step towards a general codification of the law,
have been made. The act of 1833 above mentioned directed
the issue of a commission in India which was intended to survey
the whole field of law and to suggest such alterations as appeared
desirable. Of this commission Lord Macaulay was a member.
It never attempted to perform the large task indicated in its
appointment, but it produced a draft of the Penal Code (Act XIV.
of 1860). It was not, however, until 22 years after Lord Macaulay
left India that the Penal Code became law, and in the meantime
the draft had been a good deal altered. The Penal Code is, un-
doubtedly, the most important, as it is also the most successful,
effort of Indian legislation. It is to a large extent a reproduction
of the English law of crimes. But there are some important
differences; for whereas there are in English law no authoritative
definitions of such important crimes as murder, manslaughter,
assault and theft, and many kindred offences, the Penal Code
seeks to define every crime with precision. Moreover, the Penal
Code imports into the definition of nearly every crime, and,
therefore, into the charge on which the accused is tried, words the
purport of which is to describe the state of mind of the accused
at the time the alleged act was committed, thereby making it
necessary to ascertain at the trial what that state of mind was.
This in England is not necessary to anything like the same
extent. For example in England, in order to charge a man with
manslaughter all that is necessary to allege is that A killed B.
But in order to charge a man with culpable homicide it is neces-
sary to state with much particularity what the accused intended,
or what he knew to be likely to happen when he did the act;
and this condition of mind must be proved at the trial. It
is true that this proof is facilitated by certain presumptions,
INDIAN LAW
435
but nevertheless it sometimes presents considerable difficulty.
On the other hand, in dealing with offences against property
the authors of the Penal Code have cleared away entirely the
difficulties which have long beset the English law as to how to
deal with a man who, having become possessed of property,
dishonestly misappropriates it. English lawyers have tried to
squeeze as many of these cases as they can into the crime of
larceny. The Penal Code simply makes dishonest misappropria-
tion a crime in itself. (See further CRIMINAL LAW.)
In 1853 and again in 1861 commissions were appointed in
England to draw up a body of laws for India " in preparing which
the English law should be used as a basis," but the only
direct result of these two commissions was the Indian Succession
Act (Act X. of 1865). But as Hindus and Mahommedans are
excluded from the operation of this act its application is limited.
The wills of Hindus are provided for by Act XXI. of 1870.
Two important acts, however, were passed in India shortly
after the attempt to legislate for India through commissions
sitting in England came to an end, namely the Evidence Act
(Act I. of 1872) and the Contract Act (Act IX. of 1872). Both
these acts have been a good deal criticized. Two other important
acts passed somewhat later are the Transfer of Property Act
(Act IV. of 1882) and the Trusts Act (Act IV. of 1882).
These acts are all , substantially reproductions of the English
law.
The law relating to land revenue has been the subject of
innumerable regulations and acts of the Indian legislature. A
description of the revenue systems prevailing in India will be
found in the article on India. The law which governs the
relation of ryots (i.e. cultivators) to those who for want of a
better term we must call landlords has grown to a considerable
extent out of the revenue system. The view which was at first
taken of this relation was unfortunately affected by English
notions of the relation of landlord and tenant, but this view
has been considerably modified in favour of the tenant by
recent legislation.
BooKsopREFERENCEONANGLO-lNDiANLAW. — Morley, Analytical
Digest (1849); Stokes, Anglo-Indian Codes (1887); Ilbert, Govern-
ment of India (1906), which contains a very useful Table of Acts of
Parliament and Digest of their contents; Strachey, India, its
Administration and Progress (1903); Baden-Powell, Land Systems
of British India (1892); Wigley, Chronological Tables of Indian
Statutes (Calcutta, 1897).
4. Hindu Law. — The Hindu law is in theory of divine origin,
and therefore unchangeable by human authority. Ask a Hindu
where his law is to be found, and he will reply " In
Sources the Shasters." The Shasters are certain books supposed
Law." to be divinely inspired, and all of great antiquity.
They contemplate a state of society very unlike that
of the present day, or that of many centuries back. It follows
that these sacred writings, whilst they leave many of the legal
requirements of the present day wholly unprovided for, contain
many provisions which no Hindu even would now think of
enforcing. Consequently, in spite of the theory, the law had
to be changed. Legislation, which with us is the most potent
as well as the most direct instrument of change, has had scarcely
any effect on the Hindu law. Probably it never entered into
the head of any Hindu before British rule was set up in India
that any human agency could be entrusted with the power of
making or changing the law; and although both the Indian
legislatures and the British parliament have full power to
legislate for Hindus upon all matters without any exception,
they have, in fact, hardly ever exercised this power as regards
the Hindu law. Custom is a less direct instrument of change
than legislation, and operates more slowly and secretly, but its
influence is very great. The custom which supplants the sacred
law may indeed be as old or older than the sacred law, and its
existence may be due to the divinely inspired law having failed
to displace it; or the habits and necessities of the people may
have engrafted the custom upon the sacred law itself. In either
view there has been no difficulty in accepting custom where it
varied from the sacred law. Indeed, the sacred books themselves
recognize to some extent the operation of custom. Thus we
find it said in the Laws of Manu (viii. 4, i), " the king who knows
the sacred law must inquire into the laws of castes, of districts, of
gilds and of families, and thus settle the peculiar law of each."
It is to the influence of custom that the divergence between the
Hindu law of to-day and that of the Shasters is largely due.
Another method by which law is developed, and one more
subtle still, is interpretation; and it is one which in skilful hands
may be used with considerable effect. Without any dishonesty,
people very often find in the language of the law words sufficiently
vague and comprehensive to cover the sense which they are
looking for. The action of interpretation upon Hindu law differs
accordingly as it took place before or after the British occupation.
Formerly the only persons whose interpretation was accepted
as authoritative were the writers of commentaries. But the
Indian courts are very sparing in accepting modern commentaries
as authoritative, though nevertheless they carefully record their
own interpretations of the law, and these are always treated
as authoritative. It follows, from the very nature of the influences
thus brought to bear upon law, that not only have the sacred
books been departed from, but that different results have been
arrived at in different parts of India. The differences have led
recent writers to speak of five schools of Hindu law, called
respectively the Benares school, the Bengal or Gauriya school,
the Bombay school or school of western India, the Dravida
school or school of southern India and the Mithila school —
the district last named being a very small one to the south of
and adjoining Nepal. But it would be a great mistake to suppose
that the differences between these so-called schools are compar-
able to each other in importance. As will appear presently,
it would be much more correct to speak of two schools, that of
Benares and that of Bengal — the other three being subdivisions
of the first.
It will be convenient to give a short description of those
of the sacred books which are actually in use in the Indian courts
when they desire to ascertain the Hindu law. Of these
by far the first in importance, as well as the first in
date, is the one which we call the Laws of Manu.
It has been translated by Professor Buhler, and forms vol.
xxv. of the " Sacred Books of the East," edited by Professor
Max Miiller. If we examine it, we find that only about one-
fourth of the book deals with matters which we should call
legal, the rest being concerned with topics either purely religious
or ceremonial. And of these topics only one, that relating to
partition of family property, belongs to that portion of the
Hindu law which is administered in the courts, and, as one would
expect, what is said on this topic has been largely departed
from under the influences above described. Very little is known
as to the date of the Laws of Manu. They are probably much
older than their present form, which Buhler places somewhere
between 200 B.C. and A.D. 200. Of more interest than the exact
date is the state of society which they disclose. The tribal
and nomadic stage had passed away. Society had so far settled
down as to possess a regular form of government under a king.
The people were divided into four great castes, representing
religion, war, commerce and agriculture and servitude. Justice
is spoken of as administered by the king. Provision is made
for the recovery of debts and the punishment of offences. There
are rules relating to the pasture of cattle, trespass by cattle
and the enclosure of cultivated fields. There was evidently
considerable wealth in the shape of horses, carriages, clothes,
jewelry and money. There is no mention of land in general
as the subject of permanent private property, though no doubt
the homestead and the pasture land immediately adjoining
were permanently owned.
The (so-called) Smriti of Yajnavalkya was, no doubt, a
work of considerable importance in its day, and is still some-
times referred to. It shows a somewhat more advanced state
of society than the Laws of Manu. The occupier of land has a
firmer hold upon it, and there seems to be even a possibility
of transferring land by sale. The date of it has not been fixed,
but it is thought to be later than the Laws of Manu.
The Smriti of Narada belongs to a still later period, perhaps
436
INDIAN LAW
to the 5th or 6th century of our era. It goes more into detail
than the other two books just mentioned.
But far more important for practical purposes than these
sacred books are the commentaries. These are not sacred.
The most important of them all is that known as the Mitacshara.
The author of it was named Vijnaneswara. His work is a
commentary on the Smriti of Yajnavalkya, and it is supposed
to have been written in the latter half of the nth century.
Only a portion of it is used by the law courts — that portion
which relates to the partition of family property. The Mitacshara
is an important authority for Hindus all over India, and in the
greater part its authority is supreme. But there is one very
important exception. In the district which is sometimes called
Bengal Proper (from its correspondence with the ancient kingdom
of Bengal, of which' Gaur was the capital), and may be roughly
described as the valley of the Ganges below Bhagalpur, the
prevailing authority is a treatise called the Dayabhaga. It is,
like the Mitacshara, as its name imports, a treatise on partition.
The author of it was Jimutavahana. There does not appear
to be any more distinct clue to its date than that this author
wrote after the i2th century and before the i6th. The very
important points of difference between the two commentaries
will be stated hereafter. In western India there is a commentary
of authority called the Vyavahara Mayukha. It belongs to
the 1 6th century. Generally its authority is secondary to
that of the Mitacshara, but in Gujrat its authority is to some
extent preferred. In the south of India the Smriti Chandrika
is a work of importance. It belongs to the i^th century. It
generally follows the Mitacshara, but is fuller on some points.
The Vivada Chintamani is used in the small district of Mithila.
It is said to belong to the i5th century.
The joint family is by far the most important institution
of Hindu society, and it is only through the joint family that
we can form a proper conception of the Hindu law.
The It is the form in which the patriarchal system has
Ramify. survived in India. There is nowhere in Hindu litera-
ture, ancient or modern, a description of it as it has
existed at any time. In its general features it has always been
too universal and too well known to be described. In the
Laws of Manu we find very little about it, but what we do find
is of great interest. The subject is taken up with reference
to a question which in every patriarchal system imperatively
requires an answer. What is to be done when a break-up of
the family is threatened by the death of the common ancestor ?
Upon this subject the author of the Laws of Manu says in chap.
ix. v. 104: " After the death of the father and the mother,
the brothers being assembled, may divide among themselves
in equal shares the paternal estate, for they have no power
over it while the parents live." Then in v. 105, " or the eldest
son alone may take the whole paternal estate; the others shall
live under him just as they lived under the father." And in
v. in, "Either let them thus live together, or apart if each
desires to gain spiritual merit, for by their living separate merit
increases, hence separation is meritorious."
We may put aside what is said about the mother which
is probably a survival of polyandry, and is now obsolete, and
fix our attention upon three important points: (i) Authority
is attributed to the father during his life; (2) the same absolute
authority is attributed to the eldest son upon the father's
death, if the family remains undivided; (3) the sons are at
liberty, are indeed recommended, to divide the property. Now,
though there may be doubts as to how far this type of family
was at any time the universal one, there cannot be any doubt
that in those early times it largely prevailed, and that the
modern Hindu joint family is directly derived from it. Moreover,
it must be remembered that what is here discussed is not owner-
ship, but managership. If the family remained undivided, the
eldest son did not take the family property as owner; he only
became the uncontrolled manager of it. So far as there was
any notion of ownership of the family property, and it was in
those early times quite rudimentary, it was in the nature of
what we call corporate ownership. The property belonged
not to the individual members of the family collectively, but
to the family as a whole; to use a modern illustration, not
to the members of a family as partnership property belongs
to partners, but as collegiate property belongs to fellows of
a college. Probably, however, in early times it never occurred
to any one to look very closely into the nature of ownership,
for until the question of alienation arises the difference between
managership and ownership is not of very great importance;
and this question did not arise until much later. When and
under what circumstances Hindus first began to consider more
carefully the nature of ownership we have no means of ascertain-
ing. But we have very clear evidence that there was at one
time a very warm controversy on the subject. Each of the two
leading commentaries on Hindu law, the Mitacshara and the
Dayabhaga, opens with a very long discussion as to when and
how a son becomes entitled to be called an owner of the family
property. Two conflicting theories are propounded. One
is that the sons are joined with the father in the ownership
in his lifetime; the other is that they only become owners when
he dies, or relinquishes worldly affairs, which, according to
Hindu ideas, like taking monastic vows, produces civil death.
The author of the Mitacshara adopts the first of these views;
the author of the Dayabhaga adopts the second; and this radical
difference led to the great schism in the Hindu law. It follows
that, according to the Dayabhaga view, the sons not being owners,
the father is sole owner. He is both sole owner and uncontrolled
manager. According to the Mitacshara view the father and
the sons together are the owners, not as individuals, but as a
corporation. But even this is not inconsistent with the father
retaining his absolute control as manager. How far he has done
so will be considered presently.
Hitherto, for the sake of simplicity, the position of father
and son has alone been considered; but now take the case
of several brothers living together with sons and grandsons.
What is the nature of the ownership in this case, and in whom
is it vested? Neither in the Dayabhaga nor in the Mitacshara
is this question discussed directly, but each of these com-
mentaries discloses the answer which its author would give
to this question. According to the Mitacshara, of however
many different branches, and of however many different members,
a family may consist, they all form a single unity or corporation
to which the family property belongs. Not that this is asserted
in so many words; there is probably no Sanskrit word corre-
sponding at all nearly to our word corporation. But this is
the only language in which a modern lawyer can describe the
situation. The members of the family are not partners; no
one can separately dispose of anything, not even an undivided
share. It is quite otherwise under the Dayabhaga. The property
belongs to the members of the family, not as a corporation,
but as joint owners or partners. Each is the owner of his
undivided share; but not all the members of the Dayabhaga
family have a share in the ownership; the sons whose fathers
are alive are entirely excluded: the owners are those mem-
bers of the family of any age who have no direct living
ancestor.
This was the nature of family ownership in its two principal
forms, but the possibility that an individual member of the
family could have something exclusively his own is clearly
recognized in the Laws of Manu. Thus in chap. ix. v. 206,
it is said, " Property acquired by learning belongs solely to him
to whom it was given, likewise the gift of a friend, a present
received in marriage, or with the honey mixture." And again
in v. 208, " What the brother may acquire by his labour without
using the patrimony, that acquisition made solely by his own
effort he shall not share, unless by his own will, with his brothers ";
and these texts, as we shall see presently, are still of practical
application. Nowhere has a strict family system prevailed
without some analogous measure of relief (see Sir H. Maine,
Early History of Institutions, p. no).
The modern Hindu joint family is a community the members
of which are all descended from a common ancestor, and the
wives and unmarried daughters of those who are married.
INDIAN LAW
437
Perhaps the wives and daughters might more correctly be
said to belong to the family than to be members of it. In its
complete form the family is said to be joint in food, worship
and estate; and notwithstanding the divergence between the
Mitacshara and Dayabhaga systems, the main external features
of such a family are the same all over India. Every Hindu
family has a common home. This does not mean that there is
a single house in which all the members of the family con-
tinuously reside, but there is one house where the family gods
remain, where the wants of all the members of the family are
provided for, where the family worship is conducted, and to
which every member of the family is at any time at liberty to
resort. This is the real home of a Hindu. Any other residence,
however long it may last, is looked upon as temporary. Here
also the wives and children remain whilst the men are employed
at a distance. With regard to the enjoyment of the family
property there is no distinction, except such as the members
of the family themselves choose to make. Everything is enjoy-
able in common. This is the same all over India. It is very
necessary to distinguish between ownership and enjoyment.
Although the ownership of the family property under the
Mitacshara differs very materially (as explained above) from
that under the Dayabhaga, the enjoyment in both cases is the
same. There is one common fund out of which the wants of
the family are supplied. No one is dependent upon his own
contribution to the family fund. No one member can say to
another, " You have consumed more than your share, and
you must make it good." On the other hand, whatever is earned
goes into the common stock. Though separate acquisition
is possible, it is exceptional, and there is always a presumption
that the earnings of all the members belong to the common
fund, so that if any member claims property as self-acquired
he must establish his assertion by evidence as to how he ac-
quired it, and that he did so " without using the patrimony."
The accounts of the family are kept by the manager, who is
usually the eldest male, and he also generally manages the
property. But he is assisted and controlled by the other members
of the family. No separate account is kept of what each member
contributes or receives. The expenditure on behalf of the various
members of the family is scarcely ever equal, but this inequality
creates no debt between the members of the family. If any
one is dissatisfied he can protest, and if his protest is not listened
to, there is only one remedy — he can demand a partition. The
powers of the manager are those of an agent: it is very rare
to find them formally expressed, and they must be gathered
from the usual course of dealing, either amongst Hindus generally,
or in the particular family to which the manager belongs; and
it is the custom for all the adult male members of the family
to be consulted in matters of serious importance. The alienation
of land is always looked upon as a matter of special importance,
and, except in cases of urgent necessity, requires the express
assent of all the members of the family.
If any member of a Hindu family who is one of the co-owners
wishes for a partition, he can demand one, there never having
Partition been any compulsion on the members of a Hindu
family to live in common. Of course in a Dayabhaga
family there can only be a partition as between brothers,
or the descendants of brothers; between a father and his
sons there can be no partition, the sons not being owners. The
father may, if he chooses to do so, distribute the property
amongst his sons, and he sometimes does so; but this is a
distribution of his own property, and not a partition. The
father can distribute the property as he pleases. But the
absolute power of the father in this respect has only been recently
established. It used to be thought that, if the father made a
distribution, he must give to each of his sons an equal share.
It is now settled that the father is absolute. Under the Mitac-
shara, the ownership being vested in the father and sons, there
can be a partition between father and sons, and the sons can
always insist that, if a partition is made, their rights shall
be respected. Whether, under the Mitacshara law, the sons
have the right to demand a partition in opposition to their
father has been much disputed. It is now generally considered
that the sons have such a right.
In modern times if a partition takes place everything belonging
to the family in common must be divided, even the idols. If
there is only one idol, then each member of the family will be
entitled to a " turn of worship," as it is called. It is, however,
open to the members of the family to make any special arrange-
ments either for retaining any portion of the property as joint,
or as to the mode of carrying out of the partition, provided
they can all agree to it. It is remarkable that in the Laws of
Manu no such complete partition as can new be required is
prescribed. A list of articles is given of considerable importance
of which no partition could be claimed. In chap. ix. v. 219,
it is said, " A dress, a vehicle, ornaments, cooked food, water and
female slaves, property destined for pious uses and sacrifices,
and a pasture ground " are all declared to be indivisible. Land
and the right of way to the family house were also at one time
indivisible. These things, therefore, must have been used in
common after partition had taken place, which looks as if the
family were not entirely broken up; and it is possible that they
inhabited several houses within the same enclosure, as is some-
times seen at the present day. It is not always easy to sub-
divide property amongst the sharers, especially where they
are numerous; and cases occur where a better division could be
made by selling the whole or a portion of the property, and
dividing the proceeds. This could always be done with the
consent of all the sharers; and now by Act IV. of 1893 of the
governor-general in council it can be done with the consent of
a moiety in value of the sharers.
Rulers in India are apt to look upon their territories as private
property, but there is no instance on record of the succession
to the throne being considered as partible. On the contrary,
in the families which now represent the small mediatized princes,
the family property is frequently, by a special custom, considered
to be impartible. The property descends to the eldest male,
the younger members of the family getting allowances, generally
in the form of temporary assignments of portions of the family
property.
Of course only the family property can be divided, and if
any of the members make a claim on the ground of self-acquisition
to exclude anything from partition, this claim must be considered ;
and if it is upheld, that portion of the property must be excluded
from partition. These claims sometimes give rise to a good deal
of litigation, and are not always easy to determine. It must
be borne in mind, however, that self-acquired property becomes
family property as soon as it has once descended. Thus if a
man by a separate trade earns Rs. 10,000, and dies leaving two
sons and the son of a third son, these persons form a joint family,
and the Rs. 10,000 is family property. So also family property
which has been partitioned remains family property still. Thus
if A, a bachelor, gets on partition a piece of land and afterwards
marries and has sons, under the Mitacshara law the father and
sons form a joint family as soon as the sons are born, and to
this family the land belongs.
When we come to deal with the question of what shares are
taken on partition, it is convenient to follow the example of
the Hindu commentators, and to treat the subject
of inheritance in conjunction with it. The relative aace.
importance of these two subjects has not always been
perceived, particularly by the early English writers on Hindu
law. H. T. Colebrooke, the learned and accomplished translator
of the Mitacshara and the Dayabhaga, published the two treatises
together in one volume which he called The Law of Inheritance.
But these treatises, although they deal incidentally with inherit-
ance, are both described by their authors as treatises on partition
only; and this, no doubt, is because the subject of inheritance,
apart from partition, is of comparatively small importance.
Inheritance is the transfer of ownership which occurs at and ir
consequence of a death. It follows from this that in a Mitacshara
joint family there is no inheritance. The death of a member
of the family makes no change in the ownership; not any more
than the death of a fellow in the ownership of a college, or of
438
INDIAN LAW
a shareholder in the ownership of a railway company. In a
Dayabhaga family there is a case of inheritance whenever a
member dies. The share of that member descends to his heir.
But here, again, no perceptible change in the affairs of the family
is occasioned thereby. The enjoyment of the family property
is no more affected thereby than by a death in a Mitacshara
family. It is only when a partition takes place that the devolu-
tion of the shares by inheritance has to be traced. Inheritance,
therefore, apart from partition, has not to be considered when
we are dealing with family property under either system.
Let us now consider partition in a Mitacshara family. Of
course the only persons who can claim a share are the members of
the family. These, as has been said, are the male descendants
of a common ancestor through males, their wives and daughters.
But the females are entirely excluded from any share on a
partition, and we have to consider the males only. The rule
for ascertaining the share to which each member of the family
is entitled can be best explained by the following diagram,
which represents the male members of a Mitacshara family
of whom A is the common ancestor: —
A
i
H
S
A
: L
T
E
1
M
A-
F
i ,
G H
FQ R
X Y Z
The whole family may be considered as forming one group,
which may conveniently be called the group A; and it is evident
on inspection that the family may be subdivided into a number
of smaller groups each similarly organized, each group consisting
of a man and his own male descendants. Thus besides the group
A we have the group B, consisting of B and his descendants;
the group C, consisting of C and his descendants; and so on.
A group may die out altogether, as if U and W were to die
childless, E and M being already dead. The rule of partition
proceeds upon the supposition — not an unnatural one — that a
family, when it breaks up, separates always into groups, and that
the shares are moulded accordingly. For example, suppose that
when the partition is made the surviving members of the family
are N, O, S, T, X, Y, Z; then to find the shares we must go back
to the common ancestor and reconstruct the pedigree. There
were at first four groups, but at some time, it is immaterial when,
by the death of E and all his descendants the groups have
been reduced to three; hence the first step is to divide the
property into three equal parts, assigning one to each group.
The group B was originally represented by three smaller groups,
but now by only two, the groups F and G, and to each of these
we assign 5 of 3, or 5. And, of the | assigned to the group F, N
will get fa and O will get fa. The other 5 is divided between the
groups P and Q, each group getting fa. Then in the group
P, X and Y will each get -5^, while Z, as the sole representative
of the group Q, will get fa. It may be noted in passing that
this principle of division survives in the succession per stirpes,
of which we find so many examples in other systems of law which
had their origin in the patriarchal system. By a similar process
we should find that S and T each got | of the property, they
being the sole representatives of the groups C and D respectively.
For the sake of simplicity we have taken a case where no example
occurs of a father and son being both alive at the time of partition.
But suppose P to be alive in addition to the persons mentioned
above; then the group P gets fa, and that group consists of
three persons, P, X and Y. There is no precise rule as to how
the partition was to be made in such a case in the older Hindu
law, and it is rarely that a partition takes place between father
and sons, but if there should be one it is always assumed that the
shares are equal, i.e. in the case under consideration each would
take dg.
Turning now to a Dayabhaga family, we find that the property
is vested, not in the family as a whole, but in certain individual
members of it — that is to say, in those male members of the
family who have no ancestor alive. And inasmuch as the
undivided share of each member is his own, it follows that at
his death inheritance will operate and it goes to his heirs.
In order, therefore, to find what share each member takes on
partition under the Dayabhaga, we must inquire into the history
of the family and ascertain what share has become vested in
each member of the family by the ordinary rules of inheritance.
The rules of inheritance, as laid down in the Dayabhaga, are
not very dissimilar to those which we find in other parts of the
world. Everywhere we find that a man's property is taken
by his nearest relatives, but there are differences in the way
in which proximity is reckoned. Everywhere also there is a
preference given to males and the relatives through males over
females and the relatives through females, but there are differences
in the extent to which this preference is carried. The relatives
of a man through males are called his agnates; the relatives of a
man through females are called his cognates. In the Hindu
law as at present administered there is no primogeniture, and a
decided preference of males over females and of agnates over
cognates. With regard to the question of proximity, the Daya-
bhaga lawyers deal with the matter in a very curious way.
All Hindus, as is well known, offer some sort of sacrifice to their
deceased relatives, and the person by whom the sacrifice is to
be offered as well as the nature of the offering are very carefully
prescribed. These sacrifices are said to confer a " spiritual
benefit " upon the deceased, and this spiritual benefit is greater
or less according to the nature of the offering and the person who
offers it. Now the Dayabhaga lawyers say that the person
whose offering confers the greatest spiritual benefit is entitled
to succeed as heir. This being the theory, we must see
what rules govern in India the offering of sacrifices to the
dead.
The most important offering is that of the pinda, or rice cake,
and the persons who are entitled to make this offering to the
deceased are called his sapindas. The offering next in importance
is that of the lepa, or fragments of the cake, the crumbs as we
might call them, and the persons who make this offering are
called sakulyas. The offering of least importance is the simple
libation of water, and persons connected by this offering are
called samonadacas. But who are sapindas, sakulyas and
samonadacas respectively, and of each class whose offering
is most efficacious ? Practically we shall find that this question
is solved by rules of consanguinity not unlike those which we
meet with elsewhere. First of all come the sons; their offering
is most efficacious, so that they are the nearest heirs and all
take equally. Then come the sons' sons; then the sons' sons'
sons. Here we break off. The line of inheritance is not continued
beyond the great-grandsons. There are other cases in which,
as we shall see, there is a similar break when we get three degrees
away from the propositus: nor is this peculiarity confined to
the Hindu law. We find traces of a similar break in the Roman
and in the Teutonic law. After the great-grandson comes the
widow. It is difficult to establish her claim on the ground of
spiritual benefit, and it rests upon authority rather than principle.
The opinions of ancient writers on the subject are very conflicting.
They are set forth at great length in the Dayabhaga, with a
conclusion in favour of the widow. Probably the intrusion of
the widow is connected with the fact that she could in early
times by cohabitation with a brother, and in later times by
adoption, procure an heir to her sonless husband. Next to the
widow come the daughters and then the daughters' sons. Their
position, again, may be referred to the notion which prevailed in
early times, that a Hindu who had no son of his own might
take one of his daughters' sons and make him his own. Then
comes the father, then the mother, then the brothers, then the
brothers' sons, and then the brothers' sons' sons. The sisters
are excluded, but their sons succeed after the brothers' sons' sons;
then come the brothers' daughters' sons. Then, leaving this
generation, we go a step backward, and proceed to exhaust
the previous generation in precisely the same way. It is only
necessary to enumerate these in their order: father's father,
father's mother, father's brothers, father's brothers' sons,
INDIAN LAW
439
father's brothers' sons' sons, father's sisters' sons, father's
brothers' daughters' sons. Then going another step backwards
we get father's father's father, father's father's mother, father's
father's brothers, father's father's brothers' sons, father's
father's sisters' sons, father's father's brothers' daughters' sons.
So far the line of succession is confined either strictly to male
agnates, or to persons who may restore the broken line of male
agnate relationship. But at this point, under the Dayabhaga,
instead of exhausting the male agnates still further, as we might
expect, we turn now to the cognates, i.e. the relatives of the
deceased through the mother. It is said that these are also in
some way sapindas. They are generally called bandhus. There
is some difficulty in finding out the order in which they succeed,
and since it is rare that an heir has to be sought outside the
father's family, the question has not been much discussed.
The question would have to be decided by the religious doctrine
of spiritual benefit, and it is not improbable that Hindus who are
accustomed to keep up sacrifices which confer the benefit
would be able to say whose sacrifice was most efficacious.
When all the sapindas both on the father's and mother's side
are exhausted, we then go to the sakulyas, and practically these
are found by continuing the enumeration of agnates upon
the same principle as that already indicated through three
generations lower and three generations higher. On failure of
the sakulyas we should have to fall back upon the samonadacas,
but probably all that can be said with certainty is that the
sakulyas and samonadacas between them exhaust entirely
the male agnates of the deceased. Where there are several
persons whose offerings are equally efficacious, i.e. who stand
in the same relationship to the deceased, they all take: the male
descendants per stirpes, and the other relatives of the deceased
per capita.
These, then, are the rules which govern the ascertainment
of the shares of the members of a family on a partition. Neither
in a Mitacshara family nor in a Dayabhaga family have they
any effect so long as the family remains joint: it is partition,
and partition only, which brings them into play, and it is to this
event rather than death that Hindu lawyers attach the greatest
importance. Nevertheless all property in India is not joint
property. Under the Mitacshara as well as under the Dayabhaga
separate property may be acquired, and then, of course, we have
true inheritance, for which the law must provide. So far as
regards the Dayabhaga, the rules which govern the inheritance
of separate property are (as we should expect) precisely the
same as those which govern the inheritance of a share, and it is
therefore unnecessary to restate them. But it remains to lay
down the rules of inheritance for separate property under the
Mitacshara law. They are not based by Mitacshara writers upon
any religious principle, as under the Dayabhaga, yet the result
is not widely different. First come the sons, then the sons' sons,
and then the sons' sons' sons. Then the widow, whose right
has been disputed, but was long ago established; then the
daughters, and then the daughters' sons. After these come the
parents, and it is peculiar that of these the mother comes before
the father, then the father's sons and then the father's sons'
sons. Then we go back to the preceding generation, and follow
the same order — the father's mother, the father's father, the
father's father's sons, the father's father's sons' sons. After this
we go back another generation, and again follow the same order —
father's father's mother, father's father's father, father's father's
brother, father's father's brother's son. From this point the
statements of Hindu lawyers as to the order of succession are very
scanty and vague. One thing is certain, that under the Mitac-
shara law no cognates (relations through females) are admitted
until all the agnates (relations through males) are exhausted.
So far we have considered intestate succession only, and
the power of testamentary disposition is unknown to the true
Hindu law. It was introduced by the decisions of the
British courts of justice. By a will is meant a declara-
tion by a man of his wishes as to the disposition of his property
after his death, taking no effect during his life. A will is therefore
by its very nature revocable. The general question whether a
Hindu could dispose of his property by will arose in Bengal
when Hindus began to attempt to dispose of their property
after their death according to the English method. At that
time there was a doubt whether the father was so completely
absolute that he could dispose of his property to the exclusion
of his sons, even in his lifetime. As soon as it was settled that
he could do so, it was assumed that he could also make a will.
It seems never to have been asked why it was that up to this
time no Hindu had ever made a will, or to question the radically
false assumption that the power of alienation inter vivos and
the power of testamentary alienation necessarily go together.
A long series of decisions confirmed by the legislature has,
however, established that a Hindu in modern times can dispose
of any property of which he is the sole owner. In other words,
a Hindu can dispose by will of his self-acquired property, and
under the Dayabhaga a Hindu can dispose by will of his share
in family property. But the courts which created the testa-
mentary power have also limited it to disposition in favour
of persons living at the time of the testator's decease, thus
avoiding many of the fanciful dispositions of property to which
testators in all countries are so prone. But, curiously enough,
this restriction, salutary as it is, has also been based on the notion
that a testamentary disposition is a gift from the testator to
the object of his bounty.
In almost all countries at an early stage of civilization some
legal provision exists by which debtors can be compelled by
their creditors to pay their debts, and by which,
if they fail to do so, their property can be seized
and applied to this purpose. But the extent to which this can
be done varies very considerably. So long as the family system
exists in its primitive vigour it acts as a protection to the family
property against the extravagance of a single member, and we
often find that even when the family system has almost, or
completely disappeared, there is an unwillingness to deprive
the future representatives of the family of their land and houses.
Doubts, too, have arisen as to whether the same right which
a creditor has against his living debtor can be exercised after'
the debtor's death against those who have succeeded to his
property. In India these two considerations have been deeply
affected by a principle enunciated by Hindu lawyers (traces
of which we find in many Eastern countries), that a man who
dies in debt suffers cruel tortures in a future state, and that it is
the imperative duty of his own immediate dependants to deliver
him from these tortures by discharging his liabilities. Whether
this should be looked upon as a legal, or only as a purely religious
duty, might be questionable : the courts have seized upon it
as a basis for laying down in the broadest manner the just
rule that those who take the benefit of succession must take
the burdens also. The subject is one which has caused a great
deal of litigation in India, and whilst some points have been
clearly settled, others are still being slowly worked out. As
the matter stands at present, it may be safely said that all
separate property is liable for the debts of the owner, both in
his lifetime and after his death in the hands of his heirs. The
same may be said of the share in the family property of the
member of a Dayabhaga family, of which share he is the owner.
So also the family property under both the Dayabhaga and
Mitacshara is liable as a whole for the debts incurred on behalf
of the family as a whole. As regards the question of the liability
of the family property for the separate debts of the members
of a Mitacshara family, the courts have held that the sons
must pay their father's debts. Of course illegality would be an
answer to the claims of the creditors against the heirs, just
as it would be an answer to the claim against the original debtor;
but there is some authority for saying that a debt contracted
for an immoral though not an illegal purpose would not be
enforced against the heir. According to modern decisions
also, if judgment and execution on a separate debt are obtained
against the member of a Mitacshara family, the share which
would fall to him upon a partition may by process of law be
set apart and sold for the benefit of the creditor.
The doctrine of what is called maintenance plays an important
440
INDIAN LAW
part in the Hindu law, and, as we shall see, it modifies con-
siderably the rigour of the Hindu law in excluding from the
succession females or persons suffering from mental
Maintea- Qr Bodily infirmity. The right of maintenance under
the Hindu law is the right which certain persons
have to be maintained out of property which is not their own.
The persons who in certain circumstances have this right are
sons, widows, parents and unmarried daughters and sisters.
The claim of the widow arises at the death of her husband;
of a child at the death of its parent, and so forth. The claim
is not for a bare subsistence only, but to such a provision as
is suitable to the claimant having regard to his or 'her position
in life. Of course the sons are generally heirs, and an heir can
have no claim to maintenance; but a son excluded by any
mental or bodily defect would have a right to maintenance.
The girls are generally married in infancy, and after marriage
they have no claim to maintenance from their own family.
The most frequent claim is by the widow; and it is a very
important one, because she can sometimes, through the assertion
of this claim, put herself almost in the position of an heir. If
a Hindu under the Dayabhaga dies leaving sons and a widow,
the widow is entitled to maintenance, and whilst the family
remains joint she can claim to be suitably maintained, in the
family if she remains in her husband's house, or out of it if she
goes elsewhere. But if a partition takes place she is entitled
to have a share equal to that of the sons set aside for her use.
She can even, if she thinks that the sons do not treat her properly,
apply to the court to compel the sons to give her a separate
share. This, of course, gives her a very strong position. Whether
in a Mitacshara joint family the widow enjoying maintenance
can in any case claim a share on partition is doubtful.
In some respects, and as regards some kinds of property,
the ownership of women under the Hindu law differs from
; that of men. These differences depend on the source
property. from which the property is derived. If a woman has
inherited property from a male, or as a gift by her
husband, or has obtained it as a share on partition, she
does not own it in the same way as a man would do; she
obtains only a kind of restricted ownership. She has the full
enjoyment and management of it, but she cannot sell it, or
give it away, or dispose of it by will; and at her death it goes
not to her heirs but to the heirs of the person from whom she
obtained it; her ownership simply comes to an end. If she
obtained it by inheritance from a male, it will go on her death
to the heirs of that male; if as a share on partition it will be
divided amongst the other sharers; if as a gift from her husband,
to the heirs of the husband. As regards property otherwise
obtained she is in the same position as any other owner, but the
rules of inheritance applicable to it are somewhat , peculiar.
It would be a mistake to look upon the restricted ownership
of a woman as what the English lawyers call a life estate. There
is no such thing as a remainder or reversion. The whole estate
is vested in her. If we endeavoured to describe the position
of affairs at her death in the technical language of the English
law of real property, it would be more correct to say that there
was a shifting use. The restriction of alienation is sometimes
removed where there is a danger that the property might other-
wise be lost, as for example when the property is likely to be
sold for non-payment of government revenue, in which case a
portion may, if necessary, be sold by the woman so as to save
the remainder. So also a woman who has no other means of
maintaining herself, or of providing for the performance of
religious duties which are incumbent upon her, may sell so
much of the property as will produce the necessary funds. It
would be difficult for a purchaser to know whether he would
be safe in purchasing from a widow selling under necessity,
and more difficult still to preserve evidence of the necessity
in case the necessity were disputed. Of course the woman
herself could not dispute the validity of the sales, but those who
take after her might do so. Consequently it is not unusual
to obtain the concurrence of the person who at the time of the
purchase is entitled to succeed if the widow were dead, and
it has been held that if this person concurs in the sale, no one
else can dispute it on the ground that it was unnecessary.
The subject of marriage is dealt with at considerable length
in the Laws of Manu, and it is clear that, as originally conceived,
marriage under the Hindu law consisted in nothing
more than the mere possession of the woman, however ^f-wHe
obtained, by the man with the intention of making
her his wife. Eight kinds of marriage are enumerated,
and to each kind is assigned a separate name. The first four
kinds are merely different forms of gift of the girl by her father
to the husband. The other four kinds are — obtaining possession
of a girl by purchase, fraud, ravishment or consent of the girl
herself. But the simple gift of the girl by her father without
any bargain or recompense was even then considered the most
reputable form of marriage, and it is now the only one in common
use amongst orthodox Hindus. The sale of the daughter was
even in those early times stigmatized as disgraceful, but it was
valid; and even now, if there were an actual transfer of the girl
by the father, it is scarcely probable that the courts would inquire
whether any inducement was given for the transfer. The trans-
action takes place entirely between the father of the girl and the
future husband; the girl has nothing to do but to obey. If
the girl has no father, then it will be the duty of her nearest male
relatives to dispose of her in marriage. If, however, the girl
is not married when she attains puberty (which is very rare),
then she may choose a husband for herself. The father cannot
dispose of his son in marriage as he can of his daughter, nor
is anything said about his consent in the matter; though in
the case of a very young boy there can be no doubt that the
consent of one or both parents is obtained. The marriage of
very young boys is very common, and is certainly valid.
The ceremonies which precede and accompany a marriage
are very numerous. By far the most important is that which
consists in the bridegroom taking the bride's hand and walking
seven steps. Amongst Hindus generally the performance
of this ceremony following upon a betrothal would be treated
as conclusive evidence of a marriage, whilst the omission of it
would, amongst orthodox Hindus, be almost conclusive that no
marriage had yet taken place. But still any particular customs
of the tribe or caste to which the parties belonged would
always be considered, and it cannot be said that the completion
or non-completion of this ceremony is universally conclusive
as to the existence of a marriage. There may be communities
of Hindus which require something more than this; there
are certainly some which require something less, and others
which require something altogether different. There are lower
castes in some parts of India calling themselves Hindus in
which the only ceremony accompanying a marriage is giving
a feast to which the members of the two families are invited.
The marriage of Hindus is complete without consummation;
and as girls are almost invariably married before the age of
puberty, and sometimes long before, consummation is generally
deferred, it may be, for several years. But all this time the
parties are husband and wife, and if the husband dies the child
becomes a widow. The condition of these child widows in
India is certainly not an enviable one, for practically they can
never hope to marry again. Whether the second marriage would
be lawful was a disputed point in Hindu law until an act of
the Indian Legislature (Act XV. of 1860) declared in favour
of the opinion that the widow might remarry. But the social
prejudice against remarriage is still very strong, and such
a marriage rarely takes place. If the widow has inherited
any property from her husband, she loses it by contracting
a second marriage. There is no legal restraint upon the number
of wives that a Hindu may marry, but polygamy is not practised
so largely as is sometimes supposed.
Members of the three higher castes are forbidden to marry
a woman of the same golra as themselves. Literally a gotra
means a cattle-yard, and the prohibition is considered to exclude
marriage between all those who are descended from the same
male ancestor through an uninterrupted line of males. This
rule is said not to apply to Sudras. But there is another rule
INDIAN LAW
441
which applies to all Hindus, and prohibits the marriage of
a man with a girl descended from his paternal or maternal
ancestors within the sixth degree. The working out of the rule
is a little peculiar, but the result is to give a rather wide rule
of exclusion of both agnates and cognates. There is, however,
this important exception to these rules of exclusion — that if a
fit match cannot otherwise be procured, a man may marry a
girl within the fifth degree on the father's side and the third
on the mother's. Practically this reduces the limit of exclusion
to that last stated, because no one but the parties themselves
with whom the choice rested could say whether or no any other
suitable wife was available to the husband.
A Hindu must also marry within his caste: a Brahmin must
marry a Brahmin, a Rajput must marry a Rajput, and a Sudra
must marry a Sudra. Whether there are any other representa-
tives of the four original castes is very doubtful, and even the
claim of the Rajputs to represent the military caste is disputed.
Still the rule of prohibition is so far clear. But there are innumer-
able subdivisions of Hindus which are also called castes, and as
a matter of fact these minor castes do not intermarry. How
far such marriages would be lawful it is difficult to say. The
matter is entirely one of custom. The ancient Hindu law
furnishes no guide on the subject, because under the ancient
law the intermarriages of persons of different castes, even the
highest, though they were considered undesirable, were recog-
nized as legal. Modern Hindus seem disposed to deny the
validity of marriages between persons of different castes in either
sense of the term.
Divorce, in the sense of a rupture of the marriage tie, is not
known to the true Hindu law. But unchastity deprives a wife
of all her rights except to a bare maintenance, and this without
any legal proof. She cannot succeed her husband as his heir,
and of course she cannot remarry. A little confusion has been
caused by the fact that a Hindu husband sometimes goes through
a private ceremony which is erroneously called a divorce. But
this is only done in order more effectually to bar an unchaste
wife from succeeding to his property. Some very low castes are,
however, said to allow a husband to divorce his wife, and even
to allow the divorced wife to marry again. The single case in
which a Hindu marriage can be dissolved by a court of law is by
a proceeding under Act XXI. of 1860, which was passed to meet
the difficulties which arise when one of the parties to a Hindu
marriage becomes a Christian. In this case, if the convert after
deliberation during a prescribed time refuses to cohabit any
longer with the other party, the court may declare the marriage
tie to be dissolved, and a woman whose marriage has been thus
dissolved is declared capable of marrying again.
An interesting chapter in the history of the modern develop-
ment of Hindu law is that of the practice of what we call Suttee,
though, properly speaking, the native term (Sati)
denotes, not a practice, but a person, i.e. a faithful
wife. The practice in question is that of the widow burning
herself with her husband when his body is burned after his death.
This, according to Hindu ideas, is a laudable act of devotion
on the part of the widow, and when Great Britain first began to
administer the law in India it was not uncommon. The new-
comers had not as yet taken upon themselves the responsibility
of altering the law, but of course British officers did what they
could to discourage the practice, and especially to prevent any
pressure being put upon the widow to perform the sacrifice.
They could also take advantage of any circumstance which
would render the case an improper one for the performance of the
sacrifice, as, for example, that compulsion had been put upon
the widow, or that the burning did not take place with the body
of the husband. But if the proceedings were according to Hindu
notions regular, it was contrary to the principles on which the
governor-general then acted to interfere, and British officers
had frequently to stand by, and, by not interfering, to give a
sort of sanction to the sacrifice. When later the servants of
the East India company began to assume a more direct responsi-
bility for the government of the country, many suggestions
were made for legislative interference. But, acting on the
Suttee.
salutary principle that it was unwise to interfere in any way
with the religion of the people, the government abstained from
doing so. In the meantime a considerable body of opinion
against the practice had grown up amongst Hindus themselves,
and at length the government thought it safe to interfere. By
Regulation XVII. of 1829 widow-burning was declared to be
a criminal offence. The measure produced no serious opposi-
tion. There was hardly a single prosecution under this Regula-
tion; and from this time the practice of widow-burning has
entirely disappeared from that part of India which is under
British rule.
There are certain peculiarities in the relation of father and
son in India which have given rise to the suggestion that there
is no relationship between sonship and marriage,
and that the notion of sonship in India is founded
entirely on that of ownership — ownership of the
mother and a consequent ownership of the child. But the
arguments by which this view is supported do not appear to be
sufficient. The rights of a father over his son, and of a husband
over his wife are, it is true, so far like the rights of ownership
that both are in the nature of rights in rem — that is, they are
available against any person who infringes them; but it is
contrary to established usage to speak of rights over a free
person as rights of ownership, and no one is prepared to say that
the wife or child are slaves of the father. There is no reason for
abandoning in India the ordinary view, that sonship depends
on marital cohabitation between the father and mother. There
are undoubtedly in certain special and exceptional cases methods
of acquiring sons otherwise than by marital cohabitation. But
these contrivances can only be resorted to when there is no son
by marriage, and the fiction which, as we shall see, is resorted
to to conceal the true nature of these contrivances, would be
entirely meaningless, as would most of the rules which regulate
them, if sonship in general was based entirely on ownership.
There were at one time more contrivances than there are now
for supplying the want of male issue by marriage. At one time
a son could be begotten for a man who was dead by cohabitation
of his widow with a member of his family or perhaps even with
a stranger. This is generally looked upon as a survival of poly-
andry. But this practice, though alluded to in the Laws of Manu
as still subsisting, is now entirely obsolete. So there was a
custom at one time by which a father could appoint a daughter
to raise up male issue for him. The head of the family could
also, if he had no son born in wedlock, accept as his own any
child born in his house whose mother was not known or not
married. So he could accept as his own the son of his wife born
before marriage, or the son of his concubine. In the last three
cases he may have been, and probably was, himself the father.
But none of these contrivances for procuring a son is now in use.
The only contrivance now employed for procuring a son, in the
absence of one born in wedlock, is by taking into the family
the son of another man who is willing to part with him. This is
called adoption. There are two kinds of adopted sons: one
called dattaka and the other kritrima. The former is in use
all over India; the latter only in Mithila. The following rules
apply to the dattaka born of adoption: A man can only adopt
who is without issue capable of inheriting his property, of
performing the funeral ceremonies for himself, and of making
the necessary offerings to his ancestors. A woman cannot adopt.
But by the authority of her husband, and acting on his behalf,
she may select a son and receive him into the family. A man
can adopt a son without his wife's assent; nevertheless, the son
when adopted becomes the son of both parents.
Hindus consider it a grievous misfortune that the line of male
descent should be broken. The due performance of the sacrificial
offerings to the dead is thereby interrupted. Probably this
explains the great latitude given in some parts of India to the
widow to adopt a son on behalf of her husband in case he has
died sonless. There is a text which says, " Nor let a woman
give or accept a son unless with the assent of her lord." But the
lawyers of western India do not consider that any express
permission to adopt is necessary, and take it for granted that she
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INDIAN LAW
always has that permission. In Southern India, also, the widow
may adopt without express permission, but the sapindas must
give their sanction to make the adoption valid. Elsewhere the
words have received their natural interpretation, namely, that
the husband must in some way indicate his intention that his
widow should have authority to adopt. The only person to
whom an authority to adopt can be given is the wife or widow;
and no widow can be compelled to exercise her power to adopt
if she does not wish to do so. The father has absolute power
to give away his son in adoption even without the consent of his
wife. But her consent is generally asked and obtained before
the son is given. After the father's death the widow may give
a son in adoption. The rule which in former times rendered it
necessary that the nearest male sapinda should be adopted is
obsolete, and the adoption of a stranger is valid, although nearer
relatives otherwise suitable are in existence. A man may adopt
any child whose mother he could have married if she had been
single; if he could not have done so, then he cannot adopt her
child. The reason given in the text is that the adopted son must
bear the resemblance of a son. This recalls the dictum of the
Roman law — adoptlo naturam Imitatur. The adopted son and
the adopting father must be of the same caste. The period
fixed for adoption by the three higher castes is before the cere-
mony of upandyana, or investiture of the child with the thread
which these castes always wear over the left shoulder. For
Sudras, who have no thread, the period is prior to the marriage
of the child. There has been much difference of opinion as to
whether an only son can be given and received in adoption.
It is now settled that the texts which discountenance this
adoption do not constitute a prohibition which the law will
enforce.
There is sometimes a difficulty in ascertaining whether or no
an adoption has actually taken place. There must be a final
giving and receiving of the child in adoption, and for Sudras
nothing more is required. For the twice-born classes it is not
finally settled whether any religious ceremony is actually
necessary in order to render the adoption valid. But some
religious ceremony in almost all cases accompanies the adoption,
so that the absence of any such ceremony will always raise a
suspicion that the adoption, though it may have been contem-
plated and some steps taken towards it, had not been finally
completed. If an adoption were in itself invalid, no acquiescence
and no lapse of time could make it valid — just as an invalid
marriage could not be similarly validated. But acquiescence
by the family would be strong evidence of the validity of an
adoption, and the rules of limitation by barring any suit in which
the question could be raised might render the adoption practically
unassailable.
The kritrima adoption is altogether different; although the
adopted son performs the ceremonies for his adopting father's
family, and has a right to succeed, he is nevertheless not cut off
from his own family. A person of any age may be adopted, and
he must be old enough to be able to consent to the adoption, as
without this consent it cannot take place. In this form a female
can adopt, and no ceremonies are required.
AUTHORITIES. — HINDU LAW: J. D. Mayne, Hindu Law (London,
1892); Colebrooke's Treatises on the Hindu Law of Inheritance
(Calcutta, 1810); Stokes's Hindu Law Books (Madras,, 1865) ; West
and Buhler, A Digest of the Hindu Law of Inheritance (Bombay,
1878); Jogendra Nath Bhattacharya, A Commentary on Hindu
Law (Calcutta, 1894); Rajkumar Sarvadhikari, Principles of the
Hindu Law of Inheritance (Calcutta, 1882); Gooroodass Banerjee,
The Hindu Law of Marriage and Stridhana (Calcutta, 1896) ; Jogendra
Chundar, Principles of Hindu Law (Calcutta, 1906).
5. Mahommedan Law. — The Mahommedan law is always
spoken of by Mahommedans as a sacred law, and as contained
in the Koran. But the Koran itself could not have supplied
the wants even of the comparatively rude tribes to whom it was
first addressed. Still less has it proved sufficient to satisfy the
requirements of successive generations. No doubt the great
veneration which Mahommedans have for the Koran has caused
them to be less progressive than members of other religious
creeds. But in human affairs some change is inevitable, and
the law of the Koran, like other sacred laws, has had to undergo
the supplementary and transforming influence of custom and
interpretation, though not of legislation. This direct method
of changing the law by human agency, natural and simple as
it appears to us, is scarcely acknowledged by Orientals even
in the present day, except in the rare instances in which it has
been forced upon them by Western authority. But besides
custom and interpretation, another influence of a special kind
has been brought to bear upon Mahommedan law. Besides those
utterances which the Prophet himself announced as the inspired
message of God, whatever he was supposed to have said and
whatever he was supposed to have done have been relied upon
as furnishing a rule for guidance. This tradition (sunna) is only
to be accepted if it can be traced up to a narrator at first hand,
though it would be rash to say that the chain of evidence is
always very strong. Mahommedans also, in support of a legal
rule for which there is no direct authority, resort to the argument
from analogy (kiyas). The principle involved in a rule for which
authority can be quoted is extended so as to cover other analogous
cases. There have also been accepted amongst Mahommedans,
as authoritative, certain opinions on points of law delivered
by those who were actual companions of the Prophet; these
opinions are spoken of collectively under the name of ijma.
Some of these methods of extending and modifying the law have
produced changes which it would be very difficult to reconcile
with a strict adherence to the language of the Koran (see the
Introduction to the Corps de Droit Ottoman, by George Young;
Oxford, 1905). The Mahommedans of India generally are
Sunnites of the Hanafite school. The two principal authorities
on Mahommedan law to which recourse is had by the courts
in India are the Hedaya and the Futwa Alumgiri. The Hedaya
was translated into English by Mr Hamilton. The Futwa
Alumgiri was compiled under the orders of the emperor
Aurungzib Alumgir. It is a collection of the opinions of learned
Mahommedans on points of law. It has not been translated,
but it forms the basis of the Digest of Mahommedan Law compiled
by Neil Baillie. The Mahommedan law, like the Hindu law,
is a personal law. It is essentially so in its nature. Persons
of any other religion are to a large extent outside its pale. And
in India, in civil matters, its application has been expressly
limited to Mahommedans. At one time endeavour was made
to administer the Mahommedan criminal law as the general
territorial law of India, but it had constantly to be amended,
and it was at length abolished and the penal code substituted.
To be a Mahommedan, and so to claim to be governed by the
Mahommedan law, it is necessary to profess the Mahommedan
faith.
All that we find on the subject of intestate succession in the
Koran are certain directions as to the shares which certain
members of the family are to take in the estate of
their deceased relative. So far as they go, these are surcess/on.
rules of distribution — that is to say, they depend, not
on consanguinity only, but on certain equitable considerations,
by which rules founded on consanguinity are modified. But these
latter rules, though nowhere laid down in the Koran, still play
a large part in Mahommedan law. There can be no doubt that
they represent the pre-existing Arabian custom, which it was not
the intention of the Prophet to displace, but only to modify.
The claimants under these rules take whatever is left after the
specific shares assigned by the Koran to individual members
of the family have been satisfied; if in any case there are no
such shares, they take the whole. The Arabic term for this
class of heirs is asabah, which literally means persons connected
by aligament. The term used by English writers is " residuaries,"
but this description of them has the disadvantage that it entirely
loses sight of the connexion on which the claim to succeed is
based. They would be more correctly described as the " agnates "
of the deceased, but the term " residuaries " is too firmly estab-
lished to be displaced. Those persons who take a share of the
property, under the specific rules laid down in the Koran, we
call " sharers," and this word has acquired a technical meaning;
it is not used to describe those who can claim a portion of the
INDIAN LAW
443
estate in any other way. It is hardly likely that females, or
relatives through females, had any claim to the succession under
any Arabian custom, nor, except so far as they are made sharers,
are they recognized by the Koran as having a title to succeed.
The proper description of this class of persons is zavi-ul-arham,
i.e. "uterine kindred," and they have, in default of other heirs,
established a claim to succeed. English writers have erroneously
called them " distant kindred," but distance has nothing to do
with the matter.
There is no right of primogeniture under Mahommedan law;
there is a general preference of males over females, and if males
and females take together as residuaries by an express provision
of the Koran, each male takes as much as two females. Females
are also expressly forbidden by the Koran to take more than
two-thirds of the property; but in the application of these two
rules the shares of the mother and the wife are not included.
No person can claim to take any portion of the property who
traces his relationship to the deceased through a living person, but
this rule does not apply to brothers and sisters whose mother
is alive. If several persons all stand in the same degree of
relationship to the deceased, they take equally, per caput and
not per stirpem.
It will now be convenient to state the rules for finding which
of the agnates take as residuaries of the deceased. These are,
in ordinary circumstances, the male agnates only, and the rule
in question depends upon a classification of the male agnates
which is common in other parts of the world. Every family
consisting of several generations of male agnates may be broken
up into groups, each of which has a separate common ancestor
of its own. Thus, suppose A to be the person from whom the
descent is to be traced. A belongs to a large group of persons,
all of whom are males descended from a common ancestor D.
But A and his or her own male descendants form a smaller
group, which we may call the group A. This is the first class
of male agnates of A. Then suppose A to be the son or daughter
of B, excluding those who are descendants of A, and as such
included in the first class, the remaining male descendants of B
will form the second class of male agnates of A. In like manner
we get a third class of male agnates of A who are descendants
of C, excluding those who are descendants of A or B; and a
fourth class of male agnates of A who are descendants of D,
excluding those who are descendants of A, B, or C. This classi-
fication can obviously be carried through as many generations
as we please. Mahommedan lawyers adopt this classification
with only one difference. Between the first and second classes
they interpose a class consisting entirely of the direct male
ancestors, which they call the " root," so that the male descend-
ants of A (the person whose heirs are in question) would be the
first class of residuaries. B, C, D, &c., would be the second class
of residuaries; the male descendants of B, other than the
descendants of A, would be the third class of residuaries; the
male descendants of C, other than the descendants of B and A,
would be the fourth class of residuaries, and so on. In order
to find the residuaries who are to succeed, we have only to take
the classes in their order, and of the highest class which is
represented to select the nearest to the deceased. If there are
several who are equidistant, they will take equally per caput.
The sharers are, of course, those to whom a share is assigned
by the Koran. They are (i) the father, (2) lineal male ancestors,
whom Mahommedans call the " true grandfathers," (3) uterine
half-brothers, i.e. the half -brothers by the mother, (4) daughters,
{5) daughters of a son, or other direct male descendant, whom
we call daughters of a son how low and soever, (6) the mother,
(7) true grandmothers, i.e. female ancestors into whose line no
male except a lineal male ancestor enters, (8) full sisters, (9)
consanguine half -sisters, i.e. half-sisters by the father, (10) uterine
half-sisters, (n) the husband, (12) the wives. The right to a
share and the amount of it depends upon the state of the family.
Under Mahommedan law not only, as elsewhere, the nearer
relative excludes the more remote, but there are special tules of
total or partial exclusion arising out of the equitable considera-
tions upon which all rules of distribution are based.
These rules are best shown by taking the case of each member
of the family in turn, and at Uie same time it will be useful to
explain the general position of each member. First, the sons.
They take no share, but they are first in the first class of residu-
aries, and their position is a very strong one; they exclude
entirely sisters and daughters from a share, and they reduce
considerably the shares of the husband, the widows, and the
mother. The position of the other male descendants is very
similar to that of the sons. They are not sharers; they are
residuaries of the first class, and will take as such if the inter-
mediate persons are dead. They reduce the shares of some
of the sharers, but not to the same extent as the sons. The father
is a residuary of the second class, and the first in that class.
But he is also a sharer, and as such is entitled to a share of one-
sixth. He can take in both capacities. The father's father is
also a residuary of the second class, and he is a sharer, entitled
to a share of one-sixth, but of course he cannot take either as
sharer or residuary if the father is alive. The position of any true
grandfather is analogous. An only daughter takes as sharer
one-half of the property, two or more daughters take one-third
between them. But sons exclude daughters from a share, and
they would get nothing. Naturally this was considered unjust,
and a remedy has been found by making the daughters what
are called " residuaries in right of their brothers," each daughter
taking half of what a son takes. The mother gets a share of
one-sixth when there is a child of the deceased, or a child of any
son how low and soever; also when there are two or more
brothers or sisters. In any other case her share is one-third.
If, however, the wife, or the husband (as the case may be),
and the father are alive, the share of the mother is only one-third
cf what remains after deducting the share of the husband or the
wife. The brother is never a sharer. He is a residuary of the
third class, and he excludes some sharers. The daughters of a
son how low and soever get a share of two-thirds between them
if there are several; if there is only one she gets one-half. But
the daughters of a son are excluded by any direct male descendant
who is nearer to the deceased than themselves, or at the same
distance from him. If, however, they are excluded by a person
who is at the same distance from the deceased as themselves,
Maho^nmedan lawyers again say that they come in as residuaries
in right of that person, each female as usual taking half as much
as each male. Of course the daughters of a son may also be
excluded by the daughters having exhausted the two-thirds
allotted to females. A single sister takes a share of one-half;
several sisters take two-thirds between them. Sisters are
excluded from a share by any residuary of the first class, and
their own brothers also exclude them, but in the latter case they
take as residuaries in right of their brothers, each sister taking
half what a brother takes. So, again, the sisters may be excluded
from a share by the daughters or daughters of sons having
exhausted the two-thirds allotted to females, and the residue
would go to the nearest male agnate — that is, the uncle or the
nephew of the deceased, or some more distant relative. To
prevent this Mahommedan lawyers say that in this case the
sisters are residuaries, basing their assertion upon a somewhat
vague tradition. The share of the husband in the property
of the wife is one-fourth if there are surviving children, one-half
if there are none. The share of the widow in the property of her
deceased husband is one-eighth if there are surviving children,
one-fourth if there are not. The nearest true grandmother takes
a share of one-sixth. If there are several equidistant, they take
one-sixth between them. The uterine half-brothers take a share
of one-third when there is only one, but they are eKcluded by
any direct descendant and by any direct male ascendant . Uterine
half-sisters are in the same position as uterine half-brothers.
Consanguine half-brothers are residuaries of the same class
as brothers, but only take in default of full brothers. Con-
sanguine half-sisters take a share of two-thirds, or if there is only
one she takes a share of one-half. But if there is a full sister
also, the full sister takes one-half, and the consanguine sisters
one-sixth between them. The consanguine half-sisters, like the
full sisters, are excluded from a share by the children and the
444
INDIAN LAW
father of the deceased, and also by full brothers and consanguine
brothers; but in the last case they come in again as residuaries,
taking half what a brother takes.
The sharers must of course, unless excluded, be all satisfied
before anything is taken by the residuaries. But the sharers
may not only exhaust the property; there may not be enough
to satisfy all the claimants. Thus, if a man died leaving a wife,
a mother and two daughters, the shares are one-fourth, one-
sixth and two-thirds, and the sum of the shares being greater
than unity, they cannot all be satisfied. The difficulty is met
by decreasing the shares rateably, in other words, by increasing
the common denominator of the fractions so as to produce unity;
hence the process is called the " increase." The converse case
arises when the shares of the sharers do not exhaust the property,
but there are no residuaries to take what remains. It has been
doubted whether the residue does not fall to the government as
bona vacantia. But it is now settled that the surplus is to be
divided rateably amongst the sharers in proportion to their
shares. The process is called the " return." The husband and
the wife are excluded from the benefit of the return. If there
are no sharers, the whole estate will go to the residuaries. If
there are neither sharers nor residuaries, it will go to the (so-
called) distant kindred. Their claim is strong on equitable
grounds, as some of them are very near relations; such, for
example, as a daughter's children or a sister's children. Never-
theless their claim has been doubted, and it must be admitted
that there is no very clear ground upon which it can be based.
They are not mentioned as sharers in the Koran, and it is not
very clear how, as cognates, they could have been recognized
by any ancient Arabian custom. However, their claim is now
well established, and, in default of both sharers and residuaries,
they succeed on a plan somewhat resembling that on which
male agnates are classified as residuaries. If all the claimants
fail the property goes to the government, but there is one peculiar
case. Supposing a man dies leaving a widow, or a woman dies
leaving a husband, and no other relative. There is then a residue
and no one whatever to take it, as the husband and wife are
excluded from the return. Strictly speaking, it would fall to
the government as bona vacantia, but the claim is never made,
and would now be considered as obsolete, the husband or wife
being allowed to take the property.
Under Mahommedan law there are certain grounds upon
which a person who would otherwise succeed as heir to a deceased
person would be disqualified. These grounds are — (i) that the
claimant slew the deceased by an act which, under Mahommedan
law, would entail expiation or retaliation, and this would include
homicide by misadventure; (2) that the claimant is a slave;
(3) that he is an infidel, i.e. not of the Mahommedan faith. The
second impediment cannot now have any application in India;
the third has been removed by Act 21 of 1850. There is a rule
of Mahommedan law that if two persons die in circumstances
which render it impossible to determine which died first,
as, for example, if both went down in the same ship, for the
purposes of succession it is to be assumed that both died
simultaneously.
Mahommedan lawyers appear always to have recognized
the validity of wills, and they are said to be recognized by a
passage in the Koran. But the power of testamentary
disposition is restricted within very narrow limits.
It only extends to one-third of the property after the
payment of debts and funeral expenses. There is no
hint of this restriction in the Koran, and it rests upon tradition.
If the one-third has been exceeded the legacies must be reduced
rateably. The heirs, however, by assenting to the legacies,
may render them valid even though they exceed the prescribed
amount. There is no restriction as to the form of making a will;
it may be either oral or written. A legacy cannot be given to an
heir. Mahommedan law contains some very simple and wise
provisions for preventing the reckless and often unjust disposi-
tions of property which persons are apt to make upon the
approach of death. A man who is " sick," that is, who is
suffering from illness which ends in death, can only give away
Testa-
mentary
succes-
sion.
one-third of his property; and if he has also made a will contain-
ing legacies, the gifts and the legacies must be added together
in the computation of the disposable one-third. So long as
slaves had a money value, the value of the slaves liberated by a
man on his deathbed was also included, which reminds us of the
Lex Furia Caninia of the Roman law. Another transaction
by which the restriction on the testamentary power might be
eluded is that called mohabat. By this is meant a transaction
in the form of a sale, but which, from the inadequacy of the price
named, is obviously intended as a gift. If such a transaction is
entered into during " sickness," the loss to the estate would
have to be reckoned in computing the disposable one-third.
But the mohabat transaction takes precedence of legacies. Another
obvious mode of eluding the restriction on the testamentary
power is the acknowledgment by a man on his deathbed of a
fictitious debt; and it would seem that such acknowledgments
ought to have been put under restriction. But Mahommedans,
like other Orientals, have a useful, though possibly a superstitious,
dread of leaving the debts of a deceased person unpaid, and it is
this, no doubt, which has prevented their questioning the
deathbed acknowledgment of a debt, even though there is every
reason to believe it to be fictitious. All that has been done is to
prescribe that debts of health should be paid before debts of
sickness, and that debts cannot be acknowledged by a sick man
in favour of an heir.
When a Mahommedan dies, the funeral expenses and the
creditors must first be paid; then the legatees, then the claims
of the sharers, and, lastly, those of the residuaries;
or, if there are neither sharers nor residuaries, those
of the (so-called) distant kindred. The administration
of the estate need present no difficulties if there are no disputes,
and if there is some one empowered to take possession of the
property, to get in the debts, to satisfy the creditors, and
distribute the assets amongst the various claimants; and such a
person may be appointed by a Mahommedan in his will, who
will perform these duties. He is called a ivasi, and he is in a
position very similar to an executor under English law. But if
there is no wasi, even if there are no disputes, there may be a
good deal of trouble. It would have been in accordance with
the spirit of Mahommedan law, and with general principles of
equity, if an officer of the courts established under British rule
had been regularly empowered to take possession of the property,
and to take such measures as were necessary to ensure all the
claimants being satisfied in their proper order. But this view
of their powers has not been taken by the courts in India;
recently, however, they have been enabled by legislation to
grant the power of administering the estate to a single person.
There is scarcely any part of Europe or Asia where the creation
of fictitious relationships is altogether unknown. In many
cases the object of the creation is simply to obtain an
heir. This is the object of adoption amongst modern plctl^°"*
TT- . j ... • ..i • relatlon-
Hindus, and it is this, no doubt, which has led some ships.
persons to speak of Hindu adoption as a rudimentary
will. But adoption, as such, has never obtained a footing in
Mahommedan law. The fictitious relationships which that law
recognizes are based upon a different idea. There was in early
times a widespread notion that every man must belong to
some family either as a freeman or a slave. The family to which
a slave belongs is always that of his owner, and that of a freeman
is generally indicated by his birth. But a liberated slave has no
family, at least no recognized family; ancl as he cannot stand
alone, it was necessary to attach Him to some family. Now,
just as in Roman law the freedman became a member of his
master's family under the relationship of patronus and cliens,
so in Mahommedan law a liberated slave becomes a member of
the master's family under the relationship called mawalat. The
object, of course, was to make the master's family liable for the
consequences of the wrongful acts of the freed slave. As a
compensation for the liability undertaken by the master's
family, in default of residuaries of the slave's own blood (who
can only be his own direct descendants), the master's family
are entitled to succeed as what are called " residuaries for special
INDIAN LAW
445
cause." Of course the relationship of master and slave cannot
now be created, and it is scarcely probable that any case of
inheritance could arise in which it came into question. The
relationship of mawalat may, under Mahommedan law, also be
created in a case where a freeman is converted to Islam. From
a Mahommedan point of view he then stands alone, and would
be required to attach himself to some Mahommedan family.
The form of the transaction exactly indicates the nature of it.
The party wishing to attach himself says to the person ready to
receive him, " Thou art my kinsman, and shalt be my successor
after my death, paying for me any fine or ransom to which I
may be liable." In this case also the family of the person who
receives the convert is entitled, in default of other residuaries,
to succeed to him as " residuaries for special cause." But this
transaction can have no meaning under English law, which does
not recognize the joint responsibility of the family, and it is
therefore also obsolete. In the case of mawalat the rights of the
persons concerned are not reciprocal. The person received
gains no right of inheritance in the family into which he enters,
and incurs no responsibility for their acts. An important part
may still be played in Mahommedan law by the creation of
relationships by acknowledgment. Any such relationship may
be created, provided that the parentage of the person acknow-
ledged is unknown; a person of known parentage cannot be
acknowledged. The age, sex and condition of the person
acknowledged must also be such that the relationship is not an
impossible one; for, as was said in the Roman law, fictio naturam
imitatur. The relationship thus constituted is, in the case of a
father, mother, child, or wife, complete, and must be treated
for all purposes as having a real existence. But in any other
case the acknowledgment, although good as between the parties
thereto, has no effect upon the rights of other parties. The
acknowledgment which we have just been considering contem-
plates the possibility at any rate, and in most cases the certainty,
that the relationship is entirely fictitious, and has no connexion
with any rule of evidence in whatever sense the term is understood.
But there is a rule of Mahommedan law that, in cases where the
paternity of a child is in dispute, the acknowledgment of the child
by the father is conclusive. Whether this would now be main-
tained in face of the Evidence Act 1870, which deals with cases
of conclusive evidence, and expressly repeals all previously
existing rules of evidence, may be doubtful.
Marriage is a transaction based upon consent between a
man and a woman, or between persons entitled to represent
Marrla e them. The result of the transaction is that certain
family relationships involving legal rights and duties
are created by the law, and these are not wholly under the
control of the parties. But as to some of them, to some extent
they may be regulated by agreement, and it is customary
amongst Mahommedans at the time of a marriage to come to
such an agreement. The only condition necessary to the con-
stituting of a valid marriage between persons of full age is the
consent of the parties. It is, however, the practice to conclude
the transaction in the presence of two males, or one male and
two female witnesses; and the omission of this formality would
always throw a doubt upon the intention of the parties finally
to conclude a marriage. It is even said that the absence of such
witnesses would justify a judge in annulling the marriage. Minors
of either sex may be given in marriage by their guardian, and the
transaction will be irrevocable if the guardian be the father or
any direct male ascendant. In any other case the marriage
may be repudiated when the minor arrives at the age of puberty,
but the repudiation is not effectual until confirmed by a judge
of the civil court. A marriage may be conducted through
agents. A woman can have only one husband; a man can
have four wives; if he married a fifth the marriage would be
annulled by a judge on the application of the woman. Mahom-
medans have a table of prohibited degrees within which parties
cannot marry not very dissimilar to that in force in Great
Britain. Nor can a man be married at the same time to two
women nearly related to each other, as to two sisters. It is also
considered that if a woman take a child to nurse she contracts
a sort of maternity towards it, and that if a boy and girl are
nursed by the same woman they become brother and sister, and,
in a general way, it is said " that whatever is prohibited in
consanguinity is prohibited in fosterage "; but it is doubtful
whether the law goes so far. The widow, or a divorced woman,
is not allowed to marry again during her iddut. This is a period
of chastity which a woman is bound to observe in order to avoid
confusion of issue. If she is pregnant it lasts until the child is
born; if not, then in case of divorce it lasts through three
periods of menstruation; if she is a widow it lasts for four
months and ten days. A Mahommedan man cannot marry an
idolatress, but Jews and Christians are not thereby excluded,
because, although infidels, they are not idolatresses. A woman
is forbidden by Mahommedan law to marry any one who is not
a Mahommedan; but if the marriage took place in conformity
with the Act of 1872 it might be valid, if it amounted to a
repudiation by the woman of her Mahommedanism. It is
important to remember, when considering the validity of a
Mahommedan marriage, that a distinction is drawn between
marriages which are simply void (bolil) and those which can
only be annulled by judicial decision (farid), for such a decision
has no retrospective effect, so that the children already born are
legitimate; and if no step is taken to obtain such a decision
during the existence of the marriage, it cannot be questioned
afterwards. What marriages are absolutely void, and what are
only capable of being declared void, is not very clearly settled,
but the evident leaning of Mahommedan law is against absolute
invalidity, and there is strong authority for the opinion that no
marriages are absolutely void except a marriage by a woman
who has a husband living and such as are declared to be in-
cestuous.
A Mahommedan has the absolute right to divorce his wife
whenever he pleases without assigning any reason whatever
for doing so. There are, however, very strong social _.
reasons which have considerable influence in restraining
the arbitrary exercise of the power. The power to divorce
remains notwithstanding any formal promise by the husband
not to exercise it, and it is even said that a divorce pronounced
in a state of intoxication, or by a slip of the tongue, or under
coercion, is valid. The divorce can, however, be revoked by the
husband, but not after it has been three times pronounced,
or after the iddut has been passed by the woman. Nor can the
husband remarry his divorced wife unless she has been again
married, and has been again divorced or become a widow, and
the intermediate marriage must have been consummated.
The power to divorce a wife may be entrusted by the husband
to an agent acting on his behalf, and this contrivance is some-
times made use of to enable a woman's friends to rid her of her
husband if he ill-treats her. The husband may even empower
the wife to divorce herself. If the husband or the wife should
happen to die whilst the divorce is still revocable, he or she
will inherit; and even a triple repudiation pronounced during
" sickness," that is death-sickness, will not deprive the woman
of her inheritance if the iddut has not been passed. Of course
there is nothing to prevent the husband and the wife from
agreeing to a divorce, and to the terms on which it is to take
place, and such an arrangement is very common. The treatment
of the wife by the husband is not a ground upon which the
marriage can be dissolved, but the impotence of the husband
is a ground of dissolution. The courts in India consider that
they have the power under Mahommedan law to grant a decree
for the restitution of conjugal rights.
Dower in Mahommedan law is in the nature of a gift from the
husband to the wife on the marriage, like the donatio propter
nuptias of the Roman law, or the morgengabe of Dower.
Teutonic nations. It may be either " prompt," that
is, payable at once, or the payment of it may be deferred, or
it may be partly the one and partly the other. The amount of
the dower and the time of payment ought to be settled by
agreement before the marriage takes place; if this is not done
there is some trouble in ascertaining the rights of the parties.
It seems clear that a woman is entitled as a matter of right to
Pre-
emption
446
what is called a " proper " dower. If the dower is payable at
once the woman may, before consummation, refuse herself
to her husband unless it is paid; whether she can do so after
consummation is doubtful. 'If the husband capriciously re-
pudiates the wife before consummation, or the wife before
consummation repudiates the husband for his misconduct,
then half the dower agreed on must be paid. If it is her mis-
conduct which has caused the repudiation, she is not entitled
to anything. Deferred dower becomes payable on the dissolution
of the marriage either by death or by divorce. Probably a
judge, when called upon to dissolve or annul a marriage, could
make reasonable stipulations as to the dower. The dower is
the wife's own property, and, as the wife is entirely independent
of the husband in regard to her property, she can sue him or
his representatives for the dower like any other creditor. Mahom-
medans generally before marriage enter into a formal contract
which regulates not only the dower, but various other matters
under the control of the parties, such as the visits the wife is
to pay or receive, the amount of liberty which she is to have
and so forth.
The right of pre-emption under Mahommedan law is the
right of a third person, in certain circumstances, to step in and
take the place of a buyer, at the same price and on
the same conditions as the buyer has purchased.
It applies only to the purchase of real property, and
it can only be exercised upon one of the three following grounds:
(i) That the claimant is owner of property contiguous to that
sold; (2) that he is a co-sharer in the property of which a share
is being sold; (3) that he is a participator in some right over
the property, such, for example, as a right of way over it. The
claimant must announce his claim as soon as he hears of the sale,
and he must follow up this announcement by a further claim
in the presence of witnesses and of the seller, or, if possession
has been transferred, of the buyer.
Mahommedan law, so far as it is administered by the courts
of British India for Sunnites of the Hanafite school — that is,
for the great bulk of Mahommedans — has attained a fair degree
of precision, owing to the care bestowed on their decisions by
the judges of those courts, and the assistance derived from
Mahommedan lawyers. But much difficulty is experienced
as soon as we come to deal with Mahommedans of any other
description. No doubt in India any clearly-established custom
prevalent amongst a well-defined body of persons would be
recognized, or any rule of law founded upon texts which they
accepted as authoritative. But it is not always easy to deter-
mine when these conditions have been satisfied. And to allow
Mahommedans to set up a standard of rights and duties different
from that of the bulk of their correligionists without this proof
would lead not only to confusion but injustice. There is the
further difficulty that Mahommedan law, as applied to any
Mahommedans except those of the Hanafite school, has as yet
been comparatively little studied by modern lawyers, so that
very little that is certain can be said about it. There
is, however, a considerable body of Shiites in India
whose legal system undoubtedly differs in some material
particulars from that of the Sunnites. The Mahommedans
of Oudh are generally Shiites, and Shiah families, mostly of
Persian descent, are to be found in other parts of India. The
following points seem clear. A marriage which the parties
agree shall last for a fixed time, even for a few hours only, is a
valid marriage, and at the expiration of the time agreed on the
marriage ceases to exist. The relatives of the deceased, whether
male or female, and whether tracing their connexion through
males or females, may be sharers or residuaries. Both as sharers
and residuaries the children can claim to take the place of their
parents in the succession upon the principle of what we call
representation. If there are parents or descendants of the
deceased, and the sharers do not exhaust the property, the
surplus is distributed amongst the sharers of that class in pro-
portion to their shares. If the property is not sufficient to pay
in full the shares of all the sharers, the shares do not abate
rateably; e.g. as between daughters and the parents, or the
INDIAN MUTINY
Shlah
System.
husband, or the wife of the deceased the whole deduction is
made from the daughters' share.
AUTHORITIES. — (Mahommedan Law), Neil Baillie, Digest of
Mahommedan Law (London, 1865); Sir R. K. Wilson, Introduction
to the Study of Mahommedan Law (London, 1894); Digest of Anglo-
Mahommedan Law (London, 1895); Charles Hamilton, The Hedaya
translated (London, 1791) ; Syed Ameer Ali, Lectures on Mahommedan
Law (2 vols., Calcutta, 1891, 1894.); Mahomed Yusoof, Tagpre Law
Lectures (Calcutta 1895); Alfred v. Kremer, Culturgeschichte des
Orients (2 vols., Vienna, 1875). (W. MA.)
INDIAN MUTINY, THE, the great revolt of the Bengal native
army in 1857, which led to the transference of Indian government
from the East India company to the crown in 1858. The
mediate cause of the Mutiny was the great disproportion between
the numbers of British and native troops in India, which gave
the sepoys an exaggerated notion of their power; its immediate
causes were a series of circumstances which promoted active
discontent with British rule.
During the century which elapsed between the victory of
Plassey and the outbreak at Meerut, the East India company
relied mainly on native, troops with a stiffening of DisaHec.
British soldiers — especially artillery — for the successful t/oo la the
conduct of its wars. The warlike Hindu and Mahom- Native
medan races supplied excellent fighting material, when Art"y-
led by British officers, and the sepoy army took a distinguished
part in every Indian battle, from Assaye to Gujarat. At the
close of Lord Dalhousie's administration (1856) British India
was held by some 233,000 native and some 45,000 British troops
— roughly a proportion of 5 to i. It was already clear to some
of the men who knew India best that this was a dangerous state
of things, though when the Mutiny broke out the relative numbers
were 257,000 native to 36,000 British soldiers. It had long been
a fundamental principle of Indian government that the sepoy
would always be true to his salt — knowing, as Macaulay wrote
in 1840, that there was not another state in India which would
not, in spite of the most solemn promises, leave him to die
of hunger in -a ditch as soon as he had ceased to be useful. But
the history of the sepoy army might have shown that this was
an over-estimate of its loyalty. As early as 1 764 it was necessary
to stamp out mutiny by blowing thirty sepoys away from guns.
In 1806 the family of Tippoo Sultan produced a dangerous
mutiny at Vellore, which was nipped in the bud by the prompt
action of Gillespie and his dragoons. In 1824 the 47th Bengal
infantry refused to march when it was ordered for service in
Burma, and after being decimated by British artillery was
struck out of the army list. In 1844, after the disasters of the
Afghan war had shaken the prestige of British arms in India,
no less than seven native regiments broke into open mutiny
over grievances both real and fancied; and this time the old
stern measures were not adopted to stamp out military dis-
obedience. Lord Ellenborough often said that a general mutiny
of the native army was the only real danger with which the
British empire in India was threatened, and his warning was
solemnly repeated by Sir Charles Napier. A still more explicit
warning was uttered by General Jacob, who declared in 1853
that the normal state of the Bengal army was a state of mutiny,
and wrote to The Times as follows: " There is more danger
to our Indian empire from the state of the Bengal army, from
the feeling which there exists between the native and the Euro-
pean, and thence spreads throughout the length and breadth
of the land, than from all other causes combined. Let govern-
ment look to this; it is a serious and most important truth."
The causes which, in the middle of the roth century, were
thus tending to sap the long-tried fidelity of the sepoy army
were partly military and partly racial. The pro-
fessional conditions of the sepoy's career, especially Ks
in Bengal, were no longer so tempting as they had
been in the first generations of the company's rule.
The pay and privileges of the sepoy were steadily being dimin-
ished, and the increased demands made on the army by the great
extension of the company's territory were by no means grateful
to the average Bengal sepoy. Owing to the silladar system, under
which the Indian sowar provided his own horse and provender
INDIAN MUTINY
447
in return for a monthly wage, the Indian cavalry were almost
to a man in debt, and therefore favoured any attempt to upset
the existing regime, and with it to wipe out the moneylender
and his books; and the general enlistment order passed in July
1856, for the purposes of the war in Persia, made the Hindu
sepoys afraid of losing caste by crossing the sea.
The Indian government failed to take sufficient account of
the social and religious feelings of their native soldiers, whilst
a rigid insistence on the principle of seniority had greatly
diminished the efficiency of the British regimental officers.
Out of 73 mutinous regiments, only four colonels were found
worthy of other commands. At the same time, there were
deeper reasons for discontent with British rule, which specially
affected the classes from which the Bengal sepoys were drawn.
Chief among these was Dalhousie's policy of annexation, which
brought under British dominion such small states as Satara,
Nagpur and Jhansi, and finally the kingdom of Oudh. The
insistence on the right of lapse, i.e. the refusal to allow an adopted
son to inherit a native throne, and the threat of annexation on
purely humanitarian grounds seriously alarmed the native
princes of India, besides creating a class of malcontents, among
whom the Nana Sahib, the adopted heir of the peshwa, made
himself most infamous. The annexation of Oudh, which was
the chief recruiting ground of the Bengal army, probably caused
wider disaffection in the ranks of that army than any other
act or omission of the government. There can also be little
doubt that the social reforms of Lord Dalhousie and his pre-
decessors had disturbed men's minds in Bengal. Thus the
Brahmans were offended at the prohibition of suttee and female
infanticide, the execution of Brahmans for capital offences,
the re-marriage of widows, the spread of missionary effort
and the extension of Western education. The Mahommedan
zemindars were injured by the reassessment of the land revenue,
which was carried through in the interests of the ryots, and
the power of the zemindars was formidable, while that of the
ryots was negligible; though it must be remembered that the
peasantry as a whole gave no assistance to the mutineers. To
all these causes must be added — not least important in dealing
with orientals — the widespread feeling since the Afghan disaster
that the star of the company was in the descendant, and that
there was truth in the old prophecy that the British would
rule in India for a bare century from Plassey (1757). Bazaar
rumours of British reverses in the Crimea and in Persia in-
creased the temptations for a general rising against the dominant
race.
To this accumulation of inflammatory materials a spark
was put in 1857 by an act of almost incredible folly on the part
of the military authorities in India. The introduction
leased of tne Mimg rifle> witn its greased cartridges, was
cartridges, accompanied by no consideration of the religious preju-
dices of the Bengal sepoys, to whom, whether Hindus
or Mahommedans, the fat of cows and pigs was anathema.
It was easy for agitators to persuade the sepoys that the new
cartridges were greased with the fat of animals sacred to one
creed or forbidden to another, and that the British government
was thus engaged in a deep-laid plot for forcing them to become
Christians by first making them outcasts from their own religions.
The growth of missionary enterprise in India lent colour to
this theory, which was supported by the fact that no precautions
had been taken to grease the Indian cartridges with a neutral
fat, such as that of sheep and goats. The researches of Mr
G. W. Forrest in the Indian government records have shown
that the sepoys' fears of defilement by biting the new cartridges
had a considerable foundation in fact. At a court-martial
in 1857 Colonel Abbott, inspector general of ordnance, gave
evidence that " the tallow might or might not have contained
the fat of cows." No attempt, in fact, had been made to exclude
•the fat of cows and pigs, and apparently no one had realized
that a gross outrage was thus being perpetrated on the religious
feelings of both Hindu and Mahommedan sepoys. The low-
caste natives employed in the arsenals knew what grease was
actually being employed, and taunted the Brahman sepoys
with the loss of caste that would follow their use of the new
cartridges. Refusals to accept the suspected cartridges were
soon heard in the Bengal army. The numerous agitators who
had their own reasons for fomenting mutiny rose to the occasion,
and in the first months of 1857 the greater part of the Bengal
presidency was seething with sedition. At this time took place
the mysterious distribution of chapatis, small cakes of unleavened
bread, which had previously been known in connexion with the
mutiny at Vellore (1806). "From village to village, from district
to district, through hill-land and lowland, the signal — unexplained
at the time, inexplicable still— sped; and in village after village,
in district after district, the spreading of the signal was followed
by the increased excitement of the people."
The first signs of the approaching trouble were displayed at
the great military station of Barrackpur, 16 m. from Calcutta,
in January 1857. The minds of the native regiments quartered
there were maddened by rumours of the defilement which the
new Minie cartridges would entail upon them, and incendiary
fires broke out in the lines. The trouble was allayed by the
tact of General Hearsey, who reported the incident to the Indian
government on the 24th of January. A fortnight later he wrote,
as the result of his inquiries, " We have at Barrackpur been
dwelling upon a mine ready for explosion." At Berhampur,
100 m. to the north, on the 27th of February, the ipth Bengal
infantry refused on parade to take their percussion caps, on the
ground that to bite the new cartridges would defile them. The
absence of any European troops made it impossible to deal with
this act of mutiny on the spot. The defaulting regiment was
marched down to Barrackpur for punishment. On the 2Qth
of March, two days before its arrival, a sepoy named Manghal
Pandi, from whom the mutineers afterwards came to be spoken
of as " Pandies," drunk with bhang and enthusiasm, attempted
to provoke a mutiny in the 34th Bengal infantry, and shot the
adjutant, but Hearsey's personal courage suppressed the danger.
Two days later the loth were publicly disbanded, but no further
punishment was attempted. This was partly due to Lord
Canning's personal inclination to temper justice with mercy,
but partly also to the fact that there was no adequate European
force at hand to execute a severer sentence. Bengal had been
recklessly depleted of white troops, and there was only one
European regiment between Calcutta and Dinapur, a distance
of 400 m. Canning sent at once for more British troops from
Burma. Meantime new accounts of refusals to use even the old
cartridges came from distant parts of Hindostan, from Umballa
under the very eyes of Anson, the commander-in-chief, and
from Lucknow, the capital of the newly annexed kingdom of
Oudh. Lord Canning, the governor-general, who had at first
hoped that he had only to deal with isolated cases of disaffection,
at last recognized that the plague was epidemic, and that only
stern measures could stay it. But before he could take the
necessary steps, there reached Calcutta the news of the outbreak
at Meerut and the capture of Delhi.
Meerut, 25 m. from Delhi, was an important military station,
under the command of Colonel Archdale Wilson: the district
was commanded by General Hewitt, one of the old
and inefficient officers whom the rigid system of
seniority had placed in so many high commands.
At Meerut were quartered, besides one regiment of
native cavalry and two of native infantry, a strong force of
British troops, horse, foot and guns. Nevertheless, 85 men of
the native cavalry regiment, driven to despair by the persistent
rumours of the danger to their caste, refused on the 24th of
April to accept their cartridges. For this offence they were
condemned to ten years' imprisonment with hard labour on the
roads, and on the pth of May they were publicly stripped of
their uniforms and marched off to gaol. The next day was a
Sunday; and in the evening, whilst the British troops were
parading for church, the native cavalry armed themselves,
galloped to the gaol and released their comrades. Almost
simultaneously the two infantry regiments shot down their
officers and broke into open revolt. The badmashes, or criminal
class, broke forth from their quarter and began to burn and
INDIAN MUTINY
plunder the dwellings of the British. A few of the mutineers
took part in this work; but the great majority of them, fearing
the vengeance of the British troops, hastened to move off,
rather a mob than an army, upon the Delhi road. There is a
general agreement that if a man like Gillespie or Nicholson had
been in command of the station, the strong force at his disposal
would have enabled him to strike such a deadly blow at the
fleeing mutineers as might have stamped out the Mutiny. But
Hewitt was too old and Wilson was lacking in initiative; the
opportunity was lost, and no attempt was made to do more
than clear the cantonments.
So many of the chief actors in the Mutiny on the native side
carried their secrets into dishonoured graves that it is impossible
to know exactly what schemes the household of the
lie voH at king of Delhi had concerted with the disaffected sepoys.
Delhi. But when the mutineers reached Delhi they were at
once joined by the city mob and the king's guards in
proclaiming a revival of the Mogul empire. For a few hours
the native troops of the British garrison awaited the turn of
events; but when it became apparent that the British troops
from Meerut were afraid to move, there was a general flame of
revolt, and Delhi at once became the headquarters of the Mutiny.
Most of the British officers and residents were massacred then
or afterwards. The great magazine was gallantly defended for
a time by nine Britons under Lieutenant Willoughby, and was
blown up by them when all hope of relief had vanished. A
young telegraph clerk sent the news to Umballa, continuing to
signal until he was cut down at his post. Before the authorities
in Calcutta and Lahore could take any steps to deal with the
long-prophesied danger, the whole of the North- West Provinces
were in revolt. Fortunately the two men on whom the chief
responsibility fell in this great crisis were equal to their task.
Canning in Calcutta, John Lawrence in the Punjab, were men
indeed equal to any burden; and the stress of the Mutiny,
ending once and for ever the bad old system of seniority, brought
to the front so many subordinates of dauntless gallantry and
soldierly insight that a ring of steel was rapidly drawn round
the vast territory affected. Lawrence saw that the surest way
to prevent the Mutiny from spreading from the sepoy army of
Bengal to the recently conquered fighting races of the Punjab
was to hurl the Sikh at the Hindu; instead of taking measures
for the defence of the Punjab, he acted on the old principle
that the best defence is attack, and promptly organized a force
for the reduction of Delhi, with the ardent co-operation of born
leaders like John Nicholson, Neville Chamberlain and Herbert
Edwardes. Anson, the commander-in-chief, died of cholera
before he had had a chance to act on Lawrence's telegram,
" Clubs, not spades, are trumps." He was succeeded by Sir
Henry Barnard in command of the Delhi field force, then
amounting to about 3000 British troops with 22 field guns,
in addition to a few Gurkhas and Punjab native troops. The
loyalty of the independent Sikh chiefs, headed by Patiala, and
the stern measures which had been taken with the sepoy regiments
enabled Lawrence to reinforce this little army with every
available man and gun from the Punjab, in addition to Sikh
and Pathan levies. It was to the insight of Lawrence and the
splendid organization of the Punjab province — the spoilt child
of the Indian government, as it had been called in allusion to
the custom of sending thither the best of the Indian officials
and soldiers — that the reduction of Delhi and the limitation
of the outbreak were due. Meantime Canning was manfully
playing his part at Calcutta. In the hour of danger he was un-
dismayed, as in the hour of victory he was just and merciful.
He telegraphed for reliefs from every available quarter, fortunately
being able to divert the troops then on their way to China.
The native armies of Bombay and Madras remained loyal, and
the former in particular— thanks to Lord Elphinstone — furnished
valuable reinforcements. Sir Colin Campbell, a veteran soldier
whose laurels had been won in many battles from the Peninsula
to the Crimea, was despatched from England to take command
of the army in India. But even before he could arrive, the out-
spread of the Mutiny had already been checked by the gallantry
and skill of a mere handful of Britons and their faithful native
allies.
Canning and Lawrence, at opposite ends of the disaffected
districts, alike perceived that Delhi was the centre of peril, and
that all other considerations must be subordinated to
striking a decisive blow at that historic city. Both sffgeof
flung to the winds the European rules of warfare, Delhi.
which highly trained officers like Wilson had allowed
to hamper their movements. " Make as short work as possible
of the rebels," wrote Canning. " Where have we failed when
we acted vigorously?" asked Lawrence. Though the nominal
commanders of the army which captured Delhi were in turn
Barnard, Reed and Wilson, the policy thus stated by Canning
and Lawrence was really carried out by their subordinates —
Baird Smith, Nicholson and Chamberlain. The Meerut troops,
at last roused from their inaction, joined Barnard on the 7th of
June, after a successful affair with the mutineers, and the next
day the action of Badli-ki-Serai enabled the British force to
occupy the famous Ridge, which they never abandoned till
the final assault. At first the British troops, outnumbered by
more than three to one by the mutinous regiments alone, were
rather besieged than besiegers. Baird Smith indeed urged an
immediate assault upon Delhi, on the ground that audacity
is the best policy in Indian warfare; but it was not until the
arrival of Nicholson on the 7th of August with the last Punjab
reinforcements that the force was strong enough, in the opinion
of its commander, to take offensive action. On the i4th of
September, after three days of artillery preparation, the assault
was delivered, under Nicholson's leadership. Two practicable
breaches had been made by the siege guns, and a party of
engineers under Home and Salkeld blew in the Kashmir gate.
The assault was successful, in so far as a firm lodgment was made
in the city, though the loss of Nicholson was a heavy price to
pay for this success. Wilson actually thought of retreating;
but Baird Smith and Chamberlain insisted on perseverance,
and the city was captured after six days' hard fighting. The
mutineers were completely cowed; the king of Delhi was taken
and reserved for trial; and his sons were shot by Catain Hodson,
after unconditional surrender, an act which has since been the
theme of much reprobation, but which commended itself at the
time to Hodson's comrades as wise and justifiable. The siege
of Delhi, which was the turning-point of the Mutiny, had lasted
for more than three months, during which thirty minor actions
had been fought in the almost intolerable heat of the Indian
midsummer.
The stern determination of the British troops, which alone
made possible the reduction of Delhi with so inadequate a force,
was intensified, if possible, by the ghastly story of
Cawnpore. That important military station, lying aj
on the Ganges on the confines of Oudh, was under cawapore.
the command of Sir Hugh Wheeler, an old but still
efficient and experienced officer. It was garrisoned by about
3000 native troops, with a mere handful of white soldiers. When
the news of the Meerut outbreak reached Wheeler, who had
already noted many symptoms of disaffection in his own station,
he was placed in a very difficult position. Under his care was
a large body of non-combatants — women and children in great
numbers among them. To occupy the one defensible position
in the station, the magazine by the river with its vast military
stores and its substantial masonry walls, would have involved
steps which Wheeler regarded as certain to precipitate an out-
break. It was then thought that, if the sepoys mutinied, they
would march off to Delhi, and Wheeler contented himself by
throwing up a rude entrenchment round the hospital barracks,
where he thought that the Europeans would be safe during the
first tumult of a rising. All might have fallen out as he antici-
pated, had it not been that the Nana Sahib, the adopted heir
of the late peshwa, was rajah of Bithur in the neighbourhood.
This young Mahratta, since known to universal execration as
the arch-villain of the Mutiny, was secretly burning with a sense
of injury received from the Indian government. He was also
ambitious; and when, on the 4th of June, the Cawnpore garrison
INDIAN MUTINY
449
broke into open mutiny, he prevailed on them to stay and help
him to carve a new kingdom out of the company's territory,
instead of throwing in their lot with the Delhi empire. From
the 6th to the 27th of June the handful of British soldiers, who
composed the garrison of a fortification that could not have
resisted a serious assault for a single hour, held out with the
greatest gallantry in hope of relief. When this hope had died
away, they surrendered to the Nana on his solemn promise
that all their lives should be spared and that they should have a
safe conduct to Allahabad. The Nana, partly urged by his native
cruelty, partly, no doubt, by the wish to commit his followers
beyond all possibility of composition, massacred the entire
garrison in the boats which should have taken it down the river,
reserving only some two hundred women and children for a
later death. These poor victims were confined in a house known
as the Bibigarh. On the 1 5th of July, when Havelock's avenging
army was within a march of Cawnpore, they were all hacked
to death and their bodies — some still faintly breathing — were
thrown down the adjacent well which is to-day one of the most
famous monuments of British rule in India. No single act of
the Mutiny elicited such a storm of fierce anger among the
British, both those who were fighting in India and those who
supported them at home; for none was a more terrible vengeance
taken, though the Nana himself escaped from his pursuers.
Meanwhile Lucknow, the capital of Oudh, was the scene of
a historic defence. It was the headquarters of Sir Henry
Lawrence, one of the most far-seeing of Indian states-
men, who was well aware of the mutinous state of
the native army. On the i8th of April he warned
Lord Canning of some manifestations of discontent, and
asked permission to transfer certain mutinous corps to another
province. On the ist of May the 7th Oudh infantry refused
to bite the cartridge, but on the 3rd they were disarmed by
other regiments. When the news of the outbreak at Meerut
reached Lucknow, Sir Henry Lawrence recognized the gravity
of the crisis and summoned from their homes two bodies of
pensioners, one of sepoys and one of artillerymen, to whose
loyalty, and to that of the Sikh sepoys, the successful defence
of the residency was largely due. This position was immediately
fortified. On the 3oth of May the native troops broke into
mutiny. On the 4th of June there was a mutiny at Sitapur,
a large and important station 51 m. from Lucknow. This was
followed by another at Fyzabad, one of the most important
cities in the province, and outbreaks at Daryabad, Sultanpur
and Salon. Thus in the course of ten days English authority
in Oudh practically vanished. On the 3oth of June Sir Henry
Lawrence ordered a reconnaissance in force from Lucknow,
which met the enemy at Chinhat; but the native sepoys and
artillerymen turned traitors, and Sir Henry was forced to retreat
to the residency, where the siege now began. The first attack
was repulsed on the ist of July, when the separate position
of the Machchhi Bhawan was evacuated, and all the troops
concentrated in the residency. The entrenchments surrounding
this building covered some 60 acres of ground, and included
a number of detached houses and buildings, knit together by
ditches and stockades. In a military sense the position was
indefensible. The garrison consisted of 1720 fighting men, of
whom 712 were native troops, 153 civilian volunteers, and
the remainder were British officers and men. This small force
had to defend 1280 non-combatants. At the very beginning
of the siege Sir Henry Lawrence was fatally wounded by a shell,
and died on the 4th of July, thus depriving the defence of
its guiding spirit. The command then developed upon General
Inglis, who met the incessant attacks of the enemy with counter-
sorties. On the 2 ist of July news was received that General
Havelock was advancing, had defeated the Nana, and was master
of Cawnpore; but it was still more than two months before
even the first relief of Lucknow was achieved. During those
two months every device was employed, by direct assault and
by mining operations, to reduce the garrison, who held out
nobly, meeting assault with sortie and mine with counter-
mine. But the loyalty of the native troops began to waver
14
as the weeks dragged by and no sign of relief appeared. On the
23rd of September, however, the sound of distant guns in the
direction of Cawnpore was heard, and on the 25th General
Havelock's relieving force entered Lucknow. During the 87
days of the siege the strength of the garrison had diminished
to 982, and many of these were sick and wounded. Against
these were arrayed six thousand trained soldiers and a vast
host of undisciplined rabble. For nearly three months their
heavy guns and musketry had poured an unceasing fire into
the residency entrenchment from a distance of only 50 yds.
During the whole time the British flag flew defiantly on the roof
of the residency. The history of the world's sieges contains
no more brilliant episode.
On the sth of June the troops at Benares mutinied, but were
disarmed by Neill; and on the 6th of June the 6th native
infantry at Allahabad mutinied and shot down their
officers, but the fort was held until the arrival of F£?M
Neill, who promptly restored order.- On the 3oth of Lucka0ow.
June Sir Henry Havelock, who had been appointed
to the command of the relieving column, arrived at Allahabad
from Calcutta, and on the 7th of July he set out for the relief
of Lucknow. His force consisted of some two thousand men
all told, of whom three-quarters were British. On the I2th of
July he fought the action of Fatehpur, and gained his first
victory, though the irregular cavalry misbehaved and were
subsequently disarmed. On the isth the village of Aong was
captured, and on the 1 6th the Nana's force was utterly shattered
in the battle of Cawnpore. In nine days Havelock had marched
126 m. and fought three general actions under a broiling sun
in the hottest season of the year; but the women and children
whom it had been his object to save had already been massacred.
Leaving Neill in command at Cawnpore, Havelock started out
again on the 2pth of July with ten light guns and 1500 men in the
desperate attempt to relieve Lucknow, which was 53 m. away.
On the 29th he gained two victories at Unao and Busherut-
gunge, but considering himself too weak to advance, he fell
back two marches upon Mangalwar. This decision was badly
received by his troops, who were burning to avenge their country-
women, and by General Neill, whom Havelock was obliged to
reprimand for insubordination. Being slightly reinforced, he
advanced on the 5th of August, and again turned the enemy
out of Busherutgunge, but was again obliged by cholera to
retreat to Mangalwar; and on receipt of news from Neill that
the enemy were assembling at Bithur, he returned to Cawnpore,
and abandoned for the time the attempt to relieve Lucknow.
On the i6th of August he defeated the mutineers at Bithur.
At this point General Havelock was joined by Sir James Outram,
whojwould have superseded him in the command had not Outram
himself, with unequalled generosity, proposed to accompany
Havelock only in his civil capacity as chief commissioner of
Oudh and to serve under him as a volunteer. On the 2ist of
September Havelock started on his second attempt to relieve
Lucknow, and won the victory of Mangalwar. On the 23rd
another victory was gained at Alam Bagh, and news reached the
force of the fall of Delhi. From Alam Bagh there were four
possible routes of advance to the residency, and Outram con-
sidered that the route chosen by Havelock, lying through the
streets of Lucknow, involved unnecessary losses to the troops.
Neill was killed in the streets, and the little force lost in all
535 officers and men; but on the 26th of September it entered
the residency, and the first relief of Lucknow was accomplished.
But the two thousand men who had thus entered the residency
entrenchment under Havelock and Outram, though sufficient
to reinforce the garrison and save it from destruction,
were not strong enough to cut their way back to safety, Reli°f of
hampered with the women and children and wounded, Lucknow.
amounting to 1500 souls, and the siege now recom-
menced upon a larger scale. Havelock's task, however, was
accomplished, and Outram now took command of the residency.
A detachment had been left in the Alam Bagh, which was short
of provisions; some attempts were made to open up com-
munication with it, but without success. Subsequently it was
xrv. 15
45°
INDIAN MUTINY
reinforced from Cawnpore. Upon the fall of Delhi the troops
before that city were freed for the operations in Oudh, and on
the 24th of September a column of 2790 men under Colonel
Greathed left Delhi. On the 29th a successful action was fought
at Bulandshahr, and on the loth of October the column reached
Agra. Here they were surprised by the enemy, but drove them
off with considerable loss. On the i4th of October the column
left Agra under Colonel Hope Grant, and on the 26th reached
Cawnpore, where news was received that the commander-in-
chief was coming to take command of the operations. Sir
Colin Campbell had been sent out from England to suppress
the Mutiny, and had assumed command of the Indian army
on the 1 7th of August, but could not immediately proceed to
the front. It was his first task to reorganize the administrative
and transport departments; only on the 27th of October did
he leave Calcutta. On the 3rd of November he reached Cawn-
pore, and on the 1 2th marched upon Lucknow under the guidance
of Thomas Henry Kavanagh, who had made his way from the
residency disguised as a native for that purpose. Campbell
had with him 4500 men with whom to raise a siege maintained
by 60,000 trained soldiers occupying strong positions. On
the 1 2th of November the force reached the Alam Bagh, and on
the i4th advanced upon Lucknow, proceeding on this occasion
across the open plain by the Dilkusha and Martiniere instead
of through the narrow and tortuous streets of Lucknow. On
the 1 6th the Sikandra Bagh was stormed; on the following
day Campbell joined hands with Outram and Havelock, and the
relief of Lucknow was finally accomplished.
Sir Colin Campbell now decided to withdraw the garrison and
women and children from the residency, and to hold Lucknow by
a strong division operating outside the city. The
Capture resj(jency was evacuated on the night of the 22nd of
Lucknow. November; but the success of the operations was
marred by the death of Havelock. On his return to
Cawnpore Campbell found that General Windham was being
attacked at that place by the Gwalior contingent. On the 6th
of December he defeated the Gwalior contingent in the battle of
Cawnpore, though he had only 5000 men against the enemy's
25,000. His next task was to clear his line of communications
with Delhi and the Punjab, and this he accordingly undertook.
Lord Canning now decided that the next step should be the
reduction of Lucknow, on the ground that it, like Delhi, was a
rallying point of the Mutiny, and that its continuance in the
hands of the enemy would mean a loss of prestige. General
Franks' column advanced to Lucknow from the eastern frontier
of Oudh, defeating the enemy in four actions. Meanwhile
Outram had held his own at the Alam Bagh for over three months
with only 4000 men against 120,000 rebels. An offer of help
from Nepal had been accepted in July, and now Jung Bahadur,
the prime minister of Nepal, was advancing with 10,000 Gurkhas
to aid in the operations againt Lucknow; but the lateness of his
arrival delayed the opening of the siege until the 2nd of March
1858. The Martiniere was captured on the gth of March and the
Begum Kothi on the nth. On the I4th the Imambara .was
stormed, and the Kaisar Bagh, and on the i6th the residency
was once more in British possession. The enemy were thoroughly
routed, but Campbell lost the opportunity of pushing the victory
home by forbidding Outram to cross the bridge in pursuit if he
thought he would lose a " single man," and by sending the
cavalry away from the environs of the city at the critical moment.
Upon the fall of Lucknow Lord Canning's Oudh proclamation
was issued, confiscating almost the entire lands of the province,
and ensuring only their lives to those rebels who should submit at
once. Outram considered the terms of this proclamation
dangerously severe, and Lord Ellenborough, president of the
board of control, thus criticized it in a hasty despatch, the
publication of which necessitated his own resignation. It was
afterwards acknowledged that the Oudh proclamation, inter-
preted as Canning meant it should be, was a wise piece of states-
manship. After the fall of Lucknow Canning insisted that Sir
Colin Campbell should take immediate action against the rebels
in Oudh and Rohilkhand, and a number of petty and harassing
operations were carried out by detached columns ; but Campbell
moved too slowly to bring his guerrilla opponents to book, and the
rebellion was really brought to a conclusion by Sir Hugh Rose's
brilliant campaign in Central India.
Though the two great princes of Central India, Sindhia and
Holkar, wisely and fortunately remained true to the British,
troops belonging to both of them joined the mutineers, j/ie
The Gwalior contingent of Sindhia's army mutinied in Central
the middle of June, and on the ist of July Holkar's 'f""a
troops revolted at Indore, and the resident, Henry ?*&*•
Durand, was forced to leave the residency. The rani of Jhansi
also rose in rebellion, to become known as " the best man upon
the side of the enemy." The rising in this quarter received little
attention until January 1858, when Sir Hugh Rose was given the
command of two brigades, to act in concert with Sir Colin
Campbell, and he immediately began a campaign which for
celerity and effectiveness has rarely been equalled in India.
His principle was to go straight for the enemy wherever he found
him, and pursue him until he had exterminated him. He was
hampered by none of that exaggerated respect for the rebels
which earned Sir Colin Campbell the nickname of Old Khabardhar
(Old Take-Care) ; but carried to an extreme the policy of audacity.
Advancing from Bombay Sir Hugh Rose relieved Saugor on the
3rd of February, after it had been invested by the rebels for up-
wards of seven months. On the 3rd of March he forced the pass
of Madanpur, and took the whole of the enemy's defences in rear,
throwing them into panic. On the 2ist he began the siege of
Jhansi, the stronghold of the mutineers in Central India, with a
garrison of 11,000 men. During the course of the siege Tantia
Topi, the most capable native leader of the Mutiny, arrived with
a fresh force of 20,000 men, and threatened the British camp;
but Sir Hugh Rose, with a boldness which only success could
justify, divided his force, and while still maintaining the siege of
the fort, attacked Tantia Topi with only 1500 men and com-
pletely routed him. This victory was won on the ist of April,
and two days later Sir Hugh carried Jhansi by assault. On the
ist of May the battle of Kunch was fought and won in a tempera-
ture of no° in the shade, many of the combatants on both sides
being struck down by heat apoplexy. On the 22nd of May the
battle of Kalpi was won, though the European troops were
hampered by defective ammunition and Sir Hugh himself here
received his fifth sunstroke. In five months he had beaten the
enemy in thirteen general actions and sieges, and had captured
some of the strongest forts in India. News now arrived that the
rebel army under Tantia Topi and the rani of Jhansi had attacked
Sindhia, whose troops had gone over to the rebels and delivered
Gwalior into their hands. Sir Hugh marched against Gwalior at
once, captured the Morar cantonments on the i6th of June, and
carried the whole of the Gwalior positions by assault on the igth,
thus restoring his state to Sindhia within ten days of taking the
field. This was the crowning stroke of the Central India cam-
paign, and practically put an end to the Mutiny, though the
work of stamping out its embers went on for many months, and
was only completed with the capture and execution of Tantia
Topi in April 1859.
The Indian Mutiny was in no sense a national rising. The
great mass of the people in the affected districts either stood
neutral, waiting with the immemorial patience of the
East to accept the yoke of the conqueror, or helped the
British troops with food and service, in many cases rising.
also sheltering British fugitives to the best of their
ability. The attempt to throw off the British yoke was confined
to a few disaffected ex-rulers and their heirs, with their numerous
clansmen and hangers-on, besides the badmashes and highway-
men who saw their way to profit by the removal of the British
administration under which their peculiar talents found no safe
outlet. The Bengal native army was their tool, which circum-
stances put into their hands at the psychological moment when
British power seemed to be at its lowest point. But the fighting
races of the Punjab saw no reason for casting in their lot with the
mutineers, and the great majority of the independent princes
who had nothing of which to complain, like Patiala in the Punjab,
INDIAN OCEAN
Holkar and Sindhia in central India, preserved a loyal or at least
an interested friendship. The Sikhs showed their appreciation of
Lawrence's admirable administration by keeping faith with their
recent conquerors, and the Gurkhas of Nepal did yeoman service
for their fathers' enemies. The lack of any central principle or
common interest was shown in the divided counsels and sporadic
action of the mutineers and their allies, which made them an
easy prey to the solid and audacious British forces.
The chief result of the Indian Mutiny was to end the govern-
ment of India by the East India company. It was felt that a
system of administration which could permit such a
catastrophe was no longer desirable. On the 2nd of
mutiny. August 1858 the queen signed the act which transferred
the government of India to the crown. On the ist
of November Lord Canning, now viceroy of India, published the
noble proclamation in which the change was announced, and a
full amnesty was offered to all the rebels who had not been
leaders in the revolt or were not guilty of the murder of British
subjects. Even before the fall of Delhi, Canning had been
adversely criticized — " Clemency Canning " he was scornfully
called — for announcing his intention to discriminate between the
guilt of various classes of mutineers. But a wiser view soon pre-
vailed, and the natives of India at large gratefully accepted the
queen's proclamation as the charter of their lives and liberties.
See G. W. Forrest, History of the Indian Mutiny (1904), and
Selections from State Papers (1897); T. R. E. Hojmes, History of the
Indian Mutiny (1898); Kaye and Malleson's History of the Indian
Mutiny (1864-1888); R. S. Rait, Life of Lord Cough (1903); Sir
W. Lee- Warner, Life of Lord Dalhousie (1904); Sir H. Cunningham,
Lord Canning (" Rulers of India " series), (1890); Sir Owen Tudor
Burne, Clyde and Strathnairn (1895); Lord Roberts, Forty-One
Years in India (1898) ; and Sir Evelyn Wood's articles in The Times
in the autumn of 1907.
INDIAN OCEAN, the ocean bounded N. by India and Persia;
W. by Arabia and Africa, and the meridian passing southwards
from Cape Agulhas; and E. by Farther India, the Sunda Islands,
West and South Australia, and the meridian passing through
South Cape in Tasmania. As in the case of the Atlantic and
Pacific Oceans, the southern boundary is taken at either 40° S.,
the line of separation from the great Southern Ocean, or, if the
belt of this ocean between the two meridians named be included,
at the Antarctic Circle. It attains its greatest breadth, more
than 6000 m. between the south points of Africa and Australia,
and becomes steadily narrower towards the north, until it is
divided by the Indian peninsula into two arms, the Arabian Sea
on the west and the Bay of Bengal on the east. Both branches
meet the coast of Asia almost exactly on the Tropic of Cancer,
but the Arabian Sea communicates with the Red Sea and the
Persian Gulf by the Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb and Ormuz
respectively. Both of these, again, extend in a north-westerly
direction to 30° N. Murray gives the total area, reckoning to 40°
S. and including the Red Sea and Persian Gulf, as 17,320,550
English squarejimiles, equivalent to 13,042,000 geographical
square miles. Karstens gives the area as 48,182,413 square
kilometres, or 14,001,000 geographical square miles; of these
10,842,000 square kilometres, or 3,150,000 geographical square
miles, about 22 % of the whole, lie north of the equator. For the
area from 40° S. to the Antarctic Circle, Murray gives 9,372,600
English square miles, equivalent to 7,057,568 geographical square
miles, and Karstens 24,718,000 square kilometres, equivalent to
7,182,474 geographical square miles. The Indian Ocean receives
few large rivers, the chief being the Zambezi, the Shat-el-Arab, the
Indus, the Ganges, the Brahmaputra and the Irawadi. Murray
estimates the total land area draining to the Indian Ocean at
5,050,000 geographical square miles, almost the same as that
draining to the Pacific. The annual rainfall draining from this
area is estimated at 4380 cubic miles.
Relief. — Large portions of the bed still remain unexplored, but a
fair knowledge of its general form has been gained from the sound-
ings of H.M.S. " Challenger," the German " Gazelle " Expedition,
and various cable ships, and in 1898 information was greatly added
to by the German " Valdivia " Expedition. A ridge, less than 2000
fathoms from the surface, extends south-eastwards from the Cape.
This ridge, on which the Crozet Islands and Kerguelen are situated,
is directly connected with the submarine plateau of the Antarctic.
From it the depth increases north-eastwards, and the greatest
depression is found in the angle between Australia and the Sunda
Islands, where " Wharton deep," below the 3OOO-fathom line,
covers an area of nearly 50,000 sq. m. Immediately to the north
of Wharton deep is the smaller " Maclear deep," and the long narrow
" Jeffreys deep " off the south of Australia completes the list of
depressions below 3000 fathoms in the Indian Ocean. The 2000-
fathom line approaches close to the coast except (l) in the Bay of
Bengal, which it does not enter; (2) to the south-west of India along
a ridge on which are the Laccadive and Maldive Islands; and (3)
in the Mozambique Channel, and on a bank north and east of Mada-
gascar, on which are the Seychelles, Mascarene Islands and other
groups.
Islands. — Like the Pacific, the Indian Ocean contains more islands
in the western than in the eastern half. Towards the centre, the
Maldive, Chagos and Cocos groups are of characteristic coral
formation, and coral reefs occur on most parts of the tropical coasts.
There are many volcanic islands, as Mauritius, the Crozet Islands,
and St Paul's. The chief continental islands are Madagascar,
Sokotra and Ceylon. Kerguelen, a desolate and uninhabited island
near the centre of the Indian Ocean at its southern border, is note-
worthy as providing a base station for Antarctic exploration.
Deposits. — The bottom of the Bay of Bengal, of the northern
part of the Arabian Sea, of the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf, and
of the narrow coastal strips on the east and west sides of the ocean,
are chiefly covered by blue and green muds. Off the African coasts
there are large deposits of Glauconitic sands and muds at depths
down to 1000 fathoms, and on banks where coral formation occurs
there are large deposits of coral muds and sands. In the deeper
parts the bed of the ocean is covered on the west and south by
Globigerina ooze except for an elongated patch of red clay extending
most of the distance from Sokotra to the Maldives. The red clay
covers a nearly square area in the eastern part of the basin bounded
on two sides by the Sunda Islands and the west coast of Australia,
as well as two strips extending east and west from the southern
margin of the square along the south of Australia and nearly to
Madagascar. In the northern portion of the square, north and east
of Wharton deep, the red clay is replaced over a large tract by
Radiolarian ooze.
Temperature. — The mean temperature of the surface water is
over 80° F. in all parts north of 13° S., except in the north-west
of the Arabian Sea, where it is somewhat lower. South of 13° S.
temperature falls uniformly and quickly to the Southern Ocean.
Between the depths of loo and 1000 fathoms temperature is high
in the north-west, and in the south centre and south-west, and low
in the north-east, the type of distribution remaining substantially
the same. At 1500 fathoms temperature has become very uniform,
ranging between 35° and 37° F., but still exhibiting the same type
of distribution, though in a very degenerate form.
Salinity. — The saltest surface water is found in (a) the Arabian
Sea and (6) along a belt extending from West Australia to South
Africa, the highest salinity in this belt occurring at the Australian
end. South of the belt salinity falls quickly as latitude increases,
while to the north of it, in the monsoon region, the surface water
is very fresh off the African coast and to the north-east. Little is
known with certainty about the distribution of salinity in the depths,
the number of trustworthy observations available being still very
small. Probably the northern and north-eastern region, within the
monsoon area, contains relatively fresh water down to very con-
siderable depths.
Circulation. — North of the equator the surface circulation is under
the control of the monsoons, and changes with them, the currents
consisting chiefly of north-east and south-west drifts in the open
sea, and induced streams following the coasts. During the northern
summer the south-west monsoon, which is sufficiently strong to
bring navigation practically to a standstill except for powerful
steamers, sets up a strong north-easterly drift in the Arabian Sea,
and the water removed from the east African coast is replaced by
the upwelling of cold water from below; this is one of the best
illustrations of this action extant. Along the line of the equator
the Indian counter-current flows eastwards all the year round, acting
as compensation to the great Equatorial current flowing westwards
between the parallels of 7° and 20° S. The equatorial current, on
meeting the northern extremity of Madagascar, sends a branch
southwards along the east coast of that island, sometimes called the
Mascarene current. When the main equatorial current reaches the
African coast a minor stream is sent northwards to the source of
the Indian counter-current, but the discharge is chiefly by the
Mozambique current, which south of Cape Corrientes becomes
the Agulhas current, one of the most powerful stream currents of
the globe. On the west coast of Madagascar and on the banks of
the African coast south of 30° S., reaction currents or " back-
drifts " move in the opposite direction along the flanks of the
Agulhas current; these back-drifts are of great importance to
navigation. On clearing the land south of the Cape the waters
of the Agulhas current meet those of the west wind drift of the
Southern Ocean, and mingle with them in such a manner as to
produce, by interdigitation, alternate strips of warm and cold
water, which are met with at great distances south-west and south
452
INDIANOLA— INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN
of the Cape. Between South Africa and Australia the waters
form a part of the great west wind drift. The waters of this drift
are in general, of very low temperature, but it is remarkable that
the interdigitation just mentioned continues far to the eastward,
at least as far as Kerguelen. This fact is probably due partly to
the actual intrusion of warm water from the Mascarene current
east of Madagascar, and partly to the circumstance that the different
temperatures of the waters are so compensated by their differences
of salinity that they have almost precisely the same specific gravity
in situ. The west wind drift sends a stream northwards along the
west coast of Australia, the West Australia current, the homologue
of the Benguela current in the South Atlantic. The principal feature
in the circulation in the depths of the Indian Ocean is a slow move-
ment of Antarctic water northwards along the bottom to take the
place of that removed from the surface by evaporation, and by
currents in the lower latitudes. Little is known beyond the bare
fact that such movement does take place. (H. N. D.)
INDIANOLA, 'a city and the county-seat of Warren county,
Iowa, U.S.A., about 18 m. S. by E. of Des Moines. Pop. (1890)
2254; (1900) 3261; (1905, state census) 3396. It is served
by the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy and the Chicago, Rock
Island & Pacific railways. Indianola is the seat of Simpson
College (coeducational, Methodist Episcopal, 1867), with a
college of liberal arts, an academy, a school of education, a
school of business, a school of shorthand and typewriting, a
conservatory of music, a school of oratory, a school of art and
a military academy. In 1908 the college had 32 instructors
and 905 students. The city lies in a rich farming region, and
has a considerable trade in butter and eggs, vegetables and
fruits, and in coal, lumber and live stock from the surrounding
country. Indianola was laid out and was selected as the county-
seat in 1849, and building began in the following year; it was
incorporated as a town in 1864, and was chartered as a city of
the second class in 1884.
INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN. The name of " American
Indians " for the aborigines of America had its origin in the
The name use by Columbus, in a letter (February 1493) written
"Ameri- soon after the discovery of the New World, of the
catt p term Indios (i.e. natives of India) for the hitherto
Indians." unjcnown human beings, some of whom he brought
back to Europe with him. He believed, as did the people of
his age in general, that the islands which he had discovered
by sailing westward across the Atlantic were actually a part
of India, a mistaken idea which later served to suggest many
absurd theories of the origin of the aborigines, their customs,
languages, culture, &c. From Spanish the word, with its in-
correct connotation, passed into French (Indien), Italian and
Portuguese (Indio), German (Indianer), Dutch (Indiane), &c.
When the New World came to be known as America, the natives
received, in English especially, the name " American Indians,"
to distinguish them from the " Indians " of south-eastern Asia
and the East Indies. The appellation " Americans " was for
a long time used in English to designate, not the European
colonists, but the aborigines, and when, in 1891, Dr D. G.
Brinton published his notable monograph on the Indians he
entitled it The American Race, recalling the early employment
of the term. The awkwardness of such a term as " American
Indian," both historically and linguistically, led Major J. W.
Powell, the founder of the Bureau of American Ethnology, to
put forward as a substitute " Amerind," an arbitrary curtail-
ment which had the advantage of lending itself easily to
form words necessary and useful in ethnological writings, e.g.
pre-Amerind, post-Amerind, pseudo-Amerind, Amerindish,
Amerindize, &c. Purists have objected strenuously to
" Amerind," but the word already has a certain vogue in both
English and French. Indeed, Professor A. H. Keane does
not hesitate, in The World's Peoples (London, 1908), to use
" Amerinds " in lieu of " American Indians." Other popular
terms for the American Indians, which have more or less currency,
are " Red race," " Red men," " Redskins," the last not in such
good repute as the corresponding German Rotkaute, or French
Peaux-rouges, which have scientific standing. The term
" American Indians " covers all the aborigines of the New
World past and present, so far as is known, although some
European writers, especially in France, still seek to separate
from the " Redskins " the Aztecs, Mayas, Peruvians, &c., and
some American authorities would (anatomically at least) rank
the Eskimo as distinct from the Indian proper. When the i
name " Indian " came to be used by the European colonists
and their descendants, they did not confine it to " wild men,"
but applied it to many things that were wild, strange, non-
European in the new environment (see Journ. Amer. F oik-Lore, \
1902, pp. 107-116; Handbook of Amer. Inds., 1907, pt. i. pp.
605-607). Thus more than one hundred popular names of plants
in use in American English (e.g. " Indian corn," " Indian pink,"
&c.) contain references to the Indian in this way; also many
other things, such as " Indian file," " Indian ladder," " Indian
gift," " Indian pudding," " Indian summer." The Canadian-
French, who termed the Indian sauvage (i.e. " savage "), re-
membered him linguistically in bolte sauvage (moccasin), tralne
sauvage (toboggan). The term " Siwash," in use in the Chinook
jargon of the North Pacific coast, and also in the English of
that region, for " Indian " is merely a corruption of this Canadian-
French appellation. In the literature relating to the Pacific
coast there is mention even of " Siwash Indians." Throughout
Canada and the United States the term " Indian " occurs in
hundreds of place-names of all sorts (" Indian River," " Indian
Head," " Indian Bay," " Indian Hill," and the like). There
are besides these Indiana and its capital Indianapolis. In
Newfoundland " Red Indian," as the special term for the
Beothuks, forms part of a number of place-names. Pope's
characterization of the American aborigine,
" Lo! the poor Indian, whose untutpr'd mind
Sees God in clouds, or hears Him in the wind,"
is responsible for the creation in the mind of the people of a
" Mr Lo," who figures in newspaper lore, cartoons, &c. The
reputations, deserved and undeserved, of certain Indian tribes
north of Mexico have been such that their names have passed
into English or into the languages of other civilized nations
of Europe as synonyms for " ruffian," " thug," " rowdy," &c.
Recently " les Apaches " have been the terror of certain districts
of Paris, as were the " Mohocks " (Mohawks) for certain parts
of London toward the close of the i8th century.
The North American Indians have been the subject of numerous
popular fallacies, some of which have gained world-wide currency.
Here belongs a mass of pseudo-scientific and thoroughly _ .
unscientific literature embodying absurd and extravagant faiiacies
theories and speculations as to the origin of the aborigines
and their " civilizations "which derive them (in most extraordinary
ways sometimes), in recent or in remote antiquity, from all regions
of the Old World — Egypt and Carthage, Phoenicia and Canaan,
Asia Minor and the Caucasus, Assyria and Babylonia, Persia and
India, Central Asia and Siberia, China and Tibet, Korea, Japan,
the East Indies, Polynesia, Greece and ancient Celtic Europe and
even medieval Ireland and Wales. Favourite theories of this sort
have made the North American aborigines the descendants of
refugees from sunken Atlantis, Tatar warriors, Malayo-Polynesian
sca-farers, Hittite immigrants from Syria, the " Lost Ten Tribes
of Israel," &c., or attributed their social, religious and political ideas
and institutions to the advent of stray junks from Japan, Buddhist
votaries from south-eastern Asia, missionaries from early Christian
Europe, Norse vikings, Basque fishermen and the like.
Particularly interesting are the theories of " Welsh (or white)
Indians " and the " Lost Ten Tribes." The myth of the " Welsh
Indians," reputed to be the descendants of a colony founded about
A.D. 1170 by Prince Madoc (well known from Southey's poem),
has been studied by James Mooney (Amer. Anlhrop. iv., 1891,
393-394), who traces its development from statements in an
article in The Turkish Spy, published in London about 1730. At
first these " Welsh Indians, who are subsequently described as
speaking Welsh, possessing Welsh Bibles, beads, crucifixes, &c.,
are placed near the Atlantic coast and identified with the Tuscaroras,
an Iroquoian tribe, but by 1776 they had retreated inland to the
banks of the Missouri above St Louis. A few years later they were
far up the Red river, continuing, as time went on, to recede farther
and farther westward, being identified successively with the Mandans,
in whose language Catlin thought he detected a Welsh element, the
Moqui, a Pueblos tribe of north-eastern Arizona, and the Modocs
(here the name was believed to re-echo Madoc) of south-western
Oregon, until at last they vanished over the waters of the Pacific
Ocean. The theory that the American Indians were the " Lost Ten
Tribes of Israel " has not yet entirely disappeared from ethnological
literature. Many of the identities and resemblances in ideas,
customs and institutions between the American Indians and the
ancient Hebrews, half-knowledge or distorted views of which
LINGUISTIC STOCKS]
INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN
453
Linguistic
stocks.
formed the basis of the theory, are discussed, and their real significance
pointed out by Colonel Garrick Mallery in his valuable address on
Israelite and Indian: A Parallel in Planes of Culture" (Proc.
Amer. Assoc. Adv. Set. vol. xxxviii., 1889, pp. 287-331). The whole
subject has been discussed by Professor H. W. Henshaw in his
" Popular Fallacies respecting the Indians " (Amer. Anthrop. vol.
vii. n.s., 1905, pp. 104-113).
Of ways of classifying the races of mankind and their sub-
divisions the number is great, but that which measures them by
their speech is both ancient and convenient. The
multiplicity of languages among the American Indians
was one of the first things that struck the earliest
investigators of a scientific turn of mind, no less than the
missionaries who preceded them. The Abbe Hervas, the
first serious student of the primitive tongues of the New World,
from the classificatory point of view, noted this multiplicity
of languages in his Catalogo delle lingue conosciute e notizia delta
loro affinita e diversild (Cesena, 1784); and after him Balbi,
Adelung and others. About the same time in America Thomas
Jefferson, who besides being a statesman was also a considerable
naturalist (see Amer. Anthrop. ix. n.s., 1907, 499-509), was
impressed by the same fact, and in his Notes on the State of
Virginia observed that for one " radical language " in Asia
there would be found probably twenty in America. Jefferson
himself collected and arranged (the MSS. were afterwards lost)
the vocabularies of about fifty Indian languages and dialects,
and so deserves rank among the forerunners of the modern
American school of comparative philologists. After Jefferson
came Albert Gallatin, who had been his secretary of the treasury,
as a student of American Indian languages in the larger sense.
He had also himself collected a number of Indian vocabularies.
Gallatin's work is embodied in the well-known " Synopsis of
the Indian Tribes within the United States East of the Rocky
Mountains, and in the British and Russian Possessions in North
America," published in the Transactions and Collections of the
American Antiquarian Society (ii. 1-422) for 1836. In this,
really the first attempt in America to classify on a linguistic
basis the chief Indian tribes of the better-known regions of North
America, Gallatin enumerated the following twenty-nine
separate divisions: Adaize, Algonkin-Lenape, Athapascas,
Atnas, Attacapas, Blackfeet, Caddoes, Catawbas, Chahtas,
Cherokees, Chetimachas, Chinooks, Eskimaux, Fall Indians,
Iroquois, Kinai, Koulischen, Muskhogee, Natches, Pawnees,
Queen Charlotte's Island, Salish, Salmon River (Friendly
Village), Shoshonees, Sioux, Straits of Fuca, Utchees, Wakash,
Woccons. These do not all represent distinct linguistic stocks,
as may be seen by comparison with the list given below; such
peoples as the Caddo and Pawnee are now known to belong
together, the Blackfeet are Algonkian, the Catawba Siouan,
the Adaize Caddoan, the Natchez Muskogian, &c. But the
monograph is a very good first attempt at classifying North
American Indian languages.
Gallatin's coloured map of the distribution of the Indian tribes
in question is also a pioneer piece of work. In 1840 George
Bancroft, in the third volume of his History of the Colonization
of the United States, discussed the Indian tribes east of the
Mississippi, listing the following eight families: Algonquin,
Catawba, Cherokee, Huron-Iroquois, Mobilian (Choctaw and
Muskhogee) , Natchez, Sioux or Dahcota, Uchee. He gives also a
linguistic map, modified somewhat from that of Gallatin. The
next work of great importance in American comparative phil-
ology is Horatio Hale's monograph forming the sixth volume
(Phila., 1846), Ethnography and Philology, of the publications
of the " United States Exploring Expedition, during the years
1838, 1839, 1840, 1842, under the Command of Charles Wilkes,
U.S. Navy," which added much to our knowledge of the languages
of the Indians of the Pacific coast regions. Two years later
Gallatin published in the second volume of the Transactions of the
American Ethnological Society (New York) a monograph entitled
" Hale's Indians of North-west America, and Vocabularies of
North America," in which he recognized the following additional
groups: Arrapahoes, Jakon, Kalapuya, Kitunaha, Lutuami,
Palainih, Sahaptin, Saste, Waiilatpu. In 1853 he contributed a
brief paper to the third volume of Schoolcraft's Information
Respecting the History, Condition and Prospects of the Indian
Tribes of the United States, adding to the "families" already
recognized by him the following: Cumanches, Gros Venires,
Kaskaias, Kiaways, Natchitoches, Towiacks, Ugaljachmutzi.
Some modifications in the original list were also made. During
the period 1853-1877 many contributions to the classification of
the Indian languages of North America, those of the west and the
north-west in particular, were made by Gibbs, Latham, Turner,
Buschmann, Hayden, Dall, Powers, Powell and Gatschet. The
next important step, and the most scientific, was taken by Major
J. W. Powell, who contributed to the Seventh Annual Report of
the Bureau of Ethnology, 1885-1886 (Washington, 1891) his
classic monograph (pp. 1-142) on " Indian Linguistic Families of
America North of Mexico." In 1891 also appeared Dr D. G.
Brinton's The American Race: A Linguistic Classification and
Ethnographic Description of the Native Tribes of North and South
America (New York, p. 392). With these two works the adoption
of language as the means of distinction and classification of the
American aborigines north of Mexico for scientific purposes
became fixed. Powell, using the vocabulary as the test of
relationship or difference, enumerated, in the area considered, 58
separate linguistic stocks, or families of speech, each " as distinct
from one another in their vocabularies and apparently in their
origin as from the Aryan or the Scythian families " (p. 26).
The 58 distinct linguistic stocks of American Indians north of
Mexico, recognized by Powell, were as follows: (i) Adaizan;
(2) Algonquian; (3) Athapascan; (4) Attacapan; (5) Beothu-
kan; (6) Caddoan; (7) Chimakuan; (8) Chimarikan; (9) Chim-
mesyan; (10) Chinookan; (n) Chitimachan; (12) Chumashan;
(13) Coahuiltecan; (14) Copehan; (15) Costanoan; (16) Eski-
mauan; (17) Esselenian; (18) Iroquoian; (19) Kalapooian;
(20) Karankawan; (21) Keresan; (22) Kiowan; (23) Kitunahan;
(24) Koluschan; (25) Kulanapan; (26) Kusan; (27) Lutua-
mian; (28) Mariposan; (29) Moquelumnan; (30) Muskhogean;
(31) Natchesan; (32) Palaihnihan; (33) Piman; (34) Pujunan;
(35) Quoratean; (36) Salinan; (37) Salishan; (38) Sastean;
(39) Shahaptian; (40) Shoshonean; (41) Siouan; (42) Skitta-
getan; (43) Takilman; (44) Tanoan; (45) Timuquanan; (46)
Tonikan; (47) Tonkawan; (48) Uchean; (49) Waiilatpuan;
(50) Wakashan; (51) Washoan; (52) Weitspekan; (53) Wisho-
skan; (54) Yakonan; (55) Yanan; (56) Yukian; (57) Yuman;
(58) Zufiian.
This has been the working-list of students of American Indian
languages, but since its appearance the scientific investigations of
Boas, Gatschet, Dorsey, Fletcher, Mooney, Hewitt, Hale, Morice,
Henshaw, Hodge, Matthews, Kroeber, Dixon, Goddard, Swanton
and others have added much to our knowledge, and not a few
serious modifications of Powell's classification have resulted.
With Powell's monograph was published a coloured map showing
the distribution of all the linguistic stocks of Indians north of
Mexico. Of this a revised edition accompanies the Handbook of
American Indians North of Mexico, published by the Bureau of
American Ethnology in 1907-1910, now the standard book of
reference on the subject. The chief modifications made in
Powell's list are as follows: The temporary presence in a
portion of south-west Florida of a new stock, the Arawakan,
is now proved. The Adaizan language has been shown to
belong to the Caddoan family; the Natchez to the Muskogian;
the Palaihnian to the Shastan; the Piman to the Shoshonian.
The nomenclature of Powell's classification has never been
completely satisfactory to American philologists, and a move-
ment is now well under way (see Amer. Anthrop. vii. n.s.,
JQQS, S79-S93) to improve it. In the present article the writer
has adopted some of the suggestions made by a committee
of the American Anthropological Society in 1907, covering
several of the points in question.
In the light of the most recent and authoritative researches and
investigations the linguistic stocks of American aborigines north of
Mexico, past and present, the areas occupied, earliest homes _ (or
original habitats), number of tribes, subdivisions, &c., and population,
may be given as follows : —
454
INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN
[LINGUISTIC STOCKS
Stock.
Area.
Earliest Home
Tribes, &c.
Population.
Stock.
Area.
Earliest Home.
Tribes, &c.
Population.
i. ALGONKIAN.
Most of N. and E.
North America,
between lat. 35
N. of the St
Lawrence
and E. of
Some 50-60,
with many
minor
About 90,000,
of which
some 50,000
and from the
Pacific Ocean to
the San Joaquin
and 55°; centred
Lake Ontario
groups.
in Canada.
river.
in the region of
the Great Lakes
and Hudson's
Bay.
(Brinton) ;
N.W. of the
Great Lakes
(Thomas).
14. ESKQIOAN.
Greenland and some
of the Arctic
islands, the whole
northern coast N.
Interior of
Alaska
(Rink); in
the region
9 well-
marked
g r o u p s,
with 60-70
About 28,000,
of which
there are
in Green-
a. AKAWAKAN.
Within the terri-
tory of the Calu-
„ _ _ : n c W
Central South
America.
Small colony
from Cuba.
Extinct about
end of 1 6th
century.
of the Alonkian
and Athabaskan,
from the straits of
W. of Hud-
son's Bay
(Boas); pre-
"settle-
ments,"
&c.
land 11,000
Alaska
13,000,
s a s in o. v* .
Belle Is'e to the
ferably the
Canada
Florida.
endof the Aleutian
latter.
4500, and
3. ATAKAPAN.
In part of S.W.
Louisiana and
N.E. Texas.
Somewhere in
E. or N.E.
Texas.
2.
Practically
extinct; in
1885 4 indi-
Islands; also in
extreme N.E.
Asia W. to the
Asia 1 200.
viduals liv-
Anadyr river; in
i n g in
E. North America
Louisiana,
in earlier times
and 5 in
possibly consider-
Texas.
,
ably farther south.
4. ATHABASKAN.
Interior of Alaska
and Canada; W.
of Hudson's Bay
and N. of the
Interior of
Alaska or
N.W. Can-
ada.
Some 50,
with numer-
ous minor
groups.
About 54,000,
of which
some 20,000
in Canada.
15. ESSELENIAN.
On the coast of W.
California, S. of
Monterey, N. of
the Salinan.
Somewhere in
W. or central
California.
Many small
settlements.
Extinct; last
speaker of
language
died about
Algonkian; also
1890.
represented in
Oregon, Cali-
fornia, Arizona,
16. HAiDANfSkit-
tagetan).
The Queen Char-
lotte Islands, off
the N.W. coast
Interior of
Alaska or
N.W. Can-
2 dialects;
about 25
chief "
About 900,
of which
300 are in
T H
of British Colum-
ada.
" towns,"
Alaska.
northern Mexico.
bia, and part of
and many
the Prince of
minor set-
5. BEOTHUKAN.
Newfoundland .
Some part of
Newfound-
Local settle-
ments only.
Extinct; last
representa-
Wales Archi-
pelago, Alaska.
tlements.
land or Lab-
rador.
tive died in
1829.
17. IROQUOIAN.
The region about
Somewhere be-
Soraeischief
About 40,000,
Lakes Erie and
tween the
tribes with
of which
6. CADDOAN.
Country between
the Arkansas and
Colorado rivers
in Louisiana,
Texas, &c., par-
On the lower
Red River,
or, perhaps,
somewhere
to the S.W.
Some 12-15.
About 2000.
Ontario (Ontario,
New York, Penn-
sylvania, Ohio,
&c.),and on both
banks of the St
Lawrence, on the
lower St
L a w r e n ce
and Hub-
son's Bay
(Brinton,
Hale); in S.
many minor
subdivisions.
10,000 are
in Canada;
of those in
the United
States 28,000
are Chero-
ticularly on the
Red River and its
N. to beyond the
Saguenay, on the
Ohio and
Kentu c k y
kee.
affluents; later
also in Kansas,
Nebraska, Da-
S. to Gaspe"; also
represented in the
S.E.United States
(Boyle,
Thomas).
kota, and Okla-
by the Tuscarora,
hmi
oma.
Cherokee, &c.
(now chiefly in
7. CHEHAKUAN.
On the N.W. shore
Some part of
2.
About 200.
Oklahoma).
of Puget Sound,
N.W. Wash-
Washington; also
ington.
18. KALAFDYAN.
In N.W. Oregon,
Somewhere in
About 15-18,
Only some
on Pacific coast.
in the valley of
N.W. Ore-
with minor
140 indi-
near Cape Flat-
the Willamette,
gon.
divisions.
viduals still
tery.
above the Falls.
living.
8. CHWARIKAN.
la N. California,
on Trinity river.
Somewhere in
N.California.
i.
Practically
extinct; in
19. KAKANKAWAN.
On the Texas coast,
from Galveston to
Somewhere in
S. Texas.
5-6, with
minor divi-
Extinct prob-
ably in 1858;
N.W. of the
1903 only 9
Padre Island.
sions.
a few sur-
Copehan.
individuals
vived later,
repor t ed
living.
possibly, in
Mexico.
9. CHINOOKAN.
On the lower
N. of the Col-
Some 10 or
About 300.
20. KERESAN.
In N. central New
Somewhere in
17 "villages"
3990, in 6
Columbia river,
umbia, in W.
1 2 with nu-
Mexico, on the
the New
(pueblos) ;
pueblos
from the Cascades
Washington.
merous vil-
Rio Grande and
Mexico-
earlier more.
(some 150
to the Pacific
lages.
its tributaries the
Arizona
at Isleta).
Ocean; on the
coast, N. to Shoal-
Jeraez, San Jos£,
&c.
region.
water Bay and S.
to Tillamook
21. Kid WAN.
On the upper Ark-
At the foot of
i.
1219 in Okla-
Head,inWashing-
ansas and Can-
the Rocky
homa.
ton and Oregon.
adian rivers, in
Mountains
Colorado Kansas
in S. W.
lO.CHITmACHAN.
Part of S.E. Louisi-
Region of
i.
Nearly ex-
Oklahoma, &c.;
Montana.
ana.
Grand Lake
tinct ;m 1881
formerly on the
and river,
only 50 indi-
head-waters of
Louisiana.
viduals sur-
the Platte, and
viving.
still earlier on the
n. CHUMASHAN.
In S.W. California,
Somewhere in
7 or more
Nearly ex-
upper Yellowstone
and Missouri, in
S. of the Salinan
S.W. Cali-
d ial e cts .
tinct; onl^
S.W. Montana.
and Mariposan;
fornia.
with many
15-20 indi-
in the basins of
the Sta Maria,
Sta Inez, lower
Sta Clara, &c.,on
small settle-
ments.
viduals still
living.
22. KlTUNAHAN.
In S.E. British Col-
umbia, N. Idaho,
and part of N.W.
Montana.
Somewhere E.
of the Rocky
Mountains in
Montana or
2 chief divi-
sions and 3
others.
About noo;
half in
Canada and
half in the
the coast, and the
Alberta.
United
northern Sta.
States.
Barbara Islands.
23- KOLUSCHAN
On the coast and
Somewhere in
Some 12-15.
About 2000.
i a. COPEHAN
In central N. Cali-
Somewhere in
2 chief di-
About 130 at
(Tlingit).
adjacent islands
the interior
(Wintun).
fornia, W. of the
N.California.
visions, with
various vil-
of S. Alaska, from
of Alaska
Pujunan; W. of
many small
lages, and
55° to 60° N. lat.;
or N. W.
the Coast range.
set tl emeu ts.
as many on
also some in
Canada.
from San Pablo
Round Val-
Canada.
and Suisun Bays
ley Reserva-
N. to Mount
tion.
24. KtJLANAPAN
On the coast in
Somewhere in
About 30
About 1000.
Shasta.
(Porno).
N.W. California
N.W. Cali-
local divi-
(Sonoma, Lake
fornia.
sions, &c.;
13. COSTANOAN.
In the coast region
of central Cali-
Somewhere in
central Cali-
No true
tribes, but
Nearly ex-
tinct ; only
and Mendocino
counties), W. of
no true
tribes.
fornia, N. of the
fornia.
15-20 settle-
25 or 30 indi-
the Yukian.
Salinan; from
ments.
viduals still
about San Fran-
living.
25. KUSAN.
On the coast of
Somewhere in-
4, earlier
About 50.
cisco S. to Point
Sur and Big
central Oregon,
on Coos Bay and
land from
Coos Bay,
more.
Panoche Creek,
Oregon.
LINGUISTIC STOCKS] INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN
455
Stock.
Area.
Earliest Home.
Tribes, &c.
Population.
Stock.
Area.
Earliest Home.
Tribes, &c.
Population.
Coos and Coquille
36. SHASTAN.
n N. California
n N. Cali-
or more
/ess than 40
rivers, S. of the
and S. Oregon, in
fornia or
linguistic
Shasta full-
Yakonan; now
the basins of the
Oregon.
divisions.
bloods ;
mostly on Siletz
Pit and Klamath
some 1200
Reservation.
rivers, on Rogue
Achomawi.
river and to be-
26. LUTUAMIAN
[n the region of the
n S. Oregon,
2, with local
1034; of these
yond the Siskiyou
(Klamath).
Klamath and Tule
N. of the
ubdi visions.
755 Kla-
Mountains; S. of
lakes, Lost and
Klamath
math, and
the Lutuamian.
Sprague rivers,
lakes.
279 Modoc
&c., in Oregon
(chiefly) and N.E.
(56 in Okla-
homa).
37. SHOSHONIAN.
n the W. part of
the United States;
Foot-hills and
plains E. of
Some 1 2- 1 sin
the United
n the United
States, some
California; now
most of the
the Rocky
States;
24,000.
on Klamath Re-
country between
Mountains in
many more
servation, Oregon,
lat. 35° and 45°
N.W. United
in Mexico.
with a few also in
Oklahoma.
and long. 105° and
120°, with exten-
States or
Canada, but
ancient and
modern.
sions N., S., and
residence
27. MARIPOSAN
In S. central Cali-
Somewhere in
30-40 groups
About 150, at
S.E. outside this
in P 1 a t e a u
(Yokuts).
fornia, in the
valley of the San
central Cali-
fornia.
with special
dialects.
Tule river
reservation,
area; represented
also in California,
region long-
continued.
Joaquin, on the
fee.
and in Mexico
Tule, Kaweah,
by the Piman,
King's rivers,&c. ;
Sonoran and Na-
E. of the Salman,
huatlan tribes.
S. of the Moque-
lumnan.
38. SIOUAN.
n the basin of the
n the Caro-
o m e 20
About 38,000;
Missouri and the
lina - Virginia
large and
of which
28. MOQUELUMNAN
(Miwok).
[n central Cali-
fornia, in three
Somewhere in
central Cali-
7 dialects, no
true tribes;
Several hun-
dred; much
upperMississippi ;
from about N.
region.
many minor
ones.
some 1400
in Canada.
sections: the main
fornia.
about 20
scattered.
lat. 33° to 53° and,
area on the W.
local groups
at the broadest,
slope of the Sier-
with numer-
from 89° to 110°
ras, from the Cos-
ous minor
W. long.; also
urn nes river on
ones.
represented in
the N. to the
Wisconsin (Win-
Fresno on the S.;
nebago), Louisi-
a second on the
ana.the Carol inas,
N. shore of San
and V i rg i n i a
Francisco Bay,
(formerly).
and a third (small)
S. of Clear Lake
39. TAKELMAN.
n S.W. Oregon,
n some part
2.
'racticall y
on the head-waters
in the middle
of S. Oregon.
extinct;
of Putah Creek.
valley of Rogue
perhaps 6
river, on the upper
speakers of
29. MUSKOCIAN
In the Gulf States,
Somewhere
About 12,
About 40,000;
Rogue, and to
the language
(Muskhogean).
E. of the Missis-
W. of the
with many
of these
about the Cali-
alive.
sippi, most ofMis-
lower Missis-
minor divi-
38,000 in
fornia line or
sissippi, Alabama
sippi.
sions.
Oklahoma,
beyond.
and Georgia)part
loooin Mis-
of Tennessee, S.
Carolina, Florida
sissippi, 350
in Florida,
40. TANOAN.
n New Mexico, on
the Rio Grande,
lome part of
New Mexico.
lome 14-15
pueblos.
ibout 4200
in 12 pueb-
and Louisiana ;
and a few in
&c., from lat. 33°
los.
now mostly in
Louisiana.
to 36°; also a
Oklahoma.
settlement with the
Mocjui in N.E.
30. PAKAWAN
(Coahufltecan).
On both banks of
the Rio Grande
Some part of
N.E. Mexico.
20-25, some
very small.
Practical ly
extinct; in
Arizona, and
another on the
in Texas and
1886 about
Rio Grande at the
Mexico, from its
30 individu-
boundary line,
mouth to beyond
als still liv-
partly in Mexico.
Laredo ; at one
ing, mostly
t}me possibly E.
on the
41. TiMUQUAN.
in Florida, from the
Some part of
Jome 60 or
Hxtinct in
to Antonio, and
M ex i c an
N. border and the
Florida.
more settle-
1 8th cen-
W. to the Sierra
side of the
Ocilla river to
ments.
tury.
Madre.
Rio Grande.
Lake Okeecho-
bee, perhaps
31. PUJUNAN
In N.E. California,
N.E. C a 1 i-
No true
About 250
farther N. and S.
(Maidu).
E. of the Sacra-
mento river, be-
fornia.
tribes;
several
full-bloods.
42. TONIKAN.
[n part of E. Louisi-
Somewhere in
3-
'radically
tween the Shastan
larger and
ana and part of
the Louisi-
extinct; i n
and Moquel-
u in nun.
very many
smaller loc-
Mississippi ; in
Avoyelles parish,
ana - Missis-
sippi region.
1886 some
25 indivi-
al divisions,
La., &c.
duals living
" villages, "
at Marks-
&c.
ville, La.
32. QUORATEAN
(Karok).
In extreme N.W.
California, on the
Somewhere in
N.California.
Many "vil-
lages," &c.
In 1889 some
600; much
43. TONKAWAN.
In S. E. Texas,
N.W. of the
Somewhere in
S. or W.
i.
Nearly ex-
tinct; in
Klamath river,
r e d u c ed
Karankawan;
Texas.
&c.; W. of the
Shastan.
since; pos-
sibly 300.
remnants now in
Oklahoma.
individuals
living; in
33. SAHAPTIAN.
In the region of
Somewhere in
5-7-
About 4200.
1905 uui 47,
with I'uii-
the Columbia and
the region of
k a s in
its tributaries, in
theColumbia,
Oklahoma.
parts of Washing-
or farther N.
•
Oregon; between
lat. 44° and 47°,
and from the Cas-
44. TSIMSHIAN
(Chimmesyan).
In N.W. British
Columbia, on the
Nass and Skeena
On the head-
waters of the
Skeena river.
3 main anc
several
minor divi-
About 3200
in Canada,
and 950 in
cades to the Bitter
rivers, and the
sions.
Alaska.
Root Mountains.
adjacent islands
and coast S. to
34. SALINAN.
On the Pacific coast
Somewhere in
2 or 3 larger
Practically
Millbank Sound
of S.W.California,
S. W. Cali-
divisions ;
extinct; in
also (since 1887'
from above S.
fornia.
n o true
1884 only
on Annette Island
Antonio, to below
tribes.
10-12 indi-
Alaska.
S. Louis Obispo;
W. of the Mari-
v i d u a 1 s
living.
45. WAILATPUAN
A western section
(Molala) in the
In Oregon, S
of the Colum-
2.
Language
practically
po
Cascade region
bia river.
extinct; 405
35. SALISHAN.
A large part of S.
British Columbia
and Washington,
with parts ol
Idaho and Mon-
tana; also part ol
Vancouverlsland
and outliers in N
British Columbia
Central or N
British Col-
umbia.
Some 60-65,
of which a
number are
merely local
divisions.
About 15,000
in Canada,
and some
6300 ii
the United
States.
between Mounts
Hood and Scott
ih Washington
and Oregon; ai
eastern (Cayuse
on the head
waters of the
Wallawalla.Uma
tilla and Grande
Cayuse (in
1888 only 6
spoke their
mother
tongue) are
still living;
in i 8 8 i
about 20
Molalas.
(B i 1 q u 1 a) , anc
Ronde rivers.
S.W. Oregon.
456
INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN
[LINGUISTIC STOCKS
Stock.
Area.
Earliest Home.
Tribes, &c.
Population.
46. WAKASHAN
Most of Vancouver
Somewhere in
3 main divi-
4765, of which
(Kwakiutl-
Nootka).
Island (except
some ) of the E.
coast) and most
the interior
of British
Columbia.
sions, with
more than
50" tribes."
435 are in
the United
States.
of the coast ol
British Columbia
from Gardner
channel to Cape
Mudge; also part
of extreme N.W.
Washington.
47. WASHOAN.
In E. central Cali-
In N.W. Ne-
i.
About 200, in
fornia and the ad-
vada.
the region
joining part of
Nevada, in the
of Carson,
Reno, &c.
region of Lake
Tahoe and the
lower Carson
valley.
48. WEITSPEKAN
(Yurok).
In N.W. California,
W. of the Quo-
r a lean.
In N. Cali-
fornia or S.
Oregon.
6 divisions;
no true
tribes.
A few hun-
dreds; in
1870 esti-
mated at
2 o o o or
more.
49. WlSHOSKAN
In N.W. California,
In N. Cali-
3-5 divisions;
Nearly ex-
(Wiyot).
in the coast
fornia.
no true
tinct.
region, S. of the
tribes.
Weitspekan.
50. YAKONAN.
In W. Oregon, in
the coast region
W. central
Oregon.
4 chief divi-
sions, with
About3oo,on
the Siletz
and on the rivers
numerous
R eserva-
from the Yaquina
villages.
tion.
to the Umpqua.
51. YANAN.
In central N. Cali-
Som ew here
Practically
fornia in the region
farther E.
extinct; in
of Round Moun-
1884 but 3 5
tain, &c., S. of
individuals
the S has tan.
living.
52. YDCHIAN.
[n E. Georgia, on
Somewhere E.
i.
About 500,
the Savannah
of the Chata-
with Creeks
river from above
hoochee.
in Okla-
Augusta down to
homa.
the Ogeechee, and
also on Chatahoo-
chee river; rem-
nants now in
Oklahoma.
53. YUKIAN.
In N.W. California,
N. or central
5 divisions ;
About 250.
E.of the Copehan,
California.
no true
with a N. and a
tribes.
S. section; in the
Round Valley
region.
54- YUMAN.
In the extreme S.W.
N. W. Arizona.
9-10.
In the United
of the United
States about
States (lower
4800.
Colorado and Gila
valley), part of
California, most
of Lower Cali-
fornia, and a small
part of Mexico.
55. ZUNIAN.
In N.W. New
Some part of
i.
1500.
Mexico, on the
the New
Zufii river.
Mexico - Ari-
zona region.
Of these 55 different linguistic stocks 5 (Arawakan, Beothu-
kan, Esselenian, Karankawan and Timuquan) are completely
extinct, the Arawakan, of course, in North America only;
13 (Atakapan, Chimarikan, Chitimachan, Chumashan,Costanoan,
Kusan, Pakawan, Salinan, Takelman, Tonikan, Tonkawan,
Wishoskan, Yakonari) practically extinct; while the speakers
of a few other languages or the survivors of the people once
speaking them (e.g. Chemakuan, Chinookan, Copehan, Kala-
puyan, Mariposan, Washoan, Yukian), number about 200 or 300,
in some cases fewer. Of the Wailatpuans, although some in-
dividuals belonging to the stock are still living, the language
itself is practically extinct. The distribution of the various
stocks reveals some interesting facts. Among these are the
stretch of the Eskimoan along the whole Arctic coast and its
extension into Asia; the immense areas occupied by the Atha-
baskan and the Algonkian, and (less notably) the Shosho-
nian and the Siouan; the existence of few stocks on the
Atlantic slope (from Labrador to Florida, east of the Mississippi,
only 8 are represented); the great multiplicity of stocks in the
Pacific coast region, particularly in Oregon and California; the
extension of the Shoshonian, Yuman and Athabaskan southward
into Mexico, the Shoshonian in ancient, the Athabaskan in
modern times; the existence of an Arawakan colony in south-
western Florida, a 16th-century representative in North America
of a South American linguistic stock. Some stocks, e.g. Atakapan,
Beothukan, Chemakuan, Chimarikan, Chitimachan, Kiowan,
Kitunahan, Lutuamian, Takelman, Tonkawan, Wailatpuan,
Yanan, Yuchian, Zuni, &c., were not split up into innumerable
dialects, possessing at most but two, three or four, usually fewer.
Of the larger stocks, the Athabaskan, Algonkian, Shoshonian,
Siouan, Iroquoian, Salishan, &c., possess many dialects often
mutually unintelligible. In marked contrast with this is the
case of the Eskimoan stock, where, in spite of the great distance
over which it has extended, dialect variations are at a minimum,
and the people " have retained their language in all its minor
features for centuries " (Boas). As to the reason for the abund-
ance of linguistic stocks in the region of the Pacific (from Alaska
to Lower California, west of long. 115°, there are 37: Eskimoan,
Koluschan, Athabaskan, Haidan, Tsimshian, Wakashan, Sali-
shan, Kitunahan, Chimakuan, Chinookan, Sahaptian, Wailat-
puan, Shoshonian, Kalapuyan, Yakonan, Kusan, Takelman,
Lutuamian, Quoratean, Weitspekan, Wishoskan, Shastan,
Yanan, Chimarikan, Yukian, Copehan, Pujunan, Washoan,
Kulanapan, Moquelumnan, Mariposan, Costanoan, Esselenian,
Salinan, Chumashan, Yuman) there has been much discussion.
Of these no fewer than 18 are confined practically to the limits
of the present state of California. Dialects of Athabaskan,
Shoshonian and Yuman also occur within the Californian areas,
thus making, in all, representatives of 21 linguistic stocks in a
portion of the continent measuring less than 156,000 sq. m. In
explanation of this great diversity of speech several theories have
been put forward. One is to the effect that here, as in the region
of the Caucasus in the Old World, the multiplicity of languages is
due to the fact that tribe after tribe has been driven into the
mountain valleys, &c., by the pressure of stronger and more
aggressive peoples, who were setting forth on careers of migration
and conquest. Another view, advocated by Horatio Hale in
1886 (Proc. Amer. Assoc. Adv. Set.', also Proc. Canad. Inst.,
Toronto, 1888), is that this great diversity of human speech is
due to the language-making instinct of children, being the result
of " its exercise by young children accidentally isolated from the
teachings and influence of grown companions." A pair of young
human beings, separating thus from the parent tribe and starting
social life in a new environment by themselves, would, according
to Mr Hale, soon produce a new dialect or a new language. This
theory was looked upon with favour by Romanes, Brinton, and
other psychologists and ethnologists. Dr R. B. Dixon (Congr.
intern, des. Amer., Quebec, 1906, pp. 255-263), discussing some
aspects of this question, concludes " that the great linguistic and
considerable cultural complexity of this whole California-Oregon
region is due to progressive differentiation rather than to the
crowding into this restricted area of remnants of originally discrete
stocks." How far two dialects of one stock can go in the way of
such differentiation without becoming absolutely distinct is illus-
trated by the Achomawi branches of the Shastan family of speech,
which Dr Dixon has very carefully investigated.
The test of vocabulary is not the only means by which the
languages of the North American aborigines might be classified.
There are peculiarities of phonetics, morphology, grammar, sentence-
structure, &c., which suggest groupings of the linguistic stocks
independent of their lexical content. Some languages are harsh and
consonantal (e.g. the Kootenay and others of the North Pacific
region), some melodious and vocalic, as are certain of the tongues
of California and the south-eastern United States. Some employ
reduplication with great frequency, like certain Shoshonian dialects;
others, like Kootenay, but rarely. A few, like the Chinook, are ex-
ceedingly onomatopoeic. Some, like the northern languages of
California, have no proper plural forms. Of the Californian languages
the Porno alone distinguishes gender in the pronoun, a feature
common to other languages no farther off than Oregon. The high
development and syntactical use of demonstratives which char-
acterize the Kwakiutl are not found among the Californian tongues.
A few languages, like the Chinook and the Tonika, possess real
grammatical gender. Some languages are essentially prefix, others
essentially suffix tongues; while yet others possess both prefixes
and suffixes, or even infixes as well. In some languages vocalic
changes, in others consonantal, have grammatical or semantic
meaning. In certain languages tense, mood and voice are rather
LANGUAGES]
INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN
457
weakly developed. In some languages syntactical cases occur
(e.g. in certain Californian tongues), while in many others they are
quite unknown. Altogether the most recent investigations have
revealed a much greater variety in morphological and in grammatical
processes than was commonly believed to exist, so that the general
statement that the American Indian tongues are all clearly and
distinctly of the " incorporating " and " pplysynthetic " types
needs considerable modification. Using criteria of phonetics,
morphology, grammar, &c., some of the best authorities have been
able to suggest certain groups of North American Indian languages
exhibiting peculiarities justifying the assumption of relationship
together. Thus Dr Franz Boas (Mem. Intern. Congr. Anthrop.,
1893, pp. 339-346, and Ann. Archaeol. Rep. Ontario, 1905, pp. 88-
106) has grouped the linguistic stocks of the North Pacific coast
region as follows: (l) Tlingit (Koluschan) and Haida; (2) Tsim-
shian; (3) Wakashan (Kwakiutl-Nootka), Salish, Chemakum; (4)
Chinook. In the same region the present writer has suggested a
possible relationship of the Kootenay with Shoshonian. In the
Californian area Dr R. B. Dixon and Dr A. L. Kroeber have made
out these probable groups among the numerous language stocks
of that part of the United States: (l) Chumashan and Salinan;
(2) Yurok (Weitspekan), Wishoskan, Athabaskan, Karok (Quora-
tean), Chimarikan; (3) Maidu (Pujunan), Lutuamian, Wintun
(Copehan), Yukian, Porno (Kulanapan), Costanoan, Esselenian,
Yokuts (Mariposan), Shoshonian, Shastan, Moquelumnan and
possibly Washoan; (4) Yanan; (5) Yuman. Suggestions of even
larger groups than any of these have also been made. It may be
that, judged by certain criteria, the Kootenay, Shoshonian, Iro-
quoian and Sipuan may belong together, but this is merely tentative.
It is also possible, from the consideration of morphological peculiari-
ties, that some if not all of the languages of the so-called Palaeo-
Asiatic " peoples of Siberia, as Boas has suggested (Science, vol.
xxiii., n.s., 1906, p. 644), may be included within the American
group of linguistic stocks. Indeed Sternberg (Intern. Amer.-Kongr.
xiv., Stuttgart, 1904, pp. 137-140) has undertaken to show the
relationship morphologically of one of these languages, the Giliak
(of the island of Saghalin and the region about the mouth of the
Amur), to the American tongues, and its divergence from the
" Ural-Altaic " family of speech. Here, however, more detailed
investigations are needed to settle the question.
At one time the opinion was widely prevalent that primitive
languages changed very rapidly, sometimes even within a
General generation, and the American Indian tongues were
character rather freely used as typical examples of such extreme
of Indian variation. The error of this view is now admitted
languages. everywhere, and for the speech of the New World
aborigines Dr Franz Boas states (Hndb. Amer. Ind. pt. i., 1907,
p. 759): " There is, however, no historical proof of the change
of any Indian language since the time of the discovery comparable
with that of the language of England between the loth and
i3th centuries." Another statement that has obtained currency,
appearing even in otherwise reputable quarters sometimes,
is to the effect that some of the vocabularies of American Indian
languages consist of but a few hundred words, one being indeed
so scanty that its speakers could not converse by night, since
darkness prevented resort to the use of gesture. This is absolutely
contrary to fact, for the vocabularies of the languages of
the American Indians are rich, and, according to the best
authority on the subject, " it is certain that in every one there
are a couple of thousand of stem words and many thousand
words, as that term is defined in English dictionaries " (Boas).
The number of words in the vocabulary of the individual Indian
is also much greater than is generally thought to be the case.
It was long customary, even in " scientific " circles, to deny
to American Indian tongues the possession of abstract terms,
but here again the authority of the best recent investigators is
conclusive, for " the power to form abstract ideas is, neverthe-
less, not lacking, and the development of abstract thought
would find in every one of the languages a ready means of
expression " (Boas). In this connexion, however, it should
be remembered that, in general, the languages of the American
aborigines " are not so well adapted to generalized statements
as to lively descriptions." The holophrastic terms characteristic
of so many American Indian languages " are not due to a lack
of power to classify, but are rather expressions of form of
culture, single terms being intended for those ideas of prime
importance to the people" (Boas). This consideration of
American primitive tongues in their relation to culture-types
opens up a comparatively new field of research, and one of much
evolutional significance.
14
As a result of the most recent and authoritative philological in-
vestigations, the following may be cited as some of the chief char-
acteristics of many, and in some cases, of most of the languages of
the aborigines north of Mexico.
1. Tendency to express ideas with great graphic detail as to place,
form, &c.
2. " Pplysynthesis," a device making possible, by the use of
modifications of stems and radicals and the employment of prefixes,
suffixes, and sometimes infixes, &c., the expression of a large
number of special ideas. By such methods of composition (to cite
two examples from Boas) the Eskimo can say at one breath, so to
speak, " He only orders him to go and see, and the Tsimshian,
He went with him upward in the dark and came against an
obstacle." The Eskimo Takusariartorumagoluarnerpd ? (" Do you
think he really intends to go to look after it ? ") is made up from
the following elements: Takusar(pd), "he looks after it"; iartor
(poq), " he goes to "; uma (voq), a he intends to "; (g) aluar (poq),
t< he does so, but " ; nerpoq, " do you think he." The Cree " word "
" kekawewechetushekamikowanowow " (" may it," i.e. the grace of
Jesus Christ, "remain with you") is resolvable into: Kelaivow
(here split into ke at the beginning and -owow as terminal), " you "
(pi.); ka = sign of futurity (first and second persons); «>e = an
optative particle; weche = " with " ; tusheka- verbal radical,
"remain"; mik = pronominal particle showing that the subject
of the verb is in the third person and the object in the second,
"it-you"; oaian=yerbal possessive particle, indicating that the
subject of the verb is something inanimate belonging to the animate
third person, " his-it." The Carrier (Athabaskan) lekcmahweshcm-
dceihfenaszkrok, " I usually recommence to walk to and fro on all
fours while singing/' which Morice calls " a simple word," is built
up from the following elements: le=*" prefix expressing reciprocity,
which, when in connexion with a verb of locomotion, indicates that
the movement is executed between two certain points without
giving prominence to either"; ka = particle denoting direction
toward these points; na = " iterative particle, suggesting tha.t the
action is repeated " ; hwe =particle referring to the action as being in
its incipient stage; sheen = " song" (when incorporated in a verb
it " indicates that singing accompanies the action expressed by the
verbal root"); dw = " a particle called for by shasn, said particle
always entering into the composition of verbs denoting reference to
vocal sounds"; <te = "the secondary radical of the uncompositc
verb tktzkret inflected from thi for the sake of euphony with ncez;
ncez = " the pronominal element of the whole compound " (the n is
demanded by the previous hwe, <e marks the present tense, and z
marks the first person singular of the third conjugation; krok =
" the main radical, altered here by the usitative from the normal
form kret, and is expressive of locomotion habitually executed on
four feet or on all fours."
3. Incorporation of noun and adjectives in verb, or of pronouns
in verb. From the Kootenay language of south-eastern British
Columbia the following examples may be given: NatWamkine =
"He carries (the) head in (his) hand"; Hpwankotfamkine = " I
shake (the) head in (my) hand"; Withciwmne = " (His) belly is
large"; Tlitfcarine = " He has no tail"; MatlnoM«tfine = " He
opens his eyes." In these expressions are incorporated, with certain
abbreviations of form, the words aqktlam, "head"; aqkowum,
"belly"; aqkat, "tail"; aqkaktletl, "eyes." In some languages
the form for the noun incorporated in the verb is entirely different
from that in independent use. Of pronominal incorporation these
examples are from the Kootenay: Mipqana6ine = " He sees me";
Honupqam'iine = " / see you"; Tshatlipitusine = " He will kill
you "; Tshatlitqanaa/orine = " He will bite us "; Tshatltsukwatwine
= " He is going to seize you; .Htntshatltlpatlnapine = " You will
honour me." For incorporation of adjectives these examples will
serve: Honitenurtik = " I paint (my face)," literally, " I make it
red" (kanohos, "red"; the radical is nos or nus for nohos);
Howitlkeine = " I shout," literally, "I talk big"; Howitlkaine =
" I am tall (big)." In some languages the pronouns denoting subject,
direct object and indirect object are all incorporated in the verb.
4. The formation of nouns of very composite character by the
use of stems or radicals and prefixes, suffixes, &c., of various sorts,
the intricacy of such formations exceeding often anything known
in the Indo-European and Semitic languages. Often the component
parts are " clipped," or changed by decapitation, decaudatipn,
syncopation, &c. , before being used in the compound. The following
examples from various Indian languages will illustrate the process: —
Kootenay: Aqkinkanuktlamnam = " crown of head," from aq
(prefix of uncertain meaning), kinkan = " top," tlam = " head," -nam
(suffix = " somebody's "). Tlingit : Kanyiqkuwate = " aurora," liter-
ally, " fire (£on)-like (yig)-out-of-doors (ku)-co\our (wate)."
5. The development of a great variety of forms for personal
and demonstrative pronouns. I n the latter, sometimes, the language
distinguishes " visibility and invisibility, present and past, location
to the right, left, front and back of, and above and below the
speaker " (Boas). According to Morice (Trans. Canad. Inst., 1889-
1890, p. 187), the Carrier language of the Athabaskan stock has no
fewer than seventeen possessive pronouns of the third person.
6. Indistinctness of demarcation between noun and verb; in
some languages the transitive and in others the intransitive only is
really verbal in form.
Xiv. 150
458
INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN
[MIGRATIONS
7. The use of the intransitive verb as a means of expressing
ideas which in European tongues, e.g., would be carried by ad-
jectives. In the Carrier language almost all adjectives are " genuine
verbs " (Morice).
8. The expression of abstract nouns m a verbalized form. Thus
Cree (Algonkian) generally says, in preference to using the abstract
noun pimatisewin, " life," the periphrastic verb apimatisenanewuk,
literally " that they (indefinite as to person) live." So far is this
carried sometimes that Horden (Cree Grammar, London, 1881, p. 5)
says: " I have known an Indian speak a long sentence, on the duties
of married persons to each other, without using a single noun."
As an interesting example of a long word in American-Indian
languages may be mentioned the Iroquois taontasakonatiatawitserak-
ninonseronniontonhatieseke. This " word," which, as Forbes (Congr.
intern, d. Amer., Quebec, 1906, p. 103) suggests, would serve well
on the signboard of a dealer in novelties, is translated by him,
" Que plusieurs personnes viennent acheter des habits pour d'autres
personnes avec de quoi payer." Not so formidable is deyeknonhse-
dehrihadasterasterahetakwa, a term for " stove polish," in use on the
Mohawk Reservation near Brantford, Ontario.
The literature in the native languages of North America due to
missionary efforts has now reached large proportions. Naturally
Bible translations have been most important. According to
Wilberforce Eames (Handbook of Amer. Inds., 1907, pt. i. pp.
143-145), " the Bible has been printed in part or in whole in 32
Indian languages north of Mexico. In 18 one or more portions
have been printed; in 9 others the New Testament or more has
appeared; and in 5 languages, namely, the Massachuset, Cree,
Labrador Eskimo, Santee Dakota and Tukkuthkutchin, the
whole Bible is in print." Of the 32 languages possessing Bible
translations of some sort 3 are Eskimoan dialects, 4 Athabaskan,
13 Algonkian, 3 Iroquoian, 2 Muskogian, 2 Siouan, i Caddoan,
i Sahaptian, i Wakashan, i Tsimshian, i Haidan. Translations
of the Lord's Prayer, hymns, articles of faith and brief devotional
compositions exist now in many more languages and dialects.
A goodly number of other books have also been made accessible
in Indian versions, e.g. Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress (Dakota,
1857), Baxter's Call to the Unconverted (Massachuset, 1655),
Goodrich's Child's Book of the Creation (Choctaw, 1839), Thomas
a Kempis's Imitation of Christ (Greenland Eskimo, 1787),
Newton's The King's Highway (Dakota, 1879), &c. The " Five
Civilized Tribes," who are now full-fledged citizens of the state
of Oklahoma, possess a mass of literature (legal, religious, political,
educational, &c.) published in the alphabet adapted from the
" Cherokee Alphabet " invented by Sequoyah about 1821,
" which at once raised them to the rank of a literary people."
Of periodicals in Indian languages there have been many
published from time to time among the " Five Civilized Tribes."
Of the Cherokee Advocate, Mooney said in 1897-1898, " It is still
continued under the auspices of the Nation, printed in both
languages (i.e. Cherokee and English), and distributed free at the
expense of the Nation to those unable to read English — an
example without parallel in any other government." More or
less ephemeral periodicals (weekly, monthly, &c.) are on record
in various Algonkian, Iroquoian, Siouan and other languages,
and the Greenland Eskimo have one, published irregularly
since 1861. Wilberforce Eames (Handbook of Amer. Inds., 1907,
pt. i. p. 389) chronicles 122 dictionaries (of which more than
half are still in MSS.) of 63 North American-Indian languages,
belonging to 19 different stocks.
The following linguistic stocks are represented by printed diction-
aries (in one or more dialects) : Algonkian, Athabaskan, Chinoolcan,
Eskimoan, Iroquoian, Lutuamian, Muskogian, Salishan, Shoshonian,
Siouan. There exists a considerable number of texts (myths, legends,
historical data, songs, grammatical material, &c.) in quite a number
of Indian languages that have been published by scientific investi-
gators. The Algonkian (e.g. Jones's Fox Texts, 1908), Athabaskan
(e.g. Goddard's Hupa Texts, 1904, Matthews's Navaho Legends,
1897, &c.), Caddoan (e.g. Miss A. C. Fletcher's Hako Ceremony,
1900), Chinookan (Boas's Chinook Texts, 1904, and Kathlamet
Texts, 1901), Eskimoan (texts in Boas's Eskimo of Baffin Land, &c.,
1901, 1908; and Thalbitzer's Eskimo Language, 1904, Barnum's
Innuit Grammar, 1901), Haidan (Swanton's Haida Texts, 1905, &c.),
Iroquoian (texts in Hale's Iroquois Book of Rites, 1883, and Hewitt's
Iroquoian Cosmology, 1899), Lutuamian (texts in Gatschet's Klamath
Indians, 1890), Muskogian (texts in Gatschet's Migration Legend of
the Creeks, 1884-1888), Salishan (texts in various publications of
Boas and Hill-Tout), Siouan (Riggs and Dorsey in various publica-
tions), Tsimshian (Boas's Tsimshian Texts, 1902), Wakashan (Boas's
Kwakiull Texts, 1902-1905), &c.
The question of the direction of migration of the principal
aboriginal stocks north of Mexico has been reopened of late
years. Not long ago there seemed to be practical
agreement as to the following views. The Eskimo
stock had reached its present habitats from a primitive
home somewhere in the interior of north-western
Canada or Alaska; the general trend of the Athabaskan migra-
tions, and those of the Shoshonian tribes had been south and
south-east, the first from somewhere in the interior of north-
western Canada, the second from about the latitude of southern
British Columbia; the Algonkian tribes had moved south,
east and west from a point somewhere between the Great Lakes
and Hudson Bay; the Iroquoian stock had passed southward
and westward from some spot to the north-east of the Great
Lakes; the Siouan tribes, from their primitive home in the
Carolinas, had migrated westward beyond the Mississippi;
some stocks, like the Kitunahan, now found west of the Rocky
Mountains, had dwelt formerly in the plains region to the east.
Professor Cyrus Thomas, however, of the Bureau of American
Ethnology, discussing primary Indian migrations in North
America (Congr. intern, d. Amer., Quebec, 1906, i. 189-204),
rejects the theory that the Siouan stock originated in
the Carolinas, and adopts for them an origin in the region
north of Lake Superior, whence he also derives the Iroquoian
stock, whose primitive home Dr David Boyle (Ann. Archaeol.
Rep. Ontario, 1905, p. 154), the Canadian ethnologist, would
place in Kentucky and southern Ohio. Another interesting
contribution to this subject is made by Mr P. E. Goddard
(Congr. intern, des. Amer., Quebec, 1906, i. 337-358). Con-
templating the distribution of the tribes belonging to the
Athabaskan stock in three divisions, viz. a northern (continuous
and very extensive), a Pacific coast division (scattered through
Washington, Oregon, California), and a southern division which
occupies a large area in Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, Kansas,
Texas and Mexico, Mr Goddard suggests that the intrusion of
non-Athabaskan peoples into a region once completely in the
possession of the Athabaskan stock is the best explanation
for the facts as now existing not explicable from assimilation
to environment, which has here played a great role. It is
possible also that a like explanation may hold for the conditions
apparent in some other linguistic stocks. Many Indian tribes
have been forcibly removed from their own habitats to reserva-
tions, or induced to move by missionary efforts, &c. Thus, in
the state of Oklahoma are to be found representatives of the
following tribes: Apache, Arapaho, Caddo, Cherokee, Cheyenne,
Chickasaw, Choctaw, Comanche, Creek, Iowa, Kansa, Kickapoo,
Kiowa, Miami, Missouri, Modoc, Osage, Oto, Ottawa, Pawnee,
Peoria, Ponca, Potawatomi, Quapaw, Sac and Fox, Seminole,
Seneca, Shawnee, Tonkawa, Wichita, Wyandot, &c.; these
belong to 10 different linguistic stocks, whose original habitats
were widely distant from one another in many cases.
Some of the American-Indian linguistic stocks (those of
California especially) hardly know real tribal divisions, but
local groups or settlements only; others have many large and
important tribes.
The tabular alphabetical list given in the following pages
contains the names of the more important and more interesting
tribes of American aborigines north of Mexico, and of the stocks
to which they belong, their situation and population in 1909,
the degree of intermixture with whites or negroes, their social,
moral and religious condition, state of progress, &c., and also
references to the best or the most recent literature concerning
them.
Up to the date of their publication references to the literature
concerning the tribes of the stocks treated will be found in Pillmg's
bibliographies: Algonquian (1891), Athabascan (1892), Chinookan
'1893), Eskimoan (1887), Iroquoian (1888), Muskhogean (1889),
.alishan (1893), Siouan (1887) and Wakashan (1894). See also the
Handbook of American Indians North of Mexico (Washington, 1907-
1910); and the sumptuous monograph of E. S. Curtis, The North
American Indian (N. Y., vols. i.-xx., 1908), with its remarkable
reproduction of Indian types.
TRIBES]
INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN
459
Tribe.
Stock.
Situation, Population, &c.
Degree of
Intermixture.
Condition, Progress, &c.
Authorities.
ABNAKI.
Algonkian.
At Becancour, Quebec, 27; at St
Francois du Lac and Pierrevillc,
330. Decreasing.
Probably no pure
blood left.
As civilized as the neighbouring
whites. All Catholics.
Maurault, Hist, da Abenaquis (Quebec,
1806); Jack, Trans. Canad. Jnst.,
1892-1893.
ACNOMAWI
(Pit river Indians).
Shastan.
N.E. California. About noo in the
Pit river region; also 50 or 60
on the Klamath Reservation,
Oregon.
Little.
Progress very slow; influence of
schools felt. Klamath Achomawi
under Methodist influence.
'owers, Contrib. N. Amer. Ethnol.,
vol. iii., 1877; various writings of
Or R. B. Dixon, American Anthro-
pologist, 1905-1908, &c.
ALEUTS.
Eskimoan.
Aleutian Islands and part of Alaska.
About 1600. Decreasing.
About 50 % are
mixed bloods.
"Decaying." Once converted to
Greek Orthodox church. Metho-
dist mission at Unalaska.
Works (in Russian) of Veniaminov,
1840-1848; Golder, Journ. Amer.
Folk-Lore, 1905-1907; Chamberlain,
Diet. Relig. and Ethics (Hastings,
vol. i., 1908).
AMALECTTES
(Maliseets).
Algonkian.
106 at Viger (Cacouna, Quebec);
702 in various parts of W. New
Brunswick. Apparently increas-
ing.
Probably few pure
bloods.
Fairly good. At Viger industrially
unsettled. Catholics.
Vritings of S. T. Rand; Chamberlain
(M.), Maliseet Vocatnitary (Cam-
bridge, 1899).
APACHE.
Athabaskan.
In Arizona, 4879; New Mexico, 1244;
Oklahoma, 453. Not rapidly de-
creasing as formerly thought.
Considerable Span-
ish blood due to
captives, &c.
Marked improvement here and there.
Catholic and Lutheran missions.
Cremony, Life among the Apaches
(1868); Bourke, oth Ann. Rep. Bur.
Ethnol., 1887-1888, and Journ. Amer.
Folk-Lore, 1890; Hrdliika, Ameri-
can Anthropologist, 1905.
ARAPAHO.
Algonkian.
358 at Ft. Belknap Reservation,
Montana; 873 at Wind river
Reservation, Wyoming; 885 in
Oklahoma. Holding their own.
Some Spanish
(Mexican) blood
in places.
Oklahoma Arapaho American citi-
zens; progress elsewhere. Men-
nonite missions chiefly; also Dutch
Reformed.
Writings of Kroeber and Dorsey, Bull.
Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 1000-1007,
and Publ. Field Columb. Mm.,
1903; Scott, Amer. Anthrop., 1907.
ASSINIBOIN.
Siouan.
In Montana, 1248; Alberta, 971;
Saskatchewan, 420.
Some little.
In Canada "steady advance," else-
where good. Alberta Assiniboins
are Methodists; in Montana
Catholic and Presbyterian mis-
sions on reservations.
Maclean, Canadian Savage Folk
(Toronto, 1890); McGee, ifth Ann.
Rep. Bur. Ethnol., 1893-1894.
BABINES.
Athabaskan.
530 on Babine Lake, Bulkley river,
&c., in central British Columbia.
Little, if any.
Conservative. Little progress.
Reached by Catholic mission of
Stuart Lake, B.C.
Morice, Antkropos, 1906-1007, and Ann.
Arch. Rep. Ontario, 1905, and other
writings.
BANNOCK.
Shoshonian.
About 500 at Ft. Hall, and 78 at
l.nnlii Agency, Idaho.
Little.
Considerable improvement morally
and industrially.
ioffman, Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc.,
1886; Mooney, ifth Ann. Rep. Bur.
Ethnol., 1892-1893; Lowie, Anthrop.
Pap. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hill., 1909.
BEAVER.
Athabaskan.
About 700 on Peace river, a western
affluent of Lake Athabaska.
Very little.
Rather stationary.
See Babines.
BILQULA
(Bellacoola).
Salishan.
287 on Dean Inlet, Bentinck Arm,
Bellacoola river, &c., coast of
central British Columbia. De-
Little.
Not very encouraging. Mission
influence not yet strongly felt.
Boas, Rep. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Set,
1891, and Mem. Amer. Mus. Nat.
Hist., 1898.
creasing.
BLACKFEET
(Siksika).
Algonkian.
About 824 in Alberta, Canada. De-
creasing.
Little.
Steadily improving morally and
financially. Anglicans, 237 ; Catho-
lics, 260; pagans, 327.
Maclean, Canadian Savage Folk
(Toronto, 1890), and other writings;
Grinnell, Blackfool Lodge - Tales
(N.Y., 1003), and other writings;
Wissler, Ann. Arch. Rep. Ontario,
1005; Schultz, My Life as an Indian
(N.V., 1907); Wissler, Anthrop. Pap.
Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 1908.
BLOODS.
Algonkian.
n58 near Ft. Macleod, Alberta.
Probably decreasing somewhat.
Little.
All able-bodied Indians will soon
be self-supporting. Presbyterians,
150; Catholics, 150; the rest
pagan.
See Blackfeet.
CADDO.
Caddoan.
550 in Oklahoma. Increasing
slightly.
Considerable French
blood.
Citizens of United States. Catholic,
Methodist and Presbyterian mis-
sions.
Mooney, ifth Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnol.,
1892-1893; writings of Fletcher,
Dorsey, «c.
CARIBOO-EATERS.
Athabaskan.
1700 in the region E. of Lake Atha-
baska, N.W. Canada.
Little, if any.
Little progress.
See Babines.
CARRIERS.
Athabaskan.
970 between Tatla Lake and Ft.
Alexandria, central British Col-
umbia.
Little.
Semirsedentary and naturally pro-
gressive as Indians; improvements
beginning to be marked. Under
influence of Catholic mission at
Stuart Lake, B.C.
Morice, Proc. Canad. Inst., 1889,
Trans. Canad. Inst., 1894, Hist, oj
Northern Inter, of British Columbia
(Toronto, 1904), and other writings.
See Babines.
CATAWBA.
Siouan.
About 100 on the Catawba river,
York county, South Carolina.
Decreasing.
Much mixed with
white blood.
Slowly adopting white man's ways.
Chiefly farmers.
Mooney, Siouan Tribes of the East
(Washington, 1894); _ Gatschet,
American Anthropologist, 1900;
Harrington, ibid., 1908.
CAVTJGA.
Iroquoian.
179 on the Iroquois Reservations in
New York State; 1044 with the
Six Nations in Ontario; also some
with the Seneca in Oklahoma and
with Oneida in Wisconsin.
Some English ad-
mixture.
Canadian Cayuga steadily improv-
ing; they are "pagan."
See Six Nations.
CAYUSE.
Wailatpuan.
405 on Umatilla Reservation, Oregon
About I are of mixed
blood, chiefly
French.
Conditions improving. Good work
of Catholic and Presbyterian
missions.
Mowry, Marcus Whitman (rooi);
Lewis, Mem. Amer. Anthrop. Assoc.,
1906.
CUEHALIS.
Salishan.
182 on Puyallup Reservation, Wash-
ington. Perhaps increasing slightly
No data.
Gradually improving and generally
prosperous. Congregational mis-
sion.
Gibbs, Contrib. N. Amer. Ethnol.,
vol. iii., 1877; Eells, Hist, ol Jnd.
Missions on the Pacific Coast
(N.Y., 1882), and other writings.
CHEMEHUEVI.
Shoshonian.
About 300 on the Colorado Reserva-
tion; a few elsewhere in Arizona
and California.
No data.
Some improvement. Missions of the
Presbyterians and of the Church of
the Nazarene.
See Ute.
CHEROKEE.
Iroquoian.
About 28,000, of which 1489 are in
North Carolina and the rest in
Oklahoma.
Not more than J
are of approxi-
mately pure
blood.
Oklahoma Cherokee citizens of the
United States, and making excel-
lent progress. Various religious
faiths.
Royce, Jth Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnol.,
1883-1884; Mooney, 7th Rep., 1885-
1886, and especially igth Rep., 1897-
1898.
460
INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN
[TRIBES
Tribe.
Stock.
Situation, Population, &c.
Degree of
Intermixture.
Condition, Progress, &c.
Authorities.
CHEYENNE.
Algonkian.
1440 northern Cheyenne in Montana
1894 southern Cheyenne in Okla-
Some white blood
from captives, &c
Southern Cheyenne citizens of Unitec
States; Mennonite mission doing
Mooney, rjth Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnol.,
1892-1893; Dorsey, Publ. Field
homa. Former increasing, latter
good work. Northern Cheyenne
Columb. Mus., 1 905 ; Grinnel 1 ,
decreasing.
making progress as labourers, &c.;
Mennonite and Catholic missions
Intern. Congr. Americanists, 1902-
1906; Journ. Amer. Folk-Lore, 1907-
1 908 ; Amer. A nlhrop., 1 902-1 906 ;
Mooney and Petter, Mem. Amer.
Anthrop. Assoc., 1907.
CHICKAHOIONY.
Algonkian.
Some 220 on Chickahominy river,
Virginia.
No pure bloods
left. Consider-
Fishers and Farmers.
Tooker, Algonquian Series (N.Y.,
1900); Mooney, Amer. Anthrop.,
able negro ad-
1907.
mixture.
CHICKASAW.
Muskogian.
5558 in Oklahoma.
Large admixture of
white blood.
American citizens and progressing
well. Various religious faiths.
Speck, Journ. Amer. Folk-Lore, 1907,
and Amer. Anthrop., 1907.
CHILCOTIN.
Athabaskan.
About 450 on ChUcotin river, in S.
central British Columbia.
Little.
Fairly laborious, but clinging to
native customs, though making
Writings of Morice (see Carriers) ;
Farrand, Mem. Amer. Mus. Nat.
progress. Catholic mission influ-
Hist., 1900.
ence.
CHILKAT.
Koluschan.
About 700 at head of Lynn Canal,
No data.
Little progress.
Emmons and Boas, Mem. Amer. Mus.
Alaska. Decreasing.
Nat. Hist., 1908.
CHINOOK.
Chinookan.
About 300 in Oregon. Decreasing.
Some little.
Stationary or "worse."
Boas, Chinook Texts (Washington,
1894), and other writings; Sapir,
,
Amer. Anthrop., 1907.
CHIPEWYAN.
Athabaskan.
About 3000 in the region S. of Lake
Athabaska, N.W. Canada.
Some Canadian-
French admix-
Coming to be more influenced by the
whites. Reached by Catholic
Writings of Petitot, Legoff, Morice
(see Babines), &c. ; Morice, An-
ture.
missions.
thropos, 1906-1907, and Ann. Arch.
Rep. Ontario, 1905.
CHIPPEWA
(Ojibwa)
Algonkian.
About 18,000 in Ontario, Manitoba,
&c.; nearly the same number in
the United States (Michigan,
Wisconsin, Minnesota, N. Dakota).
Much French and
English admix-
ture in various
regions.
Good progress. Many Indians quite
equal to average whites of neigh-
bourhood. Among the Canadian
Chippewa the Methodists, Catho-
Warren, Minn. Hist. Soc. Coll., 1885;
Blackbird, Ottawa and Chippewa
Indians (1887); W. Jones, Ann.
Arch. Rep. Ontario, 1905; Hugolin,
lics and Anglicans are well repre-
Congr. int. d. Amer. (Quebec, 1906);
sented; among those in the United
States the Catholics and Episco-
P. Jones, Hist. Ojebway Inds. (1861).
EKans chiefly, also Methodists.
itherans, &c. A number of
native ministers.
CHOCTAW.
Muskogian.
17,529 in Oklahoma; 1356 in Missis-
sippi and Louisiana.
Large element of
wnite and some
Citizens of United States, making
good progress. Various religious
Gatschet, Migration Legend of Creeks
(1884-1888); Speck, Amer. Anthrop.,
negro blood.
faiths.
1007.
CLAYOQDOT.
Wakashan.
2 24 in the region of Clayoquot Sound,
Vancouver Island. Decreasing.
No data.
Rather stationary, but beginning to
improve. Influence or Catholic
See Nootka.
mission and industrial school.
CLALLAM.
Salishan.
354 on Puyallup Reservation, Wash-
Little.
Improving, but suffering from white
Eells in Ann. Rep. Smiths. Inst., 1887,
ington.
contact . Congregationalist mis-
and other writings.
sion.
^OLVILLE.
Salishan.
316 at Colville Agency, Washington.
Some Canadian-
Improving.
See Chehalis.
Decreasing slightly.
French, &c.
COMANCHE.
Shoshonian.
1408 in Oklahoma. Now holding
Some due to Spanish
Good progress, in spite of white
Mooney, ijth Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnol.,
their own.
(Mexican) cap-
impositions.
1892-1893.
tives, &c.
COWICHAN.
Salishan.
About looo on E. coast of Vancouver
Island, and on islands in Gulf of
Little.
Industrious; steady progress. Catho-
lic and Methodist missions, chiefly
Hill-Tout, Rep. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci.t
1902, and Trans. R. Anthrop. Inst.,
Georgia.
former.
1907; Boas, Rep. Brit. Assoc. Adv.
Sci., 1889.
CREE.
Algonkian.
About 12,000 in Manitoba, and some
5000 in Saskatchewan, Alberta,
Large element of
French, Scottish
Slow but steady progress (except
with a few bands) . Catholics,
Writings of Petitot. Lacombe, Horden,
Bell, Watkins, Evans, Young, &c.;
Keewatin, &c.
and English
blood.
Methodists and Anglirans strongly
represented by missions and church
Lacombe, Diet, de la langue des Cris
(1876); Russell, Explor. in the Far
members ; many Presbyterians
North (1898); Stewart, Ann. Arch.
also.
Rep. Ontario, 1905; Maclean, Canad.
Sav. Folk( 1890).
CREEK.
Muskogian.
1 1,000 in Oklahoma.
Large element of
American citizens, making good
Gatschet, Migration Legend of Hi e
w hi te blood;
progress. Various religious
Creeks (1884-1888); Speck, Mem.
some negro.
faiths.
Amer. Anthrop. Assoc., 1907.
CROWS
Siouan.
1804 at Crow Agency, Montana.
Little.
Improving industrially and financi-
Simms, Publ. Field Columb. Mus.,
(Absaroka).
ally. Morals still bad.
1903; Schultz, My Li}e as an Indian
(N.V., 1907).
DAKOTA
(Santee, Yankton,
Teton— Sioux).
Siouan.
About 18,000 in South and 4400 in
North Dakota; 3200 in Montana;
900 in Minnesota. Seemingly
Considerable white
blood, varying
with different sec-
Capable of and making good pro-
gress. Episcopal, Catholic, Con-
gregational missions with good re-
Writings of Dorsey, Riggs, Eastman,
&c. Riggs, Contrib. N. Amer.
Ethnol., vol. vii., 1890, and vol. ix.,
decreasing.
tions.
sults.
1893; Wissler, Journ. Amer. Folk-
Lore, 1907; Eastman, Indian Boy-
hood (1902).
DELAWARE.
Algonkian.
[n Oklahoma, 800 with Cherokee
and 90 with Wichita; 164 with
Six Nations in Ontario.
Considerable.
Oklahoma, Delaware, U.S. citizens,
and progressing; Canadians making
also good progress.
Jrinton, Len&pt and their Legends
(Phila., 1885), and Essays of an
Americanist (1800); Nelson, Indians
of New Jersey (1894).
DOG-RIBS.
Athabaskan.
About looo in the region E. of the
Hares, to Back river, N.W.
Canada.
Little.
'Wild and indolent," not yet much
under white influence.
See Chipewyans, Carriers.
ESKIMO
(Greenland).
Eskimoan.
West coast, 10,500; East coast, 500.
Slowly increasing.
Large element of
wnite blood, esti-
More or less "civilized" and "Chris-
tian" as result of Moravian mis-
Writings of Rink. Holm. Nansen,
Peary. Rink, Tales and Trad, o!
mated already in
sions.
the Eskimo (Lond., 1875) and Eskimo
1855 at 30%.
Tribes (1887); Nansen, Eskimo Life
(1893); Thalbitzer, Eskimo Language
(1004).
1SKIMO
(Labrador).
Eskimoan.
About 1300.
Considerable on
S.E. coast.
Much improvement due to Moravian
and (later) other Protestant mis-
*ackard, A mer. Naturalist, 1^85 ;
Turner, nth Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnol.,
sions.
1889-1800.
TRIBES]
INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN
461
Tribe.
Stock.
Situation, Population, &c.
Degree of
Intermixture.
Condition, Progress, &c.
Authorities.
ESKIMO
(central regions).
Eskimoan.
About 2500.
Little.
Not much improvement except here
and there. Some reached by
Episcopalian mission.
Boas, 6th Ann. Rep. Bur. Elhnol.,
1884-1885, and Bull. Amcr. Nal.
Mist., 1901 and 1908.
ESKIMO
(Mackenzie, &c.).
Eskimoan.
About 1500.
Little.
Not much improvement. Reached
by Catholic missions.
Petitot, Les Grands Esquimaux
(1887), Monographic des Esquimaux
Tchtglil (Paris, 1876) and other
writings; Stefansson, Harper's
Magazine, 1908-1909.
ESKIMO
(Alaska).
Eskimoan.
About 12,000, exclusive of Aleuts.
ConsiderabI e on cer-
tain parts of coast.
Much improvement in parts since
introduction of reindeer in 1892.
Presbyterian, Methodist, Catholic,
Moravian, Baptist, Swedish Evan-
gelical, Quaker, Congregational,
Lutheran missions now at work.
Dall, Contrib. N. Amer. Elhnol., vol.
i., 1877; Murdoch, Qth Ann. Rep.
Bur. Elhnol., 1887-1888; and Nelson,
iSth Rep., 1896-1897; Barnum, Innuit
Gramm. and Diet. (1901).
ESKIMO
(N.E. Asia).
Eskimoan.
About 1 200.
Little.
Little improvement.
Hooper, Tents of the Tuski (1851);
Dall, Amer. Naturalisl,(ta&i). See
Eskimo (Alaska).
FLATHEADS.
Salishan.
615 at Flathead Agency, Montana.
Considerable.
Continued Improvement. Catholic
missions.
McDermott, Journ. Amer. Polk-Lore,
1901; Ronan, Flathead Indians
(1890).
GOSIUTE.
Shoshonian.
About 200 in Utah.
Little.
Some improvement in last few years.
Chamberlin, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci.
Phila., 1908. See Paiute, Ute.
GROSVENTRES
(Atsina).
Algonkianv
558 at Ft. Belknap Agency, Mon-
tana.
Little.
Law-abiding, industrious and fast
becoming more moral. Catholic,
chief mission influence, also Pres-
byterian.
Kroeber, Anlhrop. Pap. Amer. Mus.
Nat. Hist., 1907-1908.
HAIDA.
Haidan.
About 600 on Queen Charlotte Is.,
and 300 in Alaska. Decreasing.
Some little.
Now "gradually advancing along
the lines of civilization." Mission
influences Methodists and Angli-
can, with much success, especially
former.
Swanton, Contrib. to Elhnol. of the
Haida (1905) and other writings;
Boas, Rep. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Set.,
1889; Newcombe, Congr. intern, des
Amir (Quebec, 1906).
HANKUT'QIN.
Athabaskan.
About 400 on the Yukon, above the
Kotlo, in Alaska.
Little, if any.
Not yet much under white or mis-
sionary influence.
See Babines.
HARES.
Athabaskan.
About 600 W. of Gt. Bear Lake to
Eskimo country, in N.W. Canada.
Little.
"Wild and indolent." with little
improvement. Reached by Catho-
lic missions.
See Babines, Carriers, Chipewyan.
HAVASCPAI.
Yuman.
166 N. of Prescott in N.W. Arizona.
Decreasing.
Little.
"Good workers"; not yet distinctly
under mission influence.
JameSj Indians of the Painted Desert
Region (Boston, 1903); Dorsey,
Indians o] the South-west (1903).
HIDATSA.
Siouan.
467 near Ft. Berthold, N. Dakota.
Little.
Making good progress. Congrega-
tional and Catholic missions. .
Matthews, Ethnogr. and Philol. »/ the
Hidatsa (1877); McGee, ijth Ann.
Rep. Bur. Elhnol., 1893-1894; Pepper
and Wilson, Mem. Amer. Anlhrop.
Assoc., 1908.
HUPA.
Athabaskan.
420 in Hoopa Valley, N.E. Cali-
fornia.
Little.
Self-supporting by agriculture and
stock-raising. Presbyterian and
Episcopal missions with good
results.
Goddard, Life and Culture ol the
Hupa (1903), Hupa Texts (1904),
and other writings.
HnRONS OF
LORETTE.
Iroquoian.
466 at Lorette, near the city of
Quebec. Increasing, but losing
somewhat by emigration.
No pure-bloodsleft.
Practically civilized. All Catholics,
except one Anglican and six Pres-
byterians.
Gerin, Rep. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Set.,
1900.
IOWA.
Siouan.
246 in Kansas; 88 in Oklahoma.
Holding their own.
Considerable.
"n 1906 " accomplished more on
their allotments than at any time
heretofore." One regular mis-
sionary.
Dorsey, Trans. Anlhrop. Sec. Wash.,
1883, and rjlh Ann. Rep. Bur.
Elhnol., 1893-1894; also nth Rep.
IROQUOIS
(of Caughnawaga).
Iroquoian.
2075 at Caughnawaga, in S.W.
Quebec (largely Mohawk). In-
creasing.
Few, if any, pure-
bloods left.
Practically civilized and making fair
progress. Chiefly Catholics, but
there is a Methodist school.
Ann. Rep. Depl. Ind. Ag. Canada,
1907.
IROQUOIS
(of Lake of Two
Mountains).
Iroquoian.
395 at Lake of Two Mountains,
Quebec.
Few, if any, pure-
bloods left.
Practically civilized and making fair
progress. Catholics and Methodists
represented.
Cuoq, Lexique de la langue iroquoise
(1882), and other writings.
IROQUOIS
(of St Regis).
Iroquoian.
1449 at St Rggis, Quebec; 1208 at
St Regis, New York.
Few pure-bloods
left.
Practically all civilized and making
fair progress.
Ann. Rep. Depl. Ind. Aft. Canada,
1907.
IROQUOIS
(of Watha).
Iroquoian.
About 65 at Watha (formerly
Gibson), near the southern end of
Lake Muskoka, Ontario.
Considerable.
Industrious and progressive. In-
fluence of Methodist mission.
Ann. Rep. Depl. Ind. A/}. Canada,
1907.
IROQUOIS
(of St Albert).
Iroquoian.
94 near St Albert, Alberta
("Michel's band").
"Indians only in
name," no pure-
bloods left.
Practically civilized; outlook promis-
ing. Catholics.
Chamberlain, Amer. Anlhrop., 1904.
JlCARILLA
(Apache).
Athabaskan.
784 in New Mexico. Decreasing.
Little.
Improvement during past few years.
Mooney, Amer. Anlhrop., 1898. See
Apache.
KAIBAB.
Shoshonian.
About too in S.W. Utah. Decreas-
Little.
"Destitute," but gaining somewhat.
See Paiute, Ute.
ing.
KAIGANI.
Haidan.
About 300 in S. Alaska.
See Haida.
See Haida.
See Haida.
'KAIYDHKHO'TENNE
Athabaskan.
About 1500 on the Yukon (between
the Anvik and Koyukuk) in W.
Alaska.
Little.
Up to the present influenced more
by the Eskimo than by the whites.
See Babines, Carriers. Also Chapman,
Congr. inter, d. Amer. (Quebec, 1906).
KALAPOOIA.
Kalapuyan.
About 125 at Grande Ronde, Oregon
and a few also on the Siletz
Reservation.
Not much.
Continued improvement.
Powell, 7/4 Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnol.
1885-1886; Gatschft, Journ. Amer.
Folk-Lore, 1809; Lewis, Mem. Amer.
Anlhrop. Assoc., 1906.
KALISPEL
(Pend d'Oreille).
Salishan.
826 on the Flathead Reservation,
Montana; 98 at Colville Agency,
Washington.
Considerable.
Continued improvement. Catholic
missions.
Giorda, Kalispel Dictionary (1877-1879).
See Chehalis.
462
INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN
[TRIBES
Tribe.
Stock.
Situation, Population, &c.
Degree of
Intermixture.
Condition, Progress, &c.
Authorities.
KANSA (Kaw).
Siouan.
207 in Oklahoma.
About half are
mixed blood.
American citizens, making fair
progress.
Dorsey, i/th Ann. Rep, Bur. Ethnol.,
1889-1890, and i^th Rep., 1893-1894;
Hay, Trans. Kans. State Hist. Soc.,
1906.
KICKAPOO.
Algonkian.
188 in Kansas; 204 in Oklahoma;
about 400 in Mexico.
Considerable.
Progress hampered by liquor, &c.
Mooney, ijth Ann, Rep. Bur. Ethnol.,
1892-1893; Lutz, Trans. Kansas Hist.
Soc., 1906.
KAWIA (Cabuilla).
Shoshonian.
About 150 in southern California.
Little.
Progress good. Nominally Catholics,
result of QUifornian missions.
Barrows, Ethnobotany of the Coahuilla
Indians ( 1 900} ; Kroeber, Ethno-
graphy of the Cahuilla (1908).
KIOWA.
Kiowan.
1219 in Oklahoma.
Some white blood
from captives, &c.
•Citizens of the U.S., making fair pro-
gress. Catholic, Methodist, Pres-
byterian, &c., mission influences.
Mooney, /jth Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnol.,
1892-1893, and /?th Rep., 1895-1896.
KlTKSAN.
i sinisliiiin.
About noo on upper Skeena river
in central British Columbia.
Little.
Making good progress.
See Tsimshian.
KLAHATH.
Lutuamian.
761 at Klamath Agency, Oregon.
Little.
Mostly self-supporting. Methodist
mission, but poor work done.
Gatschet, The Klamath Indians
(Washington, 1890); Dorsey, Amer.
Anthrop., 1901.
KLICKATAT.
Sahaptian.
About 300 merged with Yakima and
other tribes on Yakima Reserva-
tion, Washington.
Considerable.
Late reports indicate much bad
influence of whites.
f
Lyman, Proc. Amer, Antiq. Soc., 1904;
Lewis, Mem. Amer. Anthrop. Soc.,
1906.
KONKAU (Concow).
Pujunan.
171 at Round Valley, California.
Little.
Gradually improving.
See Maidu.
KOOTENAY.
Ki tuna ban.
In S.E. British Columbia; 220 at
St Mary's; 59 at Tobacco Plains;
82 at Columbia Lakes; 170, lower
Kootenay. At Flathead Agency,
Montana, 565. Holding their own,
or increasing.
A little French and
English.
Good, especially upper Kootenay;
continued progress. Kootenay
in U.S. not so progressive.
Catholic missions with good re-
sults.
Boas, Rep. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1889;
Chamberlain, ibid., 1892 (and other
writings), Ann. Arch. Rep. Ontario,
1905; Schultz, My Life as an Indian
(N.Y., 1907).
KOYUKUIHO'TENNE
Athabaskan.
About 500 on the Koyukuk and
Yukon abovethe 'Kaiyuhkho'tenne
in Alaska.
Little, if any.
Little progress noted.
See Babines, Carriers, Chipewyan.
KWAKIUTL.
Wakasban.
About 2000 in Vancouver Island and
British Columbia. Decreasing.
Considerable in
places.
Improvement recently. Anglican
and Methodist missions — former
counting 469; latter, 19 members;
rest, "pagans."
Boas, Rep. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1889,
1890, 1896, Rep. U.S. Nat. Mus.,
1895, and other writings; Boas and
Hunt, Mem. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist.,
1902.
LlLLOOET
(StatHumh).
Salishan.
About 900 in S.W. British Columbia,
on Fraser river, Douglas and
Lillooet Lakes, &c.
Considerable
places.
Getting along well generally.
Catholic and Anglican missions.
Boas, Ethnogr. Album (N.Y., 1890);
Hill-Tout, Journ. Anthr. Inst.t 1905;
Teit, Mem. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist.,
1906.
Luimt.
Salishaa.
418 at Tulalip Agency, Washington.
Considerable.
Suffering from white contact.
See Chehalis.
MAIDU.
Pujunan.
In N.E. California. About 250
full-bloods.
Not much.
Few and scattered.
Dixon, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist.,
1902-1905; Journ. Amer. Folk-Lore,
1900-1907.
MAX AH.
Wakashan.
400 on Makah, 25 on Ozette Reserva-
tion, Washington.
Considerable.
Progress good.
Swan, The Indians of Cape Flattery
(Washington, 1870); Dorsey, Amer.
Antiquarian, 1901.
MANDAN.
Siouan.
264 at Ft. Berthold, N. Dakota.
Beginning to increase again.
Considerable.
Making some progress. Catholic
and Protestant mission influences.
Will and Spindle, The Mandans (1906);
Dorsey in nth and isth Reps. Bur,
Ethnol.
MARICOPA.
Yuman.
344 at Pima Agency Arizona. De-
creasing slightly.
No data.
Progress in 1906 excellent. Catholic
mission school.
See Y inn,! .
MASKEGON
(Swampy Cree).
Algonkian.
About 2500 in Manitoba, Keewatin,
Saskatchewan.
Considerable in
certain regions.
Generally law-abiding, but im-
provident ; some making good
progress.
Simms in Journ. A mer. Folk-Lore,
1906; Stewart in Ann. Arch. Rep.
Ontario, 1905.
MASSET.
Haidan.
360 at Masset, Q. Charlotte Is.
See Haida.
See Haida.
See Haida.
MENOHINEE.
Algonkian.
About 1600, of which 1364 under
superintendency of Green Bay,
Wisconsin.
Considerable.
Making gradual progress, with
noticeable improvement in many
respects. Catholic church * has
many members.
Hoffman in ijth A nn. Rep. Bur.
IXhnol., 1892-1893.
MIAMI.
Algonkian.
129 in Oklahoma, 240 in Indiana,
a few elsewhere; toCil about 400.
Consider abl e
French blood,
about 50%.
American citizens; intelligent, thrifty
and progressive.
Pilling, Bibl. of Algon. Lang. (1891).
MICMAC.
Algonkian.
2114 in Nova Scotia, 288 in Prince
Edward Island; 1000 in New
Brunswick, 591 in Quebec.
L*arge element of
French ; some
Scottish and
English blood.
:*rogress good; not degenerating
nor decreasing. Atl Catholics.
Writings of Dr S. T. Rand, especially
Micmac Legends (1894) ; Pacifique
and Prince, Congr. intern, des Amer,,
Quebec, 1906; Leland Algonquin
Legends (1885); Leland and Prince,
Kuloskap (1902).
MISSION INDIANS.
Yuman; Sho-
shonian.
About 3000 in S. California.
Considerable in
some sections.
Self-supporting; some individuals
remarkably able and industrious.
Catholics nominally.
Writings of Miss C. G. du Bois,
Journ. Amer. Folk-Lore and Amer.
Anthrop., 1900-1908, &c. See Kawia.
MISSISSAGUA.
Algonkian.
At Alnwick, 249: at the river Credit,
267; Rice Lake, 90; Mud Lake,
1 90 ; Scugog, 3 5 . Increasi ng
slightly.
Considerable.
Fairly good generally; some at the
Credit very successful farmers,
competing with whites. Metho-
dists chiefly.
Chamberlain, Journ. Amer. Folk-Lore,
1888 and Language of the Mis sis sagas
of Skugog (Phila., 1892); Burnham,
Ont. Htst. Soc. Pap. and Rec.,
1905.
MODOC.
Lutuamian.
52 in Oklahoma, 229 on Klamath
Reservation. Oregon. Apparently
decreasing slowly, or holding their
own.
Little.
Generally industrious and moral.
Methodist mission.
Miller, My Life Among the Modocs
(1873); Gatschet, Amer. Anthrop.,
1894. See Klamath.
MOHAVE.
Yuman.
About 1600 in Arizona.
Little.
Good: industrious but restless.
Presbyterian and Church of the
Nazarene missions.
Bourke, Journ. Amer. Folk - Lore,
1889; Kroeber, Amer. Anthrop.,
1902. See Yuman.
TRIBES]
INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN
463
Tribe.
Stock.
Situation, Population, &c.
Degree of
Intermixture.
Condition, Progress, &c.
Authorities.
MOHAWK.
Iroquoian.
1762 with Six Nations, Grand river,
Considerable
See Six Nations.
Forbes, Congr. intern, d. Amer..
Ont., 1320, Bay of Quinte,
Englis h and
Quebec, 1906; Brant-Sero, Man
Ont., slight increase. The
"Iroquois' atCaughnawaga, &c.,
French.
(London, 1901). See Six Nations.
are largely Mohawks.
MONTAGNAIS.
Algonkian.
About 2000 in N.E. Quebec, N.
shore of St Lawrence and St
Large element of
French blood.
At St John, "energetic, hard
working and provident"; others
Chambers, The Ouananiche (1896);
Chamberlain, Ann. Arch. Rep.
John, &c.
suffering from liquor, &c. Catholic
Ontario, 1905; David, Congr. int.
missions.
d. Amer., Quebec, 1906.
Mogul (Hopi).
Shoshonian.
About 2000 in N.E. Arizona.
Little.
Still "pagan," but "dry-farming"
ourke, Snake Dance Among the
experts. At Oraibi two factions,
Moquis (1884); Hough, Amer.
progressives and conservatives.
Anthrop., 1898; Dorsey and Volh,
Mennonite mission.
Field Columb. Mus. Publ., 1901-
1902. Alsothe numerous monograph!*
of Dr. J. W. Fewkes in Rep. Bur.
Ethncl. Amer. Anthrop., Joum.
Amer. Folk-Lore, 1894-1908.
"MORAVIANS."
Algonkian.
329 on river Thames, Ontario,
Considerable.
Generally industrious and very law-
Ann. Rep. Dept. Ind. Afl. Canada,
Canada.
abiding. AU Methodists.
1907.
MUNSEE.
Algonkian.
118 on river Thames, Ontario,
Considerable.
rairly industrious; progress slow.
nn. Rep. Dept. Ind. Afl. Canada,
Canada; also a few with the
1907.
Stockbridges in Wisconsin and
the Chippewa in Kansas.
NAHANE.
Athabaskan.
About 1000 in N.W. British Col-
umbia, N. and S. of Stikeen river,
Vot much.
lave suffered much from white
contact. Reached by Catholic
Writings of Petitot, Morice, &c.,
especially the latter in Trans. Conatt.
and E. to beyond the Rockies.
missions from Stuart Lake.
Insl., 1894, Proc. Canad. Inst.,
1889. See Carriers.
NASCAPEE.
Algonkian.
Some 2500 in N.E. Quebec, Lab-
Not very much.
Improvement not marked. Catholic
Burner, nth Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnol.,
rador, &c.
mission influence.
1889-1890; Chamberlain, Ann. Arch.
Rep. Ontario, 1905.
NAVABO.
Athabaskan.
About 29,000 in Arizona and New
Mexico, about 8000 in the latter
state. Increasing in number.
Much Spani s h
(Mexican) blood.
Have made remarkable progress
racially and individually. Catho-
lic, Presbyterian, &c., missions.
Writings of Dr. W. Matthews, especially
Navaho Legends (Boston, 1897),
The Night Chant (N.Y.. 1902).
NESPELM.
Salishan.
191 at Colville Agency, Washington.
Considerable.
Suffering from liquor and white
See Chehalis.
contact.
NEZ PERCES.
Sahaptian.
83 at Colville Agency, Washing-
ton, 1534 under Ft. Lapwai
Amount uncertain.
Of a high intellectual type (seen in
children); suffering much from
'ackard, Joum. Amer. Folk-Lore,
1891; McBeth, The Nez Percis since
superintendency, Idaho. De-
disease and white contact. About
Lewis and Clark (New York, 1908);
creasing.
60% Catholics and 15% Pres-
Spinden, Mem. Amer. Anthrop.
byterians.
Assoc., 1908.
NIPISSING.
Algonkian.
239 on Lake Nipissing, Ontario.
Little.
Improving.
Ann. Rep. Dept. 2nd. Aff. Canada,
Increasing.
1907.
NlPISSINO
(Algonquins).
Algonkian.
About 60 at Lake of Two Moun-
tains, Quebec.
Considerable.
'Jttle marked progress; but fairly
industrious. Catholics.
Vritings of Rev. J. A. Cuoq, especi-
ally Lexique algonquin (Montreal,
1886); Lemoine, Congr. inter, d.
Amer., Quebec, 1906.
NISKA
(Nasqa).
Tsimshian.
About 800 in Nass river region in
W. British Columbia. Decreasing.
Little.
Making good progress.
Joas, Rep. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci.,
1895, 1896, and Indianische Sagen
(Berlin, 1895). See Tsimshian.
NisgnALti.
Salishan.
146 in W. Washington.
Considerable.
Suffering from white contact, liquor,
&c.
Gibbs, Conlrib. N. Amer. Ethnol.,
vol. i., 1877, and Niskwatti Dic-
tionary, ibid.
NOOTKA.
Wakashan.
2133 (including Clayoquot) on Van-
couver Island, B.C. Decreasing
slowly.
Considerable in
places.
Industrious and law-abiding; evil
from white contact increasing.
Catholic and Presbyterian missions.
Sproat, Scenes and Studies of Savage
Lile (1868); Boas, Rep. Brit. Assoc.,
1890, and Indianische Sagen (1895).
OKANAGAN.
Salishan.
824 in the Kamloops-Okanagan
Agency, British Columbia; 527
Considerable in
places.
Industrious and law-abiding. Catho-
lic, and in Canada Catholic and
Boas, Rep. Brit. Assoc., 1889; Teit,
Mem. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 1900.
on Colville Reservation,
Anglican churches largely repre-
Washington.
sented.
OMAHA.
Siouan.
1128 in Nebraska.
Much white blood.
Good process in many respects;
improvidence, &c., still causing
Dorsey, 3rd Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnol.,
1881-1882, and t)lh Rep., 1891-1892,
trouble. Presbyterian mission.
and other writings. Also writings o:
Miss A. C. Fletcher. See Ponca.
ONEIDA.
Iroquoian.
777 on river Thames, Ontario, and
350 with Six Nations in Ontario;
2151 in Wisconsin; 286 in New
Large element of
white blood.
Canadian Oneidas at Delaware ful
citizens. All progressing excel-
lently and self-supporting. U.S
Bloomfield, The Oneidas (N.Y., 1907).
See Six Nations.
York. Increasing.
Oneidas citizens.
ONONDAGA.
Iroquoian.
350 with the Six Nations, Ontario;
553 in New York.
Large element oi
white blood.
Not so advanced in U.S. as
Tuscarora.
Clark, Onondaga (Syracuse, 1849);
writings of Beauchamp, de Cost
Smith, M. R. Harrington, &c. See
Six Nations.
OSAGE.
Siouan.
1994 in Oklahoma.
Very much white
blood; half are
mixed-bloods.
U.S. citizens and making gopi
progress. Baptists and Catholics
represented.
Dorsey (J. O.), 6th Ann. Rep. Bur.
Ethnol., 1884-1885; Brewster, Trans.
Kans. Stale Hist. Soc., 1906; Dorsey
(G. A.), Publ. Field Columb. Mus.,
1904; Speck, Trans. Arch. Dept.
Univ. of Penn. (Phila., 1907).
Oro.
Siouan.
About 390 with the Missouri in
Considerable.
Making good progress.
SeeOsage.
Oklahoma.
OTTAWA.
Algonkian.
About 750 onManitoulinandCoburn
Islands, Ontario; 2750 in Michi-
gan; 197 >n Oklahoma.
Considerable
French anc
English blood.
Canadian Ottawa industrious ant
law-abiding, and many in the U.S
as civilized as average whites abou
them. Catholic and Protestan
Blackbird, Ottawa and Chippewa
Indians (1887). See Filling's Biblio-
graphy o\ the Algonkian Languages,
1891.
missions.
PAIUTE.
Shoshonian.
6500 to 7000 chiefly in Nevada
(about 600 in Utah; 350 in
No data.
Peaceable, moral and industrious
"have steadily resisted the vice
of civilization." Catholic and
Mooney in ifth Ann. Rep. Bur.
Ethnol., 1892-1893- See Ute.
Protestant missions.
INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN
[TRIBES
Tribe.
Stock.
Situation, Population, &c.
Degree of
Intermixture.
Condition, Progress, &c.
Authorities.
PAMUNKEY.
Algonkian.
About 140 in King William county
Virginia.
All mixed-bloods
some negro mix
Fishermen and small farmers.
Pollard, The Pamunkey Indians 0}
Virginia (Washington, 1894).
ture. *
PANAMINT.
Shoshonian.
About 100 in the Panammt Valley
No data.
Stationary.
Coville, Amer. Anthrop., 1892.
S.E. California.
PAPACO.
Pirn an.
4991 in Arizona; about 1000 in
Mexico.
Uttle.
Making very good progress recently
Catholic mission.
McGee in Coville and Macdougal, Des.
bot. lab., 1903 ; Bandelier, A rck.
Inst. Papers, 1890. See Pima.
PASSAMAQUODDY.
Algonkian.
About 350 in Maine.
Consider a b I
French anc
With Penobscots have representative
in Maine legislature.
Leland, Algong. Leg. of New England
(Boston, 1885); Brown, Trans. R.
English.
Soc. Canada, 1889 ; Prince, Proc.
Amer. Philos. Soc., 1897; Leland
and Prince, Kuloskap (Boston, 1902).
PAWNEE.
Caddoan.
649 in Oklahoma. Decreasing.
Considerable.
Citizens of U.S. Special progress
recently in agriculture. Methodist
Writings of Dunbar, Grinnell, Dorsey,
Fletcher, &c.; Grinnell, Pawnee
mission.
Hero-Stories (1889); Dorsey, Tradi-
tions of the Sinai Pawnee (Boston,
1904), and Pawnee Mythology (1906);
Fleccner, 22nd Ann. Rep. Bur.
Etnnol., 1900-1901.
PENOBSCOT.
Algonkian.
About 410 in Maine.
Considerable.
See Passamaquoddy.
See Passamaquoddy.
PEORIA.
Algonkian.
192 with Kaskaskia, Wea and Plan
kaskaw in Oklahoma.
No pure-bloods left
American citizens and progressing
well.
See Pilling, Bibliography of the Algon-
quian Languages (1891).
Pi EG AN.
Algonkian.
482 near Macleod, Alberta; 2072 at
Considerable.
Improvement slow in Montana; in
See Blackfeet.
Blackfoot Agency, Montana.
Alberta, "noticeable advance along
all lines." Methodist and Angli-
can missions in Alberta.
PmA.
Shoshonian.
3936 in Arizona; more in Mexico.
Increasing slightly.
Considerable.
Making good progress recently.
Catholic and Protestant missions.
Russel, Amer. Anthrop., 1903, Journ.
Amer. Folk-Lore, 1901, and zbih
Ann. Rep. Bur. Amer. Ethnol.,
1904-1905; Dorsey, Indians of the
South-west (1903); ffrdlwka, Amer.
Anthrop., 1904; Kroeber, Univ.
Calif. Publ., 1907.
POMO.
Kulanapan,
About 1000 in N.E. California.
Little.
Progress good.
Barrett, Ethnography of the Porno
*
(1908).
PONCA.
Siouan.
570 in Oklahoma.
Considerable.
U.S. citizens, making good progress.
Dorsey (J. O.), Cegiha Language (1890),
Omaha and Ponka Letters (1891),
&c.; Dorsey (G. A.), Field Columb.
Mus. Publ., 1905; Boas, Congr. int.
d. Amer., Quebec, 1906.
POT AW ATOM 1.
Algonkian.
179 on Walpole Island, Ontario;
1740 in Oklahoma.
Considerable.
Canadian Potawatomi arelaw-abiding
and industrious. American Pota-
See Pilling, Bibliography of the Algon-
quian Languages (1891).
watomi citizens making pro-
gress.
PUEBLOS.
Keresan.
3900 in 6 pueblos in N. central New
Mexico.
Larger element oi
white blood than
Majority nominally Catholics.
Writings of Bandelier, Hodge, Lummis,
Stevenson, &c. Stevenson, nth Ann.
other Pueblos
Rep. Bur. Ethnol., 1889-1890;
Indians, but not
Dorsey, Indians of the South-west
great.
(1903); Bandelier, Archaeol. Inst.
Papers, 1881, 1883, 1892.
PUEBLOS.
Shoshonian.
See Moqui.
See Moqui.
See Moqui.
See Moqui.
PUEBLOS.
Tanoan.
About 4200 in 12 pueblos in New
Mexico.
Have not favoured
intermixture.
Nominally Catholics for most part.
At San Juan notable evidences of
Writings of Bandelier, Lummis, Fewkes.
&c. See Pueblos (Keresan) and
Amount little.
thrift, less elsewhere.
Moqui.
PUEBLOS.
Zufiian.
1500 in Western New Mexico.
Have not favoured
Practically all are "pagans." Sub-
Bandelier, Journ. Amer. Ethnol. and
white intermix-
stantial progress lately in several
Archaeol., 1892; Fewkes, ibid., 1891;
ture.
ways.
Stevenson, 5th Ann. Rep. Bur.
Ethnol., 1883-1884, and 2jrd Rep.,
1901-1902; Gushing, 2nd Rep., 1880-
1881, 4th Rep., 1882-1883, <7* Rtfi.,
1891-1892, and Zuni Folk-Tales
(N.Y., 1901), and other writings.
PUYALLTJP.
Salishan.
486 at the Puyallup Agency, Wash-
Considerable.
Suffering from white contact; future
See Chehalis.
ington.
not bright.
QUAPAW.
Siouan.
292 in Oklahoma.
Considerable.
Majority are intelligent, thrifty and
Dorsey (J. O.), nth Ann. Rep. Bur.
progressive. Catholic missions.
Ethnol., 1889-1890, ijth Rep. 1891-
1892, and other writings.
QUILEUTZ.
Chemakuan.
232 at Neah Bay Agency, N.W.
Considerable.
Progress good.
See Clallam.
Washington.
QUINAIELT.
Salishan.
142 at Puyallup Agency in N.W.
Considerable.
See NisqualH.
i-arrand, Mem. A mer. Mus. Nat.
Washington.
Hist., 1902; Conard, Open Court,
1905.
SACS AND FOXES
(Sauk, &c.).
Algonkian.
343 in Iowa; 630 in Oklahoma; 90
m Kansas.
Considerable.
Continued improvement ; conserva-
tive opposition less. Catholic
missions.
Lasley, Journ. Amer, Folk-Lore, 1902;
Jones, ibid., 1901, and Fox Texts
( 1 907) ; Owen, Folk-Lore of the
Musquaki (1904).
SANSPOXL.
Salishan,
126 at Colville Agency, Washington.
Considerable.
m proving.
See Chehalis.
SARCEE.
Athabaskan.
205 S.W. of Calgary, Alberta.
More than many
Making good material progress
Maclean, Canad. Savage Folk (1890);
other tribes of
this stock.
lately. Anglican mission.
Goddard, Congr. tnt. d. A mer.,
1906; Morice, tbid. and Ann. Arch.
Rep. Ontario, 1905; Simms, Journ.
Amer. Folk-Lore, 1904.
SFKANi
(Sikani).
Athabaskan.
About 450 on Finlay and Parsnip
rivers and W. to forks of Tatla
Little.
•Jot so progressive as Carriers &c.
Reached by Catholic mission from
dorice, Anthropos, 1906, 1907, and
Ann. Arch. Rep. Ontario, 1905,
Lake in N. central British
Stuart Lake.
and other writings. See Babines,
Columbia.
Carriers.
TRIBES]
INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN
465
Tribe.
Stock.
Situation, Population, &c.
Degree of
Intermixture.
Condition, Progress, &c.
Authorities.
SEMINOLE.
Muskogian.
2132 in Oklahoma; 350 in Florida.
Much white and
some negro blood.
Oklahoma Seminoles American
citizens.
MacCauley, Slh Ann. Rep. Bur.
Ethnol., 1887; Coc, Red Patriots
(1898). See Creek.
SENECA.
Iroquoian.
383 in Oklahoma; 2743 in New
York; 215 with Six Nations, on
Grand river, Ontario.
Considerable.
See Six Nations.
Sanborn, Seneca Indians (1862);
Hubbard, An Account of Sa-go-ye-
wal-ha, or Red Jacket and his
Peofle (Albany, 1886). See Six
Nations.
SHAWNEE.
Algonkian.
574 in Oklahoma.
Considerable.
Progress good. Catholic and Protes-
tant missions.
See Pilling, Bibl. o] Algon. Lang.
(1891). Also Harvey, Shawnee Indians
(-855).
SHOSHONEE.
Shoshonian.
About 1000 in Idaho; 242 in Nevada;
793 in Wyoming.
Amount of admix-
ture not large.
Progress good in the last few years.
Catholic and Protestant Episcopal
missions.
Culin, Bull. Free Uus. Set. and Art
(Phila., 1901); Dorsey, Indians oj the
South-west (1903). SeeUte.
SHUSWAP
(Sequapamuq).
Salishan.
About 1000 in the S. interior of
British Columbia; also 52 within
the Kootenay area at the Columbia
Lakes.
Considerable in
places.
Industrious and law-abiding.
Catholic and Protestant missions.
Boas, Rep. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Set.,
1890. and Ethnogr. Album (N.Y.,
1900); Dawson, Trans. Roy. Sac.
Canada, 1891; Boas, Indianische
Sagen (1895).
SILETZ.
Indians of
several stocks.
483 on Siletz Reservation, Oregon.
Considerable.
Progress good.
Dorsey, Journ. Amer. Folk-Lore, 1890,
and Amer. Anthrop., 1889.
Six NATIONS
(Canada).
Iroquoian.
On Grand River Reservation,
Ontario; Cayuga, 1044; Mohawk,
1762; Oneida, 350; Onondaga,
350; Seneca, 215; Tuscarora, 397.
Total, 4118.
Large admixture of
white blood.
Generally capable and industrious,
and steadily improving; many,
both in U.S. and Canada, equal
to whites. The Canadian Cayuga
and Onondaga are "pagans."
Many Christian faiths represented.
Boyle, Ann. Arch. Rep. Ontario, 1898
and 1905, and Journ. Anthr. Inst.,
1900; Hale, Iromuns Book o\ Riles
(Phila.^ 1883); Wilson, Trans. Roy.
Sac. Can., 1885. See also under
tribal names.
Six NATIONS
(New York).
Iroquoian.
In New York State; Cayuga, 179;
Oneida, 286; Onondaga, 553;
Seneca, 2742; Tuscarora, 356.
Total, 4116.
Large admixture of
white blood.
Improvement varying with tribes;
Tuscarora said to be best. Various
religious faiths.
Beauchamp, Bull. N.Y. State Uus.,
1897-1907, The Iroquois Trail (1892),
and other writings; Smith, 2nd Ann.
Rep. Bur. Ethnol., 1880-1881;
Hewitt, zist Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnol.,
1899-1900, and other writings. See
also under tribal names.
SE.QOIIIC.
Salishan.
About 150 in the Howe Sd. and
Burrard Inlet region of British
Columbia.
Some Canadian-
French a d-
mixture.
"Probably the most industrious
and orderly band of Indians in
the province." Catholic mission.
Hill-Tout, Rep . Brit. Assoc. Adv. Set.,
1900; Boas, ibid., 1894.
SLAVE.
Athabaskan.
About 1 100 in the region W. of
Gt. Bear Lake, from Ft. Simpson
to Ft. Norman in N.W. Canada.
No certain data;
but some ad-
mixture now
going on.
No marked progress, but white
influence being felt. Catholics and
Episcopal missions.
Various writings of Petitot and Morice;
the latter in Anthropos, 1906-1907;
Bompas, Mackenzie River (London,
1888); Bell, Journ. Amer. Folk-
Lore, 1901.
SNAIMDCJ
(Nanaimo).
Salishan.
About 160 on reserve near Nanaimo
Harbour, B.C.
No data.
Making good progress recently.
Catholic mission.
Boas, Rep. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Set.,
1889, and Amer. Anthrop., 1889.
SONGISH
(Lkungen).
Salishan.
About 200 in S.E. Vancouver
Island, B.C.
No data.
Industrious and mostly well-off.
Catholic mission.
Boas, Rep. Brit. Assoc., 1890; Hill-
Tout, Journ. Roy. Anthrop. Inst.,
1907.
SPOKAN.
Salishan.
91 in Idaho; 133 in Montana; 434
in Washington.
Considerable.
Improving.
Writings of Rev. M. Eells. See
Chehalis.
TAHLTAH.
Athabaskan.
220 in the N. Interior of British
Columbia, at mouth of Tahltan
Little.
Making good progress.
Teit, Boas Anniv. Vol. (N.Y., 1906).
river.
TEN'A.
»
Athabaskan.
About 2000 on the Yukon, between
Tanara and Koserefsky in Alaska.
Little.
Not yet much influenced by whites.
Catholic mission.
Jette, Congr. int. des Amer, 1906;
Man, 1907; Journ. Anthr. Inst.,
1907.
THOMPSON INDIAN
(Ntlakapamuk).
Salishan.
About 1770 in the Thompson river
region, S. central British Columbia.
Not very much.
Making good progress. Catholic
and Protestant missions.
Teit and Boas, Mem. Amer. Uus.
Nat. Hist., 1900; Teit, Trad, of
Thompson Inds. (Boston, 1898);
Hill-Tout, Salish and Dini (London,
1907).
TLiNGrr.
Koluschan.
About 2000 in S. Alaska.
Considerable in
places.
Not marked generally. Greek
Orthodox and other missions.
Krause, Die Tlinkit Indiana (Berlin,
1885); Boas, Indianische Sagen
(Berlin, 1905); Bogoras, Amer.
Anthrop., 1902; Swanton, 26th Ann.
Rep. Bur. Amer. Ethnol., 1904-1905;
Emraons, Mem. Amer. Uus. Nat.
Hist., 1903.
TONKAWA.
Tonkawan.
47 in Oklahoma.
No data.
" Contented and enjoying life."
Mooney, Globus, 1902.
TSIMSHIAN
(Proper).
Tsimshian.
About 2000 in northern British
Columbia.
Not large.
Making good progress. Anglican
and other missions.
Boas, Rep. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Set.,
1889, and Indianische Sagen (Berlin,
1895); von der Schulenburg, Die
Sprache der Zimshian-lndiarter
(1894); Wellcome, Uetlakalla (1887).
TUSCARORA.1
Iroquoian.
397 on Six Nation Reservation,
Ontario; 356 with Six Nations,
New York.
Considerable.
Making good progress in both
Canada and New York.
See Six Nations.
TUTCHONEKUT'QIN.
Athabaskan.
About looo on the Yukon from Deer
river to Ft. Selkirk, in Alaska.
Little.
Little progress.
See Butanes, Carriers, Chipewyan.
UrnTA UTE.
Shoshonian.
435 in Utah.
Little.
SeeUte.
SeeUte.
UMATHLA.
Sahaptian.
207 in Oregon.
Some.
Making progress. Catholic and
Presbyterian missions.
See Nez Percys.
UNCOMPAGHRE
UTE.
Shoshonian.
493 in Utah.
Little.
See Ute.
SeeUte.
UTE.
Shoshonian.
845 in Colorado; 1245 in Utah.
Not much.
Some progress recently. Catholic
and Protestant missions.
Culin, Butt. Free Uus. Sci. and Art
(Phila., 1901); Kroeber, Journ.
Amer. Folk-Lore, 1901, and Amer.
Anthrop., 1906.
466
INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN
[POPULATION
Tribe.
Stock.
Situation, Population, &c.
Degree of
Intermixture.
Condition, Progress, &c.
Authorities.
WALAPAI.
Yuman.
513 in Arizona. Decreasing.
Little.
Self-supporting, but poor morally.
James, Indians of the Painted Desert
Region (Boston, 15*03).
WALLAWALLA.
Sahaptian.
579 in Oregon.
Some.
Not so satisfactory recently, but
progressing.
See Nez Perces.
WICHITA.
Caddoan.
441 in Oklahoma.
Probably consider-
able.
Citizens of U.S., making good pro-
gress. Catholic and Protestant
missions.
Dorsey, Mythology of the Wichita
(Washington, 1004) and other writ-
ings.
WlNNEBAGO.
Siouan.
1070 in Nebraska; 1285 in Wiscon-
sin.
Considerable.
Many good citizens of U.S. and pro-
gressing. Suffering from liquor
and the mescal bean to some ex-
tent.
Thwaites, Coll. Slate Hist. Soc. Wis-
consin, 1892; Fletcher, Journ. Amer.
Folk-Lore, 1890; McGee, /jth Ann.
Rep. Bur. Ethnol., 1893-1894,
WYANDOT.
Iroquoian.
385 in Oklahoma; i at Anderdon,
Ontario, Canada.
No pure-bloods I eft,
hardly a half-
blood.
More white than Indian.
Powell, ist Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnol.,
1879-1880; Connelley, Ann. Arch.
Rep. Ontario, 1905, and Wyandot
Folk-Lore (Topeka, 1899); Merwin,
Trans. Kansas State Hist, Soc.,
1906.
YAKDU.
Sahaptian.
About 1500 in Washington.
Considerable.
Late reports indicate bad influence
of whites.
Pandosy, Gramm. and Diet, of Yakima
(1862); Lewis, Mem. Amer. Anthrop,
Assoc., 1906.
YELLOWKNIVES.
Athabaskan.
About 500 N.E. of Great Slave Lake
in N.W. Canada.
Not much.
No practical advance as yet.
Writings of Petitot, Morice, &c. Peti-
tot, Antour du Grand Lac des Es-
claves (1891), and Monographic des
Dene-Dindfie (1876). See Carriers,
Chipewyan.
YUMA.
Yuman.
807 at Fort Yuma Agency, California,
and a few at San Carlos, Arizona.
Some Spanish
(Mexican) blood.
Progress good. Catholic and Pro-
testant missions.
Gatschet, Ztsckr. f. Ethnohgie (1893);
Trippell, Overland Afonthly, 1889;
Dorsey, Indians of the South-west
(1903). See Mission Indians.
ZUNI.
Zufiian.
See Pueblos.
Zunian.
See Pueblos.
See Pueblos (Zunian).
From the tables it will be seen that the American Indians
in some parts of North America are not decreasing, but either
holding their own or even increasing; also that
ion",&c. thousands of them are now to all intents and purposes
the equals in wealth, thrift, industry and intelligence
of the average white man and citizens with him in the same
society. In certain regions of the continent small tribes have
been annihilated in the course of wars with other Indians or with
the whites, and others have been decimated by disease, famine,
&c. ; and over large areas the aboriginal population, according
to some authorities, has vastly diminished. Thus Morice
estimates that the Athabaskan population at present in Canada
(about 20,000) is less than one-seventh of what it was a century
or more ago; Hill-Tout thinks the Salishan tribes (c. 15,000)
number not one-fifth of their population a hundred years ago,
and equally great reductions are claimed for some other peoples
of the North Pacific region; Kroeber thinks probable an Indian
population in California of 150,000 before the arrival of the
whites, as compared with but 15,000 now; by some the arid
regions of the south-west are supposed to have sustained a
very large population in earlier times; certain of the Plains
tribes are known to have lost much in population since contact
with the whites. But under better care and more favourable
conditions generally some tribes seem to be taking on a new
lease of life and are apparently beginning to thrive again. A
considerable portion of the " disappearance " of the Indian is
through amalgamation with the whites. Undoubtedly, in some
parts of the country, exaggerated ideas prevalent in the early
colonial period as to the numbers of the native population have
interfered with a correct estimate of the aborigines past
and present. Mooney thinks that the Cherokee " are probably
about as numerous now as at any period in their history "
(Hndb. Amer. Inds,, 1907, pt. i. p. 247), and this is perhaps
true also of some other tribes east of the Mississippi. Major
J. W. Powell was of opinion that the Indian population north
of Mexico is as large to-day as it was at the time of the discovery.
This, however, is not the view of the majority of authorities.
The total number of Indians in Canada (Ann. Rep. Dept. Ind.
A/., 1907) for 1907 is given as 110,345, as compared with 109,394
for the previous year, not including the Micmac in Newfoundland
and the Indians and Eskimo in that part of Labrador belonging
to Newfoundland. In 1903 the figures were 108,233. The
gain may be largely due to more careful enumeration of Indians
in the less well-known parts of the country, but there is evidently
no marked decrease going on, but rather a slight increase in
Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick, &c. In the United States
(exclusive of Alaska, which counts about 30,000) the Indian
population (Ann. Rep. Ind. A/., 1906) is estimated at 197,289,
no including the " Five Civilized Tribes," of whose numbers
(94,292) some 65,000 can be reckoned as Indians — a total of
382,000. The figures of 197,289, according to the report, show
an increase in population " due mainly to increase in number
of Indians reported from California."
The financial condition of the Indians of the Dominion of Canada
for the year ending March 31, 1907, is indicated in the following
table :—
Total Amount
of Real and
Personal
Property.
Total Income
for the
Year.
Ontario .
Quebec .
N. Brunswick
N. Scotia . .
P E I
$7,566,125
1,781,330
189,701
151-949
6 37O
$1,426,690
915,783
109,892
76,603
I ^ 17d.
Manitoba
B. Columbia
Sask ....
Alberta . . .
2,102,044
7,475,719
7,721,532
5-154,789
348,966
1,501,456
548,533
211,839
Total
$30,129,659
$5, 155,052
The total amounts earned during the year were: from agriculture,
$i.337>948; wages and miscellaneous industries, $714,125; fishing,
$544,487; hunting and trapping, $630,633. Of these hunting and
trapping show a decided decrease over 1906. The Indian Trust
Fund amounts to $5, 157, 566-59. The total appropriation in con-
nexion with the Indians of the Dominion for all purposes for the year
1906-1907 was $1,055,010 and the actual expenditure some $114,000
less. The total amount of sales of lands for the benefit of Indian
tribes was $422,086-13. The balance to the credit of the Indian
savings account for the funding of the annuities and earnings of
pupils at industrial schools, together with collections from Indians
for purchase of cattle and for ranching expenses, was $51,708-92.
According to the Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs
the total amount of trust funds held by the United States govern-
ment for the Indians, in lieu of investment, amounted to
$36,352,950-97, yielding for 1906 interest at 4 and 5% of
$1,788,237-23. The total incomes oi the various tribes from all
sources for the year ending June 30, 1906, was $6,557,554-39,
including interest on trust funds, treaty agreement and obligations,
gratuities, Indian money, proceeds of labour, &c.
While the general constitution of the American aborigines
north of Mexico is such as to justify their designation as one
" American race," whose nearest congener is to be found in
RACE MIXTURE]
INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN
467
the " Mongolian race " of eastern Asia, &c., there is a wide
range in variation within the American tribes with respect to
particular physical characteristics. Some authorities,
"er, like Dr Hrdlicka (Handb. Amer. Inds. N. of Hex.,
istics. 1907, pt. i. p. 53), separate the Eskimo from the
" Indians," regarding them as " a distinct sub-race of
the Mongolo-Malay," but this is hardly necessary if, with Boas
(Ann. Archaeol. Rep. Ontario, 1905, p. 85), we " consider the
inhabitants of north-eastern Asia and of America as a unit
divided into a great many distinct types but belonging to one
and the same of the large divisions of mankind." Upon the basis
of differences in stature and general bodily conformation, colour
of skin, texture and form of hair, shape of nose, face and head,
&c., some twenty-one different physical " types " north of
Mexico have been recognized.
Although the variation in stature, from the short people of
Harrison Lake (average 1611 mm.) to the tall Sioux (average
1726 mm.), Eastern Chippewa (average 1723 mm.), Iroquois
(average 1727 mm.), Omaha and Winnebago (average 1733 mm.)
and other tribes of the Plains and the regions farther east, is
considerable, the North American Indian, on the whole, may be
termed a tall race. The stature of women averages among the
tall tribes about 92%, and among the short tribes about 94%
of that of the men.
The proportion of statures (adult males) above 1730 mm. in
certain Indian tribes (Boas) is as follows: Apache and Navaho,
25-3; Arapaho, 45-9; Ankara, 15-2; British Columbia (coast),
28-8; British Columbia (interior), 16-4; California (south), 32-7;
Cherokee (eastern), 21-0; Cherokee (western), 40-7; Cheyenne, 72-2;
Chickasaw, 23-8; Chinook, 36-2; Choctaw, 32-6; Coahuila, 14-2;
Comanche, 27-1; Cree, 33-4; Creek, 53-6; Crow, 51-3; Delaware,
41-1; Eskimo (Alaska), 5-9; Eskimo (Labrador), o-o; Flathead,
18-9; Harrison Lake, B.C., l-o; Hupa, 18-7; Iroquois, 52-1; Kiowa,
41-3; Klamath, 20-0; Koptenay, 26-0; Micmac and Abnaki, 45-7;
Ojibwa (eastern), 42-7; Ojibwa (western), 42-7; Omaha and Winne-
bago, 54-9; Oregon (south), 5-1; Ottawa and Menominee, 30-6;
Paiute, 22-1; Pawnee, 39-0; Puget Sound and Makah, 6-5; Round
Valley, Cal., 3-3; Sahaptin, 28-2; Shuswap, 15-9; Sioux, 50-8;
Taos, 18-5; Ute, 12-4; Zufii and Moqui, 1-9.
Very notable is the percentage of tall statures among the Cheyenne,
Creek, Crow, Iroquois, &c. The form of the head (skull) varies con-
siderably among the Indian tribes north of Mexico, running from
the dolichocephalic eastern Eskimo with a cephalic index of 71-3
on the skull to the brachycephalic Aleuts with 84-8. Several tribes
practising deformation of the skull (mound-builders, Klamath, &c.)
show much higher brachycephaly.
The percentage of cephalic indices above 84 (on the heads of
living individuals) among certain Indian tribes (Boas) is as follows:
Apache, 87-6; Arapaho, 5-0; Arikara, 24-6; Blackfeet, 6-2; Caddo,
47-2; Cherokee, 20-0; Cheyenne, 10-4; Chickasaw, 14-4; Comanche,
65-3; Cree, 4-9; Creek, 25-0; Crow, 12-0; Delaware 12-0; Eskimo,
(Alaska), 10-6; Harrison Lake, B.C., 88-8; Iroquois, 15-4; Kiowa,
25-0; Kootenay, 19-1; Mandan, 4-5; Micmac and Abnaki, 7-0;
Mohave, 86-5; Montagnais, 21-7; Moqui, 54-3; Navaho, 49-4;
Ojibwa (eastern), 26-6; Ojibwa (western), 10-2; Omaha, 23-0;
Oregon (south), 50-9; Osage, 79-1; Ottawa and Menominee, 24-7;
Pawnee, 4-8; Pima, 9-6; Round Valley, Cal., 4-8; Sahaptin, 57-4;
Shuswap, 59-9; Sioux, 9-6; Taos, 6-0; Ute, 8-9; Wichita, 96-0;
Winnebago, 66-8; Zufti, 41-4.
The Apache, Mohave, Navaho, Osage, Sahaptin, Wichita and
Winnebago practised skull-deformation, which accounts in T>art
for their high figures. The brachycephalic tendency of the Caduu,
Moqui, Shuswap and Zufii is marked; the Comanche, with an
average cephalic index of 84-6 and the Harrison Lake people with
one of 88-8, are noteworthy in this respect. As in the case of stature,
so in the case of head-form, there seems to have been much mingling
of types, especially in the Huron-Algonkian region, the Great Plains
and the North Pacific coast.
The North American Indian may be described in general
as brown-skinned (of various shades, with reddish tinge, some-
times dark and chocolate or almost black in colour) with
black hair and eyes varying from hazel brown to dark brown.
Under good conditions of food, &c., the Indian tends to be tall
and mesocephalic as to head-form, and well-proportioned
and symmetrical in body. The ideal Indian type can be met
with among the youth of several different tribes (Plains
Indians, Algonkians, Iroquoians, Muskogians and some of the
tribes of the south-western United States). Beauty among the
aborigines of America north of Mexico has been the subject
of brief studies by Dr R. W. Shufeldt and Dr A. Hrdlicka
(Boas Anniv. Vol., New York, 1906, pp. 38-42).
The extent to which the red and white races have mixed
their blood in various parts of North America is greater than
is generally thought. The Eskimo of Greenland
have intermarried with the Danes, and their kinsmen
of Labrador with the English settlers and " summerers."
The eastern Algonkian Indians in New England and Acadia
have now considerable French, English and Scottish blood.
Many of the Canadian Iroquois are more than half French, many
of the Iroquois of New York half English. The Cherokee, an
Iroquoian people of the Carolinas, have some admixture of
Scottish and German blood, to which Mooney would attribute
some, at least, of their remarkable progress. In the state of
Oklahoma, which has absorbed the old " Indian Territory,"
the results of race-amalgamation are apparent in the large
number of mixed bloods of all shades. In spite of the romance
of Pocahontas, the intermarriages of the two races in the
Virginian region seem not to have been very common or very
important. Nor does there appear to have been much inter-
marriage between Spaniards and Indians in the south Atlantic
region, though in Texas, &c., there was a good deal. In New
France, in spite of the efforts of some recent Canadian-French
writers to minimize the fact, intermixture between whites and
Indians began early and continued to be extensive. In parts
of New Brunswick, Quebec, Ontario, some of the northern
American states and regions of the Canadian north-west, there
are Indian villages and white settlements where hardly a single
individual of absolutely pure blood can now be found. In the
veins of some of the " Iroquois " of Caughnawaga and New
York state to-day flows blood of the best colonial stock (Rice,
Hill, Williams, Stacey, &c., captives adopted and married
within the tribe). In the great Canadian north-west, and to a
large extent also in the tier[of American states to the south,
the blood of the Indian, through the mingling of French, Scottish
and English traders, trappers, employees of the great fur com-
panies, pioneer settlers, &c., has entered largely and significantly
into the life of the nation, the half-breed element playing a most
important r61e in social, commercial and industrial development.
In 1879, besides those whose mixed blood had not been
remembered and those who wished to forget it, there were,
according to Dr Havard (Rep. Smiths. Inst., 1879), at least
22,000 metis in the United States and 18,000 in Canada (i.e. in
the north-west in each case). When the province of Manitoba
entered the Canadian Confederation it numbered within the
borders some 10,000 mixed-bloods, one of whom, John Norquay,
afterwards became its premier. In the Columbia river region
and British Columbia some intermixture has taken place, originat-
ing in the conditions due to the establishment of trading-posts,
the circumstances of the early settlement of the country, &c. —
this has been both French and English and Scottish. Farther
north in Alaska the Russian occupation led to not a little inter-
mixture, both with the Aleuts, &c., and the coast Indians.
In some parts of the far north intermixture of the whites with
the Athabaskans is just beginning. In Canada no prohibition
of marriage between whites and Indians exists, but such unions
are forbidden by law in the states of Arizona, Oregon, North
Carolina and South Carolina.
A considerable number of the chiefs and able men of the various
Indian tribes of certain regions in recent times have had more or
less white blood — Iroquois, Algonkian, Siouan, &c. — who have
sometimes worked with and sometimes against the whites. In the
case of some tribes there have been " pure blood " and " mixed
blood " factions. Some tribes have frowned upon miscegenation;
even the Pueblos (except Laguna, which is Keresan) have never
intermarried with the whites. Both in Canada and the United
States strains of Indian blood run in the veins of prominent families.
Some of the " first families of Virginia " are proud to descend from
Pocahontas, the Algonkian " Princess," who married the Englishman
Rolfe. In Maine may still be discovered perhaps those whose line
of life goes back to the Baron de St Casteins and his Abnaki bride,
while in Ontario and New York are to be met those who trace their
ancestry, back to the famous Iroquois Joseph Brant and his half-
English wife. In the early history of Pennsylvania and Ohio were
noted the Montours, descendants of a French nobleman who about
INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN
[CULTURE
i66s had a son and two daughters by a Huron woman in Canada.
In 1817 Captain John S. Pierce, U.S.A., brother of President
Franklin Pierce, married the fair Josette la Framboise, who had at
least a quarter Indian (Ottawa) blood. In the latter part of the
l8th century a young Irish gentleman married Neengai, daughter
of the Michigan Ojibwa chief Waubojeeg, and of the daughters born
to them one married a Canadian Frenchman of reputation in the
early development of the province of Ontario, another the Rev.
Mr McMurray, afterwards Episcopal archdeacon of Niagara, and
a third Henry R. Schoolcraft, the ethnologist.
Several Indians, some full-blood, others with more or less white
blood in their veins, have rendered signal service to ethnological
science. These deserve special mention: Francis la Flesche, an
Omaha, a graduate of the National Law School at Washington,
D.C., holding a position in the Office of Indian Affairs; Dr William
Jones, a Sac and Fox, in the service of the Field Museum, Chicago,
a graduate of Harvard and of Columbia (Ph.D.); and J. N. B.
Hewitt, a Tuscarora, ethnologist in the Bureau of American Ethno-
logy, Washington, D.C. In some regions considerable intermixture
between negroes and Indians (Science, New York, vol. xvii., 1891,
Ep. 85-90) has occurred, e.g. among the Mashpee and Gay Head
ndians of Massachusetts, the remnants of the Pequots in Con-
necticut, the Shinnecocks, &c., of Long Island, also the Montauks;
the Pamunkeys, Mattaponies and some other small Virginian and
Carolinian tribes. In earlier times some admixture of negro blood
took place among the Seminoles, although now the remnants of that
people still in Florida are much averse to miscegenation. Of the
tribes of the Muskogian stock who kept large numbers of negro
slaves the Creeks are said to have about one-third of their number
of mixed Indian-negro blood. Sporadic intermixture of this sort is
reported from the Shawnee, the Minnesota Chippewa, the Canadian
Tuscarora, the Caddo, &c., in the case of the last the admixture
may be considerable. It is also thought probable that many of the
negroes of the whole lower Atlantic coast and Gulf region may have
strains of Indian blood. The mythology and folk-lore of the negroes
of this region may have borrowed not a little from the Indian, for
as Mooney notes (iQth Rep. Bur. Amer. Ethnol., 1900, pp. 232-234),
" in all the southern colonies Indian slaves were bought and sold
and kept in servitude and worked in the fields side by side with
negroes up to the time of the Revolution." When Dr John R.
Swanton visited the Haida recently the richest man among the
Skidegate tribe was a negro. Some of the Plains tribes and some
Indians of the far west, however, have taken a dislike to the negro.
The leader in the " Boston Massacre " of March 5, 1770, was
Crispus Attucks, of Framingham, Mass., the son of a negro father
and a Natick Indian mother. The physical anthropology of the
white-Indian half-blood has been studied by Dr Franz Boas (Pop.
Sci. Monthly, New York, 1894).
The culture, arts and industries of the American aborigines
exhibit marked correspondence to and dependence upon environ-
Cuiture, ment, varying with the natural conditions of land
arts, la- and water, wealth or poverty of the soil, abundance
dustries, or scarcity of plant and animal life subsidiary to human
existence, &c. Professor O. T. Mason (Handb. of A mer.
Inds. N. of Mexico, 1907, pt. i. pp. 427-430; also Rep. Smiths.
Inst., 1895, and Pop. Sci. Monthly, 1902) recognizes north of
Mexico twelve " ethnic environments," in each of which there
is " an ensemble of qualities that impressed themselves on their
inhabitants and differentiated them."
These twelve " ethnic environments " are: —
(i) Arctic (Eskimo); (2) Yukon-Mackenzie (practically Atha-
baskan); (3) Great Lakes and St Lawrence (Algonkian-Iroquoian);
(4) Atlantic Slope (Algonkian, Iroquoian, Siouan, &c.); (5) Gulf
Coast, embracing region from Georgia to Texas (Muskogian and
a number of smaller stocks); (6) Mississippi Valley (largely
Algonkian and "mound-builders"); (7) Plains, including the
country from the neighbourhood of the Rio Grande to beyond
the Saskatchewan on the north, and from the Rocky Mountains
to the fertile lands west of the Mississippi (Algonkian, Siouan,
Shoshonian, Kiowan, Caddoan); (8) North Pacific Coast, from
Mount St Elias to the mouth of the Columbia river (Koluschan,
Haidan, Tsimshian, Wakashan, Salishan); (9) Columbia-Eraser
region (Salishan, Sahaptian, Chinookan, &c.); (10) Interior
Basin between Rocky Mountains and Sierras (Shoshonian);
(n) California-Oregon ("the Caucasus of North America,"
occupied by more than twenty-five linguistic stocks); (12)
Pueblos region, basin of Rio Grande, Pecos, San Juan and Colorado
(Pueblos-Keresan, Tanoan, Zunian, &c.; on the outskirts
predatory Shoshonian, Athabaskan tribes; to the south-west,
Yuman, &c.).
In the Arctic environment the Eskimo have conquered a severe
and thankless climate by the invention and perfection of the snow-
house, the dog-sled, the oil-lamp (creating and sustaining social life
and making extensive migrations possible), the harpoon and the
kayak or skin-boat (the acme of adaptation of individual skill to
environmental demands). In the region of the Mackenzie especially
the older and simpler culture of the Athabaskan stock has been
much influenced by the European " civilization " of the Hudson's
Bay Company, &c., and elsewhere also by contact with Indian tribes
of other stocks, for the Athabaskans everywhere have shown them-
selves very receptive and ready to adopt foreign elements of culture.
The culture-type of the North Pacific coast, besides being unique
in some respects, stands in certain relations to the culture of the
Palaeo-Asiatic tribes of north-eastern Asia who belong properly
with the American race. The culture of the Great Plains, which
has been studied by Drs Wissler (Congr. intern, d. Amer., Quebec,
1906, vol. ii. pp. 39-52) and Kroeber (ibid. pp. 53-63), is marked
by the presence of a decided uniformity in spite of the existence
within this area of several physical types and a number of distinct
linguistic stocks. Here the tipi and the camp-circle figure largely
in material culture; innumerable ceremonies and religious practices
(e.g. the " sun-dance ") occur and many societies and ceremonial
organizations exist. The buffalo and later the horse have profoundly
influenced the culture of this area, in which Athabaskan (Sarcee),
Kitunahan, Algonkian, Siouan, Shoshonian, Kiowan tribes have
shared. In some respects the Plains culture is quite recent and the
result of " giving and taking " among the various peoples concerned.
Some of them merely abandoned an earlier more sedentary life to
hunt the buffalo on the great prairies.
The culture of the Mississippi valley region (including the Ohio,
&c.) is noteworthy in pre-Columbian and immediately post-Colum-
bian times for the development of " mound-building," with ap-
parently sedentary life to a large extent. In this Algonkian,
Iroquoian and Siouan tribes have participated. In the region of
the Great Lakes and on the Atlantic slope occurred the greatest
development of the Algonkian and Iroquoian stocks, particularly
in social and political activities, expressed both generally, as in the
leagues and alliances (especially the famous " Iroquois League "),
and individually in the appearance of great men like Hiawatha,
Tecumseh, &c. The Gulf region is remarkable for the development
in the southern United States of the Muskogian stock (Creek,
Choctaw, Chickasaw, &c.), to which belonged the " civilized tribes "
now part of the state of Oklahoma. In this area also, toward the
west, are to be met religious ideas and institutions (e.g. among the
Natchez) suggestive of an early participation in or connexion with
the beginnings of a culture common to the Pueblos tribes and
perhaps also to the ancestors of the civilized peoples of ancient
Mexico. In some other respects the culture of this area is note-
worthy. In the east also there are evidences of the influence of
Arawakan culture from the West Indies. The Pueblos region has
been the scene of the development of sedentary " village life on
the largest scale known in North America north of Mexico, and of
arts, industries and religious ideas (rain-cult especially) corresponding,
as Professor J. W. Fewkes (Rep. Smiths. Inst., 1895, pp. 683-700)
has shown, most remarkably to their environment. The arid in-
terior basin is the characteristic area of the great Shoshonian stock,
here seen at its lowest level, but advancing with the Piman and other
Sonoran and Nahuatlan tribes till in ancient Mexico it attained the
civilization of the Aztecs. The California-Oregon area is remarkable
for the multiplicity of its linguistic stocks and also for the develop-
ment of many local culture-types. Within the limits of California
alone Dr Kroeber (Univ. of Calif. Publ. Amer. Arch, and Ethnol.
vol. ii., 1904, pp. 81-103) distinguishes at least four types of native
culture.
On account of climatic conditions, in part at least, the develop-
ment of agriculture in North America has not reached with many
Indian tribes a high state of development, although its diffusion is
much greater than is generally believed. In the south-eastern part
of the United States beans, squashes, pumpkins and some other
gourds and melons, potatoes, Indian corn, tobacco, a variety of the
sunflower, &c., were cultivated, the growing of beans, squashes and
pumpkins extending as far north as Massachusetts and the Iroquois
country, in which latter also tobacco was cultivated, as the tribal
name (" Tobacco Nation ") of the Tionontati indicates. The
cultivation of Indian corn extended from Florida to beyond 50° N.
and from the Atlantic to far beyond the Mississippi, and, to judge
from the varieties found in existence, must have been known to the
Indians for a very long period. In the arid region of Arizona and
New Mexico a special development of agriculture occurred, made
possible by the extensive use of irrigation in pre-Columbian and in
more recent times. Here Indian corn, melons, beans, cotton, &c.,
were cultivated before the arrival of the Spaniards. For religious
purposes the Zufti appear to have selectively produced a great
variety of colours in the ears of corn. Where women had much to
do with agricultural operations they greatly influenced society and
religious and mythological ideas. Hunting and fishing, as might
be expected in an extensive and varied environment like the North
American continent, exhibit a great range from simple individual
hand-capture to combined efforts with traps and nets, such as the
communal nets of the Eskimo, the buffalo and deer " drives " of
the Plains and other Indians, with which were often associated
CULTURE]
INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN
469
brush-fences, corrals, " pounds," pitfalls, &c., advantage taken of a
natural cul-de-sac, &c. A great variety of traps, snares, &c., was
used (see Mason in Amer. Anthrop., 1899) and the dog was also of
great service with certain tribes, although no special variety of
hunting-dogs (except in a few cases) appears to have been developed.
The accessory implements for the chase (spear, bow and arrow,
harpoon, club, &c.) underwent great variation and specialization.
The throwing-stick appears in the north among the Eskimo and in
the south-west among the Pueblos. In the Muskogian area the
blow-gun is found, and its use extended also to some of the Iroquoian
tribes (Cherokee, &c.). In part of this area vegetable poisons were
used to capture fish. In the New England region torch-fishing at
night was in vogue. With the tribes of the Great Plains in particular
the hunt developed into a great social event, and often into a more
or less marked ceremonial or religious institution, with its own
appropriate preliminary and subsequential rites, songs, formulae,
taboos and fetishes, &c., as seen e.g. among certain tribes of the
Caddoan stock in very interesting fashion.
The art of transportation and navigation among the American
aborigines north of Mexico has received special treatment from
Mason (Rep. U.S. Nat. Mus., 1894) and Friederici, in his recent
monograph Die Schiffahrt derlndianer (Stuttgart, 1907). On land
some of the Indian tribes made use of the dog-sled and the toboggan
in winter, while the dog-travois was early met with in the region
of the Great Plains. The Eskimo made special use of the dog-sled,
but never developed snow-shoes to the same extent as did the
Athabaskan and Algonkian tribes; with the last and with the
Iroquoian tribes came the perfection of the skin-shoe or moccasin.
In the south and south-west appear sandals. In North America the
cradle, as pointed out by Professor Mason (Rep. U.S. Nat. Mus.,
1894), has undergone great variation in response to environmental
suggestion. No wheeled vehicle and no use of an animal other than
the dog for means of transportation is known among the aborigines
north of Mexico, men, women and children, women especially,
having been the chief burden-bearers. Among the types of boats
in use are the seal-skin kayak and umiak (woman's boat) of the
Eskimo; the bull-boat or coracle (raw-hide over willow frame)
of the Missouri and the buffalo-region; the dug-out of various forms
and degrees of ornamentation in divers regions from Florida to the
North Pacific coast; bark-canoes (birch, elm, pine, &c.) in the
Algonkian, Iroquoian and Athabaskan areas, reaching a high
development in the region of the Great Lakes; the peculiar bark-
canoe of the Beothuks in the form of two half ellipses; the bark-
canoe of the Kootenay (a similar type occurs on the Amur in north-
eastern Asia), noteworthy as having both ends pointed under
water ; the plank-canoes of the Santa Barbara region ; the basketry-
boats (coritas) of the lower Colorado and in south central California ;
the balsas of tule rushes, &c., in use on the lakes and streams of
California and Nevada. In various parts of the country log-rafts of
a more or less crude sort were in use. No regular sail is reported
from North America, although from time to time skins, blankets,
&c., were used by several tribes for such purposes.
Since the appearance of Morgan's monograph on the Houses and
House-life of the American Aborigines (Washington, 1881) our
knowledge of the subject has been materially increased by the
studies and researches of Boas, Fewkes, Mindeleff, Dorsey, Matthews,
Murdoch, Willoughby and others. The dwellings in use among the
aborigines north of Mexico varied from the rude brush huts of the
primitive Shoshonian tribes, and the still earlier caves, to the
communal dwellings of the Irpquois and the Pueblos stocks of New
Mexico and Arizona. The principal types are as follows:
Crude brush shelters and huts of the lowest Shoshonian tribes,
the Apache (more elaborate), &c. ; the hogan or earth-lodge of the
Navaho, and the earth-lodges of certain Caddoan and Siouan tribes
farther north, with similar structures even among the Aleuts of
Alaska; the grass-lodge of the Caddoan tribes, still in use among
the Wichita; the semi-subterranean earth-covered lodges of parts
of California, &c. ; the roofed pits of various styles in use in the
colder north, &c. ; the Eskimo snow-house and wooden karmak ;
the elaborately carved and painted wooden houses of Pacific coast
region (Tlingit, Haida, Nootka, &c.), some of which were originally
built on platforms and entered by log-ladders; the simple wooden
house of northern California; the dome-shaped bark wigwams of
the Winnebago and the conical ones of many of the Algonkian
tribes; the skin tents or tipis of many of the Plains peoples; the
mat tents of the Nez Perc6, Kootenay, &c., and the mat nouses of
the South Atlantic region; the circular wigwam of bark or mats
banked up at the base, of the Ohio-Mississippi valley; the palmetto-
house of certain Louisiana Indians; the pile-dwellings of the
ancient Floridians. Communal houses of divers types were found
among the Mohegans, Iroquois, &c., but are especially illustrated by
the so-called pueblos of the south-western United States, out of
which grew probably the elaborate structures of ancient Mexico.
Some tribes appear to have had simple and ruder summer dwellings
and more elaborate or better constructed winter houses. The
Eskimo have sometimes temporary hunting-lodges; the Comanches
brush-shelters for summer and lodges of buffalo-skin for winter;
with some tribes temporary dwellings were erected for the use of
those cultivating the land. Many tribes had their " village-houses "
for social purposes, like the kashim of the Eskimo. Special tipis or
houses for shamans, " medicine-men," &c., were common in many
parts of North America. Secret societies had their own lodges and
the so-called " men's-house." The houses of the North American
Indians are the subject of a monograph by E. Sarfert (Arch. f.
Anthr., 1908, pp. 119-215).
The art of fire-making was known to all the aborigines north of
Mexico, two methods being widespread, that with flint and pyrites
and that by reciprocating motion of wood on wood. For the latter
several varieties of apparatus were in use, the simple two-stick
apparatus was very common ; the Eskimo have a four-part fire-drill
and the Iroquois a weighted drill with spindle whorl. The skill
displayed in fire-making by some Indians is very great, and the
individual parts of the apparatus have in certain regions been
highly specialized. The subject of fire-making apparatus and the
kindred topic of illumination have been specially treated by Dr
Walter Hough (Rep. U.S. Nat. Mus., 1890, pp. 531-587; Rep.
Smiths. Inst., 1901-1902). The camp-fire, the torch and the Eskimo
lamp represent the employment of fire for artificial light among the
aborigines. Fire and smoke were used for signalling by the Plains
tribes, &c., and fire-ceremonies form an important part (" new-
fire," " fire-dance ") of the ritual observances of not a few peoples,
especially in the region from Florida to the Rio Grande. In metal-
working there is up to the present no convincing evidence of the use
of fire (heat only being employed to facilitate the cold-hammering
processes by which the metals, copper, silver, gold and iron were
manufactured into weapons, implements and ornaments) in metal-
lurgy north of Mexico. The tools used were few and the processes
simple, as Gushing (Amer. Anthrop., vol. vii., 1894) has proved by
actual experiment. The only metal actually mined in large quanti-
ties was copper in the region of Lake Superior, whence came most
of that employed in the east and south. In Alaska was a source of
copper for the North Pacific coast. No special process of hardening
copper other than by hammering was known to the Indians. The
gold objects of most interest come from mounds in Florida and a
few also from those in the Ohio Valley. Galena was used to make
simple ceremonial objects by the Indians of the Mississippi valley
and the " mound-builders."
The art of sculpture in wood, stone, bone and ivory is best re-
presented by the wooden masks, utensils, house-carvings and
totem-poles of the Indians of the North Pacific coast, the stone
Cipes, ornaments and images of various sorts of the " mound-
uilders " and other Indians of the Mississippi valley, the carvings
of the people of the Floridian pile-dwellings, and the remarkable
ivory carvings, sometimes minute, of the Eskimo. Noteworthy also
are the slate-sculpture of the Haida, and the work in bone, ivory and
deer and mountain goat horn of the British Columbian Indians.
The Indians of the region south of the Great Lakes were expert in
the manufacture of tobacco-pipes of great variety, among the most
interesting being the Catlinite pipes of the Sioux of Minnesota, &c.
Soapstone served some of the Eskimo to make lamps and some
Indian tribes for other purposes. Pottery appears to have been
unknown in certain regions, but flourished remarkably in the
Mississippi valley and the Pueblos region of the south-west, where
specialization in form and decoration occurred, and ceramic objects
of all sorts were manufactured in abundance. The pottery of the
Iroquoian and Algonkian tribes of the north-east was, as a rule,
rather crude and undeveloped. In many places the relation of
ceramic art to basketry is in evidence. Basketry, of which Professor
O. T. Mason has recently made a detailed study in his A boriginal
American Basketry (Washington and New York, 1902, 1904), and
related arts were carried on (especially by women) with great
variety of form, decoration, material, &c., over a large portion of
the continent. In North America basketry is " the primitive art,"
and here " the Indian women have left the best witness of what they
could do in handiwork and expression." The most exquisite and
artistic basketry in the world comes from an utterly uncivilized
tribe in California. The relation of basketry to symbolism and
religion is best observable among the Hopi or Moqui of Arizona.
The appreciation of white men for the products of Indian ^ skill and
genius in basketry finds full expression in G. W. James's Indian
Basketry (1900). Weaving is exemplified in the goat's hair blanket
of the Chilkat Indians (Koluschan) of Alaska, and similar products;
also in the manufactures of buffalo-hair, &c., of the Indians of the
Great Plains and Mississippi valley and the textile art of a higher
type known to the Pueblos tribes and by some of them taught to the
Navaho. Famous are the " Navaho blankets," less so the " Chilkat."
Feather-work and the utilization of bird-skins and feathers for
dresses, hats, ornaments, &c., are known from many parts of the
continent. In the Arctic regions bird-skins with the feathers on
were used to make dresses; the Algonkian tribes of Virginia, &c.,
had their bird-skin "blankets" and "turkey robes"; the tribes
of the North Pacific coast used feathers for decorative purposes
of many kinds, as did Indians in other regions also; feather head-
dresses and ornaments were much in use among the Plains tribes,
&c.; with the Pueblos Indians eagle and turkey feathers were
important in ritual and ceremony; some of the tribes of the south-
east made fans of turkey feathers. Beads made from various sorts
of shell, rolled copper (" mound-builders," &c.), seeds, ivory (Eskimo)
and the teeth of various animals are pre-Columbian, like the tur-
quoise-beads of the Pueblos, and they were put to a great variety
g
(
470
of uses. • Wampum was manufactured by many Algonkian and
Iroquoian tribes, who also later produced fine specimens of work
with the glass beads introduced by the whites. These glass beads
made their way over most of the continent, soon driving out in
many sections the older art in shell, &c. European-made wampum-
beads affected native art in the I7th century. In the regions where
the porcupine abounded its quills were used for purposes of orna-
mentation on articles of dress, objects of bark, &c., some of the
Algonkian and Iroquoian tribes producing beautiful work of this
sort.
Besides face and body painting, employed for various purposes
and widespread over the continent, particularly in ceremonial
observances, during war-time, in courting, mourning, &c., painting
found expression among the North American aborigines most fully
in the products of the wood art of the Indians of the North Pacific
coast (jmasks, utensils, houses, totem-poles, furniture, &c.), in the
more or less ceremonial and symbolic paintings on skins, tipi-
covers and the like of some of the Plains tribes (e.g. Kiowa, Sioux)
and in ceramic art, notably in the remarkable polychrome pottery
of the Pueblos tribes. Among several Pueblos tribes of Arizona
and New Mexico (also the Navaho and Apache and of a ruder sort
among some of the Plains tribes, e.g. Cheyenne, Arapaho, Black-
feet) dry-painting," most highly developed in the sacred cere-
monies of the Navaho, is practised and is evidently of great antiquity.
The pictures of deities, natural phenomena, animals and plants
are made of powdered sandstone of various colours, &c.
Pictography among the aborigines north of Mexico varied from
the rude petroglyphs of some of the Shoshonian tribes to the incised
work on ivory, &c., of the Eskimo and the paintings on buffalo and
other animal skins by some of the Plains tribes, the work of the
Pueblos Indians, &c., the nearest approach to hieroglyphics in North
America outside of Mexico. Some Indian tribes (e.g. the Kootenay)
seem not at all given to pictography, while many others have
practised it to an almost limitless extent. The pictography and
picture-writing of the North American Indians have been the subject
of two detailed monographs by Mallery (4th Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnol.,
1882-1883, pp. 3-256; loth Rep., 1888-1889, pp. 1-1290), and the
raphic art of the Eskimo has received special treatment by Hoffman
Rep. U.S. Nat. Mus., 1895). Some have argued that this ivory
pictography of the Eskimo is of recent origin and due practically
to the introduction of iron by the whites, but Boas thinks such a
theory refuted by the resemblance of the Eskimo graphic art in
question to the birch-bark art of the neighbouring Indian tribes.
No real " hieroglyphs," much less any system of writing of an
alphabetic nature, have been discovered north of Mexico; the
alleged specimens of such, turning up from time to time, are frauds
of one sort or another.
The music and song of the American Indians north of Mexico
have been studied since the time of Baker (Ober die Musik der
Nordamerikanischen Wilden, Leipzig, 1882) by Boas, Fillmore,
Curtis, Fletcher, Stumpf, Cringan (Ann. Arch. Rep. Ont., 1902, 1905),
&c. According to Miss Fletcher (Indian Story and Song, 1900; also
Publ. Peab. Mus., 1893), " among the Indians music envelops like
an atmosphere every religious tribal and social ceremony, as well
as every personal experience," and " there is not a phase of life that
does not find expression in song " ; music, too, is " the medium through
which man holds communion with his soul and with the unseen
powers which control his destiny." Music, in fact, " is coextensive
with tribal life," and " every public ceremony as well as each im-
portant act in the career of an individual has its accompaniment of
song." Moreover, " The music of each ceremony has its peculiar
rhythm, so also have, the classes of songs which pertain to individual
acts: fasting and prayer, setting of traps, hunting, courtship,
a ing of games, facing and defying death." In structure the
an song " follows the outline of the form which obtains in our
own music, ' and " the compass of songs varies from I to 3 octaves."
Among some of the tribes with highly developed ceremonial ob-
servances " men and women, having clear resonant voices and good
musical intonation, compose the choirs which lead the singing in
ceremonies and are paid for the services." A peculiar development
of music among the Eskimo is seen in the "nith-songs," by which
controversies are settled, the parties to the dispute singing at "
each other till the public laughter, &c., proclaim one the victor.
Among the American Indians songs belonging to individuals,
societies, clans, &c., are met with, wjiich have to be purchased by
others from the owners, and even slight mistakes in the rendition
of singing, dancing, &c., are heavily penalized. Musical contests
were also known (e.g. among the Indians of the Pacific coast). The
development of the " tribal song " among the Iroquoian peoples is
seen in Hale's Iroquois Book of Rites (1881). Songs having no words,
but merely changeless vocables, are common. As Dr Boas has
pointed out, the genius of the American Indian has been devoted
more to the production of songs than to the invention of musical
instruments. _ The musical instruments known to the aborigines
north of Mexico, before contact with the whites, according to Miss
Fletcher (Handb. of Amer. Inds., 1907, pt. i. p. 960), were drums
of great variety in size and form, from the plank or box of some of
the tribes of the North Pacific coast to the shaman's drums of the
Algonkian and Iroquoian peoples; whistles of bone, wood, pottery,
&c. (often employed in ceremonies to imitate the voices of birds,
INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN
[CULTURE
animals and spirits) ; flageolet or flute (widely distributed and used
by young men in courtship among the Siouan tribes) ; the musical
bow (found among the Maidu of California and important in religion
and sorcery). Rattles of gourd, skin, shell, wood, &c.,are universal,
and among some of the tribes of the south-west " notched sticks
are rasped together or on gourds, bones or baskets to accentuate
rhythm." From the rattle in the Pueblos region developed a sort of
ball of clay or metal.
So far as is known, the primitive culture of the aborigines of
North America is fundamentally indigenous, being the re-
actions of the Indian to his environment, added to Culture
whatever rude equipment of body and of mind was Of Indians
possessed by the human beings who at some remote essentially
epoch reached the new world from the old, if, la<"f"'m
indeed, America was not, as Ameghino, on the basis
of the discoveries of fossil anthropoids and fossil man in
southern South America, maintains, the scene of origin of man
himself.
Professor A.H. Keane (Internal. Monthly, vol. v., 1902, pp. 338-
357), Stewart Culin (Proc. Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci. vol. lii., 1903,
pp. 495-500) and Dr Richard Andree (Slzgsb. d. anthrop. Ges. in
Wien, 1906, pp. 87-98) 'all agree as to the general autochthony
of aboriginal American culture. The day of the argument for
borrowing on the ground of mere resemblances in beliefs, in-
stitutions, implements, inventions, &c., is past. An admirable
instance of the results of exact scientific research in this respect
is to be found in Dr Franz Boas's discussion (Proc. U.S. Nat.
Mus., 1908, pp. 321-344) of the needle-cases of the Alaskan
Eskimo, which were at first supposed to be of foreign (Polynesian)
origin. Other examples occur in Mr Culin's study of American
Indian games, where, for the first time, the relation of certain
of them in their origin and development, and sometimes also
in their degeneration and decay, is made clear. The independent
origin in America of many things which other races have again
and again invented and re-invented in other parts of the world
must now be conceded.
The extreme north-western region of North America has recently
been shown to be of great importance to the ethnologists. The
investigations in this part of America and among the more or less
primitive peoples of north-eastern Asia, carried on by the Jesup
North Pacific expedition in 1897—1902, have resulted in showing
that within what may be called the " Bering Sea culture-area "
transmissions of culture have taken place from north-eastern
Siberia to north-western America and vice versa. The only known
example, however, of the migration of any people one way or the
other is the case of the Asiatic Eskimo, who are undoubtedly of
American origin, and it seems probable, in the language of Dr Boas,
the organizer of the Jesup expedition and the editor of its publica-
tions, that " the Chukchee, Koryak, Kamchadal and Yukaghir must
be classed with the American race rather than with the Asiatic
race," and possibly also some of the other isolated Siberian tribes;
also that, " in a broad classification of languages, the languages of
north-eastern Siberia should be classed with the languages of
America " (Proc. Intern. Congr. Amer., New York, 1902, pp. 91-102).
It appears, further, that the arrival of the Eskimo on the Pacific
coast (this, although not recent, is comparatively late) from their
home in the interior, near or east of the Mackenzie, " interrupted
at an early period the communication between the Siberian and
Indian tribes, which left its trace in many cultural traits common
to the peoples on both sides of the Bering Sea."
This establisment of the essential unity of the culture-type
(language, mythology, certain arts, customs, beliefs, &c.) of the
" Palaeo-Asiatic " peoples of north-eastern Siberia and that of the
American Indians of the North Pacific coast, as demonstrated
especially by the investigations of Jochelson, Bogoras, &c., is one
of the most notable results of recent organized ethnological research.
No such clear proof has been afforded of the theory of Polynesian
influence farther south on the Pacific coast of America, believed in,
more or less, by certain ethnologists (Ratzel, Mason, &c.). This
theory rests largely upon resemblances in arts (clubs, masks and
the like in particular), tattooing, mythic motifs, &c. But several
things here involved, if not really American in origin, are so recent
that they may perhaps be accounted for by such Hawaiian and
other Polynesian contact as resulted from the establishment of the
whale and seal-fisheries in the i8th century.
Between the Indians of North America and those of South
America few instances of contact and intercommunication, or even
of transference of material products and ideas, have been sub-
stantiated. It is by way of the Antilles and the Bahamas that such
contact as actually occurred took place. In 1894 (Amer. Anthrop.
vol. vii. p. 71-79) Professor W. H. Holmes pointed out traces of
Caribbean influences in the ceramic art of the Florida-Georgia
region belonging to the period just before the Columbian discovery.
RELIGION]
INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN
The decorative designs in question, paddle-stamp patterns, &c.,
akin to the motives on the wooden and stone stools from the Carib-
bean areas in the West Indies, have been found as far north as 36°
in North Carolina and as far west as 84° in Tennessee and 89°
in south-eastern Alabama. But the evidence does not prove the
existence of Carib colonies at any time in any part of this region,
but simply the migration from the West Indies to the North American
coast of certain art features adopted by the Indians of the Timuquan
and Muskogian Indians and (later) in part by the Cherokee. More
recently (1907) Dr F. G. Speck, in a discussion of the aboriginal
culture of the south-eastern states (Amer. Anthrop. vol. ix., n.s.,
pp. 287-295), cites as proof of Antillean or Caribbean influence in
addition to that indicated by Holmes, the following: employment
of the blow-gun in hunting, use of hammock as baby-cradle, peculiar
storage-scaffold in one corner of house, plastering houses with clay,
poisoning fish with vegetable juices. It is possible also that the
North American coast may have been visited from time to time by
small bodies of natives from the West Indies in search of the mythic
fountain of youth (Bimini), the position of which had shifted from
the Bahamas to Florida in its movement westward. Indeed, just
about the time of the advent of the Europeans in this part of the
world a number of Indians from Cuba, on such a quest, landed on
the south-western shore of Florida, where they were captured by
the Calusas, among whom they seem to have maintained a separate
existence down to 1570 or later. This Arawakan colony, indicated
on the map of linguistic stocks of American Indians north of Mexico,
published by the Bureau of American Ethnology in 1907, is the
only one demonstrated to have existed, but there may have been
others of a more temporary character. In the languages of this
region there are to be detected perhaps a few loan-words from
Arawakan or Cariban dialects. The exaggerated ideas entertained
by some authorities concerning the " mound-builders " of the valley
of the Ohio and Mississippi and their alleged " civilization " have
led them to assume, without adequate proof, long-continued re-
lations of the tribes inhabiting this part of the country in the past
with the ancient peoples of Yucatan and Mexico, or even an origin
of their culture from beyond the Gulf. But since these mounds
were in all probability wholly the work of the modern Indians of
this area or their immediate ancestors, and the greater part, if not
all, of the art and industry represented therein lies easily within the
capacity of the aborigines of North America, the Mexican "
theory in this form appears unnecessary to explain the facts. In
its support stress has been laid upon the nature of some of the
copper implements and ornaments, particularly the types of elaborate
repouss6 work from Etowah, Georgia, &c. That the repousse1 work
was not beyond the skill of the Indian was shown by Gushing in his
study of " Primitive Copper Working " (Amer. Anthrop. vol. vii.
pp. 93-117), who did not consider the resemblance of these mound-
specimens to the art of Mexico proof of extra-North American origin.
Holmes (Handb. of Inds. N. of Mex., 1907, pt. i. p. 343) points out
that the great mass of the copper of mounds came from the region
of Lake Superior, and that had extensive intercourse between
Mexico or Central America and the mound-country existed, or
colonies from those southern parts been present in the area in
question, artifacts of undoubtedly Mexican origin would have been
found in the mounds in considerable abundance, and methods of
manipulation peculiar to the south would have been much in evidence.
The facts indicate at most some exotic influence from Mexico, &c.,
but nothing far-reaching in its effects.
In the lower Mississippi valley the culture of certain peoples has
been thought to contain elements (e.g. the temples and other religious
institutions of the Natchez) suggestive of Mexican or Central
American origin, either by inheritance from a common ancient source
or by later borrowings. When one reaches the Pueblos region, with
its present and its extinct " village culture," there is considerable
evidence of contact and inter-influence, if not perhaps of common
origin, of culture-factors. Dr J. Walter Fewkes, a chief authority
on the ethnic history of Arizona, New Mexico and the outlying
areas of " Pueblos culture," especially in its ceremonial aspects,
has expressed the opinion (Amer. Anthrop. vol. vii. p. 51) that " it
is not improbable that both Mexican and Pueblos cultures originated
in a region in northern Mexico, developing as environment per-
mitted in its northern and southern homes." Unfavourable milieu
in the north prevented the culture of the Pueblos Indians and the
Cliff-dwellers, their ancestors, reaching the height attained in
Mexico and Central America, represented by temple-architecture,
ornamentation of buildings, hieroglyphs, &c. Strong evidence of
Pueblos-Mexican relationship Dr Fewkes sees (Proc. Wash. Acad.
Sci., 1900) in the great serpent cult of Tusayan, the " New Fire "
and other Pueblos ceremonials of importance; also in the mosaic
objects (gorgets, ear-pendants, breast-ornaments, &c.) from Pueblos
ruins in Arizona, some of the workmanship of which equals that of
similar character in old Mexico. The arid region of the south-
western United States and part of northern Mexico may well have
been a centre for the dispersion of such primitive institutions and
ideas as reached their acme in the country of the Aztecs. But of
the Pueblos languages, the Moqui or Hopi of north-eastern Arizona is
the only one showing undoubted, though not intimate, relationship
with the Nahuatl of ancient Mexico. The Shoshonian family, rep-
resented in the United States by the Shoshonees, Utes, Comanches
and other tribes, besides the Moqui, includes also the numerous
Sonoran tribes of north-western Mexico, as well as the Nahuatl-
speakingpeoples farther south, some of the outliers haying wandered
even to Costa Rica (and perhaps to Panama). This linguistic unity
of the civilized Aztecs with the rude Utes and Shoshones of the
north is one of the most interesting ethnological facts in primitive
America. Change of environment may have had much to do with
this higher development in the south. Besides the Shoshonian, the
Coahuiltecan and the Athabaskan are or have been represented in
northern Mexico, the last by the Apaches and Tobosos. From the
period of the Spanish colonization of New Mexico down to about the
last quarter of the igth century (and sporadically later, e.g. the
attack in 1900 on the Mormon settlement in Chihuahua), these
Indians have hovered around the Mexican border, &c., their pre-
datory expeditions extending at one time as far south as Jalisco.
In the far west the Yuman family of languages belongs on both
sides of the border.
In the popular mind the religion of the North American
Indian consists practically of belief in the " Great Spirit "
and the " Happy Hunting Grounds." But while
some tribes, e.g. of the Iroquoian and Caddoan stocks *e"*'on-
appear to have come reasonably near a pantheistic &%~
conception tending toward monism and monotheism,
not a little of present Indian beliefs as to the " Great Spirit,"
" God " and " Devil," " Good Spirit " and " Evil Spirit," &c.,
as well as concerning moral distinctions in the hereafter, can
reasonably be considered the result of missionary and other
influences coming directly or indirectly from the whites. The
central idea in the religion and mythology of the aborigines
north of Mexico is what Hewitt (Amer. Anthrop., 1902) has pro-
posed to term orenda, from " the Iroquois name of the fictive
force, principle or magic power which was assumed by the
inchoate reasoning of primitive man to be inherent in every
body and being of nature and in every personified attribute,
property or activity belonging to each of these and conceived
to be the active cause or force or dynamic energy involved in
every operation or phenomenon of nature, in any manner
affecting or controlling the welfare of man." The orendas of
the innumerable beings and objects, real and imagined, in the
universe differed immensely in action,' function, power, &c.,
and in like manner varied were the efforts of man by prayers,
offerings and sacrifices, ceremonies and rites of a propitiatory
or sympathetic nature to influence for his own welfare the
possessor of this or that orenda, from the " high gods " to the
least of all beings. Corresponding to the Iroquoian orenda is the
wakanda of the Siouan tribes, some aspects of which have been
admirably treated by Miss Fletcher in her " Notes on Certain
Beliefs concerning Will Power among the Siouan Tribes "
(Science, vol. v., n.s., 1897). Other parallels of orenda are
Algonkian manito, Shoshonian pokunt, Athabaskan cten. As
Hewitt points out, these Indian terms are not to be simply
translated into English by such expressions as " mystery,"
" magic," " immortal," " sorcery," " wonderful," &c. Man,
indeed, " may sometimes possess weapons whose orenda is
superior to that possessed by some of the primal beings of his
cosmology."
The main topics of the mythology of the American Indians
north of Mexico have been treated by Powell in his " Sketch
of the Mythology of the North American Indians " (First
Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnol., 1879-1880), and Brinton in his American
Hero Myths (1876), Myths of the New World (1896) and Religions
of Primitive Peoples (1900). Widespread is the idea of a culture-
hero or demi-god (sometimes one of twins or even quadruplets)
who is born of a human virgin, often by divine secret fecundation,
and, growing up, frees the earth from monsters and evil beings,
or re-fashions it in various ways, improves the breed and perfects
the institutions of mankind, then retires to watch over the world
from some remote resting-place, or, angered at the wickedness
of men and women, leaves them, promising to return at some
future time. He often figures in the great deluge legend as the
friend, helper and regenerator of the human race. A typical
example of these culture-heroes is the Algonkian character
who appears as Nanabozho among the Ojibwa, Wisaketchak
among the Cree, Napiw among the Blackfeet, Wisaka among
the Sacs and Foxes, Glooscap (Kuloskap) among the Micmac,
472
INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN
[RELIGION
&c. (see Journ. Amer. F oik-Lore, 1891, and Handbook of Amer.
Ittds., 1907), whose brother is sometimes represented as being
after death the ruler of the spirit world. The Iroquoian corres-
pondent of Nanabozho is Tehoronhiawakhon; the Siouan,
in many respects, Ictinike. Among many tribes of the North
Pacific coast region the culture-hero appears as the " transformer,"
demi-god, human or animal in form (coyote, blue-jay, raven,
&c.), the last often being tricksters and dupers of mankind
and the rest of creation as well. This trickster and buffoon
(also liar) element appears also in the Iroquoian and Algonkian
culture-heroes and has received special treatment by Brinton
(Essays of an Americanist, 1890). On the whole, the Algonkian
and Iroquoian culture-hero is mainly actuated by altruistic
motives, while the " transformer " of the Indians of the North
Pacific coast region is often credited with producing or shaping
the world, mankind and their activities as they now exist for
purely egotistic purposes. Other noteworthy heroes," reformers,"
&c., among the North American Indians are the subject of
legends, like the Iroquoian " Good Mind and Bad Mind," the
Algonkian (Musquaki) " Hot Hand and Cold Hand," the
Zunian " Right Hand and Left Hand "; and numerous others,
including such conceptions as the antagonism and opposition
of land and water (dry and wet), summer and winter, day and
night, food and famine, giants and pigmies, &c. In the matter
of the personification of natural phenomena, &c., there is con-
siderable variation, even among tribes of approximately the
same state of culture. Thus, e.g. as Hewitt notes (Handbook
of Amer. Inds., 1907, pt. i. p. 970), while with the Iroquoian
and eastern Algonkian tribes " the Thunder people, human
in form and mind and usually four in number, are most important
and staunch friends of man"; in the region of the Great Lakes
and westward " this conception is replaced by that of the
Thunder bird."
The Pawnee Indians of the Caddoan stock seem both individually
and tribally to possess a deep religious sense expressing itself alike
in moods of the person and in ceremonies of a general popular
character. This is evident, alike from Miss Fletcher's description
(Amer. Anthrop., 1809, pp. 83-85) of a venerable priest of that
tribe, Tahiroossawichi, and from her detailed account of " The
Hako: A Pawnee Ceremony" (Twenty-second Ann. Rep. Bur.
Ethnol., 1900-1901, pp. 5-372). This Hako ceremony, the original
stimulus for which was probably desire for offspring, and then to
ensure friendship and peace between groups of persons belonging to
different clans, gentes or tribes, had no fixed or stated time and
" was not connected with planting or harvesting, hunting or war
or any tribal festival," although the Indians take up the Hako,
with its long series of observances and its hundred songs, " in the
spring when the birds are mating, or in the summer when the birds
are nesting and caring for their young, or in the fall when the birds
are flocking, but not in the winter when all things are asleep;
with the Hako we are praying for the gift of life, of strength, of
plenty and of peace, so we must pray when life is stirring every-
where,"—these are the words of the Indian hieragogue.
In the arid region of the south-western United States there has
grown up, especially among the Moqui, as may be read in the numer-
ous monographs of Dr J. Walter Fewkes (and briefly in the Report
of the Smithsonian Institution for 1905), a system of religious cere-
monials and sympathetic magic, the object of which is to ensure
the necessary rainfall and through this the continued life and
prosperity of the people. Here everything is conceived as really
or symbolically related to sun, water, rain. The Moqui are essenti-
ally a religious people, and their mythology, in which the central
figures are the earth mother " and the " sky father," has been
described as " a polytheism largely tinged with ancestor-worship
and permeated with fetishism." Part of their exceedingly intricate,
complex and elaborate ritual is the so-called " snake dance," which
has been written of by Bourke (The Snake Dance of the Moquis,
1884), Fewkes and others.
In the Gulf region east of the Mississippi, " sun worship," with
primitive " temples," appears among some of the tribes with certain
curious myths, beliefs, ceremonies, &c. The Natchez, e.g. according
to Dr Swanton (Amer. Anthrop., 1907), were noteworthy on account
of " their highly developed monarchical government and their
possession of a national religion centring about a temple, which
reminds one in many ways of the temples of Mexico and Central
America." They seem to have had !< an extreme form of sun-
worship and a highly developed ritual." A simpler form of sun-
worship is found among the Kootenay of British Columbia (Rep.
Brit. Assoc., 1889, 1892). With the Yuchi occur some Algonkian-
like myths of the deluge, &c.
The best data as to the religion and mythology of the Iroquoian
tribes are to be found in the writings of Hewitt, especially in his
monograph on " Iroquoian Cosmology " (Twenty-first Ann. Rep.
Bur. Ethnol., 1899-1900, pp. 127-339). In the creation-myths
several instances of European influence are pointed out. Mother-
earth and her life are the source, by transformation and evolution,
of all things. The first beings of Iroquoian mythology (daylight,
earthquake, winter, medicine, wind, life, flower, &c.) " were not
beasts, but belonged to a rather vague class of which man was the
characteristic type," — later come beast-gods. According to Hewitt
the Iroquoian term rendered in English " god " signifies really
" disposer, controller," for to these Indians " god " and " controller
are synonymous; and so " the reputed controller of the operations
of nature received worship and prayers." Creation-legends in great
variety exist among the North American aborigines, from simple
fiat actions of single characters to complicated transformations
accomplished with the aid of other beings. The. specific creation
legend often follows that of the deluge.
Perhaps the most remarkable of all North American creation
stories is that of the Zuni as recorded by Gushing (Thirteenth Ann.
Rep. Bur. Ethnol., 1891-1892) in his " Outlines of Zuni Creation
Myths." Here the principal figure is " Awonawilona, the maker
and container of all, ' and the growth-substance the " fogs of in-
crease," which he evolved by his thinking in the pristine night.
The long tale of the origin of the sun, the earth and the sky, and
the taking form of " the seed of men and all creatures " in the
lowest of the four caves or wombs of the world and their long journey
to light and real life on the present earth is a wonderful story of
evolution as conceived by the primitive mind, an aboriginal epic,
in fact.
In the mythology and religion of the Algonkian tribes (particularly
the Chippewa, &c.) is expressed " a firm belief in a cosmic mystery
present throughout all nature, called manitou." This manitou
was identified with both animate and inanimate objects, and the
impulse was strong to enter into personal relation with the mystic
power; it was easy for an Ojibwa to associate the manitou with all
forms of transcendent agencies, some of which assumed definite
characters and played the r61e of deities " (Jones). There were
innumerable manitous of high or low degree. The highest develop-
ment of this conception was in Kitchi Manitou (Great Manitou),
but whether this personification has not been considerably influenced
by teachings of the whites is a question. The chief figure in the
mythology of the Chippewa and related tribes is Nanabozho, who
" while yet a youth became the creator of the world and everything
it contained; the author of all the great institutions in Ojibwa
society and the founder of the leading ceremonies " (Jones, Ann.
Arch. Rep. Ontario, 1905; Journ. Amer. Folk-Lore, 1902, &c.). It
is to this character that some of the most human of all Indian
myths are attached, e.g. the Micmac legend of the origin of the
crowing of babies and the story of Nanabozho's attempt to stick
his toe into his mouth after the manner of a little child. Nanabozho
is also the central figure in the typical deluge legend of the Algonkian
peoples of the Great Lakes (Journ. of American Folk-Lore, 1891),
which, in some versions, is the most remarkable myth of
its kind north of Mexico.
The best and most authoritative discussion of the religions and
mythological ideas of the Eskimo is to be found in the article of
Dr Franz Boas on "The Folk-Lore of the Eskimo " (Journ. Amer.
Folk-Lore, 1904, pp. 1-13). The characteristic feature of Eskimo
folk-lore is the hero-tales, treating of visits to fabulous tribes, en-
counters with monsters, quarrels and " wars," shamanism, witch-
craft, &c., and generally of " the events occurring in human society
as it exists now," the supernatural playing a more or less important
r61e, but the mass of folk-lore being thoroughly human in char-
acter." In Eskimo myths there appears to be " a complete absence
of the idea that transformations or creations were made for the
benefit of man during a mythological period, and that these events
changed the general aspect of the world," quite in contrast with
the conceptions of many Indian tribes, particularly in the region of
the North Pacific, where the " transformer " (sometimes trickster
also), demi-god, human or animal (coyote, raven, blue-jay, &c.),
plays so important a part, as may be seen from the legends recorded
in Dr Boas's Indianische Sagen der nord-pacifischen Kuste Amerikas
(Berlin, 1895) and other more recent monographs. In Eskimo folk-
lore the field of animal tales is quite limited, and Dr Boas is of
opinion that the genuine animal myth " was originally foreign to
Eskimo folk-lore, and has been borrowed from the Indians. Per-
haps the most prominent character in Eskimo mythology is Sedna,
the old woman, who is mistress of the lower world beneath the
ocean (Amer. Anthrop., 1900). The highest being conceived of by
the Athabaskans of Canada was, according to Morice (Ann. Arch.
Rep. Ontario, 1905, p. 204), " a real entity, which they feared rather
than loved or worshipped." The way of communicating with the
unseen was through personal totems," revealed usually in dreams.
The Hupa, an Athabaskan people of California, are reported by
Goddard as possessing a deep religious sense. But the most re-
markable mythology of any Athabaskan tribe is that of the Navaho,
which has been studied in detail under some of its chief aspects by
Dr Washington Matthews in his valuable monographs, Navaho
Legends (1897) and The Night Chant (1902). According to Dr
Matthews, the Navaho " are a highly religious people having many
INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN
GAMES]
well-defined divinities (nature gods, animal gods and local gods),
a vast mythic and legendary lore and thousands of significant
formulated songs and prayers, which must be learned and repeated
in the most exact manner; they have also hundreds of musical
compositions; the so-called dances are ceremonies which last for
nine nights and parts of ten days, and the medicine-men spend
many years of study in learning to conduct a single one properly."
The most prominent and revered of the deities of the Navahp is
Estsanatlehi, the " woman who rejuvenates herself," of whom it is
believed that she grows old, and then, at will, becomes young again.
The numerous Indian tribes subjected to the environment of the
Great Plains have developed in great detail some special religious
observances, ceremonial institutions, secret societies, ritual observ-
ances, &c. The mental life of these Indians was profoundly in-
fluenced by the buffalo and later not a little by the horse. Various
aspects of Plains culture have recently been discussed by Goddard,
Kroeber, Wissler, Dorsey, Fletcher, Boas, &c., from whose investi-
gations it would appear that much intertribal borrowing has taken
place. Among some of the Algonkian (Arapaho, Blackfeet, Chey-
enne, &c.), Siouan (Ponka, e.g.) Caddoan, Shoshonian, Kiowan and
perhaps Kitunahan stocks the " sun-dance " in some form or other
prevailed at one time or another. According to Wissler (Amer.
Anthrop., 1908, p. 205), this ceremony, as now practised by many
tribes, " is the result of a gradual accumulation both of ceremonies
and ideas," — the torture feature, e.g., " seems to have been a separate
institution among the Missouri river tribes, later incorporated in
their sun-dance and eventually passed on to other tribes." Some
other complicated ceremonials have apparently grown up in like
manner. As ceremonies that are quite modern, having been intro-
duced during the historical period, Dr Wissler instances " the Ghost
dance, Omaha dance, Woman's dance.Tea dance and Mescal eating,"
of which all, except the Ghost dance, "flourish in almost all parts
of the area under various names, but with the same essential features
and songs." Other interesting ceremonies of varying degrees of
importance and extent of distribution are those of " the medicine-
pipe, buffalo-medicine, sweat-lodge, puberty-rites, medicine-tipis,
war-charms, &c." Interesting also are the " medicine bundles,"
or " arks " as they were once mistakenly called.
The " Ghost dance," the ceremonial religious dance of most
notoriety to-day, " originated among the Paviotso (its prophet
was a young Paiute medicine man, Wovoka or ' Jack Wilson ) in
Nevada about 1888, and spread rapidly among other tribes until
it numbered among its adherents nearly all the Indians of the
interior basin, from Missouri river to or beyond the Rockies "
(Mooney). Wovoka's doctrine was that a new dispensation was at
hand, and that " the Indians would be restored to their inheritance
and united with their departed friends, and they must prepare for
the event by practising the songs and dance ceremonies which the
prophet gave them." East of the Rocky Mountains this dance
soon came to be known as the "Ghost dance" and a common
feature was hypnotic trances. The Sioux outbreak of 1890-1891
was in part due to the excitement of the " Ghost dance." According
to Mooney, " in the Crow dance of the Cheyenne and Arapaho, a
later development from the Ghost dance proper, the drum is used,
and many of the ordinary tribal dances have incorporated Ghost
dance features, including even the hypnotic trances." The doctrine
generally " has now faded out and the dance exists only as a social
Function." A full account of this " dance," its chief propagators,
the modi operandi of its ceremonies and their transference, and the
results of its prevalence among so many Indian tribes, is given in
Mooney's detailed monograph on " The Ghost Dance Religion and
the Sioux Outbreak of 1890 " (Fourteenth Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnol.,
1892-1893).
In reference to " Messiah doctrines " among the aborigines of
North America, Mooney calls attention to the fact that " within the
United States every great tribal movement (e.g. the conspiracy of
Pontiac, the combination of Tecumseh, &c.) originated in the
teaching of some messianic prophet." In primitive America the
dance has figured largely in social, religious and artistic activities
of all kinds, and one of its most interesting developments has occurred
among the Plains Indians, where " the Mandan and o her Siouan
tribes dance in an elaborate ceremony, called the Buffalo dance,
to bring game when food is scarce, in accordance with a well-defined
ritual " (Hewitt). Among other noteworthy dances of the North
American aborigines may be mentioned the calumet dance of
several tribes, the scalp dance, the " Green-corn dance " of the
Iroquois, the busk (or puskitau) of the Creeks (in connexion with
" new fire " and regeneration of all things), the " fire dance " of the
Mississaguas, &c.
The Californian area, remarkable in respect to language and
culture in general presents also some curious religious and mytho-
logical phenomena. According to Kroeber, " the mythology of the
Californians was characterized by unusually well-developed and
consistent creation-myths, and by the complete lack not only of
migration but of ancestor traditions. "\IVTne ceremonies of the
Californian Indians " were numerous and elaborate as compared
with the prevailing simplicity of life, but they lacked almost totally
the rigid ritualism and extensive symbolism that pervade the
ceremonies of most America." The most authoritative discussions
of the religion and mythology of the Californian Indians are those
473
of Dr Dixon and Dr Kroeber, the latter especially in the University
of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology
For 1904-1907.
The shamans, "medicine-men," &c., of the American Indians
are of all degrees from the self-constituted angekok of the Eskimo
to those among tribes of higher culture who are chosen from a special
family or after undergoing elaborate preliminaries of selection and
initiation. The " medicine-men " of several tribes have been
described with considerable detail. This has been done for the
" Midewiwin, or Grand Medicine Society of theOjibwa " by Hoffman
(Seventh Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnol. pp. 143-300); for the " Medicine-
men of the Apache " by Bourke (Ninth Ann. Rep. pp. 443-603)
and for those of the Cherokee by Mooney (Seventh Ann. Rep.
pp. 301-397), while a number of the chief facts concerning American
Indian shamans in general have been gathered in a recent article
by Dr R. B. Dixon (Journ. Amer. Folk-Lore, 1908, pp. 1-12). In
various parts of the continent and among diverse tribes the shaman
exercises functions as " healer, sorcerer, seer, priest and educator."
These functions among the tribes of lower culture are generally
exercised by one and the same individual, but, with rise in civiliza-
tion, the healer-sorcerer and shaman-sorcerer disappear or wane
in power and influence as the true priest develops. The priestly
character of the shaman appears among the Plains tribes in con-
nexion with the custody of the " sacred bundles " and the keeping
of the ceremonial myths, &c., but is more marked among the Pueblos,
Navaho, &c., of the south-west, while " a considerable development
of the priestly function may also be seen among the Muskogi,
particularly in the case of the Natchez, with their remarkable cult
and so-called temple." The reverent character of the best " priests "
or shamans among the Pawnee and Omaha has been emphasized
by Miss A. C. Fletcher and Francis la F4esche. The class-organiza-
tion of the shamans reaches its acme in the mide societies of the
Chippewa and the priest-societies of the Pueblos Indians (Moqui,
Zuni, &c.).
The games of the American aborigines north of Mexico have
been made the subject of a detailed monograph by Culin,
" Games of the North American Indians " (Twenty- „
fourth Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnol., 1902-1903, pp. 1-846),
in which are treated the games of chance, games of dexterity
and minor amusements of more than 200 tribes belonging to
34 different linguistic stocks. According to Culin, " games of
pure skill and calculation, such as chess, are entirely absent."
There are more variations in the materials employed than in
the object or methods of play and in general the variations do
not follow differences in language. The type known as " dice
game " is reported here from among 130 tribes belonging to
30 stocks; the " hand-game " from 81 tribes belonging to 28
stocks. The centre of distribution of North American Indian
games, which, with the exception of a few post-Columbian
additions, are all autochthonous, Culin finds in the south-west
— " there appears to be a progressive change from what appears
to be the oldest forms of existing games from a centre in the
south-western United States, along lines north, north-east
and east." Similar changes radiating southward from the
same centre are likewise suggested. He is of opinion that,
outside of children's games as such and the kinds of minor
amusements common in all civilizations, the games of the North
American Indians, as they now exist, " are either instruments
of rites or have descended from ceremonial observances of a
religious character," and that " while their common and secular
object appears to be purely a manifestation of the desire for
amusement or gain, they are performed also as religious cere-
monies, as rites pleasing to the gods to secure their favour,
or as processes of sympathetic magic, to drive away sickness,
avert other evil, or produce rain and the fertilization and re-
production of plants and animals or other beneficial results."
He also believes that these games, " in what appears to be their
oldest and most primitive manifestations are almost exclusively
divinatory." This theory of the origin of games in divination,
which receives considerable support from certain facts in primitive
America, needs, however, further proof. So, too, with Mr Culin's
further conclusion that " behind both ceremonies and games
there existed some widespread myth from which both derived
their impulse," that myth being the one which discloses the
primal gamblers as those curious children, the divine Twins,
the miraculous offspring of the sun, who are the principal
personages in many Indian mythologies." These eternal con-
tenders " are the original patrons of play, and their games
are the games now played by men."
Social
organiza-
tion,
customs,
&C.
474
It was formerly thought that " totemism " and real " gentile
organization" prevailed over all of North America. But it
now appears that in several sections of the country
such beliefs and institutions were unknown, and that
even within the limits of one and the same stock one
tribe did, while another did not, possess them. Matri-
archal ideas and the corresponding tribal institutions
were also once regarded as the primal social condition of all
Indian tribes, having been afterwards in many cases replaced
by patriarchal ideas and institutions. Since the appearance of
Morgan's famous monograph on Ancient Society (New York,
1878) and his Systems of Consanguinity and Affinity in the
Human Family (Washington, 1871), the labours of American
ethnologists have added much to our knowledge of the sociology
of the American Indians. Forms of society among these Indians
vary from the absolute democracy of the Athabaskan Ten'a
of Alaska, among whom, according to Jette (Congr. int. d.
Amer., Quebec, 1886), there exist "no chiefs, guides or masters,"
and public opinion dominates (" every one commands and all
obey, if they see fit "), to the complicated systems of some of
the tribes of the North Pacific coast regions, with threefold
divisions of chiefs, " nobles," and " common people " (some-
times also, in addition, slaves), secret and " totemic " organiza-
tions, religious societies, sexual institutions (" men's houses,"
&c.), and other like divisions; and beyond this to the develop-
ment along political and larger social lines of alliances and con-
federations of tribes (often speaking entirely different languages)
which have played an important role in the diffusion of primitive
culture, such as the Powhatan confederacy of Virginia and the
Abnaki confederacy of the North Atlantic region; the con-
federacy of the Chippewa, Ottawa and Potawatomi of the Great
Lakes; the Huron confederacy of Ontario; the Dakota alliance
of the north-west; the Blackfoot confederacy of the Canadian
north-west; the Caddoan confederacy of the Arkansas region;
the Creek confederacy of the South Atlantic country. The acme
of federation was reached in the great "League of the Iroquois,"
whose further development and expansion were prevented by
the coming of the Europeans and their conquest of primitive
North America. According to Morgan (League of the Iroquois,
New York, 1851) and Hale (Iroquois Book of Rites, 1881), who
have written about this remarkable attempt, by federation of
all tribes, to put an end to war and usher in the reign of universal
peace, its formation under the inspiring genius of Hiawatha
took place about 1459. But J. N. B. Hewitt, himself an Iroquois,
offers reasons (Amer. Anthrop., 1892) for believing that the
correct date of its founding lies between 1559 and 1570.
Tribes like the Kootenay (Rep. Brit. Assoc., 1892) have no totems
and secret societies, nor do they seem to have ever possessed them.
This may also be said of some of the Salishan tribes, though others
of the same stock have complicated systems. The Klamath Indians
(Lutuamian stock) " are absolutely ignorant of the gentile or clan
system as prevalent among the Haida, Tlingit and Eastern Indians
of North America; matriarchate is also unknown among them;
every one is free to marry within or without the tribe, and the
children inherit from the father " (Gatschet). In all parts of Cali-
fornia indeed, according to Kroeber (Handbook of Amer. Inds., 1907,
pt. i. p. 191), " both totemism and a true gentile organization were
totally lacking." Nor does it appear that either personal or communal
totemism is a necessary attribute of clan and gentile organizations
where such do exist. The Heiltsuk of British Columbia have animal
totems, while the Kwakiutl do not, although both these tribes belong
to the same Wakashan stock. Among the Iroquoian tribes, accord-
ing to Hewitt (Handbook, p. 303), the primary unit of social and
political organization, termed in Mohawk ohwachira, is " the family,
comprising all the male and female progeny of a woman and of all her
female descendants in the female line and of such other persons as
may be adopted into the ohwachira." The head of the ohwachira is
" usually the oldest woman in it," and it " never bears the name of a
tutelary or other deity." The clan was composed of one or more of
such ohwachiras, being " developed apparently through the coales-
cence of two or more ohwachiras having a common abode." From
the clan or gens developed the government of the tribe, and out of
that the Iroquois confederation.
The power of the chief varied greatly among the North American
aborigines, as well as the manner of his selection. Among the
Eskimo, chiefs properly understood hardly have existed; nearly
everywhere the power of all sorts of chiefs (both war and peace) was
limited and modified by the restraints of councils and other advisers.
INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN [SOCIAL ORGANIZATION
Age, wealth, ability, generosity, the favour of the shaman, &c., were
qualifications for the chieftainship in various parts of the continent.
Women generally seem to have had little or no direct
voice in
government, except that they could (even among some of the
Athabaskan tribes) sometimes become chiefs, and, among the
Iroquois, were represented in councils, had certain powers and pre-
rogatives (including a sort of veto on war), &c. Many tribes had
permanent peace-chiefs and temporary war-chiefs. According to
Hewitt (Handb. of Amer. Inds., 1907, pt. i. p. 264), " In the Creek
confederation and that of the Iroquois, the most complex aboriginal
;overnment north of Mexico, there was, in fact, no head chief. The
.irst chief of the Onondaga federal roll acted as the chairman of the
federal council, and by virtue of his office he called the federal council
together. With this all pre-eminence over the other chiefs ended,
for the governing power of the confederation was lodged in the federal
council. The federal council was composed of the federal chiefs of the
several component tribes; the tribal council consisted of the federal
chiefs and sub-chiefs of the tribe." The greatest development of the
power of the chief and his tenure of office by heredity seems to have
occurred among the Natchez and certain other tribes of the lower
Mississippi and Gulf region. Among the Plains tribes, in general,
non-inheritance prevailed, and " any ambitious and courageous
warrior could apparently, in strict accordance with custom, make
himself a chief by the acquisition of suitable property and through
his own force of character " (Hewitt).
Among the North American aborigines the position of woman and
her privileges and duties varied greatly from the usually narrow
limits prescribed by the Athabaskans, according to Morice (Congr.
int. d. Amer., Quebec, 1906), to the socially high status reached
among some of the Iroquoian tribes in particular. In the North
Pacific coast region the possession of slaves is said to have been
a cause of a relatively higher position of woman there than obtained
among neighbouring tribes. The custom of adoption both of
children and captives also resulted advantageously to woman.
The role and accomplishments of woman in primitive North America
are treated with some detail in Mason's Woman's Share in Primitive
Culture (1894). The form of the family and the nature of marriage
varied considerably among the North American aborigines, as also
did the ceremonies of courtship and the proceedings in divorce, &c.
With some tribes apparently real purchase of brides occurred, but
in many cases the seeming purchase turns out to be merely " a
ratification of the marriage by means of gifts." Great differences
in these matters are found within the limits of one and the same
stock (e.g. Siouan). Female descent, e.g., prevailed among the
Algonkian tribes of the south-east but not among those of the north
and west; and the case of the Creeks (Muskogian) shows that
female descent is not necessarily the concomitant of a high social
status .of woman. Among the Zufii, where the man is adopted as
a son by the father of his wife, " she is thus mistress of the situation;
the children are hers, and she can order the husband from the house
should occasion arise " (Lowie and Farrand). With many tribes,
however, the husband could divorce his wife at will, but Farrand
and Lowie in their discussion of Indian marriage (Handb. of Amer.
Inds., 1907, pt. i. p. 809) report on the other hand the curious fact
that among the Wintun of California " men seldom expel their
wives, but slink away from home, leaving their families behind."
In the case of divorce, the children generally go with the mother.
From a survey of the available data Lowie and Farrand conclude
that " monogamy is thus found to be the prevalent form of marriage
throughout the continent," varied from to polygamy, where wealth
and other circumstances dictated it. In California, e.g., polygamy is
rare, while with some of the Plains tribes it was quite common.
Here again differences of note occurred within the same stock, e.g.
the Iroquois proper could not have more than one wife, but the
Huron Indian could. The family itself varied from the group of
parents and children to the larger ones dictated by social regulations
among the eastern tribes with clan organizations, and the large
" families " found by Swanton (Amer. Anthrop., 1905) among certain
tribes of the North Pacific coast, where relations and " poor re-
lations," servants and slaves entered to swell the aggregate.
Exogamy was widely prevalent and incest rare. Cousin-marriages
were frequently tabooed.
With many of the North American aborigines the giving of the
name, its transference from one individual to another, its change
by the individual in recognition of great events, achievements, &c.,
and other aspects of nominology are of significance in connexion
with social life and religious ceremonies, rites and superstitions.
The high level attained by some tribes in these matters can be seen
from Miss Fletcher's description of " A Pawnee Ritual used when
changing a Man's Name " (Amer. Anthrop., 1899). Names marked
epochs in life and changed with new achievements, and they had
often " so personal and sacred a meaning," that they were naturally
enough rendered " unfit for the familiar purposes of ordinary
address, to a people so reverently inclined as the Indians seem to
have been." The period of puberty in boys and girls was often the
occasion of elaborate " initiation " ceremonies and rites of various
kinds, some of which were of a very trying and even cruel character.
Ceremonial or symbolic " killings, " new-births," &c., were also in
vogue; likewise ordeals of whipping, isolation and solitary con-
finement, " medicine "-taking, physical torture, ritual bathings,
CONTACT OF RACES]
INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN
475
Contact
of races.
painting of face or body, scarification and the like. The initiations,
ordeals, &c., gone through by the youth as a prelude to manhood
and womanhood resembled in many respects those imposed upon
individuals aspiring to be chiefs, shamans and " medicine-men."
Many facts concerning these rites and ceremonies will be found in
G. Stanley Hall's Adolescence (1904) and in the articles on" Ordeals "
and " Puberty Customs " in the Handbook of American Indians
North of Mexico (1907-1910). In the method of approach to the
supernatural and the superhuman among the North American
aborigines there is great diversity, and the powers and capacities
of the individual have often received greater recognition than is
commonly believed. Thus, as Kroeber {Amer. Anthrop., 1902,
p. 285) has pointed out, the Mohave Indians of the Yuman stock
have as a distinctive feature of their culture " the high degree to
which they have developed their system of dreaming and of in-
dividual instead of traditional connexion with the supernatural."
For the Omaha of the Siouan stock Miss A. C. Fletcher (Proc.
Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1895, 1896; Journ. Anthr. Inst., 1898)
has shown the appreciation of the individual in the lonely " totem "
vigil and the acquisition of the personal genius.
From the Indians of North America the white man has
borrowed not only hosts of geographical names and many
common terms of speech, but countless ideas and
methods as to food, medicines, clothes and other
items in the conduct of life. Even to-day, as G.W.
James points out in his interesting little volume, What the
White Race may learn from the Indian (Chicago, 1908), the end of
the instruction of the " lower " race by the " higher " is not yet.
The presence of the Indians and the existence of a " frontier "
receding ever westward as the tide of immigration increased
and the line of settlements advanced, have, as Prof. Turner
has shown (Ann. Rep. Amer. Hist. Assoc., 1893), conditioned
to a certain extent the development of civilization in North
America. Had there been no aborigines here, the white race
might have swarmed quickly over the whole continent, and the
" typical " American would now be much different from what
he is. The fact that the Indians were here in sufficient numbers
to resist a too rapid advance on the part of the European
settlers made necessary the numerous frontiers (really " successive
Americas "), which began with Quebec, Virginia and Massa-
chusetts and ended with California, Oregon, British Columbia,
Yukon and Alaska. The Indians again are no exception to the
rule that one of the fundamentally important contributions
of a primitive people to the culture-factors in the life of the
race dispossessing them consists of the trails and camping-
places, water-ways and trade-routes which they have known
and used from time immemorial. The great importance of these
trails and sites of Indian camps and villages for subsequent
European development in North America has been emphasized
by Prof. F. J. Turner (Proc. Wisconsin Slate Hislor. Soc., 1889
and 1894) and A. B. Hulbert (Historic Highways of America, New
York, 1902-1905). It was over these old trails and through
these water-ways that missionary, soldier, adventurer, trader,
trapper, hunter, explorer and settler followed the Indian, with
guides or without. The road followed the trail, and the railway
the road.
The fur trade and traffic with the Indians in general were
not without influence upon the social and political conditions
of the European colonies. In the region beyond the Alleghanies
the free hunter and the single trapper flourished; in the great
north-west the fur companies. In the Mackenzie region and
the Yukon country the " free hunter " is still to be met with,
and he is, in some cases, practically the only representative of
his race with whom some of the Indian tribes come into con-
tact. J. M. Bell (Journ. Amer. Folk-Lore, xvi., 1903, 74), from
personal observation, notes " the advance of the barbarous
border civilization, — the civilization of the whaler on Hudson's
Bay, of the free trader on the Athabasca Lake and river, of the
ranchers and placer miners on the Peace and other mountain
rivers," and observes further (p. 84) that " the influx of fur-
traders into the Mackenzie River region, and even to Great Bear
Lake within the last two years, since my return, has, I believe,
very much altered the character of the Northern Indians."
In many parts of North America the free trapper and solitary
hunter were often factors in the extermination of the Indian,
while the great fur companies were not infrequently powerful
agents in preserving him, since their aims of exploiting vast
areas in a material way were best aided by alliance or even
amalgamation. The early French fur companies, the Hudson's
Bay Company, the North-West Company, the American Fur
Company, the Missouri Fur Company, the Russian-American
Company, the Alaska Commercial Company, &c., long stood
with the Indians for the culture of the white man. For two
centuries, indeed, the Hudson's Bay Company was ruler of a
large portion of what is now the Dominion of Canada, and its
trading-posts still dot the Indian country in the far north-west.
The mingling of races in the region beyond the Great Lakes is
largely due to the fact that the trading and fur companies
brought thither employes and dependants, of French, Scottish
and English stock, who intermarried more or less readily with
the native population, thus producing the mixed-blood element
which has played an important role in the development of the
American north-west. The fur trade was a valuable source
of revenue for the early colonists. During the colonial period
furs were sometimes even legal tender, like the wampum or
shell-money of the eastern Indians, which, according to Mr
Weeden (Econ. Hist, of New England], the necessities of commerce
made the European colonists of the i7th century -adopt as a
substitute for currency of the Old World sort.
In their contact with the Indians the Europeans of the New
World had many lessons in diplomacy and statecraft. Alliances
entered upon chiefly for commercial reasons led sometimes
to important national events. The adhesion of the Algonkian
tribes so largely to the French, and of the Iroquoian peoples
as extensively to the English, practically settled which was
ultimately to win in the struggle for supremacy in North America.
If we believe Lewis H. Morgan, " the Iroquois alliance with the
English forms the chief fact in American history down to 1763."
The whites in their turn have influenced greatly the culture,
institutions and ideas of the American aborigines. The early
influence of the Scandinavians in Greenland has had its import-
ance exaggerated by Dr Tylor (Journ. Anthrop. Inst., 1879).
French influence in Canada and Acadia began early and was
very marked, affecting the languages (several Algonkian dialects
have numerous loan-words, as have the Iroquois tongues still
spoken in Quebec) and the customs of the Indians. French
authorities, missionaries and traders seemed to get into more
sympathetic relations with the Indians, and the intermarriage
of the races met with practically no opposition. Hence the
French influence upon many tribes can be traced from the
Atlantic past the Great Lakes and over the Plains to the Rocky
Mountains and even beyond, where the trappers, voyageurs,
coureurs des bois and missionaries of French extraction have made
their contribution to the modern tales and legends of the
Canadian north-west and British Columbia. In one of the tales
of the North Pacific coast appears Shishe Ttt (i.e. Jesus Christ),
and in another from the eastern slope of the Rockies Mani
(i.e. Mary). Another area of French influence occurs in Louisiana,
&c. The English, as a rule, paid much less attention than did
the French to the languages, manners and customs and institu-
tions of the aborigines and were in general less given to inter-
marriage with them (the classical example of Rolf e and Pocahontas
notwithstanding), and less sympathetically minded towards
them, although willing enough, as the numerous early educational
foundations indicate, to improve them in both mind and body.
The supremacy of the English-speaking people in North America
made theirs the controlling influence upon the aborigines in
all parts of the country, in the Pacific coast region to-day as
formerly in the eastern United States, where house-building,
clothing and ornament, furniture, weapons and implements
have been modified or replaced. Beside the Atlantic, the Micmac
of Nov'a Scotia now has its English loan-words, while among the
Salishan tribes of British Columbia English is " very seriously
affecting the purity of the native spech " (Hill-Tout), and
even the Athabaskan Nahane are adding English words to their
vocabulary (Morice).
The English influence on tribal government and land-tenure,
culminating in the incorporation of so many of the aborigines
476
INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN
[INDIAN WARS
as citizens of Canada and the United States, began in 1641.
The first royal grants both in New England and farther south
made no mention of the native population of the country, and
the early proprietors and settlers were largely left to their own
devices in dealing with them, the policy of extinguishing their
titles to land being adopted as needed. Later on, of course,
due recognition was had of the fact that certain parts of America
were inhabited by " heathen," " savages," &c., and the chiefs
of many of the tribes were looked upon as rulers with preroga-
tives of princes and royal personages (e.g. the " Emperor "
Powhatan and the " Princess " Pocahontas, " King " Philip,
the " Emperor " of the Creeks, &c.). The method of dealing
with the Indian " tribes " by the Federal government as auto-
nomous groups through treaties, &c., lasted till 1871, when, by
act of Congress, " simple agreements " were favoured in lieu of
"solemn treaties."
Meanwhile no consistent purpose was shown in dealing with
the Indian problem. At one time the American policy was
to concentrate all the Indians on three great reservations, an
expansion of the plan adopted early in the igth century which
set aside the former " Indian country" (afterwards restricted
to the Indian Territory). The sentiment in regard to great
reservations, however, gradually weakened, till in 1878 it was
proposed to concentrate the Indians on smaller reservations;
but the entire reservation system became increasingly unpopular,
and finally in 1887 Congress enacted the Land Severally Law,
paving the way for abolition of the reservation and agency
system; at the same time it emphasized the government policy
of gradually (the reservation system was a preliminary step
in the way of bringing the Indians more under government
control) bringing about the cessation of all " tribes " as indepen-
dent communities and securing their ultimate entrance upon
citizenship with the white population. This certainly was far
removed from the declaration of the Virginia Assembly in 1702
that " no Indian could hold office, be a capable witness, or hunt
over patented land "; and at this time also, " an Indian child
was classed as a mulatto, and Indians, like slaves, were liable
to be taken on execution for the payment of debt." As Miss
Fletcher (Handb. of Amer. Inds., 1907, pt. i. p. 501) notes,
the ordinance of Congress passed in 1787 respecting the duty
of the United States to the Indian tribes, which was confirmed
by the act of 1789, was reaffirmed in the organizing acts of
Alabama, Colorado, Dakota, Idaho, Illinois, Iowa, Kansas,
Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada,
Oregon, Wisconsin and Wyoming.
The Land Severally Law of 1887 (amended 1890) provided
for the survey of reservations and the allotment to each person
of a tract ranging from 40 to 160 acres, the remainder being sold
to white settlers. The process of dividing the Indian lands
into individual allotments and disposing of the remainder for
the benefit of the tribe or the nation has been very successful
in many cases. This policy has culminated in a recent decision
of the United States Supreme Court, by virtue of which all
Indians living upon their own allotments were declared to be
citizens, on the same terms and subject to the same laws as the
whites.
During the period 1609-1664, from the visit of Hudson to the
surrender of New Amsterdam to the English, the Dutch exercised
not a little influence upon the aborigines of the present state of
New York and some of the regions adjoining. Hudson's harsh
treatment of the natives caused the Dutch trouble later on. Through
their trading-post of Fort Orange (now Albany) they came into
contact with both Iroquoian and Algonkian tribes, carrying on an
extensive trade in furs with some of them, including the New England
Pequots. They sided with the Iroquois against the northern
Algonkian tribes, but also aided the Mohegans against the Mohawks.
Farther south they helped the Senecas against the Munsees. Their
quarrels with the English involved many of the Indian tribes on
one side or the other. They have been generally condemned for
their readiness to furnish the Indians with firearms and intoxi-
cating liquors, though some of these actions were doubtless per-
formed by individual traders and settlers only and cannot be charged
to a deliberate policy of the government. The modern title of
Kara, given by the Canadian Iroquois to the governor-general
(also to the king of England), is a corruption of Conner, the name of
a Dutch trusted manager of Rensselaercoyck (cf. the Iroquois name
for the French governor, Onon/to = Montmagny).
German influence among the American Indians north of Mexico
has made itself felt among the Eskimo (particularly in Labrador),
the Delawares and Mohegans, the Iroquois and the Cherokee, where
the Moravian missionaries did much good work. They influenced
the Indians for peace and good conduct during the great wars.
In Labrador the dress, habitations and beliefs of the Eskimo have
been considerably modified. It is said by some that Sequoyah,
the inventor of the " Cherokee alphabet," had for father a German
settler.
The great influence of the Spaniards upon the American Indians
has been treated by Blackmar in his Spanish Institutions in the
South-west, and by Lummis, Bourke, Hodge and other authorities.
The results of Spanish contact and control are seen in the loan-
words in the various languages of the region, the consequences of
the introduction of domestic animals (horse, mule, sheep, goat,
fowls), the perfection of the arts involved in the utilization of wool,
the planting of wheat, the cultivation of peaches and other exotic
fruits. The difference between the Navaho and their close kinsmen
the Apache may be largely attributed to changes wrought by the
coming of the Spaniards. The " Mission Indians " of California
represent another great point of contact. In California thousands
and thousands of Indians were converted and brought under the
control of the able and devoted missionaries of the Catholic Church,
only to become more or less utterly helpless when Spanish domina-
tion ceased and the missions fell into decay. Traces of Spanish
influence may be found as far north as the Saskatchewan, where
personal names implying origin from a Mexican captive occur;
and there is not a little Spanish blood in some of the tribes of the
Great Plains, who often took with them from their border raids, or
acquired from other tribes, many white prisoners from Mexico, &c.
In Alaska the influence of Russian sailors, traders and settlers
during the period of occupancy was considerable, as was also that
of the priests and missionaries of the Greek Church, but much of
what was thus imposed upon the aborigines has now been modified
or is being submerged by the more recent influences of the English-
speaking settlers, miners, &c., and the efforts of the American
government to educate and improve them. The influence 'of the
Russians extended even to California, as the name " Russian River "
would indicate, and Friederici (Schiffahrt der Indianer, 1907, p. 46)
even thinks that to them is due the sporadic occurrence in that
region of skin-boats. It was through the Russians that the Alaskan
Eskimo received tobacco. Some Russian words have crept into
certain of the Indian languages. It has been said that the Russian
authorities from time to time transported a few Indians over-sea
to Kamchatka, &c.
The general question of the relations of the Europeans in North
America with the Indians has been treated by various authors,
one of the most recent being Friederici, whose Indianer und Ameri-
kaner (Brunswick, 1900) is perhaps a little too prejudiced.
The contact between the races in North America has had
its darker side, seen in the numerous conflicts and
that have marked the conquest of the continent by
the whites and the resistance of the weaker people
to the inevitable triumph of the stronger. The
following sketch of the warlike relations of various Indian stocks
with the European colonists and their descendants brings out
the principal facts of historic interest.
Eskimoan. — The history of warfare between the European colonists
(and their descendants) and the North American aborigines begins
with the conflict of Eskimo and Northmen in Greenland, the last
phase of which, in the first half of the I5th century, ended in the
destruction of the European settlements and the loss of knowledge
of the Eskimo to the Old World till they were rediscovered by
Frobisher in 1576 and Davis in 1585. Then came a new series of
small conflicts in which the whites have been the chief aggressors —
whalers, sealers and other adventurers. In the extreme north-west
the Aleuts were very harshly treated by the Russians, and one of
the most recent deeds of brutality has been the reported extermina-
tion, by irresponsible whalers, of the Eskimo of Southampton Island
in Hudson's Bay.
Algonkian and Iroquoian, — Southward, along the Atlantic coast,
the period of actual settlement by the whites in large numbers was
preceded by numerous conflicts with the Algonkian Indians in which
all too often the whites (adventurers, fishermen, &c.) were princi-
pally at fault, the natives being sometimes carried off as slaves to
Spain and elsewhere in Europe. When Champlain, very shortly
after the founding of Quebec, decided to help his Algonkian neigh-
bours against their Iroquoian enemies, an alliance was entered upon
which had much to do with the final defeat of France in North
America. The battle fought and won by Champlain near Ticon-
deroga in 1609 made the Iroquois the lasting antagonists of the
French, and, since the former held a large portion of what is now
the state of New York, the latter were effectually prevented from
annihilating or destroying the English colonies to the south. The
Iroquois alliance with the English in New York was preceded by
wars "
Indian
wars.
INDIAN WARS]
INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN
477
one with the Dutch. Another result of the feud between the Iroquois
and the French was the destruction of the confederacy of the Hurons,
themselves a people of Iroquoian stock, established in the region
between Lakes Ontario, Erie and Huron, over a large portion of
what is now the province of Ontario, although the antagonism
between Hurons and Iroquois had existed even before the coming
of Carder and the inevitable conflict had already begun. As an
outcome of Champlain's visit to the country of the Hurons in 1615
the Jesuit missionaries had established themselves among these
Indians and for thirty-five years laboured with a devotion and
sacrifice almost unparalleled in the history of the continent. The
struggle ended in the campaign of 1648-1649, in which the Iroquois
destroyed the Huron settlements ana practically exterminated the
people, the French priests in many cases having suffered martyrdom
in the most cruel fashion at the hands of the savage conquerors.
Such of the Hurons as succeeded in escaping took refuge in some
of the safer French settlements or found shelter among friendly
Indian tribes farther west. Some of these refugees have their
descendants among the Hurons of Lorette to-day and among the
Wyandots of Oklahoma. The Tionontati (Tobacco Nation) Hurons
continued the struggle for some time longer, a battle being fought
in 1659 on the Ottawa above Montreal, in which the Iroquois were
victorious and the Huron chief slain. As late as 1747-1748 some
of the Hurons, who had taken refuge in the west, under Urontony,
a wily and unscrupulous chief, who was offended at certain actions
of the French, entered into a conspiracy with many Algonkian tribes
of the region to destroy the French posts at Detroit, &c., which,
however, proved unsuccessful, the plot being revealed through the
treachery of a Huron woman. A notable event in the French-
Iroquois wars was the attack on Montreal in 1689. After the
coming of Frontenac as governor of Canada the wars between the
French and English involved some of the Indian tribes more and
more, on one side or the other, the Mohawks especially, who took
part against the French, being famous for their raids from the region
of Ohio to far into New Brunswick. During the French war and
the American War of Independence the Algonkian and Iroquoian
Indians serving on both sides were in part or wholly responsible for
numerous massacres and other acts of barbarity, though the whites
sometimes showed themselves fully the equals of the savages they
condemned.
In New England the most notable conflicts were " the Peguot
war " of 1637-1638 and " King Philip's war " of 1675-1676, the latter
resulting in the overthrow of a powerful confederacy, which at one
time threatened the very existence of the colony, and the practical
extermination of the Indians concerned, after great havoc had been
wrought by them in the white settlements. New England also
suffered much from Indian " wars " instigated by the French, and
at Caughnawaga and other Iroquois settlements in French Canada
there is much white blood resulting from the adoption of captives
taken away (e.g. at Marlboro and Deerfield, Mass., in 1703-1704)
in raids on New England villages. Celebrated in the annals of war
are the Algonkian chiefs Tecumseh (Shawnee), who aided the
British in the war of 1812, and Pontiac (Ottawa), whose remarkable
conspiracy of 1763 has been studied by Parkman; of noted Iroquoian
chiefs and warriors may be mentioned Joseph Brant, who fought
for the British in the War of Independence, and Logan, ill-famed
for his barbarities perpetrated against the border settlements on
the Ohio, 1775-1780, &c.
In Virginia the future of the English colony was not absolutely
assured much before 1620. From the founding of Jamestown in
1607 until about 1616 the colony was in more or less danger of
extinction by starvation or destruction at the hands of the Indians.
The most famous and romantic of the Indian wars of Virginia was
that in which Captain John Smith was concerned in the days of
Powhatan and Opechancanough, when his rescue by Pocahontas is
said to have taken place. Under Opechancanough massacres of the
English settlers took place in 1622 and 1644 in particular, while
intermittent hostilities continued between these dates, many
hundreds of whites being slain by the Powhatan Indians and their
confederates of Algonkian stock. As a result of wars with the
English and also with other Indian tribes, many of the Algonkian
peoples of Virginia, like some of the Iroquoian peoples farther
south, were by the end of the I7th century greatly reduced in
numbers. In the Carolinian region the Iroquoian Cherokee warred
against the English colonists from 1759 until the War of Inde-
pendence, and continued their struggle then against the Americans
until 1794. After their forcible removal west of the Mississippi
in 1838-1839 no serious hostilities occurred, with the exception of a
conflict between the whites and a portion of the Cherokee, who had
earlier moved into eastern Texas while that state was under the
Mexican regime. The Tuscarora were in frequent conflict with the
English, particularly in the " Tuscarora war ' of 1713-14.
Of Algonkian tribes farther west the Cheyenne began conflicts with
the whites about 1840, made their first incursion into Mexico in
1 853, and between 1860 and 1878-1879, according to Mooney, " they
were prominent in border warfare . . . and have probably lost more
in conflict with the whites than any other tribe of the plains in
groportion to their number." They participated in the " Sitting
ull war " of 1876.
The Chippewa of the north-western United States in the latter
half of the i8th century and till the close of the war of 1812 kept up
warfare with the border settlements, but have been generally
peaceful since 1815, when a treaty was made. The only serious
outbreak among the Cree, who have been generally friendly to the
whites from the period of first contact, occurred during the Riel
" rebellion " of 1885, but was soon settled. In the latter part of
the 1 8th century (up to the treaty of Greenville, 1795) the Delaware!
took a prominent part in opposing the advance of the whites.
The Kickapoos were concerned in the Indian plot to destroy the fort
at Detroit in 1712, and a hundred years later they aided the English
against the Americans; in 1832 numbers of them helped Black
Hawk in his war against the whites. The Micmac were long hostile
to the English, being prominent as aids to the French in the New
England wars, and it was not until about 1779 or long after the
French cession that conflicts between these Indians and the whites
came to an end. The Mississaguas fought with the Iroquois against
the French about 1750, having soon become friendly with the English
and remaining so. The Ottawa were prominent in the wars of the
region about Detroit from 1750 till 1815. Pontiac, whose " con-
spiracy " of 1763 is noted in American history, was an Ottawa chief.
The Penobscot, as friends of the French, continued their attacks on
the English settlements till about 1750. The Sacs and Foxes appear
early in the 1 8th century as antagonists of the French (a rare thing
among Algonkian peoples) and they were the instigators of the nearly
successful attack on Detroit in 1712. In the war of 1812 most of
these Indians sided with the British. Black Hawk, the chief figure
in the "war" of 1831-1832, was a Sac and Fox chief, who
endeavoured to engage all the Indian tribes of the region in a general
alliance against the whites. The Shawnees were prominent in the
border warfare of the Ohio region, and their famous chief Tecumseh
fought for the British in the war of 1812.
Athabaskan. — The Athabaskan tribes of the far north, with the
exception of occasional disputes with the traders and settlers, have
generally been of a peaceful disposition, and " wars " with the
whites have not been recorded to any extent. The warlike members
of this stock have been the Apache and the Navaho. The Apache
from the middle of the l6th century have given evidence of their
instinct for raids and depredations on the frontiers of civilization.
In recent times the most noteworthy outbreaks were those under
Cochise, Victorio, Geronimo, Nana, Nakaidoklini, &c., between 1870
and 1886, in which several hundred whites in Mexico and New Mexico
were killed and much property destroyed. As late as 1900 some
of the hostile Apaches, who had escaped to the mountains, made a
raid on the Mormon settlers in Chihuahua, Mexico. The Navaho,
when New Mexico passed into the possession of the United States
in 1849, had long been in the habit of committing depredations upon
the white settlements and the Pueblos. These " wars " continued
till 1863, when " Kit " Carson completely defeated them and the
greater part of the tribe were made prisoners. Since their release
in 1867 they have thriven in peace, although occasionally serious
trouble has threatened, as, e.g., in November 1905.
Caddoan. — The Caddo proper were friendly to the French and
helped them against the Spaniards in the wars of the 1 8th century.
After the annexation of Texas the Indians were badly treated and
some of them made answer in kind; in 1855 a massacre of the
Indians was proposed by the whites. Since their forced march to
Oklahoma in 1859 they have been at peace. The Ankara had a
brief conflict with the United States authorities in 1823, as a result
of the killing of some traders. In the wars of the l8th century the
Kichai adhered to the cause of the French. The Pawnee seem
never to have warred against the United States, in spite of much
provocation at times.
Californian Stocks. — Such " wars " as are recorded, for the most
part between the minor Californian stocks and the whites, have been
largely directly or indirectly instigated by the latter for various
Curposes of gain. The Lutuamian stock is remarkable as furnishing
oth the Klamath, who have always kept peace with the whites,
and the Modoc, who are well known through the " Modoc war "
of 1872-73 under the leadership of their chief, Kintpuash or
" Captain Jack."
Kiowan. — The Indians of the Kiowan stock joined with the
Comanche, Apache, &c., in the border wars in Texas and Mexico,
and, according to Mooney, " among all the prairie tribes they were
noted as the most predatory and bloodthirsty, and have probably
killed more white men in proportion to their numbers than any other. '
They have been on their present reservation since 1868, and the
only outbreak of importance latterly occurred in 1874-75, when
they joined with the Comanche, Cheyenne, &c.
Muskogian. — This stock has furnished some of the most warlike
Indians of the continent. The Chickasaw were friendly to the
English, or rather hostile to the French, in the 1 8th century (war of
1736-40), and their action practically settled the question of the
extension of French power in this region. The Choctaw aided the
French in the wars of the i8th century, and a few Indians of this
tribe participated in the " Creek War " of 1813-14. The Creeks or
Muskogees are famous on account of the terrible war of 1813-14 in
which they sustained overwhelming defeat. Earlier they were
hostile to the Spaniards in Florida, and during the i8th century
were generally friendly to the English, particularly in the " Apalachee
war " of 1703-08, when they served under Governor Moore of
INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN
[MISSIONS
Carolina. Another Muskogian people, the Seminole, are remembered
for the long and bloody " Seminole War " in Florida, 1835-45,
in which many atrocities were committed.
Sahaptian.— The Indians of this stock have been generally very
friendly to the whites, and the only notable " war " occurred in 1877,
when the Nez Percys, under their famous chief, Joseph, resisted
being confined to their reservation in Idaho. Joseph displayed
wonderful generalship; he defeated the American troops several
times, and finally executed a most remarkable retreat, over 1000 m.,
in an attempt to reach Canadian territory. This was foiled within
a short distance of the boundary, and the entire force surrendered
to Colonel Miles on October 5, 1877.
Shoshonian. — North of Mexico this great stock has developed
several warlike peoples. Trouble with the Bannock occurred in
,8^7-78, resulting from the encroachment of the whites at the time
of the Nez Perces war, the killing of several settlers, scarcity of food,
&c. The outbreak was ended by a campaign under General Howard
in which many Indians, men, women and children, were killed and
some one thousand taken prisoners. The Comanche, through a long
period of more than 150 years after the Spanish occupation, kept up
a continual series of raids and depredations upon the settlements of
the whites in Mexico, &c. Their general friendly attitude towards
Americans in later years did not extend to the Texans, with whom
for more than thirty years they indulged in savage warfare. They
often entered into warlike alliance with the Apache, the Kiowa, &c.
After the outbreak of 1874-75 they settled down for good. The
leader in this " war " was Quana Parker, a half-blood Comanche,
who, after the matter was settled, accepted broadly the new order of
things and became " the most prominent and influential figure among
the three confederated tribes (Mooney). The Paiute, Shoshonees
(Snakes) and Utes have figured in several more or less temporary
outbreaks since 1865.
Siouan. — This great stock has had its celebrated antagonists of
the whites as wel| as its famous combatants of other Indian tribes.
The Dakota (or Sioux) were unfriendly to the French for aiding their
enemies, the Chippewa, and after the fall of French power in America
in 1763, they allied themselves with the English and assisted them
in the War of Independence and the war of 1812, with few exceptions.
After the treaty of peace in 1815 various minor troubles occurred,
but in 1862 the Indians in Minnesota rose under Chief Little Crow
and committed terrible barbarities against the settlers, some 800
whites being killed before the revolt was put down. The gold-fever
of the whites in Dakota, where the Indians had settled down, pre-
cipitated a formidable outbreak in 1876 under the leadership of
Sitting Bull, Crazy Horse, Spotted Tail and other chiefs. The most
notable event of this " war " was the so-called " massacre " (properly
cutting-off) of General Custer and his cavalry at the battle of Little
Bighorn on June 25, 1876. When the " GhostDance " was prevalent
among so many Indian tribes of the Plains in 1890-1891 another
serious rising of the Sioux took place, which was put down by General
Miles. Sitting Bull was killed (December 15,1890) ; and resistance to
an attempt to disarm a large party of I ndiansat Wounded Knee Creek,
near the Pine Ridge Agency, resulted (December 29) in a deplorable
massacre, in which many women and children were killed The
story of these Sioux outbreaks and the guiltiness of the whites with
respect to them has been told authoritatively by Mooney (i4th Ann.
Rep. Bur. Ethnol., 1892-1893). At one time these troubles threatened
to involve the Canadian Indians of the region adjacent. The
Catawba of South Carolina, in the wars of the 1 8th century, aided
the English against the French, the Tuscaroras (war of 1713-14)
and the Lake tribes. They sided with the Americans during the
War of Independence. The Osage were friendly with the French early
in the l8th century and fought with them against the Sacs and
Foxes at Detroit in 1714.
Pueblos. — After the Spanish conquest of the Pueblos Indians of
Arizona and New Mexico the most remarkable effort of the natives
to throw off the foreign yoke was in the general revolt of 1680 under
the leadership of Pope of San Juan. At that time among the Moqui
(Shoshonian) the missionaries were killed, the churches laid in ruins,
&c., and similar events occurred elsewhere in the Pueblos region.
For this the Spaniards subsequently took ample vengeance. The
Pueblos Indians in general have never taken too kindly to the whites ;
and to-day at the Moqui pueblo of Oraibi there exist a " Hostile "
and a " Friendly " faction, the first bitterly opposed to the Caucasian
and all his ways, the latter more liberal-minded, but Indian none the
less. An open rupture nearly took place in 1906.
In Canada, since the organization of the Dominion in 1867, Indian
wars have been unknown, and Indian outbreaks of any sort rare.
In 1890 an outbreak of the Kootenays was threatened, but it
amounted to nothing— the present writer traversed all parts of the
Kootenay country in 1891 in perfect safety. Occasional " risings "
have been reported from the Canadian North-West and British
Columbia, but have amounted to little or nothing. In the matter
of war it should be noted that some Indian stocks have been essenti-
ally peaceful, and have resorted to force only when driven beyond
endurance or treated with outrageous injustice. Again, within the
same stock one tribe has shown itself peaceable, another quite war-
like (e.g. Klamath and Modoc, both Lutuamian; the Hares and the
Apache, both Athabaskan). Probably the amount and extent of
wars existing north of Mexico in Pre-Columbian times were not as
large as is generally stated. The introduction of fire-arms, European-
made weapons, the horse, &c., and the development of ideas of pro-
perty made possible through these, doubtless stimulated intertribal
disputes and increased the actual number of warlike enterprises.
Over a large portion of the continent " wars " were nearly always
initiated and carried out by a portion only of the tribe, which often
had its permanent " peace party."
The missionary labours of the various Christian churches
among the North American aborigines have been ably summarized
by Mooney in the Handbook of American Indians
North of Mexico (pt. i. 1907, pp. 874-909). Besides ^'"^"
the famous Relation des Jesuites (ed. Thwaites, 1896- cation.
1901) there are now special mission histories for the
Baptists, Congregationalists, Episcopalians, Lutherans, Men-
nonites, Methodists, Moravians, Mormons. Presbyterians,
Quakers, Roman Catholics (also the various orders, &c.), who
have all paid much attention to Christianizing and civilizing
the Indians. To-day" practically every tribe officially recognized
within the United States is under the missionary influence of
some religious denomination, workers of several denominations
frequently labouring in the same tribe." Something of the same
sort might be said of trje Indians of Canada, whose religion
(that of 76,319 out of 110,345 altogether reported, is known)
is given as follows in the Report of the Department of Indian
Affairs for 1907: Roman Catholics 35,682; Anglicans 15,380;
Methodists 11,620; Presbyterians 1527; Baptists 1103;
Congregationalists 18; and other denominations 597; besides
10,347 pagans. All the Indians of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick,
and Prince Edward Island, are Catholics; in Quebec there are
but 678 Protestants (mostly Methodist); in Ontario there are
6173 Catholics to 1030 Baptists, 4626 Methodists, 5306 Anglicans,
18 Congregationalists and 34 Presbyterians. The Indians of
British Columbia number 11,529 Catholics, 4304 Anglicans,
3277 Methodists and 431 Presbyterians; those of Manitoba,
1780 Catholics, 1685 Methodists, 382 Presbyterians and 3103
Anglicans; those of Saskatchewan and Alberta 4249 Catholics,
1527 Methodists, 719 Presbyterians, 2549 Anglicans. In some
of the tribes and settlements both in Canada and in the United
States missionary activities, the influence of individual white
men, &c., have led to a great diversity of religious faith, some-
times within comparatively limited areas. Thus in the Mistawasis
band of Cree, belonging to the Carlton Agency, province of
Saskatchewan, numbering but 129, there are 6 Anglicans,
86 Presbyterians and 37 Catholics; in the Oak River band of
Sioux in Manitoba there are 60 Anglicans, i Presbyterian,
13 Methodists, 4 Catholics and 195 pagans out of a total of
273. Among the " Six Nations " and the larger Indian peoples
of Oklahoma all the leading Christian sects, besides the Salvation
Army, the Christian Scientists, the Mormons and the " New
Thought " movement are represented. There are also the
" Navaho New Faith," the " Shaker Church " of Washington,
&c. The history of missionary labours in North America among
the aborigines contains stories of disappointment and disaster
as well as chronicles of success. Some peoples, like the Timu-
quans, the Apalachee, the Pakawan tribes, &c., have been con-
verted only to disappear altogether; other great attempts at
colonization or " reduction," like the missions of Huronia and
California, succeeded for the time on a grand scale, but have
fallen victims sooner or later to the fortunes of war, the changes
of politics, or their own mechanism and its inherent weaknesses
and defects. But the thousands of good church-members,
including many ministers of the Gospel, in Canada and the
United States, coming from scores of different tribes and many
distinct stocks, no less than the general good conduct of so
many Indian nations, are a remarkable tribute to the work
done by Catholic and Protestant missionaries alike all over the
broad continent from the Mexican border to the snows of Green-
land and the islands of the Arctic. The martyrdom of the
Jesuits among the fierce Iroquois, the zeal of Duncan at
Metlakahtla, the fate of the Spanish friars in the Pueblos
rebellion of 1680 under Pope, the destruction of the Huron
missions in 1641-1649 and of those of the Apalachee in 1703,
the death of Whitman at the hands of the Cayuse in 1847, are
but a few of the notable events of mission history. The following
MISSIONS]
INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN
brief accounts of missionary labours among one or two of the
chief Indian stocks and in a few of the chief areas of the continent
will serve to indicate their general character.
Californian Indians. — Beginning with the foundation by Father
Junipero Serra in 1769 of San Diego de Alcala, and ending with that
of San Francisco Solano in 1823, there were established, from beyond
San Francisco Bay to the River Colorado, twenty-three missions of
the Catholic faith among the Indians of California, whose direct
influence lasted until the " secularization " of the missions and the
expulsion of the friars by the Mexican government in 1834. In that
year the missions counted 30,650 Indians and produced 122,500
bushels of wheat and corn. They possessed also 42r4,ooo cattle,
62,500 horses and mules, 321,900 sheep, goats, hogs, &c. The
mission-buildings of brick and stone contained besides religious
houses and chapels, school-rooms and workshops for instruction
in arts and industries, and were surrounded by orchards, vineyards
and farms. Here Indians of diverse linguistic stocks were " reduced "
and " civilized," and their labour fully utilized by the mission-
fathers. But, in the words of Mooney (Handb. of Amer. Inds.
pt. i., 1907, p. 895), " Despite regular life, abundance of food and
proper clothing according to the season, the Indian withered away
under the restrictions of civilization supplemented by epidemic
diseases introduced by the military garrisons or the seal-hunters
along the coast. The death-rate was so enormous, in spite of
apparent material advancement, that it is probable that the former
factor alone would have brought about the extinction of the missions
within a few generations." Some of the missions had but a few
hundred Indians, some, however, as high as three thousand.
Kroeber thinks that their influence was " probably greater tempor-
ally than spiritually." After the " secularization " of the missions
decay soon set in, which the American occupation of California
later on did nothing to remedy, and the native population rapidly
decreased. When the supervision of the missionaries no longer
sustained them the Indians fell to pieces and the practical results
of seventy years of labour and devotion were lost. In 1908 there
remained of the " Mission Indians " less than 3000 individuals
(belonging to the Shoshonian and Yuman stocks), whose condition
was none too satisfactory, the only human relics of the huge attempt
at the " reduction " of the Indian that was planned and carried out
in California.
Iroquoian. — The French missions among the Hurons began in
1615-1616 with Father le Caron of the Recollect order; those of the
Jesuits with Father Brebceuf in 1626. These missions flourished,
in spite of wars and other adverse circumstances, till the invasion
of the Huron country in Ontario by the Iroquois in 1641 and again
in 1649 brought about their destruction and the dispersal of the
Hurons who were not slain or carried off as prisoners by_ the victors.
Some took refuge among neighbouring friendly tribes; others
settled finally at Lorette near Quebec, &c. The Wyandots, now in
Oklahoma, are another fragment of the scattered Hurons. The
Hurons of Lorette numbered in 1908, I Anglican, 6 Presbyterians
and 459 Catholics. The Wyandots of Oklahoma are largely Pro-
testants. The mission among the Mohawks of New York was estab-
lished in 1642 by Father Jogues(afterwards martyred by the Indians),
and in 1653 the church at Onondaga was built, while during the next
few years missions were organized among the Oneida, Cayuga and
Seneca, to cease during the warlike times of 1658-66, after which
they were again established among these tribes. The mission of
St Francois Xavier des Pr6 (La Prairie), out of which came the
modern Caughnawaga, was founded in 1669, and here gathered many
Christian Iroquois of various tribes — Mohawk especially. About
this time the Iroquois settlement on the Bay of Quinte, Ontario, was
formed by Christian Mohawks, Cayugas, &c. The Lake of the Two
Mountains mission dates from 1720, that of St Regis from 1756.
Another mission at Oswegatchie, founded in 1748, was abandoned
in 1807. The Episcopal missions among the Iroquois began early
in the i8th century, the Mohawks being the first tribe influenced,
about 1700. The extension of the work among the other Iroquoian
tribes was aided by Sir William Johnson in the last half of the century
and by Chief Joseph Brant, especially after the removal of those of
the Iroquois who favoured the British to Canada at the close of the
War of Independence. In 1776 the Congregationalists established
a mission among the New York Oneida, and later continued their
labours also among the Oneida of Wisconsin. The Congregational
mission among the New York Seneca began in 1831. In 1791-1798,
at the request of Chief Cornplanter, the Pennsylvania Quakers
established missions among the Oneida, Tuscarora and Seneca.
The Moravian missions among the New York Onondaga were estab-
lished under the Rev. David Zeisberger about 1745. The Methodist
missions among the Ontario Iroquois date from 1820. Of the " Six
Nations " Indians of the Grand river, Ontario, the Cayuga and
Onondaga are still "pagan," the oth'ers being Anglican, Methodist
and other denominations, including Seventh DayAdventists, Salva-
tion Army, &c. Among the New York Iroquois great variety of
religious faith also exists, the Presbyterians (largest), Methodists,
Episcopalians and Baptists being all represented. The Iroquois
of Caughnawaga and St Regis are mainly Catholic ; at Caughnawaga
there is, however, a Methodist school.
479
Muskogian — Several tribes of this stock came under the influence
oi the missions established by the Spanish friars along the Atlantic
coast after the founding of St Augustine in 1565. The missionaries
in this region were chiefly Franciscans, who succeeded the Jesuits.
Ihey were very successful among the Apalachee, but these Indiana
were constantly subject to attack by the Yamasi, Creek, Catawba
and other savage peoples, and in 1703-1704 they were destroyed or
taken captive, and the missions came to an end. A few of the
survivors were gathered later at Pensacola for a time. In the early
Part of the i8th century French missions were established among
the Choctaw, Natchez, &c., and the Jesuits laboured among the
Alibamu from 1725 till their expulsion in 1764. From 1735 to 1739
the Moravians (beginning under Spangenberg) had a mission school
among the Yamacraw, a Creek tribe near Savannah. In 1831 a
1 resbytenan mission was established among the Choctaw on the
Yalabusha river in northern Mississippi, to which went in 1834 the
Key. Cyrus Byington, the Eliot mission over which he presided there
and in the Indian Territory till 1868 being one of great importance
Alter the removal of the Indians to the Indian Territory more missions
were established among the Choctaw, the Creek and the Seminole,
&c. the work was much interfered with by the Civil War of 1861-
65, but the mission work was afterwards reorganized. The Baptist
missions among the Choctaw began in 1832 and among the Creek in
i»39- I he Choctaw Academy," a high school, at Great Crossings,
Kentucky, chiefly for young men of the Choctaw and Creek nations,
was founded in 1819 and continued for twenty-four years. In 1835
a Methodist mission was established among the Creek, but soon
riMu ' t0 be reo.rganized later on. Among the Indians of
Oklahoma, the Catholic and Mormon churches and practically all
the Protestant denominations, including the Salvation Army and
the Christian Scientists, are now represented by churches, schools,
missions, &c. The missionaries among the Muskogian tribes during
n-l,- half of the I8th century. as may be seen from Filling's
Bibliography of the Muskhogean Languages (1889), furnished many
able students of Indian tongues, whose researches have been of great
value in philology. This is true likewise of labourers in the mission-
he d among the Algonkian, Iroquoian, Athabaskan, Siouan and
bahshan tribes and among the Eskimo. The celebrated " Eliot
Bible," the translation (1663) of the scriptures into the language of
the Algonkian Indians of Massachusetts, made by the Rev. John
Eliot (q.v.), is a monument of missionary endeavour and prescientific
study of the aboriginal tongues. In his work Eliot, like many other
missionaries, had the assistance of several Indians. The names of
such mission-workers as Egede, Kleinschmidt, Fabricius, Erdmann,
Kohlmeister, Bruyas, Zeisberger, Dencke, Rasles, Gravier, Men-
garmi, Giorda, Worcester, Byington, Wright, Riggs, Dorsey .William-
son, Voth, Eells, Pandosy, Veniaminov, Barnum, AndriS, Mathevet,
Thavenet, Cuoq, Sagard, O'Meara, Jones, Wilson, Rand, Lacombe,
Petitot, Maclean, Hunter, Horden, Kirkby, Watkins, Tims, Evans,
Morice, Hall, Harrison, Legoff, Bompas, Peck, &c., are familiar to
students of the aboriginal tongues of America.
When in 1900 the withdrawal by the United States of govern-
ment aid to denominational schools occurred, it compelled some
of the weaker churches to give up such work altogether, and
interfered much with the activities of some of the stronger
ones. According to the statistics given by Mooney (Handb. of
Amer. Inds., 1907, pt. i. p. 897) the Catholic Church had in
1904 altogether, under the care of the Jesuits, Franciscans
and Benedictines, &c., and the sisters of the orders of St Francis,
St Anne, St Benedict, St Joseph, Mercy and Blessed Sacrament,
" 178 Indian churches and chapels served by 152 priests; 71
boarding and 26 day schools with 109 teaching priests, 384
sisters and 138 other religious or secular teachers and school
assistants." The Catholic mission work is helped by " the
Preservation Society, the Marquette League and by the liberality
of Mother Katharine Drexel, founder of the order of the Blessed
Sacrament for negro and Indian mission work." The corre-
sponding statistics for the chief Protestant churches were as
follows: —
Denomination.
Missions and
Churches.
Missionaries.
Schools.
Baptist
Congregationalist
Episcopalian .
Friends
Mennonite
Methodist
Moravian .
Presbyterian .
14
10
'4
10
5
3
IOI
15
12
28
'I
40
3
69
4
5
17
i
0
i
o
32
Total . . .
157
188
60
This is exclusive of Alaska, where Greek Orthodox (18 ministers in
480
INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN
[MISSIONS
1902), Roman Catholics (12 Jesuits and lay brothers and 1 1 sisters
of St Anne in 190:3), Moravians (5 mission stations with 13 workers
and 21 native assistants among the Eskimo in 1903), Episcopalians
(31 workers, white and native, 13 churches, I boarding and 7 day
schools in 1903), Presbyterians (a dozen stations and several schools)
Baptists, Methodists (several stations), Swedish Evangelical (severa
stations), Friends (several missions), Congregationalists (mission
school) and Lutherans (orphanage), all are labouring.
Before the advent of the whites the children of the North
American aborigines " had their own systems of education
through which the young were instructed in their coming
labours and obligations, embracing not only the whole round
of economic pursuits — hunting, fishing, handicraft, agriculture
and household work — but speech, fine art, customs, etiquette,
social obligations and tribal lore " (Mason). Parents, grand-
parents, the elders of the tribe, " priests," &c., were teachers
boys coming early under the instruction of their male relatives
and girls under that of their female relatives. Among some tribes
special " teachers " of some of the arts existed and with certain
of the more developed peoples, such as some of the Iroquoian
and Siouan tribes, both childhood and the period of puberty
received special attention. Playthings, toys and children's
games were widespread. Imitation of the arts and industries
of their elders began early, and with not a few tribes there were
" secret societies," &c., for children and fraternities of various
sorts, which they were allowed to join, thus receiving early
initiation into social and religious ideas and responsibility in
the tribal unit. Corporal punishment was little in vogue,
the Iroquois e.g. condemning it as bad for the soul as well as
the body. Appeals to the feelings of pride, shame, self-esteem,
&c., were commonly made. As the treatment of the youth at
puberty by the Omaha e.g. indicates, there was among some
tribes distinct recognition of individuality, and the young Indian
acquired his so-called " totem " or " guardian spirit " individually
and not tribally. In some tribes, however, the tribal conscious-
ness overpowered altogether children and youth. With the
Indian, as with all other young human beings, " unconscious
absorption " played its important role. Parental affection
among some of the peoples north of Mexico reached as high a
degree as with the whites, and devices for aiding, improving
and amusing infants and children were innumerable. Some
of the " beauty makers," however, amounted to rather serious
deformations, though often no worse than those due to the
corset, the use of uncouth foot-wear, premature factory labour,
&c., in civilized countries.
Interesting details of Indian child-life and education are to be
found in books like Eastman's Indian Boyhood (1902), Jenks' Child-
hood of Jishib the Ojibwa (1900), Spencer's Education of the Pueblo
Child (1889), La Flesche's The Middle Five (1901), Stevenson's
Religious Education of the Zuni Child (1887), and in the writings of
Miss A. C. Fletcher, J. O. Dorsey, J. Mooney, W. M. Beauchamp, &c,
besides the accounts of missionaries and travellers of the better sort.
Outside of missions proper there were many efforts made by
the colonists to educate the Indians. It is an interesting fact,
emphasized by James in his English Institutions and the American
Indian (1894), that several institutions still existing, and now
of large influence in the educational world of the United States
and Canada, had their origin in whole or in part in the desire
to Christianize and to educate the aborigines, which object
was mentioned in charters (e.g. Virginia in 1606 and again in
1621), &c. Sums of money were also left for the purposes of
educating Indian children and youth, many of whom were sent
over to England for that purpose, by colonists who adopted
them (one such was Sampson Occum, minister and author of
the hymn, " Awaked by Sinai's Awful Sound "). In 1618
Henrico College in Virginia was founded, where Indian youth
were taught religion, " civility " and a trade. It was succeeded
by the College of William and Mary (founded in 1691 with the
aid of a benefaction of Robert Boyle), where Indian youth
were boarded and received their education for many years. The
great university of Harvard has long outgrown " the Indian
college at Cambridge," whose single graduate Cheeshateaumuck,
took his degree in 1665, but died afterwards of consumption.
But its original charter provided for all things " that may
conduce to the education of the English and Indian youth of
this country in knowledge and godliness." Since Cheeshateau-
muck's time, doubtless, there have been graduates of Harvard
who could boast of Indian blood in their veins (e.g. recently
William Jones, the ethnologist), but they have been few anJ far
between. Dartmouth College, at Hanover, New Hampshire,
founded in 1754, really grew out of Wheelock's Indian school
at Lebanon, Connecticut — at this period there were several
such schools in New England, &c. In the royal charter, granted
to Dartmouth in 1769, is the provision " that there be a College
erected in our said Province of New Hampshire, by the name
of Dartmouth College, for the education and instruction of Youth
of the Indian Tribes in this Land, in reading, writing and all
parts of Learning which shall appear necessary and expedient
for civilizing and christianizing children of pagans, as well as
in all liberal Arts and Sciences, and also of English Youth and
any other." The college of New Jersey long served as one of
the institutions for the education of Indian youth. A glimpse
of Indians at Princeton is given by Collins (Princeton Univ.
Bull., 1902) in his account of the attempt to confer an academic
education, at the end of the i8th century, upon Thomas Killbuck
and his cousin, George -Bright-eyes, son of a Delaware chief,
and a descendant of Taimenend, eponym of the political
" Tammany." It would seem that at this period the states and
Congress were in the habit of granting moneys for the education
of individual Indians at various institutions.
At the present time the most noteworthy institutions for the
education of the Indian in the United States are the Chilocco
Indian Industrial school, under government auspices, in Kay
county, Oklahoma, near Arkansas city, Kansas; the Carlisle
school (government) at Carlisle, Pa.; and the Hampton Normal
and Agricultural Institute (private, but subsidized by the
government), at Hampton, Va.
The Chilocco school is, in many respects, a model institution for
Indian youth of both sexes, devoted to " agriculture and attendant
industries." It was opened in 1884 with 186 pupils, and in 1906
the attendance was 685 out of an enrolment of 700. There are 35
buildings, and the corps of instruction, &c., consists of " a super-
intendent, 51 principal employes and 20 minor Indian assistants."
The Carlisle school, " the first non-reservation school established
by the government," whose origin is due to " the efforts of General
R. H. Pratt, when a lieutenant in charge of Indian prisoners of war
at St Augustine, Florida, from May n, 1875, to April 14, 1878,"
was opened in November 1879 with 147 Indians, including II Florida
prisoners; it had in 1906 an enrolment of over 1000 pupils of both
sexes, under both white and Indian teachers, and an average attend-
ance of 981. In 1906 there were in attendance members of 67 tribes,
representing at least 22 distinct linguistic stocks. According to
J. H. Dortch (Handb. of Amer. Inds., 1907, pt. i. p. 207), " since the
foundation of the school nearly every tribe in the United States has
had representatives on its rolls." The following statistics, cited by
Mr Dortch, indicate both the success of the school in general and of
the " outing system " (pupils are allowed to work in temporary
homes, but keeping in close touch with the school), which " has
come to be a distinctive feature not only of the Carlisle school but
of the Indian school service generally ":
Admitted during 25 years 5>I7O
Discharged during 25 years 4,210
On rolls during fiscal year 1904 1,087
Outings, fiscal year 1904 (girls 426, boys 498) . 924
Outings during 21 years (girls 3214, boys 5118). 8,332
Students' earnings 1904 $34,97O
Students' earnings during 15 years .... $352,951
The staff of the school consists of a superintendent, 75 instructors,
clerks, &c. It has graduated " a large number of pupils, many of
whom are filling responsible positions in the business world, and
especially in the Indian service, in which, during the fiscal year 1903,
101 were employed in various capacities from teachers to labourers,
drawing a total of $46,300 in salaries." The Carlisle football team
competes with the chief white colleges and universities.
The Hampton Institute was established in 1868 by General S. C.
Armstrong and trains both Negroes and Indians, having admitted
:he latter since 1878. It is partly supported by the government of
/irginia and by the United States government, the latter paying
1167 a year for 120 Indian pupils, boys and girls (in 1906 there were
n attendance 112, of whom 57 were girls and 55 boys), belonging to
33 different tribes, representing 13 distinct linguistic stocks. The
ollowing extract from the report of the principal for 1905-1906
s of interest : " Fifteen catechists among the Sioux still hold their
own. There are two field-matrons an'd seven camp-school teachers,
ill coming into close touch with the more ignorant of the people.
pour are physicians getting their living from their white patients
TALENT AND CAPACITY] INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN
481
and doing more or less missionary work amon
William Jones has his degrees of A.M. and P
g their own people.
h.D., and is doing
valuable ethnological work for the Carnegie Institution, Columbia
University and the American Museum of Natural History in New
York. James Murie is assisting in similar work for the Field Museum
in Chicago. Hampton has but one Indian lawyer. There are about
50 students holding positions pretty steadily in government schools.
About 40 boys have employment at government agencies, 20 being
employed as clerks and interpreters, either at the agencies or at the
schools. Ten boys are working in machine shops at the north and
three are in the navy. A fair proportion are working on their farms ;
some have accumulated quite a little stock, and five are prosperous
cattlemen, seven boys have stores of their own and make a good
living from them." The Indian Department has now adopted the
policy of giving industrial training and household economy the chief
place in education, varying the instruction to suit the environment
m which the boy or girl is to grow up and live and not mixing the
needs of Alaska with those of California, or those of Dakota with those
of Florida.
In Canada the most notable institutions for the education
of the Indians are the Mohawk Institute at Brantford, Ontario;
the Mount Elgin Institute at Muncey, Ontario; the Brandon
Industrial school at Brandon, Manitoba; the Qu'Appelle
Industrial school at Lebret, Saskatchewan.
The Mohawk Institute is the oldest, having been founded in 1831
by the " New England Company," which began its work among the
Canadian Iroquois in 1822. It is undenominational, aided by a
government grant, and had in 1907 an average attendance of 106
out of an enrolment of 1 1 1 of both sexes. The Mount Elgin Industrial
Institute was founded by the Methodist Missionary Society in 1847,
and had an attendance for 1907 of 104 of both sexes. The Brandon
Industrial school, under Methodist auspices, had in 1907 an attend-
ance of 104 of both sexes. The Qu'Appelle Industrial school, under
Roman Catholic auspices, had an average attendance of 210 of both
sexes. All these schools receive government aid. As in the United
States, Indian teachers and assistants are often employed when
fitted for such labours.
The first appropriation by the Congress of the United States
for the general education of the Indians was made in 1819, when
the sum of $10,000 was assigned for that and closely allied
purposes, and by 1825 there were 38 schools among the Indians
receiving government aid, but government schools proper
date from 1873 (contract schools are four years older), the order
of their institution being day schools, reservation boarding
schools, then non-reservation boarding schools. In 1900 the
contract schools were practically abandoned and the Indian
appropriation devoted to government schools altogether.
Latterly some departure from this policy has occurred, following
a decision of the Supreme Court. In less than a century the
expenditure for Indian education increased from an annual
outlay of $10,000 to one of about $5,000,000, to which must
be added the expenditures from private sources, which are
considerable.
Exclusive of Alaska, there were in the United States in 1906,
according to the report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs,
324 Indian schools (government 261, mission 48, contract 15),
with an enrolment of 30,929 and an average attendance of
25,492 pupils, costing the government annually $3,115,953.
Of the government schools 25 were non-reservation and 90
reservation boarding schools, and 146 day schools; of the
mission schools 45 boarding and 3 day; of the contract schools
8 boarding and 6 public. The schools of a denominational
character belonged as follows: 29 to the Catholic Church,
5 to the Presbyterian, 4 to the Protestant Episcopal, 2 to the
Congregational, 2 to the Lutheran, and i each to the Evangelical
Lutheran, Reformed Presbyterian, Methodist, Christian Reformed
and Baptist. Besides there were in all 446 public schools on
or near reservations which Indians could attend.
In Canada, according to the report of the Department of
Indian Affairs for 1907, there was a total of 303 Indian schools
(day 226, boarding 55, industrial 22), of which 45 were unde-
nominational, 91 Church of England, 106 Roman Catholic,
44 Methodist and i Salvation Army. The total enrolment of
pupils was 9618, with an average attendance of 6138. In several
cases Indians attend white schools, not being counted in these
statistics. The total amount appropriated for Indian schools
during the year 1906-1907 was $356,277.
talent anil
capacity.
It must
The intelligence of the American Indians north of Mexico
ranges from a minimum with the lowest of the Athabaskan
tribes of extreme north-western Canada and the lowest
of the Shoshonian tribes of the south-western United
States to a maximum with the highest developed
members of the Muskogian and Iroquoian stocks
(both the Cherokee branch and the Iroquois proper),
be remembered, however, that the possibilities of improvement
by change of environment are very great, as is shown by the
fact that the Hupa of California and the Navaho of Arizona
and New Mexico (also the cruel and cunning Apaches) belong to
the Athabaskan family, while the Shoshonian includes many of
the " civilized nations " of ancient Mexico and, in particular,
the famous Aztecs. One way of judging of the intellectual
character of the various stocks of North American aborigines
is from the " great men " they have produced during the historical
periods of contact with the whites. Many of these stocks have,
of course, not had occasion for the development of great men,
their small numbers, their isolation, their lack of historical
experience, their long residence in an unfavourable environment,
their perpetual and unrestricted democracy, &c., are some of
the sufficient explanations for this state of affairs, as they would
be in any other part of the world. The Eskimoan, Athabaskan,
Koluschan, Wakashan (and other tribes of the North Pacific
coast), Salishan and Shoshonian (except in Mexico) stocks,
together with the numerous small or unimportant stocks of
the Oregon-California and Gulf-Atlantic regions, have not pro-
duced any great men, although members of many tribes have
been individually of not a little service to the intruding race
in pioneer times and since then, or have been highly esteemed
by them on account of their abilities or character, &c. Here
might be mentioned perhaps Sacajawea (see Out West, xxiii.
223), the Indian woman who acted as guide and helper
of the Lewis and Clark expedition and saved the journals at
the risk of her life (she has now a statue erected to her memory
in Seattle); Louise Sighouin, the Sahaptian convert of whom
the missionary de Smet thought so much; Catherine Tekata-
witha, the " Iroquois saint," &c.
The following list will serve to indicate some of the " great
men " of the Indian race north of Mexico and the stocks to which
they have belonged; in it are included also some products of
the contact of the two cultures: —
1. Algonkian, — In politics and in oratory, as well as in combat,
this stock has produced notable characters, the conflict with the
whites and the Iroquois doubtless serving to stimulate native
genius. Among Algonkian notables may be mentioned " King
Philip" and Powhatan; Pontiac and Tecumseh; Black Hawk;
Sampson Occum; George Copway; Francis Assickinack, &c.
2. Athabaskan. — The possibilities of this stock have been recently
illustrated by the Apaches, who, on the one hand, have produced
Geronimo, the chief who from 1877 to 1886 gave the United States
authorities such trouble, and, on the other, Dr Carlos Montezuma,
a full-blood Indian, who, after receiving a good education, served the
government as physician at several Indian agencies, and in 1908
was practising his profession in Chicago and teaching in the College
of Physicians and Surgeons and the Post-Graduate Medical School.
From these southern Athabaskans much is to be expected under
favouring conditions.
3. Iroquoian. — Here, as among the Algonkian tribes, circumstances
favoured the development of men of great ability. Of these may be
mentioned: Hiawatha, statesman and reformer (fl. c. 1450), the
chief mover in the formation of the great " League of the Iroquois " ;
Captain Joseph Brant; "Red Jacket"; Oronhyatekha (d. 1906),
the head of the Independent Order of Foresters, an important
secret charitable society, a physician, and a man of remarkable
power as an organizer.
4. Sahaptian. — A remarkable Indian character was Nez Perc6
Joseph, the leader of his people in the troubles of 1877. In 1905,
at the general assembly of the Presbyterian Church, a delegate
representing both whites and Indians was Mark Arthur (b. 1873),
a full-blood Nez Perc6 and since 1900 the successful pastor (fully
ordained) of the church at Lapwai, Idaho, the oldest Presbyterian
church west of the Rocky Mountains.
5. Siouan. — The most famous Indian of Siouan stock is " Sitting
Bull " (d. 1890), medicine-man and chief. Miss Angel de Cora, a
Winnebago, was in 1908 instructor in art at the Carlisle school.
Another, not always just or fair, method of gauging the in-
telligence of the North American Indians is by their ability to
xiv. 1 6
482
INDICATOR
assimilate the culture of the whites and to profit by the contact
of the two races. Curiously enough, some of the tribes at one
time considered lowest in point of general intellectual equipment
have shown not a little of this ability, and there is a marked
difference in this respect between tribes belonging to one and
the same stock. The Athabaskan stock e.g. shows such varia-
tions, or rather perhaps this stock in general exhibits a tendency
to adopt the culture of other peoples, thus some of the Atha-
baskan tribes in Alaska have acquired elements of culture from
the Eskimo; the Takulli have been influenced by the Tsimshian,
and Nahane by the Tlingit, the Chilcotin by the Salish, the
Sarcee by the western Algonkian tribes, and in the extreme
south the Navaho by the Pueblos Indians. The Salishan
stock has largely this same characteristic. Of these two peoples
Mr C. Hill-Tout (The Salish and Dtne, London, 1907, p. 50)
says: " It would be difficult indeed to find two peoples more
susceptible to foreign influences, more receptive of new ideas and
more ready and willing to adopt and carry them out." In the
relations established between them and the whites not enough
advantage in the proper way has been taken of this " philoneism,"
which ought to have been the basis of their acquisition of our
culture, or such aspects of it as suited them best. And perhaps
there are other stocks of which, if we knew them well, similar
things might be said. Of the Indians of the Shoshonian stock the
Paiutes of Nevada and Arizona have shown themselves capable of
making themselves necessary to the whites (farmers, &c.) of that
region, and not falling victims to the " vices of civilization."
Although they still retain their primitive wickiups (or rush
huts), they seem actually to have improved in health, wealth and
character from association with the " superior " race, a rare thing
in many respects among the lower Indian tribes of North America.
This improvement of the Paiutes causes us not to be surprised
when we find the more cultured Moquis and the " civilized " Aztecs
of ancient Mexico to belong to the same Shoshonian stock.
Acculturation by borrowing has played an important role in the
development of North American Indian ideas and institutions.
This is well illustrated by the history of the Plains Indians, with
their numerous intertribal societies, their temporary and their
permanent alliances, federations, &c. If ways and means for
the transfer of elements of culture indicate intelligence, some of
these tribes must rank rather high in the scale. The Algonkian,
Iroquoian and Muskogian stocks, both in the case of individuals
and in the case of whole tribes (or their remnants), have ex-
hibited great ability in the directions indicated. Of the
Caddoan stock the Pawnees seem gifted with considerable native
ability expressing itself particularly in the matter of religion (the
Hupas, of the Athabaskan stock, seem also to have " a religious
sense "). Some tribes of the Siouan stock have, both in the
case of individuals and as peoples, given evidence of marked
intelligence, especially in relation to psychic phenomena and the
treatment of adolescent youth. In their culture, their cere-
monies and ritual proceedings, as well as in their material arts,
the Pueblos Indians of the south-western United States show,
in many ways, their mental kinship with the creators and sus-
tainers of the civilization of ancient Mexico and Central America.
From the table of Indian tribes it will be seen that
aborigines of the most diverse stocks have shown themselves
capable of assimilating white culture and of adapting them-
selves to the new set of circumstances. Progress and improve-
ment are not at all confined to any one stock.
A very interesting fact in the history of the education of the
aborigines north of Mexico is the success of the attempt to
Syiia- enable them to read and write their own language
banes. by means of specially prepared syllabaries, " alpha-
bets," &c. The first of these, the still existing
' Micmac hieroglyphics," so-called, was the work of Father
le Clercq in 1665, improved by Father Kauder in 1866; one
of the most recent, the adaptation of the " Cree syllabary "
of Evans by Peck to the language of the Eskimo of Cumberland
Sound. The basis of many of the existing syllabaries is " the
Cree syllabary," or " Evans Syllabary," invented about 1841 by
the Rev. James Evans, a Methodist missionarv in the Hudson's
Bay region from the study of the shorthand systems current
at that time. This syllabary and modifications of it are now in
use (with much printed literature) for both writing and printing
among many tribes of the Algonkian, Athabaskan (modified
by Morice for the Carriers, by Kirkby and others for Chipewyan,
Slave, &c.), Eskimo (modified by Peck), Siouan (Cree syllabary
used by Canadian Stonies) stocks. Among the Salishan tribes
of the Thompson river region, the Shushwap, Okanagan, &c.,
a stenographic modification (reproduced by mimeograph) by
Father le Jeune of the Duployan system of shorthand has been
used with great success. But the most remarkable of all these
syllabaries is one more of Indian than missionary origin, in its
application at least, the well-known " Cherokee alphabet "
of Sequoyah, an uneducated Cherokee half-blood, who got
part of his idea from an old spelling-book though his characters
did not at all correspond to English sounds — at first 82, later
86 syllables were represented. Invented about 1821 the
" Cherokee alphabet " was first used for printing in 1827, and has
been in constant use since then for correspondence and for
various literary purposes. The effect of this invention is thus
described by Mooney (Myths of the Cherokee, 1902): —
" The invention of the alphabet had an immediate and wonderful
effect on Cherokee development. An account of the remarkable
adaptation of the syllabary to the language, it was only necessary
to learn the characters to be able to read at once. No school-houses
were built and no teachers hired, but the whole Nation became an
academy for the study of the system, until, in the course of a few
months, without school or expense of time or money, the Cherokee
were able to read and write in their own language. An active
correspondence began to be carried on between the Eastern and
Western divisions, and plans were made for a national press, with a
national library and museum to be established at the capital, New
Echota. The missionaries, who had at first opposed the new alphabet
on the ground of its Indian origin, now saw the advisability of using
it to further their own work."
In spite of absurdities of form and position in the characters
of this syllabary, it serves its purpose so well that, as Pilling
informs us (Amer. Anthrop., 1893), " a few hours of instruction
are sufficient for a Cherokee to learn to read his own language
intelligibly," and in two and a half months the Cherokee child
" acquires the art of reading and writing fluently in these rude
characters." The success of the " Cree syllabary " was also
astonishing, and in 1890, according to Maclean (Canad. Sav.
Folk, p. 283), " few Cree Indians can be found who are not able
to read the literature printed in the syllabic characters." Here
again, " an Indian with average intelligence can memorize
the whole in a day, and in less than one week read fluently any
book written upon this plan," and many Indians learn to read
fluently " with no other teachers but the Indians around the
camp-fires." Morice reports equal success with his syllabary:
" Through it Indians of common intelligence have learnt to
read in one week's leisurely study before they had any primer
or printed matter of any kind to help them on. We even know
of a young man who performed the feat in the space of two
evenings." Le Jeune's experience with the Shuswap and
Thompson Indians is the same. The creation of a " literary "
class among so many Indian tribes within a comparatively
brief period is certainly a very interesting result, and one which
gives evidence of native intelligence among children and adults
alike (Amer. Journ. Psychol., 1905).
For a general list of authorities on the American aborigines, see
bibliography under AMERICA, section 3, Ethnology. The literature
on the subject, already vast, is continually increasing, and it is im-
possible to enumerate every contribution made by the large number
of expert anthropologists working in this field. The chief works of
a special nature have already been cited in the text. (A. .F. C.)
INDICATOR (from Lat. indicare, to point out), that which
points out or records. In engineering, the word is specifically
given to a mechanical device for registering the pressure of the
working fluid in an engine cylinder during a stroke of the piston,
the record so provided being termed the " indicator diagram "
(see STEAM-ENGINE). In chemistry, the word is generically
applied to re-agents or chemicals which detect usually small
quantities or traces of other substances; it is, however, more
customarily restricted to re-agents which show whether a
INDICTMENT
483
substance or solution is acid, alkaline or neutral, the character
being revealed in a definite colour change.
Here we shall only deal with indicators in this last restricted
sense. They were first systematically employed in analytical
chemistry by Robert Boyle, who used the aqueous extracts of
the coloured principles present in red-cabbage, violets and
cornflowers. The indicator most in use to-day is litmus (q.v.),
whose solution is turned red by an acid, and blue by an alkali.
Several synthetic indicators are employed in acidimetry and
-alkalimetry. The choice is not altogether arbitrary, for experi-
ments have shown that some are more suitable for acidimetry,
while others are only applicable in alkalimetry; moreover,
the strength of the acids and bases employed may exert a con-
siderable influence on the behaviour of the indicator.
The following are well-known synthetic indicators: hacmoid,
obtained from resorcin and sodium nitrite, resembles litmus.
Phenolphthalein, obtained by condensing phenol with phthalic
anhydride, is colourless both in acid and in neutral solution,
but intensely red in the presence of alkali; the colour change
is very sharp with strong bases, but tardy with weak ones,
and consequently its use should be restricted to acidimetry
when a strong base can be chosen, or to alkalimetry when a
strong base is present. a-Naphtholphthalein has also been used
(Biochem. Zeit., 1910, p. 381). Methyl orange, which is' the
sodium salt of the acid helianthin, obtained by diazotizing
sulphanilic acid and coupling with dimethylaniline, is yellow in
neutral and alkaline solutions, but red in acid; the change is
only sharp with strong acids. Para-nitrophenol, obtained in the
direct nitration of phenol, yields a colourless solution in the
presence of acids, and an intense yellow with alkalis. Of more
recent introduction are: alizarin red, I.W.S. (alizarin mono-
sulphonic acid), claimed by G. E. Knowles (Abst. J.C.S., 1907, ii.
389) to be better than methyl orange in alkalimetry; 3-amino-
2-methylquinoline, used by O. Stark (ibid. 1907, i. 974)
in ammonia estimations; para-nitrobenzeneazo-a-naphthol,
shown by J. T. Hewitt (Analyst, 1908, 33, p. 85) to change
from purple to yellow when alkalis are titrated with weak acids;
para-dimethylaminoazobenzene-ortho-carboxylic acid, proposed
by E. Rupp and R. Loose (Ber., 1908, 41, p. 3905) as very ser-
viceable in the estimation of weak bases, such as the alkaloids
or centinormal ammonia; the " resorubin " of M. Barberio
(Gazzetta, 1907, ii. 577), obtained by acting with nitrous acid
on resorcin, which forms a violet, blue or yellow coloration
according as the solution is neutral, alkaline or acid. Mention
may be made of E. Linder's (J. Soc. Chem. Ind., 1908, 27, p. 485)
suggestion to employ metanil yellow, obtained by coupling
diazotized meta-aminobenzenesulphonic acid with diphenylamine
for distinguishing mineral from organic acids, a violet coloration
being produced in the presence of the former.
Theory of Indicators. — The ionic theory of solutions permitted
the formulation of a logical conception of the action of indicators
by W. Ostwald which for many years held its ground practically
unchallenged; and even now the arguments originally advanced
hold good, except for certain qualifications rendered necessary by
more recent research. In the language of the ionic theory, an acid
solution is one containing free hydrions, and an alkaline solution
is one containing free hydrpxidions. A neutral solution contains
hydrions and hydroxidions in equal concentration; this is a conse-
quence of the fact that pure water itself undergoes a certain dis-
sociation, and several different methods show that in the purest water
obtainable the concentration of the free hydrions and hydroxidions
is io~7 at 24°. Moreover, the law of mass-action (see CHEMICAL
ACTION) demands that the product of the concentrations of the
hydrions and hydroxidions in any solution is constant at a given
temperature, and we see from the above values that this constant
is lo~14. It follows, therefore, that the acidity or alkalinity of any
solution can be expressed both in terms of hydrion or hydrpxidipn
concentration. Many researches have been directed to classify acid
and alkaline solutions according to the concentration of the hydrion.
Conductivity determinations show that the maximum concentration
of hydrion occurs in 5-8 - N nitric acid, where it has a value of about
2-N, and the minimum occurs in 6^7- N potassium hydroxide, where
its value is 5Xio~15, that of the hydroxidion being about 2-N.
These figures apply to a temperature of 24°. Bearing in mind the
concentration of the ions in a neutral solution, it is seen that a scheme
of seven grades of " neutrality," differing by successive powers of
ten, may be formulated. The concentration of hydrion and hydrox-
idion in any solution may be determined by several independent
methods, and it is therefore a simple matter to prepare solutions of
definite ionic concentrations and to test these with the object of
obtaining a list of indicators according to their sensitiveness. It
is found that litmus responds to concentrations of IO~*H- and
lo^OH', a result which shows this dye to be the best indicator of
true neutrality. Methyl orange responds to between io~4H- and
10 6H-; para-nitrophenol to between io~6H- and IQ-'H-; and
phenolphthalein to between io-6OH' and io-«OH'. Salm(Z«'/.
Elektrochem., 1904, 10, p. 341) gives a list of twenty-seven indicators
classified on this principle. Other papers bearing on this subject
are Friedenthal, ibid., p. 113; Salessky, ibid., p. 204; Pels, ibid.,
p. 208; Scholtz, ibid., p. 549; M. Handa, Ber., 1909, 42, p. 3179.
The actual mechanism by which the indicator changes colour with
varying concentrations of hydrion or hydroxidion is now to be
considered. Ostwald formulated his ionization theory which assumes
the change to be due to the transition of the non-dissociated indicator
to the ionized condition, which are necessarily of different colours.
On this theory, an indicator must be weakly basic or acid, for if
it were a strong acid or base high dissociation would occur when it
was in the free state, and there would be no change of colour when the
solution was neutralized. Take the case of a weakly acid indicator
such as phenolphthalein. The presence of an acid depresses the
very slight dissociation of the indicator, and the colour of the solution
is that of the non-dissociated molecule. The addition of an alkali,
if it be strong, brings about the formation of a salt of phenolphthalein,
which is readily ionized, and so reveals the intense red coloration of
the anion; a weak base, however, fails to give free ions. An acid
indicator of medium strength is methyl orange. When free this
substance is ionized and the solution shows an orange colour, due
to a mixing of the red of the non-dissociated molecule and the
yellow of the ionized molecule. Addition of hydrions lessens the
dissociation and the solution assumes the red colour, while a base
increases the dissociation and so brings about the yellow colour.
If the alkaline solution be titrated with a strong acid, the hydrions
present in a very small amount of the acid suffices to reverse the
colour; a weak acid, however, must be added inconsiderable excess
of the quantity properly required to neutralize the solution, owing to
its weak dissociation. This indicator is therefore only useful when
strong acids are being dealt with, while its strongly acid nature
renders it serviceable for both strong and weak bases.
It seems, however, that in addition to a change in the ionic
condition of an indicator, there are cases where the coloration is
associated with tautomeric change. For example, J. T. Hewitt
(Analyst, 1908, 33, p. 85) regards phenolphthalein and similar indi-
cators as obeying the following equilibrium in solution,
0: Xu-H^X»-O-H^Xr-O'+H-,
Xu and X,, being isomeric. This indicates the presence of two
tautomeric forms, one being of a quinonoid structure, and an ionized
molecule. A similar view is advanced by A. Hantzsch and F.
Hilscher (Ber., 1908, 41, p. 1187) who find that helianthin is quin-
onoid when solid, whilst in solution there is an equilibrium between
an aminoazo- and sulphonic acid-form; on the other hand, the
sodium salt, methyl orange, is a sulphonate under both conditions.
INDICTMENT (from Anglo-Fr. enditement, enditer, to charge;
Lat. in, against, dictare, declare), in English law, a formal accusa-
tion in writing laid before a grand jury and by them presented
on oath to a court of competent jurisdiction. The accusation
is drawn up in the form of a " bill " of indictment, prepared by the
officer of the court or the legal adviser of the prosecution, en-
grossed on parchment, and sent before the grand jury. The
grand jury hear in private the witnesses in support of the
accusation (whose names are endorsed on the back of the bill),
and, if satisfied that a prima facie case has been made out, find
the bill to be a true bill and return it to the court as such. If
otherwise, the jury ignore the bill and return to the court that
they find " no true bill." Indictments differ from presentments,
which are made by the grand jury on their own motion and their
own knowledge; and from informations, which are instituted
on the suggestion of a public officer without the intervention
of a grand jury.
An indictment lies for " all treasons and felonies, for misprision
of treasons and felonies and for all misdemeanours of a public
nature at common law." And if a statute prohibit a matter of
public grievance or command a matter of public convenience
all acts or omissions in disobedience to the command or pro-
hibition of the statute are treated as misdemeanours at common
law, and unless the statute otherwise provides are punishable
on indictment. In other words, the ordinary common law
remedy in respect of criminal offences is by indictment of the
accused and trial before a petty jury; and except in the case
of informations for misdemeanour and summary proceedings
484
"INDIES, LAWS OF THE"
by a court of record for " contempt of court " it is the only
remedy, except where a statute creates another remedy, e.g.
by trial before a court of summary jurisdiction.
The form of an indictment is still in the main regulated by
the old common law rules of pleading, which as to civil pleadings
were often amended during the ipth century, and finally abolished
under the Judicature Acts.
An indictment may consist of one or more counts charging
different offences. Each count consists of three parts: (i) the
commencement, (2) the statement, (3) the conclusion. The
formal commencement runs thus: " Surrey to wit." The
first count begins " The jurors for our Lord the King (i.e. the
grand jurors) upon their oath present that, &c."; and the sub-
sequent counts begin, the " jurors aforesaid on their oath
aforesaid do further present." The first words, which are placed
in the margin of the document, are the " venue," i.e. the county
or district over which extends the jurisdiction of the court
before which the indictment is found. Subject to certain
statutory exceptions it is necessary to prove that the acts or
omissions alleged to constitute the offence occurred within that
area. The conclusion consists of the words following: " against
the form of the statute (or statutes) in that case made and pro-
vided, and against the peace of our Lord the King, his crown
and dignity." Where the offence is statutory the whole phrase
is used; where it is at common law only the second part is used.
A formal conclusion is not now essential to the validity of the
indictment, but from inveterate habit is in continued use.
The statement sets forth the circumstances alleged to constitute
the offence, i.e. the accusation made. There are still in force
a number of rules as to the proper elements in the statement;
but in substance it is only necessary to set forth the facts alleged
against the accused with accuracy and sufficient precision as
to the time and place and circumstances of the alleged offence,
and to indicate whether felony or misdemeanour are charged,
and so to frame the statement as to indicate a definite offence
for which a lawful sentence may be imposed.
The following example illustrates the form of the statement : —
" That A. B. on the first day of June in the year of our Lord 1906
one oak tree of the value of five pounds the property of C. D. then
growing in a certain park of the said C. D. situate in the parish of E.
m the county of F. feloniously did steal take and carry away
contrary to the statute, &c."
Only one offence should be stated in one count ; and separate
and distinct felonies should not be charged in the same indict-
ment. If they are, the court makes the prosecution choose
one upon which to proceed. This rule is altered by statute in
certain cases: e.g. by allowing a limited number of separate
thefts, or receivings of stolen property to be included in the same
indictment. Misdemeanours and felonies may not be included
in the same indictment because of the difference of procedure
on the trial; but any number of misdemeanours may be in-
cluded in different counts of the same indictment, subject to the
right of the court to order separate trials or to quash the indict-
ment if it is rendered vexatious by the agglomeration of charges.
There is no general limitation of the time within which in-
dictments may lawfully be preferred; but various limitations
have been fixed by statute for certain offences, e.g. in the case
of certain forms of treason, of riot, of night poaching and of
corrupt and illegal practices at elections. In this respect
English law differs from European law, in which limitations
of time for prosecution are the rule and not the exception.
Until the mitigation of the draconic severity of the English
law in the early part of the igth century, little or no power
existed of amending defective statements or indictments, and
the courts in favorem vitae insisted strictly on accurate pleading
and on proof of the offences exactly as charged. Since 1827
numerous enactments have been passed for getting rid of these
technicalities, which led to undeserved acquittals, and since
1851 the courts have had power to disregard technical objections
to the form of indictment and to amend in matters not essential
in case of variance between the indictment and the evidence.
These changes apply to ordinary offences; but for the most
part do not touch charges of treason, as to which the old law
in the main still applies. At the present time the looseness of
pleading in criminal cases is carried almost too far; for while
there is no danger in such looseness when times are quiet and
when law is administered by the judges of the High Court in
England, yet when crimes of a certain character are committed
in times of great political excitement and the law is administered
by an inferior judiciary, there may be some danger of injustice
if the strictness of pleading and procedure is too much relaxed.
In the Criminal Code drafted by Sir James Fitz James Stephen
and revised by a judicial commission (Lord Blackburn and Lords
Justices Lush and Barry), it was proposed to substitute for the
old form of indictment a statement of the particulars of the
offence with a reference to the section of the code defining the
offence.
The law of Ireland as to indictments is in substance the same
as that of England; but is to a certain extent expressed in
different statutes.
In Scotland the terms indictment or criminal letters are used
to express the acte d' accusation. But except in the case of high
treason there is no grand jury, and the indictment is filed like
an English criminal information by the lord advocate or one of
his deputies: and it is only by order of the court of justiciary
that a prosecution can be instituted without the general or
particular assent of the lord advocate. By the Criminal Pro-
cedure Scotland Act 1887 the form of Scots indictments is
much simplified. They are drawn in the second and not in the
third person.
In those of the British colonies in which by settlement or
statute the English criminal law runs, the form of indictment
is substantially the same, and is found by a grand jury as in
England. But in certain colonies, e.g. the Australian states,
an indictment by a public officer without the intervention of a
grand jury has been adopted. In India and British Asiatic
possessions the procedure is regulated by the Indian Procedure
Code or its adaptations. In South Africa indictments are framed
under Roman Dutch law as modified by local legislation.
In the United States prosecution or indictment by a grand
jury is the rule: the form of indictment is the same, substituting
the state or commonwealth of the United States for references to
the king, and the conclusions " against the form of the statute "
and " against the peace " are still in use. (W. F. C.)
" INDIES, LAWS OF THE," in the colonial history of Spain,
a general term designative either (i) of certain codifications
of legislation for the colonies listed below, and especially the
compilation of 1680; or (2) of the whole body of colonial law,
of which those compilations were but a selection, and which
was made up of a multitude of royal cidulas, orders, letters,
ordinances, provisions, instructions, autos, dispatches, prag-
matics and laws — all emanating from the crown (or crown
and cortes) and all of equal force — that were passed through
various departments of government to various officers and
branches of the colonial administration, or between the different
departments of government in Spain. The transfer of Spanish
law to Ultramar began with the first days of the Conquest;
and especially the civil law was translated with comparatively
slight alteration. Many things, however, peculiar to colonial
conditions — the special relations of the crown and the papacy
in America, the repartimientos and encomiendas (" divisions of
lands " and " commendations," a system of patronage, or
modified slavery) of the Indians, the development of African
slavery, questions of natural and international law, the spread
of discovery and establishment of new settlements and admini-
strative areas, the sales and grants of public lands, the working
of the Amines — necessitated the organization of a great mass
of special law, made up of a body of general doctrine and a vast
quantity of administrative applications, la materia de Indias —
to which references are already found in the time of Ferdinand.
The general doctrine was applicable everywhere in Ultramar,
and the difficult and inconstant communication between the
provinces, and other considerations, early counselled some
work of codification. The first efforts to this end were begun
n Mexico in 1525; a volume was published in 1563, and other
INDIGO
485
inadequate compilations in 1596 and 1628, and finally the great
Recopilacidn de Leyes de los Reinos de las Indias of 1680. This
code has enjoyed great fame, and in some ways even extrava-
gant praise. The greatest praise that has been given it is that
its dominant spirit through and through is not the mercantile
aim but the political aim — the principle of civilization; and this
praise it deserves. It had various defects, however, of an
administrative nature; and as time passed its basic doctrines —
especially its minute administrative strangulation of colonial
political life, and its monopolistic economic principles — became
fatally opposed to conditions and tendencies in the colonies.
Two centuries in formation, the code of 1680 — continually
altered by supplementary interpretation and application —
was only one century in effect; for in the seventeen-sixties
Charles III. began, in a series of liberal decrees, to break down
the monopolistic principles of colonial commerce. This change
came too late to save the mainland colonies in America, but its
remarkable effects were quickly seen in the aggrandizement of
Cuba. It is in the history of this colony (as also in Porto Rico
and the ;Philippines) that one must follow the later history of
the Laws of the Indies (see CUBA).
Of the Recopilacidn of 1680, five editions were issued by the
government, the last in 1841 (Madrid, 4 vols.); and there are later,
private editions approved by the government. See also J. M.
Zomora y Coronado, Biblioteca de legislation Ultramarina (Madrid,
1844-1849, 6 vols., with appendices often bound as vol. 7); J.
Rodriguez San Pedro, Legislation Ultramarina concordada, covering
1837-1868 (12 vols., Madrid, 1865-1868, vols. 10-12 being a supple-
ment) ; the Boletin oficial del Ministerio de Ultramar, covering
1869-1879; and M. Fernandez Martin, Compilation legislativa del
gobierno y administration civil de Ultramar (Madrid, 1886-1894);
the gap of 1879-1886 can be filled for Cuba by the series of Reales
Ordenes . . . publicadas en la Gaceta de la Habana (annual, Havana,
1857-1898, covering 1854-1898).
INDIGO (earlier indico, from Lat. indicum, the Indian sub-
stance or dye; the Sans, name was niti, from nila, dark blue,
and this through Arab, al-nil, annil, gives " aniline ") one of
the most important and valuable of all dyestuffs. Until com-
paratively recently it was obtained exclusively from the aqueous
extract of certain plants, principally of the genus Indigo/era
which belongs to the natural order Leguminosae. Small
quantities are also obtained from Lonchocarpus eyanescens
(west coast of Africa), Polygonum tintorium (China) and the
woad plant Isatis tinctoria. The latter is of historical interest,
since up to the middle of the i7th century it was the only blue
dyestuff used by dyers in England and on the adjoining con-
tinent; at the present time woad is still cultivated in Europe, but
serves merely as a ferment in the setting of the fermentation
indigo vat or so-called " woad vat " used in wool dyeing.
The bulk of the natural indigo which is brought into the
market comes from India, while smaller quantities are imported
from Java, Guatemala and other places. The plant from which
indigo is made in Bengal is the Indigofera sumatrana, which is
reared from seed sown about the end of April or the beginning
of March. By the middle of June the plant has attained a
height of from 3 to 5 ft., and it is at this period that the first
manufacturing begins, a second crop being obtained in August.
The indigo is contained in the leaf of the plant in the form of
a colourless glucoside, known as indican, CuHnOeN-SH^O.
This substance is soluble in water and by the joint action of
an enzyme, contained in the leaf, and atmospheric oxygen it
yields indigotine, the colouring matter of indigo. It is on these
facts that the manufacturing of indigo from the plant is based.
The plant is cut early in the morning and transported to the
factory in bullock carts. Here it is steeped in water in steeping
vats having a capacity of about 1000 cub. ft. for periods varying,
according to circumstances, from nine to fourteen hours, when
the liquid — the colour of which varies from a bright orange to
an olive green — is run into the beating vats which lie at a lower
level. The beating, the object of which is to bring the liquor
as freely as possible into contact with the air, was formerly
done by striking the surface with bamboo sticks, but is now
effected either by means of a paddle wheel or by forcing a current
of air from a steam blower or a compressor through the liquid.
When the beating is finished, the precipitated indigo is allowed
to settle, the supernatant liquid being drawn off and run to
waste. The indigo mud thus obtained, which is known as mal,
is strained, boiled for a short period for the purpose of sterilizing,
formed into bars, cut into blocks of about 3 in. cube and dried.1
The actual amount of colouring matter yielded by the leaf is
but small, averaging, according to Ch. Rawson, 0-5%, but the
yield from the whole plant is considerably less, since the stalks
and twigs contain practically no colour.
Since the introduction on a large scale of synthetic indigo
efforts have been made in India and in Java to place the cultiva-
tion of the plant and the manufacture of the natural product
on a more scientific basis. But although many important
improvements have been achieved from the agricultural as well
as from the manufacturing point of view, resulting no doubt
in the retension of a portion of the industry, the synthetic
product has gained the upper hand and is likely to retain it.
Natural indigoes vary considerably in composition, containing
in some qualities as much as 90% and in others as little as 20%
of colouring matter. The blue colouring matter which indigo
contains is known as indigotine, but there are usually also present
in small quantities other colouring matters such as indigo red
or indirubrine, a yellow colour known as kaempferol, indigo
green and indigo brown, as well as indigo gluten and more or
less mineral matter.
The bulk of the indigo which now comes into the European
market is prepared synthetically from coal tar. The following
figures indicate the values of the imports into England of
natural and synthetic indigo, and are taken from the official
Board of Trade returns: —
Natural Indigo.
Synthetic Indigo.
1899
£986,090
..
1900
542,089
, .
1901
788,820
. .
1902
498,043
£143,613
1903
262,775
110,970
1904
316,070
83,397
1905
116,902
121,269
1906
in,455
147,325
1907
151-297
158,481
1908
136,882
134,052
During the period 1899-1908, the average price of indigo had
declined from a fraction under 33. to about zs. 23d. per Ib. At
first sight it might appear that the use of indigo in England
was rapidly declining, but this does not necessarily follow when
it is borne in mind that London was formerly the distributing
centre of natural indigo for the continent and America.
Chemistry. — Our knowledge of the chemistry of indigo is largely
derived from the classical researches of A. von Baeyer and his
collaborators. In 1841 Erdmann and Laurent observed that on
oxidation indigo yielded isatin; and in 1848 Fritzsche obtained
aniline by distilling the dyestuff with potash. In 1870 A. v. Baeyer
and Knop succeeded in preparing indigotine by heating isatin with
phosphorus trichloride, acetyl chloride and phosphorus. In the
same year, C. Engler and A. Emmerling obtained small quantities of
the dyestuff by heating nitroacetophenone with soda-lime and zinc
dust, while in 1875 M. v. Nencki prepared it by the oxidation of
indol by ozone. Indol had been previously obtained from albumin-
oids by means of the pancreas ferment. It was not, however, until
1880 that v. Baeyer, who had been at work on the subject since 1865,
was able to obtain indigotine from more or less easily accessible coal
tar derivatives of known constitution. The most important of these
synthetic processes due to the researches of v. Baeyer was the pro-
duction of the dyestuff from ortho-nitrophenylpropiolic acid (see
PROPIOLIC ACID), which yields indigotine on being treated with
caustic soda and a reducing agent such as grape sugar or xanthate of
soda. Although used in small quantities in calico printing, it never
attained any commercial importance as a means of producing indigo,
the cost of production being far too high.
Many synthetic processes of preparing indigotine have since been
devised, but the one which stands out pre-eminently from a technical
point of view and the one which ultimately led to the commercial
success of the synthetic product is that of Heumann who showed in
1890 that indigotine can be prepared by melting phenylglycocoll
1 For a full account of the manufacture of indigo in northern
Behar see Ch. Rawson, Journ. Soc. Dyers and Colourists (July 1899).
486
INDIUM— INDIVIDUALISM
(phenylglycine), C6HS-NH-CH2-COOH, with caustic alkalis. The
yield was at first very unsatisfactory. It was subsequently found,
however, that by starting with phenylglycocoll-ortho-carboxylic
acid, the yield was sufficiently good to render the process a practical
success. The starting-point for the manufacture of synthetic
indigo is naphthalene, CipHs, which is oxidized, by heating with
concentrated sulphuric acid in the presence of a little mercury, to
phthalic anhydride, C6H4(CO)2O, which is then converted into
ortho-aminobenzoic acid, C?H4(NH2)(CO2H), by treatment with an
alkaline hypochlorite. This acid is then condensed with mono-
chloracetic acid to form phenylglycocoll-ortho-carboxylic acid,
C6H4(NH-CH2-CO2H)(CO2H), which on being melted with caustic
alkali yields indoxylic acid.CeH^0^^ C • C02H ,and this readily
losescarbondioxideandpassesoverintoindoxyl,C6H4<^ j^j_j '^>C
By alkaline oxidation indoxyl is converted into indigotine.
The patent literature of processes for bringing about the conversion
of the phenylglycine or its carboxylic acid into indoxylic acid,
indoxyl and indigotine is enormous; a circumstance due to the fact
that the efficiency of this operation controls the price of the synthetic
dyestuff . Caustic soda has been practically given up, being replaced
partly or wholly by caustic potash; in addition, alkaline earths,
sodamide, nitrides, alkali carbides, &c., have been used. In 1906,
Meister, Lucius and Brilning patented the addition of lead and
sodium to a mixture of -caustic potash and soda; the Easier
Chemische Fabrik use a mixture of caustic potash and soda at 210°-
260°; Leon Lilienfeld added slaked lime or magnesia to the fused
alkali, with a subsequent heating in a current of ammonia at 150°-
300°, and in 1908 patented a process wherein the melt is heated
under greatly reduced pressure; this gave a yield of 80-90%.
Synthetic indigo comes into the market chiefly in the form of a
2O % paste but is also sold in the solid state in the form of a powder.
Indigotine, Ci6HioN2O2, is a derivative of indol and its constitu-
tion is
\ /co
>C:C'
\NH
A)
It can be prepared in an almost pure state by extracting good
qualities of Bengal or Java indigo or synthetic indigo with boiling
nitrobenzene, from which it crystallizes on cooling in dark blue
crystals having a metallic sheen. When heated in an open vessel it
readily volatilizes, yielding a violet vapour which condenses on
cooling in the form of crystals. Indigotine is also soluble in boiling
aniline oil, quinoline, glacial acetic acid and chloroform, but is
insoluble in water, dilute acids and alkalis and ordinary solvents Mke
alcohol, ether, &c. By nitric acid and many other oxidizing agents
it is readily converted into isatin, CgH6NO2. H«ated with concen-
trated sulphuric acid it yields a disulphonic acid, Ci6H8N2O2(SOsH)2,
the sodium salt of which finds application as an acid colour in wool
dyeing under the name of Indigo carmine.1 By the action of re-
ducing agents, indigotine is converted into indigo white, Ci6Hi2N2O2,
which is readily soluble in alkalis or milk of lime with a yellow colour.
On exposing the alkaline solution to the air the indigo white is
rapidly oxidized back to indigotine, and on these two reactions the
application of indigo in dyeing and printing is based. (See DYEING
and TEXTILE PRINTING.)
Various halogen (chlorine and bromine) substitutive derivatives of
indigotine have been introduced which, while not differing essentially
from ordinary indigo in their properties, produce for the most part
redder shades in dyeing. They are claimed to be faster and brighter
colours. It has been show-n by Friedlandar (Ber., 1909, 42, p. 765)
that the reddish violet colouring matter obtained from the colour-
yielding glands of the mollusc Murex bnandaris, by means of which
the famous Tyrian purple of the ancients was dyed, is a dibromindigo,
Ci6H8Br2N2p2. A new departure in the synthetic dyestuffs belong-
ing to the indigo group was inaugurated by the discovery in 1906
by P. Friedliinder of thioindigo red,, a derivative of thionaphthen,
which is formed from phenylthioglycol-ortho-carboxylic acid,
?jj ^Q pj This substance, on boiling with alkali and
then with dilute acid yields thioindoxyl, C6H4<^ g ^>CH2, which
is converted by alkaline oxidation into thioindigotin, having the
conotitutionC6H1<(^O^>C:C<;(^O^>C6H4. The new dye-stuff is
therefore analogous to indigotine, from which it differs by having
the imino groups replaced by sulphur atoms. Thioindigo red can
be readily crystallized from boiling benzene, and forms reddish
brown crystals possessing a metallic reflex. Thioindigo scarlet,
C6H4<^ g ^>C=C<^C6H<^>NH, is also obtained synthetically.
Both products come into the market in the form of pastes and are
used in dyeing like indigo (see DYEING). (E. K.)
1 Although bright shades of blue are produced with this derivative,
they are not fast.
INDIUM (symbol In, atomic weight 114-8), a metallic chemical
element, included in the sub-group of the periodic classification
of the elements containing aluminium, gallium and thallium. It
was first discovered in 1863 by F. Reich and Th. Richter (Journ.
fiir prak. Chem., 1863, 89, p. 444) by means of its spectrum.
It occurs naturally in very small quantities in zinc blende,
and is best obtained from metallic zinc (which contains a small
quantity of indium) by treating it with such an amount of
hydrochloric acid that a little of the zinc remains undissolved;
when on standing for some time the indium is precipitated on
the undissolved zinc. The crude product is freed from basic
zinc salts, dissolved in nitric acid and the nitric acid removed
by evaporation with sulphuric acid, after which it is precipitated
by addition of ammonia. The precipitated indium hydroxide
is converted into a basic sulphite by boiling with excess of sodium
bisulphite, and then into the normal sulphite by dissolving
in hot sulphurous acid. This salt on strong ignition leaves a
residue of the trioxide, which can be converted into the metal
by heating in a current of hydrogen, or by fusion with sodium
(C. Winkler, Journ. fiir prak. Chem., 1867, 102, p. 273). Indium
is a soft malleable metal, melting at 155° C. Its specific gravity
is 7-421 and its specific heat 0-05695 (R. Bunsen).
Indium oxide, InjOs, is a yellow powder which is formed on
ignition of the hydroxide. It is readily reduced on heating with
carbon or hydrogen, and does not pass into an insoluble form
when ignited. The hydroxide, In(OH)3, is prepared, as a gela-
tinous precipitate, by adding ammonia to any soluble indium
salt. It is readily soluble in caustic potash, but insoluble in
ammonia.
Three chlorides of indium are known: the trichloride, InCIa,
a deliquescent salt, formed by heating a mixture of the oxide
and ca-rbon in a current of chlorine; the dichloride, InCl2,
obtained by heating the metal in hydrochloric acid gas; and
the monochloride, In Cl, which is prepared by distilling the vapour
of the dichloride over metallic indium. The mono- and di-
chlorides are decomposed by water with the formation of the
trichloride, and separation of metallic indium. Indium Sulphate,
Int(SO4)3, is obtained as a white powder very soluble in water
by evaporating the trioxide with sulphuric acid. Concentration
of the aqueous solution in a desiccator gives a deposit of crystals
of a very deliquescent salt, H2ln2(SO4)4-8H20. An indium
ammonium alum, In2(S04)3-(NH4)2SO4-24HjO is known.
The atomic weight of indium has been determined by C.
Winkler and by R. Bunsen by converting the metal into its
oxide. Thiel (Ber., 1904, 37, p. 1135) obtained the values
115-08 and 114-81 from analyses of the chloride and bromide,
whilst F. C. Mathers (Absl. J.C.S., 1907, ii. 352) obtained 114-88
and 114-86. Indium salts can be recognized by the dark blue
colour they give in the flame of the Bunsen burner; and by
the white beads of metal and the yellow incrustation formed
when heated on charcoal with sodium carbonate.
INDIVIDUALISM (from Lat. individualis, that which is not
divided, an individual), in political philosophy, the theory of
government according to which the good of the state consists
in the well-being and free initiative of the component members.
From this standpoint, as contrasted with that of the various
forms of socialism (q.v.) which subordinate the individual to
the community, the community as such is an artificial -unity.
Individualism is, however, by no means identical with egoism,
though egoism is always individualistic. An individualist
may also be a conscientious altruist: he is by no means hostile
to or aloof from society (any more than the socialist is necessarily
hostile to the individual), but he is opposed to state interference
with individual freedom wherever, in his opinion, it can be
avoided. The practical distinction in modern society is necessarily
one of degree, and both " individualism " and " socialism "
are very vaguely used, and generally as terms of reproach by
opponents. Every practical politician of whatever party must
necessarilycombineinhisprogramme individualistic and socialist
principles. Extreme individualism is pure anarchy: on the
other hand Thomas Hobbes, a characteristic individualist,
vigorously supported absolute government as necessary to the
INDO-ARYAN LANGUAGES
487
well-being of individuals. Moreover it is conceivable under
given circumstances that an individualist might logically advocate
measures (e.g. compulsory military service) which conflict with
individual freedom. In practice individualism is chiefly con-
cerned to oppose the concentration of commercial and industrial
enterprise in the hands of the state and the municipality. The
principles on which this opposition is based are mainly two:
that popularly elected representatives are not likely to have
the qualifications or t he sense of responsibility required for dealing
with the multitudinous enterprises and the large sums of public
money involved, and that the health of the state depends on
the exertions of individuals for their personal benefit.
INDO-ARYAN LANGUAGES. " Indo-Aryan " is the name
generally adopted for those Aryans who entered India and settled
there in prehistoric times, and for their descendants. It dis-
tinguishes them from the other Aryans who settled in Persia
and elsewhere, just as the name " Aryo-Indian " signifies those
inhabitants of India who are Aryans, as distinguished from
other Indian races, Dravidians, Mundas and so on. A synonym
of " Aryo-Indian " is " Gaudian " or " Gaurian," based on a
Sanskrit word for the non-Dravidian parts of India proper.
These two words refer to the people from the point of view of
India, while " Indo-Aryan " looks at them from the wider
aspect of Indo-European ethnology and philology. The general
history of the Aryan languages is treated in the articles INDO-
EUROPEAN LANGUAGES and ARYAN. Here we propose to offer
a brief review of the special course of their development in
India.
Most of the Indo-Aryans branched off from the common
Aryan stock in the highlands of Khokand and Badakshan,
and marched south into what is now eastern Afghanistan.
Here some of them settled, while others entered the Punjab
by the valley of the river Kabul. This last migration was a
gradual process extending over several centuries, and at different
epochs different tribes came in, speaking different dialects of
the common language. The literary records of the latest times
of this invasion show us one Indo-Aryan tribe complaining of
the unintelligible speech of another, and even denying to it
the right of common Aryan-hood.
The Pisaca Languages. — Before proceeding farther, it is
advisable to discuss the fate of another small group of languages
spoken in the extreme north-west of India. After the great
fission which separated the main body of the Indo-Aryans from
the Iranians, but before all the special phonetic characteristics
of Iranian speech had developed, another horde of invaders
crossed the Hindu Kush from the Pamirs, journeying directly
south. They occupied the submontane tract, including the
country round Chitral and Gilgit, Kashmir and Kafiristan.
Some even followed the course of the Indus as far as Sind, and
formed colonies there and in the western Punjab. Here they
mingled with the Indo-Aryans who had come down the Kabul
valley, and to a certain extent infected the local dialect with
their idioms. How far their influence extended over the rest
of India is undecided, and will probably never be known, but
traces of it have been detected by some inquirers even in the
dialects of modern Marathi. Those who remained behind in
the hill country, the whole of which is popularly known as
Dardistan, were isolated by the inhospitable nature of their
home and by their own savage character. They seem to have
had customs allied to cannibalism, and in later Indian literature
legends grew around them as a race of demons called Pisacas,
wfuxpayoi., who spoke a barbaric tongue called Paisaci. This
language appears now and then in the Sanskrit drama, and
Sanskrit philologists wrote still-extant grammatical notices
of its peculiarities. These show that it possessed an extremely
archaic character, and the same fact is prominent in the Pisaca
languages of the present day. Some words which were spoken
in the oldest time are preserved with hardly a change of letter,
while in India proper the corresponding forms have either
disappeared altogether or have been so changed as to be hardly
recognizable at first sight. The principal modern Pisaca
languages are three or four spoken in Kafiristan, Khowar of
Old Indo-Aryan.
Old Iranian.
Modern Persian.
Hindi.
sthana-
bhratar-
stana-
bratar-
sitan or istan
b'rddar
thana, a place.
bhai, a brother.
Chitral, Shina of Gilgit, Kashmiri, and Kohistani. The last
two are border tongues, much mixed with the neighbouring
languages of India proper. The only one which has any literature
is Kashmiri (q.v.). The rest are entirely uncultivated. Their
general character may be described as partly Indian and partly
Iranian, although they have in their isolated position developed
some phonetic laws of their own.
Indo-Aryan Classification. — The oldest specimens of Indo-
Aryan speech which we possess very closely resemble the oldest
Iranian (see PERSIA: Language). There are passages in the
Iranian Avesta which can be turned into good Vedic Sans-
krit by the application of a few simple phonetic laws. It is
sufficient for our present purposes to note that after the separa-
tion the development of the two old forms of speech went on
independently and followed somewhat different lines. This
is most marked in the treatment of a nexus of two consonants.
While modern Iranian often retains the nexus with little or no
alteration, modern Indo-Aryan prefers to simplify it. For
instance, while the old Aryan sth becomes s't or isl in modern
Persian, it becomes Uh or th in modern Indo-Aryan. Similarly
bhr becomes &'> in the former, but bbk or bh in the latter. Thus : —
The earliest extant literary record of Indo-Aryan languages
is the collection of hymns known as the Rig- Veda. As we have
it now, we may take it as representing, on the whole, the particular
vernacular dialect spoken in the east of the Punjab and in the
upper portion of the Gangetic Doab where it was compiled.
The tribe which spoke this dialect spread east and south, and
their habitat, as so extended, between the Punjab and the
modern Allahabad and reaching from the Himalaya to the
Vindhya Hills in the south, became known to Sanskrit geographers
as the Madhyadesa or " Midland," also called Aryavarta, or the
" home of the Aryans." The language spoken here received
constant literary culture, and a refined form of its archaic
dialect became fixed by the labours of grammarians about the
year 300 B.C., receiving the name of Samskrla (Sanskrit) or
" purified," in contradistinction to the folk-speech of the same
tract and to the many Indo-Aryan dialects of other parts of
India, all of which were grouped together under the title of
Prakrta (Prakrit) or "natural," " unpurified." Sanskrit (q.v.)
became the language of religion and polite literature, and thus
the Midland, the native land of its mother dialect, became
accepted as the true pure home of the Indo-Aryan people, the
rest being, from the point of view of educated India, more or
less barbarous. In later times, the great lingua franca of India,
Hindostani, also took its origin in this tract.
Round the Midland, on three sides — west, south and east —
lay a country inhabited, even in Vedic times, by other Indo-
Aryan tribes. This tract included the modern Punjab, Sind,
Gujarat, Rajputana with the country to its east, Oudh and
Behar. Rajputana belongs geographically to the Midland,
but it was a late conquest, and for our present purposes may
be considered as belonging to the Outer Band. The various
Indo-Aryan dialects spoken over this band were all more closely
related to each other than was any of them to the language of
the Midland. In fact, at an early period of the linguistic history
of India there must have been two sets of Indo-Aryan dialects, —
one the language of the Midland and the other that of the
Outer Band.1 Hoernle was the first to suggest that the dialects
of the .Outer Band represent on the whole the language of the
earlier Indo-Aryan immigrants, while the language of the Midland
1 Attempts have been made to discover dialectic variations in the
Veda itself, and, as originally composed in various parts of the
Punjab widely distant from each other, the hymns probably did
contain many such. But they have been edited by compilers whose
home was in the Midland, andjiow their language is fairly uniform
throughout. In the time of Asoka (250 B.C.) there were at least two
dialects, an eastern and a western, as well as another in the extreme
north-west. The grammarian Patanjali (150 B.C.) mentions the
existence of several dialects.
INDO-ARYAN LANGUAGES
was that of the latest comers, who entered the Punjab like a
wedge and thrust the others outwards in three directions.
As time went on, the population of the Midland expanded
and forced the Outer Band into a still wider circuit. The
Midland conquered the eastern Punjab, Rajputana with Gujarat
(where it reached the sea) and Oudh. With its armies and
its settlers it carried its language, and hence in all these territories
we now find mixed forms of speech. The basis of each is
that of the Outer Band, but the body is that of the Midland.
Moreover, as we leave the Midland and approach the external
borders of this tract, the influence of the Midland language grows
weaker and weaker, and traces of the original Outer language
become more a.nd more prominent. In the same way the
languages of the Outer Band were forced farther and farther
afield. There was no room for expansion to the west, but to
the south it flowed over the Maratha country, and to the east
into Orissa, into Bengal and, last of all, into Assam.
The state of affairs at the present day is therefore as follows:
There is a Midland Indo-Aryan language (Western Hindi)
occupying the Gangetic Doab and the country immediately
to its north and south. Round it, on three sides, is a band of
mixed languages, Panjabi (of the central Punjab), Gujarati,
Rajasthani (of Rajputana and its neighbourhood), and Eastern
Hindi (of Oudh and the country to its south). Beyond these
again, there is the band of Outer Languages (Kashmiri, with
its Pisaca basis), Lahnda (of the western Punjab), Sindhi (here
the band is broken by Gujarati), Marathi, Oriya (of Orissa),
Bihari, Bengali and Assamese. There are also, at the present
day, Indo-Aryan languages in the Himalaya, north of the
Midland. These belong to the Intermediate Band, being recent
importations from Rajputana. The Midland language is there-
fore now enclosed within a ring fence of Intermediate forms
of speech.
We have seen that the word " Prakrit " means " natural "
or " vernacular, " as opposed to the " purified " literary Sanskrit.
From this point of view every vernacular of India, from the
earliest times, is a Prakrit. The Rig-Veda itself, composed
long before the birth of " purified " Sanskrit, can only be con-
sidered as written in an old vernacular, and its language,
together with the other contemporary Indo-Aryan dialects
which never attained to the honour of " purification," may be
called the Primary Prakrits of India. If we compare literary
Sanskrit with classical Latin (see Brandreth, " The Gaurian
compared with the Romance Languages," Journal of the Royal
Asiatic Society xi. (1879), 287; xii. (1880), 335), then these
Primary Prakrits correspond to the old Italic dialects con-
temporary with and related to the literary language of Rome.
They were synthetic languages with fairly complicated grammars,
no objection to harsh combinations of consonants, and several
grammatical forms strange to the classical speech. In the
course of centuries (while literary Sanskrit remained stereotyped)
they decayed into Secondary Prakrits. These still remained
synthetic, and still retained the non-classical forms of grammar,
but diphthongs and harsh combinations of consonants were
eschewed. They now corresponded to the post-classical Italic
dialects. Just as Sanskrit (and the Primary Prakrits) knew
of a city called KausambI, which was known as Kosambi to the
Secondary Prakrits, so the real Umbrian name of the poet
known to literature as Plautus was Plot(u)s. Again, as the Latin
lacluca became lattuca, so the Primary Prakrit bhakta- became
the Secondary bhalla-. In India, the dislike to harsh consonantal
sounds, a sort of glottic laziness, finally led to a condition of
almost absolute fluidity, each word of the Secondary Prakrits
ultimately becoming an emasculated collection of vowels hanging
on to an occasional consonant. This weakness brought its own
Nemesis and from, say, A.D. 1000 we find in existence the series
of modern Indo-Aryan vernaculars, or, as they may be called,
Tertiary Prakrits, closely corresponding to the modern Romance
languages. Here we find the hiatus between contiguous vowels
abolished by the creation of new diphthongs, declensional and
conjugational terminations consisting merely of vowels becoming
worn away, and new languages appearing, no longer synthetic,
but analytic, and again reverting to combinations of consonants
under new forms, which had existed three thousand years ago,
but which two thousand years of attrition had caused to vanish.
It is impossible to fix any approximate date for the change
from the Primary to the Secondary Prakrits. We see sporadic
traces of the secondary stage already occurring in the Rig-Veda
itself, of which the canon was closed about 1000 B.C. At any
rate Secondary Prakrits were the current vernacular at the time
of the emperor Asoka (250 B.C.). Their earliest stage was that
of what is now called Pali, the sacred language of the Buddhists,
which forms the subject of a separate article (see PALI). A
still later and more abraded stage is also discussed under the
head of PRAKRIT. This stage is known as that of the Prakrit
par excellence. When we talk of Prakrit without any qualifying
epithet, we usually mean this later stage of the Secondary
Prakrits, when they had developed beyond the stage of Pali,
but before they had reached the analytic stage of the modern
Indo-Aryan vernaculars. The next, and final, stage of the
Secondary Prakrits was that of the ApabhramSas. The word
Apabhramsa means rt corrupt " or " decayed," and was applied
to the vernaculars in contrast to the Prakrit par excellence,
which had in its turn (like Sanskrit and Pali) become stereotyped
by being employed for literature. It is these Apabhrarhtas
which are the direct parents of the modern vernacular. The
following is a list of the Indo-Aryan vernaculars, showing, when
known, the names of the Apabhramsas from which they are
sprung, and the number of speakers of each in the year 1901 : —
Apabhramsa.
Modern Language.
Number of
Speakers.
Saurasena .
A. Language of the Midland.
Western Hindi
40,714,925
Avanta
B. Intermediate Languages.
Rajasthani
Pahari Languages
10,917,712
Gaurjara .
Saurasena .
Ardhamagadha .
Gujarati
Panjabi
Eastern Hindi
9.439.925
17,070,961
22,136,358
Unknown .
Vracada . . .
C. Outer Languages.
(a) North-Western Group.
Kashmiri (with a Pisaca
basis)
Kohistani (with a Pisaca
basis)
Lahnda or Western Pafijabi
Sindhi
1,007,957
(unknown)
3,337,917
3,494,971
Maharastra . .
(6) Southern Language.
Mara^hi
18,237,899
Magadha .
(c) Eastern Group.
Bihari
Oriya
34,579,844
9,687,429
»»•••«
Assamese
1,350,846
Total . . More than
219,725,473
Of these, the Pahari languages are offshoots of Rajasthani
imported into the Himalaya. Kohistani includes the mixed
dialects of the Swat and Indus Kohistans. The census of 1901
did not extend to these tracts. A full account of the Apabh-
ramSas will be found in the article PRAKRIT.
Although the modern Indo-Aryan vernaculars are not derived
from Sanskrit, and though all, or nearly all, are not derived
from the language of the Rig- Veda, nevertheless, as these are
almost the only sources of our information as to what the Primary
Prakrits of India were, and as all Primary Prakrits were related
to these two and were in approximately the same stage of phonetic
development, they afford a convenient means for carrying out
historical investigation into the origin of all the modern Indo-
Aryan vernaculars to its legitimate conclusion. At the same
time they are not always trustworthy guides, and sometimes
fail to explain forms derived from other ancient contemporary
dialects, the originals of which were unknown to the Vedic
and classical literature. A striking example is the origin of the
INDO-ARYAN LANGUAGES
489
very common locative suffix -e. This can be traced through
the Apabhrarhsa -hi to the Pali -dhi. There all Indian clues
cease, and it is not till we recognize its relationship to the Greek
-0i that we understand that it is an ancient Indo-European
termination kept alive in India by some of the Primary Prakrits,
but ignored both by the dialect of the Rig- Veda and by literary
Sanskrit. With this reservation, a short comparison of Sanskrit
with the Secondary and Tertiary Prakrit developments will be
of interest. As the Pali and Prakrit stages are fully treated
under their proper heads, very brief references to them will
be sufficient.
A. Vocabulary. — The ground of all the vocabularies of the modern
Indo-Aryan vernaculars is, of course, the vocabulary of Aryan India
in the Vedic period. Thousands of words have descended from the
earliest times and are still in existence, after passing through certain
changes subject to well-known phonetic laws. As many of these
laws are the same for every language, it follows that a large stock of
words, which principally differ in inflection, is common to all these
modern forms of speech. These words, which natives believe to be
derived from Sanskrit itself, are called by them tadbhava, i.e. " having
' that ' (sc. Sanskrit, or, more correctly, the Primary Prakrit) for its
origin." As the language of the Midland is derived from the old
dialect of which Sanskrit is the " polished " form, it is approximately
true to say that it is derived from that form of speech, and its native
vocabulary (allowing for phonetic development) may be said to be
the same as that of Sanskrit. But the farther we go from the Mid-
land, the more examples we meet of a new class of words which
natives of India call desya or " country-born." Most of these are
really also tadbhavas, descendants of the old Primary Prakrit dialects
spoken outside the Midland, of whose existence native scholars took
no account. Finally, owing to the ever-present influence of literary
Sanskrit, words are, and have been for many generations, borrowed
direct from that language. Some of these borrowed words are due
to the existence of Sanskrit as the language of religion. Their use is
paralleled by the employment of Greek and Latin words for religious
technical terms in all the languages of Europe. Others are technical
terms of arts and sciences, but most of those which we meet are
simply employed for the sake of fine language, much as if some purist
were to insist on employing hlaford instead of " lord " in writing
English. These Sanskrit words are known as tatsama or " the same
as "that ' (sc. Sanskrit)." The number of tatsamas employed varies
much. In languages such as Panjabi which have little or no litera-
ture, and in the speech of the peasantry all over India, they are few in
number. In the modern literary Bengali a false standard of literary
taste has led to their employment in overwhelming numbers, and the
homely vigorous home-speech, which is itself capable of expressing
every idea that the mind of man can conceive, flounders about
awkwardly enough under the weight of its borrowed plumes. The
native vocabulary of the modern Indo-Aryan vernaculars is thus
made up of tadbhavas, desyas and tatsamas.
The Dravidian languages of southern India have also contributed
a small quota to the Indo-Aryan vocabulary. Most of the words
have been given a colour of contempt in the process of borrowing.
Thus the word pitta, a cub, is really the Dravidian pillai, a son.
But the most important accretion from outside comes from Persian,
and (through Persian) from Arabic. This is due to Mahommedan
influence. In the Mogul courts Persian was for long the language of
politeness and literature, and words belonging to it filtered into all
stages of society. The proportion of these Persian words varies
greatly in the different languages. In some forms of Western Hindi
they have almost monopolized the vocabulary, while in others, such
as Bengali and Marathi, the number is very few. Instances of
borrowing from other languages are of small importance.
B. Phonetics. — The alphabet of the Indo-Aryan languages is, on the
whole, the same as that of Sanskrit (q.v.), and the system of trans-
literation adopted for that language is also followed for them.1
Some new sounds have, however, developed in the Secondary and
Tertiary Prakrits. New signs will be used for them, and will be
explained in the proper places. Sanskrit knew only long e and 6, but
already in the Secondary Prakrits we find a corresponding short pair,
e and o, of which the use is considerably extended in the tertiary stage.
1 The Nagari (see SANSKRIT) and allied alphabets, when employed
for modern Indo-Aryan languages or for Prakrit, are transliterated
in this work according to the following system : —
aaiiuurfeeaiaiooauaum (anusvara) °° (anunasika) h (visarga) .
k kh g gh° rc
c (ts) ch (tsh) j (dz) jh (dzh) fi
t'th d (r) dh (rh) 1 lh n
t th d dh n
p ph b bh m
y r 1 v (w)
s s s h.
Special sounds employed by particular languages are described
in the articles in which reference is made to them. Here we may
mention a, sounded like the aw in " law," and d, 6, ii, pronounced as
in German.
The Sanskrit diphthongs ai and au disappeared in the secondary
stage, e and d being substituted for them respectively. On the other
hand, in the same stage, we frequently come across pairs of vowels,
such as ai, au, with a hiatus between the two members. In the
tertiary stage, these pairs have been combined into new diphthongs
ai and au, shorter in pronunciation than ai and au. The pronuncia-
tion of ai and ai may be compared with that of the Bnghsh " aye "
and " I " respectively. In the languages of the Outer Band, there is
again a tendency to weaken this new ai to e, and the new au to o.
All the tertiary languages weaken a short final vowel. In most it is
elided altogether in prose, but in some of those of the Outer Band
(Kashmiri, Sindhi and Bihari) it is half pronounced. Some of the
Outer languages have also developed a new o-sound, corresponding
to that of a in the German Mann. The stress-accent of classical
Sanskrit has as a rule been preserved throughout. In the tertiary
stage it generally resolves itself into falling on the ante-penultimate,
if the penultimate is short. If the latter is long it takes the accent.
In the eastern languages there is a tendency to throw the accent even
farther back. There is also everywhere a tendency to lighten the
pronunciation of a short vowel after an accented syllable, so that it is
barely audible. Thus, cdl"ta for cdlata. In some dialects, e.g. the
Urdu form of Western Hindi, this " imperfect " vowel has altogether
disappeared, as in cdlta.
The tertiary languages have on the whole preserved the conson-
antal system of the secondary stage, preferring, however, as a rule,
to simplify double consonants, with compensatory lengthening of
the preceding vowel. Thus, for Sanskrit hasta-, a hand, we have
Secondary Prakrit hattha-, Tertiary hath. Some tertiary languages
have both hatth and hath: others (like Gujarati) have only hath:
while others (like Paniabi) have only hatth. In the extreme north-
west, Sindhi and Lahnoa, under the influence of the Pisaca languages,
simplify the double consonant without compensatory lengthening,
so that we have hath. Again, many languages of the Outer Band
show a tendency to avoid aspiration, so that Kashmiri, Marathi,
Bengali and others have hat. It is well known that the Iranian
languages change s to h. The Tertiary Prakrits of the Outer Band
find analogous difficulty in pronouncing a sibilant. The north-
western languages change it to h as in Persian. Marathi changes s to
s before palatal sounds, and the same change occurs in Bengali in the
case of every uncompounded sibilant. Eastern Bengali and Assamese
go farther. Here s is again sounded almost like h. On the other
hand, in the Midland, s rarely becomes h and then only when medial.
In the Outer languages the palatal consonants are also liable to
change; j and jh approach the sound of z, and c and ch often become
ts, or, in the East, a simple s. Thus, the Midland cakar, a servant,
is pronounced tsakar in Marathi, and the Midland mach, a fish, is
sounded mas in Marathi, Bengali and Assamese.
C. Declension. — In the latest stage of the Secondary Prakrits the
neuter gender begins to disappear, and in the tertiary stage, except
in Gujarati and Marathi, it is nearly altogether wanting. Elsewhere
we only come across occasional relics of its employment. In some
of the tertiary languages grammatical gender, as distinct from sexual
gender, has disappeared as entirely as it has in English. The dual
number had already fallen into disuse in the Secondary Prakrits.
In the secondary stage we see a gradual simplification of grammatical
form and a disappearance of case endings. The complicated Sans-
krit system is more and more superseded by the simple uniformity
of the declension of a-bases. One by one the case endings were dis-
carded, and cases were confounded with one another till at length in
Apabhramsa only one or two forms remained for each number. In
the tertiary stage there remain in most languages only two cases,
which we may call the nominative and the oblique. The latter can
be employed for any case except the nominative, but the sense is
usually defined by the aid of help-words called postpositions.2 It is
a linguistic rule that languages in which the genitive precedes the
governing noun prefer suffixes to prefixes and vice versa;3 and, as
the genius of the Indo-Aryan languages does require the genitive to
be prefixed, these help- words take the form of suffixes. In the
Midland they are still separate words, but in the Outer Band each has
in general become incorporated with the main word to which it is
attached. Thus, the Midland ghora, a horse, has its'oblique form
ghore, genitive ghore her, but Bengali has oblique form ghor.a, genitive
gho'rar contracted from ghora+(k)ar. The ground principles of
declension in all tertiary languages are the same, but as each employs
different postpositions the systems of declension vary considerably.
Marathi is the only true Indo-Aryan language which has preserved
anything more than sporadic relics of the old system of case termina-
tions.
D. Conjugation. — Two tenses, the present and the imperative, of
the old synthetic system of conjugation have survived in all the
Tertiary Prakrits, and in some of them we also find the ancient
future. All other tenses are now made periphrastically, mostly
with the aid of participles to which auxiliary verbs may or may not
be added. The participles employed are all survivals of the old
participles of the present, of the past and (in some languages) of the
2 The origin of the postpositions is discussed in the article
INDOSTANI.
3 See P. W. Schmidt ii
Gesellschaft, xxxiii. 381.
HINDOSTANI.
3 See P. W. Schmidt in Mitteilungen der Wiener Anthropologischen
xiv. i6a
49°
future. The past and future participles are passive in their origin
and hence tenses formed with these participles must be construed
passively. Thus, instead of " I struck him " we must say, either
*' he was struck by me," or else (impersonally) " it was struck by me
•with reference to him." So, for an intransitive verb we have, either
•" I am gone," or " it is gone by me." In the language of the Midland
this is quite simple and clear, but in those of the Outer Band the
subject (in the instrumental, or as it is usually called " agent " case)
is indicated by means of pronominal suffixes attached to the participle
or auxiliary verb; thus (Bengali) martia+am, struck+by-me,
becomes marilam, I struck. In such cases all memory of the passive
meaning of the participle is lost by the eastern languages, and it,
together with the appropriate pronominal suffixes, becomes in
appearance and in practical use an ordinary past tense conjugated as
in Latin or in Sanskrit. It is an instance of reversion to the original
type ; first synthetic, then analytic, and then again a new synthetic
conjugation. In the other languages of the Outer Band, the memory
of the passive nature of the participle is retained, although the
conjugation is as synthetic as in the East, and the subject has to be
put into the "agent" case.
AUTHORITIES. — No work has yet been published dealing with Indo-
Aryan subjects as a whole, although several have been written which
treat of one or more stages of their development. For the general
question of the Pisaca languages, the reader may consult G. A.
Grierson's The Pisaca Languages of North-Western India (London,
1906). For the different languages of this group, see G. W. Leitner,
Dardistan (Lahore, 1877); J. Biddulph, Tribes of the Hindoo Koosh,
(Calcutta, 1880) ; D. J. O'Brien, Grammar and Vocabulary of the
Khowar Dialect (Lahore, 1895); J. Davidson, Notes on the Bashgali
{Kafir) Language (Calcutta, 1901). For the linguistic conditions of
Vedic times, the Introduction to J. Wackernagel's Altindische
Grammatik (Gottingen, 1896) gives much useful^ information in a
convenient form. For the literature concerning Pali and Prakrit, see
under those heads. The following are the principal works dealing
•with the general question of the Tertiary Prakrits: J. Beamcs,
Comparative Grammar of the Modern Aryan Languages of India
(1872-1879); A. F. R. Hoernle, A Grammar of the Eastern Hindi
compared with the other Gaudian Languages (1880); R. G. Bhan-
darkar, " The Phonology of the Prakrits of Northern India," in the
Journalof the Royal Asiatic Society (Bombay firanch), vol. XVII., ii.,
99-182 (see also the same author's series of papers on cognate subjects
in vol. XVI. of the same Journal) ; and G. A. Grierson's essays " On
the Phonology of the Modern Indo-Aryan Vernaculars " in the
Zeitschrift der deutsclien morgenldndischen Gesellschaft , vols. xlix., 1.
.(1895-1896), 393, I ; " On the Radical and Participial Tenses of the
^Modern Indo-Aryan Vernaculars " in the Journal of the Asiatic
.Society of Bengal, vol. Ixiv. (1895), part i., 352; and " On certain
'.Suffixes in the Modern Indo-Aryan Vernaculars " in the Zeitschrift
jilr vergleichende Sprachforschung (1903), p. 473. The general
subject of this article is discussed at greater length in chapter vii. of
the Report on the Census of India, ipoi (Calcutta, 1903). The volumes
of the Linguistic Survey of India also contain much detailed informa-
tion, summed up at length in the introductory volume. (G. A. GR.).
INDO-CHINA, FRENCH.1 The geographical denomination
of French Indo-China includes the protectorates of Annam,
Tongking and Cambodia, the colony of Cochin-China and part
of the Laos country. In 1900 the newly-acquired territory of
Kwang-Chow Bay, on the coast of China, was placed under
the authority of the governor-general of Indo-China. Cochin-
China, a geographical definition which formerly included all
the countries in the Annamese empire — Tongking, Annam
and Cochin-China — now signifies only the French colony, con-
sisting of the " southern provinces " originally conquered from
Annam, having Saigon as its capital. In its entirety French
Indo-China, the eastern portion of the Indo-Chinese peninsula,
lies between 8° 30' and 23° 25' N. and 100° and 109° 20' E. It
is bounded N. by China, on which side the frontiers have been
•delimited; E. and S.E. by the Gulf of Tongking and the China
Sea; W. by the Gulf of Siam and Siam, and N.W. by Burma.
The area is estimated at about 290,000 sq. m., with a population
of 17! millions, of whom 75 or 80% are Annamese. The French
inhabitants number about 13,000.
The configuration of the country is determined by two rivers
«f unequal importance — the Mekong and the Song-Koi — and
a continuous chain of mountains, an offshoot of the great
Chinese group of Yun-nan, which, making a double curve, forms
an immense S. South and west of this mountain chain the
country forms part of the Mekong basin. To the north and
north-east of the chain the valley of the Song-Koi, or Red river,
1 See also ANNAM, CAMBODIA, COCHIN-CHINA, KWANG-CHOW BAY,
LAOS, TONGKING.
INDO-CHINA, FRENCH
constitutes almost the whole of Tongking, of which its delta
represents the most fertile and populous if not the largest portion.
The small mountainous provinces of Lang-Son, That-Ke and
Kao-Bang, however, belong geographically to the Si-Kiang
basin. On the east the small province of Mon-Kay , on the borders
of Kwang-Tung, forms a little basin enclosed between the
mountains and the sea; on the south the province of Thanh-Hoa,
although crossed by the small river Song-Ma, forms the extremity
of the Red river delta and belongs to it, the two rivers being
united at some distance from the sea by a natural channel formed
by the junction of a northern branch of the Song-Ma with a
southern branch of the Song-Koi. The Red river descends
from the mountains of Yun-nan, rising near Tali-fu between
deep and inaccessible gorges, and becomes navigable only on
its entry into Tongking. Means have been taken to render it
available to steam launches, and in consequence of an agreement
between the state and the Compagnie des Correspondances
Fluviales a service of steamers is provided from its mouth to
Lao-Kay. Near Hung-Hoa the Red river receives its two chief
tributaries, the Black river from the plateaus of the west — the
land of the Muongs — and the Clear river, one of the largest
of whose tributaries issues from the Ba-Be lakes. The Black
river is navigable for a considerable distance, the Clear river
only from Tuyen-Kwang. Between the basins of the Song-Koi
and the Mekong the chain of mountains, crowned by tolerably
extensive plateaus, covers, with its ramifications and transverse
spurs, a vast extent of country little known, although several
trade-routes traverse it, thus placing the Laos country in
communication with Tongking and Annam. In about 19° N.
the mountain-ridge approaches the sea and runs parallel to the
coast, presenting on its eastern side a steep declivity which
encloses a narrow littoral, in places only a mile or two broad,
between the base of its cliffs and the shore. This coast-belt
constitutes the habitable and cultivable portion of Annam
proper, and consists of alluvial matter accumulated at the
mouths of mountain streams, and marshes and swamps enclosed
between land and sea by sand ridges heaped up by wind and
tide. The high valleys and plateaus originally belonged to the
empire, the limits of which, although invaded and occupied
by Siamese, formerly extended to the banks of the Mekong.
The western slopes form part of the French Laos possessions.
The Mekong valley includes Laos, Cambodia and the greater
part of Cochin-China. The Mekong (q.ii.) is one of the largest
rivers of south-eastern Asia, having a course 1900 m. in length.
Its mouths, six in number, communicate by means of a navigable
canal with the Saigon river (fed by the Don-Nai and the two
Vaico rivers), which is navigable by the largest warships, render-
ing Saigon the most important natural port of Indo-China.
Geology. — The deltaic tracts of the Mekong and Red river are
composed of alluvium (generally silicious clay) deposited by the
rivers. The mountains from which this soil is derived are granitic in
formation, the framework being almost always schists of ancient date,
dislocated, folded and occasionally rounded into hills loop to 1300 ft.
in height, belonging to the Devonian period. Above these schists
lie — more especially in the north and south of Tongking — marbles
and other highly crystalline limestones, upon which rest, uncon-
formably in places (Nong-Son, Ke-Bao, Hon-Gay), Carboniferous
formations. In the upper part of the Red river valley rich deposits
of coal have been found between Yen-Bay and Hai-Duong, in a
considerable tract of Tertiary rock. Limestone occurs also in the
valley of the Mekong, forming an extensive massif in the district of
Lakhon and in the basins of the Nam-Ka-Dinh and Nam-Hin-Bun.
These limestones appear to be Carboniferous. In the region south
of Lakhon the rock is Triassic, and gold has been found in several
districts. The natives collect it in very small quantities by a washing
process. In the lateral valleys of the Mekong copper and tin are
found. On the course of the Nam-Paton, a tributary of the Nam-
Hin-Bun, the natives work a moderately productive tin-mine.
Layers of spiegeleisen, limonite and other iron ores are numerous in
the Laos states, in which also antimony occurs.
Climate. — -The climate of Indo-China is that of an inter-tropical
country, damp and hot. But the difference between the southern
and northern regions is marked, as regards both temperature and
meteorology. Cochin-China and Cambodia have very regular
seasons, corresponding with the monsoons. The north-easterly
monsoon blows from about the 1 5th of October to the 1 5th of April,
within a day or so. The temperature remains almost steady during
this time, varying but slightly from 78'8° to 80-6° F. by day to 68
INDO-CHINA, FRENCH
491
by night. This is the dry season. From the isth of April to the
of October the monsoon reverses, and blows from the south-west.
The season of daily rains and tornadoes commences. The tempera-
ture rises from 80-6° to 84-2°, at which it remains day and night.
April and May are the hottest months (from 86° to 93-2°). The damp
unwholesome heat sometimes produces dysentery and cholera.
The climate of Annam is less regular. The north-easterly monsoon,
which is " the ocean-wind," brings the rains in September. The
north-easterly gales lower the temperature below 59°. September
is the month in which the typhoon blows. During the dry season —
June, July and August — the thermometer oscillates between 86°
and 95°. The nights, however, are comparatively cool. Tongking
has a winter season— October to May. The temperature, lowered by
fog and the rains, does not rise above 75-2° and descends to 50° over
the delta, and to 44-6° and even 42-8° in the highlands, where white
frost is occasionally seen. The summer, on the other hand, is scorch-
ing. The wind veers to the south-east and remains there until
October. The temperature rises to over 83° ; often it reaches and
continues for several days at 95° or even more. The nights are
distressingly airless. The Laos country in the interior and lying at a
high altitude is cooler and drier. Its deep valleys and high hills vary
its climate.
Fauna and Flora. — From the populous cultivated districts wild
animals, once plentiful, have retired towards the wooded and
mountainous districts. The wild life of Laos includes fairly numerous
herds of elephants, the rhinoceros (one- and two-horned ; rhinoceros
horn is employed as a " medicine "), tiger, panther, brown bear,
tree-bear, monkeys and rats, among which are the musk rat, the palm
rat and the nu-khi, or rat found in the rice-fields of the highlands,
in which its ravages are considerable. In mountain districts the
leopard, wild boar and deer are found, and in the neighbourhood of
habitations the tiger-cat and ichneumon. The buffalo is commonly
found wild in Laos ; as a domesticated animal it also holds a prominent
place. The zebu bull is used for transport purposes. Attempts to
acclimatize the Arab horse and to introduce sheep from Aden and
China have failed. There is, however, an indigenous race of horses,
excellent in spite of their small size — the horses of Phu-Yen. Among
birds the woodcock, peacock and numerous species of duck inhabit
the woods and marshes. The goose and guinea-fowl appear, as also
the turkey, to have become easily acclimatized. Reptiles (apart
from the caimans of the Mekong, which attain a length of over 30 ft.,
and are much appreciated by the Annamese as food) are extremely
numerous and varied in species. The rivers are rich in fish. The
sole is found in the rivers of Tongking. The Mekong is fished for two
species peculiar to it — the pa-beuk and the pa-leun, which attain a
length of nearly 6 ft. All varieties of mosquitoes, ants and leeches
combine to render the forests bordering the Mekong impracticable.
Peculiar species of grubs and caterpillars destroy the cotton and
coffee plantations of Cochin-China. The silkworm may be said to be
indigenous in Tongking, where there are several thousand acres of
mulberry trees.
The flora is inter-tropical, and comprises nearly all the trees known
in China and Japan. The bamboo is utilized in building and a
variety of other ways. Formerly the teak was believed not to exist
in the forests of Indo-China, but it was found some years ago in
considerable abundance, and plantations of it have been made.
Certain hard woods are used for marqueterie and other ornamental
work. Rubber is also exploited. Cotton, previously cultivated in
Cochin-China and Cambodia, gives excellent results in Laos. Tea,
of which there are a certain number of plantations in the highlands
of Tongking and Annam, grows wild in Upper Laos, and in quality
closely resembles the Pou-eurl or Pueul variety noted in Yun-nan.
Cocoa, coffee and cotton are cultivated in Tongking and Cambodia.
Cinnamon and cardamoms are gathered in Laos and Annam. Ground
nuts, sesame, sugar canes, pepper, jute, tobacco and indigo are also
grown. The area under rice, which is incomparably the most im-
portant crop, is approximately 1,750,000 acres. All European fruits
and vegetables have been introduced into Tongking, and with
certain exceptions — the grape, for example — succeed perfectly.
Measures taken to secure the monopoly of opium have notably in-
creased the cultivation of the poppy.
People. — The population of French Indo-China falls into
five chief divisions — the Annamese, forming the bulk of the
population in Annam, Tongking and Cochin-China and four-
fifths of that of the whole country; the Khmers or Cambodians;
the Chams of southern Annam; the Thais, including the
Laotians; and the autochthonous tribes classed by the other
inhabitants as Mois or Khas (" savages ")• Driven into the
interior by the now dominant races, these older people have
mixed and blended with the peoples whom they found there,
and new tribes have arisen, intermingled with fugitives from
China, Annam and even Siam. In the north of Tongking
people of Laos origin occur — the Thos round Kaobang, the
Muongs in the mountains bordering the Red river. When
mixed with Chinese the Muongs and the Thos are known as
the Hung-dans, Mans and Miens. The Muongs are bigger and
stronger than the Annamese, their eyes often almost straight.
They have square foreheads, large faces and prominent cheek-
bones. In the centre and south of the Indo-Chinese mountain
chain are found, under a multiplicity of names — Phon-tays,
Souis, Bah-nan, Bolovens, Stiengs, Mors, Kongs, &c. — people
of Malayan origin mixed with all the races of Indo-China. Laos
is inhabited by an essentially miscellaneous population — falling
into three main groups — the Thais; various aboriginal peoples
classed as Khas; and the Moos and Yaos, tribes of Chinese
origin.
Religions. — The Annamese religion is a somewhat vague and
very tolerant Buddhism, which in practice resolves itself chiefly
into the worship of ancestors. Certain ceremonies performed
in Cambodia resemble distantly the Brahminical cult. The
Roman Catholic religion has been introduced by missionaries.
The course of its history has not been free from catastrophes
and accidents. There is an apostolical vicariate in Cochin-
China, one in Cambodia and several mission stations in Tongking.
Two of these missions are mainly conducted by Spanish priests.
Administration. — Before taking its present form the govern-
mental organization of Indo-China underwent many changes.
Originally Cochin-China, the only French possession in the
peninsula, was a colony directly administered, like other colonies,
by the ministry of marine, and its earliest governors were
admirals. Later, as further conquests were effected, Tong-
king and Cambodia were subjected to the regime of a protect-
orate somewhat ill-defined, and placed under the authority of
residents-general. The seat of the resident-general of Tongking
was at Hanoi; of Cambodia, at Pnom-Penh. The govern-
ment of the colonies having been transferred (1889) from the
ministry of marine to the ministry of commerce, and in 1894
to the newly created ministry of the colonies, the control of the
residencies passed gradually into the hands of civil agents.
Cochin-China, which already by the decree of the 8th of
February 1880 had been endowed with a colonial council, had
a municipality, a chamber of commerce, and even a deputy
in the French parliament. There had thus been three distinct
states, each with its own ruler and government. But by the
decrees of the I7th of October and the 3rd of November 1887
the unity of Indo-China was determined. By decree of October
the post of director of the interior of Cochin-China was done
away with and replaced by that of lieutenant-governor under
the immediate authority of a governor-general. The functions
and powers of the latter official were, however, but vaguely
defined before the decree of the 2ist of April 1891, which con-
ferred on M J. M. A. de Lanessan, appointed governor-general,
the most extensive powers. The residents-general of Tongking,
Annam and Cambodia, and the lieutenant-governor of Cochin-
China, as well as the military authorities, were placed under him.
But this change of policy, which put an end to the system of
expeditions and minor military operations, and restricted the
power of the residents whilst restoring to the mandarins a share
of authority, was unwelcome to numerous interests, which,
combining, secured the abrupt recall of M de Lanessan on the
2gth of December 1894. The decree of the 2ist of April 1891
was not, however, revoked, but the powers it conferred were
restricted. After the appointment of M Doumer, successor
to M Rousseau, who died on the loth of December 1896,
this decree was again put in force on the former scale, and in
1898 it was supplemented by the decrees of the 3rd and 3ist of
July, which definitely established the political and financial
unity of Indo-China. The governor-general is the sole inter-
mediary between the Indo-Chinese Union and the home govern-
ment, the powers of which, with few restrictions, are delegated
to him. As supreme administrative and military authority,
he directly controls the civil services, and, though prohibited
from commanding in the field, disposes of the land and sea
forces in the country. His diplomatic negotiations with foreign
powers must be carried on under the authorization and sur-
veillance of the home authorities. The governor-general is
assisted by the Superior Council of Indo-China, which meets
492
INDO-CHINA, FRENCH
monthly, and as reorganized by the decree of the 8th of Augus
1898 is composed as follows: the governor-general (president)
the general commanding as head of the troops; the rear-admira
commanding the naval squadron of the Far East; the lieutenant
governor of Cochin-China; the residents superior of Tongking
Annam, Cambodia and Laos; the director-general of finances
the director of the contrSle financier; the head of the judicia
service of Indo-China; the director-general of the customs
and excise of Indo-China; the directors-general of agriculture
forests and commerce; of public works; of posts and telegraphs
of health; and of public instruction; the treasurer-genera
of Indo-China; the director of the school of medicine at Hanoi
the president of the colonial council of Cochin-China; the
presidents of the chambers of commerce of Saigon, Hanoi anc
Hai-Phong; the presidents of the united chambers of commerce
and agriculture of Annam and Cambodia; the presidents 01
the chambers of agriculture of Tongking and Cochin-China
four influential natives; the chief of the cabinet and the governor-
general's secretary. This list sufficiently indicates the depart-
mental services, by means of which the general government is
carried on. The Superior Council meets not only at Hanoi,
the seat of the government, but also at Saigon, Hue and Pnom-
Penh. It delegates its powers to a " permanent commission
consisting of thirteen of its members, and dispensing with the
attendance of the local authorities of regions other than those
in which the place of meeting is situated. The Superior Council
meets annually to receive the general budget and the local
budgets which " must be accepted by the governor-general at
a session of the Superior Council."1 It must also be consulted
on the distribution of military credits, and on the credits to be
devoted to public works. The contrdle financier, which scrutinizes
and sanctions all measures of the public services involving
outlay of money, is dependent on the ministry of the colonies.
Its returns have to be communicated to the governor-general.
The governor-general is also assisted by a " council of defence,"
comprising the chief military and naval authorities.
Justice. — The whole of Indo-China is, in principle, subject to
French justice, represented by a court of appeal and a certain
number of tribunals. Before 1898 the administration of justice
was not centralized. There was a court of appeal at Hanoi, and
another at Saigon. But the decree of the 8th of August 1898
established one court of appeal for French Indo-China : two chambers
sitting at Saigon and the other two at Hanoi. Three tribunals of
commerce are established at Saigon, Hanoi and Hai-Phong. There
are courts of first instance at Saigon, My-Tho, Vinh-Long, Ben-Tre,
Chau-Doc, Kantho, Soc-Trang, Tra-vinh, Long-Xuyen for Cochin-
China, at Pnom-Penh for Cambodia, and at Hanoi and Hai-Phong
for Tongking. These courts are supplemented by juges de paix
in Cochin-China, and there are juges depaixat Nam-Dinh (Tongking)
and Tourane; elsewhere in the protectorates the residents perform
judicial functions. There are criminal courts at Saigon, My-Tho,
Vinh-Long and Long-Xuyen in Cochin-China, at Hanoi in Tongking
and at Pnom-Penh in Cambodia. In Cochin-China Annamese law
is administered in the French courts in suits between natives, but
native tribunals have been superseded. In Annam-Tongking, out-
side the sphere of the French tribunals, the natives are subject to
Annamese justice, represented in each province by a mandarin,
called the An Sat, and in Cambodia the natives are subject to the
native tribunals. At the same time, whenever a French subject or
European or other foreigner is a party in an affair, French justice
only ts competent.
Public Works. — The order of the gth of September 1898 placed the
public works of Indo-China under the " direct authority of the
governor-general as regards works entered to the general budget
account." There is a director of public works in Indo-China at
Saigon, a director of engineering in the other countries. In 1895
a " special service " was created in Tongking to Consider railway
business.
Posts and Telegraphs. — The country is divided into two sections
for the purposes of this service, the one comprising Annam, Tongking
and Upper Laos, the other Cochin-China, Cambodia and Lower
Laos. The post and telegraph offices in Indo-China number about
three hundred. Tourane communicates by submarine cable with
Amoy in China, thence with Vladivostok and Europe.
The Army — Land Force. — The military services are under the
authority of a general of division commanding in chief. The
European troops in 1907 comprised four regiments of colonial
1 This does not apply to the budget of Cochin-China, which is
voted by the colonial council and approved by the governor-general
alone.
infantry with 22 batteries of artillery (10 in Tongking and 12 in
Cochin-China). The native troops, numbering over 18,000, com-
prised four regiments of Tongkingese tirailleurs (sharp-shooters),
two of Annamese, a battalion of Cambodian and a battalion of
Chinese tirailleurs, a squadron of Annamese chasseurs or light horse
and two companies of engineers.
Sea Force. — Indo-China is protected by the naval division of the
Far East. In addition five gunboats are stationed at Saigon and a
third-class cruiser and some minor vessels at Hai-Phong.
The Policing of the country is performed by natives (the garde
indigene) under European officers and by the gendarmerie coloniale,
which is reinforced by native auxiliaries.
Money, &c. — The monetary unit is the piastre, which is of variable
value, having fallen from 4-50 francs to 2-40 francs and fluctuating
round that figure. The chief native coin is the sapek of zinc or tin,
six hundred of which strung together form a ligature, a tenth of
which is called a lien. The piastre is worth 2700 sapeks. The unit
of weight, the picul, equals 6p-A kilos, (about 133 ft) ; the thuoc-moe
equals -425 metre (about 17 in.).
Education. — The Annamese are intelligent and have old intel-
lectual and artistic traditions. In consequence the promotion of
education has been assigned to a special council (Conseil de perfec-
lionnement de I' enseignement) selected from Frenchmen and Asiatics
particularly qualified for membership. Among its preoccupations
are the reconstitution of die schools of Chinese characters in Cochin-
China, the remodelling of the programmes of the triennial examina-
tions in Annam and Tongking (see ANNAM) with a view to completing
them with a summary knowledge of French and science, the im-
provement of the teaching given in the pagodas in Cambodia and
Laos, and the foundation of a university comprising classes for
natives. In 1906, in Cochin-China, where the largest sum (£45,000
in 1906) is devoted to instruction, 22,500 children received a French
education.
Finance. — The unification
Doumer (decree of the 3ist 01 juiy 1898; specially
that of the government. The financial scheme is based on the
political. Just as a single central government directs the various
local governments, so in addition to the general budget, comprising
the revenue and expenditure of the supreme government, there are
several local budgets, including the revenue and expenditure in-
cidental to the individual provinces.
The general budget in 1899 atld 1904 is summarized below : —
Receipts. Expenditure.
1899 .... £1,968,770 £1,639,800
1904 .... 2,809,851 2,797,031
While direct taxes, e.g. the poll-tax and land tax or (in Cambodia)
the tax on products, are the main sources of revenue for the local
budgets, those for the general budget are the indirect taxes:
(i) customs (£619,616 in 1904) ; (2) " re'gies " and other indirect
taxes (£1,733,836 in 1904), these including the excise on alcohol, the
monopoly of the purchase and sale of salt, and the monopoly of the
purchase, manufacture and sale of opium.
The chief items of expenditure in 1904 were the following: —
Public Works £385,680
Customs and " re'gies " .... 618,654
Naval and Military Services . . . 527,663
Loans2 417,421
Shipping. — The following table shows the total tonnage of shipping
entered and cleared at the ports of French Indo-China in 1905 and
its distribution over the countries of the Union : —
i of the budget brought about by M
of July 1898) specially contributed to
Country.
Tonnage.
Entered.
Cleared.
Cochin-China .
Tongking ....
Annam
i,"7,054
242,119
28,065
2,520
1,007,510
348,947
26,406
2,012
Cambodia ....
Total ....
1,389,758
1,384,875
Over half the tonnage was French (698,178 tons entered); the
This does not include the expenditure on account of the 3%
oan of £8,000,000, which is inscribed in a special account. The
debt of the government-general of Indo-China is composed as
ollows: —
2i% Loan of 1896 (Annam-
Tongking) ....
3i% Loan of £8,000,000
issued from 1899 to 1905
Total
Nominal Capital.
£3,678,000
8,748,260
£12,426,260
Nominal Capital
in circulation on
Jan. I, 1907.
£3,342,800
8,640,060
£11,982,860
INDO-CHINA, FRENCH
493
United Kingdom came second (284,277 tons); Germany, third
(205,615 tons).
Commerce. — The value of the trade of French Indo-China increased
from £6,796,000 in 1896 to £16,933,000 in 1905, its average annual
value for tht, years 1896-1905 being £12,213,000.
The following table shows the movement of commerce in 1905:
Imports.
Exports.
Total.
France ....
French colonies .
Foreign countries
Total. . . .
£
4,3H.586
163,568
5,704,257
£
1,233,295
76,855
5,440,156
£
5-547,881
240,423
11,144,413
10,182,411
6,750,306
i6,932*,7i7
In 1905 the principal foreign countries from which goods were
imported were:
Hong Kong for £2,473,882!
Singapore ,, 598,449
China and Japan. „ 1,473,704
Burma and Siam , 289,542
The British Isles ....,, 141,381
The United States „ 126,425
The principal countries to which goods were exported were:
Hong Kong for £1,706,597'
China and Japan . „ 497,288
Singapore 360,510
Burma and Siam „ 80,071
The British Isles 55,539
The principal imports were :
Wheat for £214,156
Rice , 226,755
Raw opium „ 271,582
Raw cotton ,, 167,020
Wine , 340,027
Pit coal , 206,221
Petroleum „ 388,163
Gold „ 203,369
Iron and steel „ 353,214
Tin „ 526,428
Cotton thread „ 672,040
Jute tissues . „ 254,255
Cotton tissues ,, 922,250
Silk tissues
Paper
Metal- work
Arms, powder and ammunition
The principal exports were:
Dried fish, salt and smoked
Rice
Pepper
Pit coal
Tin
Cotton thread
for
344,633
1,170,576
170,882
£151,415
2,848,389
214,297
182,077
553,9H
421,162
The customs tariff is substantially the same as that of France,
severe import duties being levied on foreign goods. French goods
pay no import duty and goods exported thither are exempt from
export duty, with the exception of sugar, which is regulated by
special legislation, and of various other colonial products (e.g. coffee,
cocoa, tea, vanilla, pepper) which pay half the duty applicable to
similar foreign products according to the minimum tariff. Goods
from French colonies pay no import duty. About 53% of the
imports, comprising nearly all manufactured goods of European
origin, come from France. China, Japan and Singapore are the
other chief sources of imports. The Bank of Indo-China (capital
£1,440,000) besides receiving deposits and discounting bills, issues
bank-notes and has, till 1920, the privilege of lending money on
security.
Communications. — The railway communications of French Indo-
China comprise lines from Hai - Phong to Lao - Kay, continued
thence via the Nam-Te valley to Yun-nan ; from Hanoi northward
to Lang-Son and south to Vinh; from Tourane to Kwang-Tri via
Hu<5 and from Kan-Tho (Cochin-China) to Khanh-Hoa (Annam) via
My-Tho, Saigon, Bien-Hoa and Jiring with branches to Phan-Tiet
and Phan-Rang. The three last are the completed sections of a
line which will unite Tongking with Cochin-China. The towns in
the deltas of the Mekong and Red river are united by a network of
canals. The mandarin road following the coast line of Annam
connects Tongking with Cochin-China, but the easiest means of
communication between these two territories is by sea, the voyage
from Saigon to Tourane lasting three days, that from Tourane to
Hai-Phong, thirty hours.
History — The beginning of French influence in Indo-China
dates from 1787, when a treaty was concluded between Gia-
'The transit trade between Hong Kong and Yun-nan via Tong-
king is of considerable importance (see TONGKING).
long, king of Annam (?.».), and the king of France, whereby
Tourane and the island of Pulo-Condore were ceded to the
latter. The successors of Gia-long were averse from French
influence and instituted persecutions of the Christian missionaries
and natives, which led, in the reign of Tu-duc in 1858, to the
arrival at Tourane of a French and Spanish fleet. The capture
of that town was followed early in 1859 by the storming of
Saigon, which Rigault de Genouilly, the French admiral, chose
as his base of operations. The French and Spanish were, however,
too few to take the offensive, and were forced to submit to a
blockade, conducted by the Annamese general Nguyen Tri
Phuong, at the head of 20,000 troops. It was not till February
1861 that reinforcements under Admiral Charner reached
Saigon, and the Annamese were defeated and My-Tho taken.
A revolt against Tu-duc in Tongking, and the stoppage of the
rice supplies from Cochin-China, obliged the king to submit,
in 1862, to a treaty by which three provinces of Cochin-China
were ceded and other concessions accorded to France. However,
it was only after further military operations that Tu-duc con-
sented to the ratification of the treaty. In 1863 Admiral de
la Grandiere was appointed governor of Cochin-China and in
the same year France established her protectorate over Cam-
bodia. It was under La Grandiere that the exploration of
Mekong was undertaken (see GARNIER, M J. F.) and that in
1867 the three provinces of Cochin-China left to Annam were
annexed. French intervention in Tongking, which began with
the expedition of Francois Gamier to Hanoi in 1873, culminated
after a costly and tedious war (see TONGKING) in the treaties
of 1883 and 1884, whereby Annam and Tongking passed under
the protectorate of France. The latter treaty, though its
provisions were subsequently much modified, remains theoretic-
ally the basis of the present administration of Annam.
From 1884 onwards the history of Indo-China may be divided
into two distinct periods, characteristic of the political conception
and governmental system adopted by the French government.
In the first period, 1884-1891, the French agents in Tongking
and Indo-China generally proceeded under cover of the treaty
of 1884 with the definite conquest and annexation of Tongking
and also Annam. Cochin-China itself openly designed to seize
the southern provinces of Annam, upon the borders of which
it lay. This policy, momentarily checked by the war with
China, was vigorously, even violently, resumed after the treaty
of Tientsin (June 1885). The citadel of Hu6 was occupied in
July 1885 by General de Courcy. The Annamese government
forthwith decided upon rebellion. An improvised attack upon
the French troops was led by the ministers Thu-yet and Thu-ong.
The revolt was promptly suppressed. The regent Thu-yet and
the king Ham-N'ghi (crowned in August 1884) fled. At this
time the French government, following a very widespread error,
regarded Tongking and Annam as two distinct countries, in-
habited by populations hostile to each other, and considered
the Tongkingese as the oppressed vassals of the Annamese
conqueror. To conquer Annam, it was said, would liberate
Tongking. This misconception produced the worst consequences.
With the flight of the king civil war commenced in Annam.
The people of Tongking, whose submission the court of Hu6
had not dared to demand, began to rise. Taking advantage of
this state of anarchy, pirates of the Black Flag, Chinese deserters
and Tongkingese rebels devastated the country. The occupa-
tion of Tongking became a prolonged warfare, in which 25,000
French, compelled to guard innumerable posts, had to oppose
an intangible enemy, appearing by night, vanishing by day,
and practising brigandage rather than war. The military
expenditure, met neither by commerce, which had become
impossible, nor taxation, which the Annamese could not pay
nor the French receive, resulted in heavy deficits. The resident-
general, Paul Bert, who hoped to gain the confidence of the
mandarins by kindness and goodwill, did not succeed in pre-
venting, or even moderating, the action of the military regime.
Than-quan, Hon-Koi, Lao-Kay, Pak-Lun and Kao-Bang were
occupied, but the troops were driven back to the delta and almost
invested in the towns. Disappointed in his hopes and worn out
494
rather by anxiety than work, Paul Bert succumbed to his
troubles in November 1886, seven months after his arrival in
the country. His successors possessed neither the strength
nor the insight necessary to grapple with the situation. M.
Constans, however, appointed " provisional " governor-general
after the death of M. Filippini, succeeded to a certain extent
in reviving commerce in the towns of the delta. MM. Richaud,
Bihourd and Piquet, successors of M. Constans, were all powerless
to deal with the uninterrupted " bush-fighting " and the aug-
mentation of the deficit, for no sooner was the latter covered
by grants from the mother country than it began to grow again.
At the close of the financial year in 1 890 France had paid 1 3 ,000,000
francs. In April 1891 the deficit again approached the sum of
1 2,000,000 francs. • The rebels held almost all the delta provinces,
their capitals excepted, and from Hanoi itself the governor-
general could see the smoke of burning villages at the very gates
of his capital.
At this point a complete change of policy took place. M. de
Lanessan, a Paris deputy sent on a mission in the course of 1887,
made himself acquainted with the government and the court
of Hue. He recognized the absolute falsity of the story which
represented the Tongkingese as the oppressed subjects of the
Annamese. He demonstrated the consanguinity of the popula-
tions, and after intercourse with the regents, or ministers, of
Hue he realized that the pacification of the country depended
upon harmonious relations being established between the general
government and the court. Appointed governor-general with
the fullest powers on the 2ist of April 1891, he presented himself
at Hue, concluded witn the comat an agreement based on the
principle of a " loyal protectorate," and reassured the court,
up to this point uneasy under menace of annexation. The
comat 'shortly issued] a proclamation under the great royal seal,
never hitherto attached to any of the public acts imposed upon
the king by the governors, who had been unaware of its
existence. In this proclamation the king ordered all his subjects
to obey the governor-general and to respect him, and commanded
rebels to lay down arms. The effect was immediate — disorders
in the delta ceased. The pirates alone, in revolt against the
king of Annam and all authority, continued their brigandage.
But the governor-general instituted four " military districts,"
the commanders of which were commissioned to destroy the
pirates. At the same time he placed a force of native police,
the link co, at the disposal of the mandarins, hitherto regarded
with suspicion and intentionally deprived of all means of action.
Order was restored within the delta. In the mountainous
districts infested by pirates roads were opened and posts
established. The chief haunts of the pirates were demolished,
and during 1893 the foremost pirate chiefs gave in their sub-
mission. The Indo-Chinese budget regainedftits balance. On
the Chinese frontier agreements were concluded with Marshal
Sou, in command of the Chinese forces, regarding the simultaneous
repression of piracy in both countries. But on the Mekong
difficulties arose with the Siamese. For centuries Siam had
occupied the right bank of the Mekong, and her troops had
crossed the river and occupied the left bank. Luang-Prabang
was in the hands of the Siamese, who had also established posts
at Stung-treng and elsewhere. Friction occurred between the
French agents and Siamese soldiery. After the death of Inspector
Crosgurin on the sth of June 1893 the French government
occupied Stung-treng and Khong. France demanded explana-
tions and redress at Bangkok, but the court refusing concessions,
an ultimatum was presented to the king by M. Pavie, French
minister to Siam. The terms of the ultimatum not having been
complied with within the given time, the French flotilla, con-
sisting of the gunboats " L'Inconstant " and " La Comete," crossed
the bar of the Menam on i3th July 1893, forced the entrance
of the channel, and anchored at Bangkok, before the French
legation. A second ultimatum was then presented. It contained
the following conditions:— First, the occupation of Chantabun
by the French until the Siamese should have entirely evacuated
the left bank of the Mekong; secondly, the Siamese to be
interdicted from maintaining military forces at Battambang,
INDO-CHINA, FRENCH
Siem-Reap, and generally from establishing fortified positions
within 155 m. of the right bank of the Mekong; thirdly, Siam
to be interdicted from having armed boats on the great lake
Tonle-Sap. This agreement was executed immediately, the
Laotians being eager parties to it. On the agth of September
1893 the king of Luang-Prabang made his submission to the
French government, and besought it to use its influence with
the court of Siam for the return to their families of the sons
of princes and mandarins then in schools at Bangkok. The
Siamese evacuated the left bank of the Mekong, and France
took possession of Laos, a treaty, on the basis of the ultimatum,
being signed on the ist of October 1893. The disputes to which
this affair with Siam had given rise between France and Great
Britain were amicably settled by an agreement concluded on
the isth of January 1896. This " declaration," virtually
ratifying the treaty concluded in 1893 between France and
Siam, settled the limits of the zones of influence of the two-
contracting powers in the north of the Mekong regions and on
the frontiers of Siam and Burma. Great Britain resigned to
France the regions of the Muong-Sing which she had previously
occupied. The great part of Siam included in the Menam
basin was declared neutral, so also the Me-ping basin in the north,
Meklong Pechaburi and Bang Pa Kong rivers in the south.
The neutral zone, 15? m. wide on the right bank of the Mekong,
was formally recognized.
In 1904, by a new Franco-Siamese treaty setting aside that of
1893, Chantabun was evacuated and the neutral zone renounced
in return for the cession of the provinces of Bassac and Melupr6
and the district of Dansai (comprising the portion of Luang
Prabang on the right bank of the Mekong) and the maritime
district of Krat. By a further convention in 1907 Siam ceded
the provinces of Battambang, Siem-Reap and Sisophon, and
received in return the maritime province of Krat and the district
of Dansai ceded in 1904. At the same time France abandoned
all designs on territory of Siam by giving up certain areas,
obtained for the purposes of railway building on the right bank
of the Mekong.
After the recall of M. de Lanessan in 1894 (see above), and
before his successor, M. Rousseau, was able to acquaint himself
fully with the condition of the country, military expeditions
began again and the deficit soon reappeared. Tranquillity,
however, being restored, attention was given to public works.
On the 1 2th of October 1895 M. Rousseau left to ask parliament
to vote a loan of 100,000,000 francs. On the loth of February
1896 a law was passed authorizing a loan of 80,000,000 francs,
and on the I4th of March 1896 an office for the financial control
of the government-general of Indo-China was established. In
the interval a French company had obtained from China a
concession to prolong the railway from Langson to Lungchow
on a tributary of the Canton river. M. Rousseau, who died
on the loth of December 1896, was replaced by M. Doumer,
previously minister of finance, under whose government was
realized, as has been before stated, the union of Indo-China.
On the 2oth of December 1898 M. Doumer obtained from
parliament authorization to contract a loan of 200,000,000-
francs, the proceeds of which were appropriated to the construc-
tion of railway lines.
AUTHORITIES. — M. J. F. Gamier, Voyage d' exploration en Indo-
Chine (Paris, 1873); J. M. A. de Lanessan, L'Indo-Chine franc,aise-
(Paris, 1889); P. Doumer, L'Indo-Chine franfaise (Souvenirs) (Paris,
1905); F. Bernard, Indo-Chine (Paris, 1901), L. Salaun, L'Indo-Chine
(Paris, 1903); A. Girault, Principes de colonisation el de legislation
coloniale (Paris, 1907) ; M. Petit, Les Colonies franc,aises (2 vols., Paris,
1902) ; J. C. Gervais Courtellemont, L'Indo-Chine (Paris, 1002) ; A^
Neton, L'Indo-Chine et son avenir economique (Paris, 1904) ; A. Pavie,
Mission Pavie Indo-Chine (1879-1895) ; Geographic et voyages (Paris,
1901-1906) ; H. Lorin, La France: puissance coloniale (Paris, 1906) ; M.
Monnier, La Tour d'Asie: Cochinchine, Annam, Tonkin (Paris, 1899) ;.
E. Bonhoure, L'Indo-Chine (Paris, 1900); R. Castex, Les Rivages
indo-chinois (Paris, 1904); L. de Reinach, Le Laos (Paris, 1902)
(this work gives a very complete bibliography); Annuaire geniral
administrattf, commercial et industriel de I'Indo-Chine (Hanoi);
Revue Indochinois (Hanoi); C. Madrolle, Guide-Books (Paris, 1904—
1907); Bulletin economique de I' Indo-Chine (Saigon).
(J.M.A. DEL.; R.TR.)
INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGES
495
INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGES. The Indo-European (I.E.)
languages are a family of kindred dialects spread over a large
part of Europe, and of Asia as far as India.
The main branches so far identified fall easily into two groups
of four. These groups are distinguished from one another by the
treatment of certain original guttural sounds, k(c), g, kh, gh,
which one group shows as consonants, while the other converts
them into sibilants. The variation is well shown in the word for
"hundred": Gr. t-Karov, Lat. centum, Old Irish cet; Sanskrit
Salam, Zend satam, Lithuanian szimlas, Old Bulgarian (Old ecclesi-
astical Slavonic) suto. In the first three the consonant is a hard
guttural (the Romans said kentum, not sentum), in the others it is
a sibilant (the Lithuanian sz is the English sh).
The first group (generally known as the centum-group) is the
Western and entirely European group, the second (generally
known as the salem-group) with one exception lies to the east of
the centum-group and much its largest part is situated in Asia.
To the centum-group belong (i) Greek; (2) the Italic languages,
including Latin, Oscan, Umbrian and various minor dialects of
ancient Italy; (3) Celtic, including (a) the Q-Celtic languages,
Irish, Manx and Scotch Gaelic, (b) the P-Celtic, including the
language of ancient Gaul, Welsh, Cornish and Breton : the
differentiation, which exists also in the Italic languages, turning
upon the treatment of original kw sounds, which all the Italic
languages save Latin and the little-known Faliscan and the
(b) group of the Celtic languages change to p. With these go
(4) the Germanic or Teutonic languages, including (a) Gothic,
(b) the Scandinavian languages, Swedish, Danish, Norwegian,
Icelandic — differentiated in historical times out of a single
language, Old Norse, — (c) West Germanic, including English
and Frisian, Low Prankish (from which spring modern Dutch
and Flemish), Low and High German.
To the satem-group belongs (i) Aryan or Indo-Iranian, in-
cluding (a) Sanskrit, with its descendants, (b) Zend, and (c) Old
Persian, from which is ultimately descended Modern Persian,
largely modified, however, by Arabic words. This group is often
divided into two sub-groups, Indo- Aryan, including the languages
of India, and Iranian, used as a general title for Zend and Old
Persian as the languages of ancient Iran. Although the sounds
-of Indo-Aryan and Iranian differ considerably, phrases of the
earliest form of the one can be transliterated into the other
without change in vocabulary or syntax. (2) To the west of these
lies Armenian, which is so full of borrowed Iranian words that only
in 1875 was it successfully differentiated by Hubschmann as an
independent language. It is probably related to, or the descend-
ant of, the ancient Phrygian, which spread into Asia from Thrace
by the migration of tribes across the Hellespont. Of ancient
Thracian unfortunately we know very little. (3) North of the
Black Sea, and widening its borders in all directions, comes the
great B alto-Slavonic group. In this there are two branches
somewhat resembling the division between Indo-Aryan and
Iranian. Here three small dialects on the south-east coast
of the Baltic form the first group, Lithuanian, Lettish and Old
Prussian, the last being extinct since the I7th century. The
Slavonic languages proper themselves fall into two groups:
(a) an Eastern and Southern group, including Old Bulgarian, the
ecclesiastical language first known from the latter part of the pth
century A.D. ; Russian in its varieties of Great Russian, White
Russian and Little Russian or Ruthenian; and Servian and
Slovene, which extend to the Adriatic, (b) The western group
includes Polish with minor dialects, Czech or Bohemian, also with
minor languages in the group, and Sorb. In the satem division
is also included (4) Albanian, which like Armenian is much mixed
with foreign elements — Latin, Greek, Turkish and Slavonic. The
relation between it and the ancient Illyrian is not clear.
Besides the languages mentioned there are many others now
extinct or of which little is known — e.g. Venetic, found in clearly
written inscriptions with a distinctive alphabet in north-eastern
Italy; Messapian, in the heel of Italy, which is supposed to have
been connected with the ancient Illyrian; and possibly also the
unknown tongue which has been found recently on several
inscriptions in Crete and seems to have been the language of the
pre-Hellenic population, the finds apparently confirming the
statement of Herodotus (vii. 170) that the earlier population
survived in later times only at Praesos and Polichne. Names
of deities worshipped by the Aryan branch are reported to have
been discovered in the German excavations at Boghaz-Keui
(anc. Pleria, q.v.) in Cappadocia; names of kings appear in widely
separated areas elsewhere in Asia,1 and a language not hitherto
known has recently been found in excavations in Turkestan
and christened by its first investigators Tocharish.2 So far as
yet ascertained, Tocharish seems to be a mongrel dialect pro-
duced by an intermixture of peoples speaking respectively an
I.E. language and a language of an entirely different origin.
The stems of the words are clearly in many cases I.E., but the
terminations are no less clearly alien to this family of languages.
It is remarkable that some of its words, like ku, " dog," have
a hard k, while the other languages of this stock -in Asia, so
far as at present known, belong to the salem-group, and have
in such words replaced the k by a sibilant.
Till the latter part of the ii 8th century it was the universal
practice to refer all languages ultimately to a Hebrew origin,
because Hebrew, being the language of the Bible, was assumed,
with reference to the early chapters of Genesis, to be the original
language. Even on these premises the argument was unsound,
for the same authority also recorded a confusion of tongues at
Babel, so that it was unreasonable to expect that languages thus
violently metamorphosed could be referred so easily at a later
period to the same original. The first person to indicate very
briefly the existence of the Indo-European family, though he
gave it no distinctive name, was Sir William Jones in his address
to the Bengal Oriental Society in 1786. Being a skilled linguist,
he recognized that Sanskrit must be of the same origin as
Greek, Latin, Teutonic (Germanic) and possibly Celtic (Asiatic
Researches, i. p. 422; Works of Sir W. Jones, i. p. 26, London,
1799). Unfortunately Sir William Jones's views as to the re-
lationship of the languages were not adopted for many years by
later investigators. He had said quite definitely, " No philologer
could examine them all three (Sanskrit, Greek and Latin)
without believing them to have sprung from some common source,
which perhaps no longer exists." Friedrich Schlegel, who learnt
Sanskrit from Alexander Hamilton in Paris nearly twenty years
later, started the view that Sanskrit, instead of being the sister,
was the mother of the other languages, a mistake which,
though long since refuted in all philological works, has been
most persistent.
Curiously enough the history of the names given to the family
is obscure. The earliest known occurrence of the word " Indo-
European " is in an article in the Quarterly Review for 1813 3
by Dr Thomas Young. The term has been in use in English and
in French almost continuously since that date. But a glance
at Dr Young's article will show that he included under Indo-
European many languages like Basque, Etruscan and Arabian
(his term for Semitic), which certainly do not belong to this family
of languages at all; and if the term is taken to mean, as it would
seem to imply, all the languages spoken in India and Europe, it
is undoubtedly a misnomer. There are many languages in
India, as those of the Dravidians in Southern India and those
of Northern Assam, which do not belong to this family. On the
other hand there are many languages belonging to the family
which exist outside both India and Europe — Zend, Old Persian,
Armenian, Phrygian, to say nothing of languages recently dis-
covered. The term most commonly used in Germany is " Indo-
Germanic." This was employed by Klaproth as early as 1823.
It is said not to have been invented by him, but by whom and
1 E. Meyer, Sitzungsberichte der Berliner Akademie (1908, pp. 14 ff.),
and more fully in Kuhn's Zeilschrift (xlii. pp. 17 ff.) ; also Geschichte
des Altertums (i. 2, 2nd ed. pp. 807 ff.).
2 Sieg und Siegling, " Tocharisch, die Sprache der Indoskythen "
(Sitzb. d. Berl. Ak. 1908, pp. 915 ff.).
3 No. xix. p. 255, " Another ancient and extensive class of
languages, united by a greater number of resemblances than can
well be altogether accidental, may be denominated the Indo-Euro-
pean, comprehending the Indian, the West Asiatic, and almost all
the European languages."
496
INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGES
when it was invented is not quite ascertained.1 It is an attempt
to name the family by its most easterly and most westerly links.
At the time when it was invented it had not yet been settled
whether Celtic was or was not a member of this family. But
in any case the term would not have been wrong, for members of
the Germanic stock have been settled for above a thousand years
in Iceland, the most westerly land of Europe, and for the last
four centuries have increasingly dominated the continent of
America. As has been pointed out by Professor Buck of Chicago
(Classical Review, xviii. p. 400), owing to the German method
of pronouncing eu as oi, the word " Indo-Germanic " is easier for
a German to pronounce than " Indo-European." Attempts
to discover a more accurate and less ponderous term, such as
" Indo-Celtic " or " Celtindic," have not met with popular
favour. Aryan (q.v.) is conveniently brief, but is wanted as
the proper term for the most easterly branch of the family.
What is wanted is a term which does not confuse ethnological
and linguistic ideas. Not all speakers of any given language
are necessarily of the same stock. In ancient Rome Latin must
have been spoken by many slaves or sons of slaves who had no
Latin blood in their bodies, though a slave if manumitted by his
master might be the father or grandfather of a Roman citizen
with full rights. Plautus and Terence were both aliens, the one
an Umbrian, the other an African. The speakers of modern
English are even a more multifarious body. A possible name
for the family, implying only the speaking of a language of the
stock without any reference to racial or national characteristics,
could be obtained from the name for man, so widely though
perhaps not altogether universally diffused throughout the family
— Sanskrit was, Lithuanian wyras, Lat. rir, Irish fer, Gothic
wair, &c. If the speakers of these languages were called collec-
tively Wiros, no confusion with ethnological theories need arise.
It is customary to talk of the roots, stems and suffixes of words
in the Indo-European languages. These languages are distinguished
from languages like Chinese by the fact that in the great majority
of words suffixes can be separated from roots. But the distinction
between them and the so-called agglutinative languages is one of
degree rather than of kind. In the agglutinative languages, or
at any rate in some of them, some of the post-fixed elements have
still an independent value. In the Indo-Germanic languages no one
can say what the meaning of the earliest suffixes was. Suffixes
which have developed in individual languages or individual sections
of this family of languages can often be traced, e.g. the often quoted
-hood in English words Jike " manhood," or the English -ly in
" manly," which has gradually extended till it is actually attached
to its own parent like in " likely." But all recent investigation goes
to show that before the Indo-European languages separated^ they
possessed words with all the characteristics which we recognize in
substantives like'the Latin dominus or verbs like the Greek btUvvrai.
Or, to put the same fact in another way, by the comparative method
it is impossible to reach a period when the speakers of Indo-European
languages spoke in roots. A " root " is only a convenient philological
abstraction; it is merely the remnant which is left when all the
elements that can be analysed are taken away; it is therefore only
a kind of greatest common measure for a greater or smaller body of
words expressing modifications of the same idea. Thus, though by
no means the earliest form of the word, the English man might be
taken as the " root " from which are derived by various suffixes
manhood, manly, mannish, manful, manned (past tense), manned
(participle), unman, mannikin, &c. How far the suffixes which
can be traced back to Indo-European times (i.e. to a time before the
separation of the languages) had existence as separate entities it is
impossible to say. From what we see of the later history of the
languages it is much more probable that both forms and signification
were very largely the result of analogy. For in the making of new
words analogy plays a much larger part than any reference to general
principles of formation or composition. New words are to a large
extent, even in modern times, the invention of persons unskilled in
the history of language.
The first to point out that the term Indo-European (or Indo-
Germanic) was not used uniformly in one sense was Professor
Kretschmer in his Einleitung in\die Geschichte der griechischen Sprache
(Gottingen, 1896), pp. 9 ff. It is in fact used in three senses. (l)
Indo-European is treated as preceding and different from all its
descendants, a single uniform speech without dialects. But, strictly,
no such language can exist, for even individual members of the
same family differ from one another in pronunciation, vocabulary,
1 Leo Meyer, " tjber den Ursprung der Namen Indogermanen,
Semiten und Ugrofinner," in the Gottinger gelehrte Nachrichten, philo-
logisch-historische Klasse, 1901, pp. 454 ff.
sentence formation, etc. Thus it appears impossible to ascertain
what the Indo-European term for the numeral I was, since different
languages show at least four words for this, three of them presenting
the same root with different suffixes: (a) Sanskrit eka ( = *oi-quo-) ;
(6) Zend aeva, Old Persian aiva, Greek ol-(F)o-s ( = *oi-uo-) ; (c)
Greek olvfi , " ace," Latin unus (older _oenus), Old Irish oen, Gothic
ains, Lithuanian venas (where the initial f has no more etymological
signification than the w which now begins the pronunciation of the
English one), Old Bulgarian inu; (d) Greek els, tv ( = *sem-s). But
the Indo-European community must have had a word for the
numeral since the various languages agree in forms for the numerals
2 to 10, and the original Indo-European people seem to have been
able to count at least as far as 100. On the other hand, if the Indo-
European language must have had dialects, the line of differentiation
between it and its descendants becomes obliterated. (2) But even
when a word is found very widely diffused over the area of the Indo-
European languages, it is not justifiable to conclude that therefore
the word must have belonged to the original language. The dis-
persion of the Indo-European people over the areas they now
inhabit, or inhabited in the earliest times known to history, must
have been gradual, and commerce or communication between
different branches must have always existed to some extent; the
word might thus have been transmitted from one community to
another. When a word is found in two branches which are geo-
graphically remote from one another and is not found in the inter-
mediate area, the probability that the word is original is somewhat
stronger. But even in this case the originality of the word is by no
means certain, for (a) the intervening branch or branches which
do not possess the word may merely have dropped it and replaced
it by another; (6) the geographical position which the branches
occupy in historical times may not be their original position; the
branches which do not possess the word may have forced themselves
into the area they now occupy after they had dropped the word;
(c) if the linguistic communities which possess the word have a
seaboard and the intervening communities have not, the possibility
of its tra-smission in connexion with early sea-borne commerce
must be considered. At the dawn of European history the Phoe-
nicians and the Etruscans are great seafarers; at a later time the
Varangians of the North penetrated to the Mediterranean and as far
as Constantinople; in modern times sea-borne commerce brought
to Europe words from the Caribbean Indians like potato and tobacco,
and gave English a new word for man-eating savages — cannibal.
Thus with Kretschmer we must distinguish between what is common
Indo-European and what is original Indo-European in language.
(3) A word may exist in several of the languages, and may have
existed in them for a very long time, and yet not be Indo-European.
Hehn (Das Salz, ed. 2, 1901) rejects salt as an Indo-European word
because it is not found in the Aryan group, though in this case he
is probably wrong, (a) because, as has been shown by Professor
Johannes Schmidt, its irregular declension (sal-d, genitive sal-nes)
possesses characteristics of the oldest Indo-European words; (6)
oecause the great plains of Iran are characterized by their great
saltness, so that the Aryan branch did not pass through a country
where salt was unknown, although, according to Herodotus (i. 133),
the Persian did not use salt to season his food. Since Kretschmer
wrote, this argument has been used very extensively by Professor
A. Meillet of Paris in his Dialectes indo-europeens (Paris, 1908).
In this treatise he brings forward arguments from a great variety
of facts to show that in the original Indo-European language there
were dialects, the Aryan, Armenian, Balto-Slavonic and Albanian,
as we have seen, forming an oriental group with novel characteristics
developed in common, although in various other characteristics they
do not agree. Similarly Italic, Celtic and Germanic form a Western
group, while Greek agrees now with the one group now with the
other, at some points being more intimately connected with Italic
than with any other branch, at others inclining more towards the
Aryan. This grouping, however, is by no means exclusive, members
of either group having characteristics in common with individuals of
the other group which they do not share with the other languages of
their own group (Meillet, p. 131 ff.).
From all this it is clear that in many cases it must be extremely
uncertain what is original Indo-European and what is not. Some
general characteristics can, however, be predicated from what is
handed down to us in the earliest forms of all or nearly all the existing
languages. (l) The noun had certainly a large number of distinct
cases in the singular: nominative, accusative, genitive, ablative,
locative, instrumental, dative.1 In the plural, however, there was
less variety, the forms for dative and ablative being from the earliest
times identical. In the dual, the oblique cases cannot be restored
with certainty, so little agreement is there between the languages.
In the locative-singular the ending -i seems to have been of the
nature of a post-position, because in various languages (notably in
Sanskrit) forms appear without any suffix. In the locative plural
also the difference between the -s«of Sanskrit and early Lithuanian
(Slavonic -chu) on the one hand, and of -<ri in Greek on the other,
1 The vocative is not strictly speaking a case at all, for it stands
outside the syntax of the sentence. It was originally an exclamatory
form consisting of the bare stem without case suffix. In the plural
the nominative is used to supply the lacking vocative form.
INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGES
497
seems to be best explained by supposing that the -u and -t are post-
positions, a conclusion which is strengthened by the Greek rule
that -a- between vowels disappears. In the instrumental singular
and plural it is noticeable that there are two suffixes^— one, repre-
sented in Germanic and Balto-Slavonic only, beginning with the
sound -m, the other, surviving in most of the other languages for
the plural, going back to an Indo-European form beginning with
-bh. Professor Hirt of Leipzig has argued (Idg. Forschungen, v.
pp. 251 ff.) that -bh- originally belonged to the instrumental plural
(cf. the Lat. filiabus, omnibus, &c.), and the forms with -m— to the
dative and ablative. But this is merely a conjecture, which has no
linguistic facts in its favour, for the -hi of the Latin dative tibi,
which has parallel forms in many other languages, belongs to the
pronouns, which show in their declension many differences from the
declension of the noun (cf. also Brugmann, Grundriss (ed. 2), ii. 2,
p. 120). (2) The adjective agrees with its noun in gender, number
and case, thus introducing a superfluous element of agreement
which is not found, e.g. in most of the agglutinative languages.
Thus in phrases like the Greek i) xaXi) nbpn\ or the Latin ilia
pulchra puella the feminine gender is expressed three times, with no
advantage, so far as can be detected, over the modern English, that
fair maid, where it is not obviously expressed at all. In this respect
and also in the employment of the same case endings for the plural
as well as the singular, in the plural after a syllable expressing
plurality, the agglutinative languages have a distinct superiority
over the Indo-European languages in their earliest forms. Some
languages, like English and Modern Persian, have practically got rid
of inflexion altogether and the present difficulty with it; others,
like modern German, as the result of phonetic and analogical changes
have even intensified the difficulty. (3) In the personal pronouns,
especially those of the first and second persons, there is widely spread
agreement, but more in the singular than in the plural. Forms
corresponding to the English I and thou, the Latin ego and tu, are
practically universal. On the other hand the demonstrative pronouns
vary very considerably. (4) The system of numerals (subject to
slight discrepancies, as that regarding I mentioned above) is the
same, at least up to 100. (5) In the verb there were at first two
voices, the active and the middle, and three moods, the indicative,
the subj unctive and the optative. It has been suggested by Professors
Oertel and Morris in Harvard Studies, xvi. (p. 101, n. 3) that the simi-
larity which exists between the earliest Greek and the earliest Aryan
in the moods is the result of a longer common life between those two
branches. But of this there is no proof, and the great difference in
the treatment of the sounds by these two branches (see below)
militates very strongly against the supposition. The tense forms
indicated originally not relations in time but different kinds of
action. The distinctive forms are the present, the perfect, and the
aorist. The present indicated that an action was in progress or
continuous, the aorist on the other hand regarded the action as a
whole and, as it were, summed it up. The aorist has sometimes
been said to express instantaneous action, and so it does. But this
is not the essence of the aorist; the aorist may be used also of a
long continued action when it is regarded as a whole. Greek shows
this very clearly. In Athenian official inscriptions it was usual to
fix the date of the record by stating at the commencement who was
the chief magistrate (archon) of the year. This was expressed by
the imperfect (%pxf)- But when reference was made to a past
archonship, that was expressed by the aorist (i;p|e). The same
characteristic is evident also in prohibitions; thus, in Plato's Apology
of Socrates, /til fopv&pnfrt is" Do not begin to make a disturbance,"
tifi 9opv0tiTt is " Do not keep on making a disturbance." These
points are most easily illustrated from Greek, because Greek, better
than the other languages, has kept the distinctive usages of both
moods and tenses. The perfect as distinguished from the other forms
expresses either repetition of the action, emphasis, or the state which
results from the action expressed by the verb. Different languages
regard this last in different ways. Sometimes the state resulting
from the action is so characteristic that the perfect is almost an
independent verb. Thus in Greek KTOOM<U is " I acquire," but
x&rTHiat (the perfect) is " I possess," the result of the action of
acquiring. On the other hand the perfect may mean that the action
has come to an end. This is specially common in Latin, as in Cicero's
famous announcement of the execution of the Catilinarian conspira-
tors,— Vixerunt ("They have lived " = " They are no more").
But it is by no means confined to Latin. The pluperfect, the past
of the perfect, is a late development and can hardly be reckoned
Indo-European. In Greek the forms clearly arise from adding aorist
endings to a perfect stem. The forms of Latin are not yet com-
pletely explained — but it is certain that the specially Latin meaning
expressing something that was past at a time already past (relative
time) is a late growth. When Homeric Greek wishes to express this
meaning it uses most frequently the aorist, but also the imperfect
as well as the pluperfect, the notion of relative time being derived
from the context. In the earliest Latin the pluperfect is not un-
commonly used with the value of the aorist perfect. As regards
the future it is difficult to say how far it was an original form.
Some languages, like Germanic, preserve no original form for the
future. When the present is found not to be distinctive enough,
periphrastic forms come in. In other languages, like Latin and
Greek, there is constant confusion between subjunctive and future
forms. It is impossible to distinguish by their form between Sfl^a
(future) and Se(|u (subjunctive), between regain (future) and regam
(subjunctive). A special future with a suffix -s{o- (syo) is found only
with certainty in the Aryan group and the Baltic languages. The
future perfect is, strictly speaking, only a future made from a perfect
stem; in the Latin sense it is certainly a late development, and
even in early Latin, videro has occasionally no different meaning from
videbo. The imperative, which was originally an exclamatory form
to the verb, of the same kind as the vocative was to the noun, and
which consisted simply of the verb stem without further suffixes,
developed, partly on the analogy of the present and partly with the
help of adverbs, a complete paradigm. The infinitives of all the
languages are noun cases, generally stereotyped in form and no
longer in touch with a noun system, though this, e.g. in early Sanskrit,
is not always true. The participles differ only from other adjectives
in governing the same case as their verb; and this is not an early
distinction, for in the earliest Sanskrit all verbal nouns may govern
the same case as their verb.
The system here sketched in the barest outline tended steadily
to fall into decay. The case system was not extensive enough to
express even the commonest relations. Thus there was no means
of distinguishing by the cases between starting from outside and
starting from inside, ideas which, e.g. Finnish regards as requiring
separate cases; without a preposition it was impossible to distinguish
between on and in, though to the person concerned there is much
difference, for example between being on a river and in a river.
There are other difficulties of the same kind. These had to be got
over by the use of adverbs. But no sooner had the adverbs become
well established for the purpose of defining these local relations than
the meaning was felt to exist more in the adverb than in the case
ending. For this syntactical reason, as well as for mechanical
reasons arising from accent (q.v.), the case system in some languages
fell more and more into desuetude. In Sanskrit it has been kept
entire, in Balto-Slavonic the only loss has been the disappearance of
the original genitive and its replacement by the ablative. In Latin
the locative has been confused with the genitive and the ablative,
and the instrumental with the ablative. The loss of the locative as
an independent case had not long preceded historical times, because
it survives in Oscan, the kindred dialect of the neighbouring Cam-
pania. Greek has confused ablative with genitive, except for one
small relic recently discovered on an inscription at Delphi; in the
consonant stems it has replaced the dative by the locative form and
confused in it dative, locative and instrumental meanings. In
some other members of the family, e.g. Germanic, the confusion has
gone still farther.
The fate of the verb is similar, though the two paradigms do not
necessarily decay at the same rate. Thus Latin has modified its
verb system much more than its noun system, and Greek, while
•reducing seriously its noun forms, shows a very elaborate verb
system, which has no parallel except in the Aryan group. From the
syntactical point of view, however, the Greek system is much
superior to the Aryan, which has converted its perfect into a past
tense in classical Sanskrit, and to a large extent lost grip of the
moods. The decay in Aryan may be largely attributed to the power,
which this group developed beyond any other, of making compounds
which in practice took the place of subordinate sentences to a large
extent. The causes for the modifications which the Latin verb
system has undergone are more obscure, but they are shared not
only by its immediate neighbours the other Italic dialects, but also
to a great degree by the more remote Celtic dialects.
The origin and spread of the Indo-European languages has
long been, and remains, a vexed question. No sooner had Bopp
laid the foundation of Comparative Philology in his great work,
the first edition of which appeared in 1833-1835, than this
question began to be seriously considered. The earlier writers
agreed in regarding Asia as the original home of the speakers
of these languages. For this belief there were various grounds,
— statements in the Biblical record, the greater originality
(according to Schlegel) of Sanskrit, the absurd belief that the
migrations of mankind always proceeded towards the west.
The view propounded by an English philologist, Dr R. G.
Latham, that the original home was in Europe, was scouted
by one of the most eminent writers on the subject — Victor Hehn
— as lunacy possible only to one who lived in a country of cranks.
Latham's view was first put forward in 1851, and in half a
century opinion had almost universally come over to his side.
Max Muller indeed to the last held to the view that the home
was " somewhere in Asia," and Professor Johannes Schmidt
of Berlin, in a paper read before the Oriental Congress at Stock-
holm in 1889, argued for a close contact between early Indo-
European and Assyrian civilization, from the borrowing of one
or two words and the existence of duodecimal elements in the
Indo-European numeral system side by side with the prevalent
decimal system — the dozen, the gross, the long hundred (i 20) , &c.
4-98
INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGES
At 60 the systems crossed, and 60 was a very characteristic
element in Assyrian numeration, whence come our minutes anc
seconds and many other units.1
Even before Latham a Belgian geologist, d'Omalius d'Halloy, in
1848 had raised objections to the theory of the Asiatic origin of the
Indo-Europeans, but his views remained unheeded. In 1864 he
brought three questions before the Societe d' anthropologie of Paris:
(l) What are the proofs of the Asiatic origin of Europeans? (2) Have
not inflectional languages passed from Europe to Asia rather than
from Asia to Europe? (3) Are not the speakers of Celtic languages
the descendants of the autochthonous peoples of Western Europe?
(Reinach, op, cit. p. 38). Broca in replying to d'Omalius emphasized
the fact which has been too often forgotten in this controversy,
that race and language are not necessarily identical. In 1868
Professor Benfey of Gottingen argued for the south-east of Europe
as the original home,, while Ludwig Geiger in 1871 placed it in
Germany, a view which in later times has had not a few supporters.
Truth to tell, however, we are not yet ready to fix the site of the
original home. Before this can be done, many factors as yet im-
perfectly known must be more completely ascertained. The pre-
historic conditions of Northern, Western, Central and South-eastern
Europe have been carefully investigated, but important new dis-
coveries are still continually being made. Investigation of other
parts of Europe is less complete, and prehistoric conditions in
Asia are at present very imperfectly known. In Western
Europe two prehistoric races are known, the palaeolithic and the
neolithic. The former, distinguished by their great skill in drawing
figures of animals, especially the horse, the reindeer, and the mam-
moth, preceded the period of the Great Ice Age which rendered
Northern Europe to the latitude of London and Berlin uninhabitable
for a period, the length of which, as of all geological ages, cannot
definitely be ascertained. For the present purpose, however, this is
of less importance, because it is not claimed that the Indo-European
stock is of so great antiquity. But when the ice again retreated it
must have been long before Northern Europe could have maintained
a population of human beings. The disappearance of the surface
ice must have been followed by a long period when ice still remained
underground, and the surface was occupied by swamps and barren
tundras, as Northern Siberia is now. When a human population once
more occupied Northern Europe it is impossible to estimate in years.
The problem may be attacked from the opposite direction. How
long would it have taken for the Indo-European stock to spread from
its original home to its modern areas of occupation? Some recent
writers say that it is unnecessary to carry the stock back farther
than 2500 B.C. — a period when the civilizations of Egypt and Meso-
potamia were already ancient. Wherever the original home was
situated, this date is probably fixed too low. The discussion, more-
over, is in danger not only of moving in one vicious circle but in two.
(a) The term " Indo-European stock " necessarily implies race, but
why might not the language have been from the earliest times at
which we can trace it the language of a mixed race? (b) It is usual
to assume that the Indo-European stock was tall and blond, in
fact much as the classical writers describe the early Germans. But
the truth of this hypothesis is much more difficult to demonstrate.
In most countries known to the ancients where blond hair prevailed,
at the present day dark or brown hair is much more in evidence'
Moreover the colour of fair hair often varies from childhood to middle
life, and the flaxen hair of youth is very frequently replaced by a
much darker shade in the adult. It has been often pointed out that
many of Homer's heroes are xanthoi, and it is frequently argued
that £aK06s means blond. This, however, is anything but certain
even when Vacher de Lapouge has collected all the passages in
ancient writers which bear upon the subject. When Diodorus
(v. 32) wishes to describe the children of the Galatae, by whom
apparently he means the Germans, he says that their hair as children
is generally white, but as they grow up it is assimilated to the colour
j u'r f5tne.rs; The ethnological argument as to long-headed
and short-headed races (dolichocephalic and brachycephalic) seems
untrustworthy, because in countries described as dolichocephalic
short skulls abound and vice versa. Moreover this classification to
which much more attention has been devoted than its inventor Retzius
ever intended, is m itself unsatisfactory. The relation between the
length and breadth of the head without consideration of the total
size is clearly an unsatisfactory criterion. It is true that to the
mathematician | or f or ft are of identical value, but, if it be also
generally true that mental and physical energy are dependent on
the size and weight of the brain, then the mere mathematical relation
letween length and breadth is of less importance than the size of the
quantities. Anthropologists appear now to recognize this themselves
1 le argument from physical geography seems more important!
But here also no certain answer can be obtained till more is known
:onditions, m early times, of the eastern part of the area.
| For the history of the controversy see the excellent summary in
°nMClnMh'n L°iHgine des Aryens: Historie d'unec^07erse
'j ^ ^lull» S 'atef ,V16WS are co"tained in his Biographies
%? t T J j °me °f tke Aryas (I888>- See Schmidt's Die
rheimat der Indogermanen und das europ&ische Zahlsystem (1890)
According to Ratzel2 the Caspian was once very much larger than
it is now, and to the north of it there extended a great area of swamp,
which made it practically impossible for the Indo-European race
to have crossed north of the Caspian from either continent to the
other. At an early period the Caspian and Black Sea were con-
nected, and the Sea of Marmora and the Dardanelles were repre-
sented by a river which entered the Aegean at a point near the
island of Andros. _ While the northern Aegean was still land divided
only by a river, it is clear that migration from south-eastern Europe
to Asia Minor, or reversely, might have taken place with ease.
Even in much later times the Dardanelles have formed no serious
barrier to migration in either direction. At the dawn of history,
Thracian tribes crossed it and founded, it seems, the Phrygian and
Armenian stock in Asia Minor; the Gauls at a later time followed
the same road, as did Alexander the Great a generation earlier.
At the end of the middle ages, Asia sent by way of the Dardanelles
the invading Turks into Europe. The Greeks, a nation of sea-
farers, on the other hand reached Asia directly across the Aegean,
using the islands, as it were, as stepping-stones.
Though much more attention has been devoted to the subject by
recent writers than was earlier the practice, it is doubtful whether
migration by sea has even now been assigned its full importance.
The most mysterious people of antiquity, the Pelasgians, do not seem
to be in all cases the same stock, as their name appears merely to
mean " the people of the sea," IIeXo<77o£ representing an earlier
ireXa7s-«u, where TreXoTs _is 'the weak form of the stem of iri\ayos,
" sea," and -KOI the ending so frequent in the names of peoples.
A parallel to the sound changes may be seen in /ilayu, for *nly-in«a,
by the side of M'7-wj". As time goes on, evidence seems more and
more to tend to confirm the truth of the great migrations by sea,
recorded by Herodotus, of Lydians to Etruria, of Eteocretans both
to east and west. An argument in favour of the original Indo-
Europeans being seated in north-western Germany has been de-
veloped by G. Kossinna (Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie, 1902, pp. 161-222)
from_the forms and ornamentation of ancient pottery. It has
certainly not been generally received with favour, and as Kossinna
himself affirms that the classification of prehistoric pottery is still
an undeveloped science, his theory is clearly at present unequal to
the weight of such a superstructure as he would build upon it. As
the allied sciences are not prepared with an answer, it is necessary
to fall back upon the Indo-European languages themselves. The
attempt has often been made to ascertain both the position of the
original home and the stage of civilization which the original com-
munity had reached from a consideration of the vocabulary for
plants and animals common to the various languages of the Indo-
European family. But the experience of recent centuries warns us
to be wary in the application of this argument. If we cut off all
past history and regard the language of the present day as we have
perforce to regard our earliest records, two of the words most widely
disseminated amongst the Indo-European people of Europe are
tobacco and potato. Without historical records it would be im-
possible for us to discover that these words in their earliest European
Form had been borrowed from the Caribbean Indians. Most languages
tend to adopt with an imported product the name given to it by its
producers, though frequently misunderstanding arises, as in the
case of the two words mentioned, the potato being properly the yam,
and tobacco being properly the pipe, while petum or petun (cp.
petunia) was the plant.8
The first treatise in which an attempt was made to work out the
primitive Indo-European civilisation in detail was Adolphe Pictet's
Les Origines indo-europeennes ou les Aryas primitifs (1859-1863).
The idyllic conditions in which, according to Pictet, early Indo-
European man subsisted were accepted and extended by many
enthusiastic successors. The father, the protector of the family
(pater from pa, protect), and the mother (mater from ma, to produce)
were surrounded by their children (Skt. putra), whose name implied
that they kept everything clean and neat. The daughter was the
-mlkmaid (Skt. duhita from duh, milk), while the brother (Skt.
bhrdtar), derived from the root oiferre, " bear," was the natural pro-
tector of his sister, whose name, with some hesitation, is decided to
mean she who dwells with her brother," the notion of brother
and sister marriage being, however, summarily rejected (ii. p. 365).
The uncle and aunt are a second father and mother to the family
and for this reason nepos, Skt. napat, is both nephew and grandson.
The life of such families was pastoral but not nomad ; there was a
armstead where the women were busied with housewifery and
jutter-making, while the men drove their flocks afield. The ox, the
iprse, the sheep, the goat and the pig were domesticated as well as
the dog and the farmyard fowls, but it was in oxen that their chief
wealth consisted. Hence a cow was offered to an honoured guest,
cows were the object of armed raids upon their neighbours, and
when a member of the family died, a cow was killed to accompany
him in the next world. Even the phenomena of nature to their
Geographische Prufung derTatsachen fiber den Ursprung der
Volker Europas " (Berichte der k. sachsischen Ges. d. Wissenschaften,
900, pp. 34 ff.).
3 See the essay on " Evolution and the Science of Language," in
Darwin and Modern Science (1909), p. 524 f.
FRENCH
INDOCHINA
& SIAM
Scale, 1:8,000,000
English Miles
o to 50
m^^mm m
5 / o n,
04 ]3 Longitude East 106 of Grecnwicli
INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGES
499
naive imaginations could be represented by cows: the clouds of
heaven were cows whose milk nourished the earth, the stars were a
herd with the sun as the bull amongst them, the earth was a cow
yielding her increase. Before the original community, which ex-
tended over a wide area with Bactria for its centre, had broken
up, agriculture had begun, and barley, if not other cereals, and
various leguminous plants were cultivated. Oxen drew the plough
and the wagon. Industry also had developed with the introduction
of agriculture ; the carpenter with a variety of tools appears to con-
struct farm implements, buildings and furniture, and the smith is
no less busy. Implements had begun with stone, but by this time
were made of bronze if not of iron, for the metals gold, silver, copper,
tin were certainly known. Spinning and weaving had also begun;
pottery was well developed. The flocks and herds and agriculture
supplied food with plenty of variety; fermented liquors, mead,
probably wine and perhaps beer, were used, not always in moderation.
A great variety of military weapons had been invented, but geo-
graphical reasons prevented navigation from developing in Bactria.
Towns existed and fortified places. The people were organized in
clans, the clans in tribes. At the head of all, though not in the most
primitive epoch, was the king, who reigned not by hereditary right,
but by election. Though money had not yet been invented, exchange
and barter flourished ; there were borrowers and lenders, and property
passed from father to son. Though we have no definite information
as to their laws, justice was administered; murder, theft and fraud
were punished with death, imprisonment or fine (Resume general
at end of vol. ii.).
Further investigation, however, did not confirm this ideally happy
form of primitive civilization. Many of Pictet's etymologies were
erroneous, many of his deductions based on very uncertain evidence.
No recent writer adopts Pictet's views of the Indo-European family.
But his list of domesticated animals is approximately correct, if
domestication is used loosely simply of animals that might be kept
by the Indo-European man about his homestead. Even at the
present day domestication means different things in the case of
different animals. A pig is not domesticated as a dog is; in areas
like the Hebrides or western Ireland, where cattle and human beings
share the two ends of the same building, domestication means some-
thing very different from the treatment of large herds on a farm
extending to many hundreds of acres. In other respects the height
of the civilization was vastly exaggerated. That the Indo-European
people were agricultural as well as pastoral seems highly probable.
But as Heraclides says of the Athamanes (Fragmenta hist. Grace.
ii. 219), the women were the agriculturists, while the men were
shepherds. Agriculture begins on a very small scale with the dibbling
by means of a pointed stick of a few seeds of some plant which the
women recognize as useful either for food or medicine, and is possible
only when the people have ceased to be absolutely nomad and have
fixed settlements for continuous periods of some length. The
pastoral habit is broken down in men only by starvation, if the
pasture-lands become too cramped through an excessive increase of
population or are seized by a conqueror. As has been well said,
" of all the ordinary means of gaining a livelihood — with the ex-
ception perhaps of mining — agriculture is the most laborious, and is
never voluntarily adopted by men who have not been accustomed
to it from their childhood " (Mackenzie Wallace, Russia, new ed.
i. p. 266, in relating the conversion of the Bashkir Tatars to agri-
culture). Even the plough, in the primitive form of a tree stump
with two branches, one forming the handle, the other the pole, was
developed, and to this period may belong the representations in rock
carvings in Sweden and the Alps of a pair of oxen in the plough
(S. Muller, Nprdische Altertumskunde, i. 205; Dechelette, Manuel
d'archeologie, ii. pp. 492 ff.). The Indo-European civilization in its
beginnings apparently belongs to the chalcolithic period (sometimes
described by the barbarous term of Italian origin eneolithic) when
copper, if not bronze had come in, but the use of stone for many
purposes had not yet gone out. While primitive Indo-European
man apparently knew, as has been said, the horse, ox, sheep, goat,
pig and dog, it is to be observed that in their wild state at least
these animals do not all affect the same kind of area. The horse
is an animal of the open plain; the foal always accompanies the
mother, for at first its neck is too short to allow it to graze, and the
mare, unlike the cow, has no large udder in which to carry a great
supply of milk. The cow, on the other hand, hides her calf in a brake
when she goes to graze, and is more a woodland animal. The pig's
natural habitat is the forest where beech mast, acorns, or chestnuts
are plentiful. The goat is a climber and affects the heights, while
the sheep also prefers short grass to the richer pastures suited to
kine. To collect and tame all those animals implies control of an
extensive and varied area.
What of the trees known to primitive Indo-European man? On
this the greater part of the arguments regarding the original home
have turned. The name for the beech extends through a considerable
number of Indo-European languages, and it has generally been
assumed that the beech must have been known from the first and
therefore must have been a tree which flourished in the original
home. Now the habitat of the beech is to the west of a line drawn
from Konigsberg to the Crimea. The argument assumes that its
distribution was always the same. But nothing is more certain
than that in different ages different trees succeed one another on
the same soil. In the peat mosses of north-east Scotland are found
the trunks of vast oaks which have no parallel among the trees
which grow in the same district now, where the oak has a hard
struggle to live at all, and where experience teaches the planter that
coniferous trees will be more successful. On the coast of Denmark
in the same way the conifer has replaced the beech since the days of
the " kitchen middens," from which so much information as to the
primitive inhabitants of that area has been obtained. But with
regard to the names of trees there are two serious pitfalls which it is
difficult to avoid, (a) It is common to give a tree the name of
another which in habit it resembles. In England the oriental plane
does not grow freely north of the Trent; accordingly, farther north
the sycamore, which has a leaf that a casual observer might think
similar, has usurped the name of the plane, (b) In the case of the
beech (Lat. fagus), the corresponding Greek word faytis does not
mean beech but oak, or possibly, if one may judge from the magnificent
trees of north-west Greece, the chestnut. It has been suggested that
the word is connected with the verb <t>a.yitv to eat, so that it was
originally the tree with edible fruit and could thus be specialized in
different senses in different areas. If, however, Bartholomae's
connexion of the Kurd buz, " elm " (Idg. Forschungen, ix. 271) be
correct, there can be no relation between <t>a.-ytlv and ifayfa, but the
latter comes from a root *bhaug, in which the g would become z
among the satem languages. The birch is a more widely spread tree
than the beech, growing as luxuriantly in the Himalayas as in
western Europe, but notwithstanding, the Latin fraxinus, which is
almost certainly of the same origin, means not birch but ash, while
the word akin to ash (Gr. ojjfoj) appears in Latin without the k
suffix as os- in Latin ornus, " mountain ash," for an earlier *osinos,
cp. Old Bulgarian jasenu (the j has no etymological value), Welsh
and Cornish onnen, from an original Celtic *onna from *os-na. One
of the most widely spread tree names is the word tree itself, which
appears in a variety of forms, Gr. 5pOs, Goth triu; Skt. daru, 56pv,
&c., which is sometimes as in Greek specially limited to the oak,
while the Indian deodar (deva-daru) is a conifer. O. Schrader, who
in his remarkable book, Sprachvergleichung und Urgeschichte (1883,
3rd ed., 1906-1907), locates the original home in southern Russia,
would allow the original community (ii. p. 178) to be partly within,
partly without the beech line. The only other tree the name of
which is widely spread is the willow: the English with, withy, Lat.
vitex, Gr. irea for Firia, Lithuanian wytis, Zend vaeti. Otherwise
the words for trees are limited to a small number of languages, and
the meaning in different languages is widely different, as Gr. (Aim),
" pine," Old High German linta, " linden," with which go the Latin
linter, " boat," and Lithuanian lenta, " board." The lime tree and
the birch do not exist in Greece, and the Latin betula is a borrowing
from Gaulish (Irish bethe), the native word fraxinus, as we have
seen, being used for the ash. The equation of the Latin taxus, " yew,"
with Gr. rofflv, " bow," is no doubt correct; Schrader's equation
of Skt. dhanvan, " bow," with the German tonne, " fir," must, if
correct, show at least a change of material, for no wood is less well
adapted for a bow than fir. The only conclusion that can be drawn
with apparent certainty from the names of trees is that the original
settlements were not in the southern peninsulas of Europe.
Some of the names for cultivated plants are widely spread, but like
the names of trees do not always indicate the same thing. This is
not surprising if we consider that the word corn, within the Teutonic
languages alone, means wheat in England, oats in Scotland, rye in
Germany, barley in Sweden, maize in the United States of America.
Thus the Skt. ydva means corn or barley, in Zend corn (modern
Persian jav, barley, but in the language of the Ossetes yeu, yau is
millet), the Gk. fed is spelt, the Lithuanian jawai corn, the Irish
eorna barley (Schrader, Sprachvergleichung,3 ii. p. 188). The word
bere or barley itself is widely spread in Europe — Latin far, spelt,
Goth, barizeins, " of barley," Old Norse barr, Old Slav, burii, a kind
of millet (ibid.). But the original habitat of the cultivated grain
plants has not yet been clearly established, and circumstances of
many kinds may occasion a change in the kind of grain cultivated,
provided another can be found suitable to the climate. In early
England it is clear that the prevalent crop was barley, for barn is l he
bere-ern or barley-house.
The earliest tree-fruits found in Europe are apparently those
discovered by Edouard Piette as Mas d'Azil in a stratum which he
places between palaeolithic and neolithic. They included nuts,
plums, birdcherry, sloe, &c., and along with them was a little heap
of grains of wheat. If Piette's observations are correct, this find
must go back to a date long preceding the fruits found by Heer in
the pile-dwellings of Switzerland. Here also cherry-stones were
found, though the modern cherry is said to have been imported
first by Lucullus in the first century B.C. from Cerasus in Pontus,
whence its name. In the pile-dwellings a considerable number of
apples were found. They were generally cut up into two or three
pieces, apparently to be dried for winter use. In all probability
they were wild apples of the variety Pirus silvatica, which is found
across the whole of Central Europe from north to south (Buschan,
Vorgeschichtliche Botanik, p. 166). The original habitat of the
apple is uncertain, but it is supposed to be indigenous at any rate
south of the Black Sea(Schrader, Reallexikon, s. v. Apfelbaum). The
history of the name is obscure ; it is often connected with the
Campanian town Abella, which Virgil (Aeneid, vii. 740) calls malifera.
500
INDOLE— INDORE
"apple-bearing." Here also the material for fixingthe siteof the original
habitat is untrustworthy.
The attempt has been made to limit the possible area by a con-
sideration of three animals which are said not to occur in certain
parts of it — (a) the eel, which is said not to be found in the Black Sea ;
(6) the honey bee, which is not found in that part of Central Asia
drained by the Oxus and Jaxartes; (c) the tortoise, which is not found
in northern areas. From evidence collected by Schrader from a
specialist at Bucharest (Sprachvergleichung* ii. p. 147) eels are found
in the Black Sea. The argument, therefore, for excluding the area
which drains into the Black Sea from the possible habitat of the
primitive Indo-European community falls to the ground. Honey
was certainly familiar at an early age, as is shown by the occurrence
of the word *medhu, Skt. madhu, Gr. n&v (here the meaning has
shifted from mead to wine), Irish mid, English mead, Old Slav, medu,
Lithuanian medils honey, midus mead. Schrader, who is the first
to utilize the name of the tortoise in this argument, points out (op.
cit. p. 148) that forms from the same root occur in both a centum and
a satem language — Gr. xeXfe, xeXco>T;, Old Slav, zily, zeluvi — but
that while it reaches far north in eastern Europe, it does not pass the
46th parallel of latitude in western Europe. This argument would
make not only the German site for the original home which is sup-
ported by Kossinna and Hirt impossible, but also that of Scandi-
navia contended for by Penka.
From the foregoing it will be seen that the arguments for any given
area are not conclusive. In the great plain which extends across
Europe north of the Alps and Carpathians and across Asia north of the
Hindu Kush there are few geographical obstacles to prevent the rapid
spread of peoples from any part of its area to any other, and, as we
have seen, the Celts and the Hungarians, &c., have, in the historical
period, demonstrated the rapidity with which such migrations
could be made. Such migration may possibly account for the ap-
pearance of a people using a centum language so far east as Turkestan.
But our information as to Tocharish is still too fragmentary to decide
the question. It is impossible here to discuss at any length the
relations between the separate Indo-European languages, a subject
which has formed, from somewhat different points of view, the
subject of Kretschmer's Einleitung in die Ceschichle der griechischen
Sprache and Meillet's Les Dialectes indo-europeennes.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Besides the articles on the separate languages in
this Encyclopaedia the following works are the most important for
consultation: K. Brugmann (phonology and morphology) and B.
Delbriick (syntax), Grundriss der vergleichenden Grammatik der
indogermanischen Sprachen (1886—1900), ed. 2, vol. i. (1897); of
vol. ii. two large parts, including the stem formation and in-
flexion of the noun, the pronoun and the numerals, have been pub-
lished in 1906 and 1909. A shorter work by Brugmann, Kurze
vergleichende Grammatik der indogermanischen Sprachen, dealing
mainly with Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, Germanic and Slavonic,
appeared in three parts in 1902-1903. A good but less elaborate
work is A. Meillet, Introduction d I'etude comparative des langues
indo-europeennes (1903, 2nd ed. 1908). For the ethnological
argument: W. Z. Ripley, The Races of Europe (1900); G. Sergi,
The Mediterranean Race (English edition, 1901). Other works,
now largely superseded, which deal with this argument are K. Penka,
Origines Ariacae (1883), and Die Herkunft der Arier (1886), and I.
Taylor, The Origin of the Aryans , N.D. (1890). The ethnologists are no
more in agreement than the philologists. For the arguments mainly
from the linguistic side see especially O. Schrader, Sprachvergleichung
und Urgeschichte (3rd ed., 2 vols., 1906-1907) — the second edition was
translated into English by Dr F. B. Jevons under the title Pre-
historic Antiquities of the Aryan Peoples (1890); Reallexikon der
indogermanischen Altertumskunde (1901); M. Much, Die Heimat der
Indogermanen (1902, 2nd ed. 1904); E. de Michelis, L'Origine degli
Indo-europei (1903); H. Hirt, Die Indogermanen (2 vols., 1905-
1907) ; S. Feist, Europa im Lichte der Vorgeschichte und die Ergeb-
nisse der ^vergleichenden indogermanischen Sprachwissenschaft, 1910,
in W. Sieglin's Quellen und Forschungen zur alien Geschichte und
Geographie. Important for special sections of this question are S.
MuTler, Nordische Altertumskunde (2 vols., 1897-1898), and Urge-
schichte Europas (1905); V. Hehn, Kulturpflanzen und Haustiere
(1870), 7th ed. edited by O. Schrader, with contributions on botany
by A. Engler (1902); J. Hoops, Waldbaume und Kulturpflanzen im
germanischen Alter turn (1905). Delbriick has devoted a special
monograph to the I.-E. names of relationships, from which he shows
that the I.-E. family was patriarchal, not matriarchal (Die idg.
Verwandtschaftsnamen, 1889). E. Meyer, from Tocharish being a
centum language, has revived with reserve the hypothesis of the
Asiatic origin (Geschichte des Altertums? I. 2, p. 801). (P. Gl.)
INDOLE, or BENZOPYRROL, C8H7N, a substance first prepared
by A. Baeyer in 1868. It may be synthetically obtained by
distilling oxindole (C8H8NO) with zinc dust; by heating ortho-
nitrocinnamic acid with potash and iron filings; by the reduction
of indigo blue; by the action of sodium ethylate on ortho-
aminochlorstyrene; by boiling aniline with dichloracetaldehyde;
by the dry distillation of ortho-tolyloxamic acid; by heating
aniline with dichloracetal; by distilling a mixture of calcium
formate and calcium anilidoacetate; and by heating pyruvic
acid phenyl hydrazone with anhydrous zinc chloride. It is
also formed in the pancreatic fermentation of albumen, and,
in small quantities, by passing the vapours of mono- and dialkyl-
anilines through a red-hot tube. It crystallizes in shining
leaflets, which melt at 52° C. and boil at 245° C. (with decom-
position), and is volatile in a current of steam. It is a feeble
base, and gives a cherry-red coloration with a pine shaving.
Many derivatives of indole are known. B-methyl indol or skatole
occurs in human faeces.
INDONESIAN, a term invented by James Richardson Logan
to describe the light-coloured non-Malay inhabitants of the
Eastern Archipelago. It now denotes all those peoples of
Malaysia and Polynesia who are not to be classified as Malays
or Papuans, but are of Caucasic type. Among these are the
Battaks of north Sumatra; many of the Bornean Dyaks and
Philippine Islanders, and the large brown race of east Polynesia
which includes Samoans, Maoris, Tongans, Tahitians, Marquesas
Islanders and the Hawaiians.
See J. Richardson Logan, The Languages and Ethnology of the
Indian Archipelago (1857).
INDORE, a native state of India in the central India agency,
comprising the dominions of the Maharaja Holkar. Its area,
exclusive of guaranteed holdings on which it has claims, is
9500 sq. m. and the population in 1901 was 850,690, showing
a decrease of 23% in the decade, owing to the results of
famine. As in the case of most states in central India the
territory is not homogeneous, but distributed over several
political charges. It has portions in four out of the seven charges
of central India, and in one small portion in the Rajputana
agency. The Vindhya range traverses the S. division of the state
in a direction from east to west, a small part of the territory
lying to the north of the mountains, but by much the larger
part to the south. The latter is a portion of the valley of the
Nerbudda, and is bounded on the south by the Satpura hills.
Basalt and other volcanic formations predominate in both
ranges, although there is also much sandstone. The Nerbudda
flows through the state; and the valley at Mandlesar, in the
central part, is between 600 and 700 ft. above the sea. The
revenue is estimated at £350,000. The metre gauge railway
from Khandwa to Mhow and Indore city, continued to Neemuch
and Ajmere, was constructed in 1876.
The state had its origin in an assignment of lands made early
in the i8th century to Malhar Rao Holkar, who held a command
in the army of the Mahratta Peshwa. Of the Dhangar or shepherd
caste, he was born in 1694 at the village of Hoi near Poona,
and from this circumstance the family derives its surname
of Holkar. Before his death in 1766 Malhar Rao had added
to his assignment large territorial possessions acquired by his
armed power during the confusion of the period. By the end
of that century the rulership had passed to another leader of
the same clan, Tukoji Holkar, whose son, Jaswant Rao, took
an important part in the contest for predominance in the
Mahratta confederation. He did not, however, join the combined
army of Sindha and the raja of Berar in their war against the
British in 1803, though after its termination he provoked
hostilities which led to his complete discomfiture. At first he
defeated a British force that had marched against him under
Colonel Monson; but when he made an inroad into British
territory he was completely defeated by Lord Lake, and com-
pelled to sign a treaty which deprived him of a large portion of
his possessions. After his death his favourite mistress, Tulsi
Bai, assumed the regency, until in 1817 she was murdered by
the military commanders of the Indore troops, who declared
for the peshwa on his rupture with the British government.
After their defeat at Mehidpur in 1818, the state submitted by
treaty to the loss of more territory, transferred to the British
government its suzerainty over a number of minor tributary
states, and acknowledged the British protectorate. For many
years afterwards the administration of the Holkar princes was
troubled by intestine quarrels, misrule and dynastic contentions,
necessitating the frequent interposition of British authority;
INDORSEMENT— INDUCTION
501
and in 1857 the army, breaking away from the chief's control,
besieged the British residency, and took advantage of the mutiny
of the Bengal sepoys to spread disorder over that part of
central India. The country was pacified after some fighting.
In 1899 a British resident was appointed to Indore, which had
formerly been directly under the agent to the governor-general
in central India. At the same time a change was made in the
system of administration, which was from that date carried
on by a council. In 1903 the Maharaja, Shivaji Rao Holkar,
G.C.S.I., abdicated in favour of his son Tukoji Rao, a boy of
twelve, and died in 1908.
The CITY OF INDORE is situated 1738 ft. above the sea, on the
river Saraswati, near its junction with the Khan. Pop. (1901)
86,686. These figures do not include the tract assigned to the
resident, known as " the camp " (pop. 11,118), which is under
British administration. The city is one of the most important
trading centres in central India.
INDORE RESIDENCY, a political charge in central India,
is not co-extensive with the state, though it includes all of it
except some outlying tracts. Area, 8960 sq. m.; pop. (1901)
833,410. (J. S. Co.)
INDORSEMENT, or ENDORSEMENT (from Med. Lat. indorsare,
to write upon the dor sum, or back), anything written or printed
upon the back of a document. In its technical sense, it is the
writing upon a bill of exchange, cheque or other negotiable
instrument, by one who has a right to the instrument and
who thereby transmits the right and incurs certain liabilities.
See BILL OF EXCHANGE.
INDO-SCYTHIANS, a name commonly given to various
tribes from central Asia, who invaded northern India and founded
kingdoms there. They comprise the Sakas, the Yue-Chi or
Kushans and the Ephthalites or Hunas.
INDRA, in early Hindu mythology, god of the clear sky
and greatest of the Vedic deities. The origin of the name is
doubtful, but is by some connected with indu, drop. His
importance is shown by the fact that about 250 hymns' celebrate
his greatness, nearly one-fourth of the total number in the
Rig Veda. He is represented as specially lord of the elements,
the thunder-god. But Indra was more than a great god
in the ancient Vedic pantheon. He is the patron-deity of the
invading Aryan race in India, the god of battle to whose help
they look in their struggles with the dark aborigines. Indra
is the child of Dyaus, the Heaven. In Indian art he is repre-
sented as a man with four arms and hands; in two he holds
a lance and in the third a thunderbolt. He is often painted
with eyes all over his body and then he is called Sahasraksha,
" the thousand eyed." He lost much of his supremacy when
the triad Brahma, Siva and Vishnu became predominant. He
gradually became identified merely with the headship of Swarga,
a local vice-regent of the abode of the gods.
See A. A. Macdonell, Vedic Mythology (Strassburg, 1897).
INDRE, a department of central France, formed in 1790
from parts of the old provinces of Berry, Orleanais, Marche and
Touraine. Pop. (1906) 290,216, Area 2666 sq. m. It is bounded
N. by the department of Loir-et-Cher, E. by Cher, S. by Creuse
and Haute- Vienne, S.W. by Vienne and N.W. by Indre-et-Loire.
It takes its name from the river Indre, which flows through it.
The surface forms a vast plateau divided into three districts,
the Boischaut, Champagne and Brenne. The Boischaut is a
large well-wooded plain comprising seven-tenths of the entire
area and covering the south, east and centre of the department.
The Champagne, a monotonous but fertile district in the north,
produces abundant cereal crops, and affords excellent pasturage
for large numbers of sheep, celebrated for the fineness of their
wool. The Brenne, which occupies the west of the department,
was formerly marshy and unhealthy, but draining and afforesta-
tion have brought about considerable improvement.
The department is divided into the arrondissements of
Chateauroux, Le Blanc, La Chatre and Issoudun, with ^ 23
cantons and 245 communes. At Neuvy-St-Sepulchre there is a
circular church of the nth century, to which a nave was added
in the i2th century, and at Mezieres-en-Brenne there is an
interesting church of the I4th century. At Levroux there is a
fine church of the I3th century and the remains of a feudal
fortress, and there is a magnificent chateau in the Renaissance
style at Valencay.
INDRE-ET-LOIRE, adepartment of central France, consisting
of nearly the whole of the old province of Touraine and of small
portions of Orleanais, Anjou and Poitou. Pop. (1906) 337,916.
Area 2377 sq. m. It is bounded N. by the departments of
Sarthe and Loir-et-Cher, E. by Loir-et-Cher and Indre, S. and
S.W. by Vienne and W. by Maine-et-Loire. It takes its name
from the Loire and its tributary the Indre, which enter it on
its eastern border and unite not far from its western border.
The other chief affluents of the Loire in the department are
the Cher, which joins it below Tours, and the Vienne, which
waters the department's southern region. Indre-et-Loire is
generally level and comprises the following districts: the
Gatine, a pebbly and sterile region to the north of the Loire,
largely consisting of forests and heaths with numerous small
lakes; the fertile Varenne or valley of the Loire; the Cham-
peigne, a chain of vine-clad slopes, separating the valleys of the
Cher and Indre; the Veron, a region of vines and orchards,
in the angle formed by the Loire and Vienne; the plateau
of Sainte-Maure, a hilly and unproductive district in the centre
of which are found extensive deposits of shell-marl; and in the
south the Brenne, traversed by the Claise and the Creuse and
forming part of the marshy territory which extends under the
same name into Indre.
Indre-et-Loire is divided into the arrondissements of Tours,
Loches and Chinon, with 24 cantons and 282 communes. The
chief town is Tours, which is the seat of an archbishopric; and
Chinon, Loches, Amboise, Chenonceaux, Langeais and Azay-
le-Rideau are also important places with chateaus. The
Renaissance chateau of Usse, and those of Luynes (isth and
i6th centuries) and Pressigny-le-Grand (i?th century) are also
of note. Montbazon possesses the imposing ruins of a square
donjon of the nth and I2th centuries. Preuilly has the most
beautiful Romanesque church in Touraine. The Sainte Chapelle
(i6th century) at Champigny is a survival of a chateau of the
dukes of Bourbon-Montpensier. The church of Montresor
(1532) with its mausoleum of the family of Montr6sor; that of
St Denis-Hors (i2th and i6th century) close to Amboise, with
the curious mausoleum of Philibert Babou, minister of finance
under Francis I. and Henry II.; and that of Ste Catherine de
Fierbois, of the isth century, are of architectural interest.
The town of Richelieu, founded in 1631 by the famous minister
of Louis XIII.,pres2rves the enceinte and many of the buildings
of the 1 7th century. Megalithic monuments are numerous
in the department.
INDRI, a Malagasy word believed to mean " there it goes,"
but now accepted as the designation of the largest of the existing
Malagasy (and indeed of all) lemurs. Belonging to the family
Lemuridae (see PRIMATES) it typifies the subfamily Indrisinae,
which includes the avahi and the sifakas (q.v.). From both the
latter it is distinguished by its rudimentary tail, measuring only
a couple of inches in length, whence its name of Indris breoi-
candatus. Measuring about 24 in. in length, exclusive of the
tail, the indri varies considerably in colour, but is usually black,
with a variable number of whitish patches, chiefly about the
loins and on the fore-limbs. The forests of a comparatively
small tract on the east coast of Madagascar form its home.
Shoots, flowers and berries form the food of the indri, which
was first discovered by the French traveller and naturalist
Pierre Sonnerat in 1780. (R- L.*)
INDUCTION (from Lat. inducere, to lead into; cf. Gr. mayuyri),
in logic, the term applied to the process of discovering principles
by the observation and combination of particular instances.
Aristotle, who did so much to establish the laws of deductive
reasoning, neglected induction, which he identified with a com-
plete enumeration of facts; and the schoolmen were wholly
concerned with syllogistic logic. A new era opens with Bacon,
whose writings all preach the principle of investigating the laws
502
INDUCTION COIL
of nature with the purpose of improving the conditions of human
life. Unluckily his mind was still enslaved by the formulae
of the quasi-mechanical scholastic logic. He supposed that
natural laws would disclose themselves by the accumulation
and due arrangement of instances without any need for original
speculation on the part of the investigator. In his Novum
Organum there are directions for drawing up the various kinds
of lists of instances. For two hundred years after Bacon's
death little was done towards the theory of induction; the reason
being, probably, that the practical scientists knew no logic,
while the university logicians, with their conservative devotion
to the syllogism, knew no science. Whewell's Philosophy of
the Inductive Sciences (1840), the work of a thoroughly equipped
scientist, if not of a g-reat philosopher, shows due appreciation
of the cardinal point neglected by Bacon, the function of
theorizing in inductive research. He saw that science advances
only in so far as the mind of the inquirer is able to suggest
organizing ideas whereby our observations and experiments
are colligated into intelligible system. In this respect J. S.
Mill is inferior to Whewell: throughout his System of Logic
(1843) he ignores the constitutive work of the mind, and regards
knowledge as the merely passive reception of sensuous impres-
sions. His work was intended mainly to reduce the pro-
cedure of induction to a regular demonstrative system like that
of the syllogism; and it was for this purpose that he formulated
his famous Four Methods of Experimental Inquiry. His work
has contributed greatly to the systematic treatment of induction.
But it must be remarked that his Four Methods are not methods
of formal proof, as their author supposed, but methods whereby
hypotheses are suggested or tested. The actual proof of an
hypothesis is never formal, but always lies in the tests of experi-
ment or observation to which it is subjected.
The current theory of induction as set forth in the standard
works is so far satisfactory that it combines the merit of Whewell's
treatment with that of Mill's; and yet it is plain that there is
much for the logician of the future to accomplish. The most
important faculty in scientific inquiry is the faculty of suggesting
new and valuable hypotheses. But no one has ever given any
explanation how the hypotheses arise in the mind: we attribute
it to " genius," which, of course, is no explanation at all. The
logic of discovery, in the higher sense of the term, simply has
no existence. Another important but neglected province of the
subject is the relation of scientific induction to the inductions
of everyday life. There are some who think that a study of
this relation would quite transform the accepted view of induc-
tion. Consider such a piece of reasoning as may be heard any
day in a court of justice, a detective who explains how in his
opinion a certain burglary was effected. If all reasoning is
either deductive or inductive, this must be induction. And yet
it does not answer to the accepted definition of induction, " the
process of discovering a general principle by observation of
particular instances ": what the detective does is to reconstruct
a particular crime; he evolves no general principle. Such
reasoning is used by every man in every hour of his life: by it
we understand what people are doing around us, and what is
the meaning of the sense-impressions which we receive. In
the logic of the future it will probably be recognized that scientific
induction is only one form of this universal constructive or
reconstructive faculty. Another most important question
closely akin to that just mentioned is the true relation between
these reasoning processes and our general life as active intelligent
beings. How is it that the detective is able to understand the
burglar's plan of action? — the military commander to forecast
the enemy's plan of campaign? Primarily, because he himself
is capable of making such plans. Men as active creatures
co-operating with their fellow-men are incessantly engaged in
forming plans and in apprehending the plans of those around
them. Every plan may be viewed as a form of induction; it
is a scheme invented to meet a given situation, an hypothesis
which is put to the test of events, and is verified or refuted by
practical success or failure. Such considerations widen still
farther our view of scientific induction and help us to understand
its relation to ordinary human thought and activity. The
scientific investigator in his inductive stage is endeavouring
to make out the plan on which his material is constructed.
The phenomena serve as indications to help him in framing his
hypothesis, generally a guess at first, which he proceeds to
verify by experiment and the collection of additional facts.
In the deductive stage he assumes that he has made out the
plan and can apply it to the discovery of further detail. He has
the capacity of detecting plans in nature because he is wont to
form plans for practical purposes.
There are good recent accounts of induction in Welton's Manual
of Logic, ii., in H. W. ;B. Joseph's Introduction to Logic, and in
W. R. Boyce Gibson's Problem of Logic ; see also LOGIC. (H. ST.)
INDUCTION COIL, an electrical instrument consisting of
two coils of wire wound one over the other upon a core con-
sisting of a bundle of iron wires. One of these circuits is called
the primary circuit and the other the secondary circuit. If
an alternating or intermittent continuous current is passed
through the primary circuit, it creates an alternating or inter-
mittent magnetization in the iron core, and this in turn creates
in the secondary circuit a' secondary current which is called
the induced current. For most purposes an induction coil is
required which is capable of giving in the secondary circuit
intermittent currents of very high electromotive force, and to
attain this result the secondary circuit must as a rule consist
of a very large number of turns of wire. Induction coils are
employed for physiological purposes and also in connexion with
telephones, but their great use at the present time is in connexion
with the production of high frequency electric currents, for
Rontgen ray work and wireless telegraphy.
The instrument began to be developed soon after Faraday's
discovery of induced currents in 1831, and the subsequent
researches of Joseph Henry, C. G. Page and W.
Sturgeon on the induction of a current. N. J. Callan history
described in 1836 the construction of an electro-
magnet with two separate insulated wires, one thick and the
other thin, wound on an iron core together. He provided the
primary circuit of this instrument with an interrupter, and found
that when the primary current was rapidly intermitted, a
series of secondary currents was induced in the fine wire, of
high electromotive force and considerable strength. Sturgeon
in 1837 constructed a similar coil, and provided the primary
circuit with a mercury interrupter operated by hand. Various
other experimentalists took up the construction of the induction
coil, and to G. H. Bachhoffner is due the suggestion of employing
an iron core made of a bundle of fine iron wires. At a somewhat
later date Callan constructed a very large induction coil contain-
ing a secondary circuit of very great length of wire. C. G. Page
and J. H. Abbot in the United States, between 1838 and 1840,
also constructed some large induction coils.1 In all these cases
the primary circuit was interrupted by a mechanically worked
interrupter. On the continent of Europe the invention of the
automatic primary circuit interrupter is generally attributed
to C. E. Neeff and to J. P. Wagner, but it is probable that
J. W. M Gauley, of Dublin, independently invented the form of
hammer break now employed. In this break the magnetiza-
tion of the iron core by the primary current is made to attract
an iron block fixed to the end of a spring, in such a way that
two platinum points are separated and the primary circuit
thus interrupted. It was not until 1853 that H. L. Fizeau added
to the break the condenser which greatly improved the operation
of thecoil. It 1851 H. D. Ruhmkorff (1803-1877), an instrument-
maker in Paris, profiting by all previous experience, addressed
himself to the problem of increasing the electromotive force in
the secondary circuit, and induction coils with a secondary circuit
of long fine wire have generally, but unnecessarily, been called
Ruhmkorff coils. Ruhmkorff, however, greatly lengthened the
secondary circuit, employing in some coils 5 or 6 m. of wire.
The secondary wire was insulated with silk and shellac varnish,
1 For a full history of the early development of the induction
coil see J. A. Fleming, The Alternate Current Transformer, vol. ii.,
chap. i.
INDUCTION COIL
503
Construc-
tion.
and each layer of wire was separated from the next by means of
varnished silk or shellac paper; the secondary circuit was also
carefully insulated from the primary circuit by a glass tube.
Riihmkorff, by providing with his coil an automatic break of the
hammer type, and equipping it with a condenser as suggested by
Fizeau, arrived at the modern form of induction coil. J. N.
Hearder in England and E. S. Ritchie in the United States began
the construction of large coils, the last named constructing a
specially large one to the order of J. P. Gassiot in 1858. In the
following decade A. Apps devoted great attention to the produc-
tion of large induction coils, constructing some of the most
powerful coils in existence, and introduced the important
improvement of making the secondary circuit of numerous flat
coils of wire insulated by varnished or paraffined paper. In
1869 he built for the old Polytechnic Institution in London
a coil having a secondary circuit 150 m. in length. The
diameter of the wire was 0-014 in., and the secondary bobbin
when complete had an external diameter of 2 ft. and a length
of 4 ft. 10 ins. The primary bobbin weighed 145 Ib, and
consisted of 6000 turns of copper wire 3770 yds. in length, the
wire being -095 of an inch in diameter. Excited by the current
from 40 large Bunsen cells, this coil could give secondary
sparks 30 in. in length. Subsequently, in 1876, Apps con-
structed a still larger coil for William Spottiswoode, which is
now in the possession of the Royal Institution. The secondary
circuit consisted of 280 m. of copper wire about o-oi of an
inch in diameter, forming a cylinder 37 in. long and 20 in.
in external diameter; it was wound in flat disks in a large
number of separate sections, the total number of turns being
341,850. Various primary circuits were employed with this coil,
which when at its best could give a spark of 42 in. in length.
A general description of the mode of constructing a modern
induction coil, such as is used for wireless telegraphy or
Rontgen ray apparatus, is as follows: The iron core
consists of a bundle of soft iron wires inserted in the
interior of an ebonite tube. On the outside of this
tube is wound the primary circuit, which generally consists of
several distinct wires capable of being joined either in series
or parallel as required. Over the primary circuit is placed
another thick ebonite tube, the thickness of the walls of which
is proportional to the spark-producing power of the secondary
circuit. The primary coil must be wholly enclosed in ebonite,
and the tube containing it is generally longer than the secondary
bobbin. The second circuit consists of a number of flat coils
wound up between paraffined or shellaced paper, much as a
sailor coils a rope. It is essential that no joints in this wire
shall occur in inaccessible places in the interior. A machine
has been devised by Leslie Miller for winding secondary circuits
in flat sections without any joints in the wire at all (British
Patent, No. 5811, 1903). A coil intended to give a 10 or 12 in.
spark is generally wound in this fashion in several hundred
sections, the object of this mode of division being to prevent
any two parts of the secondary circuit which are at great
differences of potential from being near to one another, unless
effectively insulated by a sufficient thickness of shellaced or
paraffined paper. A xo-in. coil, a size very commonly used for
Rontgen ray work or wireless telegraphy, has an iron core made
of a bundle of soft iron wires No. 22 S.W.G., 2 in. in diameter
and 18 in. in length. The primary coil wound over this core
consists of No. 14 S.W.G. copper wire, insulated with white
silk laid on in three layers and having a resistance of about
half an ohm. The insulating ebonite tube for such a coil
should not be less than J in. in thickness, and should have two
ebonite cheeks on it placed 14 in. apart. This tube is supported
on two hollow pedestals down which the ends of the primary
wire are brought. The secondary coil consists of No. 36 or No.
32 silk-covered copper wire, and each of the sections is prepared
by winding, in a suitable winding machine, a flat coiled wire
in such a way that the two ends of the coil are on the outside.
The coil should not be wound in less than a hundred sections,
and a larger number would be still better. The adjacent ends
of consecutive sections are soldered together and insulated,
and the whole secondary coil should be immersed in paraffin
wax. The completed coil (fig. i) is covered with a sheet of
ebonite and mounted on a base board which, in some cases,
contains the primary condenser within it and carries on its
upper surface a hammer break. For many purposes, however,
it is better to separate the condenser and the break from the
coil. Assuming that a hammer break is employed, it is generally
of the Apps form. The interruption of the primary circuit is
made between two contact studs which ought to be of massive
platinum, and across the break points is joined the primary
condenser. This consists of a number of sheets of paraffined
paper interposed between sheets of tin foil, alternate sheets of
the tin foil being joined together (see LEYDEN JAR). This
condenser serves to quench the break spark. If the primary
FIG. i.
condenser is not inserted, the arc or spark which takes place at
the contact points prolongs the fall of magnetism in the core,
and since the secondary electromotive force is proportional
to the rate at which this magnetism changes, the secondary
electromotive force is greatly reduced by the presence of an
arc-spark at the contact points. The primary condenser there-
fore serves to increase the suddenness with which the primary
current is interrupted, and so greatly increases the electro-
motive force in the secondary circuit. Lord Rayleigh showed
(Phil. Mag., 1901, 581) that if the primary circuit is interrupted
with sufficient suddenness, as for instance if it is severed by a
bullet from a gun, then no condenser is needed. No current
flows in the secondary circuit so long as a steady direct current
is passing through the primary, but at the moments that the
primary circuit is closed and opened two electromotive forces
are set up in the secondary; these are opposite in direction,
the one induced by the breaking of the primary circuit being
by far the stronger. Hence the necessity for some form of
circuit breaker, by the continuous action of which there results
a series of discharges from one secondary terminal to the other
in the form of sparks.
The hammer break is somewhat irregular in action and gives
a good deal of trouble in prolonged use; hence many other
forms of primary circuit interrupters have been devised.
These may be classified as (i) hand- or motor- worked later~
, . . . , , . , . . maters or
dipping interrupters employing mercury or platinum Breaks.
contacts; (2) turbine mercury interrupters; (3)
electrolytic interrupters. In the first class a steel or platinum
point, operated by hand or by a motor, is periodically immersed
in mercury and so serves to close the primary circuit. To prevent
oxidation of the mercury by the spark and break it must be
covered with oil or alcohol. In some cases the interruption
is caused by the continuous rotation of a motor either working
an eccentric which operates the plunger, or, as in the Mackenzie-
Davidson break, rotating a slate disk having a metal stud on
its surface, which is thus periodically immersed in mercury
in a vessel. A better class of interrupter is the mercury turbine
interrupter. In this some form of rotating turbine pump
pumps mercury from a vessel and squirts it in a jet against a
copper plate. Either the copper plate or the jet is made to
revolve rapidly by a motor, so that the jet by turns impinges
against the plate and escapes it; the mercury and plate are
both covered with a deep layer of alcohol or paraffin oil, so that
5°4
INDUCTION COIL
the jet is immersed in an insulating fluid. In a recent form
the chamber in which the jet works is filled with coal gas.
The current supplied to the primary circuit of the coil travels
from the mercury in the vessel through the jet to the copper
plate, and hence is periodically interrupted when the jet does
not impinge against the plate. Mercury turbine breaks are much
employed in connexion with large induction coils used for
wireless telegraphy on account of their regular action and the
fact that the number of interruptions per second can be con-
trolled easily by regulating the speed of the motor which rotates
the jet. But all mercury breaks employing paraffin or alcohol
as an insulating medium are somewhat troublesome to use
because of the necessity of periodically cleaning the mercury.
Electrolytic interrupters were first brought to notice by Dr
A. R. B. Wehnelt in 1898 (Elektrotechnische Zeitschrift, January
20th, 1899). He showed that if a large lead plate was placed
in dilute sulphuric acid as a cathode, and a thick platinum wire
protruding for a distance of about one millimetre beyond a
glass or porcelain tube into which it tightly fitted was used
as an anode, such an arrangement when inserted in the circuit
of a primary coil gave rise to a rapid intermittency in the primary
current. It is essential that the platinum wire should be the
anode or positive pole. The frequency of the Wehnelt break
can be adjusted by regulating the extent to which the platinum
wire protrudes through the porcelain tube, and in modern
electrolytic breaks several platinum anodes are employed.
This break can be employed with any voltage between 30 and
250. The Caldwell interrupter, a modification of the Wehnelt
break, consists of two electrodes immersed in dilute sulphuric
acid, one of them being enclosed by a glass vessel which has a
small hole in it capable of being more or less closed by a tapered
glass plug. It differs from the Wehnelt break in that there is
no platinum to wear away and it requires less current; hence
finer regulation of the coil to the current can be obtained. It
will also work with either direct or alternating currents. The
hammer and mercury turbine breaks can be arranged to give
interruptions from about 10 per second up to about 50 or 60.
The electrolytic breaks are capable of working at a higher speed,
and under some conditions will give interruptions up to a thousand
per second. If the secondary terminals of the induction coils
are connected to spark balls placed a short distance apart,
then with an electrolytic break the discharge has a flame-like
character resembling an alternating current arc. This type of
break is therefore preferred for Rontgen ray work since it makes
less flickering upon the screen, but its advantages in the case of
wireless telegraphy are not so marked. In the Grisson interrupter
the primary circuit of the induction coil is divided into two parts
by a middle terminal, so that a current flowing in at this point
and dividing equally between the two halves does not magnetize
the iron. This terminal is connected to one pole of the battery,
the other two terminals being connected alternately to the
opposite pole by means of a revolving commutator which (i)
passes a current through one half of the primary, thus magnetiz-
ing the core; (2) passes a current through both halves in
opposite directions, thus annulling the magnetization; (3)
passes a current through the second half of the primary, thus
reversing the magnetization of the core; and (4) passes a current
in both halves through opposite directions, thus again annulling
the magnetization. As this series of operations can be performed
without interrupting a large current through the inductive
circuit there is not much spark at the commutator, and the
speed of commutation can be regulated so as to obtain the best
results due to a resonance between the primary and secondary
circuits. Another device due to Grisson is the electrolytic
condenser interrupter. If a plate of aluminium and one of
carbon or iron is placed in an electrolyte yielding oxygen, this
aluminium-carbon or aluminium-iron cell can pass current in
one direction but not in the other. Much greater resistance is
experienced by a current flowing from the aluminium to the
iron than in the opposite direction, owing to the formation of
a film of aluminic hydroxide on the aluminium. If then a cell
consisting of a number of aluminium plates alternating with
iron plates or carbon in alkaline solution is inserted in the
primary circuit of an induction coil, the application of an
electromotive force in the right direction will cause a transitory
current to flow through the coil until the electrolytic condenser
is charged. By the use of a proper commutator the position
of the electrolytic cell in the circuit can be reversed and another
transitory primary current created. This interrupted flow
of electricity through the primary circuit provides the inter-
mittent magnetization of the core necessary to produce the
secondary electromotive force. This operation of commuta-
tion can be conducted without much spark at the commutator
because the circuit is interrupted at the time when there is no
current in it. In the case of the electrolytic condenser no
supplementary paraffined paper condenser is necessary as in
the case of the hammer or mercury interrupters.
An induction coil for the transformation of alternating
current is called a transformer (q.v.). One type of high frequency
current transformer is called an oscillation transformer
or sometimes a Tesla coil. The construction of such
a coil is based on different , principles from that of Coils.
the coil just described. If the secondary terminals
of an ordinary induction coil or transformer are connected to a
pair of spark balls (fig. 2), and if these are also connected to
FIG. 2. — Arrangements for producing High Frequency Currents.
T, Transformer or induction coil. L, Inductance.
g, Q, Choking coils. P, Primary circuit of high
, Spark balls. frequency coil.
C, Condenser. S, Secondary circuit.
a glass plate condenser or Leyden jar of ordinary type joined
in series with a coil of wire of low resistance and few turns, then
at each break of the primary circuit of the ordinary induction
coil a secondary electromotive force is set up which charges
the Leyden jar, and if the spark balls are set at the proper
distance, this charge is succeeded by a discharge consisting of
a movement of electricity backwards and forwards across the
spark gap, constituting an oscillatory electric discharge (see
ELECTROKINETICS). Each charge of the jar may produce from
a dozen to a hundred electric oscillations which are in fact
brief electric currents of gradually decreasing strength. If
the circuit of few turns and low resistance through which this
discharge takes place is overlaid, with another circuit well
insulated from it consisting of a large number of turns of finer
wire, the inductive action between the two circuits creates in
the secondary a smaller series of electric oscillations of higher
potential. Between the terminals of this last-named coil we
can then produce a series of discharges each of which consists
in an extremely rapid motion of electricity to and fro, the groups
of oscillations being separated by intervals of time corresponding
to the frequency of the break in the primary circuit of the
ordinary induction coil charging the Leyden jar or condenser.
These high frequency discharges differ altogether in character
from the secondary discharges of the ordinary induction coil.
Theory shows that to produce the best results the primary
circuit of the oscillation transformer should consist of only one
thick turn of wire or, at most, but of a few turns. It is also
necessary that the two circuits, primary and secondary, should
be well insulated from one another, and for this purpose the
oscillation transformer is immersed in a box or vessel full of
highly insulating oil. For full details N. Tesla's original Papers
must be consulted (see Journ. Inst. Elect. Eng. 21, 62).
In some cases the two circuits of the Tesla coil, the primary
and secondary, are sections of one single coil. In this form the
INDULGENCE
505
arrangement is called a resonator or auto transformer, and is much
used for producing high frequency discharges for medical
purposes. The construction of a resonator is as follows: A bare
copper wire is wound upon an ebonite or wooden cylinder or
frame, and one end of it is connected to the outside of aLeyden
jar or battery of Leyden jars, the inner coating of which is con-
nected to one spark ball of the ordinary induction coil. The
other spark ball is connected to a point on the above-named
copper wire not very far from the lower end. By adjusting
this contact, which is movable, the electric oscillations created
in the short section of the resonator coil produce by resonance
oscillations hi the longer free section, and a powerful high
frequency electric brush or discharge is produced at the free
end of the resonator spiral. An electrode or wire connected
with this free end therefore furnishes a high frequency glow
discharge which has been found to have valuable therapeutic
powers.
The general theory of an oscillation transformer containing
capacity and inductance in each circuit has been given by Oberbeck,
. Bjerknes and Drude.1 Suppose there are two circuits,
n '//"a" ?ac'1 consisting of a coil of wire, the two being super-
!j!sc' imposed or adjacent, and let each circuit contain a
formers condenser or Leyden jar in series with the circuit, and let
one of these circuits contain a spark gap, the other being
closed (fig. 3). If to the spark balls the secondary terminals
of an ordinary induction coil are connected, and these spark
balls are adjusted near one
C. C,vi another, then when the
ordinary coil is set in
operation, sparks pass be-
tween the balls and oscil-
latory discharges take
place in the circuit con-
taining the spark gap.
These oscillations induce
other oscillations in the
second circuit. The two
circuits have a certain
mutual inductance M, and
each circuit has self in-
ductance LI and Lj. If
then the capacities in the
two circuits are denoted
by Ci and €2 the following
simultaneous equations
express the relation of the
currents, i\ and ii, and potentials, »i, and 1)3, in the primary and
secondary circuits respectively at any instant : —
M
O
O
V
O
o
O
O
I*0
o
r i
FIG. 3.
Ci, Condenser in primary circuit.
C2, Condenser in secondary circuit.
Li, Inductance in primary circuit.
L2, Inductance in secondary circuit.
Ri and R2 being the resistances of the two circuits. If for the
moment we neglect the resistances of the two circuits, and consider
that the oscillations in each circuit follow a simple harmonic law
•i = 1 sin pt we can transform the above equations into a biquadratic
;=O.
CzCULa - M2) """CiCad^Lz- M2)
The capacity and inductance in each circuit can be so adjusted that
their products are the same number, that is QLi = C2L2 = CL.
The two circuits are then said to be in resonance or to be tuned
together. In this particular and unique case the above biquadratic
reduces to
where k is written for M V (LiL^) and is called the coefficient of coupling.
In this case of resonant circuits it can also be shown that the maxi-
mum potential differences at the primary and secondary condenser
terminals are determined by the rule Vi/V2 = 2VC2/VCi. Hence
the transformation ratio is not determined by the relative number
of turns on the primary and secondary circuits, as in the case of
an ordinary alternating current transformer (see TRANSFORMERS),
but by the ratio of the capacity in the two oscillation circuits. For
full proofs of the above the reader is referred to the original papers.
Each of the two circuits constituting the oscillation transformer
taken separately has a natural time period of oscillation; that is
to say, if the electric charge in it is disturbed, it oscillates to and fro
in a certain constant period like a pendulum and therefore with a
certain frequency. If the circuits have the same frequency when
1 See A. Oberbeck, Wied. Ann. (1895), 55, p. 623 ; V. F. R. Bjerknes,
d. (1895), 55, p. 121, and (1891), 44, p. 74; and P. K. L. Drude,
Ann. Phys. (1904), 13, p. 512.
separated they are said to be isochronous. If n stands for the
natural frequency of each circuit, where n = p/2v the above equations
show that when the two circuits are coupled together, oscillations
set up in one circuit create oscillations of two frequencies in the
secondary circuit. A mechanical analogue to the above electrical
effect can be obtained as follows: Let a string be strung loosely
between two fixed points, and from it let two other strings of equal
length hang down at a certain distance apart, each of them having
a weight at the bottom and forming a simple pendulum. If one
pendulum is set in oscillation it will gradually impart this motion
to the second, but in so doing it will bring itself to rest ; in like
manner the second pendulum being set in oscillation gives back its
motion to the first. The graphic representation, therefore, of the
motion of each pendulum would be a line as in fig. 4. Such a curve
FIG. 4.
represents the effect in music known as beats, and can easily be
shown to be due to the combined effect of two simple harmonic
motions or simple periodic curves of different frequency super-
imposed. Accordingly, the effect of inductively coupling together
two electrical circuits, each having capacity and inductance, is that
if oscillations are started in one circuit, oscillations of two frequencies
are found in the secondary circuit, the frequencies differing from one
another and differing from the natural frequency of each circuit
taken alone. This matter is of importance in connexion with
wireless telegraphy (see TELEGRAPH), as in apparatus for conducting
it, oscillation transformers as above described, having two circuits
in resonance with one another, are employed.
REFERENCES. — J. A. Fleming, The Alternate Current Transformer
(2 vols., London. 1900), containing a full history of the induction
coil; id., Electric Wave Telegraphy (London, 1906), dealing in chap, i.,
with the construction of the induction coil and various forms of
interrupter as well as with the theory of oscillation transformers;
A. T. Hare, Tlie Construction of Large Induction Coils (London, 1900) ;
I. Trowbridge, " On the Induction Coil," Phil. Mag. (1902), 3, p. 393 ;
Lord Rayleigh, " On the Induction Coil," Phil. Mag. (1901), 2, p. 581 ;
J. E. Ives, " Contributions to the Study of the Induction Coil,"
Physical Review (1902), vols. 14 and 15. (J. A. F.)
INDULGENCE (Lat. indulgentia, indulgere, to grant, concede),
in theology, a term denned by the official catechism of the Roman
Catholic Church in England as " the remission of the temporal
punishment which often remains due to sin after its guilt
has been forgiven." This remission may be either total (plenary)
or partial, according to the terms of the Indulgence. Such
remission was popularly called a pardon in the middle ages —
a term which still survives, e.g. in Brittany.
The theory of Indulgences is based by theologians on the follow-
ing texts: 2 Samuel (Vulgate, 2 Kings) xii. 14; Matt. xvi. 19
and xviii. 17, 18; i Cor. v. 4, 5; 2 Cor. ii. 6-u ; but the practice
itself is confessedly of later growth. As Bishop Fisher says
in his Confutation of Luther, " in the early church, faith in
Purgatory and in Indulgences was less necessary than now. . . .
But in our days a great part of the people would rather cast off
Christianity than submit to the rigour of the [ancient] canons:
wherefore it is a most wholesome dispensation of the Holy
Ghost that, after so great a lapse of time, the belief in purgatory
and the practice of Indulgences have become generally received
among the orthodox" (Confulatio, cap. xviii.; cf. Cardinal
Caietan, Tract. XV. de Indulg. cap. i.). The nearest equivalent
in the ancient Church was the local and temporary African
practice of restoring lapsed Christians to communion at the
intercession of confessors and prospective martyrs in prison.
But such reconciliations differed from later Indulgences in at
least one essential particular, since they brought no remission of
ecclesiastical penance save in very exceptional cases. However,
as the primitive practice of public penance for sins died out in
the Church, there grew up a system of equivalent, or nominally
equivalent, private penances. Just as many of the punishments
enjoined by the Roman criminal code were gradually commuted
by medieval legislators for pecuniary fines, so the years or months
of fasting enjoined by the earlier ecclesiastical codes were
commuted for proportionate fines, the recitation of a certain
number of psalms, and the like. " Historically speaking, it is
indisputable that the practice of Indulgences in the medieval
INDULGENCE
church arose out of the authoritative remission, in exceptional
cases, of a certain proportion of this canonical penalty. At
the same time, according to Catholic teaching, such Indulgence
was not a mere permission to omit or postpone payment, but
was in fact a discharge from the debt of temporal punishment
which the sinner owed. The authority to grant such discharge
was conceived to be included in the power of binding and
loosing committed by Christ to His Church; and when in the
course of time the vaguer theological conceptions of the first
ages of Christianity assumed scientific form and shape at the
hands of the Schoolmen, the doctrine came to prevail that this
discharge of the sinner's debt was made through an application
to the offender of what was called the " Treasure of the
Church " (Thurston, p. 315). " What, then, is meant by the
' Treasure of the Church ' ? . . . It consists primarily and
completely of the merit and satisfaction of Christ our Saviour.
It includes also the superfluous merit and satisfaction of the
Blessed Virgin and the Saints. What do we mean by the word
' superfluous ' ? In one way, as I need not say, a saint has no
superfluous merit. Whatever he has, he wants it all for himself,
because, the more he merits on earth (by Christ's grace) the
greater is his glory in heaven. But, speaking of mere satisfaction
for punishment due, there cannot be a doubt that some of the
Saints have done more than was needed in justice to expiate
the punishment due to their own sins ... It is this ' super-
fluous ' expiation that accumulates in the Treasure of the Church "
(Bp. gf Newport, p. 166). It must be noted that this theory of
the " Treasure " was not formulated until some time after
Indulgences in the modern sense had become established in
practice. The doctrine first appeared with Alexander of Hales
(c. 1230) and was at once adopted by the leading schoolmen.
Clement VI. formally confirmed it in 1350, and Pius VI. still
more definitely in 1794. •
The first definite instance of a plenary Indulgence is that of
Urban II. for the First Crusade ( 1095) . A little earlier had begun
the practice of partial Indulgences, which are always expressed
in terms of days or years. However definite may have been
the ideas originally conveyed by these notes of time, their first
meaning has long since been lost. Eusebius Amort, in 1735,
admits the gravest differences of opinion; and the Bishop of
Newport writes (p. 163) " to receive an Indulgence of a year,
for example, is to have remitted to one so much temporal
punishment as was represented by a year's canonical penance.
If you ask me to define the amount more accurately, I say
that it cannot be done. No one knows how severe or how long
a Purgatory was, or is, implied in a hundred days of canonical
penance." The rapid extension of these time-Indulgences is
one of the most remarkable facts in the history of the subject.
Innocent II., dedicating the great church of Cluny in 1132,
granted as a great favour a forty days' Indulgence for the
anniversary. A hundred years later, all churches of any im-
portance had similar indulgences; yet Englishmen were glad
even then to earn a pardon of forty days by the laborious journey
to the nearest cathedral, and by making an offering there on
one of a few privileged feast-days. A century later again,
Wycliffe complains of Indulgences of two thousand years for
a single prayer (ed. Arnold, i. 137). In 1456, the recitation of
a few prayers before a church crucifix earned a Pardon of
20,000 years for every such repetition (Glassberger in Analecta
Franciscana, ii. 368) : " and at last Indulgences were so
freely given that there is now scarcely a devotion or good
work of any kind for which they cannot be obtained " (Arnold
& Addis, Catholic Dictionary, s.v.). To quote again from Father
Thurston (p. 318) : " In imitation of the prodigality of her Divine
Master, the Church has deliberately faced the risk of depreciation
to which her treasure was exposed . . . . The growing effeminacy
and corruption of mankind has found her censures unendurable
. . . and the Church, going out into the highways and the
hedges, has tried to entice men with the offer of generous
Indulgence." But it must be noted that, according to the
orthodox doctrine, not only can an Indulgence not remit future
sins, but even for the past it cannot take full effect unless the
subject be truly centrite and have confessed (or intend shortly
to confess) his sins.
This salutary doctrine, however, has undoubtedly been
obscured to some extent by the phrase a poena et a culpa, which,
from the i3th century to the Reformation, was applied to Plenary
Indulgences. The prima-facie meaning of the phrase is that
the Indulgence itself frees the sinner not only from the temporal
penalty (poena) but also from the guilt (culpa) of all his sins:
and the fact that a phrase so misleading remained so long current
shows the truth of Father Thurston's remark: " The laity
cared little about the analysis of it, but they knew that the
a culpa et poena was the name for the biggest thing in the nature
of an Indulgence which it was possible to get " (Dublin Review,
Jan. 1900). The phrase, however, was far from being confined
to the unlearned. Abbot Gilles li Muisis, for instance, records
how, at the Jubilee of 1300, all the Papal Penitentiaries were in
doubt about it, and appealed to the Pope. Boniface VIII. did
indeed take the occasion of repeating (in the words of his Bull)
that confession and contrition were necessary preliminaries;
but he neither repudiated the misleading words nor vouchsafed
any clear explanation of them. (Chron. Aegidii li Muisis ed. de
Smet, p. 189.) His predecessor, Celestine V., had actually used
them in a Bull.
The phrase exercised the minds of learned canonists all through
the middle ages, but still held its ground. The most accepted
modern theory is that it is merely a catchword surviving from
a longer phrase which proclaimed how, during such Indulgences,
ordinary confessors might absolve from sins usually " reserved "
to the Bishop or the Pope. Nobody, however, has ventured
exactly to reconstitute this hypothetical phrase; nor is the
theory easy to reconcile with (i.) the uncertainty of canonists
at the time when the locution was quite recent, (ii.) the fact that
Clement V. and Cardinal Cusanus speak of absolution a poena
et a culpa as a separate thing from (a) plenary absolution and
(b) absolution from " reserved " sins (Clem. lib. v. tit. ix. c. 2,
and Johann Busch (d. c. 1480) Chron. Windeshemense, cap.
xxxvi.). But, however it originated, the phrase undoubtedly
contributed to foster popular misconceptions as to the intrinsic
value of Indulgences, apart from repentance and confession;
though Dr Lea seems to press this point unduly (p. 54 ff.), and
should be read in conjunction with Thurston (p. 324 ff.).
These misconceptions were certainly widespread from the
I3th to the i6th century, and were often fostered by the
" pardoners," or professional collectors of contributions for
Indulgences. This can best be shown by a few quotations from
eminent and orthodox churchmen during those centuries.
Berthold of Regensburg (c. 1270) says, "Fie, penny-preacher!
. . . thou dost promise so much remission of sins for a mere
halfpenny or penny, that thousands now trust thereto, and
fondly dream to have atoned for all their sins with the halfpenny
or penny, and thus go to hell " (ed. Pfeiffer, i. 393). l A
century later, the author of Piers Plowman speaks of pardoners
who " give pardon for pence poundmeal about " (i.e. whole-
sale; B. ii. 222); 'and his contemporary, Pope Boniface IX.,
complained of their absolving even impenitent sinners for
ridiculously small sums (pro qualibet parva pecuniarum summula,
Raynaldus, Ann. Ecc. 1390). In 1450 Thomas Gascoigne, the
great Oxford Chancellor, wrote: " Sinners say nowadays ' I
care not how many or how great sins I commit before God,
for I shall easily and quickly get plenary remission of any guilt
and penalty whatsoever (cujusdam culpae et poenae) by absolu-
tion and indulgence granted to me from the Pope, whose writing
and grant I have bought for 4d. or 6d. or for a game of tennis' "
— or sometimes, he adds, by a still more disgraceful bargain
(pro actu meretricio, Lib. Ver. p. 123, cf. 126). In 1523 the
princes of Germany protested to the Pope in language almost
equally strong (Browne, Fasciculus, i. 354). In 1562 the Council
of Trent abolished the office of " pardoner."
The greatest of all Plenary Indulgences is of course the Roman
1 Equally strong assertions were made by the provincial council
of Mainz in 1261; and Lea (p. 287) quotes the complaints of 36
similar church councils before 1538.
INDULINES— INDUS
507
Jubilee. This was instituted in 1300 by Boniface VIII., who
pleaded a popular tradition for its celebration every hundredth
year, though no written evidence could be found. Clement VI.
shortened the period to 50 years (1350): it was then further
reduced to 33, and again in 1475 to 25 years.
See also the article on LUTHER. The latest and fullest authority
on this subject is Dr H. C. Lea, Hist, of Auricular Confession
and Indulgences in the Latin Church (Philadelphia, 1896) ; his
standpoint in frankly non-Catholic, but he gives ample materials
for judgment. The greatest orthodox authority is Eusebius Amort,
De Origine, &c., Indulgentiarum (1735). More popular and more
easily accessible are Father Thurston's The Holy Year of Jubilee
(1900), and an article by the Bishop of Newport in the Nineteenth
Century for January 1901, with a reply by Mr Herbert Paul in the
next number. (G. G. Co.)
INDULINES, a series of dyestuffs of blue, bluish-red or black
shades, formed by the interaction of para-amino azo compounds
with primary monamines in the presence of a small quantity
of a mineral acid. They were first discovered in 1863 (English
patent 3307) by J. Dale and H. Caro, and since then have been
examined by many chemists (see O. N. Witt, Ber., 1884, 17, p. 74;
O. Fischer and E. Hepp,Ann.,i&go, 256, pp. 233etseq.; F.Kehr-
mann, Ber., 1891, 24, pp. 584, 2167 et seq.). They are derivatives
of the eurhodines (aminophenazines, aminonaphthophenazines) ,
and by means of their diazo derivatives can be de-amidated,
yielding in this way azonium salts; consequently they may be
considered as amidated azonium salts. The first reaction giving
a clue to their constitution was the isolation of the intermediate
azophenin by 0. Witt (Jour. Chem. Soc., 1883, 43, p. 115), which
was proved by Fischer and Hepp to be dianilidoquinone dianil,
a similar intermediate compound being found shortly afterwards
in the naphthalene series. Azophenin, Cao^N-i, is prepared
by warming quinone dianil with aniline; by melting together
quinone, aniline and aniline hydrochloride ; or by the action
of aniline on para-nitrosophenol or para-nitrosodiphenylamine.
The indulines are prepared as mentioned above from aminoazo
compounds:
(aposafranine)
or by condensing oxy- and amido-quinones with phenylated
ortho-diamines (F. Kehrmann, Ber., 1895, 28, p. 1714):
The indulines may be subdivided into the following groups: —
(l) benzindulines, derivatives of phenazine; (2) isorosmdulines;
and (3) rpsindulines, both derived from naphthophenazine; and
(4) naphthindulines, derived from naphthazine.
I. Benzindulines. II. Isorosindulines.
NH:CioH6<^.C6H6>C6H4 NH : CJOH6<^.C6H
III. Rosindulines. IV. Naphthindulines.
The rosindulines and naphthindulines have a strongly basic
character, and their salts possess a marked red colour and fluores-
cence. Benzinduline (aposafranine), CisHnNs, is a strong base,
but cannot be diazotized, unless it be dissolved in concentrated
mineral acids. When warmed with aniline it yields anilido-aposa-
franine, which may also be obtained by the direct oxidation of
ortho-aminodiphenylamine. Isorosinduline is obtained from quinone
dichlorimide and phenyl-/3-naphthylamine; rosinduline from benzene-
azo-a-naphthylamine and aniline and naphthinduline from benzene-
azo-a-naphthylamine and naphthylamine.
INDULT (Lat. indultum, from indulgere, grant, concede,
allow), a, papal licence which authorizes the doing of something
not sanctioned by the common law of the church; thus by an
indult the pope authorizes a bishop to grant certain relaxations
during the Lenten fast according to the necessities of the situation,
climate, &c., of his diocese.
INDUNA, a Zulu-Bantu word for an officer or head of a
regiment among the Kaffir (Zulu-Xosa) tribes of South Africa.
It is formed from the inflexional prefix in and dttna, a lord or
master. Indunas originally obtained and retained their rank
and authority by personal bravery and skill in war, and often
proved a menace to their nominal lord. Where, under British
influence, the purely military system of government among the
Kaffir tribes has broken down or been modified, indunas are now
administrators rather than warriors. They sit in a consultative
gathering known as an indaba, and discuss the civil and military
affairs of their tribe.
INDUS, one of the three greatest rivers of northern India.
A considerable accession of exact geographical knowledge
has been gained of the upper reaches of the river Indus and its
tributaries during those military and political move-
ments which have been so constant on the northern Himalaya.
frontiers of India of recent years. The sources of
the Indus are to be traced to the glaciers of the great Kailas
group of peaks in 32° 20' N. and 81° E., which overlook the
Mansarowar lake and the sources of the Brahmaputra, the
Sutlej and the Gogra to the south-east. Three great affluents,
flowing north-west, unite in about 80° E. to form the main
stream, all of them, so far as we know at present, derived from
the Kailas glaciers. Of these the northern tributary points the
road from Ladakh to the Jhalung goldfields, and the southern,
or Gar, forms a link in the great Janglam — the Tibetan trade
route — which connects Ladakh with Lhasa and Lhasa with
China. Gartok (about 50 m. from the source of this southern
head of the Indus) is an important point on this trade route,
and is now made accessible to Indian traders by treaty with
Tibet -and China. At Leh, the Ladakh capital, the river has
already pursued an almost even north-westerly course for 300
m., except for a remarkable divergence to the south-west which
carries it across, or through, the Ladakh range to follow the same
course on the southern side that had been maintained on the
north. This very remarkable instance of transverse drainage
across a main mountain axis occurs in 79° E., about 100 m.
above Leh. For another 230 m., in a north-westerly direction,
the Indus pursues a comparatively gentle and placid course over
its sandy bed between the giant chains of Ladakh to the north
and Zaskar (the main " snowy range " of the Himalaya) to the
south, amidst an array of mountain scenery which, for the
majesty of sheer altitude, is unmatched by any in the world.
Then the river takes up the waters of the Shyok from the north
(a tributary nearly as great as itself), having already captured
the Zasvar from the south, together with innumerable minor
glacier-fed streams. The Shyok is an important feature in
Trans-Himalayan hydrography. Rising near the
southern foot of the well-known Karakoram pass on
the high road between Ladakh and Kashgar, it first
drains the southern slopes of the Karakoram range, and
then breaks across the axis of the Muztagh chain (of which
the Karakoram is now recognized as a subsidiary extension
northwards) ere bending north-westwards to run a parallel
course to the Indus for 150 m. before its junction with that river.
The combined streams still hold on their north-westerly trend
for another 100 m., deep hidden under the shadow of a vast
array of snow-crowned summits, until they arrive within sight
of the Rakapushi peak which pierces the north-western sky
midway between Gilgit and Hunza. Here the great change
of direction to the south-west occurs, which is thereafter main-
tained till the Indus reaches the ocean. At this point it
receives the Gilgit river from the north-west, having dropped
from 15,000 to 4000 ft. (at the junction of the rivers) Thf QHgK
after about 500 m. of mountain descent through the affluent.
independent provinces of northern Kashmir. (See
GILGIT.) A few miles below the junction it passes Bunji, and
from that point to a point beyond Chilas (50 m. below Bunji)
it runs within the sphere of British interests. Then once again
it resumes its " independent " course through the wild mountains
of Kohistan and Hazara, receiving tribute from both sides
(the Buner contribution being the most noteworthy) till it
emerges into the plains of the Punjab below Darband, in 34°
10' N. All this part of the river has been mapped in more or
less detail of late years. The hidden strongholds of those
Hindostani fanatics who had found a refuge on its banks since
508
INDUSTRIA— INE
Mutiny days have been swept clean, and many ancient mysteries
have been solved in the course of its surveying.
From its entrance into the plains of India to its disappearance
in the Indian Ocean, the Indus of to-day is the Indus of the 'fifties
— modified only in some interesting particulars. It
'tte"piaias. nas been bridged at several important points. There
are bridges even in its upper mountain courses.
There is a wooden pier bridge at Leh of two spans, and
there are native suspension bridges of cane or twig-made rope
swaying uneasily across the stream at many points intervening
between Leh and Bunji; but the first English-made iron sus-
pension bridge is a little above Bunji, linking up the highroad
between Kashmir and Gilgit. Next occurs the iron girder
railway bridge at Attock, connecting Rawalpindi with Peshawar,
at which point the river narrows almost to a gorge, only ooo ft.
above sea-level. Twenty miles below Attock the river has
carved out a central trough which is believed to be 180 ft. deep.
Forty miles below Attock another great bridge has been con-
structed at Kushalgarh, which carries the railway to Kohat
and the Kurram valley. At Mari, beyond the series of gorges
which continue from Kushalgarh to the borders of the Kohat
district, on the Sind-Sagar line, a boat-bridge leads to Kalabagh
(the Salt city) and northwards to Kohat. Another boat-bridge
opposite Dera Ismail Khan connects that place with the railway;
but there is nothing new in these southern sections of the Indus
valley railway system except the extraordinary development
of cultivation in their immediate neighbourhood. The Lans-
downe bridge at Sukkur, whose huge cantilevers stand up as a
monument of British enterprise visible over the flat plains for
many miles around, is one of the greatest triumphs of Indian
bridge-making. Kotri has recently been connected with
Hyderabad in Sind, and the Indus is now one of the best-bridged
rivers in India. The intermittent navigation which was main-
tained by the survivals of the Indus flotilla as far north as Dera
Ismail Khan long after the establishment of the railway system
has ceased to exist with the dissolution of the fleet, and the
high-sterned flat Indus boats once again have the channels
and sandbanks of the river all to themselves.
Within the limits of Sind the vagaries of the Indus channels
have necessitated a fresh survey of the entire riverain. The
results, however, indicate not so much a marked
Lower departure in the general course of the river as a great
deUa 3 variation in the channel beds within what may be
termed its outside banks. Collaterally much new
information has been obtained about the ancient beds of the
river, the sites of ancient cities and the extraordinary develop-
ments of the Indus delta. The changing channels of the main
stream since those prehistoric days when a branch of it found
its way to the Runn of Cutch, through successive stages of its
gradual shift westwards — a process of displacement which
marked the disappearance of many populous places which were
more or less dependent on the river for their water supply —
to the last and greatest change of all, when the stream burst
its way through the limestone ridges of Sukkur and assumed
a course which has been fairly constant for 150 years, have all
been traced out with systematic care by modern surveyors till
the medieval history of the great river has been fully gathered
from the characters written on the delta surface. That such
changes of river bed and channel should have occurred within
a comparatively limited period of time is the less astonishing
if we remember that the Indus, like many of the greatest rivers
of the world, carries down sufficient detritus to raise its own bed
above the general level of the surrounding plains in an appreciable
and measurable degree. At the present time the bed of the
Indus is stated to be 70 ft. above the plains of the Sind frontier,
some 50 m. to the west of it.
The total length of the Indus, measured directly, is about 1500 m.
With its many curves and windings it stretches to about 2000 m., the
Statistics. are.a °^ 'ts basin being computed at 372,000 sq. m. Even
at its lowest in winter it is 500 ft. wide at Iskardo (near
the Gilgit junction) and 9 or 10 ft. deep. The temperature of the
surface water during the cold season in the plains is found to be 5°
below that of the air (64° and 69° F.). At the beginning of the hot
season, when the river is bringing down snow water, the difference is
14° (87° and 101° June). At greater depths the difference is still
greater. At Attock, where the river narrows between rocky banks,
a height of 50 ft. in the flood season above lowest level is common,
with a velocity of 13 m. per hour. The record rise (since British
occupation of the Punjab) is 80 ft. At its junction with the Panjnad
(the combined rivers of the Punjab east of the Indus) the Panjnad
is twice the width of the Indus, but its mean depth is less, and its
velocity little more than one-third. This discharge of the Panjnad
at low season is 69,000 cubic ft. per second, that of the Indus 92,000.
Below the junction the united discharge in flood season is 380,000
cubic ft., rising to 460,000 (the record in August). The Indus after
receiving the other rivers carries down into Sind, in the high flood
season, turbid water containing silt to the amount of ?J9 part by
weight, or jfj by volume — equal to 6480 millions of cubic ft. in the
three months of flood. This is rather less than the Ganges carries.
The silt is very fine sand and clay. Unusual floods, owing to landslips
or other exceptional causes, are not infrequent. The most disastrous
flood of this nature occurred in 1858. It was then that the river rose
80 ft. at Attock. The most striking result of the rise was the reversal
of the current of the Kabul river, which flowed backwards at the rate
of 10 m. per hour, flooding Nowshera and causing immense damage
to property. The prosperity of the province of Sind depends almost
entirely on the waters of the Indus, as its various systems of canals
command over nine million acres out of a cultivable area of twelve
and a half million acres.
See Maclagan, Proceedings R.G.S., vol. iii. ; Haig, The Indus
Delta Country (London, 1894); Godwin-Austen, Proceedings R.C.S.,
vol. vi. (T. H. H.*)
INDUSTRIA (mod. Monteu da Po), an ancient town of Liguria,
20 m. N.E. of Augusta Taurinorum. Its original name was
Bodincomagus, from the Ligurian name of the Padus (mod.
Po), Bodincus, i.e. bottomless (Plin. Hist. Nat. iii. 122), and
this still appears on inscriptions of the early imperial period.
It stood on the right bank of the river, which has now changed
its course over i m. to the north. It was a flourishing town,
with municipal rights, as excavations (which have brought to
light the forum, theatre, baths, &c.) have shown, but appears
to have been deserted in the 4th century A.D.
See A. Fabietti in Atti delta Societd di Archeologia di Torino, iii.
17 seq.; Th. Mommsen in Corp. Inscrip. Lot. v.|(Berlin, 1877), p.
845 ; E. Ferrero in Notizie degli Scavi (1903), p. 43.
INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL, in England a school, generally
established by voluntary contributions, for the industrial
training of children, in which children are lodged, clothed and
fed, as well as taught. Industrial schools are chiefly for vagrant
and neglected children and children not convicted of theft.
Such schools are for children up to the age of fourteen, and the
limit of detention is sixteen. They are regulated by the Children
Act 1908, which repealed the Industrial Schools Act 1866,
as amended by Acts of 1872,1891 and 1901, and parallel legisla-
tion in the various Elementary Education Acts, besides some
few local acts. The home secretary exercises powers of super-
vision, &c. See JUVENILE OFFENDERS.
INDUSTRY (Lat. industria, from indu-, a form of the pre-
position in, and either stare, to stand, or struere, to pile up),
the quality of steady application to work, diligence; hence
employment in some particular form of productive work,
especially of manufacture; or a particular class of productive
work itself, a trade or manufacture. See LABOUR LEGISLA-
TION, &c.
INE, king of the West Saxons, succeeded Ceadwalla in 688,
his title to the crown being derived from Ceawlin. In the
earlier part of his reign he was at war with Kent, but peace was
made in 694, when the men of Kent gave compensation for the
death of Mul, brother of Ceadwalla, whom they had burned
in 687. In 710 Ine was fighting in alliance with his kinsman
Nun, probably king of Sussex, against Cerent of West Wales
and, according to Florence of Worcester, he was victorious.
In 715 he fought a battle with Ceolred, king of Mercia, at Wood-
borough in Wiltshire, but the result is not recorded. Shortly
after this time a quarrel seems to have arisen in the royal family.
In 721 Ine slew Cynewulf, and in 722 his queen Aethelburg
destroyed Taunton, which her husband had built earlier in his
reign. In 722 the South Saxons, previously subject to Ine,
rose against him under the exile Aldbryht, who may have been
a member of the West Saxon royal house. In 725 Ine fought
with the South Saxons and slew Aldbryht. In 726 he resigned
INEBOLI— INEBRIETY, LAW OF
509
the crown and went to Rome, being succeeded by Aethelheard
in Wessex. Ine is said to have built the minster at Glastonbury.
The date of his death is not recorded. He issued a written
code of laws for Wessex, which is still preserved.
See Bede, Hist. Eccl. (Plummer), iv. 15, v. 7; Saxon Chronicle
(Earle and Plummer), s.a. 688e, 694, 710, 715, 721, 722, 725, 728;
Thorpe, Ancient Laws, \. 2-25; Schmid, Gesetze der Angelsachsen
(Leipzig, 1858) ; Liebermann,GesetzederAngelsachsen(Ha.\\e, 1898-99).
INEBOLI, a town on the north coast of Asia Minor, 70 m. W.
of Sinub (Sinope). It is the first place of importance touched
at by mercantile vessels plying eastwards from Constantinople,
being the port for the districts of Changra and Kastamuni,
and connected with the latter town by a carriage road (see
KASTAMUNI). The roadstead is exposed, having no protection
for shipping except a jetty 300 ft. long, so that in rough weather
landing is impracticable. The exports (chiefly wool and mohair)
are about £248,000 annually and the imports £200,000. The
population is about 9000 (Moslems 7ooo,Christians 2000) . Ineboli
represents the ancient Abonou-teichos, famous as the birthplace
of the false prophet Alexander, who established there (2nd
century A.D.) an oracle of the snake-God Glycon-Asclepius.
This impostor, immortalized by Lucian, obtained leave from the
emperor Marcus Aurelius to change the name of the town to
lonopolis, whence the modern name is derived (see ALEXANDER
THE PAPHLAGONIAN) .
INEBRIETY, LAW OF. The legal relations to which inebriety
(Lat. in, intensive, and ebrietas, drunkenness) gives rise are partly
civil and partly criminal.
I. Civil Capacity. — The law of England as to the civil capacity
of the drunkard is practically identified with, and has passed
through substantially the same stsges of development as the
law in regard to the civil capacity of a person suffering from
mental disease (see INSANITY). Unless (see III. in/.) a modifica-
tion is effected in his condition by the fact that he has been
brought under some form of legal control, a man may, in spite
of intoxication, enter into a valid marriage or make a valid will,
or bind himself by a contract, if he is sober enough to know
what he is doing, and no improper advantage of his condition
is taken (cf. Matthews v. Baxter, 1873, L.R. 8 Ex. 132; Imperial
Loan Co. v. Stone, 1892, i Q.B. 599;. The law is the same in
Scotland and in Ireland; and the Sale of Goods Act 1893
(which applies to the whole United Kingdom) provides that
where necessaries are sold and delivered to a person who by reason
of drunkenness is incompetent to contract, he must pay a
reasonable price for them; " necessaries " for the purposes of
this provision mean goods suitable to the condition in life of such
person and to his actual requirements at the time of the sale and
delivery.
Under the Roman law, and under the Roman Dutch law as
applied in South Africa, drunkenness, like insanity, appears to
vitiate absolutely a contract made by a person under its in-
fluence (Molyneux v. Natal Land and Colonization Co., 1905,
A.C.SSS).
In the United States, as in England, intoxication does not
vitiate contractual capacity unless it is of such a degree as to
prevent the person labouring under it from understanding the
nature of the transaction into which he is entering (Bouvier,
Law Diet., s.v. " Drunkenness "; and cf. Waldron v. Angleman,
1904, 58 Atl. 568; Fowler v. Meadow Brook Water Co., 1904,
57 Atl. 959; 208 Penn., 473). The same rule is by implication
adopted in the Indian Contract Act (Act ix. of 1872), which
provides (s. 12) that " a person is ... of sound mind for the
purpose of making a contract if, at the time when he makes it,
he is capable of understanding it and of forming a rational
judgment as to its effect upon his interests." In some legal
systems, however, habitual drunkenness is a ground for divorce
or judicial separation (Sweden, Law of the 27th of April 1810;
France, Code Civil, Art. 231, Hirt v. Hirt, Dalloz, 1898, pt. ii.,
p. 4, and n. 4).
II. Criminal Responsibility. — In English law, drunkenness,
unlike insanity, was at one time regarded as in no way an excuse
for crime. According to Coke (Co. Litt., 247) a drunkard,
although he suffers from acquired insanity, dementia ajfectata,
is voluntarius daemon, and therefore has no privilege in con-
sequence of his state; " but what hurt or ill soever he doth,
his drunkenness doth aggravate it." Sir Matthew Hale (P.C.
32) took a more moderate view, viz. that a person under the
influence of this voluntarily contracted madness " shall have
the same judgment as if he were in his right senses"; and
admitted the existence of two " allays " or qualifying circum-
stances: (i) temporary frenzy induced by the unskilfulness of
physicians or by drugging; and (2) habitual or fixed frenzy.
Those early authorities have, however, undergone considerable
development and modification.
Although the general principle that drunkenness is not an
excuse for crime is still steadily maintained (see Russell, Crimes,
6th ed., i. 144; Archbold, Cr. PL, 23rd ed., p. 29), it is settled law
that where a particular intent is one of the constituent elements
of an offence, the fact that a prisoner was intoxicated at the time
of its commission is relevant evidence to show that he had not
the capacity to form that intent. Drunkenness is also a circum-
stance of which a jury may take account in considering whether
an act was premeditated, or whether a prisoner acted in self-
defence or under provocation, when the question is whether
the danger apprehended or the provocation was sufficient to
justify his conduct or to alter its legal character. Moreover,
delirium tremens, if it produce such a degree of madness as to
render a person incapable of distinguishing right from wrong,
relieves him from criminal responsibility for any act committed
by him while under its influence; and in one case at nisi prius
(R. v Baines, The Times, 25th Jan. 1886) this doctrine
was extended by Mr Justice Day to temporary derangement
occasioned by drink. The law of Scotland accepts, if it does
not go somewhat beyond, the later developments of that of
England in regard to criminal responsibility in drunkenness.
Indian law on the point is similar to the English (Indian Penal
Code, Act. xlv. of 1860, ss. 85, 86; Mayne, Crim. Law of India,
ed. 1896, p. 391). In the United States the same view is the
prevalent legal doctrine (see Bishop, Crim. Law, 8th ed., i. ss.
397-416). The Criminal Code of Queensland (No. 9 of 1899,
Art. 28) provides that a person who becomes intoxicated
intentionally is responsible for any crime that he commits
while so intoxicated, whether his voluntary intoxication was
induced so as to afford an excuse for the commission of an
offence or not. As in England, however, when an intention
to cause a specific result is an element of an offence, intoxication,
whether complete or partial, and whether intentional or un-
intentional, may be regarded for the purpose of ascertaining
whether such intention existed or not. There is a similar
provision in the Penal Code of Ceylon (No. 2 of 1883, Art. 79).
The Criminal Codes of Canada (1892, c. 29, ss. 7 et seq.) and New
Zealand (No. 56 of 1893, ss. 21 et seq.) are silent on the subject
of intoxication as an excuse for crime. The Criminal Code
of Grenada (No. 2 of 1897, Art. 51) provides that " a person
shall not, on the ground of intoxication, be deemed to have done
any act involuntarily, or be exempt from any liability to punish-
ment for any act: and a person who does an act while in a state
of intoxication shall be deemed to have intended the natural
and probable consequences of his act." There is a similar
provision in the Criminal Code of the Gold Coast Colony (No.
12 of 1892, s. 54). Under the French Penal Code (Art. 64),
il n'y a ni crime, ni dilit, lorsque le prevenu ftait en etat de demence
au temps de V action ou lorsqu'il aura iti contraint par une Jorce
a laquelle il n' a pu resister." According to the balance of authority
(Dalloz, Rep. tit., Peine, ss. 402 et seq.) intoxication is not
assimilated to insanity, within the meaning of this article, but
it may be and is taken account of by juries as an extenuating
circumstance (Ortolan, Droit Final i. s, 323; Chauveau ct
Helie i. s. 360). A provision in the German Penal Code (Art.
51) that an act is not punishable if its author, at the time of
committing it, was in a condition of unconsciousness, or morbid
disturbance of the activity of his mind which prevented the
free exercise of his will, has been held not to extend to intoxica-
tion (Clunet, 1883, p. 311). But in Germany as in France,
intoxication may apparently be an extenuating circumstance.
INEBRIETY, LAW OF
Under the Italian Penal Code (Arts. 46-49) intoxication — unless
voluntarily induced so as to afford an excuse for crime — may
exclude or modify responsibility.
So far only the question whether drunkenness is an excuse
for offences committed under its influence has been dealt with.
There remains the question how far drunkenness itself is a crime.
Mere private intoxication is not, either in England or in the
United States (Bishop, Crim. Law, 8th ed., i. s. 399) indictable
as an offence at common law; but in all civilized countries
public drunkenness is punishable when it amounts to a breach
of the peace (see LIQUOR LAWS) or contravention of public
order; and modern legislation in many countries provides
for deprivation of personal liberty for long periods in case of
a frequent repetition of the offence. Reference may be made
in this connexion to the Inebriates Acts 1898, 1899 an(i I9°°
(see iii. inf.), and also to similar legislation in the British colonies
and in foreign legal systems (e.g. Cape of Good Hope, No. 32
of 1896; Ceylon, Licensing Ordinance 1891, ss. 23, 24, 29;
New South Wales, Vagrants Punishment Act 1866; Massa-
chusetts, Acts of 1891, c. 427, 1893, cc. 414, 445 France,
Law of 23rd of Jan. 1873, Art. 6).
III. State Action in Regard to Inebriety. — This assumes a variety
of forms, (a) Measures regulating the punishment of occasional
or habitual drunkenness by fines or short terms of imprisonment.
(b) Control in penal establishments for lengthened periods.
(c) Laws prohibiting the sale of liquor to persons who are known
inebriates: e.g. in England (Licensing Act 1902); Ontario
(Rev. Stats. 1897, c. 245, ss. 124, 125); New South Wales
(Liquor Act 1898, ss. 52, 53); Cape of Good Hope (No. 28 of
1883, s. 89); New York (Rev. Stats. 1889-1892, c. 20, Title
iv.) ; California (Act to prevent sale of liquor to drunkards, 1889) ;
Massachusetts (Pub. Stats., ed. 1902, c. 100, s. 9). (d) Laws
regulating the appointment of some person or persons to act
as guardian or guardians, or who may be endowed with legal
powers over the person and estate of an inebriate. Thus in
France (Code Civil, Arts. 489 et seq.), Germany (Civil Code,
Art. 6 (39)) and Austria-Hungary (Biirgerliclies Gesetz-Buch,
ss. 21, 269, 270, 273), an inebriate may be judicially interdicted
if he is squandering his property and thereby exposing his family
to future destitution. Provision is also made for the interdiction
of inebriates by the laws of Nova Scotia (Rev. Stats. 1900,
c. 126, s. 2), Manitoba (Rev. Stat. 1902, c. 103, ss. 30 et seq.),
British Columbia (Rev. Stat. 1897, c. 66), New South Wales
(Inebriates Act 1900, s. 5), Tasmania (Inebriates Act 1885,
No. 17, s. 23); Canton of Bale (Trustee Law of the 23rd of
Feb. 1880, s. n), Orange River Colony (Code Laws, c. 108,
s. 30), Maryland (Code General Laws, c. 474, s. 47). (e) Control
for the purpose of reformation. Legislation of this character
provides reformatory treatment: (i) for the inebriate who makes
a voluntary application for admission; (2) by compulsory
seclusion for the inebriate who refuses consent to treatment
and yet manages to keep out of the reach of the law; (3) for
the inebriate who is a police-court recidivist, or who has com-
mitted crime, caused or contributed to by drink. The legisla-
tion of the Cape of Good Hope (Inebriates Act 1896) and of
North Dakota (Habitual Drunkards Act 1895) provides for
the first of these methods of treatment alone. Compulsory
detention for ordinary inebriates only is provided for by the laws
of Delaware (Act of 1898), Massachusetts (Rev. Laws, c. 87), and
of the Cantons of Berne (Law of the 24th of Nov. 1883) and Bale
(Law of the 2ist of Feb. 1901). All three methods of treatment
are in force in New South Wales (Inebriates Act 1900), Queens-
land (Inebriates Institutions Act 1896) and South Australia
(Inebriates Act 1881). Provision is made only for voluntary
application and compulsory detention of ordinary inebriates
in Victoria (Inebriates Act 1890), Tasmania (Inebriates Act
1885; Inebriates Hospitals Act 1892) and New Zealand
(Inebriates Institutions Act 1898). The legislation of the
United Kingdom (Inebriates Acts 1879-1900) deals both with
voluntary application and with the committal of criminal
inebriates or of police-court recidivists. A brief sketch of the
English system must suffice.
The Inebriates Acts of 1879-1900 deal in the first place with
non-criminal, and in the second place with criminal, habitual
drunkards.
For the purposes of the acts the term " habitual drunkard "
means " a person who, not being amenable to any jurisdiction
in lunacy, is notwithstanding, by reason of habitual intemperate
drinking of intoxicating liquor, at times dangerous to himself
or herself, or incapable of managing himself or herself and his or
her affairs." A person would become amenable to the lunacy
jurisdiction not only where habitual drunkenness made him a
" lunatic " in the legal sense of the term, but where it created
such a state of disease and consequential " mental infirmity "
as to bring his case within section 116 of the Lunacy Act 1890,
the effect of which is explained in the article INSANITY. Any
" habitual drunkard " within the above definition may obtain
admission to a " licensed retreat " on a written application to
the licensee, stating the time (the maximum period is two years)
that he undertakes to remain in the retreat. The application
must be accompanied by the statutory declaration of two persons
that the applicant is an habitual drunkard, and its signature must
be attested by a justice of the peace who has satisfied himself
as to the fact, and who is required to state that the applicant
understood the nature and effect of his application. Licences
(each of which is subject to a duty and is impressed with a stamp
of £5, and los. for every patient above ten in number) are granted
for retreats by the borough council and the town clerk in boroughs,
and elsewhere by the county council and the clerk of the county
council. The maximum period for which a licence may be granted
is two years, but licences may be renewed by the licensing
authority on payment of a stamp duty of the same amount
as on the original grant. When an habitual drunkard has once
been committed to a retreat, he must remain in the retreat for
the time that he has fixed in his application, subject to certain
statutory provisions similar to those prescribed by the Lunacy
Acts for asylums as to leave of absence and discharge; and he
may be retaken and brought back to the retreat under a justice's
warrant. The term of detention may be extended on its expiry,
or an inebriate may be readmitted, on a fresh application,
without any statutory declaration, and without the attesting
justice being required to satisfy himself that the applicant
is an habitual drunkard. Licensed retreats are subject to in-
spection by an Inspector of Retreats appointed by the Home
Secretary, to whom he makes an annual report. The Home
Secretary is empowered to make rules and regulations for the
management of retreats, and " regulations and orders," not
inconsistent with such rules, are to be prepared by the licensee
within a month after the granting of his licence, and submitted
to the inspector for approval. The rules now in force are dated
as regards (a) England, 28th Feb. 1902; (b) Scotland, i4th April
1902; (c) Ireland, 3rd Feb. 1903. There are also statutory
provisions, similar to those of the Lunacy Acts, as to offences —
(i.) by licensees failing to comply with the requirements of the
acts; (ii) by persons ill-treating patients, or helping them to
escape, or unlawfully supplying them with intoxicating liquor;
(iii.) by patients refusing to comply with the rules. The Home
Secretary may (i.) authorize the establishment of " State
Inebriate Reformatories," to be paid for out of moneys provided
by parliament; and (ii.) sanction " Certified Inebriates' Re-
formatories " on the application of any borough or county
council, or any person whatever, if satisfied concerning the
reformatory and the persons proposing to maintain it. An
Inspector of Certified Inebriate Reformatories has been appointed.
Regulations for State Inebriate Reformatories and for Certified
Inebriate Reformatories have been made, dated as follows:
State Inebriate Reformatories : — England, 2ist of June 1901,
29th of Dec. 1903, 29th of April 1904; Scotland, 9th of March
1900; Ireland, i6th of March 1899, i6th of April 1901, loth
of Feb. 1904. Certified Inebriate Reformatories : — England, Model
Regulations, I7th of Dec. 1898; Scotland, Regulations, I4th
of Feb. 1899; Ireland, Model Regulations, 2gth of April 1899.
Any person convicted on indictment of an offence punishable
with imprisonment or penal servitude (i.e. of any non-capital
INFALLIBILITY
511
felony and of most misdemeanours), if the court is satisfied
from the evidence that the offence was committed under the
influence of drink, or that drink was a contributing cause of
the offence, may, if he admits that he is, or is found by the jury
to be, an habitual drunkard, in addition to or in substitution
for any other sentence, be ordered to be detained in a state or
certified inebriate reformatory, the managers of which are
willing to receive him. Again, any habitual drunkard who is
found drunk in any public place, or who commits any other of
a series of similar offences under various statutes, after having
within twelve months been convicted at least three times of a
similar offence, may, on conviction on indictment, or, if he con-
sent, on summary conviction, be sent for detention in any
certified inebriate reformatory. The expenses of prosecuting
habitual drunkards under the above provisions are payable
out of the local rates upon an order to that effect by the judge
of assize or chairman of quarter-sessions if the prosecution
be on indictment, or by a court of summary jurisdiction if the
offence is dealt with summarily.
AUTHORITIES. — As to the history of legislation on the subject
see Parl. Paper No. 242 of 1872; 1893 C. 7008. See also Wyatt
Paine, Inebriate Reformatories and Retreats(l^ondon,l8>)g) ; Blackwell,
Inebriates Acts, 1870-1898 (London, 1899); Wood Renton, Lunacy
(London and Edinburgh, 1896); Kerr, Inebriety (3rd ed., London,
1894). An excellent account of the systems in force in other countries
for the treatment of inebriates will be found in Parl. Pap. (1902), cd.
1474. (A. W. R.)
INFALLIBILITY (Fr. infaillibilile and in/allibilite, the latter
now obsolete, Med. Lat. infallibilitas, infallibilis, formed from
fallor, to make a mistake) , the fact or quality of not being liable
to err or fail. The word has thus the general sense of "certainty";
we may, e.g., speak of a drug as an infallible specific, or of a
man's judgment as infallible. In these cases, however, the
" infallibility " connotes certainty only in so far as anything
human can be certain. In the language of the Christian Church
the word " infallibility " is used in a more absolute sense, as
the freedom from all possibility of error guaranteed by the
direct action of the Spirit of God. This belief in the infallibility
of revelation is involved in the very beliefs in revelation itself,
and is common to all sections of Christians, who differ mainly
as to the kind and measure of infallibility residing in the human
instruments by which this revelation is interpreted to the world.
Some see the guarantee, or at least the indication, of infallibility
in the consensus of the Church (quod semper, ubique, et ab omnibus)
expressed from time to time in general councils; others see
it in the special grace conferred upon St Peter and his successors,
the bishops of Rome, as heads of the Church; others again
see it in the inspired Scriptures, God's Word. This last was the
belief of the Protestant Reformers, for whom the Bible was in
matters of doctrine the ultimate court of appeal. To the trans-
lation and interpretation of the Scriptures men might bring a
fallible judgment, but this would be assisted by the direct action
of the Spirit of God in proportion to their faith. As for infallibility,
this was a direct grace of God, given only to the few. " What
ever was perfect under the sun," ask the translators of the
Authorized Version (1611) in their preface, " where apostles
and apostolick men, that is, men endued with an extraordinary
measure of God's Spirit, and privileged with the privilege of
infallibility, had not their hand? " In modern Protestantism,
on the other hand, the idea of an infallible authority whether
in the Church or the Bible has tended to disappear, religious
truths being conceived as valuable only as they are apprehended
and made real to the individual mind and soul by the grace of
God, not by reason of any submission to an external authority.
(See also INSPIRATION.)
At the present time, then, the idea of infallibility in religious
matters is most commonly associated with the claim of the
Roman Catholic Church, and more especially of the pope person-
ally as head of that Church, to possess the privilege of infalli-
bility, and it is with the meaning and limits of this claim that
the present article deals.
The substance of the claim to infallibility made by the Roman
Catholic Church is that the Church and the pope cannot err
when solemnly enunciating, as binding on all the faithful, a
decision on a question of faith or morals. The infallibility of
the Church, thus limited, is a necessary outcome of the funda-
mental conception of the Catholic Church and its mission.
Every society of men must have a supreme authority , whether
individual or collective, empowered to give a final decision in
the controversies which concern it. A community whose mission
it is to teach religious truth, which involves on the part of its
members the obligation of belief in this truth, must, if it is not
to fail of its object, possess an authority capable of maintaining
the faith in its purity, and consequently capable of keeping it
free from and condemning errors. To perform this function
without fear of error, this authority must be infallible in its
own sphere. The Christian Church has expressly claimed this
infallibility for its formal dogmatic teaching. In the very
earliest centuries we find the episcopate, united in council,
drawing up symbols of faith, which every believer was bound
to accept under pain of exclusion, condemning heresies, and
casting out heretics. From Nicaea and Chalcedon to Florence
and Trent, and to the present day, the Church has excluded
from her communion all those who do not profess her own faith,
i.e. all the religious truths which she represents and imposes
as obligatory. This is infallibility put into practice by definite
acts.
The infallibility of the pope was not defined until 1870 at the
Vatican Council; this definition does not constitute, strictly
speaking, a dogmatic innovation, as if the pope had not hitherto
enjoyed this privilege, or as if the Church, as a whole, had
admitted the contrary; it is the newly formulated definition of a
dogma which, like all those defined by the Councils,continued
to grow into an ever more definite form, ripening, as it were, in
the always living community of the Church. The exact formula
for the papal infallibility is given by the Vatican Council in the
following terms (Constit. Pastor aeternus, cap. iv.); " we teach
and define as a divinely revealed dogma, that the Roman
Pontiff, when he speaks ex cathedra — i.e. when, in his character
as Pastor and Doctor of all Christians, and in virtue of his
supreme apostolic authority, he lays down that a certain doctrine
concerning faith or morals is binding upon the universal Church,
— possesses, by the Divine assistance which was promised to
him in the person of the blessed Saint Peter, that same infalli-
bility with which the Divine Redeemer thought fit to endow
His Church, to define its doctrine with regard to faith and
morals; and, consequently, that these definitions of the Roman
Pontiff are irreformable in themselves, and not in consequence
of the consent of the Church." A few notes will suffice to
elucidate this pronouncement.
(a) As the Council expressly says, the infallibility of the pope
is not other than that of the Church; this is a point which
is too often forgotten or misunderstood. The pope enjoys
it in person, but solely qua head of the Church, and as the
authorized organ of the ecclesiastical body. For this exercise
of the primacy as for the others, we must conceive of the pope
and the episcopate united to him as a continuation of the
Apostolic College and its head Peter. The head of the College
possesses and exercises by himself alone the same powers as the
College which is united with him; not by delegation from his
colleagues, but because he is their established chief. The pope
when teaching ex cathedra acts as head of the whole episcopal
body and of the whole Church.
(6) If the Divine constitution of the Church has not changed
in its essential points since our Lord, the mode of exercise of
the various powers of its head has varied; and that of the
supreme teaching power as of the others. This explains the
late date at which the dogma was defined, and the assertion
that the dogma was already contained in that of the papal
primacy established by our Lord himself in the person of St
Peter. A certain dogmatic development is not denied, nor an
evolution in the direction of a centralization in the hands of
the pope of the exercise of his powers as primate; it is merely
required that this evolution should be well understood and
considered as legitimate.
512
INFAMY
(c) As a matter of fact the infallibility of the pope, when
giving decisions in his character as head of the Church, was
generally admitted before the Vatican Council. The only
reservation which the most advanced Gallicans dared to formu-
late, in the terms of the celebrated declaration of the clergy of
France (1682), had as its object the irreformable character of the
pontifical definitions, which, it was claimed, could only have
been acquired by them through the assent of the Church. This
doctrine, rather political than theological, was a survival of the
errors which had come into being after the Great Schism, and
especially at the council of Constance; its object was to put
the Church above its head, as the council of Constance had put
the ecumenical council above the pope, as though the council
could be ecumenical-without its head. In reality it was Gallican-
ism alone which was condemned at the Vatican Council, and it is
Gallicanism which is aimed at in the last phrase of the definition
we have quoted.
(d) Infallibility is the guarantee against error, not in all
matters, but only in the matter of dogma and morality; every-
thing else is beyond its power, not only truths of another order,
but even discipline and the ecclesiastical laws, government
and administration, &c.
(e) Again, not all dogmatic teachings of the pope are under
the guarantee of infallibility; neither his opinions as private
instructor, nor his official allocutions, however authoritative
tluy may be, are infallible; it is only his ex cathedra instruction
which is guaranteed; this is admitted by everybody.
But when does the pope speak ex cathedra, and how is it to be
distinguished when he is exercising his infallibility? As to this
point there are two schools, or rather two tendencies, among
Catholics: some extend the privilege of infallibility to all
official exercise of the supreme magisterium, and declare infallible,
e.g. the papal encyclicals.1 Others, while recognizing the supreme
authority of the papal magisterium in matters of doctrine, confine
the infallibility to those cases alone in which the pope chooses
to make use of it, and declares positively that he is imposing
on all the faithful the obligation of belief in a certain definite
proposition, under pain of heresy and exclusion from the Church ;
they do not insist on any special form, but only require that the
pope should clearly manifest his will to the Church. This second
point of view, as clearly expounded by Mgr Joseph Fessler
(1813-1872), bishop of St Polten, who was secretary to the
Vatican Council, in his work Die wahre und die falsche Unfehl-
barkeit der Papste (French trans. La iiraie el lafausse infaillibilite',
Paris, 1873), and by Cardinal Newman in his " Letter to the
Duke of Norfolk," is the correct one, and this is clear from the
fact that it has never been blamed by the ecclesiastical authority.
Those who hold the latter opinion have been able to assert that
since the Vatican Council no infallible definition had yet been
formulated by the popes, while recognizing the supreme authority
of the encyclicals of Leo XIII.
It is remarkable that the definition of the infallibility of the
pope did not appear among the projects (schemata) prepared for
the deliberations of the Vatican Council (1869). It doubtless
arose from the proposed forms for the definitions of the primacy
and the pontifical magisterium. The chapter on the infallibility
was only added at the request of the bishops and after long
hesitation on the part of the cardinal presidents. The proposed
form, first elaborated in the conciliary commission de fide, was
the object of long public discussions from the soth general
congregation (May i3th, 1870) to the 8sth (July i3th); the
constitution as a whole was adopted at a public session, on the
i8th, of the 535 bishops present, two only replied " Non placet ";
but about 50 had preferred not to be present. The controversies
\ It was in this sense that it was understood by Dollinger, who
pointed out that the definition of the dogma would commit the
Church to all past official utterances of the popes, e.g. the Syllabus of
1864, and therefore to a war a entrance against modern civilization.
This view was embodied in the circular note to the Powers, drawn up
by Dollinger and issued by the Bavarian prime minister Prince
Hohenlohc-Schillingsfurst on April 9, 1869. It was also the view
universally taken by the German governments which supported the
Kulturkampf in a greater or less degree. — ED.
occasioned by this question had started from the very beginning
of the Council, and were carried on with great bitterness on both
sides. The minority, among whom were prominent Ca: 'inals
Rauscher and Schwarzenberg, Hefele, bishop of Rotterdam (the
historian of the councils) Cardinal Mathieu, Mgr Dupanloup, Mgr
Maret, &c., &c., did not pretend to deny the papal infallibility;
they pleaded the inopportuneness of the definition and brought
forward difficulties mainly of an historical order, in particular
the famous condemnation of Pope Honorius by the 6th ecume-
nical council of Constantinople in 680. The majority, in which
Cardinal Manning played a very active part, took their stand on
theological reasons of the strongest kind; they invoked the
promises of Our Lord to St Peter: " Thou art Peter, and upon
this rock will I build my Church, and the gates of hell shall not
prevail against her "; and again, " I have prayed for thee,
Peter, that thy faith fail not; and do thou in thy turn confirm
thy brethren "; they showed the popes, in the course of the
ages, acting as the guardians and judges of the faith, arousing
or welcoming dogmatic controversies and authoritatively settling
them, exercising the supreme direction in the councils and
sanctioning their decisions; they explained that the few historical
difficulties did not involve any dogmatic defect in the teaching
of the popes; they insisted upon the necessity of a supreme
tribunal giving judgment in the name of the whole of the
scattered Church; and finally, they considered that the definition
had become opportune for the very reason that under the
pretext of its inopportuneness the doctrine itself was being
attacked.
The definition once proclaimed, controversies rapidly ceased;
the bishops who were among the minority one after the other
formulated their loyal adhesion to the Catholic dogma. The last
to do so in Germany was Hefele, who published the decrees of
the loth of April 1871, thus breaking a long friendship with
Dollinger; in Austria, where the government had thought good
to revive for the occasion the royal placet, Mgr Haynald and
Mgr Strossmayer delayed the publication, the former till the
15th of September 1871, the latter till the 26th of December
1872. In France the adhesion was rapid, and the. publication
was only delayed by some bishops in consequence of the
disastrous war with Prussia. Though no bishops abandoned
it, a few priests, such as Father Hyacinthe Loyson, and a few
scholars at the German universities refused their adhesion.
The most distinguished among the latter was Dollinger, who
resisted all the advances of Mgr Scherr, archbishop of Munich,
was excommunicated on the I7th of April 1871, and died un-
reconciled, though without joining any separate group. After
him must be mentioned Friedrich of Munich, several professors
of Bonn, and Reinkens of Breslau, who was the first bishop of
the " Old Catholics." These professors formed the " Committee
of Bonn," which organized the new Church. It was recog-
nized and protected first in Bavaria, thanks to the minister
Freiherr Johann von Lutz, then in Saxony, Baden, WUrt-
temberg, Prussia, where it was the pretext for, if not the
cause of, the Kulturkampf, and finally in Switzerland, especially
at Geneva.
For the theological aspects of the dogma ot infallibility, see, among
many others, L. Billot, S.J., De Ecclesia Chrisli (3 vols., Rome, 1898-
1900); or G. Wilmers, S.J., De Chrisli Ecclesia (Regensburg, 1897).
The most accessible popular work is that of Mgr Fessler already
mentioned. For the history of the definition see VATICAN COUNCIL ;
also PAPACY, GALLICANISM, FEBRONIANISM.OLD CATHOLICS, &c.
(A. Bo.*)
INFAMY (Lat. infamia), public disgrace or loss of character.
Infamy (infamia) occupied a prominent place in Roman law,
and took the form of a censure on individuals pronounced by a
competent authority in the state, which censure was the result
either of certain actions which they had committed or of certain
modes of life which they had pursued. Such a censure involved
disqualification for certain rights both in public and in private
law (see A. H. J. Greenidge, Infamia, its Place in Roman Public
and Private Law, 1894). In English law infamy attached to a
person in consequence of conviction of some crime. The effect
of infamy was to render a person incompetent to give evidence
INFANCY
in any legal proceeding. Infamy as a cause of incompetency
was abolished by an act of 1843 (6 & 7 Viet. c. 85).
The word " infamous " is used in a particular sense in the
English Medical Act of 1858, which provides that if any
registered medical practitioner is judged by the General Medical
Council, after due inquiry, to have been guilty of infamous
conduct in any professional respect, his name may be erased
from the Medical Register. The General Medical Council are
the sole judges of whether a practitioner has been guilty of
conduct infamous in a professional respect, and they act in a
judicial capacity, but an accused person is generally allowed to
appear by counsel. Any action which is regarded as disgraceful
or dishonourable by a man's professional brethren — such, for
example, as issuing advertisements in order to induce people
to consult him in preference to other practitioners — may be
found infamous.
INFANCY, in medical practice, the nursing age, or the period
during which the child is at the breast. As a matter of conveni-
ence it is usual to include in it children up to the age of one year.
The care of an infant begins with the preparations necessary
for its birth and the endeavour to ensure that taking place under
the best possible sanitary conditions. On being born the normal
infant cries lustily, drawing air into its lungs. As soon as the
umbilical cord which unites the child to the mother has ceased
to pulsate, it is tied about 2 in. from the child's navel and is
divided above the ligature. The cord is wrapped in a sterilized
gauze pad and the dressing is not removed until the seventh
to the tenth day, when the umbilicus is healed.
The baby is now a separate entity, and the first event in its
life is the first bath. The room ready to receive a new-born
infant should be kept at a temperature of 70° F. The tempera-
ture of the first bath should be 100° F. The child should be well
supported in the bath by the left hand of the nurse, and care
should be taken to avoid wetting the gauze pad covering the
cord. In some cases infants are covered with a white substance
termed " vernix caseosa," which may be carefully removed by
a little olive oil. Sponges should never be used, as they tend
to harbour bacteria. A soft pad of muslin or gauze which can
be boiled should take its place. After the first ten days 94° F.
is the most suitable temperature for a bath. When the baby
has been well dried the skin may be dusted with pure starch
powder to which a small quantity of boric acid has been added.
The most important part of the toilet of a new-born infant is
the care of the eyes, which should be carefully cleansed with
gauze dipped in warm water and one drop of a 2% solution of
nitrate of silver dropped into each eye. The clothes of a newly
born child should consist exclusively of woollen undergarments,
a soft flannel binder, which should be tied on, being placed next
the skin, with a long-sleeved woven wool vest and over this a
loose garment of flannel coming below the feet and long enough
to tuck up. Diapers should be made of soft absorbent material
such as well-washed linen and should be about two yards square
and folded in a three-cornered shape. An infant should always
sleep in a bed or cot by itself. In 1907, of 749 deaths from
violence in England and Wales of children under one month,
445 were due to suffocation in bed with adults. A healthy
infant should spend most of its time asleep and should be laid
into its cot immediately after feeding.
The normal infant at birth weighs about 7 Ib. During the
two or three days following birth a slight decrease in weight
occurs, usually 5 to 6 oz. When nursing begins the child increases
in weight up to the seventh day, when the infant will have
regained its weight at birth. From the second to the fourth
week after birth (according to Camerer) an infant should gain
i oz. daily or 15 to 2 Ib monthly, from the fourth to the sixth
month | to f of an oz. daily or i ft> monthly, from the sixth to the
twelfth month | oz. daily or less than i Ib monthly. At the
sixth month it should be twice the weight at birth. The average
weight at the twelfth month is 20 to 21 Ib. The increase of
weight in artificially fed is less regular than in breast-fed babies.
Food. — There is but one proper food for an infant, and that
is its mother's milk, unless when in exceptional circumstances
xrv. 17
tal i oz. in 24 hours
Si
8
16
28
42
50
the mother is not allowed to nurse her child. Artificially fed
children are much more liable to epidemic disease's. The child
should be applied to the breast the first day to induce the flow
of milk. The first week the child should be fed at intervals of
two hours, the second week eight to nine times, and the fourth
week eight times at intervals of two and a half hours. At two
months the child is being suckled six times daily at intervals
of three hours, the last feed being at n P.M. Where a mother
cannot nurse a child the child must be artificially fed. Cow's
milk must be largely diluted to suit the new-born infant. Arm-
strong gives the following table of dilution: —
1st week, milk I tablespoonful, water 2 tablcspoonfuls
at 3 months, „ 3$ tablespoonfuls, ,,3 •> "I added
at 6 months, „ 9 ,,3 L with
at 9 months, „ 12 „ ,,3 J sugar.
Koplik has drawn out a table of the amounts to be given as
follows : —
1st day 3 feeds of 10 cc
2nd day 8 „ 20 cc
3rd day 8 „ 30 cc (i oz.)
7th day 9 „ 50 cc
4th week 8 „ 60 cc (2 oz.)
3 months 7 „ 4 oz.
6 months 6 „ 7 oz.
9 months 6 „ 8J oz.
In cities it is advisable that milk should be either sterilized
by boiling or pasteurized, i.e. subjected to a form of heating
which, while destroying pathogenic bacteria, does not alter
the taste. The milk in a suitable apparatus is subjected to a
temperature of 65° C. (149° F.) for half an hour and is then
rapidly cooled to 20° C. (68° F.). Children fed on pasteurized
milk should be given a teaspoonful of fresh orange juice daily
to supply the missing acid and salts.
Artificial 'feeding is given by means of a bottle. In France
all bottles with rubber tubes have been made illegal. They
are a fruitful source of infection, as it is impossible to keep them
clean. The best bottle is the boat-shaped one, with a wide
mouth at one end, to which is attached a rubber teat, while
the other end has a screw stopper. This is readily cleansed
and a stream of water can be made to flow through it. All
bottle teats should be boiled at least once a day for ten minutes
with soda and kept in a glass-covered jar until required. A
feed should be given at the temperature of 100° F.
At the ninth month a cereal may be added to the food. Before
that the infant is unable to digest starchy foods. Much starch
tends to constipation, and it is rarely wise to give starchy
preparations in a proportion of more than 3% to children
under a year old. A child who is carefully fed in a cleanly
manner should not have diarrhoea, and its appearance indicates
carelessness somewhere. The English registrar-general's returns
for 1906 show that in the seventy-six largest towns in England
and Wales 14,306 deaths of infants under one year from diarrhoea
took place in July, August and September alone. These deaths
are largely preventable; when Dr Budin of Paris established
his " Consultations de Nourissons " the infant mortality of Paris
amounted to 178 per 1000, but at the consultation the rate
was 46 per 1000. At Varengeville-sur-mer a consultation for
nurslings was instituted under Dr Poupalt of Dieppe in 1904.
During the seven previous years the infant mortality had averaged
145 per 1000. In 1904-1905 not one infant at the consultation
died, though it was a summer of extreme heat, and in 1898
when similar heat had prevailed the infant mortality was 285
per looo. The deaths of infants under one year in England and
Wales, taken from the registrar-general's returns for 1907,
amounted to 117-62 per 1000 births, an alarming sacrifice of
life. France has been turning her attention to the establishment
of infant consultations on the lines of Dr Budin's, and similar
dispensaries under the designation " Gouttes de lait " have been
widely established in that country; gratifying results in the
fall in infant mortality have followed. At the Fecamp dispensary
the mortality from diarrhoea has fallen to 2-8, while that in
neighbouring towns is from 50 to 76 per 1000 (Sir A. Simpson).
It has been left to private enterprise in England to deal with
this problem. The St Pancras " School for Mothers " was
INFANT
established in 1907 in north-west London. Though started
by private persons it was in 1909 worked in connexion with the
Health Department of the Borough Council, but was supported
by charitable subscriptions and by a small contribution from
the student mothers. There are classes for mothers on the care
of their health during pregnancy, infant feeding, home nursing,
cooking and needlework. Poor mothers unable to contribute
get free dinners for three months previous to the birth of their
child and for nine months after if the child is breast-fed. Two
doctors are in attendance, and mothers are encouraged to bring
their children fortnightly to be weighed, and receive advice.
The average attendance is ninety. A baby is said to have
" graduated " when it is a year old. An interesting development
in connexion with the scheme is a class for fathers at which the
medical officer of health for the district lectures on the duties
of fatherhood. Similar schools for mothers are now established
in Fulham and Stepney. Weighing centres have been established
at Dundee, Sheffield, Nottingham, Birmingham, Aberdeen,
Bolton, Belfast, and Newcastle-on-Tyne. An infants' milk depdt
has been established at Pinsbury, and effort is being made
to establish milk laboratories where separate nursing portions
of sterile milk could be supplied to poor mothers. The Walker-
Gordon milk laboratories in the United States are a step in this
direction.
The average length of a child at birth is 195 in. and during
the first year the average increase is 75 in. A new-born infant
is deaf (Koplik). This is supposed to be due to the blocking
of the eustachian tubes with mucus. On the fourth day there
is some evidence of hearing, and at the fifth week noises in the
room disturb it. A healthy infant may be taken out of doors
when a fortnight old in summer, after which it should have a
daily outing, the eyes being protected from the direct rays of
the sun. On the second day the eyes are sensitive to light,
in the second month the infant notices colours, at the sixth
month it knows its parents, and should be able to hold its head
up. At the sixth month the baby begins to cut its temporary
teeth. After their appearance they should be cleaned once a day
by a piece of gauze moistened in boric acid solution. Attempts
to stand are made about the tenth month, and walking begins
about the fourteenth month. By this time the intelligence
should be developed and memory is observed. A child a year
old should be able to articulate a few small words. With the
advent of walking and speech the period of infancy may be said
to end.
See Pierre Budin, The Nursling (1907) ; Henry Koplik, Disease of
Infancy and Childhood (1906); Eric Pritchard', The Physiological
Feeding of Infants (1904); Eric Pritchard, Infant Education (1907);
John Grimshaw, Your Child's Health (1908). (H. L. H.)
INFANT (in early forms enfaunt, enfant, through the Fr.
enfant, from Lat. infans, in, not, and fans, the present participle
of /art, to speak), a child; in non-legal use, a very young child,
a baby, or one of an age suitable to be taught in an " infant
school "; in law, a person under full age, and therefore
subject to disabilities not affecting persons who have attained
full age.
This article deals with " infants " in the last sense; for the
more general sense see INFANCY and CHILD. The period of full
age varies widely in different systems, as do also the disabilities
attaching to nonage (non-age) . In Roman law, the age of puberty,
fixed at fourteen for males and twelve for females, was recognized
as a dividing line. Under that age a child was under the guardian-
ship of a tutor, but several degrees of infancy were recognized.
The first was absolute infancy; after that, until the age of seven,
a child was infanliae proximus; and from the eighth year to
puberty he was pubertati proximus. An infant in the last stage
could, with the assent of his tutor, act so as to bind himself
by stipulations; in the earlier stages he could not, although
binding stipulations could be made to him in the second stage.
After puberty, until the age of twenty-five years, a modified
infancy was recognized, during which the minor's acts were not
void altogether, but voidable, and a curator was appointed
to manage his affairs. The difference between the tutor and the
curator in Roman law was marked by the saying that the former
was appointed for the care of the person, the latter for the estate
of the pupil. These principles apply only to children who are
sui juris. The patria potestas, so long as it lasts, gives to the
father the complete control of the son's actions. The right
of the father to appoint tutors to his children by will (lesta-
mentarii) was recognized by the Twelve Tables, as was also
the tutorship of the agnati (or legal as distinct from natural
relations) in default of such an appointment. Tutors who held
office in virtue of a general law were called legitimi. Besides
and in default of these, tutors dativi were appointed by the
magistrates. These terms are still used in much the same sense
in modern systems founded on the Roman law, as may be seen
in the case of Scotland, noticed below.
By the law of England full age is twenty-one, and all minors
alike are subject to incapacities. The period of twenty-one
years is regarded as complete at the beginning of the day before
the birthday: for example, an infant born on the first day of
January attains his majority at the first moment of the 3ist of
December. The incapacity of an infant is designed for his own
protection, and its general effect is to prevent him from binding
himself absolutely by obligations. Of the contracts of an infant
which are binding ab initio, the most important are those
relating to " necessaries." By the Sale of Goods Act 1893,
an infant liable on a contract for necessaries can be sued only
for a reasonable price, not necessarily the price he agreed to
pay. The same statute declares " necessaries " to mean " goods
suitable to the condition in life of the infant, and to his actual
requirements at the time of the sale and delivery." In the case
of goods having a market price, the market price is reasonable.
In all other cases the question is one of fact for the jury. The
protection of infants extends sometimes to transactions com-
pleted after full age; the relief of heirs who have been induced
to barter away their expectations is an example. " Catching
bargains," as they are called, throw on the persons claiming
the benefit of them the burden of proving their substantial
righteousness.
At common law a bargain made by an infant might be ratified
by him after full age, and would then become binding. Lord
Tenterden's act required the ratification to be in writing. But
now, by the Infants' Relief Act 1874, " all contracts entered into
by infants for the repayment of money lent or to be lent, or for
goods supplied or to be supplied (other than contracts for neces-
saries), and all accounts stated, shall be absolutely void," and
" no action shall be brought whereby to charge any person upon
any promise made after full age to pay any debt contracted
during infancy, or upon any ratification made after full age of
any promise or contract made during infancy, whether there shall
or shall not be any new consideration for such promise or ratifica-
tion after full age." For some years after the passage of this
statute highly conflicting views were held as to the meaning of the
part of section 2 whereby it was enacted that " no action shall be
brought whereby to charge any person . . . upon any ratifica-
tion made after full age of any promise or contract made
during infancy." Some authorities were of opinion that the
section only applied to the three classes of contract made void by
the previous section, viz. for goods supplied, money lent and on
account stated. Others thought the effect to be that no contract,
except for necessaries, made during infancy could be enforced
after the infant came to full age. After several conflicting
decisions it has been settled that both these views were wrong.
Of the infant's contracts voidable at common law there were two
kinds. The first kind became void at full age, unless expressly
ratified. The second kind were valid, unless repudiated within a
reasonable time after full age was attained by the infant. The
Infants' Relief Act (section 2) strikes only at the first class and
leaves the second untouched. Thus a promise of marriage made
during infancy cannot be ratified so as to become actionable;
but an infant's marriage settlement, being of the second class, is
valid, unless it is repudiated within a reasonable time after the
infant attains full age. What is a reasonable time depends on
all the circumstances of the case. In a case decided in 1893 a
INFANTE
settlement made by a female infant was allowed to be repudiated
thirty years after she attained full age, but the circumstances
were exceptional. A contract of marriage may be lawfully made
by persons under age. Marriageable age is fourteen in males and
twelve in females. So, generally, an infant may bind himself by
contract of apprenticeship or service. Since the passing of the
Wills Act, an infant, except he be a soldier in actual military
service or a seaman at sea, is unable to make a will. Infancy is
in general a disqualification for public offices and professions, e.g.
to be a member of parliament or an elector, a mayor or burgess,
a priest or deacon, a barrister or solicitor, &c.
Before 1886 the custody of an infant belonged in the first place,
and against all other persons, to the father, who was said to be
" the guardian of his children by nature and nurture "; and the
father might by deed or will dispose of the custody or tuition of
his children until the age of twenty-one.
The Guardianship of Infants Act 1886 placed the mother
almost on the same footing as the father as to guardianship of
infants. On the death of the father the mother becomes guardian
under the statute, either alone when no guardian has been ap-
pointed by the father, or jointly with any guardian appointed
by him under 12 Chas. II. c. 24. A change of the law even
more important is that whereby the mother may by deed
or will appoint a guardian or guardians of her infant children
to act after her death. If the father survives the mother, the
mother's guardian can only act if it be shown to the satisfaction
of the court that the father is unfitted to be the sole guardian.
On the death of the father, the guardian so appointed by the
mother acts jointly with any guardian appointed by the father.
The Guardianship of Infants Act 1886 also gives power to the
high court and to county courts to make orders, upon the
application of the mother, regarding the custody of an infant,
and the right of access thereto of either parent. The court must
take into consideration " the welfare of the infant, and . . . the
conduct of the parents, and . . . the wishes as well of the mother
as of the father." The same statute also empowers the high
court of justice, " on being satisfied that it is for the welfare of
the infant," to " remove from his office any testamentary
guardian or any guardian appointed or acting by virtue of this
act," and also to appoint another in place of the guardian so
removed.
The same statute gives power to a court sitting in divorce
practically to take away from a parent guilty of a matrimonial
offence all rights of guardianship. When a decree for judicial
separation or divorce is pronounced, the court pronouncing it
may at the same time declare the parent found guilty of mis-
conduct to be unfit to have the custody of the children of the
marriage. " In such case the parent so declared to be unfit shall
not, upon the death of the other parent, be entitled as of right
to the custody or guardianship of such children." The court
exercises this power very sparingly. When the declaration of
unfitness is made, the practical effect is to give to the innocent
parent the sole guardianship, as well as power to appoint a
testamentary guardian to the exclusion of the guilty parent.
Another radical change has been made in the rights of parents
as to guardianship of their children. In consequence of several
cases where, after children had been rescued by philanthropic
persons from squalid homes and improper surroundings, the
courts had felt bound by law to redeliver them to their parents,
the Custody of Children Act 1891 was passed. It provides that
when the parent of a child applies to the court for a writ or order
for the production of the child, and the court is of opinion that
the parent has abandoned or deserted the child, or that he has
otherwise so conducted himself that the court should refuse to
enforce his right to the custody of the child, the court may, in its
discretion, decline to issue the writ or make the order. If the
child, in respect of whom the application is made, is being brought
up by another person (" person " includes " school or institu-
tion "), or is being boarded out by poor-law guardians, the court
may, if it orders the child to be given up to the parent, further
order the parent to pay all or part of the cost incurred by such
person or guardians in bringing up the child.
A parent who has abandoned or deserted his child is, prima
facie, unfit to have the custody of the child. And before the
court can make an order giving him the custody, the onus lies on
him to prove that he is fit. The same rule applies where the child
has been allowed by the parent "to be brought up by another
person at that person's expense, or by the guardians of a poor-
law union, for such a length of time and under such circumstances
as to satisfy the court that the parent was unmindful of his
parental duties."
The 4th section of the Custody of Children Act 1891 preserves
the right of the parent to control the religious training of the
infant. The father, however unfit he may be to have the custody
of his child, has the legal right to require the child to be brought
up in his own religion. If the father is dead, and has left no
directions on the point, the mother may assert a similar right.
But the court may consult the wishes of the child; and when
an infant has been allowed by the father to grow up in a faith
different from his own, the court will not, as a rule, order any
change in the character of religious instruction. This is especially
the case where the infant appears to be settled in his convictions.
In the same direction as the Custody of Children Act 1891
is the Children Act 1908, whereby considerable powers have
been conferred on courts of summary jurisdiction (see CHILDREN,
LAW RELATING TO).
There is not at common law any corresponding obligation
on the part of either parent to maintain or educate the children.
The legal duties of parents in this respect are only those created
by the poor laws, the Education Acts and the Children Act 1908.
An infant is liable to a civil action for torts and wrongful
acts committed by him. But, as it is possible so to shape the
pleadings as to make what is in substance a right arising out
of contract take the form of a right arising from civil injury,
care is taken that an infant in such a case shall not be held
liable. With respect to crime, mere infancy is not a defence, but
a child under seven years of age is presumed to be incapable
of committing a crime, and between seven and fourteen his
capacity requires to be affirmatively proved. After fourteen an
infant is doli capax.
The law of Scotland follows the leading principles of the Roman
law. The period of minority (which ends at twenty-one) is divided
into two stages, that of absolute incapacity (until the age of fourteen
in males, and twelve in females), during which the minor is in
pupilarity, and that of partial incapacity (between fourteen and
twenty-one), during which he is under curators. The guardians
(or tutors) of the pupil are either tutors-nominate (appointed by the
father in his will) ; tutors-at-law (being the next male agnate of
twenty-five years of age), in default of tutors-nominate; or tutors-
dative, appointed by royal warrant in default of the other two. No
act done by the pupil, or action raised in his name, has any effect
without the interposition of a guardian. After fourteen, all acts
done by a minor having curators are void without their concurrence.
Every deed in nonage, whether during pupilarity or minority, and
whether authorized or not by tutors or curators, is liable to reduc-
tion on proof of " lesion," i.e. of material injury, due to the fact of
nonage, either through the weakness of the minor himself or the
imprudence or negligence of his curators. Damage in fact arising
on a contract in itself just and reasonable would not be lesion en-
titling to restitution. Deeds in nonage, other than those which are
absolutely null ab initio, must be challenged within the quadriennium
utile, or four years after majority.
The Guardianship of Infants Act 1886, the Custody of Children
Act 1891 and the Children Act 1908, mentioned above, all apply to
Scotland.
In the United States, the principles of the English common law
as to infancy prevail, generally the most conspicuous variations
being those affecting the age at which women attain majority.
In many states this is fixed at eighteen. There is some diversity
of practice as to the age at which a person can make a will of real
or personal estate.
INFANTE (Spanish and Portuguese form of Lat. infans, young
child), a title of the sons of the sovereign of Spain and Portugal,
the corresponding infanta being given to the daughters. The
title is not borne by the eldest son of the king of Spain, who is
prince of Asturias, 77 principe de Aslurias. Until the severance
of Brazil from the Portuguese monarchy, the eldest son was
prince of Brazil. While a son or daughter of the sovereign of
Spain is by right infante or infanta of Spain, the title, alone, is
granted to other members of the blood royal by the sovereign.
INFANTICIDE
INFANTICIDE, the killing of a newly-born child or of the
matured foetus. When practised by civilized peoples the subject
of infanticide concerns the criminologist and the jurist; but its
importance in anthropology, as it involves a widespread practice
among primitive or savage nations, requires more detailed
attention. J. F. McLennan (Studies in Ancient History, pp. 75
et seq.) suggests that the practice of female infanticide was once
universal, and that in it is to be found the origin of exogamy.
Much evidence, however, has been adduced against this hypothesis
by Herbert Spencer and Edward Westermarck. Infanticide,
both of males and females, is far less widespread among savage
races than McLennan supposed. It certainly is common in many
lands, and more females are killed than males; but among
many fierce and savage peoples it is almost unknown. Thus
among the Tuski, Ahts, Western Eskimo and the Botocudos
new-born children are killed now and then, if they are weak
and deformed, or for some other reason (such as the superstition
attaching to birth of twins) but without distinction of sex.
Among the Dakota Indians and Crees female infanticide is rare.
The Blackfoot Indians believe that a woman guilty of such an
act will never reach " the Happy Mountain " after death, but
will hover round the scene of her misdeed with branches of
trees tied to her legs. The Aleutians hold that child-murder
brings misfortune on the whole village. Among the Abipones
it is common, but the boys are usually the victims, because it is
customary to buy a wife for a son, whereas a grown daughter will
always command a price. In Africa, where a warm climate and
abundance of food simplify the problem of existence, the crime
is not common. Herr Valdau relates that a Bakundu woman,
accused of it, was condemned to death. In Samoa, in the Mitchell
and Hervey Islands, and in parts of New Guinea, it was unheard
of; while among the cannibals, the Solomon Islanders, it occurred
rarely. A theory has been advanced by L. Fison (Kamilaroi
and Kurnai, 1880) that female infanticide is far less common
among the lower savages than among the more advanced tribes.
Among some of the most degraded of human beings, such' as
the Yahgans of Tierra del Fuego, the crime was unknown,
except when committed by the mother " from jealousy or hatred
of her husband or because of desertion and wretchedness."
It is said that certain Californian Indians were never guilty
of child-murder before the arrival of the whites; while Wm.
Ellis (Polynesian Researches, i. 249) thinks it most probable
that the custom was less prevalent in earlier than later Polynesian
history. The weight of evidence tends to support Darwin's
theory that during the earliest period of human development
man did not lose that strong instinct, the love of his young, and
consequently did not practice infanticide; that, in short, the
crime is not characteristic of primitive races.
Infanticide maybe said to arise from four reasons. It may be
(i) an act of callous brutality or to satisfy cannibalistic cravings.
A Fuegian, Darwin relates, dashed his child's brains out for
upsetting a basket of fish. An Australian, seeing his infant son
ill, killed, roasted and ate him. In some parts of Africa the
negroes bait lion-traps with their own children. Some South
American Indians, such as the Moxos, abandon or kill them
without reason; while African and Polynesian cannibals eat
them without the excuse of the periodic famines which made
the Tasmanians regard the birth of a child as a piece of good
fortune.
2. Or infanticide may be the result of the struggle for existence.
Thus in Polynesia, while the climate ensures food in plenty,
the relative smallness of the islands imposed the custom on all
families without distinction. In the Hawaiian Islands all children ,
after the third or fourth, were strangled or buried alive. At
Tahiti fathers had the right (and used it) of killing their newly-
born children by suffocation. The chiefs were obliged by custom
to kill all their daughters. The society of the Areois, famous
in the Society Islands, imposed infanticide upon the women
members by oath. In other islands all girl-children were spared,
but only two boys in each family were reared. The difficulties
of suckling partly explain the custom of killing twins. For the
same reason the Eskimo and Red Indians used to bury the
infant with the mother who died in child-birth. Among warrior
and hunter tribes, where women could not act as beasts of burden
as in agricultural communities, and where a large number of
girls were likely to attract the hostile attentions of neighbouring
tribesmen, girl-babies were murdered. Arabs, in ancient times,
buried alive the majority of female children. In many lands
infanticide was regarded as a meritorious act on the part of a
parent, done, as a precaution against famine, in the interests
of the tribe. In other parts of the world, infanticide results
from customs which impose heavy burdens on child-rearing.
Of these artificial hardships the best example is afforded by
India. There the practice, though forbidden by both the Vedas
and the Koran, prevailed among the Rajputs and certain
aboriginal tribes. Among the aristocratic Rajputs, it was thought
dishonourable that a girl should remain unmarried. Moreover,
a girl may not marry below her caste; she ought to marry her
superior, or at least her equal. This reasoning was most powerful
with the highest castes, in which the disproportion of the sexes
was painfully apparent. But, assuming marriage to be possible,
it was ruinously expensive to the bride's father, the cost in
the case of some rajahs having been known to exceed £100,000.
To avoid all this, the Rajput killed a proportion of his daughters —
sometimes in a very singular way. A pill of tobacco and bhang
might be given to the new-born child; or it was drowned in
milk;1 or the mother's breast was smeared with opium or the
juice of the poisonous datura. A common method was to cover
the child's mouth with a plaster of cow-dung, before it drew
breath. Infanticide was also practised to a small extent by
some sects of the aboriginal Khonds and by the poorer hill-tribes
of the Himalayas. Where infanticide occurs in India, though
it really rests on the economic facts stated, there is usually some
poetical tradition of its origin. Infanticide from motives of
prudence was common among some American Indian tribes
of the northwest, with whom the " potlatch " was an essential
part of their daughter's marriage ceremonies.
3. Or infanticide may be in the nature of a religious observance.
The gods must be appeased with blood, and it is believed that no
sacrifice can be so pleasing to them as t,he child of the worshipper.
Such were the motives impelling parents to the burning of children
in the worship of Moloch. In India children were thrown into
the sacred river Ganges, and adoration paid to the alligators who
fed on them. Where the custom prevails as a sacrifice the male
child is usually the victim.
4. Or, finally, infanticide may have a social or political reason.
Thus at Sparta (and in other places in early Greek and Roman
history) weakly or deformed children were killed by order of
the state, a custom approved in the ideal systems of Aristotle
and Plato, and still observed among the Eskimo and the
Kamchadales.
AUTHORITIES. — Herbert Spencer, Principles of Sociology, \. 614-
619; McLennan, Studies in Ancient History, pp. 75 et seq.;
McLennan, " Exogamy and Endogamy " in the Fortnightly Review,
xxi. 884 et seq. ; Darwin, Descent of Man, ii. 400 et seq. ; L. Fison,
and A. W. Howitt, Kamilaroi ana Kurnai (1880); Westermarck,
History of Human Marriage (1894); Browne, Infanticide: Its
Origin, Progress and Suppression (London, 1857); Lord Avebury,
Prehistoric Times (1900), and Origin of Civilization (1902).
Law. — The crime of infanticide among civilized nations is
still frequent. It is however due in most cases to abnormal
causes, such as a sudden access of insanity, privation, unreason-
ing dislike to the child, &c. It is most closely connected with
illegitimacy in the class of farm and domestic servants, the more
common motive being the terror of the mother of incurring
the disgrace with which society visits the more venial offence.
Often, however, it is inspired by no better motive than the wish
to escape the burden of the child's support. The granting of
affiliation orders thus tends to save the lives of many children,
though it provides a motive for the paramour sometimes to
share in the crime. The laws of the European states differ
widely on this subject — some of them treating infanticide
as a special crime, others regarding it merely as a case of murder
1 In Baluchistan, where children are often drowned in milk, there
is a euphemistic proverb : " The lady's daughter died drinking milk."
INFANTRY
5*7
of unusually difficult proof. In the law of England infanticide
is murder or manslaughter according to the presence or absence
of deliberation. The infant must be a human being in the legal
sense; and " a child becomes a human being when it has com-
pletely proceeded in a living state from the body of its mother,
whether it has breathed or not, and whether it has an independent
circulation or not, and whether the navel-string is severed
or not; and the killing of such a child is homicide when it dies
after birth in consequence of injuries received before, during
or after birth." A child in the womb or in the act of birth,
though it may have breathed, is therefore not a human being,
the killing of which amounts to homicide. The older law of
child murder under a statute of James I. consisted of cruel
presumptions against the mother, and it was not till 1803 that
trials for that offence were placed under the ordinary rules of
evidence. The crown now takes upon itself the onus of proving
in ev«ry case that the child has been alive. This is often a
matter of difficulty, and hence a frequent alternative charge is
that of concealment of birth (see BIRTH), or concealment of
pregnancy in Scotland. It is the opinion of the most eminent
of British medical jurists that this presumption has tended to
increase infanticide. Apart from this, the* technical definition
of human life has excited a good deal of comment and some
indignation. The definition allows many wicked acts to go
unpunished. The experience of assizes in England shows that
many children are killed when it is impossible to prove that they
were wholly born. The distinction taken by the law was
probably comprehended by the minds of the class to which most
of the unhappy mothers belong. Partly to meet this complaint
it was suggested to the Royal Commission of 1866 that killing
during birth, or within seven days thereafter, should be an
offence punishable with penal servitude. The second complaint
is of an opposite character — partly that infanticide by mothers
is not a fit subject for capital punishment, and partly that,
whatever be the intrinsic character of the act, juries will not
convict or the executive will not carry out the sentence. Earl
Russell gave expression to this feeling when he proposed that no
capital sentence should be pronounced upon mothers for the
killing of children within six months after birth. When there
has been a verdict of murder, sentence of death must be passed,
but the practice of the Home Office, as laid down in 1908, is
invariably to commute the death sentence to penal servitude
for life. The circumstances of the case and the disposition and
general progress of the prisoners under discipline in a convict
prison are then determining factors in the length of subsequent
detention, which rarely exceeds three years. After release,
the prisoner's further progress is carefully watched, and if it is
seen to be to her advantage the conditions of her release are
cancelled and she is restored to complete freedom.
In India measures against the practice were begun towards
the end of the i8th century by Jonathan Duncan and Major
Walker. They were continued by a series of able and earnest
officers during the igth century. One of its chief events,
representing many minor occurrences, was the Amritsar durbar of
1853, which was arranged by Lord Lawrence. At that meeting
the chiefs residing in the Punjab and the trans-Sutlej states
signed an agreement engaging to expel from caste every one who
committed infanticide, to adopt fixed and moderate rates of
marriage expenses, and to exclude from these ceremonies the
minstrels and beggars who had so greatly swollen the expense.
According to the present law, if the female children fall below
a certain percentage in any tract or among any tribe in northern
India where infanticide formerly prevailed, the suspected
village is placed under police supervision, the cost being charged
to the locality. By these measures, together with a strictly
enforced system of reporting births and deaths, infanticide
has been almost trampled out; although some of the Rajput
clans keep their female offspring suspiciously close to the lowest
average which secures them from surveillance.
It is difficult to say to what extent infanticide prevails in the
United Kingdom. At one time a large number of children
were murdered in England for the purpose of obtaining the
burial money from a benefit club,1 but protection against this
risk has been provided for by the Friendly Societies Act 1806,
and the Collecting Societies Act 1896. The neglect or killing
of nurse-children is treated under BABY-FARMING, and CHILDREN,
LAW RELATING TO.
In the United States, the elements of this offence are practically
the same as in England. The wilful killing of an unborn child
is not manslaughter unless made so by statute. To constitute
manslaughter under Laws N.Y. 1869, ch. 631, by attempts to
produce miscarriage, the " quickening " of the child must be
averred and proved (Evans v. People, 49 New York Rep. 86;
see also Wallace v. State, 7 Texas app. 570).
INFANTRY, the collective name of soldiers who march and
fight on foot and are armed with hand-weapons. The word is
derived ultimately from Lat. infans, infant, but it is not clear
how the word came to be used to mean soldiers. The suggestion
that it comes from a guard or regiment of a Spanish infanta
about the end of the i$th century cannot be maintained in view
of the fact that Spanish foot-soldiers of the time were called
soldados and contrasted with French fantassins and Italian
fanteria. The New English Dictionary suggests that a foot-soldier,
being in feudal and early modern times the varlet or follower of a
mounted noble, was called a boy (cf. Knabe, garden, footman,
&c., and see VALET).
HISTORICAL SKETCH
The importance of the infantry arm, both in history and at
the present time, cannot be summed up better and more con-
cisely than in the phrase used by a brilliant general of the
Napoleonic era, General Morand — " L'infanterie, c'est I'armee."
It may be confidently asserted that the original fighting man
was a foot-soldier. But infantry was differentiated as an " arm "
considerably later than cavalry; for when a new means of
fighting (a chariot or a horse) presented itself, it was assimilated
by relatively picked men, chiefs and noted warriors, who ipso
facto separated themselves from the mass or reservoir of men.
How this mass itself ceased to be a mere residue and developed
special characteristics; how, instead of the cavalry being
recruited from the best infantry, cavalry and infantry came to
form two distinct services; and how the arm thus constituted
organized itself, technically and tactically, for its own work—
these are the main, questions that constitute the historical side
of the subject. It is obvious that as the " residue " was far
the greatest part of the army, the history of the foot-soldier is
practically identical with the history of soldiering.
It was only when a group of human beings became too large
to be surprised and assassinated by a few lurking enemies, that
proper fighting became the normal method of settling a quarrel
or a rivalry. Two groups, neither of which had been able to
surprise the other, had to meet face to face, and the instinct of
self-preservation had to be reconciled with the necessity of
victory. From this it was an easy step to the differentiation of
the champion, the proved excellent fighting man, and to provid-
ing this man, on whom everything depended, with all assistance
that better arms, armour, horse or chariot could give him. But
suppose our champion slain, how are we to make head against the
opposing champion? For long ages, we may suppose, the latter,
as in the Iliad, slaughtered the sheep who had lost their shepherd,
but in the end the " residue " began to organize itself, and to
oppose a united front to the enemy's champions — in which term
we include all selected men, whether horsemen, charioteers or
merely specially powerful axemen and swordsmen. But once the
individual had lost his commanding position, the problem
presented itself in a new form — how to ensure that every member
of the group did his duty by the others — and the solution of this
problem for the conditions of the ancient hand-to-hand struggle
marks the historical beginning of infantry tactics.
Gallic warriors bound themselves together with chains. The
Greeks organized the city state, which gave each small army
1 See Report on the Sanitary Condition of the Labouring Classes,
" Supplementary Report on Interment in Towns," by Edwin
Chadwick (Part. Papers, 1843, xii. 395); and The Social Condition
and Education of the People, by Joseph Kay (1850).
5i8
INFANTRY
[HISTORY
solidarity and the sense of duty to an ideal, and the phalanx,
in which the file-leaders were in a sense champions yet were
f1,e made so chiefly by the unity of the mass. But the
phalanx Romans went farther. Besides developing solidarity
and the an(j a sense of duty, they improved on this conception
legion. of the baule to suc}, a degree that as a nation they
may be called the best tacticians who ever existed. Giving up the
attempt to make all men fight equally well, they dislocated the
mass of combatants into three bodies, of which the first, formed
of the youngest and most impressionable men, was engaged at
the outset, the rest, more experienced men, being kept out of the
turmoil. This is the very opposite of the " champion " system.
Those who would have fled after the fall of the champions are
engaged and " fought out " before the champions enter the area
of the contest, while the champions, who possess in themselves
the greatest power of resisting and mastering the instinct of
self-preservation, are kept back for the moment when ordinary
men would lose heart.
It might be said with perfect justice that without infantry
there would never have been discipline, for cavalry began and
continued as a crowd of champions. Discipline, which created and
maintained the intrinsic superiority of the Roman legion, de-
pended first on the ideal of patriotism. This was ingrained into
every man from his earliest years and expressed in a system of
rewards and punishments which took effect from the same ideal,
in that rewards were in the main honorary in character (mural
crowns, &c.), while no physical punishment was too severe for
the man who betrayed, by default or selfishness, the cause of
Rome. Secondly, though every man knew his duty, not every
man was equal to doing it, and in recognition of this fact the
Romans evolved the system of three-line tactics in which the
strong parts of the machine neutralized the weak. The first of
these principles, being psychological in character, rose, flourished
and decayed with the moral of the nation. The second, deduced
from the first, varied with it, but as it was objectively expressed
in a system of tactics, which had to be modified to suit each case,
it varied also in proportion as the combat took more or less
abnormal forms. So closely knit were the parts of the system
that not only did the decadence of patriotism sap the legionary
organization, but also the unsuitability of that organization to
new conditions of warfare reacted unfavourably, even dis-
astrously, on the moral of the nation. Between them, the Roman
infantry fell from its proud place, and whereas in the Republic
it was familiarly called the "strength" (robur), by the 4th
century A.D. it had become merely the background for a variety
of other arms and corps. Luxury produced " egoists," to whom
the rewards meant nothing and the punishments were torture
for the sake of torture. When therefore the Roman imperium
extended far enough to bring in silks from China and ivory
from the forests of central Africa, the citizen-army ceased to
exist, and the mere necessity for garrisoning distant savage lands
threw the burden of service upon the professional soldier.
The natural consequence of this last was the uniform training
of every man. There were no longer any primary differences
between one cohort and another, and though the value
lof the three-line system in itself ensured its continuance,
Army. any cohort, however constituted, might find itself
serving in any one of the three lines, i.e. the moral of
the last line was no better than that of the first. The best
guarantee of success became uniform regimental excellence,
and whereas Camillus or Scipio found useful employment in
battle for every citizen, Caesar complained that a legion which
had been sent him was too raw, though it had been embodied
for nine years. The conditions which were so admirably met
by the old system never reappeared; for before armies resumed
a " citizen " character the invention of firearms had subjected
all ranks and lines alike to the same ordeal of facing unseen
death, and the old soldiers were better employed in standing
shoulder to shoulder with the young. In brief, the old Roman
organization was based on patriotism and experience, and when
patriotism gave place to " egoism," and the experience of the
citizen who spent every other summer in the field of war gave
place to the formal training of the paid recruit, it died, un-
regretted either by the citizen or by the military chieftain. The
latter knew how to make the army his devoted servant, while
the former disliked -military service and failed to prepare himself
for the day when the military chief and the mercenary overrode
his rights and set up a tyranny, and ultimately the inner provinces
of the empire came to be called inermes — unarmed, defenceless —
in contrast to the borderland where the all-powerful professional
legions lay in garrison.
In these same frontier provinces the tactical disintegration
of the legion slowly accomplished itself. Originally designed
for the exigencies of the normal pitched battle on firm open fields,
and even after its professionalization retaining its character as
a large battle unit, it was soon fragmented through the exigencies
of border warfare into numerous detachments of greater or less
size, and when the military frontier of the empire was established,
the legion became an almost sedentary corps, finding the garrisons
for the blockhouses on its own section of the line of defence.
Further, the old heavy arms and armour which had given
it the advantage in wars of conquest — in which the barbarians,
gathering to defend their homes, offered a target for the blow
of an army — were a great disadvantage when it became necessary
to police the conquered territory, to pounce upon swiftly moving
bodies of raiders before they could do any great harm. Thus
gradually cavalry became more numerous, and light infantry
of all sorts more useful, than the old-fashioned linesman. To
these corps went the best recruits and the smartest officers, the
opportunities for good service and the rewards for it. The legion
became once more the " residue." Thus when the " champion "
reappeared on the battlefield the solidarity that neutralized
his power had ceased to exist.
The battle of Adrianople, the "last fight of the legion,"
illustrates this. The frontal battle was engaged in the ordinary
way, and the cohorts of the first line of the imperial army were
fighting man to man with the front ranks of the Gothic infantry
(which had indeed a solidarity of its own, unlike the barbarians
of the early empire, and was further guaranteed against moral
over-pressure by a wagon laager), when suddenly the armoured
heavy cavalry of the Goths burst upon their flank and rear.
There were no longer Principes and Triarii of the old Republican
calibre, but only average troops, in the second and third lines,
and they were broken at once. The first line felt the battle in
rear as well as in front and gave way. Thereafter the victors,
horse and foot, slaughtered unresisting herds of men, not
desperate soldiers, and on this day the infantry arm, as an arm,
ceased to exist.
Of course, not every soldier became a horseman, and still
fewer could provide themselves with armour. Regular infantry,
too, was still maintained for siege, mountain and
forest warfare. But the robur, the kernel of the line
of battle, was gone, and though a few of the peoples
that fought their way into the area of civilization in the dark
ages brought with them the natural and primitive method of
fighting on foot, it was practically always a combination of
mighty champions and " residue," even though the latter bound
themselves together by locked shields, as the Gauls had bound
themselves long before with chains, to prevent " skulking,"
These infantry nations, without any infantry system comparable
to that of the Greeks and Romans, succumbed in turn to the
crowd of mounted warriors — not like the Greeks and Romans
for want of good military qualities, but for want of an organiza-
tion which would have distributed their fighting powers to the
best advantage. One has only to study the battle of Hastings
to realize how completely the infantry masses of the English
slipped from the control of their leaders directly the front ranks
became seriously engaged. For many generations after Hastings
there was no attempt to use infantry as the kernel of armies,
still less to organize it as such beforehand. Indeed, except in the
Crusades, where men of high and of low degree alike fought for
their common faith, and in sieges, where cavalry was powerless
and the services of archers and labourers were at a premium, it
became quite unusual for infantry to appear on the field at all.
HISTORY]
INFANTRY
The tactics of feudal infantry at its best were conspicuously illus-
trated in the battle of Bouvines, where besides the barons, knights
_ . and sergeants, the Brabancon mercenaries (heavy foot)
" and the French communal militia opposed one another.
On the French right wing, the opportune arrival of a well-closed
mass of cavalry and infantry in the flank of a loose crowd of men-at-
arms which had already been thoroughly engaged, decided the fight.
In the centre, the respective infantries were in first line, the nobles
and knights, with their sovereigns, in second, yet it was a mixed mass
of both that, after a period of confused fighting, focussed the battle
in the persons of the emperor and the king of France, and if the
personal encounters of the two bodies of knights gave the crowded
German infantry a momentary chance to strike down the king, the
latter was soon rescued by a half-dozen of heavy cavalrymen. On
the left wing, the count of Boulogne made a living castle of his
Brabangon pikes, whence with his men-at-arms he sallied forth from
time to time and played the champion. Lastly, the Constable
Montmorency brought over what was still manageable of the corps
that had defeated the cavalry on the right (nearly all mounted men)
and gave the final push to the allied centre and right in succession.
Then the imperial army fled and was slaughtered without offering
much resistance. Of infantry in this battle there was enough and to
spare, but its only opportunities for decisive action were those
afforded by the exhaustion of the armoured men or by the latter
becoming absorbed in their own single combats to the exclusion of
their proper work in the line of battle. As usual the infantry
suffered nine-tenths of the casualties. For all their numbers and
apparent tactical distribution on this field, they were " residue,"
destitute of special organization, training or utility; and the only
suggestion of " combined tactics " is the expedient adopted by the
count of Boulogne, rings of spearmen to serve as pavilions served
in the tournament — to secure a decorous setting for a display of
knightly prowess.
In those days in truth the infantry was no more the army
than to-day the shareholders of a limited company are the board
of directors. They were deeply, sometimes vitally, interested
in the result, but they contributed little or nothing to bringing
it about, except when the opposing cavalries were in a state of
moral equilibrium, and in these cases anything suffices — the
appearance of camp followers on a " Gillies Hill, "as at Bannock-
burn or the sound of half-a-dozen trumpets — to turn the scale.
Once it turned, the infantry of the beaten side was cut down
unresistingly, while the more valuable prisoners were admitted
to ransom. Thereafter, feudal tactics were based principally
on the ideas of personal glory — won in single combat, champion
against champion, and of personal profit — won by the knight
in holding a wealthy and well-armed baron to ransom and by
the foot-soldier in plundering while his masters were fighting.
In the French army, the term bidaux, applied in the days of
Bouvines to all the infantry other than archers and arblasters,
came by a quite natural process to mean the laggards, malingerers
and skulkers of the army.
But even this infantry contained within itself two half-
smothered sparks of regeneration, the idea of archery and the
idea of communal militia. Archery, in whatever
^orm Poetised, was the one special form of military
activity with which the heavy gendarme (whether
he fought on horseback or dismounted) had no concern.
Here therefore infantry had a special function, and in so far
ceased to be " residue." The communal militia was an early
and inadequate expression of the town-spirit that was soon to
produce the solid burgher-militia of Flanders and Germany and
after that the trained bands of the English cities and towns.
It therefore represented the principles of solidarity, of combina-
tion, of duty to one's comrade and to the common cause — prin-
ciples which had disappeared from feudal warfare.1 It was
under the influence of these two ideas or forces that infantry
as an arm began once again, though slowly and painfully, to
differentiate itself from the mass of bidaux until in the end the
latter practically contained only the worthless elements.
The first true infantry battle since Hastings was fought at Courtrai
in 1302, between the burghers of Bruges and a feudal army under
Count Robert of Artois. The citizens, arrayed in heavy
masses, and still armed with miscellaneous weapons, were
careful to place themselves on ground difficult of access — dikes, pools
1 At Bouvines, it is recorded with special emphasis that Guillaume
des Barres, when in the act of felling the emperor, heard the call to
rescue King Philip Augustus and, forfeiting his rich prize, made his
way back to help his own sovereign.
and marshes — and to fasten themselves together, like the Gauls of
old. Their van was driven back by the French communal infantry
and professional crossbowmen, whereupon Robert of Artois, true
feudal leader as he was, ordered his infantry to clear the way for the
cavalry and without even giving them time to do so pushed through
their ranks with a formless mass of gendarmerie. This, in attempting
to close with the enemy, plunged into the canals and swamped lands,
and was soon immovably fastened in the mud. The citizens swarmed
all round it and with spear, cleaver and flail destroyed it. Robert
himself with a party of his gendarmerie strove to break through the
solid wall of spears, but in vain. He was killed and his army perished
with him, for the citizens did not regard war as a game and ransom
as the loser's forfeit. As for the communal infantry which had won
the first success, it had long since disappeared from the field, for
when count Robert ordered his heavy cavalry forward, they had
thought themselves attacked in rear by a rush of hostile cavalry — as
indeed they were, for the gendarmerie rode them down — and melted
away.
Cr6cy (q.is.) was fought forty-four years after Courtrai.
Here the knights had open ground to fight on, and many boasted
that they would revenge themselves. But they encountered
not merely infantry, but infantry tactics, and were for the
second, and not the last, time destroyed. The English army
included a large feudal element, but the spirit of indiscipline
had been crushed by a series of iron-handed kings, and for more
than a century the nobles, in so far as they had been bad subjects,
had been good Englishmen. The English yeomen had reached
a level of self-discipline and self-respect which few even of the
great continental cities had attained. They had, lastly, made
the powerful long-bow (see ARCHERY) their own, and Edward I.
had combined the shock of the heavy cavalry with the slow
searching preparatory rain of arrows (see FALKIRK). That is,
infantry tactics and cavalry tactics were co-ordinated by a
general, and the special point of this for the present purpose is
that instead of being, as in France, the unstable base of the so-
called " feudal pyramid," infantry has become an arm, capable
of offence and defence and having its own special organization,
function in the line of battle and tactical method. This last,
indeed, like every other tactical method, rested ultimately on
the moral of the men who had to put it into execution. Archer
tactics did not serve against the disciplined rush of Joan of Arc's
gendarmerie, for the solidarity of the archer companies that
tried to stop it had long been undermined.
Yet we cannot overrate the importance of the archer in this
period of military history. In the city militias solidarity had been
obtained through the close personal relationship of
the trade gilds and by the elimination of the champion. ^"ush
Therefore, as every offensive in war rests upon boldness, archer.
these militias were essentially defensive, for they
could only hope to ward off the feudal champion, not to outfight
him (Battle of Legnano, 1176. See Oman, p. 442). England,
however, had evolved a weapon which no armour could resist,
and a race of men as fully trained to use it as the gendarme
was to use the lance.2 This weapon gave them the power of
killing without being killed, which the citizens' spears and
maces and voulges did not. But like all missiles, arrows were
a poor stand-by in the last resort if determined cavalry crossed
the " beaten zone " and closed in, and besides pavises and pointed
stakes the English archers were given the support of the knights,
nobles and sergeants — the armoured champions — whose steady
lances guaranteed their safety. Here was the real forward
stride in infantry tactics. Archery had existed from time
immemorial, and a mere technical improvement in its weapon
could hardly account for its suddenly becoming the queen of
the battlefield. The defensive power of the " dark impenetrable
wood " of spears had been demonstrated again and again, but
when the cavalry had few or no preliminary difficulties to face,
the chances of the infantry mass resisting long-continued
pressure was small. It was the combination of the two elements
that made possible a Crecy and a Poitiers, and this combination
was the result of the English social system which produced the
2 Crossbows indeed were powerful, and also handled by professional
soldiers (e.g. the Genoese at Crecy), but they were slow in action, six
times as slow as the long bow, and the impatient gendarmerie gener-
ally became tired of the delay and crowded out or rode over the
crossbowmen.
520
INFANTRY
[HISTORY
camaraderie of knight and yeoman, champion and plain soldier.
Fortified by the knight's unshakeable steadiness, the yeoman
handled his bow and arrows with cool certainty and rapidity,
and shot down every rush of the opposing champions. This
was camaraderie de combat indeed, and in such conditions the
offensive was possible and even easy. The English conquered
whole countries while the Flemish and German spearmen and
vougiers merely held their own. For them, decisive victories
were only possible when the enemy played into their hands,
but for the English the guarantee of such victories was the
specific character of their army itself and the tactical methods
resulting from and expressing that character.
But the war of conquest embodied in these decisive victories
dwindled in its later stages to a war of raids. The feudal lord,
The like the feudal vassal, returned home and gave place
Hundred to the professional man-at-arms and the professional
Years' captain. Ransom became again the chief object,
War' and except where a great leader, such as Bertrand
Du Guesclin, compelled the mercenaries to follow him to death
or victory, a battle usually became a melee of irregular duels
between men-at-arms, with all the selfishness and little of the
chivalry of the purely feudal encounter. The war went on and
on, the gendarmes thickened their armour, and the archers
found more difficulty in penetrating it. Moreover, in raids for
devastation and booty, the slow-moving infantryman was often
a source of danger to his comrades. In this guerrilla the archer,
though he kept his place, soon ceased to be the mainstay of
battle. It had become customary since Crecy (where the English
knights and sergeants were dismounted to protect the archers)
for all mounted men to send away their horses before engaging.
Here and there cavalry masses were used by such energetic
leaders as the Black Prince and Du Guesclin, and more often
a few men remained mounted for work requiring exceptional
speed and courage,1 but as a general rule the man-at-arms
was practically a mounted infantryman, and when he dismounted
he stood still. Thus two masses of dismounted lances, mixed
with archers, would meet and engage, but the archers, the
offensive element, were now far too few in proportion to the
lances, the purely defensive element, and battles became in-
decisive skirmishes instead of overwhelming victories.
Cavalry therefore became, in a very loose sense of the word,
infantry. But we are tracing the history not of all troops that
stood on their feet to fight, but of infantry and the special
tactics of infantry, and the period before and after 1370, when
the moral foundations of the new English tactics had disappeared,
and the personality of Du Guesclin gave even the bandits of
the " free companies " an intrinsic, if slight, superiority over
the invaders, is a period of deadlock. Solidarity, such as it
was, had gone over to the side of the heavy cavalry. But the
latter had deliberately forfeited their power of forcing the decision
by fighting on foot, and the English archer, the cadre of the
English tactical system, though diminished in numbers, prestige
and importance, held to existence and survived the deadlock.
Infantry of that type indeed could never return to the " residue "
state, and it only needed a fresh moral impetus, a Henry V., to
set the old machinery to work again for a third great triumph.
But again, after Agincourt, the long war lapsed into the hands
of the soldiers of fortune, the basis of Edward's and Henry's
tactics crumbled, and, led by a greater than Du Guesclih, the
knights and the nobles of France, and the mercenary captains
and men-at-arms as well, rode down the stationary masses of
the English, lances and bowmen alike.
The net result of the Hundred Years' War therefore was to
re-establish the two arms, cavalry and infantry, side by side, the
one acting by shock, and the other by fire. The lesson of Crecy
was " prepare your charge before delivering it," and for that
purpose great bodies of infantry armed with bows, arblasts and
handguns were brought into existence in France. When the
French king in 1448 put into force the " lessons of the war " and
organized a permanent army, it consisted in the main of heavy
1 As for instance when thirty men-at-arms " cut out " the Captal
de Buch from the midst of his army at Cocherel.
cavalry (knights and squires in the " ordonnance " companies,
soldiers of fortune in the paid companies) and archers and
arblasters (francs-archers recruited nationally, arblasters as a
rule mercenaries, though largely recruited in Gascony). To
these armes de jet were added, in ever-increasing numbers, hand
firearms. Thus the " fire " principle of attack was established, and
the defensive principle of " mass " relegated to the background.
In such circumstances cavalry was of course the decisive arm,
and the reputation of the French gendarmerie was such as to
justify this bold elimination of the means of passive defence.2
The foot-soldier of Germany and the Low Countries had
followed a very different line of development. Here the rich
commercial cities scarcely concerned themselves
with the quarrels or revolts of neighbouring nobles, mimias.
but they resolutely defended their own rights against
feudal interference, and enforced them by an organized militia,
opposing the strict solidarity of their own institutions to the
prowess of the champion who threatened them. The struggle
was between " you shall " on the part of the baron and " we will
not " on the part of the citizens, the offensive versus the defensive
in the simplest and plainest form. The latter was a policy of
unbreakable squares, and wherever possible, strong positions
as well. Sometimes the citizens, sometimes the nobles gained
the day, but the general result was that steady infantry in
proper formation could not be ridden down, and as yeomen-
archers of the English type to " prepare " the charge were not
obtainable from amongst the serf populations of the countryside,
the problem of the attack was, for Central Europe, insoluble.
The unbreakable square took two forms, the wagenburg with
artillery, and the infantry mass with pikes. The first was no
more, in the beginning, than an expedient for the safe
and rapid crossing of wider stretches of open country ™e
than would have been possible for dismounted men, burg.
whom the cavalry headed off as soon as they ventured
far enough from the shelter of walls. The men rode not on horses
but on carriages, and the carriages moved over the plains in
laager formation, the infantrymen standing ready with halbert
and voulge or short stabbing spear, and the gunners crouching
around the long barrelled two-pounders and the " ribaudequins "
— the early machine guns — which were mounted on the wagons.
These wagenburgen combined in themselves the due proportions
of mobility and passive defence, and in the skilled hands of
Ziska they were capable of the boldest offensive. But such a
tactical system depended first of all on drill, for the armoured
cavalry would have crowded through the least gap in the wagon
line, and the necessary degree of drill in those days could only
be attained by an army which had both a permanent existence
and some bond of solidarity more powerful than the incentive
to plunder — that is, in practice, it was only attained in full by
the Hussite insurgents. The cavalry, too, learned its lesson, and
pitted mobile three-pounders against the foot-soldiers' one- and
two-pounders, and the wagenburg became no more than a
helpless target. Thus when, not many years after the end of
the Hussite wars, the Wars of the Roses eliminated the English
model and the English tactics from the military world of Europe,
the French system of fire tactics — masses of archers, arblasters
and handgun-men, with some spearmen and halberdiers to
stiffen them — was left face to face with that of the Swiss and
Landsknechts, the system of the " long pike."
A series of victories ranging from Morgarten (1315) to Nancy
(1477) had made the Swiss the most renowned infantry in Europe.
Originally their struggles with would-be oppressors had Tllf swlt*.
taken the form, often seen elsewhere, of arraying solid
masses of men, united in purpose and fidelity to one another
rather than by any material or tactical cohesion. Like the men of
Bruges at Courtrai, the Swiss had the advantage of broken ground,
and the still greater advantage of being opposed by reckless feudal
cavalry. Their armament at this stage was not peculiar — voulges,
gisarmes, halberts and spears — though they were specially adept in
the use of the two-handed sword. But as time went on the long pike
(said to have originated in Savoy or the Milanese about 1330)
! This tendency of the French military temperament reappears
at almost every stage in the history of armies.
HISTORY]
INFANTRY
became more and more popular until at last on the verge of their
brief ascendancy (about 1475-1515) the Swiss armed as much as one
quarter of their troops with it. The use of firearms made little or
no progress amongst them, and the Swiss mercenaries of 1480, like
their forerunners of Morgarten and Sempach, fought with the arme
blanche alone. But in a very few years after the Swiss nation had
become soldiers of fortune en masse, the more open lands of Swabia
entered into serious and bitter competition with them. From these
lands came the Landsknechts, whose order was as strong as, and far
less unwieldy than, that of the Swiss, whose armament included a
far greater proportion of firearms, and who established a regimental
system that left a permanent mark on army organization. The
Landsknecht was the prototype of the infantryman of the l6th and
I7th centuries, but his right to indicate the line of evolution had to
be wrung from many rivals.
The year 1480 indeed was a turning-point in military history.
Within the three years preceding it the battles of Nancy and
The la Guinegate had destroyed both the old feudalism of
pike."" Charles the Bold and the new cavalry tactics of the
French gendarmerie. The former was an anachronism,
while the latter, when -the great wars came to an end and there
was no longer either a national impulse or a national leader,
had lapsed into the old vices of ransom and plunder. With
these, on the same fields, the franc-archer system of infantry
tactics perished ignominiously. It rested, as we know, on the
principle that the fire of the infantry was to be combined with
and completed by the shock of the gendarmerie, and when the
latter were found wanting as at Guinegate, the masses of
archers and arblasters, which were only feebly supported by a
few handfuls of pikemen and halberdiers, were swept away by
the charge of some heavy battalions of Swabian and Flemish
pikes. Guinegate was the debut of the Landsknecht infantry as
Nancy was that of the Swiss, and the lesson could not be misread.
Louis XI. indeed hanged some of his franc-archers and dismissed
the rest, and in their place raised " bands " of regular infantry,
one of which bore for the first time the historic name of Picardie.
But these " bands " were not self-contained. Armed for the
most part with armes de jet they centred on the 6000 Swiss
pikemen whom Louis XL, in 1480, took into his service, and
for nearly fifty years thereafter the French foot armies are always
composed of two elements, the huge battalions of Swiss or
Landsknechts,1 armed exclusively with the long pike (except for
an ever-decreasing proportion of halberts, and a few arquebuses),
and for their support and assistance, French and mercenary
" bands."
The Italian wars of 1494-1544, in which the principles of
fire and shock were readjusted to meet the conditions created
by firearms, were the nursery of modern infantry. The combina-
tions of Swiss, Landsknechts, Spanish " tercios " and French
" bands " that figured on the battlefields of the early i6th
century were infinitely various. But it is not difficult to find
a thread that runs through the whole.
The essence of the Swiss system was solidity. They arrayed
themselves in huge oblongs of 5000 men and more, at the corners
The °^ which, like the tower bastions of a 16th-century
Italian fortress, stood small groups of arquebusiers. The
Wars, Landsknechts and the Romagnols of Italy, imitated
'1525" atl(^ "vailed them, though as a rule developing more
front and less depth. At this stage solidity was every-
thing and fire-power nothing. At Fornuovo (1495) the mass
of arquebusiers and arblasters in the French army did little or
nothing; it was the Swiss who were I'esperance de I'ost. At
Agnadello or Vaila in 1509 the ground and the "encounter-
battle " character of the engagement gave special chances of
effective employment to the arquebusiers on either side. Along
the front the Venetian marksmen, secure behind a bank, picked
off the leaders of the enemy as they came near. On the outer
flank of the battle the bands of Gascon arquebusiers, which
would otherwise have been relegated to an unimportant place
in the general line of battle, lapped round the enemy's flank
1 The term landsknecht, it appears, was not confined to the right
bank of the Rhine. The French " lansquenets " came largely from
Alsace, according to General Hardy de Perini. In the Italian wars
Francis I. had in his service a famous corps called the " black
bands " which was recruited in the lower Rhine countries.
in broken ground and produced great and almost decisive effect.
But this was only an afterthought of the king of France and
Bayard. In the rest of the battle the huge masses of Swiss pikes
were thrown upon the enemy much as the old feudal cavalry
had been, regardless of ditches, orchards and vineyards.
Then for a moment the problem was solved, or partially
solved, by the artillery. From Germany the material, though
not — at least to the same extent — the principle, of the wagenb-urg
penetrated, in the first years of the i6th century, to Italy and
thence to France. Thus by degrees a very numerous and
exceedingly handy light artillery— " carts with gonnes," as
they were called in England — came into play on the Italian
battlefields, and took over from the dying franc-archer
system the work of preparing the assault by fire. For mere
skirmishing the Swiss and Landsknechts had arquebusiers
enough, without needing to call on the masses of Gascons, &c.,
and pari passu with the development of this artillery, the
" bands," other than Swiss and Landsknechts, began to improve
themselves into pikemen and halberdiers. At Ravenna (1512)
the bands of Gascony and Picardy, as well as the French aven-
luriers (the " bands of Piedmont," afterwards the second senior
regiment of the French line) fought in the line of battle shoulder
to shoulder with the Landsknechts. On this day the fire action
of the new artillery was extraordinarily murderous, ploughing
lanes in the immobile masses of infantry. At Marignan the
French gendarmerie and artillery, closely and skilfully combined,
practically destroyed the huge masses of the Swiss, and so com-
pletely had " infantry " and " fire " become separate ideas that
on the third day of this tremendous battle we find even the
" bands of Piedmont " cutting their way into the Swiss masses.
But from this point the lead fell into the hands of the
Spaniards. These were originally swift and handy light
infantry, capable — like the Scottish Highlanders at
Prestonpans and Falkirk long afterwards — of sliding Spanish
under the forest of pikes and breaking into the close- /nfaatiy
locked ranks with buckler and stabbing sword, ana the
For troops of this sort the arquebus was an ideal """">*««•
weapon, and the problem of self-contained infantry was solved
by Gonsalvo de Cordoba, Pescara and the great Spanish captains
of the day by intercalating small closed bodies of arquebusiers
with rather larger, but not inordinately large, bodies of pikes.
These arquebusiers formed separate, fully organized sections
of the infantry regiment. In close defence they fought on the
front and flanks of the pikes, but more usually they were
pushed well to the front independently, their speed and ex-
cellent fire discipline enabling them to do what was wholly
beyond the power of the older type of firing infantry — to take
advantage of ground, to run out and reopen fire during a
momentary pause in the battle of lance and pike, and to run
back to the shelter of their own closed masses when threatened
by an oncoming charge. When this system of tactics was con-
secrated by the glorious success of Pavia (1525), the " cart with
gonnes " vanished and the system of fighting everywhere and
always " at push of pike " fell into the background.
The lessons of Payia can be read in Francis I.'s instructions to his
newly formed Provincial (militia) Legions in 1534 and in the battle
of Cerisoles ten years later. The " legion " was ordered „..
to be composed of six " bands " — battalions we should .,
call them now, but in those days the term " battalion "
was consecrated to a gigantic square of the Swiss type —
each of 800 pikes (including a few halberts) and 200 arquebusiers.
The pikes, 4800 strong, of each legion were grouped in one large
battalion, and covered on the front and flanks by the 1200 arque-
buses, the latter working in small and handy squads. These
" legions " did not of course count as good troops, but their organiza-
tion and equipment, designed deliberately in peace time, and not
affected by the coming and going of soldiers of fortune, represent
therefore the theoretically perfect type for the i6th century.
Cerisoles represents the system in practice, with veteran regular
troops. On the side of the French most of the arquebuses were
grouped on the right wing, in a long irregular line of companies or
strong squads, supported at a moderate distance by companies or
small battalions of corselets " (pikes of the French bands of Picardy
and Piedmont); the rest of the line of battle was composed of
Landsknechts, &c., similarly arrayed, except that the arquebusiers
were on the flanks and immediate front of the" corselets "and behind
522
INFANTRY
[HISTORY
The
Preach
Infantry
In 1570.
the arquebuses and corselets of the right wing came a Swiss monster
of the old type. On the imperial side of the Landsknechts, Spanish
and Italian infantry were drawn up in seven or eight battalions, each
with its due proportion of pikes and " shot." The course of the
battle demonstrated both the active tactical power of the new form
of fire-action and the solidity of the pike nucleus, the former in the
attack and defence of hills, woods and localities, the latter in an
episode in which a Spanish battalion, after being ridden through
from corner to corner by the French gendarmes, continued on its
way almost unchecked and quite unbroken. This combination of
arquebusiers supported by corselets in first line and corselets with
a few arquebusiers in second, reappeared at Renty (1554).. ar>d St
Quentin (1557), and was in fact the typical disposition of infantry
from about 1530 to 1600.
By 1550, then, infantry had entirely ceased to be an auxiliary
arm. It contained within itself, and (what is more important)
within its regimental units, the power of fighting effectively
and decisively both at close quarters and at a distance — the
principal characteristic of the arm to-day. It had, further,
developed a permanent regimental existence, both in Spain and
in France, and in the former country it had progressed so far
from the " residue " state that young nobles preferred to trail
a pike in the ranks of the foot to service in the gendarmerie
or light horse. The service battalions were kept up to war
strength by the establishment of depots and the preliminary
training there of recruits. In France, apart from Picardie
and the other old regiments, every temporary regiment, on
disbandment, threw off a depot company of the best soldiers,
on which nucleus the regiment was reconstituted for the next
campaign. Moreover, the permanent establishment was aug-
mented from time to time by the colonel-general of the foot
" giving his white flag " to temporary regiments.
The organization of the French infantry in 1570 presents some
points of interest. The former broad classification of au dela and
en de$a des monts or " Picardie " and " Piedmont," repre-
senting the home and Italian armies, had disappeared, and
instead the whole of the infantry, under one colonel-general,
was divided into the regiments of Picardie, Piedmont
and French Guards, each of which had its own colonel and
its own colours. Besides these, three newer corps were entretenus far
le Roy — " Champagne," practically belonging to the Guise1 family,
and two others formed out of the once enormous regiment of Marshal
de Coss6-Brissac. At the end of a campaign all temporary regiments
were disbanded, but in imitation of the Spanish depot system, each,
on disbandment, threw off a depot company of picked men who
formed the nucleus for the next year's augmentation. The regiment
consisted of 10-16 " ensigns " or companies, each of about 150
pikemen and 50 arquebusiers. Each company had a proprietary
captain, the owners of the first two companies being the colonel-
general and the colonel (mestre de camp). The senior captain was
called the sergeant-major, and performed the duties of a second in
command and an adjutant or brigade-major. Unlike the regimental
commander, the sergeant-major was always mounted, and it is
recorded that one officer newly appointed to the post incurred the
ridicule of the army by dismounting to speak to the king ! " Some
veteran officers," wrote a contemporary, are inclined to think that
the regimental commander should be mounted as well as the sergeant-
major." The regiment was as a rule formed for parade and battle
either in line 10 deep or in " battalion " (i.e. mass), Swiss fashion.
The captain occupied the front, the ensigns with the company colours
the centre, and the lieutenants the rear place in the file. The
sergeants, armed with the halbert, marched on each side of the
battalion or company. Though the musket was gradually being
introduced, and had powerful advocates in Marshal Strozzi and the
duke of Guise, the bulk of the " shot " still carried the arquebus,
the calibre of which had been, thanks to Strozzi's efforts, standard-
ized (see CALIVER) so that all the arms took the same sizes of ball.
The pikeman had half-armour and a 14-ft. pike, the arquebusier
beside the fire-arm a sword which he was trained to use in the
manner of the former Spanish light infantry. The arquebusiers were
arrayed in 3 ranks in front of the pikes or in 10 deep files on either
flank.
The wars in which this system was evolved were wars for
prestige and aggrandizement. They were waged, therefore, by
mercenary soldiers, whose main object was to live, and who
were officered either by men of their own stamp, or by nobles
eager to win military glory. But the Wars of Religion raised
1 This practice of " maintenance " on a large scale continued to
exist in France long afterwards. As late as the battle of Lens (1648)
we find figuring in the king of France's army three " regiments of the
House of Conde."
questions of life and death for the Frenchmen of either faith,
and such public opinion as there was influenced the method of
operations so far that a decision and not a prolongation of the
struggle began to be the desired end of operations. Hence in
those wars the relatively immobile " battalion " of pikes
diminishes in importance and the arquebusiers and musketeers
grow more and more efficient. Armies, too, became smaller,
and marched more rapidly. Encounter-battles became more
frequent than "pitched" battles, and in these the musketeer
was at a great advantage. Thus by 1600 the proportions
between pikes and musketeers in the French army had come
to be 6 pikes to 4 muskets or arquebuses, and the bataillon de
combat or brigade was normally no more than 1200 strong.
In the Netherlands, however, the war of consciences was
fought out between the best regular army in the world and
burgher militias. Even the French fantassins were second in
importance to the Spanish soldados. The latter continued to
hold the pre-eminent position they had gained at Pavia.2 They
improved the arquebus into the musket, a heavier and much
more powerful weapon (fired from a rest) which could disable
a horse at 500 paces.
At this moment the professional soldier was at the high-water
mark of his supremacy. The musket was too complicated to
be rapidly and efficiently used by any but a highly Alva^
trained man; the pike, probably because it had now
to protect two or three ranks of " shot " in front of the leading
rank of pikemen, as well as the pikemen themselves, had grown
longer (up to 18 ft.); and drill and manoeuvre had become
more important than ever, for in the meantime cavalry had
mostly abandoned the massive armour and the long lance in
favour of half-armour and the pistol, and their new tactics
made them both swifter to charge groups of musketeers and
more deadly to the solid masses of pikemen. This superiority
of the regular over the irregular was most conspicuously shown
in Alva's war against the Netherlands patriots. Desperately
as the latter fought, Spanish captains did not hesitate to attack
patriot armies ten times their own strength. If once or twice
this contempt led them to disaster, as at Heiligerlee in 1568
(though here, after all, Louis of Nassau's army was chiefly
composed of trained mercenaries), the normal battle was of the
Jemmingen type — seven soldados dead and seven thousand
rebels.
As regards battles in the open field, such results as these
naturally confirmed the " Spanish system " of tactics. The
Dutch themselves, when they evolved reliable field armies,
copied it with few modifications, and by degrees it was spread
over Europe by the professional soldiers on both sides. There
was plenty of discussion and readjustment of details. For
example, the French, with their smaller battalions and more
rapid movements, were inclined to disparage both the cuirass
and the pike, and only unwillingly hampered themselves with
the long heavy Spanish musket, which had to be fired from a
rest. In 1600, nearly fifty years after the introduction of the
musket, this most progressive army still deliberately preferred
the old light arquebus, and only armed a few selected men with
the larger weapons. On the other hand, the Spaniards, though
supreme in the open, had for the most part to deal with desperate
men behind fortifications. Fighting, therefore, chiefly at close
quarters with a fierce enemy, and not disposing either of the
space or of the opportunity for " manoeuvre-battles," they
sacrificed all theirformer lightness and speed,and clung to armour,
the long pike and the heavy 2$ oz. bullet. But the principles
first put into practice by Gonsalvo de Cordoba, the combination,
in the proportions required in each case, of fire and shock
elements in every body of organized infantry however small,
were maintained in full vigour, and by now the superiority
of the infantry arm in method, discipline and technique, which
had long before made the Spanish nobles proud to trail a pike
in the ranks, began to impress itself on other nations. The
relative value of horse and foot became a subject for expert
1 Even as late as 1645 a battalion of infantry in England was called
a tercio or tertia " (see ARMY; Spanish army).
INFANTRY
PLATE I.
DREUX — 1 562 . (from Hardy de PcrM's Bataillcs Frarqaises, by permission.)
Lt)TZEN— 1632.
XIV. 522.
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HISTORY]
INFANTRY
523
discussion instead of an axiom of class pride. The question
of cavalry versus infantry, hotly disputed in all ages, is a matter
affecting general tactics, and does not come within the scope of
the present article (see further CAVALRY). Expert opinion
indeed was still on the side of the horsemen. It was on their
cavalry, with its speed, its swords and its pistols that the armies
of the i6th century relied in the main to produce the decision
in battle. Sir Francis Vane, speaking of the battle of Nieupoort
in 1600, says, " Whereas most commonly in battles
/a/fi0ol tne success °f the foot dependeth on that of the horse,
here it was clean contrary, for so long as the foot held
good the horse could not be beaten out of the field." The
" success " of the foot in Vane's eyes is clearly resistance
to disintegration rather than ability to strike a decisive
blow.
It must be remembered, however, that Vane is speaking of the
Low Countries, and that in France at any rate the solidity which
saved the day at Nieupoort was less appreciated than the elan
which had won so many smart engagements in the Wars of
Religion. Moreover, it was the offensive, the decision-compelling
faculty of the foot that steadily developed during the lyth
century. To this, little by little, the powers of passive resistance
to which Vane did homage, valuable as they were, were sacrificed,
until at last the long pike disappeared altogether and the firearm,
provided with a bayonet, was the uniform weapon of the foot-
soldier. This stage of infantry history covers almost exactly
a century. As far as France was concerned, it was a natural
evolution. But the acceptance of the principle by the rest of
the military world, imposed by the genius of Gustavus Adolphus,
was rather revolution than evolution.
In the army which Louis XIII. led against his revolted barons
of Anjou in i62o,theoldregiments(/e.swett:r — Picardie, Piedmont,
&c.) seem to have marched in an open chequer-wise
formation of companies which is interesting not only
as a deliberate imitation of the Roman legion (all
soldiers of that time, in the prevailing confusion of tactical
ideas, sought guidance in the works of Xenophon, Aelian
and Vegetius), but as showing that flexibility and handiness
was not the monopoly of the Swedish system that was soon to
captivate military Europe. The formations themselves are
indeed found in the Spanish and Dutch armies, but the equipment
of the men, and the general character of the operations in which
they were engaged, probably failed to show off the advantages
of this articulation, for the generals of the Thirty Years' War,
trained in this school, formed their infantry into large battalions
(generally a single line of masses). Experience certainly gave
the troops that used these unwieldy formations a relatively
high manoeuvring capacity, for Tilly's army at Breitenfeld
(1631) " changed front half-left " in the course of the battle
itself. But the manceuvring power of the Swedes was higher
still. Each party represented one side of the classical revival,
the Swedes the Roman three-line manipular tactics, the
Imperialists and Leaguers those of the Greek line of phalanxes.
The former, depending as it did on high moral in the individual
foot-soldier, was hardly suitable to such a congeries of mercenaries
as those that Wallenstein commanded, and later in the Thirty
Years' War, when the old native Swedish and Scottish brigades
had been annihilated, the Swedish infantry was little if at all
better than the rest.
But its tactical system, sanctified by victory, was eagerly
caught up by military Europe. The musket, though it had
finally driven out the arquebus, had been lightened by Gustavus
Adolphus so far that it could be fired without a rest. Rapidity
in loading had so far improved that a company could safely be
formed six deep instead of ten, as in the Spanish and Dutch
systems. Its fire power was further augmented by the addition
of two very light field-guns to each battalion; these could
inflict loss at twice the effective range of the shortened musket.
Above all, Gustavus introduced into the military systems of
Europe a new discipline based on the idea of exact performance
of duty, which made itself felt in every part of the service, and
was a welcome substitute for the former easy-going methods
of regimental existence.1 The adoption of Swedish methods
indeed was facilitated by the disrepute into which the older
systems had fallen. Men were beginning to see that armies
raised by contract for a few months' work possessed inherent
vices that made it impossible to rely upon them in small things.
Courage the mercenary certainly possessed, but his individual
sense of honour, code of soldierly morals, and sometimes devotion
to a particular leader did not compensate for the absence of a
strong motive for victory and for his general refractoriness in
matters of detail, such as march-discipline and punctuality,
which had become essential since the great Swedish king had
reintroduced order, method and definiteness of purpose into the
conduct of military operations. In the old-fashioned masses,
moreover, individual weaknesses, both moral and physical,
counted for little or were suppressed in the general soldierly
feeling of the whole body. But the six-deep line used by Gustavus
demanded more devotion and exact obedience in the individual
and a more uniform method of drill and handling arms. So
shallow an order was not strong enough, under any other condi-
tions, to resist the shock of cavalry or even of pikemen. Indeed,
had not the cavalry (who, after Gustavus's death, were uninspired
mercenaries like the rest) ceased to charge home in the fashion
that Gustavus exacted of them, it is possible that the new-
fashioned line would not have stood the test, and that infantry
would have reverted to the early 16th-century type.
The problem of combining the maximum of fire power with the
maximum of control over the individual firer was not fully
solved until 1740, but the necessity of attempting the
problem was realised from the first. In the Swedish
army, before it was corrupted by the atmosphere
of the Thirty Years' War, duty to God and to country were
the springs of the punctual discipline, in small things and in
great, which made it the most formidable army, unit for unit,
in the world. In the English Civil War (in which the adherents
of the " Swedish system " from the first ousted those of the
" Dutch ") the difficulty was more acute, for although the
mainsprings of action were similar, the technical side of the
soldier's business — the regimental organization, drill and handling
of arms — had all to be improvised. Now in the beginning the
Royalist cavalry was recruited from "gentlemen that have
honour and courage and resolution"; later, Cromwell raised a
cavalry force that was even more thoroughly imbued with the
spirit of duty, " men who made some conscience of what they
did," and throughout the Civil War, consequently, the mounted
arm was the queen of the battlefield.
The Parliamentary foot too " made some conscience of
what it did," more especially in the first years of the war. But
its best elements — the drilled townsmen — were rather of a
defensive than of an offensive character, and towards the close
of the struggle, when the foot on both sides came to be formed
of professional soldiers, the defensive element decreased, as it
had decreased in France and elsewhere. The war was like
Gustavus's German campaign, one of rapid and far-ranging
marches, and the armoured pikeman had either to shorten his
pike and to cast off his armour or to be left at home with the
heavy artillery (see Firth's Cromwell's Army, ch. iv.). Fights
" at push of pike " were rare enough to be specially mentioned
in reports of battles. Sir James Turner says that in 1657, when
he was commissioned with others to raise regiments for the king
of Denmark, " those of the Privy Council would not suffer one
word to be mentioned of a pike in our Commissions." It was
the same with armour. In 1658 Lockhart, the commander of
the English contingent in France, specially asked for a supply of
cuirasses and headpieces for his pikemen in order to impress his
allies. In 1671 Sir James Turnersays," When we see battalions
of pikes, we see them everywhere naked unless it be in the
Netherlands." But a small proportion of pikes was still held
to be necessary by experienced soldiers, for as yet the socket
bayonet had not been invented, and there was still cavalry in
Europe that could be trusted to ride home.
1 In France it is recorded that the Gardes fran^aises, when warned
for duty at the Louvre, used to stroll thither in twos and threes.
524
INFANTRY
[HISTORY
of the
pike.
While such cavalry existed, the development of fire power
was everywhere hindered by the necessity of self-defence. On
the other hand the hitherto accepted defensive means militated
against efficiency in many ways, and about 1670, when Louis
XIV. and Louvois were fashioning the new standing army that
was for fifty years the model for Europe, the problem
Disuse was now to improve the drill and efficiency of the
musketeers so far that the pikes could be reduced to a
minimum. In 1680 the firelock was issued instead of
the matchlock to all grenadiers and to the four best shots in each
French Company. The bayonet— in its primitive form merely
a dagger that was fixed into the muzzle of the musket — was
also introduced, and the pike was shortened. The proportion
of pikes to muskets in Henry IV.'s day, 2 to i or 3 to 2, and in
Gustavus's 2 to 3, had now fallen to i to 3.
The day of great causes that could inspire the average man
with the resolution to conquer or die was, however, past, and the
" shallow order " (I'ordre mince), with all its demands on the
individual's sense of duty, had become an integral part of the
military system. How then was the sense of duty to be created?
Louis and Louvois and their contemporaries sought to create it by
taking raw recruits in batches, giving them a consistent training,
quartering them in barracks and uniforming them. Hence-
forward the soldier was not a unit, self-taught and free to enter
the service of any master. He had no existence as a soldier apart
from his regiment, and within it he was taught that the regiment
was everything and the individual nothing. Thus by degrees
the idea of implicit obedience to orders and of esprit de corps
was absorbed. But the self-respecting Englishman or the quick
ardent Frenchman was not the best raw material for quasi-
automatic regiments, and it was not until an infinitely more
rigorous system of discipline was applied to an unimaginative
army that the full possibilities of this enforced sense of duty
were realized.
The method of delivering fire originally used by the Spaniards, in
which each man in succession fired and fell back to the rear of the
file to reload, required for its continued and exact per-
Methods formance a degree of coolness and individual smartness
which was probably rarely attained in practice. This was
not of serious moment when the " shot " were simple
auxiliaries, but when under Gustavus the offensive idea
came to the front, and the bullets of the infantry were expected to
do something more than merely annoy the hostile pikemen, a more
effective method had to be devised. First, the handiness of the
musket was so far improved that one man could reload while five,
instead of as formerly ten, fired. Then, as the enhanced rate of fire
made the file-firing still more disorderly than before, two ranks and
three were set to fire " volews " or " salvees " together, and before
1640 it had become the general custom for the musketeers to fire one
or two volleys and then, along with the pikemen, to " fall on." It
was of course no mean task to charge even a disordered mass of pikes
with a short sword or a clubbed musket, and usually after a few
minutes the combatants would drift apart and the musketeers on
either side would keep up an irregular fire until the officers urged the
whole forward for a second attempt.
With the general disuse of the lance, the disappearance of the
personal motives that formerly made the cavalryman charge home,
The the adoption of the flintlock musket and the invention of
ba oaet. tn? socket bayonet (the fixing of which did not prevent fire
being delivered), all reason for retaining the pike vanished,
and from about 1700 to the present day, therefore, the invariable
armament of infantry has been the musket (or rifle) and bayonet.
The manner of employing the weapons, however, changed but
slowly. In the French army in 1688, for instance (15 years before
the abolition of the pike), the old file-fire was still officially recognized,
though rarely employed, the more usual method being for the
musketeers in groups of 12 to 30 men to advance to the front and
deliver their volleys in turn, these groups corresponding in size to
one of the musketeer wings (manches) of a company or double
company. But the fire and]shock'action of infantry were still distinct,
the idea of " push of pike" remained, the bayonet (as at Marsaglia)
taking the place of the pike, and musketry methods were still and
throughout the War of the Spanish Succession somewhat half-
hearted and tentative. Two generals so entirely different in genius
and temperament as Saxe and Catinat could agree on this point, that
attacking infantry ought to close with the enemy, bayonets fixed,
without firing a shot. Catinat's orders to his army in 1690, indeed,
seem rather to indicate that he expected his troops to endure the
enemy's first fire without replying in order that their own volley,
when it was at last delivered at a few paces distance, should he as
murderous as possible, while Saxe, who was a dreamer as well as a
practical commander of troops, advocated the pure bayonet charge.
But the fact that is common to both is the relative ineffectiveness of
musketry before the Prussian era, whether this musketry was de-
livered by groups of men running forward and returning in line or
even by companies in a long line of battle.
This ineffectiveness was due chiefly to the fact that /ire and move-
ment were separate matters. The enemy's volley, that Catinat and
others ordered their troops to endure without flinching, was some-
times (as at Fontenoy) absolutely crushing. But as a rule it in-
flicted an amount of loss that was not sufficient to put the advancing
troops out of action, and experienced officers were aware that to halt
to reply gave the enemy time to reload, and that once the fight became
an interchange of partial and occasional volleys or a generaHzroiV/erte,
there was an end to the attack.
Meanwhile, the tactics of armies had been steadily crystallizing
into the so-called " linear " form, which, as far as concerns the
infantry, is simply two long lines of battalions (three, Linear
four or five deep) and gave the utmost possible develop- tactics.
ment to fire-power. The object of the " line "was to
break or beat down the opposing line in the shortest possible
time, whether by fire action or shock action, but fire action was
only decisive at so short a range that the principal volley could
be followed immediately by a charge over a few score paces at
most and the crossing of bayonets. Fire was, however, effective
at ranges outside charging distance, especially from the battalion
guns, and however the decision was achieved in the end, it was
necessary to cross the zone between about 300 yds. and 50 yds.
range as quickly as possible. It was therefore the business
of the regimental officer to force his men across this zone before
fire was opened. If, as Catinat recommended, decisive range
was reached with every musket loaded and the troops well in
hand, their fire when finally it was delivered might well be
decisive. But in practice this rarely happened, and though here
and there such expedients as a skirmishing line were employed to
assist the advance by disturbing the enemy's fire the most that was
hoped by the average colonel or captain was that in the advance
fire should be opened as late as possible and that the officers
should strive to keep in their hands the power of breaking off
the fire-fight and pushing the troops forward again. Theorists
were already proposing column formations for shock action,
and initiating the long controversy between I'ordre mince and
I'ordre profonde, but this was for the time being pure speculation.
The linear system rested on the principle that the maximum
weight of controlled fire at short range was decisive, and the
practical problem of infantry tactics was how to obtain this.
The question of fire versus shock had been answered in favour
of the former, and henceforward for many years the question of
fire versus movement held the first place. The purpose was settled,
and it remained to discover the means.
This means was Prussian fire-discipline, which was elaborated
by Leopold of Dessau and Frederick William I., and practically
applied by Frederick the Great. It consisted first in the combina-
tion, instead of the alternation, of fire and movement, and
secondly in the thorough efficiency of the fire in itself. But
both these demanded a more stringent and technically more
perfect drill than had ever before been imagined, or, for that
matter, has ever since been attained. A hundred years before
the steady drill of the Spanish veterans at Rocroi, who at the
word of command opened their ranks to let the cannon fire from
the rear and again closed them, impressed every soldier in Europe.
But such drill as this was child's play compared with the Old
Dessauer's.
On approaching the enemy the marching columns of the Prussians,
which were generally open columns of companies 4 deep, wheeled in
succession to the right or left (almost always to the right) prus^,,
and thus passed along the front of the enemy at a distance tlre
of 800-1200 yds. until the rear company had wheeled, discipline,
Then the whole together (or in the case of a deployment 1740.
to the left, in succession) wheeled into line facing the
enemy. These movements, if intervals and distances were preserved
with proper precision, brought the infantry into two long well-
closed lines, and parade-ground precision was actually attained,
thanks to remorseless drilling and to the reintroduction of the march
in step to music. Of course such movements were best executed on
a firm plain, and as far as possible the attack and defence of woods
and villages was left to light infantry and grenadiers. But even in
marshes and scrub, the line managed to manoeuvre with some
HISTORY]
INFANTRY
525
Leuthen.
approach to the precision of the barrack square.1 Now, this pre-
cision allowed Frederick to take risks that no former commander
would have dared to take. At Hohenfriedberg the infantry columns
crossed a marshy stream almost within cannon shot of the enemy;
at Kolin (though there this insolence was punished) the army filed
past the Imperialist skirmishers within less than musket shot, and
the climax of this daring was the " oblique order " attack of Leuthen.
With this was bound up a fire discipline that was more extraordinary
than any perfection of manoeuvre. Before Hohenfriedberg the king
gave orders that " pelotonfeuer " was to be opened at 200 paces
from the enemy and continued up to 30 paces, when the line was to
fall on with the bayonet. The possibility of this combination of fire
and movement was the work of Leopold, who gave the Prussian
infantry iron ramrods, and by sheer drill made the soldier a machine
capable of delivering (with the flintlock muzzle-loading muskets, be
it observed) five volleys a minute. This pelotonfeuer or company
volleys replaced the old fire by ranks practised in other armies.
Fire began from the flanks of the battalion, which consisted of eight
companies (for firing, 3 deep). When the right company commander
fave " fire," the commander of No. 2 gave ready," followed in turn
y other companies up to the centre. The same process having been
gone through on the left flank, by the time the two centre companies
had fired the two flank companies were ready to recommence, and
thus a continuous series of rolling volleys was delivered, at one or
two seconds' interval only between companies. In attack this fire
was combined with movement, each company in turn advancing a
few paces after " making ready." In square, old-fashioned methods
of fire were employed. Square was an indecisive and defensive
formation, rarely used, and m the advance of the deployed line, the
offensive and decision-seeking formation par excellence, the special
Prussian fire-discipline gave Frederick an advantage of five shots to
two against all opponents. The bayonet-attack, if the rolling volleys
had done their work, was merely " presenting the cheque for pay-
ment " as a modern German writer puts it. The cheque had been
drawn, the decision given, in the fire-fight.
For some years this method of infantry training gave the
Prussians a decisive superiority in whatever order they fought.
But their enemies improved and also grew in numbers,
while the Prussian army's resources were strictly
limited. Thus in the Seven Years' War, after the two costly
battles of Prague and Kolin (i7S7)especially,itbecamenecessary
to manoeuvre with the object of bringing the Prussian infantry
into contact with an equal or if possible smaller portion of the
enemy's line. If this could be achieved, victory was as certain
as ever, but the difficulties of bringing about a successful
manoeuvre were such that the classical " oblique order " attack
was only once completely executed. This was at Leuthen,
December 5th, 1757, perhaps the greatest day in the history of
the Prussian army. Here, in a rolling plain country occasionally
broken by marshes and villages, the " oblique order " was
executed at high speed and with clockwork precision. Frederick's
object was to destroy the left of the Austrian army (which far
outnumbered his own) before the rest of their deployed line of
battle could change front to intervene. His method was to
place his own line, by a concealed flank march, opposite the
point where he desired to strike, and then to advance, not in
two long lines but in echelon of battalions from the right (see
LEUTHEN). The echelon was not so deep but that each battalion
was properly supported by the following one on its left (100
paces distance), and each, as it came within 200 yds. of the
Austrian battalion facing it, opened its " rolling volleys " while
continuing to advance; thus long before the left and most
backward battalions were committed to the fight, the right
battalions were crumbling the Austrian infantry units one by
one from left to right. It was the same, without parade
manoeuvres, when at last the Austrians managed to organize
a line of defence about Leuthen village. Unable to make an
elaborate change of front with the whole centre and right wing
for want of time, they could do no more than crowd troops
about Leuthen, on a short fighting front, and this crumbled in
turn before the Prussian volleys.
One lesson of Leuthen that contemporary soldiers took to
heart was that even a two-to-one superiority in numbers could
not remedy want of manoeuvring capacity. It might be hoped
1 About this time there was introduced, for resisting cavalry, the
well-known hollow battalion square, which, replacing the former
masses of pikes, represented up to the most modern times the de-
fensive, as the line or column represented the offensive formation of
infantry.
that with training and drill an Austrian battalion could be made
equal to a Prussian one in the front-to-front fight, and in fact,
as losses told more and more heavily on Frederick's army as
years went on, the specific superiority of his infantry disappeared.
From 1758 therefore, to the end of the war, there were no more
Rossbachs and Leuthens. Superiority in efficiency through
previous training having exhausted its influence, superiority
in force through manoeuvre began to be the general's ideal, and
as it was a more familiar notion to the average Prussian general,
trained to manoeuvre, than to his opponent, whose idea of
manoeuvre " was to sidle carefully from one position to
another, Prussian generalship maintained its superiority, in
spite of many reverses, to the end. The last campaigns were
indeed a war of positions, because Frederick had no longer the
men available for forcing the Austrians out of them, and on many
occasions he was so weak that the most passive defensive and
the most elaborate entrenchments barely sufficed to save him.
But whenever opportunity offered itself, the king sought a
decisive success by bringing the whole of his infantry against
part of the enemy's — the principle of Leuthen put in practice
over a wider area and with more elastic manoeuvre methods.
The long echelon of battalions directed against a part of the
hostile line developed quite naturally into an irregular 6chelon
of brigade columns directed against a part of the enemy's position.
But the history of the " cordon system " which followed this
development belongs rather to the subject of tactics in general
than to that of infantry fighting methods. Within the unit
the tactical method scarcely varied. In a battle each battalion
or brigade fought as a unit in line, using company volleys and
seeking the decision by fire.
In this, and in even the most minute details of drill and uni-
form, military Europe slavishly copied Prussia for twenty years
after the Seven Years' War. The services of ex- Coatm,
Prussian officers were at a premium just as those of verefc* and
Gustavus's officers had been 1 50 years before. Military deveiop-
missions from all countries went to Potsdam or to ™^*'
the " Reviews " to study Prussian methods, with I790~
as simple a faith in their adequacy as that shown
to-day by small states and half-civilized kingdoms who send
military representatives to serve in the great European armies.
And withal, the period 1 763-1 792 is full of tactical and strategical
controversies. The principal of these, as regards infantry,
was that between "fire" and "shock" revived about 1710
by Folard, and about 1780 the American War of Independence
complicated it by introducing a fresh controversy between
skirmishing and dose order. As to the first, in Folard's day
as in Frederick's, fire action at close range was the deciding
factor in battle, but in Frederick's later campaigns, wherein he
no longer disposed of the old Prussian infantry and its swift
mechanical fire-discipline, there sprang up a tendency to trust
to the bayonet for the decision. If the (so-called) Prussian
infantry of 1762 could be in any way brought to close with the
enemy, it had a fair chance of victory owing to its leaders'
previous dispositions, and then the advocates of " shock,"
who had temporarily been silenced by Mollwitz and Hohenfried-
berg, again took courage. The ordinary line was primarily
a formation for fire, and only secondarily or by the accident
of circumstances for shock, and, chiefly perhaps under Saxe's
influence, the French army had for many years been accustomed
to differentiate between " linear " formations for fire and
" columnar " for attack — thus reverting to i6th -century practice.
While, therefore, the theoreticians pleaded for battalion columns
and the bayonet or for line and the bullet, the practical soldier
used both. Many forms of combined line and column were
tried, but in France, where the question was most assiduously
studied, no agreement had been arrived at when the advent of
the skirmisher further complicated the issues.
In the early Silesian wars, when armies fought in open country in
linear order, the outpost service scarcely concerned the line troops
sufficiently to cause them to get under arms at the sound of firing on
the sentry line. It was performed by irregular light troops, recruited
from wild characters of all nations, who were also charged with the
preliminary skirmishing necessary to clear up the situation beto
526
INFANTRY
[HISTORY
the deployment of the battle-army, but once the line opened fire their
work was done and they cleared away to the flanks (generally in
search of plunder). Later, however, as the preliminary manoeuvring
before the battle grew in importance and the ground taken into the
manoeuvring zone was more varied and extended than formerly,
light infantry was more and more in demand — in a " cordon " de-
fensive for patrolling the intervals between the various detachments
of line troops, in an attack for clearing the way for the deployment of
each column. Yet in all this there was no suggestion that light
troops or skirmishers were capable of bringing about the decision in
an armed conflict. When Frederick gained a durable peace in 1763
he dismissed his " free battalions " without mercy, and by 1764 not
more than one Prussian soldier in eleven was an " irregular, either
of horse or foot.1 . ,
But in the American War of Independence the line was pitted
against light infantry in difficult country, and the British and French
officers who served in it returned to Europe full of en-
, , t thusiasm for the latter. Nevertheless, their light infantry
**' was, unlike 'Frederick's, selected line infantry. The light
infantry duties — skirmishing, reconnaissance, outposts — were grafted
on to a thorough close-order training. At first these duties fell to
the grenadiers and light companies of each battalion, but during the
struggle in the colonies, the light companies of a brigade were so
frequently massed in one battalion that in the end whole regiments
were converted into light infantry. This combination of " line '
steadiness and " skirmisher " freedom was the keynote of Sir John
Moore's training system fifteen years later, and Moore's regiments,
above all the 52nd, 43rd (now combined as the Oxfordshire Light
Infantry) and 95th Rifles (Rifle Brigade), were the backbone of the
British Army throughout the Peninsular War. At Waterloo the
52nd, changing front in line at the double, flung itself on the head
and flank of the Old Guard infantry, and with the " rolling volleys '
inherited from the Seven Years' War, shattered it in a few minutes.
Such an exploit would have been absolutely inconceivable in the case
of one of the old " free battalions." But the light infantry had not
merely been levelled up to the line, it had surpassed it, and in 1815
there were no troops in Europe, whether trained to fight in line or
column or skirmishers, who could rival the three regiments named,
the " Light Division " of Peninsular annals. For meantime the
infantry organization and tactics of the old regime, elsewhere than
in England, had been disintegrated by the flames of the French
Revolution, and from their ashes a new system had arisen, which
forms the real starting-point of the infantry tactics of to-day.
The controversialists of Louis XVI. 's time, foremost of whom
were Guibert, Joly de Maizeroy and Menil Durand (see Max
The Jahns, Gesch. d. Kriegswissenschaflen, vol. iii.), were
French agreed that shock action should be the work of troops
Revolu- formed in column, but as to the results to be expected
from shock action, the extent to which it should be
facilitated by a previous fire preparation, and the formations in
which fire should be delivered (line, line with skirmishers or
" swarms ") discussion was so warm that it sometimes led to
wrangles in ladies' drawing-rooms and meetings in the duelling
field. The drill-book for the French infantry issued shortly
before the Revolution was a common-sense compromise, which
in the main adhered to the Frederician system as modified by
Guibert, but gave an important place in infantry tactics to the
battalion " columns of attack," that had hitherto appeared only
spasmodically on the battlefields of the French army and never
elsewhere. This, however, and the quick march (too paces to
the minute instead of the Frederician 75) were the only pre-
scriptions in the drill-book that survived the test of a " national "
war, to which within a few years it was subjected (see FRENCH
REVOLUTIONARY WARS). The rest, like the " linear system "
of organization and manoeuvre to which it belonged (see ARMY,
§§ 3°-33> CONSCRIPTION, &c.) was ignored, and circumstances
and the practical troop-leaders evolved by circumstances
fashioned the combination of close-order columns and loose-order
skirmishers which constituted essentially the new tactics of
the Revolutionary and Napoleonic infantry.
The process of evolution cannot be stated in exact terms,
more especially as the officers, as they grew in wisdom through
experience, learned to apply each form in accordance with ground
and circumstances, and to reject, when unsuitable, not only the
forms of the drill-book, but the forms proposed by themselves
to replace those of the drill-book. But certain tendencies are
easily discernible. The first tendency was towards the dissolu-
1 The Prussian Grenadier battalions in the Silesian and Seven
Years' Wars were more and more confined strictly to line-of-battle
duties as the irregular light infantry developed in numbers.
tion of all tactical links. The earlier battles were fought partly
in line for fire action, partly in columns for the bayonet
attack. Now the linear tactics depended on exact pre- Tactical
servation of dressing, intervals and distances, and evolution
what required in the case of the Prussians years of '" France
steady drill at 76 paces to the minute was hardly "^j
attainable with the newly levied ardent Frenchmen
marching at 100 to 120. Once, therefore, the line moved, it
broke up into an irregular swarm of excited firers, and experience
soon proved that only the troops kept out of the turmoil, whether
in line or in column, were susceptible of manoeuvre and united
action. Thus from about 1795 onwards the forms of the old
regime, with half the troops in front in line of battle (practically
in dense hordes of firers) and the other half in rear in line or line
of columns, give way to new ones in which the skirmishers are
fewer and the closed troops more numerous, and the decision
rests no longer with the fire of the leading units (which of course
could not compare in effectiveness with the rolling volleys of
the drilled line) but with the bayonets of the second and third
lines — the latter being sometimes in line but more often, owing
to the want of preliminary drill, in columns. The skirmishers
tended again to become pure light infantry, whose role was to
prepare, not to give, the decision, and who fought in a thin
line, taking every advantage of cover and marksmanship. In the
Consulate and early Empire, indeed, we commonly find, in the
closed troops destined for the attack, mixed line and column
formations combining in themselves shock and controlled close-
order fire — absolutely regardless of the skirmishers in front.
In sum, then, from 1792 to 1795 the fighting methods of the
French infantry, of which so much has been written and said,
are, as they have aptly been called, " horde-tactics." From
1796 onwards to the first campaigns of the Empire, on the other
hand, there is an ever-growing tendency to combine skirmishers,
properly so called, with controlled and well-closed bodies in
rear, the first to prepare the attack to the best of their ability
by individual courage and skill at arms, the second to deliver
it at the right moment (thanks to their retention of manoeuvre
formations), and with all possible energy (thanks to the cohesion,
moral and material, which carried forward even the laggards).
Even when in the long wars of the Empire the quality of the
troops progressively deteriorated, infantry tactics within the
regiment or brigade underwent no radical alteration. The actual
formations were most varied, but they always contained two
of the three elements, column, line and skirmishers. Column
(generally two lines of battalions in columns of double-companies)
was for shock or attack, line for fire-effect, and skirmishers to
screen the advance, to scout the ground and to disturb the
enemy's aim. Of these, except on the defensive (which was
rare in a Napoleonic battle), the " column " of attack was by
far the most important. The line formations for fire, with
which it was often combined, rarely accounted for more than
one-quarter of the brigade or division, while the skirmishers
were still less numerous. Withal, these formations in them-
selves were merely fresh shapes for old ideas. The armament
of Napoleon's troops was almost identical with that of Frederick's
or Saxe's. Line, column and combinations of the two were
as old as Fontenoy and were, moreover, destined to live for
many years after Napoleon had fallen. " Horde- tactics " did
not survive the earlier Revolutionary campaigns. Wherein
then lies the change which makes 1792 rather than 1740 the
starting-point of modern tactics?
The answer, in so far as so comprehensive a question can be
answered from a purely infantry standpoint, is that whereas
Frederick, disposing of a small and highly finished
instrument, used its manceuvre power and regimental a
efficiency to destroy one part of his enemy so swiftly aoa
that the other had no time to intervene, Napoleon, artillery
who had numbers rather than training on his side, only
delivered his decisive blow after he had "fixed" all bodies
of the enemy which would interfere with his prepara-
tions— i.e. had set up a physical barrier against the threatened
intervention. This new idea manifested itself in various forms.
HISTORY]
INFANTRY
527
In strategy (q.v.) and combined tactics it is generally for con-
venience called "economy of force." In the domain of artillery (see
ARTILLERY) it marked a distinction, that has revived in the
last twenty years, between slow disintegrating fire and sudden
and overpowering " fire-preparation." As regards infantry the
effect of it was revolutionary. Regiments and brigades were
launched to the attack to compel the enemy to defend himself,
and fought until completely dissolved to force him to use up his
reserves. " On s'engage partout et puis 1'on voit " is Napoleon's
own description of his holding attack, which in no way resembled
the " feints " of previous generations. The self-sacrifice of the
men thus engaged enabled their commander to " see," and to
mass his reserves opposite a selected point, while little by little
the enemy was hypnotized by the fighting. Lastly, when
" the battle was ripe " a hundred and more guns galloped into
close range and practically annihilated a part of the defender's
line. They were followed up by masses of reserve infantry,
often more solidly formed at the outset than the old Swiss masses
of the 1 6th century.1 If the moment was rightly chosen these
masses, dissolved though they soon were into dense formless
crowds, penetrated the gap made by the guns (with their arms
at the slope) and were quickly followed by cavalry divisions
to complete the enemy's defeat. Here, too, it is to be observed
there is no true shock. The infantry masses merely " present
the cheque for payment," and apart from surprises, ambushes
and fights in woods and villages there are few recorded cases
of bayonets being crossed in these wars. Napoleon himself
said " Le feu est tout, le reste peu de chose," and though a mere
plan of his dispositions suggests that he was the disciple of Folard
and Menil Durand, in reality he simply applied " fire-power "
in the new and grander form which his own genius imagined.
The problem, then, was not what it had been one hundred
and fifty years before. The business of the attack was not to
break down the passive resistance of the defence, but to destroy
or to evade its fire-power. No attack with the bayonet could suc-
ceed if this remained effective and unbroken, and no resistance
(in the open field at least) availed when it had been mastered
or evaded. In Napoleon's army, the circumstance that the
infantry was (after 1807) incapable of carrying out its own
fire-preparation forced the task into the hands of the field
artillery. In other armies the 18th-century system had been
discredited by repeated disasters, and the infantry, as it became
" nationalized," was passing slowly through the successive
phases of irregular lines, " swarms," skirmishers and line-and-
column formations that the French Revolutionary armies had
traversed before them — none of them methods that in themselves
had given decisive results.
In all Europe the only infantry that represented the Frederician
tradition and prepared its own charge by its own fire was the
The British. Eye-witnesses who served in the ranks of
British the French have described the sensation of powerless-
Peaiosuiar ness tnat tnev fe[t as tne;r attacking column approached
in aotry. ^g ]jne ancj watched it load and come to the present.
The column stopped short, a few men cheered, others opened
a ragged individual fire, and then came the volleys and the
counter-attack that swept away the column. Sometimes this
counter-stroke was made, as in the famous case of Busaco, from
an apparently unoccupied ridge, for the British line, under
Moore's guidance, had shaken off the Prussian stiffness, fought
2 deep instead of 3 and was able to take advantage of cover.
The " blankness of the battlefield " noted by so many observers
to-day in the South African and Manchurian Wars was fully as
characteristic of Wellington's battles from Vimeiro to Waterloo,
in spite of close order and red uniforms. But these battles
were of the offensive-defensive type in the main, and for various
reasons this type could not be accepted as normal by the rest
of Europe. Nonchalance was not characteristic of the eager
national levies of 1813 and 1814, and the Wellington method of
1 Even when the hostile artillery was still capable of fire these
masses were used, for in no other formation could the heterogeneous
and ill-trained infantry of Napoleon's vassal states (which consti-
tuted half of his army) be brought up at all.
infantry tactics, though it had brought about the failure of
Napoleon's last effort, was still generally regarded as an illustra-
tion of the already recognized fact that on the defensive the fire-
power of the line, unless partly or wholly evaded by rapidity
in the advance and manoeuvring power or mastered and extin-
guished by the fire-power of the attack, made the front of the
defence impregnable. There was indeed nothing in the English
tactics at Waterloo that, standing out from the incidents of the
battle, offered a new principle of winning battles.
Nor indeed did Europe at large desire a fresh era of warfare.
Only the French, and a few unofficial students of war elsewhere,
realized the significance of the rejuvenated " line." For every
one else, the later Napoleonic battle was the model, and as the
great wars had ended before the " national " spirit had been
exhausted or misused in wars of aggrandizement, infantry
tactics retained, in Germany, Austria and Russia, the character-
istic Napoleonic formations, lines of battalion or regimental
columns, sometimes combined with linear formations for fire,
and always covered by skirmishers. That these columns must
in action dissolve sooner or later into dense irregular swarms
was of course foreseen, but Napoleon had accustomed the world
to long and costly fire-fighting as the preliminary to the attack
of the massed reserves, and for the short remainder of the period
of smooth-bore muskets, troops were always launched to the
attack in columns covered by a thin line of picked shots as
skirmishers. The moral power of the offensive " will to conquer "
and the rapidity of the attack itself were relied upon to evade
and disconcert the fire-power of the defence. If the attack
failed to do so, the ranges at which infantry fire was really
destructive were so small that it was easy for the columns to
deploy or disperse and open a fire-fight to prepare the way for
the next line of columns. And after a careful study of the
battle of the Alma, in which the British line won its last great
victory in the open field, Moltke himself only proposed such
modifications in the accepted tactical system as would admit of
the troops being deployed for defence instead of meeting attack,
as the Russians met it, in solid and almost stationary columns.
Fire in the attack, in fact, had come to be considered as chiefly
the work of artillery, and as artillery, being an expensive arm,
had been reduced during the period of military stagnation
following Waterloo, and was no longer capable of Napoleonic
feats, the attack was generally a bayonet attack pure and simple.
Waterloo and the Alma were credited, not to fire- infantry
power, but to English solidity, and as Ardant du method*,
Picq observes, " All the peoples of Europe say ^*"
' no one can resist our bayonet attack if it is made
resolutely ' — and all are right. . . . Bayonet fixed or in the
scabbard, it is all the same." Since the disappearance of the
" dark impenetrable wood " of spears, the question has always
turned on the word " resolute." If the defence cannot by any
means succeed in mastering the resolution of the assailant, it is
doomed. But the means (moral and material) at the disposal
of the defence for the purpose of mastering this resolution were,
within a few years of the Crimean War, revolutionized by the
general adoption of the rifle, the introduction of the breech-loader
and the revival of the " nation in arms."
Thirty years before the Crimea the flint-lock had given way
to the percussion lock (see GUN), which was more certain in its
action and could be used in all weathers. But fitting a copper
cap on the nipple was not so simple a matter for nervous fingers
as priming with a pinch of powder, and the usual rate of fire
had fallen from the five rounds a minute of Frederick's day to
two or three at the most. " Fire-power " therefore was at a
low level until the general introduction2 of the rifled barrel,
which while further diminishing the rate of fire, at any rate
greatly increased the range at which volleys were thoroughly
effective. Artillery (see ARTILLERY, § 13), the fire-weapon of the
2 Rifles had, of course, been used by corps of light troops (both
infantry and mounted) for many years. The British Rifle Brigade
was formed in 1800, but even in the Seven Years' War there were
rifle-corps or companies in the armies of Prussia and Austria. These
older rifles could not compare in rapidity or volume of fire with the
ordinary firelock.
528
INFANTRY
[TACTICS
attack, made no corresponding progress, and even as early as
the Alma and Inkerman (where the British troops used the
Minie rifle) the dense columns had suffered heavily without
being able to retaliate by " crossing bayonets." Fire power,
therefore, though still the special prerogative of the defence,
began to reassert its influence, and for a brief period the defensive
was regarded as the best form of tactics. But the low rate of
fire was still a serious objection. Many incidents in the American
Civil War showed this, notably Fredericksburg, where the key
of the Confederate position was held — against a simple frontal
attack unsupported by effective artillery fire — by three brigades
in line one behind the other, i.e. by a six-deep firing line. No
less force could guarantee the " inviolability of the front," and
even when, in this unnatural and uneconomical fashion, the rate
of fire was augmented as well as the effective range, a properly
massed and well-led attack in column (or in a rapid succession of
deployed lines) generally reached the defender's position, though
often in such disorder that a resolute counterstroke drove it
back again. The American fought over more difficult country
and with less previous drill-training than the armies of the Old
World. The fire-power of the defence, therefore, that even in
America did not always prevail over the resolution of the attack,
entirely failed in the Italian war of 1859 to stop the swiftly
moving, well-drilled columns of the French professional army, in
which the national <e/an had not as yet been suppressed, as it
was a few years later, by the doctrine that " the new arms found
their greatest scope in the defence." The Austrians, who had
pinned their faith to this doctrine, deserted their false gods,
forbade any mention of the defensive in their drill-books, and
brought back into honour the bayonet tactics of the old wars.
The need of artillery support for the attack was indeed felt
(though the gunners had not as yet evolved any substitute
for the case-shot preparation of Napoleon's time), but men
remembered that artillery was used by the great captain, not
so much to enable good troops to close with the enemy, as to
win battles with masses of troops of an inferior stamp, and
contemporary experience seemed to show that (if losses were
accepted as inevitable) good and resolute troops could overpower
the defence, even in face of the rifle and without the aid of case
shot. But a revolution was at hand.
In 1861 Moltke, discussing the war in Italy, wrote, " General
Niel attributes his victory (at Solferino) to the bayonet. But
The that does not imply that the attack was often followed
breech- by a hand-to-hand fight. In principle, when one
makes a bayonet charge, it is because one supposes
that the enemy will not await it. ... To approach the
enemy closely, pouring an efficacious fire into him — as Frederick
the Great's infantry did — is also a method of (he offensive." This
method was applicable at that time for the Prussians alone, for
they alone possessed a breech-loading firearm. The needle-gun
was a rudimentary weapon in many respects, but it allowed
of maintaining more than twice the rate of fire that the muzzle-
loader could give, and, moreover, it permitted the full use of
cover, because the firer could lie down to fire without having to
rise between every round to load. Further, he could load while
actually running forward, whereas with the old arms loading
not only required complete exposure but also checked movement.
The advantages of the Prussian weapon were further enhanced,
in the war against Austria, by the revulsion of feeling in the
Imperial army in favour of the pure bayonet charge in masses
that had followed upon Magenta and Solferino.
With the stiffly drilled professional soldier of England, Austria
and Russia the handiness of the new weapon could hardly have
been exploited, for (in Russia at any rate) even skirmishers
had to march in step. The Prussians were drilled nominally in
accordance with regulations dating from 1812, and therefore
suitable, if not to the new weapon, at least to the " swarm "
fighting of an enthusiastic national army, but upon these regula-
tions a mass of peace-time amendments had been superposed,
and in theory their drill was as stiff as that of the Russians.
But, as in France in 1793-1796, the composition of their army —
a true " nation in arms "—and the character of the officers
evolved by the universal service system saved them from their
regulations. The offensive spirit was inculcated as thoroughly
as elsewhere, and in a much more practical form. Dietrich von
Billow's predictions of the future battle of " skirmishers "
(meaning thereby a dense but irregular firing line) had capti-
vated the younger school of officers, while King William and
the veterans of Napoleon's wars were careful to maintain small
columns (sometimes company l columns of 240 rifles, but quite
as often half-battalion and battalion columns) as a solid back-
ground to the firing line. Thus in 1866 (see SEVEN WEEKS'
WAR), as Moltke had foreseen, the attacking infantry fought its
way to close quarters by means of its own fire, and the bayonet
charge again became, in his own words, " not the first, but the
last, phase of the combat," immediately succeeding a last
burst of rapid fire at short range and carried out by the company
and battalion reserves in close order. Against the Austrians,
whose tactics alternated between unprepared bayonet rushes
by whole brigades and a passive slow-firing defensive, victory
was easily achieved.
But immediately after Koniggratz the French army was
served out with a breech-loading rifle greatly superior in every
respect to the needle-gun, and after four years' tension latantry
France pitted breech-loader against breech-loader, lathe
In the first battles (see WORTH, and METZ: Battles) war of
the decision-seeking spirit of the " armed nation," the
inferior range of the needle-gun as compared with that of the
chassepot, and the recollections of easy triumphs in 1864 and
1866, all combined to drive the German infantry forward to
within easy range before they began to make use of their weapons.
Their powerful artillery would have sufficed of. itself to enable
them to do this (see SEDAN), had they but waited for its fire to
take effect. But they did not, and they suffered accordingly,
for, owing to the ineffectiveness of their rifle between 1000 and
400 yds. range, they had to advance, as the Austrians and
Russians had done in previous wars, without firing a shot. In
these circumstances their formations, whether line or column,
broke up, and the whole attacking force dissolved into long
irregular swarms. These swarms were practically composed
only of the brave men, while the rest huddled together in woods
and valleys. When, therefore, at last the firing line came within
400 or 500 yds. of the French, it was both severely tried and
numerically weak, but the fact that it was composed of the
best men only enabled it to open and to maintain an effective
fire. Even then the French, highly disciplined professional
soldiers that they were, repeatedly swept them back by counter-
strokes, but these counterstrokes were subjected to the fire of
the German guns and were never more than locally and moment-
arily effective. More and more German infantry was pushed
forward to support the firing line, and, like its predecessors,
each reinforcement, losing most of its unwilling men as it
advanced over the shot-swept ground^ consisted on arrival
of really determined men, and closing on the firing line pushed
it forward, sometimes 20 yds., sometimes 100, until at last rapid
fire at the closest ranges dislodged the stubborn defenders.
Bayonets (as usual) were never actually used, save in sudden
encounters in woods and villages. The decisive factors were,
first the superiority of the Prussian guns, secondly, heavy and
effective fire delivered at short range, and above all the high
moral of a proportion of resolute soldiers who, after being sub-
jected for hours to the most demoralizing influences, had still
courage left for the final dash. These three factors, in spite of
changes in armament, rule the infantry attack of to-day.
INFANTRY TACTICS SINCE 1870
The net result of the Franco-German War on infantry tactics,
as far as it can be summed up in a single phrase, was to transfer
the fire-fight to the line of skirmishers. Henceforward the old
and correct sense of the word " skirmishers " is lost. They have
1 The Prussian company was about 250 strong (see below under
' Organization "). This strength wasadopted after 1 870 by practically
all nations which adopted universal service. The battalion had 4
companies.
TACTICS]
INFANTRY
529
nothing to do with a " skirmish," but are the actual organ of
battle, and their old duties of feeling the way for the battle-
formations have been taken over by " scouts." The last-named
were not, however, fully recognized in Great Britain1 till long
after the war — not in fact until the war in South Africa had
shown that the " skirmisher " or firing line was too powerful an
engine to be employed in mere " feeling." In most European
armies " combat patrols," which work more freely, are preferred
to scouts, but the idea is the same.
The fire-fight on the line of skirmishers, now styled the firing
line, is the centre of gravity of the modern battle. In 1870,
owing to the peculiar circumstances of unequal arma-
ment> the " fire-nght " was insufficiently developed
and uneconomically used, and after the war tacticians
turned their attention to the evolution of better methods than
those of Worth and Gravelotte, Europe in general following
the lead of Prussia. Controversy, in the early stages, took the
form of a contest between " drill " and " individualism," irre-
spective of formations and technical details, for until about
1890 the material efficiency of the gun and the rifle remained
very much what it had been in 1870, and the only new factor
bearing on infantry tactics was the general adoption of a
" national army " system similar to Prussia's and of rifles equal,
and in some ways superior, to the chassepot. All European
armies, therefore, had to consider equality in artillery power,
equality in the ballistics of rifles, and equal intensity of fighting
spirit as the normal conditions of the next battle of nations.
Here, in fact, was an equilibrium, and in such conditions how
was the attacking infantry to force its way forward, whether
by fire or movement or by both? France sought the answer
in the domain of artillery. Under the guidance of General
Langlois, she re-created the Napoleonic hurricane of case-shot
(represented in modern conditions by time shrapnel), while
from the doctrine formed by Generals Maillard and Bonnal there
came a system of infantry tactics derived fundamentally from
the tactics of the Napoleonic era. This, however, came later;
for the moment (viz. from 1871 to about 1890) the lead in
infantry training was admittedly in the hands of the Prussians.
German officers who had fought through the war had seen
the operations, generally speaking, either from the staff officer's
or from the regimental officer's point of view. To the former
and to many of the latter the most indelible impression of the
battlefield was what they called Massen-Druckebergertum or
" wholesale skulking." The rest, who had perhaps in most
cases led the brave remnant of their companies in the final
assaults, believed that battles were won by the individual
soldier and his rifle. The difference between the two may be
said to lie in this, that the first sought a remedy, the second a
method. The remedy was drill, the method extended order.
The extreme statement of the case in favour of drill pure and
simple is to be found in the famous anonymous pamphlet A
Summer Night's Dream, in which a return to the " old Prussian
fire-discipline " of Frederick's day was offered as the solution
of the problem, how to give " fire " its maximum efficacity.
Volleys and absolutely mechanical obedience to word of command
represent, of course, the most complete application of fire-power
that can be conceived. But the proposals of the extreme
close-order school were nevertheless merely pious aspirations,
not so much because of the introduction of the breechloader as
because the short-service " national " army can never be " drilled "
in the Frederician sense. The proposals of the other school were,
however, even more impracticable, in that they rested on the
hypothesis that all men were brave, and that, consequently,
all that was necessary was to teach the recruit how to shoot
and to work with other individuals in the squad or company.
Disorder of the firing line was accepted, not as an unavoidable
evil, but as a condition in which individuality had full play, and
1 The 1902 edition of Infantry Training indeed treated the new
scouts as a thin advanced firing line, but in 1907, at which date
important modifications began to be made in the " doctrine " of the
British Army, the scouts were expressly restricted to the old-fashioned
" skirmishing " duties.
as dense swarm formations were quite as vulnerable as an
ordinary line, it was an easy step from a thick line of "individuals"
to a thin one. The step was, in fact, made in the middle of the
war of 1870, though it was hardly noticed that extension only
became practicable in proportion as the quality of the enemy
decreased and the Germans became acclimatized to fire.
Between these extremes, a moderate school, with the emperor
William (who had more experience of the human being in battle
than any of his officers) at its head, spent a few years in groping
for close-order formations which admitted of control without
vulnerability, then laid down the principle and studied the
method of developing the greatest fire-power of which short-
service infantry was supposed capable, ultimately combined
the " drill " and teaching ideas in the German infantry regula-
tions of 1888, which at last abolished those of 1812 with their
multitudinous amendments.
The necessity for " teaching " arose partly out of the new
conditions of service and the relative rarity of wars. The
soldier could no longer learn the ordinary rules of conation*
safety in action and comfort in bivouac by experience, Oi the
and had to be taught. But it was still more the new modern
conditions of fighting that demanded careful individual batae-
training. Of old, the professional soldier (other than the man
belonging to light troops or the ground scout) was, roughly
speaking, either so far out of immediate danger as to preserve
his reasoning faculties, or so deep in battle that he became the
unconscious agent of his inborn or acquired instincts. But the
increased range of modern arms prolonged the time of danger,
and although (judged by casualty returns) the losses to-day
are far less than those which any regiment of Frederick's day
was expected to face without flinching, and actual fighting is
apparently spasmodic, the period in which the individual
soldier is subjected to the fear of bullets is greatly increased.
Zorndorf, the most severe of Frederick's battles, lasted seven
hours, Vionville twelve and Worth eleven. The battle of the
future in Europe, without being as prolonged as Liao-Yang,
Shaho and Mukden, will still be undecided twenty-four hours
after the advAiced guards have taken contact. Now, for a great
part of this time, the " old Prussian fire-discipline," which
above all aims at a rapid decision, will be not only unnecessary,
but actually hurtful to the progress of the battle as a whole.
As in Napoleon's day (for reasons presently to be mentioned)
the battle must resolve itself into a preparative and a decisive
phase.2 In the last no commander could desire a better instru-
ment (if such were attainable with the armies of to-day) than
Frederick's forged steel machine, in which every company was a
human mitrailleuse. But the preparatory combat not only
will be long, but also must be graduated in intensity at different
times and places in accordance with the commander's will,
and the Frederician battalion only attained its mechanical
perfection by the absolute and permanent submergence of the
individual qualities of each soldier, with the result that, although
it furnished the maximum effort in the minimum time, it was
useless once it fell apart into ragged groups. The individual
spirit of earnestness and intelligence in the use of ground by
small fractions, which in Napoleon's day made the combat
d'usure possible, was necessarily unknown in Frederick's. On
the other hand, graduation implies control on the part of the
leaders, and this the method of irregular swarms of individual
fighters imagined by the German progressives merely abdicates.
At most such swarms — however close or extended — can only
be tolerated as an evil that no human power can avert when the
battle has reached a certain stage of intensity. Even the latest
German Infantry Training (1906) is explicit on this point. " It
must never be forgotten that the obligation of abandoning
close order is an evil which can often be avoided when " &c. &c.
(par. 342). The consequences of this evil, further, are actually
less serious in proportion as the troops are well drilled — not to
2 This is no new thing, but belongs, irrespective of armament, to
the " War of masses." The king of Prussia's fighting instructions
of the roth of August 1813 lay down the principle as clearly as any
modern work.
530
INFANTRY
[TACTICS
an unnecessary and unattainable ideal of mechanical perfection,
but to a state of instinctive self-control in danger. Drill, there-
fore, carried to such a point that it has eliminated the bad habits
of the recruit without detriment to his good habits, is still the true
basis of all military training, whether training be required for the
swift controlled movements of bodies of infantry in close order,
for the cool and steady fire of scattered groups of skirmishers,
or for the final act of the resolute will embodied in the " decisive
attack." Unfortunately for the solution of infantry problems
" drill " and " close order " are often confused, owing chiefly
to the fact that in the 1870 battles the dissolution of close order
formations practically meant the end of control as control was
then understood. Both the material and objective, and the
inward and spiritual significances of " drill " are, however,
independent of " close order." In fact, in modern history,
when a resolute general has made a true decisive attack with
half-drilled troops, he has generally arrayed them in the closest
possible formations.
Drill is the military form of education by repetition and association
(see G. le Bon, Psychologic de I'education). Materially it consists in
Drltt. exercises frequently repeated by bodies of soldiers with
a view to ensuring the harmonious action of each indi-
vidual in the work to be performed by the mass — in a word, re-
hearsals. Physical " drill is based on physiology and gymnastics,
and aims at the development of the physique and the individual will
power.1 But the psychological or moral is incomparably the most
important side of drill. It is the method or art of discipline. Neither
self-control nor devotion in the face of imminent danger can as a rule
come from individual reasoning. A commander-in-chief keeps
himself free from the contact with the turmoil of battle so long as
he has to calculate, to study reports or to manoeuvre, and com-
manders of lower grades, in proportion as their duty brings them
into the midst of danger, are subjected to greater or less disturbing
influences. The man in the fighting line where the danger is greatest is
altogether the slave of the unconscious. Overtaxed infantry, whether
defeated or successful, have been observed to present an appearance
of absolute insanity. It is true that in the special case of great war
experience reason resumes part of its dominion in proportion as the
fight becomes the soldier's habitual milieu. Thus towards the end of
a long war men become skilful and cunning individual fighters;
sometimes, too, feelings of respect for the enemy arise and lead to
interchange of courtesies at the outposts, and it has also been
noticed that in the last stage of a long war men are less inclined to
sacrifice themselves. All this is " reason " as against inborn or
inbred " instinct." But in the modern world, which is normally at
peace, some method must be found of ensuring that the peace-
trained soldier will carry out his duties when his reason is sub-
merged. Now we know that the constant repetition of a certain
act, whether on a given impulse or of the individual's own volition,
will eventually make the performance of that act a reflex action.
For this reason peace-drilled troops have often defeated a war-
trained enemy, even when the motives for fighting were equally
powerful on each side. The mechanical performance of movements,
and loading and firing at the enemy, under the most disturbing
conditions can be ensured by bringing the required self-control from
the domain of reason into that of instinct. " L' education," says le
Bon, " est I'art defaire passer le conscient dans I'inconscient." Lastly,
the instincts of the recruit being those special to his race or nation,
which are the more powerful because they are operative through
many generations, it is the drill sergeant's business to bring about,
by disuse, atrophy of the instincts which militate against soldierly
efficiency, and to develop, by constant repetition and special pre-
paration, other useful instincts which the Englishman or Frenchman
or German does not as such possess. In short, as regards infantry
training, there is no real distinction between drill and education, save
in so far as the latter term covers instruction in small details of field
service which demand alertness, shrewdness and technical know-
ledge (as distinct from technical training). As understood by the
controversialists of the last generation, drill was the antithesis of
education. To-day, however, the principle of education having
prevailed against the old-fashioned notion of drill, it has been dis-
covered that after all drill is merely an intensive form of education.
This discovery (or rather definition and justification of an existing
empirical rule) is attributable chiefly to a certain school of French
officers, who seized more rapidly than civilians the significance of
modern psycho-physiology. In their eyes, a military body possesses
in a more marked degree than another, the primary requisite of the
psychological crowd," studied by Gustave le Bon, viz. the orienta-
tion of the wills of each and all members of the crowd in a determined
direction. Such a crowd generates a collective will that dominates
the wills of the individuals composing it. It coheres and acts on the
1 In the British Service, men whose nerves betray them on the
shooting range are ordered more gymnastics (Musketry Regulations,
1910).
common property of all the instincts and habits in which each
shares. Further it tends to extremes of baseness and heroism —
this being particularly marked in the military crowd — and lastly it
reacts to a stimulus. 'The last is the keynote of the whole subject of
infantry training as also, to a lesser degree, of that of the other arms.
The officer can be regarded practically as a hypnotist playing upon
the unconscious activities of his subject. In the lower grades, it is
immaterial whether reason, caprice or a fresh set of instincts stimu-
lated by an outside authority, set in motion the " suggestion." The
true leader, whatever the provenance of his " suggestion," makes it
effective by dominating the " psychological crowd " that he leads.
On the other hand, if he fails to do so, he is himself dominated by the
uncontrolled will of the crowd, and although leaderless mobs have at
times shown extreme heroism, it is far more usual to find them re-
verting to the primitive instinct of brutality or panic fear. A mob,
therefore, or a raw regiment, requires greater powers of suggestion
in its leader, whereas a thorough course of drill tunes the " crowd "
to respond to the stimulus that average officers can apply.
So far from diminishing, drill has increased in importance
under modern conditions of recruiting. It has merely changed
in form, and instead of being repressive it has become educative.
The force of modern short-service troops, as troops, is far sooner
spent than that of the old-fashioned automatic regiments, while
the reserve force of its component parts, remaining after the
dissolution, is far higher than of old. But this uncontrolled
force is liable to panic as well as amenable to an impulse of
self-sacrifice. In so far, then, it is necessary to adopt the catch-
word of the Billow school and to " organize disorder," and the
only known method of doing so is drill. " Individualism "
pure and simple had certainly a brief reign during and after
the South African War, especially in Great Britain, and both
France and Germany coquetted with " Boer tactics," until
the Russo-Japanese war brought military Europe back to the
old principles.
But the South African War came precisely at the point of time
when the controversies of 1870 had crystallized into a form of
tactics that was not suitable to the conditions of that
war, while about the same time the relations of infantry
and artillery underwent a profound change. As War.
regards the South African War, the clear atmosphere,
the trained sight of the Boers, and the alternation of level plain
and high concave kopjes which constituted the usual battlefield,
made the front to front infantry attacks not merely difficult but
almost impossible. For years, indeed ever since the Peninsular
War, the tendency of the British army to deploy early had
afforded a handle to European critics of its tactical methods.
It was a tendency that survived with the rest of the " linear ''
tradition. But in South Africa, owing to the special advantages
of the defenders, which denied to the assailant all reliable indica-
tions of the enemy's strength and positions, this early deployment
had to take a non-committal form — viz. many successive lines
of skirmishers. The application of this form was, indeed, made
easy by the openness of the ground, but like all " schematic "
formations, open or close, it could not be maintained under fire,
with the special disadvantage that the extensions were so wide
as to make any manoeuvring after the fight had cleared up a
situation a practical impossibility. Hence some preconceived
idea of an objective was an essential preliminary, and as the
Boer mounted infantry hardly ever stood to defend any particular
position to the last (as they could always renew the fight at some
other point in their vast territory), the preconceived idea was
always, after the early battles, an envelopment in which the
troops told off to the frontal holding attack were required, not to
force their advance to its logical conclusion, but to keep the fight
alive until the flank attack made itself felt. The principal
tendency of British infantry tactics after the Boer War was
therefore quite naturally, under European as well as colonial
conditions, to deploy at the outset in great depth, i.e. in many
lines of skirmishers, each line, when within about 1400 yds. of
the enemy's position, extending to intervals of 10 to 20 paces
between individuals. The reserves were strong and their import-
ance was well marked in the 1902 training manual, but their
functions were rather to extend or feed the firing line, to serve
as a rallying point in case of defeat and to take up the pursuit
(par. 220, Infantry Training, 1902), than to form the engine of
TACTICS]
INFANTRY
"Die-
Mae.
a decisive attack framed by the commander-in-chief after
"engaging everywhere and then seeing" as Napoleon did.
The 1905 regulations adhered to this theory of the attack in the
main, only modifying a number of tactical prescriptions which
Formula- ^a<^ not Proved satisfactory after their transplantation
tionofthe from South Africa to Europe, but after the Russo-
British Japanese War a series of important amendments was
issued which gave greater force and still greater elas-
ticity to the attack procedure, and in 1909 the tactical
" doctrine " of the British army was definitively formulated in
Field Service Regulations, paragraph 102, of which after enumerat-
ing the advantages and disadvantages of the " preconceived
idea " system, laid it down, as the normal procedure of the
British Army, that the general should " obtain the decision by
manoeuvre on the battlefield with a large general reserve maintained
in his own hand " and " strike with his reserve at the right place
and lime."
The rehabilitation of the Napoleonic attack idea thus frankly
accepted in Great Britain had taken place in France several
years before the South African War, and neither this war nor
that in Manchuria effectively shook the faith of the French army
in the principle, while on the other hand Germany remains
faithful to the " preconceived idea," both in strategy and
tactics.1 This essential difference in the two rival " doctrines "
is intimately connected with the revival of the Napoleonic
artillery attack, in the form of concentrated time shrapnel.
The Napoleonic artillery preparation, it will be remembered, was
a fire of overwhelming intensity delivered against the selected point
of the enemy's position, at the moment of the massed and decisive
assault of the reserves. In Napoleon's time the artillery went in to
within 300 or 400 yds. range for this act, i.e. in front of the infantry,
whereas now the guns fire over the heads of the infantry and con-
centrate shells instead of guns on the vital point. The principle is,
however, the same. A model infantry attack in the Napoleonic
manner was that of Okasaki's brigade on the Terayama hill at the
battle of Shaho, described by Sir Ian Hamilton in his Staff Officer's
Scrap-Book. The Japanese, methodical and cautious as tney were,
.only sanctioned a pure open force assault as a last resort. .Then the
'brigadier Okasaki, a peculiarly resolute leader, arrayed his brigade
in a " schematic " attack formation of four lines, the first two in
single rank, the third in line and the fourth in company columns.
Covered by a powerful converging shrapnel fire, the brigade covered
the first 900 yds. of open plain without firing a shot. Then, however,
it disappeared from sight amongst the houses of a village, and the
spectators watched the thousands of flashes fringing the further edge
that indicated a fire-fight at decisive range (the Terayama was about
600 yds. beyond the houses). Forty minutes passed, and the army
commander Kuroki said, " He cannot go forward. We are in check
to-day all along the line." But at that moment Okasaki's men, no
longer in a " schematic " formation but in many irregularly disposed
groups — some of a dozen men and some of seventy, some widely
extended and some practically in close order — rushed forward at full
speed over 600 yds. of open ground, and stormed the Terayama with
the bayonet.
Such an attack as that at the battle of Shaho is rare, but so
it has always been with masterpieces of the art of war. We have
only to multiply the front of attack by two and the
The forces engaged by five — and to find the resolute
general to lead them — to obtain the ideal decisive
attack of a future European war. Instead of the bare
open plain over which the advance to decisive range was made,
a European general would in most cases dispose of an area
of spinneys, farm-houses and undulating fields. The schematic
approach-march would be replaced in France and England
by a forward movement of bodies in close order, handy
enough to utilize the smallest covered ways. Then the fire
of both infantry and artillery would be augmented to its
maximum intensity, overpowering that of the defence, and
the whole of the troops opposite the point to be stormed would
be thrown forward for the bayonet charge. The formation for
1 In 1870 the " preconceived idea " was practically confined to
strategy, and the tactical improvisations of the Germans themselves
deranged the execution of the plan quite as often as the^ct of the
enemy. Of late years, therefore, the " preconceived idea " has been
imposed on tactics also in that country. Special care and study is
given to the once despised " early deployments " in cases where a
fight is part of the " idea," and to the difficult problem of breaking
off the action, when it takes a form that is incompatible with the
development of the main scheme.
decisive
attack.
his scarcely matters. What is important is speed and the
will to conquer, and for this purpose small bodies (sections,
lalf -companies or companies), not in the close order of the drill
>ook but grouped closely about the leader who inspires and
controls them, are as potent an instrument as a Frederician
ine or. a Napoleonic column.
Controversy, in fact, does not turn altogether on the method
of the assault, or even on the method of obtaining the fire-
superiority of guns and rifles that justifies it. Although one
nation may rely on its guns more than on the rifles, or vke versa,
all are agreed that at decisive range the firing line should
contain as many men as can use their rifles effectually. Perhaps
the most disputed point is the form of the " approach-march,"
viz. the dispositions and movements of the attacking infantry
setween about 1400 and about 600 yds. from the position of
he enemy.
The condition of the assailant's infantry when it reaches
decisive ranges is largely governed by the efforts it has expended
and the losses it has suffered in its progress. Some-
imes even after a firing line of some strength has been JJ^
established at decisive range, it may prove too difficult
or too costly for the supports (sent up from the rear
to replace casualties and to augment fire-power) to make their
way to the front. Often, again, it may be within the commander's
intentions that his troops at some particular point in the line
should not be committed to decisive action before a given
time — perhaps not at all. It is obvious then that no " normal "
attack procedure which can be laid down in a drill book (though
from time to time the attempt has been made, as in the French
regulations of 1875) can meet all cases. But here again, though
all armies formally and explicitly condemn the normal attack,
each has its own well-marked tendencies.
* The German regulations of 1906 define the offensive as
" transporting fire towards the enemy, if necessary to his
immediate proximity "; the bayonet attack " con- cumat
firms " the victory. Every attack begins with deploy- views
ment into extended order, and the leading line on the
advances as close to the enemy as possible before
opening fire. In ground offering cover, the firing
line has practically its maximum density at the outset. In
open ground, however, half-sections, groups and individuals,
widely spaced out, advance stealthily one after the other
till all are in position. It is on this position, called the
" first fire position " and usually about 1000 yds. from the
enemy, that the full force of the attack is deployed, and from
this position, as simultaneously as possible, it opens the fight
for fire-superiority. Then, each unit covering the advance of
its neighbours, the whole line fights its way by open force to
within charging distance. If at any point a decision is not
desired, it is deliberately made impossible by employing there
such small forces as possess no offensive power. Where the
attack is intended to be pushed home, the infantry units employed
act as far as possible simultaneously, resolutely and in great
force (see the German Infantry Regulations, 1906, §§ 324
et seq.).
While in Germany movement " transports the fire," in France
fire is regarded as the way to make movement possible. It is
considered (see Grandmaison, Dressage de I'infanterie) that a
premature and excessive deployment enervates the attack,
that the ground (i.e. covered ways of approach for small columns,
not for troops showing a fire front) should be used as long as
possible to march " en troupe " and that a firing line should only
be formed when it is impossible to progress without acting upon
the enemy's means of resistance. Thereafter each unit, in such
order as its chief can keep, should fight its way forward, and
help others to do so — like Okasaki's brigade in the last stage of
its attack— utilizing bursts of fire or patches of wood or depres-
sions in the ground, as each is profitable or available to assist
the advance. " From the moment when a fighting unit is
' uncoupled,' its action must be ruled by two conditions, and
by those only: the one material, an object to be reached; the
other moral, the will to reach the object."
532
INFANTRY
[ORGANIZATION
The British Field Service Regulations of 1909 are in spirit
more closely allied to the French than to the German. " The
climax of the infantry attack is the assault, which is made possible
by superiority of fire " is the principle (emphasized in the book
itself by the use of conspicuous type), and a " gradual building
up of the firing line within close range of the position," coupled
with the closest artillery support, and the final blow of the
reserves delivered " unexpectedly and in the greatest possible
strength " are indicated as the means.1
The defence, as it used to be understood, needs no description.
To-day in all armies the defence is looked upon not as a means
of winning a battle, but as a means of temporizing
Defence. ^^ avojdmg tne decision until the commander of
the defending party is enabled, by the general military situation
or by the course arid results of the defensive battle itself, to
take the offensive. In the British Field Service Regulations it
is laid down that when an army acts on the defensive no less
than half of it should if possible be earmarked, suitably posted
and placed under a single commander, for the purpose of deliver-
ing a decisive counter-attack. The object of the purely defensive
portion, too, is not merely to hold the enemy's firing line in
check, but to drive it back so that the enemy may be forced
to use up his local reserve resources to keep the fight alive. A
firing line covered and steadied by entrenchments, and restless
local reserves ever on the look-out for opportunities of partial
counterstrokes, are the instruments of this policy.
A word must be added on the use of entrenchments by infantry,
a subject the technical aspect of which is fully dealt with and illus-
trated in FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT : Field Defences.
Entrench- Entrenchments of greater or less strength by themselves
meats. j^ye ajways \}een use(i by infantry on the defensive,
especially in the wars of position of the I7th and i8th centuries.
In the Napoleonic and modern " wars of movement," they are re-
garded, not as a passive defence — they have long ceased to presenf
a physical barrier to assault — but as fire positions so prepared as
to be defensible by relatively few men. Their purpose is, by econo-
mizing force elsewhere, to give the maximum strength to the troops
told off for the counter-offensive. In the later stages of the American
Civil War, and also in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905 — each
in its way an example of a " war of positions " — the assailant has
also made use of the methods of fortification to* secure every suc-
cessive step of progress in the attack. The usefulness and limitations
of this procedure are defined in generally similar terms in the most
recent training manuals of nearly every European army. Section
136, § 7 of the British Infantry Training (1905, amended 1907)
says: " During the process of establishing a superiority of fire,
successive fire positions will be occupied by the firing line. As a rule
those affording natural cover will be chosen, but if none exist and the
intensity of the hostile fire preclude any immediate further advance,
it may be expedient for the firing line to create some. This hastily
constructed protection will enable the attack to cope with the
defender's fire and thus prepare the way for a farther advance. The
construction of cover during an attack, however, will entail delay
and a temporary loss of fire effect and should therefore be resorted to
only when absolutely necessary. ... As soon as possible the advance
should be resumed, &c." The German regulations are as follows
(Infantry Training, 1906, § 313): " In the offensive the entrenching
tool may be used where it is desired, for the moment, to content one's
self with maintaining the ground gained. . . . The entrenching tool
is only to be used with the greatest circumspection, because of the
great difficulty of getting an extended line to go forward under fire
when it has expended much effort in digging cover for itself. The
construction of trenches must never paralyze the desire for the
irresistible advance, and above all must not kill the spirit of the
offensive."
ORGANIZATION AND EQUIPMENT
The organization of infantry varies rather more than that of other
arms in different countries. Taking the British system first, the
battalion (and not as elsewhere the regiment of two, three or more
battalions) is the administrative and manoeuvre unit. It is about
looo strong, and is commanded by a lieutenant-colonel, who has a
major and an adjutant (captain or lieutenant) to assist him, and an
officer of lieutenant's or captain's rank (almost invariably pro-
moted from the ranks), styled the quartermaster, to deal with
supplies, clothing, &c. There are eight companies of a nominal
strength of about 120 each. These are commanded by captains (or
1 In February 1910 a new Infantry Training was said to be in
preparation. The I.T. of 1905 is in some degree incompatible with
the later and ruling doctrine of the F.S. Regulations, and in the winter
of 1909 the Army Council issued a memorandum drawing attention
to the different conceptions of the decisive attack as embodied in the
latter and as revealed in manoeuvre procedure.
by junior majors), and each captain has or should have two lieu-
tenants or second lieutenants to assist him. Machine guns are in
Great Britain distributed to the battalions and not massed in
permanent batteries. In addition there are various regimental
details, such as orderly-room staff, cooks, cyclists, signallers, band and
ambulance men. The company is divided into four sections of
thirty men each and commanded by sergeants. A half-company of
two sections is under the control of a subaltern officer. A minor
subdivision of the section into two " squads " is made unless the
numbers are insufficient to warrant it. In-administrative duties
the captain's principal assistant is the colour-sergeant or pay-
sergeant, who is not assigned to a section command. The lieutenant-
colonel, the senior major and the adjutant are mounted. The
commanding officer is assisted by a battalion staff, at the head of
which is the adjutant. The sergeant-major holds a " warrant "
from the secretary of state for war, as does the bandmaster. Other
members of the battalion staff are non-commissioned officers,
appointed by the commanding officer. The most important of these
is the quartermaster-sergeant, who is the assistant of the^ quarter-
master. The two colours (" king's " and " regimental ") are in
Great Britain carried by subalterns and escorted by colour-sergeants
(see COLOURS).
The " tactical " unit of infantry is now the company, which varies
very greatly in strength in the different armies. Elsewhere the
company of 250 rifles is almost universal, but in Great Britain the
company has about lio men in the ranks, forming four sections.
These sections, each of about 28 rifles, are the normal " fire-units,"
that is to say, the unit which delivers its fire at the orders of and with
the elevation and direction given by its commander. This, it will be
observed, gives little actual executive work for the junior officers.
But a more serious objection than this (which is modified in practice
by arrangement and circumstances) is the fact that a small unit is
more affected by detachments than a large one. In the home
battalions of the Regular Army such detachments are very large,
what with finding drafts for the foreign service battalions and for
instructional courses, while in the Territorial Force, where it is so
rarely possible to assemble all the men at once, the company as
organized is often too small to drill as such. On the other hand,
the full war-strength company is an admirable unit for control and
manoeuvre in the field, owing to its rapidity of movement, handiness
in using accidents of ground and cover, and susceptibility to the word
of command of one man. But as soon as its strength falls below
about 80 the advantages cease to counterbalance the defects. The
sections become too small as fire-units to effect really useful results,
and the battalion commander has to co-ordinate and to direct 8 com-,
paratively ineffective units instead of 4 powerful ones. The British
regular army, therefore, has since the South African War, adopted
the double company as the unit of training. This gives at all times a
substantial unit for fire and manoeuvre training, but the disad-
vantage of having a good many officers only half employed is accentu-
ated. As to the tactical value of the large or double company,
opinions differ. Some hold that as the small company is a survival
from the days when the battalion was the tactical unit and the
company was the unit of volley-fire, it is unsuited to the modern
exigencies that have broken up the old rigid line into several
independent and co-operating fractions. Others reply that the strong
continental company of 250 rifles came into existence in Prussia in
the years after Waterloo, not from tactical reasons, but because the
state was too poor to maintain a large establishment of officers, and
that in 1870, at any rate, there were many instances of its tactical
unwieldiness. The point that is common to both organizations is
the fact that there is theoretically one subaltern to every 50 or 60
rifles, and this reveals an essential difference between the British
and the Continental systems, irrespective of the sizes or groupings of
companies. The French or German subaltern effectively commands
his 50 men as a unit, whereas the British subaltern supervises two
groups of 25 to 30 men under responsible non-commissioned officers.
That is to say, a British sergeant may find himself in such a position
that he has to be as expert in controlling and obtaining good results
from collective fire as a German lieutenant. For reasons mentioned
in ARMY, § 40, non-commissioned officers, of the type called by
Kipling the " backbone of the army," are almost unobtainable with
the universal service system, and the lowest unit that possesses any
independence is the lowest unit commanded by an officer. But apart
from the rank of the fire-unit commander, it is questionable whether
the section, as understood in England, is not too small a fire-unit, for
European warfare at any rate. The regulations of the various
European armies, framed for these conditions, practically agree that
the fire-unit should be commanded by an officer and should be large
enough to ensure good results from collective fire. The number of
rifles meeting this second condition is 50 to 80 and their organization a
" section " (corresponding to the British half-company) under a
subaltern officer. The British army has, of course, to be organized
and trained for an infinitely wider range of activity, and no one'
would suggest the abolition of the small section as a fire-unit. But
in a great European battle it would be almost certainly better to
group the two sections into a real unit for fire effect. (For questions
of infantry fire tactics see RIFLE: § Musketry.)
On the continent of Europe the " regiment," which is a unit, acting
in peace and war as such, consists normally of three battalions, and
INFANT SCHOOLS
533
each battalion of four companies or 1000 rifles. The company of I
250 rifles is commanded by a captain, who is mounted. In France
the company has four sections, commanded in war by the three
subalterns and the " adjudant " (company sergeant-major) ; the
sections are further grouped in pairs to constitute pelotons (platoons)
or half-companies under the senior of the two section leaders. In
peace there are two subalterns only, and the peloton is the normal
junior officer's command. The battalion is commanded by a major
(commandant or strictly chef de bataillon), the regiment (three or
four battalions) by a colonel with a lieutenant-colonel as second.
An organization of 3-battalion regiments and 3-company battalions
was proposed in 1910.
In Germany, where what we have called the continental company
originated, the regiment is of three battalions under majors, and the
battalion of four companies commanded by captains. The company
is divided into three Zuge (sections), each under a subaltern, who has
as his second a sergeant-major, a " vice-sergeant-major "ora" sword-
knot ensign " (aspirant officer). In war there is one additional
officer for company. The Zug at war-strength has therefore about
80 rifles in the ranks, as compared with the French " section " of
50, and the British section of 30.
The system prevailing in the United States since the reorganization
of 1901 is somewhat remarkable. The regiment, which is a tactical
as well as an administrative unit, consists of three battalions. Each
battalion has four companies of (at war-strength) 3 officers and 150
rifles each. The regiment in war therefore consists of about 1800
rifles in three small and handy battalions of 600 each. The circum-
stances in which this army serves, and in particular the maintenance
of small frontier posts, have always imposed upon subalterns the
responsibilities of small independent commands, and it is fair to
assume that the 75 rifles at a subaltern's disposal are regarded
as a tactical unit.
In sum, then, the infantry battalion is in almost every country
about 1000 rifles strong in four companies. In the United States it
is 600 strong in four companies, and in Great Britain it is 1000 strong
in eight. The captain's command is usually 200 to 250 men, in the
United States 150, and in Great Britain 120. The lieutenant or
second lieutenant commands in Germany 80 rifles, in France 50,
in the United States 75, as a unit of fire and manoeuvre. In Great
Britain he commands, with relatively restricted powers, 60.
A short account of the infantry equipments — knapsack or valise,
belt, haversack, &c. — in use in various countries will be found in
UNIFORMS, NAVAL AND MILITARY. The armament of infantry is, in
all countries, the magazine rifle (see RIFLE) and bayonet (q.v.), for
officers and for certain under-officers sword (q.v.) and pistol (q.v.).
Ammunition (q.v.) in the British service is carried (a) by the individual
soldier, (b) by the reserves (mules and carts) in regimental charge,
some of which in action are assembled from the battalions of a brigade
to form a brigade reserve, and (c) by the ammunition columns.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The following works are selected to show (i) the
historical development of the arm, and (2) the different " doctrines "
of to-day as to its training and functions : — Ardant du Picq, Etudes
sur le combat; C. W. C. Oman, The Art of War: Middle Ages;
Biottot, Les Grands Inspires — Jeanne d'Arc; Hardy de P6rini,
Bataittes franc.aises ; C. H. Firth, Cromwell's Army; German official
history of Frederick the Great's wars, especially Enter Schlesische
Krieg, vol. i.; Susane, Histoire de I'infanterie franchise ; French
General Staff, La Tactique au XVIII™ siede— finfanterie and La
Tactique et la discipline dans les armees de la Revolution — General
Schauenbourg; J. W. Fortescue, History of the British Army; Moor-
som, History of the $2nd Regiment; de Grandmaison, Dressage de
I'infanterie (Paris, 1908); works of W. v. Scherff; F. N. Maude,
Evolution of Infantry Tactics and Attack and Defence; [Meckel] Ein
Sommernachtstraum (Eng. trans, in United Service Magazine, 1890);
L Meckel. Taktik; Malachowski, Scharfe- und Reyuetaktik; H.
nglois, Enseienements de deux guerres; F. Hoenig, Tactics of
the future and Twenty-four Hours ofMoltke's Strategy (Eng. trans.) ;
works of A. von Boguslowski ; British Officers' Reports on the Russo-
Japanese War; H. W. L. Hime, Stray Military Papers ; Grange, " Les
Realit6s du champ de bataille — VJoerth"(Rev.d'infanterie, 1908-1909) ;
V. Lindenau, " The Boer War and Infantry Attack " (Journal R.
United Service Institution, 1902-1903) ; Janin, " Apergus sur la
tactique — Mandchourie " (Rev. d'infanterie, 1909) ; Soloviev, " In-
fantry Combat in the Russo-Jap. War " (Eng. trans. Journal R. U.S.I.,
1908) ; British Official Field Service Regulations, part i. (1909), and
Infantry Training (1905); German drill regulations of 1906 (Fr.
trans.); French drill regulations of 1904; Japanese regulations 1907
(Eng. trans.). The most important journals devoted to the infantry
arm are the French official Revue d'infanterie (Paris and Limoges),
and the Journal of the United States Infantry Association
(Washington, D. C.). (C. F. A.)
INFANT SCHOOLS. The provision in modern times of
systematized training for children below the age when elementary
education normally begins may be dated from the village school
at Waldbach founded by Jean Frederic Oberlin in 1774. Robert
Owen started an infant school at New Lanark in 1800, and
great interest in the question was taken in Great Britain during
the early years of the igth century, leading to the foundation in
1836 of the Home and Colonial School Society for the training
of teachers in infant schools; this in turn reacted upon other
countries, especially Germany. Further impetus and a new
direction were given to the movement by Friedrich W. A.
Froebel, and the methods of training adopted for children
between the ages of three and six have in most countries been
influenced by, if not based on, that system of directed activities
which was the foundation of the type of " play-school " called
by him the Kinder Garten, or " children's garden." The growing
tendency in England to lay stress on the mental training of very
young children, and to use the " infant school " as preparatory
to the elementary school, has led to a considerable reaction;
medical officers of health have pointed out the dangers of
infection to which children up to the age of five are specially
liable when congregated together — also the physical effects
of badly ventilated class-rooms, and there is a consensus of
opinion that formal mental teaching is directly injurious before
the age of six or even seven years. At the same time the increase
in the industrial employment of married women, with the
consequent difficulty of proper care of young children by the
mother in the home, has somewhat shifted the ground from a
purely educational to a social and physical aspect. While it
is agreed that the ideal place for a young child is the home under
the supervision of its mother, the present industrial conditions
often compel a mother to go out to work, and leave her children
either shut up alone, or free to play about the streets, or in the
care of a neighbour or professional " minder." In each case
the children must suffer. The provision by a public authority
of opportunities for suitable training for such children seems
therefore a necessity. The moral advantages gained by freeing
the child from the streets, by the superintendence of a trained
teacher over the games, by the early inculcation of habits of
discipline and obedience; the physical advantages of cleanliness
and tidiness, and the opportunity of disclosing incipient diseases
and weaknesses, outweigh the disadvantages which the opponents
of infant training adduce. It remains to give a brief account of
what is done in Great Britain, the United States of America,
and certain other countries. A valuable report was issued for
the English Board of Education by a Consultative Committee
upon the school attendance of children below the age of five
(vol. 22 of the Special Reports, 1909), which also gives some
account of the provision of day nurseries or creches for
babies.
United Kingdom. — Up to 1905 it was the general English
practice since the Education Act of 1870 for educational
authorities to provide facilities for the teaching of children
between three and five years old whose parents desired it. In
1905, of an estimated 1,467,709 children between those ages,
583,268 were thus provided for in England and Wales. In 1005
the objections, medical and educational, already stated, coupled
with the increasing financial strain on the local educational
authorities, led to the insertion in the code of that year of Article
53, as follows: " Where the local education authority have so
determined in the case of any school maintained by them,
children who are under five years may be refused admission
to that school." In consequence in 1907 the numbers were
found to have fallen to 459,034 out of an estimated 1,480,550
children, from 39-74% in 1905 to 31%. In the older type of
infant school stress was laid on the mental preparation of children
for the elementary teaching which was to come later. This
forcing on of young children was encouraged by the system
under which the government grant was allotted; children in
the infant division earned an annual grant of 173. per head,
on promotion to the upper school this would be increased to
22s. In 1909 the system was altered; a rate of 2 is. 4d. was
fixed as the grant for all children above five, and the grant for
those below the age was reduced to 133. 4d. Different methods
of training the teachers in these schools as well as the children
themselves have been now generally adopted. These methods
are largely based on the Froebelian plan, and greater attention
is being paid to physical development. In one respect England
is perhaps behind the more progressive of other European
534
INFINITE
countries, viz. in providing facilities for washing and attending
to the personal needs of the younger children. There is no
Jemme de service as in Belgium on the staff of English schools.
While in Ireland the children below the age of five attend the
elementary schools in much the same proportion as in England
and Wales, in Scotland it has never been the general custom
for such children to attend school.
United States of America. — In no country has the kinder-
garten system taken such firm root, and the provision made for
children below the compulsory age is based upon it. In 1873
there were 42 kindergartens with 1252 pupils; in 1898 the
numbers had risen to 2884 with 143,720 pupils; more than half
these were private schools, managed by charitable institutions
or by individuals for profit. In 1904-1905 there were 3176
public kindergartens' with 205,118 pupils.
Austria Hungary. — Provision in Austria is made for children under
six by two types of institution, the Day Nursery (Kinderbewahran-
stalten) and the Kindergarten. In 1872 as the result of a State
Commission the Kindergarten was established in the state system of
education. Its aim is to "confirm and complete the home education
of children under school age, so that through regulated exercise of
body and mind they may be prepared for institution in the primary
school." No regular teaching in ordinary school subjects is allowed;
games, singing and handwork, and training of speech and observation
by objects, tales and gardening are the means adopted. The training
for teachers in these schools is regulated by law. No children are to
be received in a kindergarten till the beginning of the fourth and must
leave at the end of the sixth year. In 1902-1903 there were 77,002
children in kindergartens and 74,110 in the day nurseries. In
Hungary a law was passed in 1891 providing for the education and
care of children between three and six, either by asyle or nurseries
open all the year round in communes which contribute from £830 to
£1250 in state taxation, or during the summer in those whose contri-
bution is less. Communes above the higher sum must provide
kindergartens. In 1904 there were over 233,000 children in such
institutions.
Belgium. — For children between three and six education and
training are provided by Ecoles gardiennes or Jardins d'enfants.
They are free but not compulsory, are provided and managed by the
communes, receive a state grant, and are under government inspec-
tion. Schools provided by private individuals or institutions must
conform to the conditions of the communal schools. There is a
large amount of voluntary assistance especially in the provision of
clothes and food for the poorer children. The state first recognized
these schools in 1833. In 1881 there were 708 schools with accommo-
dation for over 56,000 children; in 1907 there were 2837 and
264.845 children, approximately one-half of the total number of
children in the country between the ages of three and six. In 1890
the minister of Public Instruction issued a code of rules on which is
based the organization of thcEcoles gardiennes throughout Belgium,
but some of the communes have regulations of their own. A special
examination for teachers in the Ecoles gardiennes was started in
1898. All candidates must pass this examination before a certificat
de capacite is granted. The training includes a course in Froebelian
methods. While Froebel's system underlies the training in these
schools, the teaching is directed very much towards the practical
education of the child, special stress being laid on manual dexterity.
Reading, writing and arithmetic are also allowed in the classes for
the older children. A marked feature of the Belgian schools is the
close attention paid to health and personal cleanliness. In all
schools there is a femme de service, not a teacher, but an attendant,
whose duty it is to see to the tidiness and cleanliness of the children,
and to their physical requirements.
France.— The first regular infant school was established in Paris at
the beginning of the igth century and styled a Satte d'essai. In
1828 a model school, called a Satte d'asile, was started, followed
shortly by similar institutions all over France. State recognition
and inspection were granted, and by 1836 there were over 800 in
Paris and the provinces. In 1848 they became establishments of
public instruction, and the name Ecole maternelle which they have
since borne was given them. Every commune with 2000 inhabitants
must have one of these schools or a Classe enfantine. Admission is
free, but not compulsory, for children between two and six. Food
and clothes are provided in exceptional cases. Formal mental
instruction is still given to a large extent, and the older children are
taught reading, writing and arithmetic. Though the staffs of the
school include femmes de service, not so much attention is paid to
cleanliness as in Belgium, nor is so much stress laid on hygiene. In
1906-1907 there were 4111 public and private Ecoles maternelles in
France, with over 650,000 pupils. The closing of the clerical schools
has led to some diminution in the numbers.
Germany. — There are two classes of institution in Germany for
children between the ages of 2$ or 3 and 6. These are the Klein-
kinderbewahranstalten and Kindergarten. The first are primarily
social in purpose, and afford a place for the children of mothers who
have to leave their homes for work. These institutions, principally
conducted by religious or charitable societies, remain open all day
and meals are provided. Many of them have a kindergarten attached,
and others provide some training on Froebelian principles. The
kindergartens proper are also principally in private hands, though
most municipalities grant financial assistance. They are conducted
on advanced Froebelian methods, and formal teaching in reading,
writing and arithmetic is excluded. In Cologne, Diisseldorf, Frank-
fort and Munich there are municipal schools. The state gives no
recognition to these institutions and they form no part of the public
system of education.
Switzerland. — In the German speaking cantons the smaller towns
and villages provide for the younger children by Bewahranstalten,
generally under private management with public financial help.
The larger towns provide kindergartens where the training is free
but not compulsory for children from four to six. These are generally
conducted on Froebel's system and there is no formal instruction.
In the French speaking cantons the Ecoles enfantines are recognized
as the first stage of elementary education. They are free and not
compulsory for children from three to six years of age. (C. WE.)
INFINITE (from Lat. in, not, finis, end or limit; cf. findere,
to cleave), a term applied in common usage to anything of vast
size. Strictly, however, the epithet implies the absence of all
limitation. As such it is used specially in (i) theology and
metaphysics, (2) mathematics.
i. Tracing the history of the world to the earliest date for
which there is any kind of evidence, we are faced with the
problem that for everything there is a prior something: the mind
is unable to conceive an absolute beginning (" ex nihilo nihil ").
Mundane distances become trivial when compared with the
distance from the earth of the sun and still more of other
heavenly bodies: hence we infer infinite space. Similarly by
continual subdivision we reach the idea of the infinitely small.
For these inferences there is indeed no actual physical evidence:
infinity is a mental concept. As such the term has played an
important part in the philosophical and theological speculation.
In early Greek philosophy the attempt to arrive at a physical
explanation of existence led the Ionian thinkers to postulate
various primal elements (e.g. water, fire, air) or simply the
infinite ri> &wti.pov (see IONIAN SCHOOL). Both Plato and
Aristotle devoted much thought to the discussion as to which
is most truly real, the finite objects of sense, or the universal
idea of each thing laid up in the mind of God; what is the nature
of that unity which lies behind the multiplicity and difference
of perceived objects ? The same problem, variously expressed,
has engaged the attention of philosophers throughout the ages.
In Christian theology God is conceived as infinite in power,
knowledge and goodness, uncreated and immortal: in some
Oriental systems the end of man is absorption into the infinite,
his perfection the breaking down of his human limitations.
The metaphysical and theological conception is open to the
agnostic objection that the finite mind of man is by hypothesis
unable to cognize or apprehend not only an infinite object, but
even the very conception of infinity itself; from this stand-
point the infinite is regarded as merely a postulate, as it were an
unknown quantity (cf. V - 1 in mathematics). The same difficulty
may be expressed in another way if we regard the infinite as
unconditioned (cf. Sir William Hamilton's " philosophy of the
unconditioned," and Herbert Spencer's doctrine of the infinite
"unknowable''); if it is argued that knowledge of a thing
arises only from the recognition of its differences from other
things (i.e. from its limitations), it follows that knowledge of
the infinite is impossible, for the infinite is by hypothesis
unrelated.
With this conception of the infinite as absolutely unconditioned
should be compared what may be described roughly as lesser
infinities which can be philosophically conceived and mathe-
matically demonstrated. Thus a point, which is by definition
infinitely small, is as compared with a line a unit: the line is
infinite, made up of an infinite number of points, any pair of
which have an infinite number of points between them. The
line itself, again, in relation to the plane is a unit, while the plane
is infinite, i.e. made up of an infinite number of lines; hence
the plane is described as doubly infinite in relation to the point,
and a solid as trebly infinite. This is Spinoza's theory of the
NATURE]
INFINITESIMAL CALCULUS
535
" infinitely infinite," the limiting notion of infinity being of a
numerical, quantitative series, each term of which is a qualitative
determination itself quantitatively little, e.g. a line which is
quantitatively unlimited (i.e. in length) is qualitatively limited
when regarded as an infinitely small unit of a plane. A similar
relation exists in thought between the various grades of species
and genera; the highest genus is the " infinitely infinite,"
each subordinated genus being infinite in relation to the
particulars which it denotes, and finite when regarded as a unit
in a higher genus.
2. In mathematics, the term " infinite " denotes the result of
increasing a variable without limit; similarly, the term " in-
finitesimal," meaning indefinitely small, denotes the result
of diminishing the value of a variable without limit, with the
reservation that it never becomes actually zero. The application
of these conceptions distinguishes ancient from modern mathe-
matics. Analytical investigations revealed the existence of
series or sequences which had no limit to the number of terms,
as for example the fraction i/(i—x) which on division gives the
series. i+x+x*+ . . . . ; the discussion of these so-called
infinite sequences is given in the articles SERIES and FUNCTION.
The doctrine of geometrical continuity (q.v.) and the application
of algebra to geometry, developed in the i6th and I7th centuries
mainly by Kepler and Descartes, led to the discovery of many
properties which gave to the notton of infinity, as a localized
space conception, a predominant importance. A line became
continuous, returning into itself by way of infinity; two parallel
lines intersect in a point at infinity; all circles pass through
two fixed points at infinity (the circular points); two spheres
intersect in a fixed circle at infinity; an asymptote became a
tangent at infinity; the foci of a conic became the intersections
of the tangents from the circular points at infinity; the centre
of a conic the pole of the line at infinity, &c. In analytical
geometry the line at infinity plays an important part in trilinear
co-ordinates. These subjects are treated in GEOMETRY. A
notion related to that of infinitesimals is presented in the Greek
" method of exhaustion "; the more perfect conception, however,
only dates from the i7th century, when it led to the infinitesimal
calculus. A curve came to be treated as a sequence of infini-
tesimal straight lines; a tangent as the extension of an infini-
tesimal chord; a surface or area as a sequence of infinitesimally
narrow strips, and a solid as a collection of infinitesimally small
cubes (see INFINITESIMAL CALCULUS).
INFINITESIMAL CALCULUS, i. The infinitesimal calculus
is the body of rules and processes by means of which continuously
varying magnitudes are dealt with in mathematical analysis.
The name " infinitesimal " has been applied to the calculus
because most of the leading results were first obtained by means
of arguments about " infinitely small " quantities; the " in-
finitely small " or " infinitesimal " quantities were vaguely con-
ceived as being neither zero nor finite but in some intermediate,
nascent or evanescent, state. There was no necessity for this
confused conception, and it came to be understood that it can
be dispensed with; but the calculus was not developed by its
first founders in accordance with logical principles from precisely
defined notions, and it gained adherents rather through the
impressiveness and variety of the results that could be obtained
by using it than through the cogency of the arguments by which
it was established. A similar statement might be made in
regard to other theories included in mathematical analysis, such,
for instance, as the theory of infinite series. Many, perhaps all,
of the mathematical and physical theories which have survived
have had a similar history — a history which may be divided
roughly into two periods: a period of construction, in which
results are obtained from partially formed notions, and a period
of criticism, in which the fundamental notions become progres-
sively more and more precise, and are shown to be adequate
bases for the constructions previously built upon them. These
periods usually overlap. Critics of new theories are never lacking.
On the other hand, as E. W. Hobson has well said, " pertinent
criticism of fundamentals almost invariably gives rise to new
construction." In the history of the infinitesimal calculus the
Variable
Quantities.
1 7th and i8th centuries were mainly a period of construction,
the igth century mainly a period of criticism.
I. Nature of the Calculus.
2. The guise in which variable quantities presented themselves
to the mathematicians of the i7th century was that of the
lengths of variable lines. This method of representing
variable quantities dates from the I4th century, <^^riatl
when it was employed by Nicole Oresme, who studied npnseat-
and afterwards taught at the College de Navarre in f«»f
Paris from 1348 to 1361. He represented one of two
variable quantities, e.g. the time that has elapsed
since some epoch, by a length, called the "longitude," measured
along a particular line; and he represented the other of the two
quantities, e.g. the temperature at the instant, by a length,
called the " latitude," measured at right angles to this line.
He recognized that the variation of the temperature with the
time was represented by the line, straight or curved, which
joined the ends of all the lines of " latitude." Oresme's longitude
and latitude were what we should now call the abscissa and
ordinate. The same method was used later by many writers,
among whom Johannes Kepler and Galileo Galilei may be men-
tioned. In Galileo's investigation of
the motion of falling bodies (1638) the
abscissa OA represents the time during
which a body has been falling, and the
ordinate AB represents the velocity
acquired during that time (see fig. i).
The velocity being proportional to the
time, the " curve " obtained is a
straight line OB, and Galileo showed
FIG. i.
that the distance through which the body has fallen is repre-
sented by the area of the triangle OAB.
The most prominent problems in regard to a curve were the
problem of finding the points at which the ordinate is a maximum
or a minimum, the problem of drawing a tangent to The pnb-
the curve at an assigned point, and the problem of lem* of
determining the area of the curve. The relation of Maxima
the problem of maxima and minima to the problem /Hlnima
of tangents was understood in the sense that maxima Tangents,
or minima arise when a certain equation has equal "tdQuad-
roots, and, when this is the case, the curves by which ntare*'
the problem is to be solved touch each other. The reduction of
problems of maxima and minima to problems of contact was
known to Pappus. The problem of finding the area of a curve
was usually presented in a particular form in which it is called
the " problem of quadratures." It was sought to determine
the area contained between the curve, the axis of abscissae and
two ordinates, of which one was regarded as fixed and the other
as variable. Galileo's investigation may serve as an example.
In that example the fixed ordinate vanishes. From this investiga-
tion it may be seen that before the invention of the infinitesimal
calculus the introduction of a curve into discussions of the
course of any phenomenon, and the problem of quadratures
for that curve, were not exclusively of geometrical import; the
purpose for which the area of a curve was sought was often to
find something which is not an area — for instance, a length, or a
volume or a centre of gravity.
3. The Greek geometers made little progress with the problem
of tangents, but they devised methods for investigating the
problem of quadratures. One of these methods was Qleek
afterwards called the " method of exhaustions," and method*.
the principle on which it is based was laid down in the
lemma prefixed to the I2th book of Euclid's Elements as follows:
" If from the greater of two magnitudes there be taken more
than its half, and from the remainder more than its half, and so on,
there will at length remain a magnitude less than the smaller
of the proposed magnitudes." The method adopted by Archi-
medes was more general. It may be described as the enclosure
of the magnitude to be evaluated between two others which can
be brought by a definite process to differ from each other by
less than any assigned magnitude. A simple example of its
INFINITESIMAL CALCULUS
[NATURE
application is the 6th proposition of Archimedes' treatise On the
Sphere and Cylinder, in which it is proved that the area contained
between a regular polygon inscribed in a circle and a similar
polygon circumscribed to the same circle can be made less than
any assigned area by increasing thenumberof sides of the polygon.
The methods of Euclid and Archimedes were specimens of
rigorous limiting processes (see FUNCTION). The new problems
presented by the analytical geometry and natural philosophy
of the 1 7th century led to new limiting processes.
4. In the problem of tangents the new process may be described
as follows. Let P, P' be two points of a curve (see fig. 2). Let
x, y be the coordinates of P, and x+Ax, y+Ay those
erea- o{ p/ The symbol Ax means " the difference of two
Vat/oo. x<g „ an£j tnere ;s a ijkg meaning for the symbol Ay.
The fraction Ay/Ax is the trigonometrical tangent of the angle
which the secant PP' makes with the
axis of x. Now let A* be continually
diminished towards zero, so that P' con-
tinually approaches P. If the curve has a
tangent at P the secant P P' approaches
_ a limiting position (see § 33 below). When
* this is the case the fraction Ay/Ax tends
to a limit, and this limit is the trigo-
nometrical tangent of the angle which the
tangent at P to the curve makes with the axis of .r. The limit is
denoted by
Z--"
pIG 2
If the equation of the curve is of the form y=f(x) where/ is a func-
tional symbol (see FUNCTION), then
Ay /(r+Ax)-/(x)
Ax~ Ax '
and
dx-< l"-A*-0 Ax
The limit expressed by the right-hand member of this defining
equation is often written
/'(*).
and is called the " derived function " of /(x), sometimes the " de-
rivative " or " derivate " of /(x). \\%en the function f(x) is a
rational integral function, the division by Ax can be performed, and
the limit is found by substituting zero for Ax in the quotient. For
example, if /(x) =x!, we have
Ax
Ax
Ax
and /'(*)= 2*.
The process of forming the derived function of a given function
is called differentiation. The fraction Ay /Ax is called the " quotient
of differences," and its limit dyjdx is called the " differential co-
efficient of y with respect to x." The rules for forming differential
coefficients constitute the differential calculus.
The problem of tangents is solved at one stroke by the formation
of the differential coefficient; and the problem of maxima and
minima is solved, apart from the discrimination of maxima from
minima and some further refinements, by equating the differential
coefficient to zero (see MAXIMA AND MINIMA).
5. The problem of quadratures leads to a type of limiting process
which may be described as follows: Let y=f(x) be the equation of
a curve, and let AC and BD be the ordinates of the points
C and D (see fig. 3). Let a, b be the abscissae of these
points. Let the segment AB be divided into a number
of segments by means of intermediate points such as M, and let
MN be one such segment. Let PM and QN be those ordinates of
the curve which have M and N as their feet. On MN as base describe
two rectangles, of which the heights are the greatest and least values
of y which correspond to points
on the arc PQ of the curve. In
fig. 3 these are the rectangles
RM.SN. Let the sum of the areas
of such rectangles as RM be
formed, and likewise the sum of
the areas of such rectangles as SN.
When the number of the points
such as M is increased without
limit, and the lengths of all the
FIG. 3.
segments such as MN are diminished without limit, these two sums
of areas tend to limits. When they tend to the same limit the
curvilinear figure ACDB has an area, and the limit is the measure of
this area (see § 33 below). The limit in question is the same what-
ever law may be adopted for inserting the points such as M between
A and B, and for diminishing the lengths of the segments such as
MN. Further, if P' is any point on the arc PQ, and P'M' is the
ordinate of P', we may construct a rectangle of which the height is
P'M' and the base is MN.and the limit of the sum of the areas of
all such rectangles is the area of the figure as before. If x is the
abscissa of P, x+Ax that of Q, x' that of P', the limit in question
might be written
where the letters o, b written below and above the sign of summation
S indicate the extreme values of x. This limit is called " the
definite integral of /(x) between the limits a and b," and the notation
for it is
The germs of this method of formulating the problem of quad-
ratures are found in the writings of Archimedes. The method leads
to a definition of a definite integral, but the direct application of it
to the evaluation of integrals is in general difficult. Any process for
evaluating a definite integral is a process of integration, and the
rules for evaluating integrals constitute the integral calculus.
6. The chief of these rules is obtained by regarding the extreme
ordinate BD as variable. Let £ now denote the abscissa of B.
The area A of the figure ACDB is represented by the
ft Tneo.
integral I f(x)dx, and it is a function of £. Let BD of In
be displaced to B'D' so that £ becomes £+A£ (see s'oa>
fig. 4). The area of the figure ACD'B' is represented by the
integral | f(x)dx, and the increment AA 'of the area is given by
Theorem
ver-
the formula
which represents the area BDD'B'.
between those ot two rectangles, having
as a common base the segment BB ,
and as heights the greatest and least
ordinates of points on the arc DD' of
the curve. Let these heights be H
and h. Then AA is intermediate be-
tween HA£ and AAJI, and the quotient
of differences AA/A£ is intermediate be-
tween H and h. If the function /(x)
is continuous at B (see FUNCTION),
This area is intermediate
FIG. 4.
then, as A£ is diminished without limit, H and h tend to BD, or
/(£), as a limit, and we have
The introduction of the process of differentiation, together with
the theorem here proved, placed the solution of the problem of
quadratures on a new basis. It appears that we can always find
the area A if we know a function r (x) which has /(x) as its dif-
ferential coefficient. If /(x) is continuous between a and b, we can
prove that
When we recognize a function F(x) which has the property expressed
by the equation
^? =/(*)•
we are said to integrate the function /(x), and F(x) is called the
indefinite integral of /(x) with respect to x, and is written
//(*)<**.
Differ-
eatials-
7. In the process of § 4 the increment Ay is not in general equal
to the product of the increment Ax and the derived
f unction /'(x). In general we can write down an equation
of the form
Ay=/'(x)Ax+R,
in which R is different from zero when Ax is different from zero;
and then we have not only
lim-Az_0R=0'
but also
We may separate Ay into two parts: the part /'(x)Ax and the
part R. The partf'(x) Ax alone is useful for forming the differential
coefficient, and it is convenient to give it a name. It is called the
differential of /(x), and is written df(x), or ay when y is written for
/(x). When this notation is adopted dx is written instead of Ax,
and is called the " differential of x," so that we have
df(x)=f'(x)dx.
Thus the differential of an independent variable such as x is a finite
difference; in other words it is any number we please. The differ-
ential of a dependent variable such as y, or of a function of the
independent variable x, is the product of the differential of x and
the differential coefficient or derived function. It is important to
observe that the differential coefficient is not to be defined as the
ratio of differentials, but the ratio of differentials is to be defined as
the previously introduced differential coefficient. The differentials
NATURE]
INFINITESIMAL CALCULUS
537
are either finite differences, or are so much of certain finite differences
as are useful for forming differential coefficients.
Again let F(x) be the indefinite integral of a continuous function
f(x), so that we have
When the points M of the process explained in § 5 are inserted be-
tween the points whose abscissae are a and b, we may take them to
be n — I in number, so that the segment AB is divided into n seg-
ments. Let Xi, x2, . . .Xn-i be the abscissae of the points in order.
The integral is the limit of the sum
/(a) (*,-a)+/(*i) (*-*!) + ...+/(*) (xr+i-xr)
every term of which is a differential of the (ormf(x)dx. Further the
integral is equal to the sum of differences
-F(*j)}+ ... -HF(*r+1)-F(;«v)}
P .
"tai
Artifice
for this sum is F(6)— F(a). Now the difference F(av+i) — F(xr) is
not equal to the differential 1(xr) (xr+i—xr), but the sum of the
differences is equal to the limit of the sum of these differentials.
The differential may be regarded as so much of the difference as is
required to form the integral. From this point of view a differential
is called a differential element of an integral, and the integral is the
limit of the sum of differential elements. In like manner the differ-
ential element ydx of the area of a curve (§ 5) is not the area of the
portion contained between two ordinates, however near together,
but is so much of this area as need be retained for the purpose of
finding the area of the curve by the limiting process described.
8. The notation of the infinitesimal calculus is intimately bound
up with the notions of differentials and sums of elements. The letter
" d " is the initial letter of the word differentia (difference)
1 and the symbol "/ " is a conventionally written " S," the
initial letter of the word summa (sum or whole). The notation
was introduced by Leibnitz (see §§ 25-27, below).
9. The fundamental artifice of the calculus is the artifice of forming
differentials without first forming differential coefficients. From an
equation containing x and y we can deduce a new equation,
containing also Ax and Ay, by substituting x+Ax for x
anc' y+Ay f°r y- M there is a differential coefficient of y
with respect to x, then Ay can be expressed in the form
<#>.Ax+R, where lim.A.c=0(R/Aa:)=ol as in § 7 above. The artifice
consists in rejecting ab initio all terms of the equation which belong
to R. We do not form R at all, but only <f>.Ax, or <t>. dx, which is the
differential dy. In the same way, in all applications of the integral
calculus to geometry or mechanics we form the element of an integral
in the same way as the element of area y. dx is formed. In fig. 3 of § 5
the element of area y. dx is the area of the rectangle RM. The actual
area of the curvilinear figure PQNM is greater than the area of this
rectangle by the area of the curvilinear figure PQR ; but the excess is
less than the area of the rectangle PRQS, which is measured by the
product of the numerical measures of MN and QR, and we have
MN.QR
lim.MN_0 MN
Thus the artifice by which differential elements of integrals are formed
is in principle the same as that by which differentials are formed
without first forming differential coefficients.
10. This principle is usually expressed by introducing the notion of
orders of small quantities. If x, y are two variable numbers which are
Ord rs ol connected together by any relation, and if when x tends to
zero y also tends to zero, the fraction y/x may tend to a
finite limit. In this case x and y are said to be " of the
same order." When this is not the case we may have
small
quantities.
either
r-o^ = °-
or
lim.,
In the former case y is said to be " of a lower order " than x; in the
latter case y is said to be " of a higher order " than x. In accordance
with this notion we may say that the fundamental artifice of the
infinitesimal calculus consists in the rejection of small quantities of an
unnecessarily high order. This artifice is now merely an incident in
the conduct of a limiting process, but in the I7th century, when
limiting processes other than the Greek methods for quadratures were
new, the introduction of the artifice was a great advance.
n. By the aid of this artifice, or directly by carrying out
Rules of t'le appropriate limiting processes, we may obtain the
Dlfferen- ru'es &V which differential coefficients are formed. These
tiatioo rules may be^classified as " formal rules " and " particular
results." The formal rules may be stated as follows: —
(i.) The differential coefficient of a constant is zero.
(ii.) For a sum u+v+ . . . +z, where u, v, . . .are functions of x,
d(u+v+ ... +g)_du dv dz
dx '~dx+dx+ '•
(iii.) For a product uv
(iv.) For a quotient u/v
d(u
-
(v.) For a function of a function, that is to say, for a function y
expressed in terms of a variable z, which is itself expressed as a
function of x,
dy _dy_ dz
3* dz ' Hx
In addition to these formal rules we have particular results as to
the differentiation of simple functions. The most important results
are written down in the following table: —
y
|
X"
nx"-1
for all values of n
loga*
ar1 loga*
a*
a1 log«o
sin x
cos x
cos x
—sin x
sin"1*
(I -*»)-!
tan"1*
(l+*2)->
Each of the formal rules, and each of the particular results in the
table, is a theorem of the differential calculus. All functions (or
rather expressions) which can be made up from those in the table by
a finite number of operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication
or division can be differentiated by the formal rules. All such func-
tions are called explicit functions. In addition to these we have
implicit functions, or such as are determined by an equation contain-
ing two variables when the equation cannot be solved so as to exhibit
the one variable expressed in terms of the other. We have also
functions of several variables. Further, since the derived function
of a given function is itself a function, we may seek to differentiate
it, and thus there arise the second and higher differential coefficients.
We postpone for the present the problems of differential calculus
which arise from these considerations. Again, we may have explicit
functions which are expressed as the results of limiting operations,
or by the limits of the results obtained by performing an infinite
number of algebraic operations upon the simple functions. For the
problem of differentiating such functions reference may be made to
FUNCTION.
12. The processes of the integral calculus consist largely in trans-
formations of the functions to be integrated into such indefinite
forms that they can be recognized as differential co- integrals.
efficients of functions which have previously been differ-
entiated. Corresponding to the results in the table of § II we
have those in the following table: —
/(*)
Jf(x)dx
xn
xn+l
n + i
for all values of n except — i
I
X
log ex
e<"
a~le"
COS X
sin x
sin x
—cos x
(a2 -*")-»
sin-'j
i
a*+x2
I . . x
atan"a
The formal rules of § 1 1 give us means for the transformation of
integrals into recognizable forms. For example, the rule (ii.) for a
sum leads to the result that the integral of a sum of a finite number
of terms is the sum of the integrals of the several terms. The rule
(iii.) for a product leads to the method of integration by parts. The
rule (v.) for a function of a function leads to the method of substitution
(see § 48 below).
538
INFINITESIMAL CALCULUS
[HISTORY
II. History.
13. The new limiting processes which were introduced in the
development of the higher analysis were in the first instance
Kepler's related to problems of the integral calculus. Johannes
methods Kepler in his Astronomia nova . . . de motibus stellae
°'0'°texn' Martis (1609) stated his laws of planetary motion, to
the effect that the orbits of the planets are ellipses with
the sun at a focus, and that the radii vectores drawn from the
sun to the planets describe equal areas in equal times. From
these statements it is to be concluded that Kepler could measure
the areas of focal sectors of an ellipse. When he made out these
laws there was no method of evaluating areas except the Greek
methods. These methods would have sufficed for the purpose,
but Kepler invented Jiis own method. He regarded the area as
measured by the " sum of the radii " drawn from the focus, and
he verified his laws of planetary motion by actually measuring
a large number of radii of the orbit, spaced according to a rule,
and adding their lengths.
He had observed that the focal radius vector SP (fig. 5) is equal to
the perpendicular SZ drawn from S to the tangent at p to the auxiliary
^ circle, and he had further established the theorem
which we should now express in the form — the
differential element of the area ASp as S/> turns
about S, is equal to the product of SZ and the
differential ad<t>, where a is the radius of the
auxiliary circle, and <t> is the angle ACp, that is
!A the eccentric angle of P on the ellipse. The
area ASP bears to the area ASp the ratio of the
minor to the major axis, a result known to
FIG. 5. Archimedes. Thus Kepler's radii are spaced
according to the rule that the eccentric angles of
their ends are equidifferent, and his " sum of radii " is proportional
to the expression which we should now write
I (a -foe cos <t>)d4>.
where e is the eccentricity. Kepler evaluated the sum as proportional
to <t>+e sin <t>.
Kepler soon afterwards occupied himself with the volumes
of solids. The vintage of the year 1612 was extraordinarily
abundant, and the question of the cubic content of wine casks
was brought under his notice. This fact accounts for the title
of his work, Nova stereometria doliorum; accessit stereometriae
Archimedeae supplementum (1615). In this treatise he regarded
solid bodies as being made up, as it were (veluli), of " infinitely "
many " infinitely " small cones or " infinitely " thin disks, and
he used the notion of summing the areas of the disks in the
way he had previously used the notion of summing the focal
radii of an ellipse.
14. In connexion with the early history of the calculus it
must not be forgotten that the method by which logarithms
Lo ar- were mvented (!6i4) was effectively a method of
ithms. infinitesimals. Natural logarithms were not invented
as the indices of a certain base, and the notation e
for the base was first introduced by Euler more than a century
after the invention. Logarithms were introduced as numbers
which increase in arithmetic progression when other related
numbers increase in geometric progression. The two sets of
numbers were supposed to increase together, one at a uniform
rate, the other at a variable rate, and the increments were
regarded for purposes of calculation as very small and as
accruing discontinuously.
15. Kepler's methods of integration, for such they must be
called, were the origin of Bonaventura Cavalieri's theory of
Cava- the summation of indivisibles. The notion of a
Herfs continuum, such as the area within a closed curve,
visible*. as bemS made UP °f indivisible parts, " atoms " of
area, if the expression may be allowed, is traceable
to the speculations of early Greek philosophers; and although
the nature of continuity was better understood by Aristotle
and many other ancient writers yet the unsound atomic concep-
tion was revived in the 13th century and has not yet been
finally uprooted. It is possible to contend that Cavalieri did
not himself hold the unsound doctrine, but his writing on this
point is rather obscure. In his treatise Geomelria indivisibilibus
conlinuorum nova quadam ralione promola (1635) he regarded
a plane figure as generated by a line moving so as to be always
parallel to a fixed line, and a solid figure as generated by a plane
moving so as to be always parallel to a fixed plane; and he
compared the areas of two plane figures, or the volumes of two
solids, by determining the ratios of the sums of all the indivisibles
of which they are supposed to be made up, these indivisibles
being segments of parallel lines equally spaced in the case of
plane figures, and areas marked out upon parallel planes equally
spaced in the case of solids. By this method Cavalieri was able
to effect numerous integrations relating to the areas of portions
of conic sections and the volumes generated by the revolution
of these portions about various axes. At a later date, and partly
in answer to an attack made upon him by Paul Guldin, Cavalieri
published a treatise entitled Exerdtationes geometricae sex (1647),
in which he adapted his method to the determination of centres
of gravity, in particular for solids of variable density.
Among the results which he obtained is that which we should now
write
i ">+!
integral).
i
He regarded the problem thus solved as that of determining the sum
of the mth powers of all the lines drawn across a parallelogram
parallel to one of its sides.
At this period scientific investigators communicated their
results to one another through one or more intermediate persons.
Such intermediaries were Pierre de Carcavy and
Pater Marin Mersenne; and among the writers thus
in communication were Bonaventura Cavalieri, Cavalier!.
Christiaan Huygens, Galileo Galilei, Giles Personnier
de Roberval, Pierre de Fermat, Evangelista Torricelli, and a
little later Blaise Pascal; but the letters of Carcavy or Mersenne
would probably come into the hands of any man who was likely
to be interested in the matters discussed. It often happened
that, when some new method was invented, or some new result
obtained, the method or result was quickly known to a wide
circle, although it might not be printed until after the lapse
of a long time. When Cavalieri was printing his two treatises
there was much discussion of the problem of quadratures.
Roberval (1634) regarded an area as made up of " infinitely "
many " infinitely " narrow strips, each of which may be con-
sidered to be a rectangle, and he had similar ideas in regard to
lengths and volumes. He knew how to approximate to the
quantity which we express by ( xTdx by the process of forming
the sum
om + im+2m+ . .. (n-i)"
nm+l
and he claimed to beabletoprove that thissumtendstoi/(m+i),
as n increases for all positive integral values of m. The method
of integrating xm by forming this sum was found also Permit's
by Fermat (1636), who stated expressly that he method of
arrived at it by generalizing a method employed by Iatf*r'-
Archimedes (for the cases m = i and m = 2) in his books *
on Conoids and Spheroids and on Spirals (see T. L. Heath,
The Works of Archimedes, Cambridge, 1897). Fermat extended
the result to the case where m is fractional (1644), and to the case
where m is negative. This latte»- extension and the proofs were
given in his memoir, Proporlionis geometricae in quadrandis
parabolis et hyperbolis us^^s, which appears to have received a
final form before 1659, although not published until 1679.
Fermat did not use fractional or negative indices, but he regarded
his problems as the quadratures of parabolas and hyperbolas
of various orders. His method was to divide the interval of
integration into parts by means of intermediate points the ab-
scissae of which are in geometric progression. In the process of
§ s above, the points M must be chosen according to this rule.
This restrictive condition being understood, we may say that
Fermat's formulation of the problem of quadratures is the
same as our definition of a definite integral.
The result that the problem of quadratures could be solved
for any curve whose equation could be expressed in the form
y =
or in the form
HISTORY]
INFINITESIMAL CALCULUS
539
where none of the indices is equal to — i, was used by John
Wallis in his Arithmetica infinitorum (1655) as well as by Fermat
(1659). The case in which m=—i was that of the
ordinary rectangular hyperbola; and Gregory of
St Vincent in his Opus geometricum quadraturae
circuli et sectionum coni (1647) had proved by the
method of exhaustions that the area contained between the
curve, one asymptote, and two ordinates parallel to the other
asymptote, increases in arithmetic progression as the distance
between the ordinates (the one nearer to the centre being kept
fixed) increases in geometric progression. Fermat described
his method of integration as a logarithmic method, and thus
it is clear that the relation between the quadrature of the
hyperbola and logarithms was understood although it was not
expressed analytically. It was not very long before the relation
was used for the calculation of logarithms by Nicolaus Mercator
in his Logarilhmotechnia (1668). He began by writing the
equation of the curve in the form y=i/(i+x), expanded this
expression in powers of x by the method of division, and in-
tegrated it term by term in accordance with the well-understood
rule for finding the quadrature of a curve given by such an
equation as that written at the foot of p. 325.
By the middle of the I7th century many mathematicians
could perform integrations. Very many particular results had
Integra- been obtained, and applications of them had been
tion before made to the quadrature of the circle and other conic
the integral sections, and to various problems concerning the
Calculus. iengths Of curves, the areas they enclose, the volumes
and superficial areas of solids, and centres of gravity. A
systematic account of the methods then in use was given, along
with much that was original on his part, by Blaise Pascal in
his Leltres de Amos Deltonmlle sur qudques-unes de ses inventions
en geotnetrie (1659).
16. The problem of maxima and minima and the problem of
tangents had also by the same time been effectively solved.
Fermat' a Oresme in the i4th century knew that at a point where
methods of the ordinate of a curve is a maximum or a minimum
DiHereo- its variation from point to point of the curve is slowest ;
nation. ln(j Kepier jn the Stereometria doliorum remarked
that at the places where the ordinate passes from a smaller
value to the greatest value and then again to a smaller value,
its variation becomes insensible. Fermat in 1629 was in possession
of a method which he then communicated to one Despagnet of
Bordeaux, and which he referred to in a letter to Roberval of
1636. He communicated it to Rene Descartes early in 1638 on
receiving a copy of Descartes's Gecmetrie (1637), and with it
he sent to Descartes an account of his methods for solving the
problem of tangents and for determining centres of gravity.
Fermat's method for maxima and minima is essentially our
method. Expressed in a more modern notation, what he did was to
begin by connecting the ordinate y and the abscissa x of a point of a
curve by an equation which holds at all
points of the curve, then to subtract the
value of y in terms of * from the value ob-
tained by substituting x + E for x, then to
divide the difference by E, to put E=o in
the quotient, and to equate the quotient to
zero. Thus he differentiated with respect
— to x and equated the differential coefficient
to zero.
FIG. 6. Fermat's method for solving the problem
of tangents may be explained as follows: —
Let (x, y) be the coordinates of a point P of a curve, (x', y'), those
of a neighbouring point P' on the tangent at P, and let MM' = E
(fig. 6).
From the similarity of the triangles P'TM', PTM we have
y':A-E=y:A,
where A denotes the subtangent TM. The point P' being near the
curve, we may substitute in the equation of the curve x— E for x and
(yA— yE)/A for y. The equation of the curve is approximately
satisfied. If it is taken to be satisfied exactly, the result is an equation
of the form <j>(x, y, A, E)=o, the left-hand member of which is
divisible by E. Omitting the factor E, and putting E=o in the
remaining factor, we have an equation which gives A. In this
problem of tangents also Fermat found the required result by a
process equivalent to differentiation.
Fermat gave several examples of the application of his method;
M'M
among them was one in which he showed that he could differ-
entiate very complicated irrational functions. For such functions
his method was to begin by obtaining a rational equation. In
rationalizing equations Fermat, in other writings, used the
device of introducing new variables, but he did not use this
device to simplify the process of differentiation. Some of
his results were published by Pierre Herigone in his Supple-
mentum cursus mathemalici (1642). His communication to
Descartes was not published in full until after his death (Fermat,
Opera varia, 1679). Methods similar to Fermat's were devised
by Rene de Sluse (1652) for tangents, and by Johannes Hudde
(1658) for maxima and minima. Other methods for the solution
of the problem of tangents were devised by Roberval and
Torricelli, and published almost simultaneously in 1644. These
methods were founded upon the composition of motions, the
theory of which had been taught by Galileo (1638), and, less
completely, by Roberval (1636). Roberval and Torricelli
could construct the tangents of many curves, but they did not
arrive at Fermat's artifice. This artifice is that which we have
noted in §10 as the fundamental artifice of the infinitesimal
calculus.
17. Among the comparatively few mathematicians who before
1665 could perform differentiations was Isaac Barrow. In
his book entitled Lectiones opticae et geometricae,
written apparently in 1663, 1664, and published in
1669, 1670, he gave a method of tangents like that
of Roberval and Torricelli, compounding two velocities
in the directions of the axes of x and y to obtain a resultant
along the tangent to a curve. In an appendix to this book he
gave another method which differs from Fermat's in the introduc-
tion of a differential equivalent to our
dy as well as dx. Two neighbouring
ordinates PM and QN of a curve (fig. 7)
are regarded as containing an inde-
finitely small (indefinite parvum) arc, and
PR is drawn parallel to the axis of x.
The tangent PT at P is regarded as
identical with the secant PQ, and the
Barrow'*
Differ-
ential
Triangle.
#-
A
M N
FIG. 7.
position of the tangent is determined by the similarity of the
triangles PTM, PQR. The increments QR, PR of the ordinate
and abscissa are denoted by a and e; and the ratio of a to e
is determined by substituting x+e for x and y+a for y in the
equation of the curve, rejecting all terms which are of order
higher than the first in a and e, and omitting the terms which do
not contain a or e. This process is equivalent to differentiation.
Barrow appears to have invented it himself, but to have put it
into his book at Newton's request. The triangle PQR is some-
times called " Barrow's differential triangle."
The reciprocal relation between differentiation and integration
(§ 6) was first observed explicitly by Barrow in the book cited above.
If the quadrature of a curve y=f(x) is known, so that the g,,,,,,,,,,
area up to the ordinate x is given by F(x), the curve /nvers/on.
y = F(x) can be drawn, and Barrow showed that the taeoretttf
subtangent of this curve is measured by the ratio of
its ordinate to the ordinate of the original curve. The curve
y = F(x) is often called the " quadratrix " of the original curve; and
the result has been called " Barrow's inversion-theorem." He did
not use it as we do for the determination of quadratures, or indefinite
integrals, but for the solution of problems of the kind which were
then called " inverse problems of tangents." In these problems it
was sought to determine a curve from some property of its tangent,
e.g. the property that the subtangent is proportional to the square
of the abscissa. Such problems are now classed under " differential
equations." When Barrow wrote, quadratures were familiar and
differentiation unfamiliar, just as hyperbolas were trusted while
logarithms were strange. The functional notation was not invented
till long afterwards (see FUNCTION), and the want of it is felt in read-
ing all the mathematics of the i?th century.
18. The great secret which afterwards came to be called the
" infinitesimal calculus " was almost discovered by Fermat,
and still more nearly by Barrow. Barrow went farther than
Fermat in the theory of differentiation, though not in the
practice, for he compared two increments; he went farther in
the theory of integration, for he obtained the inversion-
theorem. The great discovery seems to consist partly in the
540
INFINITESIMAL CALCULUS
[HISTORY
recognition of the fact that differentiation, known to be a
useful process, could always be performed, at least for the
functions then known, and partly in the recognition
T'rf7-0/ of tne *act tnat l^e inversi°n-tneorem could be
coveiy applied to problems of quadrature. By these steps
called the the problem of tangents could be solved once for all,
intini- an(j tjje operation of integration, as we call it,
could be rendered systematic. A further step was
necessary in order that the discovery, once made,
should become accessible to mathematicians in general; and
this step was the introduction of a suitable notation. The
definite abandonment of the old tentative methods of in-
tegration in favour of the method in which this operation
is regarded as thw inverse of differentiation was especi-
ally the work of Isaac Newton; the precise formulation
of simple rules for the process of differentiation in each
special case, and the introduction of the notation which has
proved to be the best, were especially the work of Gottfried
Wilhelm Leibnitz. This statement remains true although
Newton invented a systematic notation, and practised differentia-
tion by rules equivalent to those of Leibnitz, before Leibnitz
had begun to work upon the subject, and Leibnitz effected
integrations by the method of recognizing differential coefficients
before he had had any opportunity of becoming acquainted
with Newton's methods.
19. Newton was Barrow's pupil, and he knew to start with
in 1664 all that Barrow knew, and that was practically all that
was known about the subject at that time. His
a- original thinking on the subject dates from the year
tions. of the great plague (1665-1666), and it issued in the
invention of the " Calculus of Fluxions," the principles
and methods of which were developed by him in three tracts
entitled De analyst per aequationes numero terminorum infinitas,
Methodus fluxionum et serierum infinitarum, and De quad-
ratura cunarum. None of these was published until long after
they were written. The Analysis per aequationes was composed
in 1666, but not printed until 1711, when it was published
by William Jones. The Methodus fluxionum was composed
in 1671 but not printed till 1736, nine years after Newton's
death, when an English translation was published by John
Colson. In Horsley's edition of Newton's works it bears the
title Gcometria analytica. The Quadratura appears to have been
composed in 1676, but was first printed in 1704 as an appendix
to Newton's Oplicks.
20. The tract De Analyst per aequationes . . . was sent by
Newton to Barrow, who sent it to John Collins with a request that
„ , it might be made known. One way of making it known
method of WOV'° have been to print it in the Philosophical Trans-
Series actions of the Royal Society, but this course was not
adopted. Collins made a copy of the tract and sent it
to Lord Brouncker, but neither of them brought it before the
Royal Society. The tract contains a general proof of Barrow's
inversion-theorem which is the same in principle as that in § 6 above.
In this proof and elsewhere in the tract a notation is introduced for
the momentary increment (momentum) of the abscissa or area of a
curve; this " moment " is evidently meant to represent a moment
of time, the abscissa representing time, and it is effectively the same
as our differential element — the thing that Fermat had denoted by
E, and Barrow by e, in the case of the abscissa. Newton denoted the
moment of the abscissa by o, that of the area z by ov. He used the
letter v for the ordinate y, thus suggesting that his curve is a velocity-
time graph such as Galileo had used. Newton gave the formula for
the area of a curve v = xm(m*-l) in the form z = «m+1/(m + l). In
the proof he transformed this formula to the form zn=c"x", where
n and p are positive integers, substituted x+o for x and Z+OT for z,
and expanded by the binomial theorem for a positive integral
exponent, thus obtaining the relation
from which he deduced the relation
by omitting the equal terms z" and c"xp and dividing the remaining
terms by o, tacitly putting 0 = 0 after division. This relation is the
same as v = xm. Newton pointed out that, conversely, from the
relation v-xm the relation z = xm+l/(m + l) follows. He applied his
formula to the quadrature of curves whose ordinates can be expressed
as the sum of a finite number of terms of the form ax*1-, and gave
examples of its application to curves in which the ordinate is expressed
by an infinite series, using for this purpose the binomial theorem for
negative and fractional exponents, that is to say, the expansion of
(i+x)" in an infinite series of powers of x. This theorem he had
discovered ; but he did not in this tract state it in a general form or
give any proof of it. He pointed out, however, how it may be used
for the solution of equations by means of infinite series. He observed
also that all questions concerning lengths of curves, volumes en-
closed by surfaces, and centres of gravity, can be formulated as
problems of quadratures, and can thus be solved either in finite
terms or by means of infinite series. In the Quadratura (1676) the
method of integration which is founded upon the inversion-
theorem was carried out systematically. Among other results there
given is the quadrature of curves expressed by equations of the
Form y = xn(a+bxm)p; this has passed into text-books under the
title " integration of binomial differentials " (see § 49). Newton
announced the result in letters to Collins and Oldenburg of 1676.
21. In the Methodus fluxionum (1671) Newton introduced his
characteristic notation. He regarded variable quantities as gener-
ated by the motion of a point, or line, or plane, and called Ne^aa,s
the generated quantity a " fluent " and its rate of genera- ,ethod of
tion a " fluxion." The fluxion of a fluent x is represented Fluxlons
by x, and its moment, or " infinitely " small increment
accruing in an " infinitely " short time, is represented by
xo. The problems of the calculus are stated to be (i.) to find the
velocity at any time when the distance traversed is given; (ii.) to
find the distance traversed when the yelocity is given. The first of
these leads to differentiation. In any rational equation containing
* and y the expressions x-j-xo and y+yo_ are to be substituted for
x and y, the resulting equation is to be divided by o, and afterwards o
is to be omitted. In the case of irrational functions, or rational
functions which are not integral, new variables are introduced in such
a way as to make the equations contain rational integral terms only.
Thus Newton's rules of differentiation would be in our notation the
rules (i.), (ii.), (v.) of § II, together with the particular result which
we write
^p = mxm~l, (m integral).
a result which Newton obtained by expanding (x+xo)m by the
binomial theorem. The second problem is the problem of integra-
tion, and Newton's method for solving it was the method of series
founded upon the particular result which we write
xmdx--
Newton added applications of his methods to maxima and minima,
tangents and curvature. In a letter to Collins of date 1672 Newton
stated that he had certain methods, and he described certain results
which he had found by using them. These methods and results are
those which are to be found in the Methodus fluxionum ; but the
letter makes no mention of fluxions and fluents or of the character-
istic notation. The rule for tangents is said in the letter to be
analogous to de Sluse's, but to be applicable to equations that con-
tain irrational terms.
22. Newton gave the fluxional notation also in the tract De
Quadratura cunarum (1676), and he there added to it notation for
the higher differential coefficients and for indefinite . ...
integrals, as we call them. Just as.r, y, z, . . . are fluents
of which x, y, t, . . . are the fluxions, so x, y, z, . . . can t'°" °''[
be treated as fluents of which the fluxions may be denoted ., ' .
by *, y', 2, . . . In like manner the fluxions of these may
be denoted by X, y, Z, . . and so on. Again x, y, z, . . . may be
regarded as fluxions of which the fluents may be denoted by x, y, i,. . . ,
and these again as fluxions of other quantities denoted by x,y,z, . . .
and so on. No use was made of the notation x , x, , . . in the course
of the tract. The first publication of the fluxional notation was made
by Wallis in the second edition of his Algebra (1693) in the form of
extracts from communications made to him by Newton in 1692.
In this account of the method the symbols o, x, X, . . . occur, but
not the symbols x, x, . . . Wallis's treatise also contains Newton's
formulation of the problems of the calculus in the words Data
aequatione fluentes quotcumque quantitates involvente fluxiones imienire
et vice versa (" an equation containing any number of fluent
quantities being given, to find their fluxions and vice versa "). In
the Philosophiae naturalis principia mathematica (1687), commonly
called the " Principia," the words " fluxion " and " moment " occur
in a lemma in the second book; but the notation which is character-
istic of the calculus of fluxions is nowhere used.
23. It is difficult to account for the fragmentary manner of
publication of the Fluxional Calculus and for the long delays
which took place. At the time (1671) when Newton Ketanled
composed the Methodus fluxionum he contemplated Publics-
bringing out an edition of Gerhard Kinckhuysen's ttonoithe
treatise on algebra and prefixing his tract to this
treatise. In the same year his " Theory of Light and
Colours " was published in the Philosophical Transactions,
and the opposition which it excited led to the abandonment of
HISTORY]
INFINITESIMAL CALCULUS
the project with regard to fluxions. In 1680 Collins sought the
assistance of the Royal Society for the publication of the tract,
and this was granted in 1682. Yet it remained unpublished.
The reason is unknown; but it is known that about 1679, 1680,
Newton took up again the studies in natural philosophy which
he had intermitted for several years, and that in 1684 he wrote
the tract De motu which was in some sense a first draft of the
Principia, and it may be conjectured that the fluxions were
held over until the Principia should be finished. There is also
reason to think that Newton had become dissatisfied with the
arguments about infinitesimals on which his calculus was
based. In the preface to the De quadrature, curvarum (1704),
in which he describes this tract as something which he once
wrote (" olim scripsi ") he says that there is no necessity to intro-
duce into the method of fluxions any argument about infinitely
small quantities; and in the Principia (1687) he adopted
instead of the method of fluxions a new method, that of " Prime
and Ultimate Ratios." By the aid of this method it is possible,
as Newton knew, and as was afterwards seen by others, to found
the calculus of fluxions on an irreproachable method of limits.
For the purpose of explaining his discoveries in dynamics
and astronomy Newton used the method of limits only, without
the notation of fluxions, and he presented all his results and
demonstrations in a geometrical form. There is no doubt that
he arrived at most of his theorems in the first instance by using
the method of fluxions. Further evidence of Newton's dis-
satisfaction with arguments about infinitely small quantities
is furnished by his tract Methodus differentialis, published in
1711 by William Jones, in which he laid the foundations of the
" Calculus of Finite Differences."
24. Leibnitz, unlike Newton, was practically a self-taught
mathematician. He seems to have been first attracted to
mathematics as a means of symbolical expression, and
mu on tne occasion of his nrst visit to London, early in
discovery, !673, he learnt about the doctrine of infinite series
which James Gregory, Nicolaus Mercator, Lord
Brouncker and others, besides Newton, had used in their in-
vestigations. It appears that he did not on this occasion become
acquainted with Collins, or see Newton's Analysis per aequa-
tiones, but he purchased Barrow's Lectiones, On returning to
Paris he made the acquaintance of Huygens, who recommended
him to read Descartes' Geometric. He also read Pascal's Lcttres
de Detionville, Gregory of St Vincent's Opus geomelricum,
Cavalieri's Indivisibles and the Synopsis geometrica of Honore
Fabri, a book which is practically a commentary on Cavalieri;
it would never have had any importance but for the influence
which it had on Leibnitz's thinking at this critical period. In
August of this year (1673) he was at work upon the problem of
tangents, and he appears to have made out the nature of the
solution — the method involved in Barrow's differential triangle —
for himself by the aid of a diagram drawn by Pascal in a demon-
station of the formula for the area of a spherical surface. He
saw that the problem of the relation between the differences
of neighbouring ordinates and the ordinates themselves was the
important problem, and then that the solution of this problem
was to be effected by quadratures. Unlike Newton, who arrived
at differentiation and tangents through integration and areas
Leibnitz proceeded from tangents to quadratures. When he
turned his attention to quadratures and indivisibles, and
realized the nature of the process of finding areas by summing
" infinitesimal " rectangles, he proposed to replace the rectangles
by triangles having a common vertex, and obtained by this
method the result which we write
In 1674 he sent an account of his method, called " transmutation,'
along with this result to Huygens, and early in 1675 he sen
it to Henry Oldenburg, secretary of the Royal Society, with
inquiries as to Newton's discoveries in regard to quadratures
In October of 1675 he had begun to devise a symbolical notation
for quadratures, starting from Cavalieri's indivisibles. At firs
he proposed to use the word omnia as an abbreviation fo
Cavalieri's "sum of all the lines," thus writing omnia y for tha
which we write " fydx," but within a day or two he wrote
' fy." He regarded the symbol " /" as representing an opera-
ion which raises the dimensions of the subject of operation —
a line becoming an area by the operation — and he devised his
ymbol " d " to represent the inverse operation, by which the
dimensions are diminished. He observed that, whereas " / "
•epresents " sum," " d " represents " difference." His notation
appears to have been practically settled before the end of 1675,
or in November he wrote jydy = %y2, just as we do now.
25. In July of 1676 Leibnitz received an answer to his inquiry
n regard to Newton's methods in a letter written by Newton
o Oldenburg. In this letter Newton gave a general coms-
statement of the binomial theorem and many results poadeace
relating to series. He stated that by means of such of New-
series he could find areas and lengths of curves, centres ton aaa
of gravity and volumes and surfaces of solids, but, as
this would take too long to describe, he would illustrate it by
examples. He gave no proofs. Leibnitz replied in August,
stating some results which he had obtained, and which, as it
seemed, could not be obtained easily by the method of series,
and he asked for further information. Newton replied in a
ong letter to Oldenburg of the 24th of October 1676. In this
.etter he gave a much fuller account of his binomial theorem
and indicated a method of proof. Further he gave a number
of results relating to quadratures; they were afterwards printed
in the tract De quadratura curvarum. He gave many other
results relating to the computation of natural logarithms and
other calculations in which series could be used. He gave a
general statement, similar to that in the letter to Collins, as to
the kind of problems relating to tangents, maxima and minima,
&c., which he could solve by his method, but he concealed his
formulation of the calculus in an anagram of transposed letters.
The solution of the anagram was given eleven years later in the
Principia in the words we have quoted from Wallis's Algebra.
In neither of the letters to Oldenburg does the characteristic
notation of the fluxional calculus occur, and the words " fluxion "
and " fluent " occur only in anagrams of transposed letters. The
letter of October 1676 was not despatched until May 1677, and
Leibnitz- answered it in June of that year. In October 1676
Leibnitz was in London, where he made the acquaintance of
Collins and read the Analysis per aequationes, and it seems to
have been supposed afterwards that he then read Newton's
letter of October 1676, but he left London before Oldenburg
received this letter. In his answer of June 1677 Leibnitz gave
Newton a candid account of his differential calculus, nearly
in the form in which he afterwards published it, and explained
how he used it for quadratures and inverse problems of tangents.
Newton never replied.
26. In the Ada erudilorum of 1684 Leibnitz published a
short memoir entitled Nova metkodus pro maximis et minimis,
itemque tangentibus, quae nee fractas nee irralionales Leibnitz's
quantitates moratur, et singulare pro illis calculi genus. Differ-
In this memoir the differential dx of a variable x, «"""'
considered as the abscissa of a point of a curve, is said Cajcalus-
to be an arbitrary quantity, and the differential dy of a related
variable y, considered as the ordinate of the point, is defined as
a quantity which has to dx the ratio of the ordinate to the
subtangent, and rules are given for operating with differentials.
These are the rules for forming the differential of a constant,
a sum (or difference), a product, a quotient, a power (or root).
They are equivalent to our rules (i.)-(iv.) of § 1 1 and the particular
result
The rule for a function of a function is not stated explicitly
but is illustrated by examples in which new variables are intro-
duced, in much the same way as in Newton's Methodus fluxionum.
In connexion with the problem of maxima and minima, it is
noted that the differential of y is positive or negative according
as y increases or decreases when x increases, and the discrimina-
tion of maxima from minima depends upon the sign of ddy, the
differential of dy. In connexion with the problem of tangents
the differentials are said to be proportional to the momentary
542
INFINITESIMAL CALCULUS
[HISTORY
increments of the abscissa and ordinate. A tangent is denned
as a line joining two " infinitely " near points of a curve, and the
" infinitely " small distances (e.g., the distance between the
feet of the ordinates of such points) are said to be expressible
by means of the differentials (e.g.,dx). The method is illustrated
by a few examples, and one example is given of its application
to " inverse problems of tangents." Barrow's inversion-theorem
and its application to quadratures are not mentioned. No
proofs are given, but it is stated that they can be obtained
easily by any one versed in such matters. The new methods
in regard to differentiation which were contained in this memoir
were the use of the second differential for the discrimination of
maxima and minima, and the introduction of new variables for
the purpose of differentiating complicated expressions. A greater
novelty was the use of a letter (d), not as a symbol for a number
or magnitude, but as a symbol of operation. None of these
novelties account for the far-reaching effect which this memoir
has had upon the development of mathematical analysis. This
effect was a consequence of the simplicity and directness with
which the rules of differentiation were stated. Whatever
indistinctness might be felt to attach to the symbols, the processes
for solving problems of tangents and of maxima and minima
were reduced once for all to a definite routine.
27. This memoir was followed in 1686 by a second, entitled
De Geometria recondita et analysi indivisibilium atque infinitorum,
Deveio *n wn'crl Leibnitz described the method of using his
meat new differential calculus for the problem of quadratures.
of the This was the first publication of the notation fydx.
Calculus. -pne new method was called calculus summalorius.
The brothers Jacob (James) and Johann (John) Bernoulli were
able by 1690 to begin to make substantial contributions to
the development of the new calculus, and Leibnitz adopted
their word " integral " in 1695, they at the same time adopting
his symbol "/." In 1696 the marquis de 1'Hospital published
the first treatise on the differential calculus with the title Analyse
des infiniment petits pour I' intelligence des lignes courbes. The
few references to fluxions in Newton's Principia (1687) must
have been quite unintelligible to the mathematicians of the time,
and the publication of the fluxional notation and calculus by
Wallis in 1693 was too late to be effective. Fluxions had been
supplanted before they were introduced.
The differential calculus and the integral calculus were rapidly
developed in the writings of Leibnitz and the Bernoullis. Leibnitz
(1695) was the first to differentiate a logarithm and an exponential,
and John Bernoulli was the first to recognize the property
possessed by an exponential (a1) of becoming infinitely great
in comparison with any power (*") when x is increased indefinitely.
Roger Cotes (1722) was the first to differentiate a trigonometrical
function. A great development of infinitesimal methods took
place through the founding in 1696-1697 of the " Calculus of
Variations " by the brothers Bernoulli.
28. The famous dispute as to the priority of Newton and
Leibnitz in the invention of the calculus began in 1699 through
Dispute tne publication by Nicolas Fatio de Duillier of a
can- tract in which he stated that Newton was not only the
cerning first, but by many years the first inventor, and insinu-
PriorUy. ated tnat Leit,njtz na(j stolen it. Leibnitz in his
reply (Ada Eruditorum, 1700) cited Newton's letters and the
testimony which Newton had rendered to him in the Principia
as proofs of his independent authorship of the method. Leibnitz
was especially hurt at what he understood to be an endorsement
of Duillier's attack by the Royal Society, but it was explained
to him that the apparent approval was an accident. The dispute
was ended for a time. On the publication of Newton's tract
De quadratura cunarum, an anonymous review of it, written,
as has since been proved, by Leibnitz, appeared in the Ada
Eruditorum, 1705. The anonymous reviewer said: " Instead
of the Leibnitzian differences Newton uses and always has
used fluxions . . . just as Honore Fabri in his Synopsis Geomelrica
substituted steps of movements for the method of Cavalieri."
This passage, when it became known in England, was understood
not merely as belittling Newton by comparing him with the
obscure Fabri, but also as implying that he had stolen his calculus
of fluxions from Leibnitz. Great indignation was aroused;
and John Keill took occasion, in a memoir on central forces
which was printed in the Philosophical Transactions for 1708,
to affirm that Newton was without doubt the first inventor of the
calculus, and that Leibnitz had merely changed the name and
mode of notation. The memoir was published in 1710. Leibnitz
wrote in 1711 to the secretary of the Royal Society (Hans
Sloane) requiring Keill to retract his accusation. Leibnitz's
letter was read at a meeting of the Royal Society, of which
Newton was then president, and Newton made to the society
a statement of the course of his invention of the fluxional calculus
with the dates of particular discoveries. Keill was requested
by the society " to draw up an account of the matter under
dispute and set it in a just light." In his report Keill referred
to Newton's letters of 1676, and said that Newton had there
given so many indications of his method that it could have
been understood by a person of ordinary intelligence. Leibnitz
wrote to Sloane asking the society to stop these unjust attacks
of Keill, asserting that in the review in the Ada Eruditorum
no one had been injured but each had received his due, submitting
the matter to the equity of the Royal Society, and stating that
he was persuaded that Newton himself would do him justice.
A committee was appointed by the society to examine the
documents and furnish a report. Their report, presented in
April 1712, concluded as follows:
" The differential method is one and the same with the method of
fluxions, excepting the name and mode of notation; Mr Leibnitz
calling those quantities differences which Mr Newton calls moments
or fluxions, and marking them with the letter d, a mark not used by
Mr Newton. And therefore we take the proper question to be, not
who invented this or that method, but who was the first inventor of
the method; and we believe that those who have reputed Mr
Leibnitz the first inventor, knew little or nothing of his correspond-
ence with Mr Collins and Mr Oldenburg long before; nor of Mr
Newton's having that method above fifteen years before Mr. Leibnitz
began to publish it in the Acta Eruditorum of Leipzig. For which
reasons we reckon Mr Newton the first inventor, and are of opinion
that Mr Keill, in asserting the same, has been no ways injurious to
Mr Leibnitz."
The report with the letters and other documents was printed
(1712) under the title Commercium Epistolicum D. Johannis
Collins et aliorum de analysi promota, jussu Societatis Regiae
in lucent editum, not at first for publication. An account of the
contents of the Commercium Epistolicum was printed in the
Philosophical Transactions for 1715. A second edition of the
Commercium Epistolicum was published in 1722. The dispute
was continued for many years after the death of Leibnitz in 1716.
To translate the words of Moritz Cantor, it " redounded to the
discredit of all concerned."
29. One lamentable consequence of the dispute was a severance
of British methods from continental ones. In Great Britain
it became a point of honour to use fluxions and other
Newtonian methods, while on the continent the
notation of Leibnitz was universally adopted. This tiaeatai
severance did not at first prevent a great advance in Schools of
mathematics in Great Britain. So long as attention ^
was directed to problems in which there is but one
independent variable (the time, or the abscissa of a point of a
curve), and all the other variables depend upon this one, the
fluxional notation could be used as well as the differential and
integral notation, though perhaps not quite so easily. Up to
about the middle of the i8th century important discoveries
continued to be made by the use of the method of fluxions.
It was the introduction of partial differentiation by Leonhard
Euler (1734) and Alexis Claude Clairaut (1739), and the develop-
ments which followed upon the systematic use of partial differ-
ential coefficients, which led to Great Britain being left behind;
and it was not until after the reintroduction of continental
methods into England by Sir John Herschel, George Peacock
and Charles Babbage in 1815 that British mathematics began
to flourish again. The exclusion of continental mathematics
from Great Britain was not accompanied by any exclusion
of British mathematics from the continent. The discoveries
OUTLINES]
INFINITESIMAL CALCULUS
543
of Brook Taylor and Colon Maclaurin were absorbed into the
rapidly growing continental analysis, and the more precise
conceptions reached through a critical scrutiny of the true nature
of Newton's fluxions and moments stimulated a like scrutiny
of the basis of the method of differentials.
30. This method had met with opposition from the first.
Christiaan Huygens, whose opinion carried more weight than
Opposi- tnat °f any °tner scientific man of the day, declared
tloa that the employment of differentials was unnecessary,
to the and that Leibnitz's second differential was meaningless
calculus. (i6gi). A Dutch physician named Bernhard Nieu-
wentijt attacked the method on account of the use of quantities
which are at one stage of the process treated as somethings and
at a later stage as nothings, and he was especially severe in
commenting upon the second and higher differentials (1694, 1695).
Other attacks were made by Michel Rolle (1701), but they
were directed rather against matters of detail than against the
general principles. The fact is that, although Leibnitz in his
answers to Nieuwentijt (1695), and to Rolle (1702), indicated
that the processes of the calculus could be justified by the
methods of the ancient geometry, he never expressed himself
very clearly on the subject of differentials, and he conveyed,
probably without intending it, the impression that the calculus
leads to correct results by compensation of errors. In England
the method of fluxions had to face similar attacks. George
Berkeley, bishop and philosopher, wrote in 1734 a tract entitled
The Analyst; or a Discourse addressed to an Infidel Mathematician,
in which he proposed to destroy the presumption that the
opinions of mathematicians in matters of faith are
fyst''''coa? ^kely to be more trustworthy than those of divines,
troversy. by contending that in the much vaunted fluxional
calculus there are mysteries which are accepted
unquestioningly by the mathematicians, but are incapable of
logical demonstration. Berkeley's criticism was levelled against
all infinitesimals, that is to say, all quantities vaguely conceived
as in some intermediate state between nullity and finiteness,
as he took Newton's moments to be conceived. The tract
occasioned a controversy which had the important consequence
of making it plain that all arguments about infinitesimals must
be given up, and the calculus must be founded on the method of
limits. During the controversy Benjamin Robins gave an
exceedingly clear explanation of Newton's theories of fluxions
and of prime and ultimate ratios regarded as theories of limits.
In this explanation he pointed out that Newton's moment
(Leibnitz's " differential ") is to be regarded as so much of the
actual difference between two neighbouring values of a variable
as is needful for the formation of the fluxion (or differential
coefficient) (see G. A. Gibson, " The Analyst Controversy,"
Proc. Math. Soc., Edinburgh, xvii., 1899). Colin Maclaurin
published in 1742 a Treatise of Fluxions, in which he reduced
the whole theory to a theory of limits, and demonstrated it by
the method of Archimedes. This notion was gradually trans-
ferred to the continental mathematicians. Leonhard Euler
in his 1 ' nstitutiones Calculi dijferentialis (1755) was reduced to the
position of one who asserts that all differentials are zero, but,
as the product of zero and any finite quantity is zero, the ratio
of two zeros can be a finite quantity which it is the business
of the calculus to determine. Jean le Rond d'Alembert in the
Encyclopedic methodique (i7SS> 2nd ed. 1784) declared that
differentials were unnecessary, and that Leibnitz's calculus was
a calculus of mutually compensating errors, while Newton's
method was entirely rigorous. D'Alembert's opinion of Leibnitz's
calculus was expressed also by Lazare N. M. Carnot in his
Reflexions sur la metaphysique du calcul infinitesimal (1799)
and by Joseph Louis de la Grange (generally called Lagrange)
in writings from 1760 onwards. Lagrange proposed in his
Theorie des fonctions analytiques (1797) to found the whole of the
calculus on the theory of series. It was not until 1823 that a
treatise on the differential calculus founded upon the method
of limits was published. The treatise was the Resume des leqons
. . . sur le calcul infinitesimal of Augustin Louis Cauchy.
Since that time it has been understood that the use of the
phrase " infinitely small " in any mathematical argument
is a figurative mode of expression pointing to a
limiting process. In the opinion of many eminent
mathematicians such modes of expression are //m/(s-
confusing to students, but in treatises on the
calculus the traditional modes of expression are still largely
adopted.
31. Defective modes of expression did not hinder constructive
work. It was the great merit of Leibnitz's symbolism that
a mathematician who used it knew what was to be
done in order to formulate any problem analytically,
even though he might not be absolutely clear as to the basls of
proper interpretation of the symbols, or able to render
a satisfactory account of them. While new and varied
results were promptly obtained by using them, a long time elapsed
before the theory of them was placed on a sound basis. Even
after Cauchy had formulated his theory much remained to be
done, both in the rapidly growing department of complex
variables, and in the regions opened up by the theory of expan-
sions in trigonometric series. In both directions it was seen
that rigorous demonstration demanded greater precision in
regard to fundamental notions, and the requirement of precision
led to a gradual shifting of the basis of analysis from geometrical
intuition to arithmetical law. A sketch of the outcome of this
movement — the " arithmetization of analysis," as it has been
called — will be found in FUNCTION. Its general tendency has
been to show that many theories and processes, at first accepted
as of general validity, are liable to exceptions, and much of the
work of the analysts of the latter half of the igth century was
directed to discovering the most general conditions in which
particular processes, frequently but not universally applicable,
can be used without scruple.
III. Outlines of the Infinitesimal Calculus.
32. The general notions of functionality, limits and continuity
are explained in the article FUNCTION. Illustrations of the more
immediate ways in which these notions present themselves in
the development of the differential and integral calculus will be
useful in what follows. •
33. Let y be given as a function of x, or, more generally, let x
and y be given as functions of a variable t. The first of these cases
is included in the second by putting x = t. If certain
conditions are satisfied the aggregate of the points de-
termined by the functional relations form a curve. The
first condition is that the aggregate of the values of / to
which values of x and y correspond must be continuous, or, in other
words, that these values must consist of all real numbers, or of all
those real numbers which lie between assigned extreme numbers.
When this condition is satisfied the points are " ordered," and their
order is determined by the order of the numbers t, supposed to be
arranged in order of increasing or decreasing magnitude; also
there are two senses of description of the curve, according as t is
taken to increase or to diminish. The second condition is that
the aggregate of the points which are determined by the functional
relations must be " continuous." This condition means that, if
any point P determined by a value of / is taken, and any distance 6,
however small, is chosen, it is possible to find two points Q, Q' of the
aggregate which are such that (i.) P is between Q and Q', (ii.) if
R, R are any points between Q and Q' the distance RR' is less
than 8. The meaning of the word " between " in this statement
is fixed by the ordering of the points. Sometimes additional con-
ditions are imposed upon the functional relations before they are
regarded as defining a curve. An aggregate of points which satisfies
the two conditions stated
above is sometimes called a
" Jordan curve." It by no
means follows that every
curve of this kind has a tan-
gent. In order that the curve
may have a tangent T ats.
at P it is necessary
am-
metrical
limits.
that, if any angle o, however
small, is specified, a distance 6
can be found such that when
P is between Q and Q', and
PQ and PQ' are less than «,
the angle RPR' is less than
o for all pairs of points R, R' which are between P and Q, or
between P and Q' (fig. 8). When this condition is satisfied y is a
function of * which has a differential coefficient. The only way of
FIG. 8.
544
INFINITESIMAL CALCULUS
[OUTLINES
finding out whether this condition is satisfied or not is to attempt
to form the differential coefficient. If the quotient of differences
Ay/A* has a limit when Ax tends to zero, y is a differentiable function
of x, and the limit in question is the differential coefficient. The
derived function, or differential coefficient, of a function f(x) is
always defined by the formula
Rules for the formation of differential coefficients in particular cases
have been given in §11 above. The definition of a differential
coefficient, and the rules of differentiation, are quite independent of
any geometrical interpretation, such as that concerning tangents to
a curve, and the tangent to a curve is properly defined by means of
the differential coefficient of a function, not the differential co-
efficient by means of the tangent.
It may happen that the limit employed in defining the differential
coefficient has one value when h approaches zero through positive
Proms- va'ues* and a different value when h approaches zero
J through negative values. The two limits are then called
Regressive tne Pr°gressive " a°d ' regressive " differential co-
Dlfferen- efficients. In applications to dynamics, when * denotes
tlal Co- a coordinate and / the time, dx/dt denotes a velocity. If
efficients. tne ve'°city is changed suddenly the progressive differ-
ential coefficient measures the velocity just after the
change, and the regressive differential coefficient measures the
velocity just before the change. Variable velocities are properly
defined by means of differential coefficients.
AH geometrical limits may be specified in terms similar to those
employed in specifying the tangent to a curve; in difficult cases
Areas they must be so specified. Geometrical intuition may fail
to answer the question of the existence or non-existence
of the appropriate limits. In the last resort the definitions of many
quantities of geometrical import must be analytical, not geometrical.
As illustrations of this statement we may take the definitions of the
areas and lengths of curves. We may not assume that every curve
has an area or a length. To find out whether a curve has an area
or not, we must ascertain whether the limit expressed by fydx
exists. _ When the limit exists the curve has an area. The definition
of the integral is quite independent of any geometrical interpretation.
The length of a curve again is denned by means of a limiting process.
Let P, Q be two points of a curve, and Ri, R2, . . . R^_i a set of
intermediate points of the curve, supposed to be described in the
sense in which Q comes after P. The points R are supposed to be
reached successively in the order of the suffixes when the curve is
described in this sense. We form a sum of lengths of chords
PR1+R,R2+ . . . +R^Q.
If this sum has a limit when the number of the points R is increased
indefinitely and the lengths of all the chords are diminished inde-
Lenrths fimte'y. tn's limit is the length of the arc PQ. The limit
of Curves. 's tn.e same whatever law may be adopted for inserting
the intermediate points R and diminishing the lengths
of the chords. It appears from this statement that the differential
element of the arc of a curve is the length of the chord joining two
neighbouring points. In accordance with the fundamental artifice
for forming differentials (§§ 9, 10), the differential element of arc ds
may be expressed by the formula
ds = V [(<**)*+ (<ty)'l,
of which the right-hand member is really the measure of the distance
between two neighbouring points on the tangent. The square root
must be taken to be positive. We may describe this differential
element as being so much of the actual arc between two neighbouring
points as need be retained for the purpose of forming the integral
expression for an arc. This is a description, not a definition, because
the length of the short arc itself is only definable by means of the
integral expression. Similar considerations to those used in defining
the areas of plane figures and the lengths of plane curves are ap-
plicable to the formation of expressions for differential elements of
volume or of the areas of curved surfaces.
34. In regard to differential coefficients it is an important theorem
that, if the derived f unction f'(x) vanishes at all points of an interval,
Constant* tne function /(x) is constant in the interval. It follows
of late- tnat' 'f two functions have the same derived function
gration. !-nev can on'v differ by a constant. Conversely, indefinite
integrals are indeterminate to the extent of an additive
constant.
35- .The differential coefficient dy/dx, or the derived function
/ (*), is itself a function of x, and its differential coefficient is denoted
Higher tyjf'W or ^P**' In the second of these notations
Dlffereu- J. Is r.eKarded as the symbol of an operation, that of
tlal Co- differentiation with respect to x, and the index 2 means
efficients. tnat tne operation is repeated. In like manner we may
express the results of n successive differentiations by
/"> (x) or by d«y/dx». When the second differential coefficient
exists, or the first is differentiable, we have the relation
/' (*) = n~ ,._/(«+*)-»/(*)+/(«-») (L)
The limit expressed by the right-hand member of this equation may
exist in cases in which f(x) does not exist or is not differentiable.
The result that, when the limit here expressed can be shown to
vanish at all points of an interval, then/(x) must be a linear function
of x in the interval, is important.
The relation (i.) is a particular case of the more general relation
As in the case of relation (i.) the limit expressed by the right-hand
member may exist although some or all of the derived functions
f'(x), f*(x), . . .f-n~^(x) do not exist.
Corresponding to the rule iii. of § 1 1 we have the rule for forming
the wth differential coefficient of a product in the form
dn(uv) dnv i du dn~lv_>n(n — i) d**u dn~^zv, \dnu
where the coefficients are those of the expansion of (i +x)» in
powers of x (n being a positive integer). The rule is due to Leibnitz,
(1695).
Differentials of higher orders may be introduced in the same way
as the differential of the first order. In general when y=f(x), the
wth differential dny is defined by the equation
in which dx is the (arbitrary) differential of x.
When d/dx is regarded as a single symbol of operation the symbol
f...dx represents the inverse operation. If the former is denoted
by D, the latter may be denoted by Dyl. D" means that _
the operation D is to be performed n times in succession ; J™60'8
D~* that the operation of forming the indefinite integral ^ "*"*'
is to be performed n times in succession. Leibnitz's
course of thought (§ 24) naturally led him to inquire after an inter-
pretation of D" where n is not an integer. For an account of the
researches to which this inquiry gave rise, reference may be made
to the article by A. Voss in Ency. d. math. Wiss. Bd. ii. A, 2 (Leipzig,
1889). The matter is referred to as " fractional "or " generalized"
differentiation.
36. After the formation of differential coefficients the most im-
portant theorem of the differential calculus is the theorem of inter-
mediate value (" theorem of mean _.
value," " theorem of finite incre-
ments," " Rolle's theorem," are
other names for it). This theorem
may be explained as follows:
Let A, B be two points of a curve y=f(x)
(fig. 9). Then there is a point P between A
and B at which the tangent is parallel to
the secant AB. This theorem is expressed
analytically in the statement that if f'(x) is continuous between a
and b, there is a value Xi of x between o and b which has the pro-
perty expressed by the equation
FlG. 9.
The value Xi can be expressed in the form 0+6(6—0) where 6 is a
number between o and I.
A slightly more general theorem was gjven by Cauchy (1823) to
the effect that, if f'(x) and F'(*) are continuous between x = a and
x = b, then there is a number 6 between o and i which has the property
expressed by the equation
F(6)-F(q)_F'|q+9(&-q)}
/(*) ~/(o) f'\a+6(b~a)\'
The theorem expressed by the relation (i.) was first noted by Rolle
(1690) for the case where /(x) is a rational integral function which
vanishes when x = a and also when x = b. The general theorem was
given by Lagrange (1797). Its fundamental importance was first
recognized by Cauchy (1823). It may be observed here that the
theorem of integral calculus expressed by the equation
follows at once from the definition of an integral and the theorem of
intermediate value.
The theorem of intermediate value may be generalized in the
statement that, if /(*) and all its differential coefficients up to the
nth inclusive are continuous in the interval between x = a and* = 6,
then there is a number 9 between o and I which has the property
expressed by the equation
37. This theorem provides a means for computing the values of a
function at points near to an assigned point when the value of the
function and its differential coefficients at the assigned _ .
point are known. The function is expressed by a termin- J®
ated series, and, when the remainder tends to zero as n ""'
increases, it may be transformed into an infinite series. The theorem
OUTLINES]
INFINITESIMAL CALCULUS
545
was first given by Brook Taylor in his Methodus Incrementorum (1717)
as a corollary to a theorem concerning finite differences. Taylor
gave the expression for f(x+z) in terms of f(x), /'(*),... as an
infinite series proceeding by powers of z. His notation was that
appropriate to the method of fluxions which he used. This rule for
expressing a function as an infinite series is known as Taylor's
theorem. The relation (i.), in which the remainder after n terms is
put in evidence, was first obtained by Lagrange (1797). Another
form of the remainder was given by Cauchy (1823) viz.,
The conditions of validity of Taylor's expansion in an infinite series
have been investigated very completely oy A. Pringsheim (Math.
Ann. Bd. xliv., 1894). It is not sufficient that the function and all
its differential coefficients should be finite at x = a ; there must be a
neighbourhood of a within which Cauchy's form of the remainder
tends to zero as n increases (cf. FUNCTION).
An example of the necessity of this condition is afforded by the
function /(*) which is given by the equation
The sum of the series
power
series.
is the same as that of the series
It is easy to prove that this is less than e~l when x lies between o and
i, and also that/(jc) is greater than e'1 when x = i/V3- Hence the
sum of the series (i.) is not equal to the sum of the series (ii.).
The particular case of Taylor's theorem in which 0 = 0 is often
called Maclaurin's theorem, because it was first explicitly stated by
Colin Maclaurin in his Treatise of Fluxions (1742). Maclaurin like
Taylor worked exclusively with the fluxional calculus.
Examples of expansions in series had been known for some time.
The series for log (i+x) was obtained by Nicolaus Mercator (1668)
by expanding (i + x)~l by the method of algebraic
division, and integrating the series term by term. He
regarded his result as a " quadrature of the hyperbola."
Newton (1669) obtained the expansion of sin"1* by ex-
panding (i-x2)~i by the binomial theorem and Integrat-
ing the series term by term. James Gregory (1671) gave the series
for tan"1*:. Newton also obtained the series for sin x, cos x, and ex
by reversion of series (1669). The symbol e for the base of the
Napierian logarithms was introduced by Euler (1739). All these
series can be obtained at once by Taylor's theorem. James Gregory
found also the first few terms of the series for tan x and sec x; the
terms of these series may be found successively by Taylor's theorem,
but the numerical coefficient of the general term cannot be obtained
in this way.
Taylor's theorem for the expansion of a function in a power series
was the basis of Lagrange's theory of functions, and it is funda-
mental also in the theory of analytic functions of a complex variable
as developed later by Karl Weierstrass. It has also numerous
applications to problems of maxima and minima and to analytical
geometry. These matters are treated in the appropriate articles.
The forms of the coefficients in the series for tan x and sec x can
be expressed most simply in terms of a set of numbers introduced by
James Bernoulli in his treatise on probability entitled Ars Con-
jectandi (1713). These numbers BI, B2, . . . called Bernoulli's
numbers, are the coefficients so denoted in the formula
e'-l
and they are connected with the sums of powers of the reciprocals of
the natural numbers by equations of the type
The function
2 2\
has been called Bernoulli's function of the with order by J. L. Raabe
(Crelle's J. /. Math. Bd. xlii., 1851). Bernoulli's numbers and
functions are of especial importance in the calculus of finite differ-
ences (see the article by D. Seliwanoff in Ency. d. math. Wiss. Bd.
i., E., 1901).
When * is given in terms of y by means of a power series of the form
.x=y(C<,+Ciy+Crf+...) (Co=t=o)=y/0(y), say,
there arises the problem of expressing y as a power series in x. This
problem is that of reversion of series. It can be shown that provided
the absolute value of x is not too great,
To this problem is reducible that of expanding y in powers of * when
x and y are connected by an equation of the form
y = a+xf(y),
for which problem Lagrange (1770) obtained the formula
For the history of the problem and the generalizations of Lagrange's
result reference may be made to O. Stolz, Grundzuge d. Diff. u. Int.
Rechnung, T. 2 (Leipzig, 1896).
38. An important application of the theorem of intermediate
value and its generalization can be made to the problem of evaluating
certain limits. If two functions <£(*) and t(x) both . ,,
vanish at x=a, the fraction <*>(*) AK*) may have a finite
imit at a. This limit is described as the limit of an
indeterminate form." Such indeterminate forms were
considered first by de 1'Hospital (1696) to whom the problem of
evaluating the limit presented itself in the form of tracing the curve
y=#(*)AK*) near the ordinate x=a, when
the curves y =<K*0 and y = <l/(x) both cross
the axis of x at the same point as this
ordinate. In fig. 10 PA and QA represent
short arcs of the curves $,' $, chosen so
that P and Q have the same abscissa.
The value of the ordinate of the corre-
sponding point R of the compound curve is
given by the ratio of the ordinates PM,
QM. _ De 1'Hospital treated PM and QM ° // M -r
as " infinitesimal," so that the equations
PM :AM =«'(o) and QM :AM =t'(a) could FIG. 10.
be assumed to hold, and he arrived at the result that the " true
value " of <t>(a)l\j/(a) is <j>' '(a) l\j/' '(a) . It can be proved rigorously that,
if '/''(x) does not vanish at x = a, while <t>(a) =o and (f-(a) =o, then
It can be proved further if that <t>m(x) and tn(x) are the differential
coefficients of lowest order of <j>(x) and <j/ (x) which do not vanish at
x = a, and if m = n, then
lim.,.
If m>n the limit is zero; but if m<n the function represented by
the quotient <t>(x)lt(x) " becomes infinite " at x = a. If the value of
the function at x =a is not assigned by the definition of the function,
the function does not exist at x = a, and the meaning of the statement
that it " becomes infinite " is that it has no finite limit. The state-
ment does not mean that the function has a value which we call
infinity. There is no such value (see FUNCTION).
Such indeterminate forms as that described above are said to be
of the form o/o. Other indeterminate forms are presented in the
form ox oo, or i°°, or oo/oo, or oo-oo. The most notable of the
forms i°° is lim.i=o(i+^)1/1, which is e. The case in which <j>(x) and
tf/(x) both tend to become infinite at x = a is reducible to the case in
which both the functions tend to become infinite when x is increased
indefinitely. If <t>'(x) and ^'(x) have determinate finite limits when
x is increased indefinitely, while <t>(x) and ^(x) are determinately
(positively or negatively) infinite, we have the result expressed by the
equation
lim..
lim..
.*'<*)
For the meaning of the statement that <t> (x) and \l/ (x) are determinately
infinite reference may be made to the article FUNCTION. The evalua-
tion of forms of the type =0/00 leads to a scale of increasing " in-
finities," each being infinite in comparison with the preceding.
Such a scale is
log x,...x, x"*,...xn,...ex,...xx;
each of the limits expressed by such forms as \\rn.x-x <t>(x}l\l/(x),
where <t>(x) precedes ^/(x) in the scale, is zero. The construction
of such scales, along with the problem of constructing a complete
scale, was discussed in numerous writings by Paul du Bois-Reymond
(see in particular, Math. Ann. Bd. xi., 1877). For the general
Croblem of indeterminate forms reference may be made to the article
y A. Pringsheim in Ency. d. math. Wiss. Bd. ii., A. i_(i89g).
Forms of the type 0/0 presented themselves to early writers on
analytical geometry in connexion with the determination of the
tangents at a double point of a curve; forms of the type oo/oo
presented themselves in like manner in connexion with the deter-
mination of asymptotes of curves. The evaluation of limits has
innumerable applications in all parts of analysis. Cauchy's Analyse
algbbrique (1821) was an epoch-making treatise on limits.
If a function <£(*) becomes infinite at x = a, and another function
iHx) also becomes infinite at x=a in such a way that <t>(x)/<l/(x)
has a finite limit C, we say that <j>(x) and ^(x) become " infinite
of the same order." We may write <t>(x) =C<l/(x)+<tn(x), where
Hm.i=o0iW/<A(*) =o, and thus <#>i(x) is of a lower order than* (A;);
it may be finite or infinite at x = a. If it is finite, we describe C<l>(x)
xiv. 1 8
546
INFINITESIMAL CALCULUS
[OUTLINES
as the " infinite part " of <#>(*). The resolution of a function which
becomes infinite into an infinite part and a finite part can often be
effected by taking the infinite part to be infinite of the same order
as one of the functions in the scale written above, or in some more
comprehensive scale. This resolution is the inverse of the process of
evaluating an indeterminate form of the type oo — oo .
For example lim.a._0{(e1 — l)"1— x'1} is finite and equal to =§,
and the function (e* — i)"1 — x""1 can be expanded in a power series
in x.
39. The nature of a function of two or more variables, and the
meaning, to be attached to continuity and limits in respect of such
functions, have been explained under FUNCTION. The
Functions theorems of differential calculus which relate to such
severa/ faggfaM are (n general the same whether the number
variables. Qj variakies ;s two or anv greater number, and it will
generally be convenient to state the theorems for two variables.
40. Let u or f (xf, y) denote a function of two variables * and y.
If we regard y as constant, u or/ becomes a function of one variable x,
and we may seek to differentiate it with respect to *.
Partial jj t^e function of x is differentiable, the differential
differen- coefficient which is formed in this way is called the
nation. « partjai differential coefficient " of u or/ with respect to
x, and is denoted by ^ or g*. The symbol " d " was appropriated
for partial differentiation by C. G. J. Jacobi (1841). It had before
been written indifferently with " d as a symbol of differentiation.
Euler had written " (+] " for the partial differential coefficient of
/ with respect to x. Sometimes it is desirable to put in evidence the
variable which is treated as constant, and then the partial differential
coefficient is written " (-, )" or "(a ) "• This course is often
\ax/ „ \ox; a
adopted by writers on Thermodynamics. Sometimes the symbols
d or d are dropped, and the partial differential coefficient is denoted by
MI orfx. As a definition of the partial differential coefficient we have
the formula
In the same way we may form the partial differential coefficient with
respect to y by treating x as a constant.
The introduction of partial differential coefficients enables us to
solve at once for a surface a problem analogous to the problem of
tangents for a curve ; and it also enables us to take the first step in
the solution of the problem of maxima and minima for a function
of several variables. If the equation of a surface is expressed in the
form z=f(x, y), the direction cosines of the normal to the surface
• d/ d/
at any point are in the ratios -f- : •£-: = I. If / is a maximum or a
minimum at (x, y), then dfjdx and df/dy vanish at that point.
In applications of the differential calculus to mathematical physics
we are in general concerned with functions of three variables x, y, z,
which represent the coordinates of a point; and then considerable
importance attaches to partial differential coefficients which are
formed by a particular rule. Let F(x, y, z) be the function, P a point
(x, y, z), P' a neighbouring point (x+Ax, y+Ay, z +Az) , and let AJ
be the length of PP'. The value of F(x, y, z) at P may be denoted
shortly by F(P). A limit of the same nature as a partial differential
coefficient is expressed by the formula
=F(P)
'
in which As is diminished indefinitely by bringing P' up to P, and P'
is supposed to approach P along a straight line, for example, the
tangent to a curve or the normal to a surface. The limit in question
is denoted by dF/dh, in which it is understood that h indicates a
direction, that of PP'. If /, m, n are the direction cosines of the
limiting direction of the line PP', supposed drawn from P to P', then
dF 9F , dF . 9F
The operation of forming dF/dh is called " differentiation with respect
to an axis " or " vector differentiation."
41. The most important theorem in regard to partial differential
coefficients is the theorem of the total differential. We may write down
the equation
„
Total +f(a,b+k)-f(a,b).
Dltteren- If /* is a continuous function of * when x lies between a
Ual. and a-\-h and y = b-\-k, and if further/, is a continuous
function of y when y lies between b and d-\-k, there exist
values of 9 and 17 which lie between o and I and have the properties
expressed by the equations
f(a+h, b+k)-f(a, b+k)=hf,(a+0h, b+K),
f(a, b+k) -f(a, b) = kfu(a, b+yk).
Further, f*(a+eh, b+k) and /„ (a, b+rik) tend to the limits f, (a, b)
and ft(a, b) when h and k tend to zero, provided the differential
coefficients/i, /„ are continuous at the point (a, b). Hence in this case
the above equation can be written
f(a+h, b+k)-f(a, b) = hf,(a, b)+kfy(a,.b)+R,
where
TD T)
Hm-A-o, fc-oF=0 and lim'A-o, fc-oj = °-
In accordance with the notation of differentials this equation gives
Just as in the case of functions of one variable, dx and ay are arbitrary
finite differences, and df is not the difference of two values of/, but
is so much of this difference as need be retained for the purpose of
forming differential coefficients.
The theorem of the total differential is immediately applicable to
the differentiation of implicit functions. When y is a function of x
which is given by an equation of the form/Gt, y) =o, and it is either
impossible or inconvenient to solve this equation so as to express y
as an explicit function of x, the differential coefficient dy/dx can be
formed without solving the equation. We have at once
=_
dx dx I dy'
This rule was known, in all essentials, to Fermat and de Sluse before
the invention of the algorithm, of the differential calculus.
An important theorem, first proved by Euler, is immediately
deducible from the theorem of the total differential. If /(*, y) is
a homogeneous function of degree n then
The theorem is applicable to functions of any number of variables
and is generally known as Euler 's theorem of homogeneous functions.
42. Many problems in which partial differential coefficients
occur are simplified by the introduction of certain determinants
called " Jacobians " or " functional determinants."
They were introduced into Analysis by C. G. J. Jacobi Jacoblaas-
(J. f. Math., Crelle, Bd. 22, 1841, p.>3io,). The Jacobian of «i,
U), . . . Un with respect to xi, xi, . . . xn is the determinant
dui
dxT
dxT
dUn
dx,
du\
du\
dUn
in which the constituents of the rth row are the n partial differential
coefficients of UT with respect to the n variables x. This determinant
is expressed shortly by
d\X\, Xtt . . ., Xn)'
Jacobians possess many properties analogous to those of ordinary
differential coefficients, for example, the following: —
9 (MI. «2 un)^d(xt,
d(xi, Xi,..., xj *
d(u>,
,...,Xn)^d(u^
/N •!/ „
d(yi< yt, • • • . y») d(xi, *2l . . . flxn) d(xi, xt *„)'
If « functions («lt ^, . . . «„) of n variables (*i, %,..., xn) are
not independent, but are connected by a relation /(«i, ut, . . . «„)
=o, then
d(Ui, U, "")^0-
d(Xl, Xl,..., Xn)
and, conversely, when this condition is satisfied identically the
functions «i, «j, . . . , Un are not independent.
H3 43. Partial differential coefficients of the second and higher
orders can be formed in the same way as those of the first order.
For example, when there are two variables x, y, the first
partial derivatives df/dx and df/dy are functions of x and '
y, which we may seek to differentiate partially with ' '%"ge?
respect to * or y. The most important theorem in re- alfferen-
lation to partial differential coefficients of orders higher WaWons
than the first is the theorem that the values of such
coefficients do not depend upon the order in which the differentia-
tions are performed. For example, we have the equation
~dx (dy) =dy (dx) W
This theorem is not true without limitation. The conditions for its
validity have been investigated very completely by H. A. Schwarz
(see his Ges. math. Abhandlungen, Bd. 2, Berlin, 1890, p.. 275). It
is a sufficient, though not a necessary, condition that all the differ-
ential coefficients concerned should be continuous functions of x, y.
In consequence of the relation (i.) the differential coefficients ex-
pressed in the two members of this relation are written
'•JPf_ d*f
dxdy °r dydx'
OUTLINES]
The differential coefficient
INFINITESIMAL CALCULUS
547
dx'dydf
in which p+q+r = n, is formed by differentiating p times with
respect to x, q times with respect to y, r times with respect to z, the
differentiations being performed in any order. Abbreviated nota-
tions are sometimes used in such forms as
Differentials of higher orders are introduced by the defining
equation
in which the expression (dx-^-+dy^-\ is developed by the binomial
— <\
theorem in the same way "as if dx^- and dy-^- were numbers, and
(d\r / d \ tl""r dnf
die) \dv) f 'S reP'aced by Q-pg n-r' When there are more than
two variables the multinomial theorem must be used instead of the
binomial theorem.
The problem of forming the second and higher differential co-
efficients of implicit functions can be solved at once by means of
partial differential coefficients. For example, if / (x, y)=o is the
equation defining y as a function of x, we have
--.
\dy I \dy dx* dx dy dxdy\dx d
The differential expression Xdx+Ydy, in which both X and Y are
functions of the two variables x and y, is a total differential if there
exists a function / of x and y which is such that
When this is the case we have the relation
= dX/dy. (ii.)
Conversely, when this equation is satisfied there exists a function /
which is such that
df-JUx+Ydy.
The expression Xdx+~Ydy in which X and Y are connected by the
relation (ii.) is often described as a " perfect differential." The
theory of the perfect differential can be extended to functions of re
variables, and in this case there are in(n-i) such relations as (ii.).
In the case of a function of two variables x,y an abbreviated
notation is often adopted for differential coefficients. The function
being denoted by z, we write
. , dz dz d2z 32z 52z
p, q, r, s, t for , ,
Partial differential coefficients of the second order are important
in geometry as expressing the curvature of surfaces. When a surface
is given by an equation of the formz=/(*, y), the lines of curvature
are determined by the equation
-{(i+p*)s-pqr}(dx)* = o,
and the principal radii of curvature are the values of R which
satisfy the equation
/I/]. The problem of change of variables was first considered by
Brook Taylor in his Melhodus incrementorum. In the case con-
Chan of s'dered by Taylor y is expressed as a function of z, and z
. 17 as a function of x, and it is desired to express |the differ-
ential coefficients of y with respect to x without eliminating
z. The result can be obtained at once by the rules for differentiating
a product and a function of a function. We have
dy_dy dz_
dx~ dz 'd~x'
d*y_dy d?z
~~'''
y /<fc\
* \dx)
_
dx3~dz
dz
y_ ldz\
z3 \dx)
The introduction of partial differential coefficients enables us to
deal with more general cases of change of variables than that con-
sidered above. If u, v are new variables, and x, y are connected with
them by equations of the type
*=/i («,»), y =/!(«,»), ('•)
while y is either an explicit or an implicit function of x, we have the
problem of expressing the differential coefficients of various orders of
y with respect to x in terms of the differential coefficients of v with
respect to u. We have
dy- tsJin.<*h<*L\ / /2fij.26*
dx~ \du^dv du) I \du^~dv du
by the rule of the total differential. In the same way, by means of
differentials of higher orders, we may express d?yldx*, and so on.
Equations such as (i.) may be interpreted as effecting a transfor-
mation by which a point (u, v) is made to correspond to a point (x, y).
The whole theory of transformations, and of functions, or differential
expressions, which remain invariant under groups of transforma-
tions, has been studied exhaustively by Sophus Lie (see, in particular,
his Theorie der Transformationsgruppen, Leipzig, 1888-1893). (See
also DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS and GROUPS).
A more general problem of change of variables is presented when
it is desired to express the partial differential coefficients of a function
V with respect to x, y, . . . in terms of those with respect to u, v, . . .,
where u, v, . . . are connected with x, y, . . . by any functional
relations. When there are two variables x, y, and u, v are given
functions of #, y, we have
dV_=dVdu, svdv_,
dx du dx~^dv dx
_=_
dy du dy dv dy
and the differential coefficients of higher orders are to be formed by
repeated applications of the rule for differentiating a product and
the rules of the type
d__du__d_, d» _d__
dx~dxdu dxdv
When *, y are given functions of «,»,... we have, instead of the
above, such equations as
_
du dx du dy du'
and dV/dx, dV/dy can be found by solving these equations, pro-
vided the Jacobian d(x,y)/d(u,v) is not zero. The generalization
of this method for the case of more than two variables need not
detain us.
In cases like that here considered it is sometimes more convenient
not to regard the equations connecting *, y with u, v as effecting a
point transformation, but to consider the loci w = const., n=const.
as two " families " of curves. Then in any region of the plane of
(x, y) in which the Jacobian d(x, y)jd(u, v) does not vanish or become
infinite, any point (x, y) is uniquely determined by the values of «
and v which belong to the curves of the two families that pass through
the point. Such variables as u,v are then described as "(curvilinear
coordinates " of the point. This method is applicable to any number
of variables. When the loci « = const., . . . intersect each other at
right angles, the variables are " orthogonal " curvilinear coordinates.
Three-dimensional systems of such coordinates have important
applications in mathematical physics. Reference may be made
to G. Lam6, Lemons sur les coordonnees curvilignes (Paris, 1859), and
to G. Darboux, Legons sur les coordonnees curvilignes et sys&mes
orthogonaux (Paris, 1898).
When such a coordinate as « is connected with x and y by a
functional relation of the form f(x,y,u)=o the curves « = const.
are a family of curves, and this family may be such that no two
curves of the family have a common point. When this is not the
case the points in which a curve f(x,y,u)=o is intersected by a
curve /(x, y, u+&u) =o tend to limiting positions as AM is diminished
indefinitely. The locus of these limiting positions is the " envelope "
of the family, and in general it touches all the curves of the family.
It is easy to see that, if u, v are the parameters of two families of
curves which have envelopes, the Jacobian d(x,y)/d(u,v) vanishes
at all points on these envelopes. It is easy to see also that at any
point where the reciprocal Jacobian d(u,v)/d(x,y) vanishes, a curve
of the family u touches a curve of the family v.
If three variables x, y,z are connected by a functional relation
f(x, y,z)=o, one of them, z say, may be regarded as an implicit
function of the other two, and the partial differential coefficients of z
with respect to x and y can be formed by the rule of the total differ-
ential. We have
=_ .=-
dx dx/ dz' dy dyl dz'
and there is no difficulty in proceeding to express the higher differ-
ential coefficients. There arises the problem of expressing the partial
differential coefficients of x with respect to y and z in terms of those
of z with respect to x and y. The problem is known as that of
" changing the dependent variable." It is solved by applying the
rule of the total differential. Similar considerations are applicable
to all cases in which n variables are connected by fewer than n
equations.
45. Taylor's theorem can be extended to functions of several
variables. In the case of two variables the general for- Extension
mula, with a remainder after n terms, can be written Of Taylor's
most simply in the form theorem.
f(a+h, 6+fe) =/(a, b)+df(a,
in which
548
INFINITESIMAL CALCULUS
[OUTLINES
and finff _L/)/. h-i-fib~\ I I Ji ° l fr °
L\ dx' dyi J x-a+gh, v-b+ft
The last expression is the remainder after n terms, and in it 9
denotes some particular number between o and I. The results for
three or more variables can be written in the same form. The ex-
tension of Taylor's theorem was given by Lagrange (1797); the
form written above is due to Cauchy (1823). For the validity of the
theorem in this form it is necessary that all the differential co-
efficients up to the nth should be continuous in a region bounded by
x = a=±h, y = b±k. When all the differential coefficients, no matter
how high the order, are continuous in such a region, the theorem leads
to an expansion of the function in a multiple power series. Such
expansions are just as important in analysis, geometry and mechanics
as expansions of functions of one variable. Among the problems
which are solved by means of such expansions are the problem of
maxima and minima for functions of more than one variable (see
MAXIMA and MINIMA).
46. In treatises on the differential calculus much space is usually
Plane devoted to the differential geometry of curves and
curves. surfaces. A few remarks and results relating to the
differential geometry of plane curves are set down here.
(i.) If ^ denotes the angle which the radius vector drawn from
the origin makes with the tangent to a curve at a point whose polar
coordinates are r, 8 and if p denotes the perpendicular from the
origin to the tangent, then
cos ^ = dr/ds, sin ^ = rd8/ds=p/r, '
where ds denotes the element of arc. The curve may be determined
by an equation connecting p with r.
(ii.) The locus of the foot of the perpendicular let fall from the
origin upon the tangent to a curve at a point is called the pedal of the
curve with respect to the origin. The angle \f/ for the pedal is the
same as the angle \f/ for the curve. Hence the (p, r) equation of the
pedal can be deduced. If the pedal is regarded as the primary curve,
the curve of which it is the pedal is the " negative pedal " of the
primary. We may have pedals of pedals and so on, also negative
pedals of negative pedals and so on. Negative pedals are usually
determined as envelopes.
(iii.) If </> denotes the angle which the tangent at any point makes
with a fixed line, we have
(iv.) The " average curvature " of the arc As of a curve between
two points is measured by the quotient
s.
where the upright lines denote, as usual, that the absolute value of
the included expression is to be taken, and <t> is the angle which the
tangent makes with a fixed line, so that A<£ is the angle between the
tangents (or normals) at the points. As one of the points moves up
to coincidence with the other this average curvature tends to a limit
which is the " curvature " of the curve at the point. It is denoted
by
1 4m
|sr|
Sometimes the upright lines are omitted and a rule of signs is given : —
Let the arc s of the curve be measured from some point along the
curve in a chosen sense, and let the normal be drawn towards that
side to which the curve is concave; if the normal is directed towards
the left of an observer looking along the tangent in the chosen sense
of description the curvature is reckoned positive, in the contrary
case negative. The differential d<t> is often called the " angle of
contingence." In the I4th century the size of the angle between a
curve and its tangent seems to have been seriously debated, and
the name " angle of contingence " was then given to the supposed
angle.
(v.) The curvature of a curve at a point is the same as that of a
certain circle which touches the curve at the point, and the "radius
of curvature" p is the radius of this circle. We have - = —
p \ds
The centre of the circle is called the " centre of curvature "; it is
the limiting position of the point of intersection of the normal at the
point and the normal at a neighbouring point, when the second point
moves up to coincidence with the first. If a circle is described to
intersect the curve at the point P and at two other points, and one of
these two points is moved up to coincidence with P, the circle touches
the curve at the point P and meets it in another point ; the centre of
the circle is then on the normal. As the third point now moves up
to coincidence with P, the centre of the circle moves to the centre of
curvature. The circle is then said to " osculate " the curve, or to
have_ " contact of the second order " with it at P.
(vi.) The following are formulae for the radius of curvature : —
• av"') T»e Poin's at which the curvature vanishes are " points of
inflection. If P is a point of inflection and Q a neighbouring point,
then, as Q moves up to coincidence with P, the distance from P to
the point of intersection of the normals at P and Q becomes greater
than any distance that can be assigned. The equation which gives
the abscissae of the points in which a straight line meets the curve
being expressed in the form f(x) =o, the function f(x) has a factor
(x — xo)3, where xt> is the abscissa of the point of inflection P, and the
line is the tangent at P. When the factor (x — Xo) occurs (n + I ) times
in /(x), the curve is said to have " contact of the nth order " with the
line. There is an obvious modification when the line is parallel to
the axis of y.
(viii.) The locus of the centres of curvature, or envelope of the
normals, of a curve is called the " evolute." A curve which has a
given curve as evolute is called an " involute " of the given curve.
All the involutes are " parallel " curves, that is to say, they are such
that one is derived from another by marking off a constant distance
along the normal. The involutes are " orthogonal trajectories " of
the tangents to the common evolute.
(ix.) The equation of an algebraic curve of the nth degree can be
expressed in the form WO+KI + WJ+ . . . +«*= o, where u<> is a
constant, and ur is a. homogeneous rational integral function of x, y
of the rth degree. When the origin is on the curve, «0 vanishes, and
tti=o represents the tangent at the origin. If HI also vanishes, the
origin is a double point and u% = o represents the tangents at the origin.
If «2 has distinct factors, or is of the form a(y— pix)(y — pix), the
value of y on either branch of the curve can be expressed (for points
sufficiently near the origin) in a power series, which is either
. . . , or
where qi, . . . and qi, . . . are determined without ambiguity. If
pi and pi are real the two branches have radii of curvature pi, pj
determined by the formulae
£-<«+*>
gi
When pi and />2 are imaginary the origin is the real point of inter-
section of two imaginary branches. In the real figure of the curve it is
an isolated point. If «2 is a square, a(y— px)*, the origin is a cusp,
and in general there is not a series for y in integral powers of x, which
is valid in the neighbourhood of the origin. The further investigation
of cusps and multiple points belongs rather to analytical geometry
and the theory of algebraic functions than to differential calculus.
(x.) When the equation of a curve is given in the form Wo+«i + . . .
+Hn-i+ttn = o where the notation is the same as that in (ix.), the
factors of «n determine the directions of the asymptotes. If these
factors are all real and distinct, there is an asymptote corresponding
to each factor. If u.^LiLj . . . Ln, where Li, . . . are linear in
x, y, we may resolve Mn_i/«» into partial fractions according to the
formula
«n-l Ai . A2 ,
and then Li+Ai=o, L2+A2 = o, . . . are the equations of the asymp-
totes. When a real factor of «„ is repeated we may have two parallel
asymptotes or we may have a " parabolic asymptote." Sometimes
the parallel asymptotes coincide, as in the curve x*(x'+y2—a?')=a4,
where x = o is the only real asymptote. The whole theory of asymptotes
belongs properly to analytical geometry and the theory of algebraic
functions.
47. The formal definition of an integral, the theorem of the
existence of the integral for certain classes of functions, a list of
classes of " integrable " functions, extensions of the notion integral
of integration to functions which become infinite or in- calculus
determinate, and to cases in which the limits of integra-
tion become infinite, the definitions of multiple integrals, and the
possibility of defining functions by means of definite integrals — all
these matters have been considered in FUNCTION. The definition of
integration has been explained in § 5 above, and the results of some
of the simplest integrations have been given in § 12. A few theorems
relating to integrations have been noted in §§ 34, 35, 36 above.
48. The chief methods for the evaluation of indefinite methods of
integrals are the method of integration by parts, and the /n<e»rar/on
introduction of new variables.
From the equation d(uv) =udv+vdu we deduce the equation
dv •, C du ,
dx=uv-J Vfadx,
r d
)udxa
or, as it may be written
uwdx =
This is the rule of " integration by parts."
As an example we have
1 1/-*!
dx.
/«•«*-«?-/?<<*
When we introduce a new variable z in place of x, by means of an
equation giving x in terms of z, we express f(x) in terms of z. Let
<t>(z) denote the function of z into which f(x) is transformed. Then
from the equation
j dx ,
OUTLINES]
we deduce the equation
INFINITESIMAL CALCULUS
) gf«
As an example, in the integral
/V (i -x2)<2x
put x = sin z; the integral becomes
Integra-
tion la
terms of
element-
ary f unc-
tions.
49. The indefinite integrals of certain classes of functions can be
expressed by means of a finite number of operations of addition or
multiplication in terms of the so-called " elementary "
functions. The elementary functions are rational alge-
braic functions, implicit algebraic functions, exponentials
and logarithms, trigonometrical and inverse circular
functions. The following are among the classes of
functions whose integrals involve the elementary functions
only: (i.) all rational functions; (ii.) all irrational functions
of the form f(x, y), where / denotes a rational algebraic function
of x and y, and y is connected with x by an algebraic equation of the
second degree; (iii.) all rational functions of sin x and cos x; (iv.) all
rational functions of e?; (v.) all rational integral functions of the
variables x, e"x, &x, ... sin mx, cos mx, sin nx, cos nx, ... in
which a, 6, ... and m, n, . . . are any constants. The integration
of a rational function is generally effected by resolving the function
into partial fractions, the function being first expressed as the
quotient of two rational integral functions. Corresponding to any
simple root of the denominator there is a logarithmic term in the
integral. If any of the roots of the denominator are repeated there
are rational algebraic terms in the integral. The operation of re-
solving a fraction into partial fractions requires a knowledge of the
roots of the denominator, but the algebraic part of the integral can
always be found without obtaining all the roots of the denominator.
Reference may be made to C. Hermite, Cours d' analyse, Paris, 1873.
The integration of other functions, which can be integrated in terms
of the elementary functions, can usually be effected by transforming
the functions into rational functions, (possibly after preliminary
integrations by parts. In the case of rational functions of x and a
radical of the form V (ax*+bx+c) the radical can be reduced by a
linear substitution tojone of the forms V (a1 — *>), V (x2— a2), V (x2+a2).
The substitutions x = a sin 8, x = a sec 8, x = a tan 0 are then effective
in the three cases. By these substitutions the subject of integration
becomes a rational function of sin 8 and cos 0, and it can be reduced
to a rational function of t by the substitution tan \S = t. There are
many other substitutions by which such integrals can be determined.
Sometimes we may have information as to the functional character
of the integral without being able to determine it. For example,
when the subject of integration is of theform (axt+bx3+cx2+dx+e)-l
the integral cannot be expressed explicitly in terms of elementary
functions. Such integrals lead to new functions (see FUNCTION).
Methods of reduction and substitution for the evaluation of in-
definite integrals occupy a considerable space in text-books of the
integral calculus. In regard to the functional character of the
integral reference may be made to G. H. Hardy's tract, The In-
tegration of Functions of a Single Variable (Cambridge, 1905), and to
the memoirs there quoted. A few results are added here
(i.) f(xt+a)-Ux='\og(x+(if+aW.
Ca" be evaluated ^ the substitution
x-p = ilz, andj(x_^v(g.+ate+e) can be deduced by differ-
entiating (re — i) times with respect to p.
(Hi ) f , ("*+,IPdf, . , . can be reduced by the sub-
J (ox2+2/3x+7)V (ax 2+20X+c)
stitution y* = (ax*+2bx+c)!(ax*+2px+y) to the form
A/V(xf-^)+B/V(/-x2)
where A and B are constants, and Xi and X2 are the two values of X
for which (a-Xa)x2+2(6-X/3)x+c-XT is a perfect square (see
A. G. Greenhill, A Chapter in the Integral Calculus, London, 1888).
(iv.) (xm(axn+V)fdx, in which m, n, p are rational, can be reduced,
by putting ax" = bt, to depend upon /««(i +t)"dt. If p is an integer
and q a fraction r/s, we put t = «*. If q is an integer and p = r/s we put
i+t = u'. If p+q is an integer and p = r/s we put l+t = tu'. These
integrals, called " binomial integrals," were investigated by Newton
(De quadratura cuniarum).
(vii.) feals
(viii.) / sin"1 x cos" x dx can be reduced by differentiating a function
of the form sinp x cos' x;
Hence
d sin x _
e'&' dx cos9 x
j
'' dx
cos" x (n — I ) cos
(ix.)
549
l^^l-IXnaninteger).
/'AlT /*!JT
(x.) I sinz»+1x</x= I cos2"+1x(fx = •4---2» i>(nanintcger).
•'o Jo 3 -5- • • \2n-r i)
(xi.) J ;; . ecosx)n can be reduced by one of the substitutions
_ e+cosx , _ e+cosx
i+«cosx' i+ecosx'
of which the first or the second is to be employed according as
e<or>i.
50. Among the integrals of transcendental functions New trans-
which lead to new transcendental functions we may notice ccndeats.
~" -' — x t
<Ldz,
called the " logarithmic integral," and denoted by " Li x," also
the integrals
called the " sine integral " and the " cosine integral," and denoted by
" Si x " and " Ci x, also the integral
/:•
called the " error-function integral," and denoted by " Erf x."
All these functions have been tabulated (seeTABLES, MATHEMATICAL).
51. New functions can be introduced also by means of the definite
integrals of functions of two or more variables with re- Eulerlaa
spect to one of the variables, the limits of integration integrals,
being fixed. Prominent among such functions are the
Beta and Gamma functions expressed by the equations
B(/, ro) =
/°
0
When n is a positive integer r(re + i)=n ! . The Beta function
(or " Eulerian integral of the first kind ") is expressible in terms of
Gamma functions (or " Eulerian integrals of the second kind ") by
the formula
The Gamma function satisfies the difference equation
r(* + l)=xr(x),
and also the equation
r(x).r(l -*)=*•/ sin (XT),
with the particular result
The number
is called " Euler's constant," and is equal to the limit
lim.«0[(i + l + l+...+i) -logn];
its value to 15 decimal places is 0^577 215 664 901 532.
The function log T(i +x) can be expanded in the series
log r(i+*)-J i
-J log
where
and the series for log r(i+x) converges when x lies between — I
and i.
52. Definite integrals can sometimes be evaluated when the limits
of integration are some particular numbers, although Dellalte
the corresponding indefinite integrals cannot be found.
For example, we have the result
P(i-*2)-i \ogxdx= -i?rlog2,
Jo
although the indefinite integral of (i — 3C2)~J log x cannot be found.
Numbers of definite integrals are expressible in terms of the trans-
cendental functions mentioned in § 50 or in terms of Gamma functions.
For the calculation of definite integrals we have the following
methods : —
(i.) Differentiation with respect to a parameter.
(ii.) Integration with respect to a parameter.
(iii.) Expansion in infinite series and integration term by term.
(iv.) Contour integration.
The first three methods involve an interchange of the order of two
limiting operations, and they are valid only when the functions
satisfy certain conditions of continuity, or, in case the limits of
550
INFINITESIMAL CALCULUS
[OUTLINES
integration are infinite, when the functions tend to zero at infinite
distances in a sufficiently high order (see FUNCTION). The method
of contour integration involves the introduction of complex variables
(see FUNCTION : § Complex Variables).
A few results are added
(ii.)j ?—- 3^— dx=ir(cotair — cotbir), (o<oor6<i),
(iv.) *".cos zx.er^dx = - JC-'VTT,
(vii.) I log(i— 2
J o
d* = oor2irlogaaccordingasa<or>i,
(x)
y o
cos ax-cos ftx
/ •• \ r
(xn.)
./ 0
(xiii.)f"
./ —
/""
(xiv.) I
.Jo
r™
| j
Jo
53. The meaning of integration of a function of n variables through
a domain of the same number of dimensions is explained in the
article FUNCTION. In the case of two variables x, y we
Multiple integrate a function f(x,y) over an area; in the case of
Integrals. tnree variables x, y, z we integrate a function f(x, y, z)
through a volume. The integral of a f unction f(x, y) over an area in
the plane of (x, y) is denoted by
///(*, y)dxdy.
The notation refers to a method of evaluating the integral. We may
suppose the area divided into a very large number of very small
rectangles by lines parallel to the axes. Then we multiply the value
of / at any point within a rectangle by the measure of the area of the
rectangle, sum for all the rectangles, and pass to a limit by increasing
the number of rectangles indefinitely and diminishing all their sides
indefinitely. The process is usually effected by summing first for all
the rectangles which lie in a strip between two lines parallel to one
axis, say the axis of y, and afterwards for all the strips. This process
is equivalent to integrating /(*, y) with respect to y, keeping x con-
stant, and taking certain functions of x as the limits of integration
for y, and then integrating the result with respect to x between
constant limits. The integral obtained in this way may be written
in such a form as
and is called a " repeated integral." The identification of a surface
integral, such as Jff(x, y)dxdy, with a repeated integral cannot
always be made, but implies that the function satisfies certain
conditions of continuity. In thej same way volume integrals are
usually evaluated by regarding them as repeated integrals, and a
volume integral is written in the form
S!JS(x,y,z}dxdydz.
Integrals such as surface and volume integrals are usually called
" multiple integrals." Thus we have " double " integrals, " triple "
integrals, and so on. In contradistinction to multiple integrals the
ordinary integral of a function of one variable with respect to that
variable is called a " simple integral.
A more general type of surface integral may be defined by taking
an arbitrary surface, with or without an edge. We suppose in the
Surface place that the surface is closed, or has no edge. We
Integrals.
may mark a large number of points on the surface, and
draw the tangent planes at all these points. These
tangent planes form a polyhedron having a large number of faces,
one to each marked point ; and we may choose the marked points
so that all the linear dimensions of any face are less than some
arbitrarily chosen length. We may devise a rule for increasing the
number of marked points indefinitely and decreasing the lengths of
all the edges of the polyhedra indefinitely. If the sum of the areas
of the faces tends to a limit, this limit is the area of the surface. If
we multiply the value of a function /at a point of the surface by the
measure of the area of the corresponding face of thejpolyhedron, sum
for all the faces, and pass to a limit as before, the result is a surface
integral, and is written
///as-
The extension to the case of an open surface bounded
by an edge presents no difficulty. A line integral taken "'
along a curve is defined in a similar way, and is written
ffds
where ds is the element of arc of the curve (§ 33). The direction
cosines of the tangent of a curve are dx/ds, dy/ds, dz/ds, and line
integrals usually present themselves in the form
"tegrais.
Ss .
In like manner surface integrals usually present themselves in the
where /, m, n are the direction cosines of the normal to the surface
drawn in a specified sense.
The area of a bounded portion of the plane of (x, y) may be ex-
pressed either as
V(xdy-ydx),
or as
JJdxdy,
the former integral being a line integral taken round the boundary of
the portion, and the latter a surface integral taken over the area
within this boundary. In forming the line integral the boundary is
supposed to be described in the positive sense, so that the included
area is on the left hand.
530. We have two theorems of transformation connect- Theorems
ing volume integrals with surface integrals and surface of Green
integrals with line integrals. The first theorem, called and
" Green's theorem," is expressed by the equation Stokes.
JIf (8+i?+S
where the volume integral on the'left is taken through the volume
within a closed surface S, and the surface integral on the right is
taken over S, and I, m, n denote the direction cosines of the normal
to S drawn outwards. There is a corresponding theorem for a closed
curve in two dimensions, viz.,
the sense of description of s being the positive sense. This theorem
is a particular case of a more general theorem called " Stokes's
theorem." Let s denote the edge of an open surface S, and let S be
covered with a network of curves so that the meshes of the network
are nearly plane', then we can choose a sense of description of the
edge of any mesh, and a corresponding sense for the normal to S at
any point within the mesh, so that these senses are related like the
directions of rotation and translation in a right-handed screw. This
convention fixes the sense of the normal (I, m, n) at any point on S
when the sense of description of s is chosen. If the axes of x, y, z are
a right-handed system, we have Stokes's theorem in the form
C
J
where the integral on the left is taken round the curve j in the
chosen sense. When the axes are left-handed, we may either reverse
the sense of /, m, n and maintain the formula, or retain the sense of
/, TO, n and change the sign of the right-hand member of the equation.
For the validity of the theorems of Green and Stokes it is in general
necessary that the functions involved should satisfy certain con-
ditions of continuity. For example, in Green's theorem the differ-
ential coefficients d£/dx, dy/dy, df/dz must be continuous within
S. Further, there are restrictions upon the nature of the curves or
surfaces involved. For example, Green's theorem, as here stated,
applies only to simply-connected regions of space. The correction
for multiply-connected regions is important in several physical
theories.
54. The process of changing the variables in a multiple integral,
such as a surface or volume integral, is divisible into two stages. It
is necessary in the first place to determine the differential
element expressed by the product of the differentials of the
first set of variables in terms of the differentials of the
second set of variables. It is necessary in the second place
to determine the limits of integration which must be em-
ployed when the integral in terms of the new variables is
evaluated as a repeated integral. The first part of the problem is
solved at once by the introduction of the Jacobian. If the variables
of one set are denoted by xit xt ..... *„, and those of the other
set by MI, «2, . . ., «n, we have the relation
r, ."*".
!
* "
OUTLINES]
INFINITESIMAL CALCULUS
In regard to the second stage of the process the limits of integration
must be determined by the rule that the integration with respect to
the second set of variables is to be taken through the same domain
as the integration with respect to the first set.
For example, when we have to integrate a f unction f(x, y) over the
area within a circle given by xi+y' = ai, and we introduce polar
coordinates so that x = r cos 8, y = r sin 8, we find that r is the value
of the Jacobian, and that all points within or on the circle are given
by a^ r^o, 2ir>0^ o, and we have
If we have to integrate over the area of a rectangle a^x^o, 6^ y^o,
and we transform to polar coordinates, the integral becomes the sum
of two integrals, as follows: —
:an-16/a , fa sec 9..
f(rcos$, rsmO)rdr
f
J t
f(rcos8,rsin8)rdr.
tan-14/a J 0
55. A few additional results in relation to line integrals and
multiple integrals are set down here.
(i.) Any simple integral can be regarded as a line-integral taken
. to along a portion of the axis of x. When a change of
. . . variables is made, the limits of integration with respect
to the new variable must be such that the domain of
'" . . integration is the same as before. This condition may
munipie require the replacing of the original integral by the sum
' of two or more simple integrals.
(ii.) The line integral of a perfect differential of a one-valued
function, taken along any closed curve, is zero.
(iii.) The area within any plane closed curve can be expressed by
either of the formulae
flr*dO orfipds,
where r, 8 are polar coordinates, and p is the perpendicular drawn
from a fixed point to the tangent. The integrals are to be under-
stood as line integrals taken along the curve. When the same
integrals are taken between limits which correspond to two points
of the curve, in the sense of line integrals along the arc between the
points, they represent the area bounded by the arc and the terminal
radii vectores.
(iv.) The volume enclosed by a surface which is generated by the
revolution of a curve about the axis of x is expressed by the formula
and the area of the surface is expressed by the formula
2vfyds,
where ds is the differential element of arc of the curve. When the
former integral is taken between assigned limits it represents the
volume contained between the surface and two planes which cut the
axis of x at right angles. The latter integral is to be understood as a
line integral taken along the curve, and it represents the area of the
portion of the curved surface which is contained between two planes
at right angles to the axis of x.
(v.) When we use curvilinear coordinates {, i\ which are conjugate
functions of x, y, that is to say are such that
the Jacobian d(£, -n)ld(x, y) can be expressed in the form
,3*.
and in a number of equivalent forms. The area of any portion of the
plane is represented by the double integral
where J denotes the above Jacobian, and the integration is taken
through a suitable domain. When the boundary consists of portions
of curves for which £ = const., or ij = const., the above is generally the
simplest way of evaluating it.
(vi.) The problem of " rectifying " a plane curve, or finding its
length, is solved by evaluating the integral
or, in polar coordinates, by evaluating the integral
In both cases the integrals are line integrals taken along the curve.
(vii.) When we use curvilinear coordinates £, ij as in (v.) above, the
length of any portion of a curve {= const, is given by the integral
taken between appropriate limits for r/. There is a similar formula
for the arc of a curve 17 = const.
(viii.) The area of a surface z=f(x, y) can be expressed by the
formula
When the coordinates of the points of a surface are expressed as
functions of two parameters u, v, the area is expressed by the formula
f f\~ ( d(y, z) ) 2 ( d(z, x) ) 2 , ( d(x, y) ) t~\ t ,
J J L / d(j< t>) I ' J d(u v) \ ' I d (u v) \ dudv.
When the surface is referred to three-dimensional polar coordinates
r, 6, $ given by the equations
x=r sin 0 cos <£, y = r sin0 sm<t>, z = r cos0,
and the equation of the surface is of the form r=/(0,<#>), the area is
expressed by the formula
The surface integral of a function of (8, <j>) over the surface of a sphere
r = const, can be expressed in the form
In every case the domain of integration must be chosen so as to
include the whole surface.
(ix.) In three-dimensional polar coordinates the Jacobian
d(x,y,
d(r, 8, <
The volume integral of a function F (r, 6, <p) through the volume of a
sphere r = a is
= r2sin9.
(x.) Integrations of rational functions through the volume of an
ellipsoid xf/a?+y1/b'*+z'/c'* = i are often effected by means of a
general theorem due to Lejeune Dirichlet (1839), which is as follows:
when the domain of integration is that given by the inequality
where the a's and o's are positive, the value of the integral
//. . . *!»!-!. X2-2-1 . . .
If, however, the object aimed at is an integration through the volume
of an ellipsoid it is simpler to reduce the domain of integration to
that within a sphere of radius unity by the transformation x = a£,
y = OTt, 2 = cf, and then to perform the integration through the
sphere by transforming to polar coordinates as in (ix).
56. Methods of approximate integration began to be devised very
early. Kepler's practical measurement of the focal sectors A
of ellipses (1609) was an approximate integration, as also '
was the method for the quadrature of the hyperbola given ™
by James Gregory in the appendix to his Exercitationes '
geometricae (1668). In Newton's Methodus differential '
(i 7 1 1 ) the subject was taken up systematically. Newton's te*ral
object was to effect the approximate quadrature of a given curve by
making a curve of the type
pass through the vertices of (»+i) equidistant ordinates of the given
curve, and by taking the area of the new curve so determined as an
approximation to the area of the given curve. In 1743 Thomas
Simpson in his Mathematical Dissertations published a very con-
venient rule, obtained by taking the vertices of three consecutive
equidistant ordinates to be points on the same parabola. The distance
between the extreme ordinates corresponding to the abscissae x = a
and* = 6 is divided into2n equal segments by ordinates yi,yi, . . .ytn-i,
and the extreme ordinates are denoted by yo, y2n. The vertices of
the ordinates yo, yi, y2 lie on a parabola with its axis parallel to the
axis of y, so do the vertices of the ordinates y2, y3, yt, and so on.
The area is expressed approximately by the formula
which is known as Simpson's rule. Since all simple integrals can be
represented as areas such rules are applicable to approximate in-
tegration in general. For the recent developments reference may be
made to the article by A. Voss in Ency. d. Math. Wiss., Bd. II., A. 2
(1899), and to a monograph by B. P. Moors, Valeur approximative
d'une integrate definie (Paris, 1905).
Many instruments have been devised for registering mechanically
the areas of closed curves and the values of integrals. The best
known are perhaps the " planimeter " of J. Amsler (1854) and the
" integraph " of Abdank-Abakanowicz (1882).
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — For historical questions relating to the subject th
chief authority is M. Cantor, Geschichte d. Mathematik (3 Bde.,
Leipzig, 1894-1901). For particular matters, or special periods, the
following may be mentioned: H. G. Zeuthen, Geschichte d. Math,
im Altertum u. Mittelalter (Copenhagen, 1896) and Gesch. d. Math,
im XVI. u. XVII. Jahrhundert (Leipzig, 1903); S. Horsley, Isaaci
Newtoni opera quae exstant omnia (5 vols., London, 1779-1785);
C. I. Gerhardt, Leibnizens math. Schriften (7 Bde., Leipzig, 1849-
1863); Joh. Bernoulli, Opera omnia (4 Bde., Lausanne and Geneva,
1742). Other writings of importance in the history of the subject
552
INFINITIVE— INFLUENZA
are cited in the course of the article. A list of some of the more
important treatises on the differential and integral calculus is ap-
pended. The list has no pretensions to completeness ; in particular,
most of the recent books in which the subject is presented in an
elementary way for beginners or engineers are omitted. — L. Euler,
Institutions! calculi differentialis (Petrop., 1755) and Institutiones
calculi integralis (3 Bde., Petrop., 1768-1770); J. L. Lagrange,
Lemons sur le calcul des fonctions (Paris, 1806, (Euvres, t. x.), and
Theorie des fonctions analytiques (Paris, 1797, 2nded., 1813, (Euvres,
t. ix.) ; S. F. Lacroix, Traite de calcul diff. et de calcul int. _(3 tt.,
Paris, 1808-1819). There have been numerous later editions; a
translation by Herschel, Peacock and Babbage of an abbreviated
edition of Lacroix's treatise was published at Cambridge in 1816.
G. Peacock, Examples of the Differential and Integral Calculus
(Cambridge, 1820); A. L. Cauchy, Resume des lemons . . . sur le
calcul infinitesimals (Paris, 1823), and Lemons sur le calcul differential
(Paris, 1829; (Euvres, ser. 2, t. iv.) ; F. Minding, Handbuchd. Diff.-u.
Int.-Rechnung (Berlin, 1836) ; F. Moigno, Legons sur le calcul diff.
(4 tt., Paris, 1840-1861) ; A. de Morgan, Diff. and Int. Calc. (London,
1842); D. Gregory, Examples on the Diff. and Int. Calc. (2 vols.,
Cambridge, 1841-1846) ; I. Todhunter, Treatise on the Diff. Calc.
and Treatise on the Int. Calc. (London, 1852), numerous later editions ;
B. Price, Treatise on the Infinitesimal Calculus (2 vols., Oxford, 1854),
numerous later editions; D. Bierens de Haan, Tables d'integrales
definies (Amsterdam, 1858) ; M. Stegemann, Grundriss d. Diff.- u.
Int.-Rechnung (2 Bde., Hanover, 1862) numerous later editions;
J. Bertrand, Traite de calc. diff. et int. (2 tt., Paris, 1864-1870);
J. A. Serret, Cours de calc. diff. et int. (2 tt., Paris, 1868, 2nd ed., 1880,
German edition by Harnack, Leipzig, 1884-1886, later German
editions by Bohlmann, 1896, and Scheffers,| 1906,! incomplete);
B.Williamson, Treatise on the Diff. Calc. (Dublin, 1872), and Treatise
on the Int. Calc. (Dublin, 1874) numerous later editions of both ; also
the article " Infinitesimal Calculus " in the 9th ed. of the Ency.
Brit.; C. Hermite, Cours d' analyse (Paris, 1873); O. Schlomilch,
Compendium d. hoheren Analysis (2 Bde., Leipzig, 1874) numerous
later editions; J. Thomae, Einleitung in d. Theorie d. bestimmten
Integrate (Halle, 1875); R. Lipschitz, Lehrbuch d. Analysis (2 Bde.,
Bonn, 1877, 1880); A. Harnack, Elemente d. Diff.-u. Int.-Rechnung
(Leipzig, 1882, Eng. trans, by Cathcart, London, 1891); M. Pasch,
Einleitung in d. Diff.-u. Int.-Rechnung (Leipzig, 1882) ; Genocchi
and Peano, Calcolo differencials (Turin, 1884, German edition by
Bohlmann and Schepp, Leipzig, 1898, 1899); H. Laurent, Traite
d'analyse (7 tt., Paris, 1885-1891); J. Edwards, Elementary Treatise
on the Diff. Calc. (London, 1886), several later editions; A. G.
Greenhill, Diff. and Int. Calc. (London, 1886, 2nd ed., 1891); E.
Picard, Traite d'analyse (3 tt., Paris, 1891-1896); O. Stolz, Grund-
ziige d. Diff.- u. Int.-Rechnung (3 Bde., Leipzig, 1893-1899); C.
Jordan, Cours d'analyse (3 tt., Paris, 1893-1896); L. Kronecker,
Vorlesungen u. d. Theorie d. einfachen u. vielfachen Integrale (Leipzig,
1894); J. Perry, The Calculus for Engineers (London, 1897); H.
Lamb, An Elementary Course of Infinitesimal Calculus (Cambridge,
1897) ; G. A. Gibson, An Elementary Treatise on the Calculus (London,
1901) ; E. Goursat, Cours d'analyse mathematique (2 tt., Paris, 1902-
1905) ; C.-J. de la Vallee Poussin, Cours d'analyse infinMsimale (2
tt., Louvainand Paris, 1903-1906); A. E. H. Love, Elements of the
Diff. and Int. Calc. (Cambridge, 1909) ; W. H. Young, The Funda-
mental Theorems of the Diff. Calc. (Cambridge, 1910). A r6sum(5 of
the infinitesimal calculus is given in the articles " Diff.-u. Int-Rech-
nung " by A. Voss, and " Bestimmte Integrale " by G. Brunei in
Ency. d. math. Wiss. (Bde. ii. A. 2, and ii. A. 3, Leipzig, 1899, 1900).
Many questions of principle are discussed exhaustively by E. W.
Hobson, The Theory of Functions of a Real Variable (Cambridge,
1907). (A. E. H. L.)
INFINITIVE, a form of the verb, properly a noun with verbal
functions, but usually taken as a mood (see GRAMMAR). The
Latin grammarians gave it the name of infinitus or infinilivus
modus, i.e. indefinite, unlimited mood, as not having definite
persons or numbers.
INFLEXION (from Lat. infleclere, to bend), the action of
bending inwards, or turning towards oneself, or the condition
of being bent or curved. In optics, the term " inflexion " was
used by Newton for what is now known as " diffraction of light "
(q.v.). For inflexion in geometry see CURVE. Inflexion when
used of the voice, in speaking or singing, indicates a change in
tone, pitch or expression. In grammar (q.v.) inflexion indicates
the changes which a word undergoes to bring it into correct
relations with the other words with which it is used. In English
grammar nouns, pronouns,, adjectives (in their degrees of
comparison), verbs and adverbs are inflected. Some gram-
marians, however, regard the inflexions of adverbs more as an
actual change in word-formation.
INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in),
a word whose principal modern meaning is that of power, control
or action affecting others, exercised either covertly or without
visible means or direct physical agency. It is one of those
numerous terms of astrology (q.v.) which have established
themselves in current language. From the stars was supposed
to flow an ethereal stream which affected the course of events
on the earth and the fortunes and characters of men. For the
law as to " undue influence " see CONTRACT.
INFLUENZA (syn. " grip," la grippe), a term applied to an
infectious febrile disorder due to a specific bacillus, characterized
specially by catarrh of the respiratory passages and alimentary
canal, and occurring mostly as an epidemic. The Italians in
the 1 7th century ascribed it to the influence of the stars, and hence
the name " influenza." The French name grippe came into
use in 1743, and those of petite paste and petit courier in 1762,
while general became another synonym in 1780. Apparently
the scourge was common; in 1403 and 1557 the sittings of the
Paris law courts had to be suspended through it, and in 1427
sermons had to be abandoned through the coughing and sneezing;
in 1510 masses could not be sung. Epidemics occurred in 1580,
1676, 1703, 1732 and 1737, and their cessation was supposed
to be connected with earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.
The disease is referred to in the works of the ancient physicians,
and accurate descriptions of it have been given by medical
writers during the last three centuries. These various accounts
agree substantially in their narration of the phenomena and
course of the disease, and influenza has in all times been regarded
as fulfilling all the conditions of an epidemic in its sudden
invasion, and rapid and extensive spread. Among the chief
epidemics were those of 1762, 1782, 1787, 1803, 1833, 1837 and
1847. It appeared in fleets at sea away from all communication
with land, and to such an extent as to disable them temporarily
for service. This happened in 1782 in the case of the squadron
of Admiral Richard Kempenfelt (1718-1782), which had to
return to England from the coast of France in consequence of
influenza attacking his crews. '
Like cholera and plague, influenza reappeared in the last
quarter of the igth century, after an interval of many years,
in epidemic or rather pandemic form. After the year 1848, in
which 7963 deaths were directly attributed to influenza in England
and Wales, the disease continued prevalent until 1860, with
distinct but minor epidemic exacerbations in 1851, 1855 and
1858; during the next decade the mortality dropped rapidly
though not steadily, and the diminution continued down to the
year 1889, in which only 55 deaths were ascribed to this cause.
It is not clear whether the disease ever disappears wholly,
and the deaths registered in 1889 are the lowest recorded in
any year since the registrar-general's returns began. Occasionally
local outbreaks of illness resembling epidemic influenza have been
observed during the period of abeyance, as in Norfolk in 1878
and in Yorkshire in 1887; but whether such outbreaks and the
so-called " sporadic " cases are nosologically identical with
epidemic influenza is open to doubt. The relation seems rather
to be similar to that between Asiatic cholera and " cholera
nostras." Individual cases may be indistinguishable, but as a
factor in the public health the difference between sporadic and
epidemic influenza is as great and unmistakable as that between
the two forms of cholera. This fact, which had been forgotten
by some since 1847 and never learnt by others, was brought
home forcibly to all by the visitation of 1889.
According to the exhaustive report drawn up by Dr H.
Franklin Parsons for the Local Government Board, the earliest
appearances were observed in May 1889, and three localities
are mentioned as affected at the same time, all widely separated
from each other — namely, Bokhara in Central Asia, Athabasca
in the north-west Territories of Canada and Greenland. About
the middle of October it was reported at Tomsk in Siberia, and
by the end of the month at St Petersburg. During November
Russia became generally affected, and cases were noticed in
Paris, Berlin, Vienna, London and Jamaica (?). In December
epidemic influenza became established over the whole of Europe,
along the Mediterranean, in Egypt and over a large area in
the United States. It appeared in several towns in England,
beginning with Portsmouth, but did not become generally
INFLUENZA
553
epidemic until the commencement of the new year. In London
the full onset of unmistakable influenza dated from the ist of
January 1890. Everywhere it seems to have exhibited the same
explosive character when once fully established. In St Petersburg,
out of a government staff of 260 men, 220 were taken ill in one
night, the 1 5th of November. During January 1 890 the epidemic
reached its height in London, and appeared in a large number
of towns throughout the British Islands, though it was less
prevalent in the north and north-west than in the south. January
witnessed a great extension of the disease in Germany, Holland,
Switzerland, Austria-Hungary, Italy, Spain and Portugal;
but in Russia, Scandinavia and France it was already declining.
The period of greatest activity in Europe was the latter half
of December and the earlier half of January, with the change
of the year for a central point. Other parts of the world affected
in January 1890 were Cape Town, Canada, the United States
generally, Algiers, Tunis, Cairo, Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily,
Honolulu, Mexico, the West Indies and Montevideo. In
February the provincial towns of England were most severely
affected, the death-rate rising to 27-4, but in London it fell
from 28-1 to 21-2, and for Europe generally the back of the
epidemic was broken. At the same time, however, it appeared in
Ceylon, Penang, Japan, Hong Kong and India; also in West
Africa, attacking Sierra Leone, and Gambia in the middle of
the month; and finally in the west, where Newfoundland and
Buenos Aires were invaded. In March influenza became widely
epidemic in India, particularly in Bengal and Bombay, and made
its appearance in Australia and New Zealand. In April and
May it was epidemic all over Australasia, in Central America,
Brazil, Peru, Arabia and Burma. During the summer and
autumn it reached a number of isolated islands, such as Iceland,
St Helena, Mauritius and Reunion. Towards the close of the
year it was reported from Yunnan in the interior of China,
from the Shire Highlands in Central Africa, Shoa in Abyssinia,
and Gilgit in Kashmir. In the course of fifteen months, beginning
with its undoubted appearance in Siberia in October 1889, it
had traversed the entire globe.
The localities attacked by influenza in 1880-1890 appear in
no case to have suffered severely for more than a month or six
weeks. Thus in Europe and North America generally the visita-
tion had come to an end in the first quarter of 1890. The earliest
signs of an epidemic revival on a large scale occurred in March
1891, in the United States and the north of England. It was
reported from Chicago and other large towns in the central
states, whence it spread eastwards, reaching New York about
the end of March. In England it began in the Yorkshire towns,
particularly in Hull, and also independently in South Wales.
In London influenza became epidemic for the second time about
the end of April, and soon afterwards was widely distributed
in England and Wales. The large towns in the north, together
with London and Wales, suffered much more heavily in mortality
than in the previous attack, but the south-west of England,
Scotland and Ireland escaped with comparatively little sickness.
The same may be said of the European continent generally,
except parts of Russia, Scandinavia and perhaps the north
of Germany. This second epidemic coincided with the spring
and early summer; it had subsided in London by the end of
June. The experience of Sheffield is interesting. In 1890 the
attack, contrary to general experience, had been undecided,
lingering and mild; in 1891 it was very sudden and extremely
severe, the death-rate rising to 73-4 during the month of April,
and subsiding with equal rapidity. During the third quarter of
the year, while Europe was free, the antipodes had their second
attack, which was more severe than the first. As in England,
it reversed the previous order of things, beginning in the provinces
and spreading thence to the capital towns. The last quarter
of the year was signalized by another recrudescence in Europe,
which reached its height during the winter. All parts, including
Great Britain, were severely affected. In England those parts
which had borne the brunt of the epidemic in the early part of
the year escaped. In fact, these two revivals may be regarded
as one, temporarily interrupted by the summer quarter.
The recrudescence at the end of 1891 lasted through mid-winter,
and in many places, notably in London, it only reached its height
in January 1892, subsiding slowly and irregularly in February
and March. Brighton suffered with exceptional severity. The
continent of Europe seems to have been similarly affected.
In Italy the notifications of influenza were as follow: 1891 —
January to October, o; November, 30; December, 6461;
1892— January, 84,543; February, 55,352; March, 28,046;
April, 7962; May, 1468; June, 223. Other parts of the world
affected were the West Indies, Tunis, Egypt, Sudan, Cape Town,
Teheran, Tongking and China. In August 1892 influenza
was reported from Peru, and later in the year from various
places in Europe.
A fourth recrudescence, but of a milder character, occurred
in Great Britain in the spring of 1893, and a fifth in the following
winter, but the year 1894 was freer from influenza than any since
1890. In 1895 another extensive epidemic took place. In 1896
influenza seemed to have spent its strength, but there was an
increased prevalence of the disease in 1897, which was repeated
on a larger scale in 1898, and again in 1899, when 12,417 deaths
were recorded in England and Wales. This was the highest
death-rate since 1892. After this the death-rate declined to
half that amount and remained there with the sh'ght upward
variations until 1907, in which the total death-rate was 9257.
The experience of other countries has been very similar; they
have all been subjected to periodical revivals of epidemic
influenza at irregular intervals and of varying intensity since its
reappearance in 1889, but there has been a general though not
a steady decline in its activity and potency. Its behaviour
is, in short, quite in keeping with the experience of 1847-1860,
though the later visitation appears to have been more violent
and more fatal than the former. Its diffusion was also more
rapid and probably more extensive.
The foregoing general summary may be supplemented by
some further details of the incidence in Great Britain. The
number of deaths directly attributed to influenza, and the death-
rates per million in each year in England and Wales, are as
follow: —
Year.
Deaths.
Death-rates
per million.
Year.
Deaths.
Death-rates
per million.
1890
4,523
157
1899
12,417
389
1891
16,686
574
1900
16,245
504
1892
15,737
534
1901
5,666
174
1893
9,669
325
1902
7,366
223
1894
6,625
220
1903
6,322
189
1895
12,880
424
1904
5,694
1 68
1896
3,753
122
1905
6,953
204
1897
6,088
196
1906
6,310
183
1898
10,405
331
1907
9,257
265
It is interesting to compare these figures with the corresponding
ones for the previous visitation:-
Year.
Deaths.
Death-rates
per million.
Year.
Deaths.
Death-rates
per million.
1847
1848
1849
1850
1851
4,881
7,963
1,611
1,380
2,152
285
460
92
78
1 20
1852
1853
1854
1855
1,359
1,789
i, 06 1
3,568
76
99
58
193
The two sets of figures are not strictly comparable, because,
during the first period, notification of the cause of death was not
compulsory; but it seems clear that the later wave was much
the more deadly. The average annual death-rate for the nine
years is 320 in the one case against 162 in the other, or as nearly
as possible double. In both epidemic periods the second year
was far more fatal than the first, and in both a marked revival
took place in the ninth year; in both also an intermediate
recrudescence occurred, in the fifth year in one case, in the sixth
in the other. The chief point of difference is the sudden and
marked drop in 1849-1850, against a persistent high mortality,
in 1892-1893, especially in 1892, which was nearly as fatal as
1891.
xiv. 18 a
554
INFLUENZA
To make the significance of these epidemic figures clear, it
should be added that in the intervening period 1861-1889 the
average annual death-rate from influenza was only fifteen, and
in the ten years immediately preceding the 1890 outbreak it
was only three. Moreover, in epidemic influenza, the mortality
•directly attributed to that disease is only a fraction of that actually
•caused by it. For instance, in January 1890 the deaths from
influenza in London were 304, while the excess of deaths from
respiratory diseases was 1454 and from all causes 1958 above
the average.
. We have seen above that the mortality was far greater in the
second epidemic year than in the first, and this applies to all
parts of England, and to rural as well as to urban communities,
as the following table shows: —
Deaths from Influenza.
1890.
1891.
624
2302
24 Great Towns over 80,000 population .
35 Towns between 20,000 and 80,000
21 Towns between 10,000 and 20,000
439
1 86
46
2417
765
196
62
196
85 Rural Sanitary Districts
317
841
In spite of these figures, it appears that the 1890 attack,
which was in general much more sudden in its onset than that
of 1891, also caused a great deal more sickness. More people
were " down with influenza," though fewer died. For instance,
the number of persons treated at the Middlesex Hospital in
the two months' winter epidemic of 1890 was 1279; in the far
more fatal three months' spring epidemic of 1891 itwasonlyJ726.
One explanation of this discrepancy between the incidence of
sickness and mortality is that in the second attack, which was
more protracted and more insidious, the stress of the disease fell
more upon the lungs. Another is that its comparative mildness,
combined with the time of year, in itself proved dangerous,
because it tempted people to disregard the illness, whereas in
the first epidemic they were too ill to resist. On the whole,
rural districts showed a higher death-rate than towns, and small
towns a higher one than large ones in both years. This is explained
by the age distribution in such localities; influenza being particu-
larly fatal to aged people, though no age is exempt. Certain
counties were much more severely affected than others. The
eastern counties, namely, Essex, Suffolk and Norfolk, together
with Hampshire and one or two others, escaped lightly in both
years; the western counties, namely, North and South Wales,
with the adjoining counties of Monmouth, Hereford and Shrop-
shire, suffered heavily in both years.
It will be convenient to discuss seriatim the various points of
interest on which light has been thrown by the experience
described above.
The bacteriology of influenza is discussed in the article on
PARASITIC DISEASES. The disease is often called " Russian "
influenza, and its origin in 1889 suggests that the name may have
some foundation in fact. A writer, who saw the epidemic
break out in Bokhara, is quoted by him to the following effect: —
" The summer of 1888 was exceptionally hot and dry, and was
followed by a bitterly cold winter and a rainy spring. The dried-
up earth was full of cracks and holes from drought and sub-
sequent frost, so that the spring rains formed ponds in these
holes, inundated the new railway cuttings, and turned the country
into a perfect marsh. When the hot weather set in the water
gave off poisonous exhalations, rendering malaria general."
On account of the severe winter, the people were enfeebled from
lack of nourishment, and when influenza broke out suddenly
they died in large numbers. Europeans were very severely
affected. Russians, hurrying home, carried the disease westwards,
and caravans passing eastwards took it into Siberia. There is
a striking similarity in the conditions described to those observed
in connexion with outbreaks of other diseases, particularly
.typhoid fever and diphtheria, which have occurred on the super-
yention of heavy rain after a dry period, causing cracks and
fissures in the earth. Assuming the existence of a living poison
in the ground, we can easily understand that under certain
conditions, such as an exceptionally dry season, it may develop
exceptional properties and then be driven out by the subsequent
rains, causing a violent outbreak of illness. Some such explana-
tion is required to account for the periodical occurrence of
epidemic and pandemic diffusions starting from an endemic
centre. We may suppose that a micro-organism of peculiar
robustness and virulence is bred and brought into activity by
a combination of favourable conditions, and is then disseminated
more or less widely according to its " staying power," by human
agency. Whether central Asia is an endemic centre for influenza
or not there is no evidence, but the disease seems to be more,
often prevalent in the Russian Empire than elsewhere. Ex-'
tensive outbreaks occurred there in 1886 and 1887, and it is
certain that the 1889 wave was active in Siberia at an earlier
date than in Europe, and that it moved eastwards. The hypo-
thesis that it originated in China is unsupported by evidence.
But whatever may be the truth with regard to origin, the dis-
semination of influenza by human agency must be held to be
proved. This is the most important addition to our knowledge
of the subject contributed by recent research. The upshot of
the inquiry by Dr Parsons was to negative all theories of atmo-
spheric influence, and to establish the conclusion that the disease
was " propagated mainly, perhaps entirely, by human inter-
course."
He found that it prevailed independently of climate, season and
weather; that it moved in a contrary direction to the prevailing
winds; that it travelled along the lines of human intercourse, and
not faster than human beings can travel; that in 1889 it travelled
much faster than in previous epidemics, when the means of loco-
motion were very inferior; that it appeared first in capital towns,
seaports and frontier towns, and only affected country districts
later; that it never commenced suddenly with a large number of
cases in a place previously free from disease, but that epidemic
manifestations were generally preceded for some days or weeks by
scattered cases; that conveyance of infection by individuals and its
introduction into fresh places had been observed in many instances;
that persons brought much into contact with others were generally
the first to suffer; that persons brought together in large numbers
in enclosed spaces suffered more in proportion than others, and that
the rapidity and extent of the outbreak in institutions corresponded
with the massing together of the inmates.
These conclusions, based upon the 1880-1890 epidemic, have
been confirmed by subsequent experience, especially in regard
to the complete independence of season and weather shown
by influenza. It has appeared and disappeared at all seasons
and in all weathers and only popular ignorance continues to
ascribe its behaviour to atmospheric conditions. In Europe,
however, it has prevailed more often in winter than in summer,
which may be due to the greater susceptibility of persons in
winter, or, more probably, to the fact that they congregate
more in buildings and are less in the open air during that part
of the year. No doubt is any longer entertained of its infectious
character, though the degree of infectivity appears to vary
considerably. Many cases have been recorded of individuals
introducing it into houses, and of all or most of the other inmates
then taking it from the first case. Difficulties in preventing
the spread of infection are due to (i) the shortness of the period
of incubation, (2) the disease being infectious in the earliest
stages before the nature of the illness is recognized, (3) the milder
varieties being equally infectious with the severe attacks, and the
patient going to work and spreading the infection, (4) the
diagnosis often being difficult, influenza being possibly confused
with ordinary catarrhal attacks, typhoid fever and other diseases.
Domestic animals seem to be free from any suspicion of being
liable to human influenza. Sanitary conditions, other than
overcrowding, do not appear to exercise any influence on the
spread of influenza.
Influenza has been shown to be an acute specific fever having
nothing whatever to do with a " bad cold." There may be
some inflammation of the respiratory passages, and then
symptoms of catarrh are present, but that is not necessarily
the case, and in some epidemics such symptoms are quite
exceptional. This had been recognized by various writers
INFLUENZA
555
before the 1889 visitation, but it had not been generally realized,
as it has been since, and some medical authorities, who persisted
in regarding influenza as essentially a " catarrhal " affection,
were chiefly to blame for a widespread and tenacious popular
fallacy.
Leichtenstern, in his masterly Article in Nothnagel's Handbuch,
divides the disease as follows: — (i) Epidemic influenza vera
caused by Pfeiffer's bacillus; (2) Endemic-epidemic influenza
vera, which occurs several years after a pandemic and is caused
by the same bacillus; (3) Endemic influenza nostras or catarrhal
fever, called la grippe, and bearing the same relation to true
influenza as cholera nostras does to Asiatic cholera.
The " period of incubation " is one to four days. Susceptibility
varies greatly, but the conditions that influence it are matters
of conjecture only. It appears that the inhabitants of Great
Britain are less susceptible than those of many other countries.
Dr Parsons gives the following list, showing the proportion
of the population estimated to have been attacked in the 1889-
1890 epidemic in different localities: —
Place.
Per
cent.
Place.
Per
cent.
St Petersburg .
Berlin
50
•*•?
Portugal ....
90
30-40
Nuremberg
Grand-Duchy of Hesse
Grand-Duchy, other
Districts ....
Heligoland ....
Budapest ....
67
25-30
50-75
50
5°
Belgrade
Antwerp
Gaeta
Massachusetts
Peking .
St Louis (Mauritius)
33
33
50-77
39
50
67
In and about London he reckoned roughly from a number of
returns that the proportion was about 12$ %• among those
employed out of doors and 25% among those in offices, &c.
The proportion among the troops in the Home District was
9-3%. The General Post Office made the highest return with
33 '6%, which is accounted for partly by the enormous number
of persons massed together in the same room in more than one
department, and partly by the facilities for obtaining medical
advice, which would tend to bring very light cases, unnoticed
elsewhere, upon the record. No public service was seriously
disorganized in England by sickness in the same manner as on
the continent of Europe. Some individuals appear to be totally
immune; others take the disease over and over again, deriving
no immunity, but apparently greater susceptibility from previous
attacks.
The symptoms were thus described by Dr Bruce Low from
observations made in St Thomas's Hospital, London, in January
1890: —
The invasion is sudden; the patients can generally tell the time
when they developed the disease ; e.g. acute pains in the back and
loins came on quite suddenly while they were at work or walking in
the street, or in the case of a medical student, while playing cards,
rendering him unable to continue the game. A workman wheeling
a barrow had to put it down and leave it ; and an omnibus driver
was unable to pull up his horses. This sudden onset is often accom-
panied by vertigo and nausea, and sometimes actual vomiting of
bilious matter. There are pains in the limbs and general sense of
aching all over; frontal headache of special severity; pains in the
eyeballs, increased by the slightest movement of the eyes; shiver-
ing; general feeling of misery and weakness, and great depression
of spirits, many patients, both men and women, giving way to
weeping; nervous restlessness; inability to sleep, and occasionally
delirium. In some cases catarrhal symptoms develop, such as
running at the eyes, which are sometimes injected on the second day;
sneezing and sore throat; and epistaxis, swelling of the parotid and
submaxillary glands, tonsilitis, and spitting of bright blood from the
pharynx may occur. There is a hard, dry cough of a paroxysmal
kind, worst at night. There is often tenderness of the spleen, which
is almost always found enlarged, and this persists after the acute
symptoms have passed. The temperature is high at the onset of the
disease. In the first twenty-four hours its range is from 100° F. in
mild cases to 105° in severe cases.
Dr J. S. Bristowe gave the following description of the illness
during the same epidemic: —
The chief symptoms of influenza are, coldness along the back,
with shivering, which may continue off and on for two or three days;
severe pain in the head and eyes, often with tenderness in the eyes
and pain in moving them; pains in the ears; pains in the small of
the back; pains in the limbs, for the most part in the fleshy portions,
but also in the bones and joints, and even in the fingers and toes;
and febrile temperature, which may in the early period rise to 104°
or 105° F. At the same time the patient feels excessively ill and
prostrate, is apt to suffer from nausea or sickness and diarrhoea, and
is for the most part restless, though often (and especially in the case
of children and those advanced in age) drowsy. ... In ordinary
mild cases the above symptoms are the only important ones which
present themselves, and the patient may recover in the course of three
or four days. He may even have it so mildly that, although feeling
very ill, he is able to go about his ordinary work. In some cases
the patients have additionally some dryness or soreness of the throat,
or some stiffness and discharge from the nose, which may be accom-
panied by slight bleeding. And in some cases, for the most part in
the course of a few days, and at a time when the patient seems to
be convalescent, he begins to suffer from wheezing in the chest,
cough, and perhaps a little shortness of breath, and before long spits
mucus in which are contained pellets streaked or tinged with blood.
. . . Another complication is diarrhoea. Another is a roseolous
spotty rash. . . . Influenza is by no means necessarily attended
with the catarrhal symptoms which the general public have been
taught to regard as its distinctive signs, and in a very large proportion
of cases no catarrhal condition whatever becomes developed at any
time.
Several writers have distinguished four main varieties of the
disease — namely, (i) nervous, (2)gastro-intestinal, (3)respiratory,
(4) febrile, a form chiefly found in children. Clifford Allbutt
says, " Influenza simulates other diseases." Many forms are
of typhoid or comatose types. Cardiac attacks are common,
not from organic disease but from the direct poisoning of the
heart muscle by influenza.
Perhaps the most marked feature of influenza, and certainly
the one which victims have learned to dread most, is the prolonged
debility and nervous depression that frequently follow an
attack. It was remarked by Nothnagel that " Influenza produces
a specific nervous toxin which by its action on the cortex produces
psychoses." In the Paris epidemic of 1890 the suicides increased
25%, a large proportion of the excess being attributed to
nervous prostration caused by the disease. Dr Rawes, medical
superintendent of St Luke's hospital, says that of insanities
traceable to influenza melancholia is twice as frequent as all
other forms of insanity put together. Other common after-effects
are neuralgia, dyspepsia, insomnia, weakness or loss of the
special senses, particularly taste and smell, abdominal pains,
sore throat, rheumatism and muscular weakness. The feature
most dangerous to life is the special liability of patients to
inflammation of the lungs. This affection must be regarded
as a complication rather than an integral part of the illness.
The following diagram gives the annual death-rate per million
in England and Wales, and is taken from an article by Dr Arthur
Newsholme in The Practitioner (January 1907).
The deaths directly attributed to influenza are few in propor-
tion to the number of cases. In the milder forms it offers hardly
any danger to life if reasonable care be taken, but in the severer
forms it is a fairly fatal disease. In eight London 5iospitals the
case-mortality among in-patients in the 1890 outbreak was 34-5
per 1000; among all patients treated it was i-6periooo. In the
army it was rather less.
The infectious character of influenza having been determined,
suggestions were made for its administrative control on the
familiar lines of notification, isolation and disinfection, but this
has not hitherto been found practicable. In March 1 89 5 , however,
the Local Government Board issued a memorandum recommend-
ing the adoption of the following precautions wherever they can
be carried out:—
1. The sick should be separated from the healthy. This is especially
important in the case of first attacks in a locality or a household.
2. The sputa of the sick should, especially in the acute stage of the
disease, be received into vessels containing disinfectants. Infected
articles and rooms should be cleansed and disinfected.
3. When influenza threatens, unnecessary assemblages of persons
should be avoided.
4. Buildings and rooms in which many people necessarily con-
gregate should be efficiently aerated and cleansed during the intervals
of occupation.
556
IN FORMA PAUPERIS— INFORMER
There is no routine treatment for influenza except bed. In
all cases bed is advisable, because of the danger of lung complica-
tions, and in mild ones it is sufficient. Severer ones must be
treated according to the symptoms. Quinine has been much
used. Modern " anti-pyretic " drugs have also been extensively
employed, and when applied with discretion they may be
useful, but patients are not advised to prescribe them for them-
selves.
Sir Wm. Broadbent in a note on the prophylaxis of influenza
recommends quinine in a dose of two grains every morning, and
remarks: " I have had opportunities of obtaining extraordinary
evidence of its protective power. In a large public school it
was ordered to be taken every morning. Some of the boys
in the school were home boarders, and it was found that while
the boarders at the school took the quinine in the presence J
of a master every morning, there were scarcely any cases of
influenza among them, although the home boarders suffered
nearly as much as before." He continues, " In a large girls'
school near London the same thing was ordered, and the girls
and mistresses took their morning dose but the servants were
forgotten. The result was that scarcely any girl or mistress
suffered while the servants were all down with influenza."
The liability to contract influenza, and the danger of an attack
if contracted, are increased by depressing conditions, such as
exposure to cold and to fatigue, whether mental or physical.
Attention should, therefore, be paid to all measures tending to
the maintenance of health. Persons who are attacked by influenza
should at once seek rest, warmth and medical treatment, and
they should bear in mind that the risk of relapse, with serious
complications, constitutes a chief danger of the disease.
In addition to the ordinary text-books, see the series of articles
by experts on different aspects in The Practitioner (London) for
January 1907.
IN FORMA PAUPERIS (Latin, " in the character of pauper "),
the legal phrase for a method of bringing or defending a case
in court on the part of persons without means. By an- English
statute of 1495 (IJ Hen- VII. c. 12), any poor person having
cause of action was entitled to have a writ according to the nature
of the case, without paying the fees thereon. The statute of
1495 was repealed by the Statute Law Revision and Civil
Procedure Act 1883, but its provisions, as well as the chancery
practice were incorporated into one code and embodied in the
rules of the Supreme Court (O. xvi. rr. 22-31). Now any person
may be admitted to sue as a pauper, on proof that he is not
worth £25, his wearing apparel and the subject matter of the
cause or matter excepted. He must lay his case before counsel
for opinion, and counsel's opinion thereon, with an affidavit of
the party suing that the case contains a full and true statement
of all the material facts to the best of his knowledge and belief,
must be produced before the proper officers to whom the applica-
tion is made. A person who desires to defend as a pauper must
enter an appearance to a writ in the ordinary way and afterwards
apply for an order to defend as a pauper. Where a person is
admitted to sue or defend as a pauper, counsel and solicitor may
be assigned to him, and such counsel and solicitor are not at
liberty to refuse assistance unless there is so me
good reason for refusing. If any person
admitted to sue or defend as a pauper agrees
to pay fees to any person for the conduct of
his business he will be dispaupered. Costs
ordered to be paid to a pauper are taxed as
in other cases. Appeals to the House of
Lords in fortnd pauperis were regulated by the
Appeal (Forma Pauperis) Act 1893, which
gave the House of Lords power to refuse a
petition for leave to sue.
INFORMATION (from Lat. informare, to
give shape or form to, to represent, describe),
the communication of knowledge; in English
law, a proceeding on behalf of the crown
against a subject otherwise than by indict-
ment. A criminal information is a proceeding
in the King's bench by the attorney-general
without the intervention of a grand jury.
The attorney-general, or, in his absence, the
solicitor-general, has a right ex officio to file
a criminal information in respect of any in-
dictments, but not for treason, felonies or
misprision of treason. It is, however, seldom
exercised, except in cases which might be
described as " enormous misdemeanours,"
such as those peculiarly tending to disturb
or endanger the king's government, e.g. sedi-
tions, obstructing the king's officers in the
execution of their duties, &c. In the form of
the proceedings the attorney-general is said
to " come into the court of our lord the king before the king
himself at Westminster, and gives the court there to under-
stand and be informed that, &c." Then follows the statement
of the offence as in an indictment. The information is filed in
the crown office without the leave of the court. An information
may also be filed at the instance of a private prosecutor for
misdemeanours not affecting the government, but being peculiarly
flagrant and pernicious. Thus criminal informations have been
granted for bribing or attempting to bribe public functionaries,
and for aggravated libels on public or private persons. Leave
to file an information is obtained after an application to show
cause, founded on a sworn statement of the material facts of
the case.
Certain suits might also be filed in Chancery by way of informa-
tion in the name of the attorney-general, but this species of
information was superseded by Order i, rule i of the Rules of
the Supreme Court, 1883, under which they are instituted in the
ordinary way. Informations in the Court of Exchequer in
revenue cases, also filed by the attorney-general, are still resorted
to (see A.-G. v. Williamson, 1889, 60 L.T. 930).
INFORMER, in a general sense, one who communicates
information. The term is applied to a person who prosecutes
in any of the courts of law those who break any law or penal
statute. Such a person is called a common informer when he
furnishes evidence on criminal trials or prosecutes for breaches
of penal laws solely for the purpose of obtaining the penalty
recovered, or a share of it. An action by a common informer
INFUSORIA
is termed a popular or qui lam action, because it is brought by
a person qui lam pro domino rege quam pro se ipso sequilur. A
suit by an informer must be brought within a year of the offence,
unless a specific time is prescribed by the statute. The term
informer is also used of an accomplice in crime who turns what
is called " king's evidence " (see ACCOMPLICE). In Scotland,
informer is the term applied to the party who. in criminal
proceedings, sets the lord advocate in motion.
INFUSORIA, the name given by Butschli (following O.F.
Ledermiiller, 1763) to a group of Protozoa. The name arose
3
557
' 14
FIG. i. Ciliata.
Opalinopsis sepiolae, Foett. ; a parasitic 8. Trachelius ovum,
holotrichous mouthless Ciliate from maceae) ; X8o;
the liver of the Squid, a, branched
meganucleus; b, vacuoles (non-con-
tractile).
2. A similar specimen treated with picro-
carmine, showing a remarkably
branched and twisted meganucleus
(a), in place of several nuclei.
3. Anoplophrya naidos, Duj.; a mouth-
less Holotrichous Ciliate parasitic in
the worm Nais ; X 200. a, the large
axial meganucleus; b, contractile
vacuoles.
4. Anoplophrya prolif era, C. and L.;from
the intestine of Clitellio. Remark-
able for the adhesion of incomplete
fission-products in a metameric
series, a, meganucleus.
5. Amphileptus gigas, C. and L. ; (Gymno-
stomaceae) X 100. b, contractile
vacuoles ; c, trichocysts (see fig. 2) ;
d, meganucleus; e, pharynx.
6. 7. Prorodon niveus, Ehr. ; (Gymno-
stomaceae); X 75- a, meganucleus;
b, contractile vacuole; c, pharynx
with horny cuticular lining.
6. The fasciculate cuticle of the pharynx
isolated.
culate arrangement of the endosarc,
b, contractile vacuoles; c, the cuticle-
lined pharynx.
10, II, 12. Iclhyophthirius multifilius,
Fouquet (Gymnostomaceae) XI2O.
Free individual and successive stages
men, they included (i) Desmids, Diatoms and Schizomycetes,
now regarded as essentially Plant Protista or Protophytes;
(2) Sarcodina (excluding Foraminifera, as well as Radiolaria,
which were only as yet known by their skeletons, and termed
Polycystina), and (3) Rotifers, as well as (4) Flagellates and
Infusoria in our present sense. F. Dujardin in his Histoire
des zoophytes (1841) gave nearly as liberal an interpretation
to the name; while C. T. Van Siebold (1845) narrowed it to its
present limits save for the admission of several Flagellate
families. O. Butschli limited the group by removing the Flagel-
lata, Dinoflagellataand Cystoflagellata (g.n.)under
the name of " Mastigophora " proposed earlier by
R. M. Diesing (1865). We now define it thus:
— Protozoa bounded by a permanent plasmic
pellicle and consequently of definite form, never
using pseudopodia for locomotion or ingestion,
provided (at least in the young state) with
numerous cilia or organs derived from cilia and
equipped with a double nuclear apparatus: the
larger (mega-) nucleus usually dividing by con-
striction, and disappearing during conjugation:
the smaller (micro-) nucleus (sometimes multiple)
dividing by mitosis, and entering into conjugation
and giving rise to the cycle of nuclei both large
and small of the race succeeding conjugation.
Thus defined, the Infusoria fall into two
groups: — (i) Ciliata, with cilia or organs derived
from cilia throughout their lives, provided with a
single permanent mouth (absent in the parasitic
Opalinopsidae) flush with the body or at the base
of an oral depression, and taking in food by
active swallowing or by ciliary action: (2) Suc-
toria, rarely ciliated except in the young state,
and taking in their food by suction through pro-
trusible hollow tentacles, usually numerous.
The pellicle of the Infusoria is stronger and more
permanent than in many Protozoa, and sometimes
assumes the character of a mail of hard plates, closely
fitting; but even in this case it undergoes solution
soon after death. It is continuous with a firm ecto-
sarc, highly differentiated in the Ciliata, and in both
Ehr. (Gymnosto- groups free from coarse movable granules. The
showing the reti- endosarc is semifluid and rich in granules mostly
1 reserve " in nature, often showing proteid or fat
reactions. One or more contractile vacuoles are pre-
sent in some of the marine and all the freshwater
species, and open to the surface by pores of perma-
nent position: a system of canals in the deeper
layers of the ectoplasm is sometimes connected with
of division to form spores, a, mega- the vacucle. The body is often provided with not-
nucleus; b, contractile vacuoles.
13. Didinium nasutum, Mull.; (Gymno-
stomaceae); X2OO. The pharynx
is everted and has seized a Para-
mecium as food, a, meganucleus;
6, contractile vacuole; c, everted
pharynx.
14. Euplotes charon, Mull., (Hypotrich-
aceae) ; lateral view of the animal
when using its great cirrhi, x, as
ambulatory organs.
15. Euplotes harpa, Stein (Hypotrich-
aceae) ; Xiso. h, mouth; x, cirrhi.
1 6. Nyctotherus cordiformis, Stein (a
Heterotriceae), parasitic in the intes-
tine of the Frog); a, meganucleus;
b, contractile vacuole; c, food par-
ticle ; d, anus ; e, heterotrichous band
of membranelles ; /, g, mouth ;' h,
pharynx; »', small cilia.
from the procedure adopted by the older microscopists to obtain
animalcules. Infusions of ^ most varied organic substances
were prepared (hay and pepper being perhaps the favourite
ones), the method of obtaining them including maceration and
decoction, as well as infusion in the strict sense; they were
then allowed to decompose in the air, so that various living
beings developed therein. As classified by C. G. Ehrenberg
in his monumental Infusionstierchen als vollkommene Organis-
living external formations " stalk " and " theca " (or
" lorica ").
The character of the nuclear apparatus excludes
two groups both parasitic and mouthless: (i) the
Trichonymphidae, with a single nucleus of Leidy,
parasitic in Insects, especially Termites; (2) the
Opalinidae, with'several (often numerous) uniform
nuclei, parasitic in the gut of Batrachia, &c., and
producing i-nuclear zoospores which conjugate.
Both these families we unite into a group of Pseudo-
ciliata, which may be referred to the Flagellata
(q.v.). Lankester in the last edition of this Encyclo-
paedia called attention to the doubtful position of
Opalina, and Delage and HeVouard placed Tricho-
nymphidae among Flagellates.
The theca or shell is present in some pelagic
species (fig. iii. 3, 5) and in many of the attached
species, notably among the Peritricha (fig. iii. 21,
22, 25, 26) and Suctoria (fig. viii. n); and is found
in some free-swimming forms (fig. iii. 3, 5): it is
usually chitinous, and forms a cup into which the
animal, protruded when at its utmost elongation, can retract itself.
In Metacineta mystacina it has several distinct slits (pylomes) for
the passage of tufts of tentacles. In Stentor it is gelatinous; and
in the Dictyocystids it is beautifully latticed.
The stalk is usually solid, and expanded at the base into a disk
in Suctoria. In Peritrichaceae (fig. iii. 8-22, 25, 26), the only
ciliate group with a stalk, it grows for some time after its formation,
and on fission two new stalks continue the old one, so as to form a
branched colony (fig. iii. 18). In Vorticella (fig. iii. II, 12, 14, &c.)
the stalk is hollow and elastic, and attached to it along a spiral is a
558
INFUSORIA
prolongation of the ectosarc containing a bundle of myonemes, so
that by the contractions of the bundle the stalk is pulled down into
a corkscrew spiral, and on the relaxation of the muscle the elasticity
of the hollow stalk straightens it out.
On fission the stalk may become branched, as the solid one of
Epistylis and Opercularia (fig. iii. 20) ; and the myoneme also in the
tubular stem of Zoothaminum ; or the branch-myoneme for the one
offspring may be inserted laterally on that for the other in Car-
chesium (fig. iii. 18). In several tubicolous Peritrichaceae there is
some arrangement for closing their tubes. In Thuricola (fig. iii.
25-26) there is a valve which opens by the pressure of the animal on
its protrusion, and closes automatically by elasticity on retraction.
In Lagenophrys the animal adheres to the cup a little below the open-
ing, so that its withdrawal closes the cup : at the adherent part the
body mass is hardened, and so differentiated as to suggest the frame
of the mouth of a purse. In Pyxicola (fig. iii. 21-22) the animal bears
some way down the body a hardened shield (" operculum ") which
closes the mouth of the shell on retraction.
The cytoplasm of the Infusoria is very susceptible to injuries;
and when cut or torn, unless the pellicle contracts rapidly to enclose
the wounded surface, the substance of the body swells up, becoming
frothy, with bubbles which rapidly enlarge and finally burst; the
cell thus disintegrates, leaving only a few granules to mark where it
was. This phenomenon, observed by Dujardin, is called " dif-
fluence." The contractile vacuole appears to be one of the means by
which diffluence is avoided in cells with no strong wall to resist the
FIG. ii.
Surface view of Paramecium,
showing the disposition of
the cilia in longitudinal
rows.
o, mega-; 6, micro-nucleus;
c, junction of ecto- and en-
dosarc; O, pellicle; E, endo-
sarc; /, cilia (much too
numerous and crowded) ;
g, trichocysts; g', same
with thread; h, discharged;
i, pharynx, its undulating
membrane not shown; k,
food granules collecting into
a bolus; I, m, n, o, food
vacuoles, their contents
being digested as they pass
in the endosarc along the
path indicated by the
arrows.
3, Outline showing contractile
vacuoles in commencing
diastole, surrounded by five
afferent canals.
4-7 Successive stages of diastole
of contractile vacuole.
absorption of water in excess: for after growing in size for some
time, its walls contract suddenly, and its contents are expelled to the
outside by a pore, which is, like the anus, usually invisible, but
permanent in position. The contractile vacuole may be single or
multiple; it may receive the contents of a canal, or of a system of
canals, which only become visible at the moment of the contraction
of the vacuole (fig. ii. 4-7), giving liquid time to accumulate in them,
or when the vacuole is acting sluggishly or imperfectly, as in the
approach of asphyxia (fig. ii. 3). Besides this function, since the
system passes a large quantity of water from without through the
substance of the celH it must needs act as a means of respiration and
excretion. In all Peritrichaceae it opens to the vestibule, and in
some of them it discharges through an intervening reservoir, curiously
recalling the arrangements in the Flagellate Euglenaceae.
The nuclear apparatus consists of two parts, the meganucleus, and
the micronucleus or micronuclei (fig. iii. 17 d, iv. l). The meganucleus
alone regarded and described as the nucleus " by older observers
is always single, subject to a few reservations. It is most frequently
oval, and then is indented by the micronucleus; but it may be lobed,
the lobes lying far apart and connected by a slender bridge or monili-
form, or horseshoe-shaped (Peritrichaceae). It often contains darker
inclusions, like nucleoles.
It has been shown, more especially by Gruber, that many Ciliata
are multinucleate, and do not possess merely a single meganucleus
and a micronucleus. In Oxytricha the nuclei are large and numerous
(about forty), scattered through the protoplasm, whilst in other
cases the nucleus is so finely divided as to appear like a powder
diffused uniformly through the medullary protoplasm ( Trachelocerca) .
Carmine staining, after treatment with absolute alcohol, has led to
this remarkable discovery. The condition described by Foettinger
in his Opalinopsis (fig. i. 1,2) is an example of this pulverization of
the nucleus. The condition of pulverization had led in some cases
to a total failure to detect any nucleus in the living animal, and it was
only by the use of reagents that the actual state of the case was
revealed. Before fission, whatever be its habitual character, it
condenses, becomes oval, and divides by constriction; and though
it usually is then fibrillated, only in a few cases does it approach the
typical mitotic condition. The micronucleus described by older
writers as the " nucleolus " or " paranucleus " (" endoplastule " of
Huxley), may be single or multiple. When the meganucleus is
bilobed there are always two micronuclei, and at least one is found
next to every enlargement of the moniliform meganucleus. In the
fission of the Infusoria, every micronucleus divides by a true mitotic
process, during which, however, its wall remains intact. From their
relative sizes the meganucleus would appear to discharge during
cell-life, exclusively, the functions of the nucleus in ordinary cells.
Since in conjugation, however, the meganucleus degenerates and is
in great part either digested or excreted as waste matter, while the
new nuclear apparatus in both exconjugates arises, as we shall see,
from a conjugation-nucleus of exclusively micronuclear origin, we
infer that the micronucleus has for its function the carrying on of the
nuclear functions of the race from one fission cycle to the next from
which the meganucleus is excluded.
Fission is the ordinary mode of reproduction in the Infusoria, and
is usually transverse, but oblique in Stentor, &c., as in Flagellata,
longitudinal in Peritrichaceae; in some cases it is always more or
less unequal owing to the differentiation of the body, and conse-
quently it must be followed by a regeneration of the missing organs
in either daughter-cell. In some cases it becomes very uneven,
affording every transition to budding, which process assumes especial
importance in the Suctoria. Multiple fission (brood-formation or
sporulation) is exceptional in Infusoria, and when it occurs the broods
rarely exceed four or eight — another difference from Flagellata.
The nuclear processes during conjugation suggest the phylogenetic
loss of a process of multiple fission into active gametes. As noted,
in fission the meganucleus divides by direct constriction; each
micronucleus by a mode of mitosis. The process of fission is subject
in its activity to the influences of nutrition and temperature, slacken-
ing as the food supply becomes inadequate or as the temperature
recedes from the optimum for the process. Moreover, if the
descendants of a single animal be raised, it is found that the rapidity
of fission, other conditions being the same, varies periodically, under-
going periods of depression, which may be followed by either (i)
spontaneous recovery, (2) recovery under stimulating food, (3)
recovery through conjugation, or (4) the death of the cycle, which
would have ensued if 2 or 3 had been omitted at an earlier stage,
but which ultimately seems inevitable, even the induction of
conjugation failing to restore it. These physiological conditions were
first studied by E. Maupas, librarian to the city of Algiers, in his
pioneering work in the later 'eighties, and have been confirmed and
extended by later observers, among whom we may especially cite
G. N. Calkins.
Syngamy, usually termed conjugation or " karyogamy," is of
exceptional character in the majority of this group — the Peri-
trichaceae alone evincing an approximation to the usual typical
process of the permanent fusion of two cells (pairing-cells or gametes),
cytoplasm to cytoplasm, nucleus to nucleus, to form a new cell
(coupled cell, zygote).
This process was elucidated by E. Maupas in 1889, and his results,
eagerly questioned and repeatedly tested, have been confirmed in
every fact and in every generalization of importance.
Previously all that had been definitely made out was that under
certain undetermined conditions a fit of pairing two and two occurred
among the animals of the same species in a culture or in a locality
in the open; that after a union prolonged over hours, and sometimes
even days, the mates separated; that during the union the mega-
nucleus underwent changes of a degenerative character; and that
the micronucleus underwent repeated divisions, and that from the
offspring of the micronuclei the new nuclear apparatus was evolved
for each mate. Maupas discovered the biological conditions leading
to conjugation: (i) the presence of individuals belonging to distinct
stocks; (2) their belonging to a generation sufficiently removed
from previous conjugation, but not too far removed therefrom ; (3)
a deficiency of food. He also showed that during conjugation a
" migratory " nucleus, the offspring of the divisions of the micro-
nucleus, passes from either mate to the other, while its sister nucleus
remains " stationary "; and that reciprocal fusion of the migratory
nucleus of the one mate with the stationary nucleus of the other
takes place to form a zygote nucleus in either mate ; and that from
these zygote nuclei in each by division, at least two nuclei are formed,
the one of which enlarges to form a meganucleus, while the other
remains small as the first micronucleus of the new reorganized
animal, which now separates as an " exconjugate " (fig. iy). More-
over, if pairing be prevented, or be not induced, the individuals
produced by successive fissions become gradually weaker, their
nuclear apparatus degenerates, and finally they cannot be induced
INFUSORIA
559
FIG. iii. — Ciliata: 1,2, Heterotrichaceae ; 3-7, 23-24, Oligotrichaceae ;
8-22, 25, 26, Peritrichaceae.
Spirostomum ambiguum,E,hr. ;
(Xi2o); on its left side
oral groove and wreath of
membranellae; a, monili-
form meganucleus ; b,
position of contractile
vacuole.
Group of Stentor polymor-
phus, O. F. Miiller; (X5o);
the twisted end of the peri-
stome indicating the posi-
tion of the mouth.
Tintinnus lagenula, Cl. and
L., (Xsoo), in free shell.
Strombidium claparedii, S.
Kent; (X2OO).
Shell of Codonella campaneUa,
Haeck; (Xl8o).
7, Torquatella typica, Lank.
( = Strombidium according
to Biitschli); p, oral tube
seen through peristomial
wreath of apparently coal-
escent membranellae.
8, Basal, and 9, side (inverted)
views of Trichodina pedi-
culus, Ehr. ; (X3oo); a,
meganucleus ; c, basal collar
and ring of hooks; d,
mouth ; contractile vacuole
and oral tube seen by
transparency in 8.
10, Spirochoma gammipara,
Stein; (X35o); a, mega-
nucleus; g, bud.
11, 12, Vorticella m-icrostoma,E,hr. ;
(Xsoo); d, formation of a
brood of 8 microgametes c
by multiple fission ; b, contr.
vacuole.
13, Same sp. in binary fission;
a, meganucleus.
14, V. nebulifera, Ehr.; bud
swimming away by
under suitable conditions to pair normally, so that the cycle becomes
extinct by senile decay. In Peritrichaceae the gametes are of
unequal sizes (fig. iii. n, 12), the smaller being formed by brood
fissions (4 or 8); syngamy is here permanent, not temporary, the
smaller (male) being absorbed into the body of the larger (female) ;
and there are only two nuclei that pair. Thus we have a derived
binary sexual process, comparable to that of ordinary bisexual
organisms.
10,
From Lankester's Treatise on Zoology.
FIG. iv. — Diagrammatic Sketch
Ciliata. (From Hickson
1, Two individuals at com-
mencement of conjugation
showing meganucleus
(dotted) and micronucleus;
successive stages of the
disintegration of the mega-
nucleus shown in all figures
up to 9.
2, 3, First mitotic division of
micronuclei.
4, 5, Second ditto.
6, One of the four nuclei result-
ing from the second division
again dividing to form the
pairing-nuclei in either
CILIATA. — The Ciliate Infusoria represent the highest type
of Protozoa. They are distinctly animal in function, and the
Gymnostomaceae are active predaceous beings preying on other
Infusoria or Flagellates. Some possess shells (fig. iii. 3, 5, 21,
22, 25, 26), most have a distinct swallowing apparatus, and in
Dysteria there is a complex jaw — or tooth-apparatus, which needs
new investigation. In the active Ciliata we find locomotive
of Changes during Conjugation in
after Delage and Maupas.)
mate, while the other 3
nuclei degenerate.
7, Migration of the migratory
nuclei.
8, 9, Fusion of the incoming
migratory with the station-
ary nucleus in either mate.
Fission of Zygote nucleus
into two, the new mega-
and micronucleus whose
differentiation is shown in
11,12. The vertical dotted
line indicates the separation
of the mates.
posterior wreath, peristome
contracted; e, peristomial
disk;/, oral tube.
15, V. microstoma; b, contr.
vacuole; c, d, two micro-
gametes seeking to con-
jugate.
16, V. nebulifera, contracted,
with body encysted.
17, Same sp. enlarged; c,
myonemes converging
posteriorly to muscle of
stalk; d, micronucleus.
1 8, Carchesium spectabile, Ehr.;
(X5o).
19, Nematocysts of Epistylisfla-
vicans. Ehr. (after Greeff),
20, Opercularia stenostoma, St. ;
(X2Oo); a small colony
showing upstanding ("oper-
23,
cular ") peristomial disk,
protruded oral undulating
membranejand cilia in oral
tube.
22, Pyxicola affinis, S.K.,with
stalk and theca; x, chitin-
ous disk, or true " oper-
culum " closing theca in
retracted state.
24, Caenomorpha medusula,
Perty, (X25o), with spiral
peristomial wreath.
26, Thuricola valvata, Str.
Wright, in sessile theca,
with internal valve (») to
close tube, as in gastropod
Clausilia; owing to recent
fission two animals occupy
one tube.
560
INFUSORIA
organs of most varied kinds: tail-springs, cirrhi for crawling
and darting, cilia and membranellae for continuous swimming
in the open or gliding over surfaces or waltzing on the substratum
(Trichodina, fig. iii. 8) or for eddying in wild turns through the
water (Strombidium, Tintinnus, Halteria). Their forms offer
a most interesting variety, and the flexibility of many adds
to their easy grace of movement, especially where the front
of the body is produced and elongated like the neck of a swan
(Amphileptus, fig. iii. 5; Lacrymaria) .
The cytoplasm is very highly differentiated: especially the
ectoplasm or ectosarc. This has always a distinct elastic " pellicle "
or limiting layer, in a few cases hard, or even with local hardenings
that affect the disposition of a coat of mail (Coleps) or a pair of
valves (Dysteria); but is usually only marked into a rhomboidal
network by intersecting depressions, with the cilia occupying the
centres of the areas or meshes defined. The cytoplasm within is
distinctly alveolated, arid frequently contains tubular alveoli running
along the length of the animal. Between these are dense fibrous
thickenings, which from their double refraction, from their arrange-
ment, and from their shortening in contracted animals are regarded
as of muscular function and termed " myonemes." Other threads
running alongside of these, and not shortening but becoming wavy in
the general contraction have been described in a few species as
" neuronemes " and as possessing a nervous, conducting character.
On this level, too, lie the dot-like granules at the bases of the cilia,
which fojm definite groups in the case of such organs as are composed
of fused cilia ; in the deeper part of the ectoplasm the vacuoles or
alveoli are more numerous, and reserve granules are also found;
here too exist the canals, sometimes
developed into a complex net-work,
which open into the contractile
vacuole.
The cilia themselves have a stiffer
basal part, probably strengthened by
an axial rod, and a distal flexible
lash; when cilia are united by the
outer plasmatic layer, they form (i)
" Cirrhi," stiff and either hook-like
and pointed at the end, or brush-like,
with a frayed apex ; (2) membranelles,
flattened organs composed of a
number of cilia fused side by side,
sometimes on a single row, some-
times on two rows approximated at
FIG. v. — Diagram I illus- either end so as to form a narrow
trating changes during con- oval, the membranelle thus being
jugation of Colpidium hollow; (3) the oral "undulating
colpoda. (From Hickson, membrane," merely a very elongated
after Maupas.) membranelle whose base may extend
M.Old meganucleus under- °ver a length nearly equal to the
going disintegration. length of the animal ; such mem-
m, Micronucleus. branes are present in the mouth oral
N, migratory, and depression and pharynx of all but
S, Stationary pairing- Gymnostomaceae, and aid in in-
nucleus. gestion; a second or third may be
M', M', the new meganuclei, present, and behave like active lips;
and (4) in Peritrichaceae the cilia of the
m', The new micronuclei in peristomial wreath are united below
the products of the first into a continuous undulating mem-
fission of each of the ex- brane, forming a spiral of more than
conjugates; the continu- one turn, and fray out distally into a
ous vertical line in- fringe f (5) the dorsal cilia of Hypo-
dicates period of fusion, trichaceae are slender and motionless,
its cessation, separation; probably sensory,
dotted lines indicate Embedded in the ectosarc of many
spaces Ciliates are trichocysts, little elon-
successive gated sacs at right angles to the
process; surface, with a fine hair-like process
projecting. On irritation these elon-
Lankester's Treatise on
fission; the
lettered 1-7
stages in the
the clear circles
indi-
cate functionless nuclei gate into strong prominent threads,
which degenerate. often with a more or less barb-like
head, and may be ejected altogether
from the body. Those over the surface of the body appear to
be protective; but in the Gymnostomaceae specially strong
ones surround the mouth. They can be injected into the prey
pursued, and appear to have a distinctly poisonous effect on it.
They are combined also into defensive batteries in the Gymnostome
Loxophyttum. They are absent from most Heterotrichaceae and
Hypotrichaceae, and from Peritrichaceae, except for a zone round
the collar of the peristome.
The openings of the body are the mouth, absent in a few parasital
species (Opalinopsis, fig. i. i, 2), the anus and the pore of
the contractile vacuole. The mouth is easily recognizable; in the
most primitive forms of the Gymnostomaceae and some other
groups, it is terminal, but it passes further and further back in more
modified species, thereby defining a ventral, and correspondingly a
dorsal surface; it usually lies on the left side. The anus is usually
only visible during excretion, though its position is permanent; in
a few genera it is always visible (e.g. Nyctotherus, fig. i. 16). The
pore of the contractile vacuole might be described in the same terms.
The endoplasm has also an alveolar structure, and contains besides
large food-vacuoles or digestive vacuoles, and shows movements of
rotation within the ectoplasm, from which, however, it is not usually
distinctly bounded. In Ophryoscolex and Didinium (fig. i. 13) a
permanent cavity traverses it from mouth to anus.
Ingestion of food is of the same character in all the Hymeno-
stomata. The ciliary current drives a powerful stream into the mouth,
which impinges against the endosarc, carrying with it the food
particles; these adhere and accumulate to form a pellet, which
ultimately is pushed by an apparently sudden action into the
substance of the endosarc which closes behind it (fig. ii. 2). In some
b f
From Calkins' Protozoa,, by permission of the Macmillan Company, N.Y.
FIG. vi. — Diagrammatic view of behaviour of the motile reaction
ot Paramecium after meeting a mechanical obstruction at A. (From
G. N. Calkins after H. S. Jennings.) For clearness and simplicity
the normal motion is supposed to be straight instead of spiral.
of the Aspirotrichaceae accessory undulating membranes play the
part of lips, and there is a closer approximation to true deglutition.
The mouth is rarely terminal, more frequently at the bottom of a
depression, the " vestibule," which may be prolonged into a slender
canal, sometimes called the " pharynx " or " oral tube," ciliated as
well as provided with 'a membrane, and extending deep down into
the body in many Peritrichaceae.
In Spirostomaceae the " adoral wreath " of membranelles encloses
more or less completely an anterior part of the body, the " peri-
stome," within which lies the vestibule. This area may be depressed,
truncate, convex or produced into a short obconical disk or into one
or more lobes, or finally form a funnel, or a twisted spiral like a paper
cone. In most Peritrichaceae a collar-like rim surrounds the
peristome, and marks out a gutter from which the vestibule opens;
the peristome can be retracted, and the collar close over it. This
rim forms a deep permanent spiral funnel in Spirochona (fig. iii. 10).
Movements of Ciliata. — H. S. Jennings has made a very detailed
study of these movements, which resemble those of most minute
free-swimming organisms. The following account applies practically
to all active ' Infusoria " in the widest sense.
The position of the free-swimming Infusoria, like that of Rotifers
and other small swimming animals, is with the front end of the
body inclined put- r
ward to the axis of \_
advance, constantly
changing its azi-
muth while pre-
serving its angle
constant or nearly
so; if advance were
ignored the body
would thus rotate I<IG- v.n- — Diagram of a mode of progression
so as to trace out °f a Ciliate like Paramecium; m, mouth and
a cone, with the pharynx ; the straight line A, B, represents the
hinder end at the ax's °f progression described by the posterior
apex, and the front end, and the spiral line the curve described by
describing the base, the anterior end ; the clear circles are the
On any irritation, contractile vacuoles on the dorsal side.
(i)_ the motion is arrested, (2) the animal reverses its cilia and
swims backwards, (3) it swerves outwards away from the axis so
as to make a larger angle with it, and (A) then swims forwards
along a new axis of progression, to which it is inclined at the
same angle as to the previous axis (figs, vi., vii.). In this way it
alters its axis of progression when it finds itself under conditions of
stimulation. Thus a Paramecium coming into a region relatively
too cold, too hot, or top poor in CO2 or in nutriment, alters its
direction of swimming; in this way individuals come to assemble
in crowds where food is abundant, or even where there is a slight
excess of COz. This reaction may lead to fatal results; if a solution
of corrosive sublimate (Mercuric chloride) diffuses towards the hinder
end of the animal faster than it progresses, the stimulus affecting the
hinder end first, the axis of progression is altered so as to bring the
INFUSORIA
561
animal after a few changes into a region where the solution is strong
enough to kill it. This " motile reaction," first noted by H. S.
Jennings, is the explanation of the general reactions of minute
swimming animals to most stimuli of whatever character, including
light; the practical working out is, as he terms it, a method of " trial
and error." The action, however, of a current of electricity is dis-
tinctly and immediately directive; but such a stimulus is not to be
found in nature. The motile reaction in the Hypotrichaceae which
crawl or dart in a straight line is somewhat different, the swerve
being a simple turn to the right hand — i.e. away from the mouth.
Parasitism in the Infusoria is by no means so important as among
Flagellates. Ichthyophthirius alone causes epidemics among Fishes,
and Balantidium coli has been observed in intestinal disease in Man.
The Isotricheae, among Aspirotrichaceae and the Ophryoscolecidae
among Heterotrichaceae are found in abundance in the stomachs of
Ruminants, and are believed to play a part in the digestion of cellu-
lose, and thus to be rather commensals than parasites. AJarge
number of attached species are epizoic commensals, some very
indifferent in choice of their host, others particular not only in the
species they infest, but also in the special organs to which they
adhere. This is notably the case with the shelled Peritrichaceae.
Lichnophora and Trichodina (fig. iii. 8, 9) among Peritrichaceae are
capable of locomotion by their permanent posterior wreath or of
attaching themselves by the sucker which surrounds it ; Kerona
polyporum glides habitually over the body of Hydra, as does Tricho-
dina pediculus.
Several Suctoria are endoparasitic in Ciliata, and their occurrence
led to the view that they represented stages in the life-history of
these. Again, we find in the endosarc of certain Ciliates green
nucleated cells, which have a cellulose envelope and multiply by
fission inside or outside the animal. They are symbiotic Algae, or
possibly the resting state of a Chlamydomonadine Flagellate
(Carteridf), and have received the name Zoochlorella. They are of
constant occurrence in ParameciUm bursaria, frequent in Stentor
polymorphus and S. igneus, and Ophrydium versatile, and a few other
species, which become infected by swallowing them.
Classification.
Order I. — Section A. — Gymnostomaceae. Mouth habitually
closed; swallowing an active process; cilia (or membranelles)
uniform, usually distributed evenly over the body; form
variable, sometimes of circular transverse section.
Section B.— Trichostomata. Mouth permanently open
against the endosarc, provided with I or 2 undulating
membranes often prolonged into an inturned pharynx;
ingestion by action of oral ciliary apparatus.
Order 2. — Subsection (a). — Aspirotrichaceae. Cilia nearly uni-
form, not associated with cirrhi or membranelles, nor forming
a peristomial wreath. Form usually flattened, mouth unilateral.
(N.B. — Orders I, 2 are sometimes united into the single order
Holotrichaceae.)
Subsection (b). — Spirotricha. Wreath of distinct mem-
branelles— or of cilia fused at the base — enclosing a peristomial
area and leading into the mouth.
§§ i. — Wreath of separate membranelles.
Order 3. — Heterotrichaceae; body covered with fine uniform
cilia, usually circular in transverse section.
Order 4. — Oligotrichaceae ; body covering partial or wholly
absent ; transverse section usually circular.
Order 5. — Hypotrichaceae; body flattened; body cilia repre-
sented chiefly by stiff cirrhi in ventral rows, and fine motion-
less dorsal sensory hairs.
Order 6. — §§ ii. — Peritrichaceae. Peristomial ciliary wreath,
spiral, of cilia united at the base; posterior wreath circular
of long membranelles; body circular in section, cylindrical,
taper, or bell-shaped.
Illustrative Genera (selected).
1. Gymnostomaceae. (a) Ciliation general or not confined to one
surface. Coleps Ehr., with pellicle locally hardened into mailed
plates; Trachelocerca Ehr.; Prorodon Ehr. (fig. i. 6, 7); Trachelius
Ehr., with branching endosarc (fig. i. 8) ; Lacrymaria Ehr. (fig. i. 5>),
body produced into a long neck with terminal mouth surrounded by
offensive trichocysts; DUeptus Duj., of similar form, but anterior
process, blind, preoral; Ichthyophthirius Fouquet (fig- .i-. 9'12)'
cilia represented by two girdles of membranellae ; Didinium St.
(fig. i. 13), cilia in tufts, surface with numerous tentacles each
with a strong terminal trichocyst; Actinobolus Stein, body with
one adoral tentacle; Ileonema Stokes. (6) Cilia confined to dorsal
surface. Chilodon Ehr.; Lpxodes Ehr., body flattened, ciliated on
one side only, endosarc as in Trachelius; Dysteria Huxley, with the
dorsal surface hardened and hinged along the median line into a
bivalve shell, ciliated only on ventral surface, with a protrusible
foot-like process, and a complex pharyngeal armature, (c) Cilia
restricted to a single equatorial girdle, strong (probably membra-
nelles) ; Mesodinium, mouth 4-lobed.
2. Aspirotrichaceae. Paramecium Hill (fig. ii. 1-3); Ophryoglena
Ehr.; Colpoda O. F. Miiller; Colpidium St.; Lembus Cohn, with
posterior strong cilium for springing; Leucophrys St.; Urocentrun
Nitsch, bare, with polar and equatorial zones and a posterior tuft o
ong cilia; Opalinopsis Foetlinger (fig. i. i, 2); Anoplophyra St.
fig. i. 3, 4). (The last two parasitic mouthless genera are placed
lere doubtfully.)
3. Heterotrichaceae. (o) Wreath spiral; Slentor Oken. (fig. iii. 2),
oval when free, trumpet-shaped when attached by pseudopods at
ipex, and then often secreting a gelatinous tube; Blepharisma
ferty, sometimes parasitic in Heliozoa; Spirostomum Ehr., cylindri-
cal, up to I* in length; (b) Wreath straight, often oblique; Nycto-
herus Leidy, parasitic anus always visible; Balantidium Cl. and L.,
Darasitic (B. coli in man) ; Bursaria, O.F.M., hollowed into an oval
jouch, with the wreath inside.
4. Oligotrichaeceae. Tintinnus Schranck (fig. iii. 3); Trichodin-
stiff bristle-like cilia; Caenomorpha Perty (fig. iii. 23, 24) ; Ophryo-
scolex St., with straight digestive cavity, ana visible anus, parasitic
in Ruminants.
5. Hypotrichaceae. Stylonychia Ehr.; Oxylricha Ehr.; Euplotes
Ehr. (fig. i. 14, 15); Kerona Ehr. (epizoic on Hydra).
6. Peritrichaceae. i. Peristomial wreath projecting when ex-
panded above a circular contractile collar-like rim.
(a) Fam. Urceolaridae : posterior wreath permanently present
around sucker-like base. Trichodina Ehr. (fig. iii. 8, 9), epizoic on
Hydra; Lichnophora Cl. and L. ; Cyclochaeta Hatchett Jackson;
Gerda Cl. and L. ; Scyphidia Duj.
(b) Fam. Vorticellidae = Bell Animalcules: posterior wreath
temporarily present, shed after fixation.
Subfam. i. Vorticellinae animals naked, (i.) Solitary; Vorticella
Linn. (fig. iii. 11-17), stalk hollow with spiral muscle; Pyxidium
S. Kent, stalk non-contractile, (ii.) Forming colonies by budding on
a branched stalk: Carchesium Ehr., hollow branches and muscles
discontinuous; Zoothamnium. Ehr., branched hollow stem and
muscle continuous through colony; Epistylis Ehr., stalk rigid —
(the animal body in these three genera has the same characters as
Vorticella) — Campanella Goldf., stalked like Epistylis, wreath of
many turns (nematocysts sometimes present) (fig. iii. 19); Oper-
cularia, stalk of Epistylis, disk supporting wreath obconical, collar
very high (fig. iii. 20).
Subfam. 2. Vaginicolinae; body enclosed in a firm theca:
Vaginicola Lam., shell simple, sessile; Thuricola St. Wright, shell
sessile, with a valve opening inwards (fig. iii. 25-26) ; Cothurnia Ehr.,
shell stalked, simple; Pyxicola S. Kent, shell stalked, closed by an
infraperistomial opercular thickening on the body (fig. iii. 21-22).
Subfam. 3. Shells gelatinous; those of the colony aggregated
into a floating spheroidal mass several inches in diameter.
Ophrydium Bory, O. versatile contains Zoochlorella, which secretes
oxygen, and the gas-bubbles float the colonies like green lumps of
jelly.
2. Peristomial wreath, not protrusible, surrounded by a very
high usually spiral collar.
Fam. Spirochonina. Spirochona St. (fig. iii. 10); Kentrochona
Rompel; both genera epizoic on gills, &c., of small Crustacea.
SUCTORIA. — These are distinguished from Ciliata by their
possession of hollow tentacles (one only in Rhyncheta, fig. viii. i,
and Urnula) through which they ingest food, and by not possess-
ing cilia, except in the young stage. Fission approximately
equal is very rare. Usually it is unequal, or if nearly equal one
of the halves remains attached, and the other, as an embryo
or gemmule, develops cilia and swims off to attach itself else-
where; Sphaerophrya (fig. viii. 2-6) alone, often occurring as an
endoparasite in Ciliata, may be free, tentaculate and unattached.
The ectosarc is usually provided with a firm pellicle which shows
a peculiar radiate " milling " in optical section, so fine that its true
nature is difficult to make out ; it may be due to radial rods, regularly
imbedded, or may be the expression of radial vacuoles. The tentacles
vary in many respects, but are always retractile. They are tubes
covered by an extension of the pellicle; this is invaginated into the
body round the base of the tentacle as a sheath, and then evaginated
to form the outer layer of the tentacle itself, over which it is frequently
raised into a spiral ridge, which may be traced down into the
part sunk and ensheathed within the body: in Choanophrya, where
the tentacles are largest, the pellicle is further continued into the
interior of the tentacle. The tentacles are always pierced by a central
canal opening at the apex, which may be (i) enlarged into a terminal
capitate sucker, (2) slightly flared, (3) truncate and closed in the
resting state to become widely opened into a funnel, or (4) pointed.
The tentacles are always capable of being waved from side to side,
or turned in a definite direction for the reception or prehension of
food; in Rhyncheta, the movements of the long single tentacle
recall those of an elephant's trunk, only they are more extensive
and more varied. In the majority of cases the food consists of Ciliata :
and the contents of the prey may be seen passing down the canal of
the sucker beyond where it becomes free from the general surface.
In Choanophrya the food appears to consist of the debris of the prey
of the carnivorous host (Cyclops), which is sucked into the wide
funnel-shaped mouths of the tentacles — by what mechanism is
562
INFUSORIA
FIG. viii. — Suctoria (in all a, meganucleus; b, contractile vacuole).
1, Rhyncheta cyclopum, Zenker;
only a single tentacle and
that suctorial ; X 150; epi-
zoic on Cyclops.
2, Sphaerophrya urostylae, Mau-
pas; normal adult; X 200;
parasitic in Ciliate Urostyla.
3, The same dividing by trans-
verse fission, the anterior
moiety with temporarily
developed cilia.
4, 5, 6, Sphaerophrya stentorea,
Maupas; X 200. Parasitic
in Stentor, and at one time
mistaken for its young.
7, Trichophrya epistylidis, Cl.
and L. ; X 150.
8, Hemiophryagemmipara^ert-
wig ; X 400. Example with
six buds, into each of which
a branch of the meganucleus
a is extended.
9, The same species, showing
the two kinds of tentacles
(the suctorial and the
pointed) .andtwocon tractile
vacuoles b.
10, Ciliated embryo of Podophrya
steinii, Cl. and L. ;
X 3°o.
1 1 , Acinela grandis, Saville Kent ;
X 100; showing pedun-
culated cup, and animal
with two bunches of en-
tirely suctorial tentacles.
12, Sphaerophryamagna,Maupas;
X 300. It has seized with
its tentacles, and is in
the act of sucking out the
juices of six examples
of the Ciliate Colpoda par-
vifrons.
13, Podophrya elongata, Cl. and
L.; X 150.
unknown. The endosarc is full of food-granules and reserve-granules
(oil, colouring matter and proteid).
The meganucleus and the micronucleus are both usually single,
but in Dendrosoma (fig. viii. 20), of which the body is branched, and
the meganucleus with it, there are numerous micronuclei. In most
cases the micronucleus has not been recorded, though from the
similarity of conjugation, and its presence in most cases of fission and
budding that have been accurately described, we may infer that it is
always present. In unequal fission the meganucleus sends a process
into the bud, while the micronucleus divides as in Ciliata. The bud
may be nearly equal to the remains of the original animal, or much
smaller, and in that case a depression surrounds it which may deepen
so as to form a brood-cavity, either communicating by a mere
" birth-pore " with the outside or entirely closed. In some cases
the budding is multiple (fig. viii. 8), and a large number of buds are
formed and liberated at the same time. In all cases the bud escapes
without tentacles, and possesses a characteristic supply of cilia,
whose arrangement is constant for the species.
In some cases an adult may withdraw its tentacles, moult its
pellicle and develop an equipment of cilia and swim away: this is
the case with Dendrocometes, parasitic on Gammarus, when its host
moults.
The numerous species of Suctoria, often so abundant on various
species of Cyclops, are not found on the other fresh-water Copepoda,
Diaptomus and Canthocamptus, belonging indeed to other families.
Again, these Suctoria affect different positions, those found on the
antennae not being present on the mouth parts; the ventral part of
the thorax has another set ; and the inside of the pleural fold another.
Rhyncheta occupies the front of the " couplers " or median down-
growths uniting the coxopodites of the swimming legs, and Choano-
phrya settles in the immediate neighbourhood of the mouth, preferably
on the epistoma, labrum and metastomatic region, but also on the
adoral appendages and in rare cases extends, when the settlement is
extensive, to the bases of the two pairs of antennae; while distinct
species of Podophrya settle on the antennae, the front of the thorax
and the inside of the pleural folds. Dendrocometes is common on
the gills of the freshwater shrimp (Amphipod) Gammarus and
Stylocometes on the gills and gill-covers of the Isopod Asellus, the
water-slater. The independence of the Acinetaria was threatened
by the erroneous view of Stein that they were phases in the life-
history of Vorticellidae. Small parasitic forms (Sphaerophrya)
were also regarded erroneously as the " acinetiform young " of
Ciliata. They now must be regarded as an extreme modification of
the Protozoon series, in which the differentiation of organs in a
unicellular animalireaches its highest point.
Principal Genera.
1. Unstalked simple forms. Urnula Cl. and L., permanently
ciliate; Rhyncheta Zenker (fig. viii. i), on the limb couplers of Cyclops;
Sphaerophrya Cl. and L. (fig. viii. 2-6, 12), endoparasitic in Ciliata
and formerly taken for embryos thereof, never attached; Tricho-
phrya Cl. and L. (fig. viii. 7), of similar habits, but temporarily
attached, sessile.
2. Stalked simple forms; Podophrya Ehr. (fig. viii. 10, 13, 16),
tentacles all knobbed or flared; Ephelota Strethill Wright, tentacles
all pointed; Hemiophrya S. Kent (fig. viii. 8, 9, 14), tentacles of both
kinds; Choanophrya Hartog, tentacles thick, truncate, very retrac-
tile, when expanded opening into funnels for aspiration of floating
prey, never for attachment — epizoic on antero-ventral parts of
Cyclops.
3. Cupped forms; Splenophrya Cl. and L., cup sessile; Acineta
Ehr., cup stalked; Acinetops-is Butschli, like Acineta, but the cup
flattened, closed distally with only slit-like apertures (" pylomes ")
for the bundles of tentacles; Podocyathus, like Acineta, but with
pointed as well as knobbed tentacles.
4. Tentacles in bundles at the tips of one or more processes or
branches of the body. Ophryodendron Cl. and L., tentaculiferous
process single (fig. viii. 21); Dendrocometes Stein (fig. viii. 15), body
rounded, processes repeatedly branched, epizoic on gills of Gammarus
pulex; Dendrosoma Ehr. (fig. viii. 17-20), body freely branched from
a basal attached stolon, meganucleus branching with the body.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — (a) Infusoria in the widest sense: C. E. Ehren-
berg. Die Infusionstierchen als vollkommene Organismen (1838);
F. Dujardin, Zoophytes infusoires (1841). (i) Infusoria, including
Mastigophora : M. Petty, Zur Kenntniss Kleinster Lebensformen
(1852) ; E. Claparede and J. Lachmann, £ludes sur les infusoires
14, Ilemiophryabenedenii, Fraip. ;
X 200; the suctorial
tentacles retracted.
15, Dendrocometes paradoxus,
Stein ; X 350. Parasitic on
Gammarus pulex; captured
prey.
16, A single tentacle of Podo-
phrya ; X 800. R. Hertwig.
17-20, Dendrosoma radians, Ehr. :
— 17, free-swimming cili-
ated embryo; X 600. 18,
Earliest fixed condition of
the embryo; X 600. 19,
Later stage, a single ten-
taculiferous process now
developed ; X 600. 20,
Adult colony; c, enclosed
ciliated embryos; d,
branching stolon; e, more
minute reproductive (?)
bodies.
21, Ophryodendron pedicellatum ,
Hincks; X 300.
INGEBORG— INGEMANN
et les Rhizopodes (1858-1861); F. von Stein, Der Organismus der
Infusionstiere (1859-1883); W. Saville Kent, A Manual of the
Infusoria, including a description of all known Flagellate, Ciliate
and Tentaculiferous Protozoa (1880-1882). (c) Infusoria, as limited
by Butschli. O. Biitschli, Bronn's Tierreich, vol. i. Protozoa, pt. 3
Infusoria (1887-1889), the most complete work existing, but without
specific diagnoses; S. J. Hickson, "The Infusoria" in Lankester's
Treatise on Zoology, vol. i. fasc. 2 (1903), a general account, well
illustrated, with a diagnosis of all genera. See also Delage and
Herouard, Traite de Zoologie concrete, vol. i. " La Cellule et les
Protozoaires " (1896), with an illustrated conspectus of the genera;
E. Maupas, " Recherches experimentales sur la multiplication des
Infusoires cilies," Arch. zool. exp. vi. (1888); and " Le Rajeunisse-
ment karyogomique chez les Cilifis," ib. vii. (1889); R. Sand, Etude
monographique sur le groupe des Infusoires tentaculiferes (Suctoria),
(1899), with diagnoses of species; A. Lang, Lehrb. der vergkich.
Anatomie der wirbellosen Tiere, vol. i. " Protozoa " (1901) (a view of
comparative anatomy, physiology and bionomics) ; Marcus Hartog,
" Protozoa," in Cambridge Natural History, i. (1906) ; H. S. Jennings,
Contributions to the Study of the Behaviour of Lower Organisms (1904) ;
G. N. Calkins, " Studies on the Life History of Protozoa " (Life cycle
of Paramecium), I. Arch. Entw. xv. (1902), II. Arch. Prot. i. (1902),
III. Biol. Bull. iii. (1902), IV. J. Exp. Zool. i. (1904)- Numerous
papers dealing especially with advances in structural knowledge
have appeared in the Archiv fur Protistenkunde, founded by F.
Schaudmn in 1902. (M. HA.)
INGEBORG [INGEBURGE, INGELBURGE, INGELBORG, ISEM-
BURGE, Dan. INGIBJORG] (c. 1176-1237 or 1238), queen of France,
was the daughter of Valdemar I. , king of Denmark. She married
in 1193 Philip II. Augustus, king of France, but on the day after
his marriage the king took a sudden aversion to her, and
wished to obtain a separation. During almost twenty years he
strained every effort to obtain from the church the declaration
of nullity of his marriage. The council of Compiegne acceded
to his wish on the 5th of November 1193, but the popes Celestine
III. and Innocent III. successively took up the defence of the
unfortunate queen. Philip, having married Agnes of Meran in
June 1196, was excommunicated, and as he remained obdurate,
the kingdom was placed under an interdict. Agnes was finally
sent away, but Ingeborg, shut up in the chateau of Etampes,
had to undergo all sorts of privations and vexations. The
king attempted to induce her to solicit a divorce herself, or to
enter a convent. At last, however (1213), hoping perhaps to
justify by his wife's claims his pretensions to England, Philip
was reconciled with Ingeborg, whose life from henceforth was
devoted to religion. She survived him more than fourteen
years, passing the greater part of the time in the priory of St
Jean at Corbeil, which she had founded.
See Robert Davidson, Philip II. August von Frankreich und
Ingeborg (Stuttgart, 1888); and E. Michael, " Zur Geschichte der
Konigin Ingelborg " mtheZeitschriftfur Katholische Theologie (1890).
INGELHEIM (Ober-Ingelheim and Nieder-Ingelheim), the
name of two contiguous market-towns of Germany, in the
grand-duchy of Hesse-Darmstadt, on the Selz, near its confluence
with the Rhine, 9 m. W.N.W. of Mainz on the railway to Coblenz.
Ober-Ingelheim, formerly an imperial town, is still surrounded
by walls. It has an Evangelical church with painted windows
representing scenes in the life of Charlemagne, a Roman Catholic
church and a synagogue. Its chief industry is the manufacture
of red wine. Pop. (1900) 3402. Nieder-Ingelheim has an
Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church, and, in addition to
wine, manufactories of paper, chemicals, cement and malt. Pop.
343 S-
Nieder-Ingelheim is, according to one tradition, the birthplace
of Charlemagne, and it possesses the ruins of an old palace built
by that emperor between 768 and 774. The building contained
one hundred marble pillars, and was also adorned with sculptures
and mosaics sent from Ravenna by Pope Adrian I. It was
extended by Frederick Barbarossa, and was burned down in
1 270, being restored by the emperor Charles IV. in 13 54. Haying
passed into the possession of the elector palatine of the Rhine,
the building suffered much damage during a war in 1462, the
Thirty Years' War, and the French invasion in 1689. Only
few remains of it are now standing; but of the pillars, several
are in Paris, one is in the museum at Wiesbaden and another
on the Schillerplatz in Mainz. Inside its boundaries there is
.he restored Remigius Kirche, apparently dating from the time
of Frederick I.
See Hilz, Der Reichspalast zu Ingelheim (Ober-Ingelheim, 1868);
md Clemen, " Der Karolingische Kaiserpalast zu Ingelheim," in
Westdeutsche Zeitschrifl, Band ix. (Trier, 1890).
INGELOW, JEAN (1820-1897), English poet and novelist,
was born at Boston, in Lincolnshire, on the I7th of March 1820.
She was the daughter of William Ingelow, a banker of that
town. As a girl she contributed verses and tales to the magazines
under the pseudonym of " Orris," but her first (anonymous)
volume, A Rhyming Chronicle of Incidents and Feelings, did
not appear until her thirtieth year. This Tennyson said had
very charming things " in it, and he declared he should " like
to know " the author, who was later admitted to his friendship.
Miss Ingelow followed this book of verse in 1851 with a story,
Allerton and Dreux, but it was the publication of her Poems in
1863 which suddenly raised her to the rank of a popular writer.
They ran rapidly through numerous editions, were set to music,
and sung in every drawing-room, and in America obtained an
even greater hold upon public estimation. In 1867 she published
The Story of Doom and other Poems, and then gave up verse for
a while and became industrious as a novelist. Off the Skelligs
appeared in 1872, Fated to be Free in 1873, Sarah de Berenger
in 1880, and John Jerome in 1886. She also wrote S (tidies for
Stories (1864), Stories told to a Child (1865), Mopsa the Fairy
(1869), and other excellent stories for children. Her third
series of Poems was published in 1885. She resided for the last
years of her life in Kensington, and somewhat outlived her
popularity as a poet. She died on the 2oth of July 1897. Her
poems, which were collected in one volume in 1898, have often
the genuine ballad note, and as a writer of songs she was exceed-
ingly successful. " Sailing beyond Seas " and " When Sparrows
build " in Supper at the Mill were deservedly among the most
popular songs of the day; but they share, with the rest of her
work, the faults of affectation and stilted phraseology. Her
best-known poem was the " High Tide on the Coast of Lincoln-
shire," which reached the highest level of excellence. The
blemishes of her style were cleverly indicated in a well-known
parody of Calverley's; a false archaism and a deliberate assump-
tion of unfamiliar and unnecessary synonyms for simple objects
were among the most vicious of her mannerisms. She wrote,
however, in verse with a sweetness which her sentiment and her
heart inspired, and in prose she displayed feeling for character
and the gift of narrative; while a delicate underlying tenderness
is never wanting in either medium to her sometimes tortured
expression. Miss Ingelow was a woman of frank and hospitable
manners, with a look of the Lady Bountiful of a country parish.
She had nothing of the professional authoress or the " literary
lady " about her, and, as with characteristic simplicity she was
accustomed to say, was no great reader. Her temperament
was rather that of the improvisatore than of the professional
author or artist.
INGEMANN, BERNHARD SEVERIN (1789-1862), Danish
poet and novelist, was born at Torkildstrup, in the island of
Falster, on the 28th of May 1789. He was educated at the
grammar school at Slagelse, and entered the university of
Copenhagen in 1806. His studies were interrupted by the
English invasion, and on the first night of the bombardment
of the city Ingemann stood with the young poet Blicher on the
walls, while the shells whistled past them, and comrades were
killed on either side. All his early and unpublished writings
were destroyed when the English burned the town. In 1811 he
published his first volume of poems, and in 1812 his second,
followed in 1813 by a book of lyrics entitled Procne and in 1814
the verse romance, The Black Knights. In 1815 he published
two tragedies, Masaniello and Blanca, followed by The Voice in
the Desert, The Shepherd of Tolosa, and other romantic plays.
After a variety of publications, all very successful, he travelled
in 1818 to Italy. At Rome he wrote The Liberation of Tasso,
and returned in 1819 to Copenhagen. In 1820 he began to
display his real power in a volume of delightful tales. In 1821
his dramatic career closed with the production of an unsuccessful
564
INGERSOLL— INGLEFIELD
comedy, Magnetism in a Barber's Shop. In 1822 the poet was
nominated lector in Danish language and literature at Soro
College, and he now married. Valdemar the Great and his Men,
an historical epic, appeared in 1824. The next few years were
occupied with his best and most durable work, his four great
national and historical novels of Valdemar Seier, 1826; Erik
Menved's Childhood, 1828; King Erik, 1833; and Prince Otto
of Denmark, 1835. He then returned to epic poetry in Queen
Margaret, 1836, and in a cycle of romances, Holger Danske, 1837.
His later writings consist of religious and sentimental lyrics,
epic poems, novels, short stories in prose, and fairy tales. His
last publication was The Apple oj Gold, 1856. In 1846 Ingemann
was nominated director of Soro College, a post from which he
retired in 1849. He died on the 24th of February 1862. Inge-
mann enjoyed during his lifetime a popularity unapproached
even by that of Ohlenschlager. His boundless facility and
fecundity, his sentimentality, his religious melancholy, his direct
appeal to the domestic affections, gave him instant access to the
ear of the public. His novels are better than his poems; of
the former the best are those which are directly modelled
on the manner of Sir Walter Scott. As a dramatist he
outlived his reputation, and his unwieldy epics are now little
read.
Ingemann's works were collected in 41 vols. at Copenhagen
(1843-1865). His autobiography was edited by Galskjot in 1862;
his correspondence by V. Heise (1879-1881); and his letters to
Grundtvig by S. Grundtvig (1882). See also H. Schwanenniigel,
Ingemanns Liv og Digtning (1886); and Georg Brandes, Essays
(1889).
INGERSOLL, ROBERT GREEN (1833-1899), American
lawyer and lecturer, was born in Dresden, New York, on the
i ith of August 1833. His father was a Congregational minister,
who removed to Wisconsin in 1843 and to Illinois in 1845.
Robert, who had received a good common-school education, was
admitted to the bar in 1854, and practised law with success in
Illinois. Late in 1861, during the Civil War, he organized a
cavalry regiment, of which he was colonel, until captured at
Lexington, Tennessee, on the i8th of December 1862, by the
Confederate cavalry under General N. B. Forrest. He was
paroled, waited in vain to be exchanged, and in June 1863
resigned from the service. He was attorney-general of Illinois
in 1867-1869, and in 1876 his speech in the Republican National
Convention, naming James G. Elaine for the Presidential
candidate, won him a national reputation as a public speaker.
As a lawyer he distinguished himself particularly as counsel for
the defendants in the " Star-Route Fraud " trials. He was
most widely known, however, for his public lectures attacking
the Bible, and his anti-Christian views were an obstacle to his
political advancement. Ingersoll was an eloquent rhetorician
rather than a logical reasoner. He died at Dobbs Ferry, N.Y.,
on the 2ist of July 1899.
His principal lectures and speeches were published under the titles :
The Gods and Other Lectures (1876) ; Some Mistakes of Moses (1879) ;
Prose Poems (1884); Great Speeches (1887). His lectures, entitled
" The Bible," " Ghosts," and " Foundations of Faith," attracted
particular attention. His complete works were published in 12 vols.
in New York in 1900.
INGERSOLL, a town and port of entry of Oxford county,
Ontario, Canada, 19 m. E. of London, on the river Thames
and the Grand Trunk and Canadian Pacific railways. Pop.
(1901) 4572. The principal manufactures are agricultural imple-
ments, furniture, pianos and screws. There is a large export
trade in cheese and farm produce.
INGHAM, CHARLES CROMWELL (1796-1863), American
artist, was born in Dublin, Ireland. He was apupil of the Dublin
Academy, emigrated to the United States at the age of twenty-
one, and immediately became identified with the art life of that
country, being one of the founders of the National Academy
of New York in 1826 and its vice-president from 1845 to 1850.
He painted portraits of the reigning beauties of New York and
acquired considerable reputation, continuing to practise his
profession until his death, in New York, on the loth of December
1863.
INGHIRAMI, the name of an Italian noble family of Volterra.
The following are its most important members:
TOMMASO INGHIRAMI (1470-1516), a humanist, is best known
for his Latin orations, seven of which were published in 1777.
His success in the part of Phaedra in a presentation of Seneca's
Hippolytus (or Phaedra) led to his being generally known as
Fedra. He received high honours from Alexander VI., Leo X.
and Maximilian I.
FRANCESCO INGHIRAMI (1772-1846), a distinguished archaeo-
logist, fought in the French wars (1799), and afterwards devoted
himself especially to the study of Etruscan antiquities. He
founded a college at Fiesole and collected, though without critical
insight, a mass of valuable material in his Monumenti etruschi
(10 vols., 1820-1827), Galleria omerica (3 vols., 1829-1851),
Pitture di tiasifittili (1831-1837), Museo elrusco chiusino (2 vols.,
1833), and the incomplete Storia della Toscana (1841-1845):
these works were elaborately illustrated.
His brother, GIOVANNI INGHIRAMI (1779-1851), was an
astronomer of repute. He was professor of astronomy at the
Institute founded by Xirrjenes in Florence and published beside
a number of text-books E/emeridi dell' occultazione delle piccole
stelle sotlo la luna (1809-1830); Effemeridi di Venese e Giove
all' uso de' naviganli (1821-1824); Tavole aslronomichi universal!
portatili ( 1 8 1 1 ) ; Base trigonometrica misurata in Toscana ( 1 8 1 8) ;
Carta topografica e geometrica della Toscana (1830).
INGLEBY, CLEMENT MANSFIELD (1823-1886), English
Shakespearian scholar, was born at Edgbaston, Birmingham,
on the 29th of October 1823, the son of a solicitor. After taking
his degree at Trinity College, Cambridge, he entered his father's
office, eventually becoming a partner. In 1859 he abandoned
the law and left Birmingham tO'live near London. He contri-
buted articles on literary, scientific and other subjects to various
magazines, but from 1874 devoted himself almost entirely to
Shakespearian literature. His first work in this field had been
an exposure of the manipulations of John Payne Collier, entitled
The Shakespeare Fabrications (1859) ; his work as a commentator
began with The Still Lion (1874), 'enlarged in the following year
into Shakespeare Hermeneutics. In this book many of the then
existing difficulties of Shakespeare's text were explained. In
the same year (1875) he published the Centurie of Prayse, a
collection of references to Shakespeare and his works between
1592 and 1692. His Shakespeare: the Man and the Book was
published in 1877-1881; he also wrote Shakespeare's Bones
(1882), in which he suggested the disinterment of Shakespeare's
bones and an examination of his skull. This suggestion, though
not due to vulgar curiosity, was regarded, however, by public
opinion as sacrilegious. He died on the 26th of September 1886,
at Ilford, Essex. Although Ingleby's reputation now rests
solely on his works on Shakespeare, he wrote on many other
subjects. He was the author of hand-books on metaphysic and
logic, and made some contributions to the study of natural
science. He was at one time vice-president of the New Shakspere
Society, and one of the original trustees of the " Birthplace."
INGLEFIELD, SIR EDWARD AUGUSTUS (1820-1894),
British admiral and explorer, was born at Cheltenham, on the
27th of March 1820, and educated at the Royal Naval College,
Portsmouth. His father was Rear-Admiral Samuel Hood
Inglefield (1783-1848), and his grandfather Captain John
Nicholson Inglefield (1748-1828), who served with Lord Hood
against the French. The boy went to sea when fourteen, took
part in the naval operations on the Syrian Coast in 1840, and in
1845 was promoted to the rank of commander for gallant conduct
at Obligado. In 1852 he commanded Lady Franklin's yacht
" Isabel " on her cruise to Smith Sound, and his narrative of the
expedition was published under the title of A Summer Search for
Sir John Franklin (1853). He received the gold medal of the
Royal Geographical Society on his return. and was given command
of the " Phoenix," in which he made three trips to the Arctic,
bringing home part of the Belcher Arctic expedition in 1854.
In that year he was again sent out on the last attempt made by
the Admiralty to find Sir John Franklin.
In the Crimean War Captain Inglefield took part in the siege
INGLE-NOOK— INGRAM, J. K.
565
of Sevastopol. He was knighted in 1877, and nominated a
Knight Commander of the Bath ten years later. He was pro-
moted admiral in 1879. Besides being an excellent marine
artist, he was the inventor of the hydraulic steering gear and the
Inglefield anchor. He died on the sth of September 1894. His
son, Captain Edward Fitzmaurice Inglefield (b. 1861), became
secretary of Lloyds in 1906. Sir Edward Inglefield's brother,
Rear-Admiral V. O. Inglefield, was the father of Rear-Admiral
Frederick Samuel Inglefield (b. 1854), director of naval intelli-
gence in 1902-1904, and of two other sons distinguished as
soldiers.
INGLE-NOOK (from Lat. igniculus, dim. of ignis, fire), a
corner or seat by the fireside, within the chimney-breast. The
open Tudor or Jacobean fire-place was often wide enough to
admit of a wooden settle being placed at each end of the embrasure
of which it occupied the centre, and yet far enough away not to
be inconveniently hot. This was one of the means by which
the builder sought to avoid the draughts which must have been
extremely frequent in old houses. English literature is full of
references, appreciatory or regretful, to the cosy ingle-nook that
was killed by the adoption of small grates. Modern English
and American architects are, however, fond of devising them in
houses designed on ancient models, and owners of old buildings
frequently remove the modern grates and restore the original
arrangement.
INGLIS, SIR JOHN EARDLEY WILMOT (1814-1862), British
major-general, was born in Nova Scotia on the 15th of November
1814. His father was the third, and his grandfather the first,
bishop of that colony. In 1833 he joined the 32nd Foot, in which
all his regimental service was passed. In 1837 he saw active
service in Canada, and in 1848-1849 in the Punjab, being in
command at the storming of Mooltan and at the battle of Gujrat.
In 1857, on the outbreak of the Indian Mutiny, he was in
command of his regiment at Lucknow. Sir Henry Lawrence
being mortally wounded during the siege of the residency,
Inglis took command of the garrison, and maintained a successful
defence for 87 days against an overwhelming force. He was
promoted to major-general and made K.C.B. After further
active service in India, he was, in 1860, given command of the
British troops in the Ionian Islands. He died at Hamburg on
the ayth of September 1862.
INGLIS, SIR WILLIAM (1764-1835), British soldier, was born
in 1764, a member of an old Roxburghshire family. He entered
the army in 1781. After ten years in America he served in
Flanders, and in 1796 took part in the capture of St Lucia.
In 1809 he commanded a brigade in the Peninsula, taking part
in the battle of Busaco (1810) and the first siege of Badajoz.
At Albuera his regiment, the 57th, occupied a most important
position, and was exposed to a deadly fire. " Die hard! Fifty-
Seventh," cried Inglis, " Die hard 1 " The regiment's answer
has gone down to history. Out of a total strength of 579, 23
officers and 415 rank and file were killed and wounded. Inglis
himself was wounded. On recovering, he saw further Peninsular
service. In two engagements his horse was shot under him.
His services were rewarded by the thanks of parliament and in
1825 he became lieutenant-general, and was made a K.C.B.
After holding the governorships of Kinsale and Cork, he was,
in 1830, appointed colonel of the 57th. He died at Ramsgate
on the 29th of November 1835.
INGOLSTADT, a fortified town of Germany, in the kingdom
of Bavaria, on the left bank of the Danube at its confluence
with the Schutter, 52 m. north of Munich, at the junction of
the main lines of railway, Munich, Bamberg and Regensburg-
Augsburg. Pop. (1900) 22,207. The principal buildings are
the old palace of the dukes of Bavaria-Ingolstadt, now used as
an arsenal; the new palace on the Danube; the remains of
the earliest Jesuits' college in Germany, founded in 1555; the
former university buildings, now a school; the theatre; the
large Gothic Frauenkirche, founded in 1425, with two massive
towers, containing several interesting monuments, among them
the tomb of Dr Eck, Luther's opponent; the Franciscan convent
and nunnery; and several other churches and hospitals. Ingol-
stadt possesses several technical and other schools. In 1472
a university was founded in the town by the Bavarian duke,
Louis the Rich, which at the end of the i6th century was
attended by 4000 students. In 1800 it was removed to Landshut,
whence it was transferred to Munich in 1826. Its newer public
buildings include an Evangelical church, a civil hospital, an
arsenal and an orphanage. The industries are cannon-founding,
manufacture of gunpowder and cloth, and brewing.
Ingolstadt, known as Aureatum or Chrysopolis, was a royal
villa in the beginning of the 9th century, and received its charter
of civic incorporation before 1255. After that date it grew in
importance, and became the capital of a dukedom which merged
in that of Bavaria-Munich. The fortifications, erected in 1539,
were put to the test during the contests of the Reformation period
and in the Thirty Years' War. Gustavus Adolphus vainly
besieged- Ingolstadt in 1632, when Tilly, to whom there is a
monument in the Frauenkirche, lay mortally wounded within
the walls. In the War of the Spanish Succession it was besieged
by the margrave of Baden in 1704. In 1743 it was surrendered
by the French to the Austrians, and in 1800, after three months'
siege, the French, under General Moreau, took the town, and dis-
mantled the fortifications. They were rebuilt on a much larger
scale under King Louis I., and since 1870 Ingolstadt has ranked
as a fortress of the first class. In 1872 even more important
fortifications were constructed, which include tetes-de-pont
with round towers of massive masonry, and the redoubt Tilly
on the right bank of the river.
See Gerstner, Geschichte der Stadt Ingolstadt (Munich, 1853); and
Prantl, Geschichte der Ludwig Maximilians Universitat (Munich.
1872).
INGOT, originally a mould for the casting of metals, but now
a mass of metal cast in a mould, and particularly the small
bars of the precious metals, cast in the shape of an oblong
brick or wedge with slightly sloping sides, in which form gold
and silver are handled as bullion at the Bank of England and
the Mint. Ingots of varying sizes and shapes are cast of other
metals, and " ingot-steel " and " ingot-iron " are technical
terms in the manufacture of iron and steel (see IRON AND STEEL).
The word is obscure in origin. It occurs in Chaucer (" The Canon's
Yeoman's Tale ") as a term of alchemy, in the original sense of a
mould for casting metal, and, as the New English Dictionary
points out, an English origin for such a term is unlikely. It
may, however, be derived from in and the O. Eng. giotan
to pour; cf. Ger. giessen and Einguss, a mould. The Fr.
lingot, with the second English meaning only, has been taken
as the origin of " ingot " and derived from the Lat. lingua,
tongue — with a supposed reference to the shape. This deriva-
tion is wrong, and French etymologists have now accepted the
English origin for the word, lingot having coalesced from I'ingot.
INGRAM, JAMES (1774-1850), English antiquarian and
Anglo-Saxon scholar, was born near Salisbury on the 2ist of
December 1774. He was educated at Warminster and Winchester
schools and at Trinity College, Oxford, of which he became a
fellow in 1 803 . From 1 803 to 1 808 he was Rawlinsonian professor
of Anglo-Saxon at Oxford, and in 1824 was made President
of Trinity College and D.D. His time, however, was principally
spent in antiquarian research, and especially in the study of
Anglo-Saxon, in which field he was the pre-eminent scholar
of his time. He published in 1823 an edition of the Saxon
Chronicle. His other works include admirable Memorials of
Oxford (1832-1837), and The Church in the Middle Centuries
(1842). He died on the 5th of September 1850.
INGRAM, JOHN KELLS (1823-1007), Irish scholar and
economist, was born in Co. Donegal, Ireland, on the 7th of
July 1823. Educated at Newry School and Trinity College,
Dublin, he was elected a fellow of his college in 1846. He held
the professorship of Oratory and English Literature in Dublin
University from 1852 to 1866, when he became regius professor
of Greek. In 1879 he was appointed librarian. Ingram was
remarkable for his versatility. In his undergraduate days he
had written the well-known poem " Who fears to speak of Ninety-
eight ? " and his Sonnets and other Poems (1900) reveal the
566
INGRES
poetic sense. He contributed many important papers to mathe-
matical societies on geometrical analysis, and did much useful
work in advancing the science of classical etymology, notably
in his Greek and Latin Etymology in England, The Etymology of
Liddell and Scott. His philosophical works include Outlines of
the History of Religion (1900), Human Nature and Morals
according to A. Comte (1901), Practical Morals (1904), and the
Final Transition (1905). He contributed to the 9th edition of
the Encyclopaedia Britannica an historical and biographical
article on political economy, which was translated into nearly
every European language. His History of Slavery and Serfdom
was also written for the pth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britan-
nica. He died in Dublin on the i8th of May 1907.
INGRES, JEAN AUGUSTE DOMINIQUE (1780-1867), French
painter, was born at Montauban, on the 2gth of August 1780.
His father, for whom he entertained the most tender and respectful
affection, has described himself as sculpteur en platre; he was,
however, equally ready to execute every other kind of decorative
work, and now and again eked out his living by taking portraits
or obtained an engagement as a violin-player. He brought up
his son to command the same varied resources, but in consequence
of certain early successes— the lad's performance of a concerto
of Viotti's was applauded at the theatre of Toulouse — his
attention was directed chiefly to the study of music. At Toulouse,
to which place his father had removed from Montauban in 1792,
Ingres had, however, received lessons from Joseph Roques, a
painter whom he quitted at the end of a few months to become
a pupil of M. Vigan, professor at the academy of fine arts in the
same town. From Vigan, Ingres, whose vocation became
day by day more distinctly evident, passed to M. Briant, a
landscape-painter who insisted that his pupil was specially
gifted by nature to follow the same line as himself. For a while
Ingres obeyed, but he had been thoroughly aroused and en-
lightened as to his own objects and desires by the sight of a copy
of Raphael's " Madonna della Sedia," and, having ended his con-
nexion with Briant, he started for Paris, where he arrived about
the close of 1 796. He was then admitted to the studio of David,
for whose lofty standard and severe principles he always retained
a profound appreciation. Ingres, after four years of devoted
study, during which (1800) he obtained the second place in the
yearly competition, finally carried off the Grand Prix (1801).
The work thus rewarded — the " Ambassadors of Agamemnon in
the Tent of Achilles " (Ecole des Beaux Arts) — was admired
by Flaxman so much as to give umbrage to David, and was
succeeded in the following year (1802) by the execution of a
" Girl after Bathing," and a woman's portrait; in 1804 Ingres
exhibited " Portrait of the First Consul " (Musee de Liege),
and portraits of his father and himself; these were followed in
1806 by " Portrait of the Emperor " (Invalides), and portraits
of M, Mme, and Mile Riviere (the first two now in the Louvre).
These and various minor works were executed in Paqs (for it
was not until 1809 that the state of public affairs admitted of the
re-establishment of the Academy of France at Rome), and they
produced a disturbing impression on the public.1 It was clear
that the artist was some one who must be counted with; his
talent, the purity of his line, and his power of literal rendering
were generally acknowledged; but he was reproached with
a desire to be singular and extraordinary.] " Ingres," writes
Frau v. Hastfer (Leben und Kunst in Paris, 1806) " wird nach
Italien gehen, und dort wird er vielleicht vergessen dass er zu
etwas Grossem geboren ist, und wird eben darum ein hohes Ziel
erreichen." In this spirit, also, Chaussard violently attacked
his " Portrait of the Emperor " (Pausanias FranQais, 1806),
nor did the portraits of the Riviere family escape. The points
/on which Chaussard justly lays stress are the strange discordances
'of colour — such as the blue of the cushion against which Mme
Riviere leans, and the want of the relief and warmth' of life,
but he omits to touch on that grasp of his subject as a whole,
shown in the portraits of both husband and wife, which already
evidences the strength and sincerity of the passionless point of
view which marks all Ingres's best productions. The very year
after his arrival in Rome (1808) Ingres produced " Oedipus and
the Sphinx " (Louvre; lithographed by Sudre, engraved by
Gaillard), a work which proved him in the full possession of his
mature powers, and began the" Venus Anadyomene " (Collection
Rieset; engraving by Pollet), completed forty years later, and
exhibited in 1855. These works were followed by some of his
best portraits, that of M. Bochet (Louvre), and that of Mme la
Comtesse de Tournon, mother of the prefect of the department
of the Tiber; in 1811 he finished "Jupiter and Thetis," an
immense canvas now in the Musee of Aix; in 1812 " Romulus
and Acron " (Ecole des Beaux Arts), and " Virgil reading the
Aeneid " — a composition very different from the version of it
which has become popular through the engraving executed by
Pradier in 1832. The original work, executed for a bedchamber
in the Villa Aldobrandini-Miollis, contained neither the figures
of Maecenas and Agrippa nor the statue of Marcellus; and
Ingres, who had obtained possession of it during his second stay
in Rome, intended to complete it with the additions made for
engraving. But he never got beyond the stage of preparation,
and the picture left by him, together with various other studies
and sketches, to the Musee of his native town, remains half
destroyed by the process meant for its regeneration. The
" Virgil " was followed by the " Betrothal of Raphael," a small
painting, now lost, executed for Queen Caroline of Naples;
" Don Pedro of Toledo Kissing the Sword of Henry IV." (Collec-
tion Deymie; Montauban), exhibited at the Salon of 1814,
together with the " Chapelle Sistine " (Collection Legentil;
lithographed by Sudre), and the " Grande Odalisque " (Collection
Seilliere; lithographed by Sudre). In 1815 Ingres executed
" Raphael and the Fornarina " (Collection Mme N. de Rothschild ;
engraved by Pradier); in 1816 " Aretin " and the " Envoy of
Charles V." (Collection Schroth), and " Aretin and Tintoret "
(Collection Schroth) ; in 181 7 the " Death of Leonardo " (engraved
by Richomme) and " Henry IV. Playing with his Children "
(engraved by Richomme), both of which works were commissions
from M. le Comte de Blacas, then ambassador of France at the
Vatican. " Roger and Angelique " (Louvre; lithographed
by Sudre), and " Francesca di Rimini " (Musee of Angers;
lithographed by Aubry Lecomte), were completed in 1819, and
followed in 1820 by " Christ giving the Keys to Peter " (Louvre).
In 1815, also, Ingres had made many projects for treating a
subject from the life of the celebrated duke of Alva, a commission
from the family, but a loathing for " cet horrible homme "
grew upon him, and finally he abandoned the task and entered
in his diary — " J'6tais forc6 par la n6cessite de peindre un pareil
tableau; Dieu a voulu qu'U restat en ebauche." During all
these years Ingres's reputation in France did not increase.
The interest which his " Chapelle Sistine " had aroused at the
Salon of 1814 soon died away; not only was the public indifferent,
but amongst his brother artists Ingres found scant recognition.
The strict classicists looked upon him as a renegade, and strangely
enough Delacroix and other pupils of Guerin — the leaders of
that romantic movement for which Ingres, throughout his
long life, always expressed the deepest abhorrence — alone seem
to have been sensible of his merits. The weight of poverty,
too, was hard to bear. In 1813 Ingres had married ; his marriage
had been arranged for him with a young woman who came
in a business-like way from Montauban, on the strength of the
representations of her friends in Rome. Mme Ingres speedily
acquired a faith in her husband which enabled her to combat with
heroic courage and patience the difficulties which beset their
common existence, and which were increased by their removal
to Florence. There Bartolini, an old friend, had hoped that Ingres
might have materially bettered his position, and that he might
have aroused the Florentine school — a weak offshoot from that
of David — to a sense of its own shortcomings. These expecta-
tions were disappointed. The good offices of Bartolini, and of
one or two other persons, could only alleviate the miseries of
this stay in a town where Ingres was all but deprived of the
means of gaining daily bread by the making of those small
portraits for the execution of which, in Rome, his pencil had been
constantly in request. Before his departure he had, however,
been commissioned to paint for M. de Pastoret the " Entry of
INGRESS— INHAMBANE
567
Charles V. into Paris," and M. de Pastoret now obtained an
order for Ingres from the Administration of Fine Arts; he was
directed to treat the " Vceu de Louis XIII." for the cathedral of
Montauban. This work, exhibited at the Salon of 1824, met with
universal approbation: even those sworn to observe the un-
adulterated precepts of David found only admiration for the
" Vceu de Louis XIII." On his return Ingres was received at
Montauban with enthusiastic homage, and found himself
celebrated throughout France. In the following year (1825)
he was elected to the Institute, and his fame was further extended
in 1826 by the publication of Sudre's lithograph of the " Grande
Odalisque," which, having been scorned by artists and critics
alike in 1819, now became widely popular. A second commission
from the government called forth the " Apotheosis of Homer,"
which, replaced by a copy in the decoration of the ceiling for
which it was designed, now hangs in the galleries of the second
storey of the Louvre. From this date up till 1834 the studio of
Ingres was thronged, as once had been thronged the studio of
David, and he was a recognized chef d'&cole. Whilst he taught
with despotic authority and admirable wisdom, he steadily
worked; and when in 1834 he produced his great canvas of the
"Martyrdom of Saint Symphorien " (cathedral of Autun;
lithographed by Trichot-Garneri), it was with angry disgust
and resentment that he found his work received with the same
doubt and indifference, if not the same hostility, as had met
his earlier ventures. The suffrages of his pupils, and of one or
two men — like Decamps — of undoubted ability, could not
soften the sense of injury. Ingres resolved to work no longer
for the public, and gladly availed himself of the opportunity to
return to Rome, as dire/tor of the Ecole de France, in the
room of Horace Vernett There he executed " La Vierge a
1'Hostie " (Imperial collections, St Petersburg), " Stratonice,"
" Portrait of Cherubini " (Louvre), and the " Petite Odalisque "
for M. Marcotte, the faithful admirer for whom, in 1814, Ingres
had painted the " Chapelle Sistine." The " Stratonice,"
executed for the duke of Orleans, had been exhibited at the
Palais Royal for several days after its arrival in France, and the
beauty of the composition produced so favourable an impression
that, on his return to Paris in 1841, Ingres found himself received
with all the deference that he felt to be his due. A portrait of the
purchaser of " Stratonice " was one of the first works executed
after his return; and Ingres shortly afterwards began the decora-
tions of the great hall in the Chateau de Dampierre, which,
unfortunately for the reputation of the painter, were begun with
an ardour which gradually slackened, until in 1849 Ingres,
having been further discouraged by the loss of his faithful and
courageous wife, abandoned all hope of their completion, and
the contract with the due de Luynes was finally cancelled.
A minor work, " Jupiter and Antiope," marks the year 1851,
but Ingres's next considerable undertaking (1853) was the
" Apotheosis of Napoleon I.," painted for the ceiling of a hall
in the Hotel de Ville; " Jeanne d'Arc " (Louvre) appeared
in 1854; and in 3855 Ingres consented to rescind the resolution,
more or less strictly kept since 1834, in favour of the International
Exhibition, where a room was reserved for his works. Prince
Napoleon, president of the jury, proposed an exceptional recom-
pense for their author, and obtained from the emperor Ingres's
nomination as grand officer of the Legion of Honour. With
renewed confidence Ingres now took up and completed one of
his most charming productions — " La Source " (Louvre), a
figure of which he had painted the torso in 1823, and which seen
with other works in London (1862) there renewed the general
sentiment of admiration, and procured him, from the imperial
government, the dignity ai senator. After the completion of
" La Source," the principal works produced by Ingres were with
one or two exceptions (" Moliere " and " Louis XIV.," presented
to the Theatre Francais, 1858; " Le Bain Turc," 1859), of a
religious character; " La Vierge de 1' Adoption," 1858 (painted
for Mile Roland-Gosselin), was followed by " La Vierge
Couronnee " (painted for Mme la Baronne de Larinthie) and
"La Vierge aux Enfans " (Collection Blanc); in 1859 these
were followed by repetitions of "La Vierge a 1'Hostie "; and
in 1862 Ingres completed " Christ and the Doctors " (Musee
Montauban), a work commissioned many years before by Queen
Marie Amelie for the chapel of Bizy.
On the I7th of January 1867 Ingres died in his eighty-eighth
year, having preserved his faculties in wonderful perfection to
the last. For a moment only — at the time of the execution of
the " Bain Turc," which Prince Napoleon was fain to exchange
for an early portrait of the master by himself — Ingres's powers
had seemed to fail, but he recovered, and showed in his last
years the vigour which marked his early maturity. It is,
however, to be noted that the " Saint Symphorien " exhibited
in 1834 closes the list of the works on which his reputation will
chiefly rest; for " La Source," which at first sight seems to be
an exception, was painted, all but the head and the extremities,
in 1821 ; and from those who knew the work well in its incomplete
state we learn that the after-painting, necessary to fuse new
and old, lacked the vigour, the precision, and the something
like touch which distinguished the original execution of the
torso. Touch was not, indeed, at any time a means of expression
on which Ingres seriously calculated; his constant employment
of local tint, in mass but faintly modelled in light by half tones,
forbade recourse to the shifting effects of colour and light on
which the Romantic school depended in indicating those fleeting
aspects of things which they rejoiced to put on canvas; — their
methods would have disturbed the calculations of an art wholly
based on form and lineJ Except in his " Sistine Chapel," and
one or two slighter pieces, Ingres kept himself free from any
preoccupation as to depth and force of colour and tone; driven,
probably by the excesses of the Romantic movement into an
attitude of stricter protest, " ce que Ton sait " he would repeat,
" il faut le savoir Fepee a la main." Ingres left himself therefore,
in dealing with crowded compositions, such as the " Apotheosis
of Homer " and the " Martyrdomiof Saint Symphorien," without
the means of producing the necessary unity of effect which had
been employed in due measure — as the Stanze of the Vatican
bear witness — by the very master whom he most deeply rever-
enced. Thus it came to pass that in subjects of one or two
figures Ingres showed to the greatest advantage: in " Oedipus,"
in the " Girl after Bathing," the " Odalisque " and " La Source "
— subjects only animated by the consciousness of perfect physical
well-being — we find Ingres at his best. One hesitates to put
" Roger and Angelique " upon this list, for though the female
figure shows the finest qualities of Ingres's work, — deep study
of nature in her purest forms, perfect sincerity of intention
and power of mastering an ideal conception — yet side by side
with these the effigy of Roger on his hippogriff bears witness
that from the passionless point of view, which was Ingres's
birthright, the weird creatures of the fancy cannot be seen.
A graphic account of " Ingres, sa vie et ses travaux," and a
complete catalogue of his works, were published by M. Delaborde in
1870, and dedicated to Mme Ingres, nee Ramel, Ingres's devoted
second wife, whom he married in 1852. Allusions to the painter's
early days will be found in Del6cluze's Louis David] and amongst
less important notices may be cited that by Theophile Silvestre in
his series of living artists. Most of Ingres's important works are
engraved in the collection brought out by Magimel. (E. F. S. D.)
INGRESS (Lat. ingressus, going in), entrance as opposed to
exit or egress; in astronomy, the apparent entrance of a smaller
body upon the disk of a larger one, as it passes between the latter
and the observer; in this sense it is applied especially to the
beginning of a transit of a satellite of Jupiter over the disk of
the planet.
INHAMBANE, a seaport of Portuguese East Africa in 23° 50' S.,
35° 25' E. The town, which enjoys a reputation for healthiness,
is finely situated on the bank of a river of the same name which
empties into a bay also called Inhambane. Next to Mozambique
Inhambane, which dates from the middle of the i6th century,
is architecturally the most important town in Portuguese East
Africa. The chief buildings are the fort, churches and mosque.
The principal church is built with stone and marble brought
from Portugal. The population, about 4000 in 1009, is of a
motley character: Portuguese and other Europeans, Arabs,
Banyans, half-castes and negroes. Its commerce was formerly
568
INHERITANCE
mostly in ivory and slaves. In 1834 Inhambane was taken and
all its inhabitants save ten killed by a Zulu horde under Manikusa
(see GAZALAND). It was not until towards the close of the igth
century that the trade of the town revived. The value of ex-
ports and imports in 1907 was about £150,000. The chief
exports are wax, rubber, mafureira and other nuts, mealies
and sugar. Cotton goods and cheap wines (for consumption
by natives) are the principal imports. The harbour, about
9 m. long by 5 wide, accommodates vessels drawing 10 to 12
ft. of water. The depth of water over the bar varies from 17
to 28 ft., and large vessels discharge into and load from lighters.
Inhambane is the natural port for the extensive and fertile district
between the Limpopo and Sabi rivers. This region is the best
recruiting ground for labourers in the Rand gold mines. Mineral
oils have been found within a short distance of the port.
INHERITANCE. In English law, inheritance, heir and other
kindred words have a meaning very different from that of the
Latin haeres, from which they are derived. In Roman law the
heir or heirs represented the entire legal personality of the
deceased — his unhersum jus. In English law the heir is simply
the person on whom the real property of the deceased devolves
by operation of law if he dies intestate. He has nothing to do
as heir with the personal property; he is not appointed by will;
and except in the case of coparceners he is a single individual.
The Roman haeres takes the whole estate; his appointment
may or may not be by testament; and more persons than one
may be associated together as heirs.
The devolution of an inheritance in England is now regulated
by the rules of descent, as altered by the Inheritance Act 1833,
amended by the Law of Property Amendment Act 1859.
i. The first rule is that inheritance shall descend to the issue
of the last " purchaser." A purchaser in law means one who
acquires an estate otherwise than by descent, e.g. by will, by
gratuitous gift, or by purchase in the ordinary meaning of the
word. This rule is one of the changes introduced by the
Inheritance Act, which further provides that " the person last
entitled to the land shall be considered the purchaser thereof
unless it be proved that he inherited the same." Under the
earlier law descent was traced from the last person who had
" seisin " or feudal possession, and it was occasionally a trouble-
some question whether the heir or person entitled had ever, in
fact, acquired such possession. Now the only inquiry is into
title, and each person entitled is presumed to be in by purchase
unless he is proved to be in by descent, so that the stock of descent
is the last person entitled who cannot be shown to have inherited.
2. The male is admitted before the female.^. Among males
of equal degree in consanguinity to the purchaser, the elder
excludes the younger; but females of the same degree take
together as " coparceners." 4. Lineal descendants take the place
of their ancestor. Thus an eldest son dying and leaving issue
would be represented by such issue, who would exclude their
father's brothers and sisters. 5. If there are no lineal descen-
dants of the purchaser, the next to inherit is his nearest lineal
ancestor. This is a rule introduced by the Inheritance Act.
Under the former law inheritance never went to an ancestor —
collaterals, however remote of the person last seized being pre-
ferred even to his father. Various explanations have been given
of this seemingly anomalous rule — Bracton and Blackstone
being content to say that it rests on the law of nature, by
which heavy bodies gravitate downwards. Another explanation
is that estates were granted to be descendible in the same
way as an ancient inheritance, which having passed from
father to son ex necessitate went to collaterals on failure of
issue of the person last seized. 6. The sixth rule is thus
expressed by Joshua Williams in his treatise on The Law
of Real Property: —
The father and all the male paternal ancestors of the purchaser
and their descendants shall be admitted before any of the female
paternal ancestors or their heirs; all the female paternal ancestors
and their heirs before the mother or any of the maternal ancestors
or her or their descendants; and the mother and all the male maternal
ancestors and her and their descendants before any of the female
maternal ancestors or their heirs."
7. Kinsmen of the half-blood may be heirs; such kinsmen
shall inherit next after a kinsman in the same degree of the whole
blood, and after the issue of such kinsman where the common
ancestor is a male and next after the common ancestor where such
ancestor is a female. The admission of kinsmen of the half-
blood into the chain of descent is an alteration made by the
Inheritance Act. Formerly a relative, however nearly connected
in blood with the purchaser through one only and not both
parents, could never inherit — a half-brother for example.
8. In the admission of female paternal ancestors, the mother of
the more remote male paternal ancestor and her heirs shall be
preferred to the mother of the less remote male paternal and her
heirs; and, in the case of female maternal ancestors, the mother
of the more remote male maternal ancestor shall be preferred
to the mother of a less remote male maternal ancestor. This
rule, following the opinion of Blackstone, settles a point much
disputed by text-writers, although its importance was little
more than theoretical. 9. When there shall be a total failure
of heirs of the purchaser, or when any lands shall be descendible
as if an ancestor had been the purchaser thereof, and there
shall be a total failure of the heirs of such ancestor, then and in
every such case the descent shall be traced from the person
last entitled to the land as if he had been the purchaser thereof.
This rule is enacted by the Law of Property Amendment Act
1859. It would apply to such a case as the following: Purchaser
dies intestate, leaving a son and no other relations, and the son
in turn dies intestate; the son's relations through his mother
are now admitted by this rule. If the purchaser is illegitimate,
his only relations must necessarily be his own issue. Failing
heirs of all kinds, the lands of an intestate purchaser, not
alienated by him, would revert by " escheat " to the next
immediate lord of the fee, who would generally be the crown.
If an intermediate lordship could be proved to exist between
the crown and the tenant in fee simple, such intermediate
lord would have the escheat. But escheat is a matter of rare
occurrence.
The above rules apply to all freehold land whether the estate
therein of the intestate is legal or equitable. Before 1884, if
a sole trustee had the legal estate in realty, and his cestui que
trust died intestate and without heirs, the land escheated to the
trustee. This distinction was abolished by the Intestate Estates
Act 1884.
The descent of an estate in tail would be ascertained by such
of the foregoing rules as are not inapplicable to it. By the form
of the entail the estate descends to the "issue" of the person
to whom the estate was given in tail — in other words, the last
purchaser. The preceding rules after the fourth, being intended
for the ascertainment of heirs other than those by lineal descent,
would therefore not apply; and a special limitation in the entail,
such as to heirs male or female only, would render unnecessary
some of the others. When the entail has been barred, the estate
descends according to these rules. In copyhold estates descent,
like other incidents thereof, is regulated by the custom of each
particular manor; e.g. the youngest son may exclude the elder
sons. How far the Inheritance Act applies to such estates
has been seriously disputed. It has been held in one case
(Muggleton v. Barnett) that the Inheritance Act, which orders
descent to be traced from the last purchaser, does not override
a manorial custom to trace descent from the person last seized,
but this position has been controverted on the ground that the
act itself includes the case of customary holdings.
Husband and wife do not stand in the rank of heir to each other.
Their interests in each other's real property are secured by
courtesy and dower.
The personal property of a person dying intestate devolves
according to an entirely different set of rules (see INTESTACY).
In Scotland the rules of descent differ from the above in several
particulars. Descent is traced, as in England before the Inheri-
tance Act, to the person last seized. The first to succeed are the
lineal descendants of the deceased, and the rules of primogeniture,
preference of males to females, equal succession of females (heirs-
portioners), and representation of ancestors are generally the same
as in English law. Next to the lineal descendants, and failing them,
INHIBITION— INITIATION
come the brothers and sisters, and their issue as collaterals. Failing
collaterals, the inheritance ascends to the father and his relations,
to the entire exclusion of the mother and her relations. Even when
the estate has descended from mother to son, it can never revert to
the maternal line. As to succession of brothers, a distinction must
be taken between an estate of heritage and an estate of conquest.
Conquest is where the deceased has acquired the land otherwise than
as heir, and corresponds to the English term purchase in the technical
sense explained. Heritage is land acquired by deceased as heir.
The distinction is important only in the case when the heir of the
deceased is to be sought among his brothers; when the descent is
lineal, conquest and heritage go to the same person. And when
the brothers are younger than the deceased, both conquest and
heritage go to the brother (or his issue) next in order of age. Butwhen
the deceased leaves an elder and a younger brother (or their issues),
the elder brother takes the conquest, the younger takes the heritage.
Again, when there are several elder brothers, the one next in age to
the deceased takes the conquest before the more remote, and when
there are several younger brothers, the one next to the deceased takes
the heritage before the more remote. When heritage of the deceased
goes to an elder brother (as might happen in certain eventualities),
the younger of the elder brothers is preferred. The position of the
father, after the brothers and sisters of the deceased, will be noticed
as an important point of difference from the English axioms; so
also is the total exclusion of the mother and the maternal line. As
between brothers and sisters the half-blood only succeeds after the
full blood. Half-blood is either consanguinean, as between children
by the same father, or uterine, as between children having the same
mother. The half-blood uterine is excluded altogether. Half-blood
consanguinean succeeds thus: if the issue is by a former marriage,
the youngest brother (being nearest to the deceased of the consan-
guinean) succeeds first ; if by a later marriage than that from
which the deceased has sprung, the eldest succeeds first.
United States. — American law has borrowed its rules of descent
considerably more from the civil law than the common law.
"The 1 1 8 novel of Justinian has a striking resemblance to
American law in giving the succession of estates to all legitimate
children without distinction and disregarding all considerations
of primogeniture. There is one particular in which the American
law differs from that of Justinian, that while generally in this
country lineal descendants if they stand in an equal degree from
the common ancestor share equally per capita, under the Roman
law regard was had to the right of representation, each lineal
branch of descendants taking only the portion which their parent
would have taken had he been living, the division being per
stirpes and not per capita. But in some of the states the rule
of the Roman law in this respect has been adopted and retained.
Among these are Rhode Island, New Jersey, North and South
Carolina, Alabama and Louisiana " (3 Washburn's Real Property,
pp. 408, 409; 4 Kent's Comm. p. 375). When such lineal
descendants stand in unequal degrees of consanguinity the
inheritance is per stirpes and not per capita (In re Prote, 1907;
104, N.Y. Supplement 581). This is the rule in practically
all the states. But as in no two states or territories are the rules
of descent identical, the only safe guides are the statutes and
decisions of the particular state in which the land to be inherited
is situated. The law of primogeniture as understood in England
is generally abolished throughout the United States, and male
and female relatives inherit equally. In some states, as in
Massachusetts, relatives of the half-blood inherit equally with
those of the whole-blood of the same degree; in others, like
Maryland, they can inherit only in case none of whole-blood
exist. In some of the states the English rule that natural
children have no inheritable blood has been greatly modified.
In Louisiana, if duly acknowledged, they may inherit from both
father and mother in the absence of lawful issue. Degrees of
kindred in the United States generally are computed accord-
ing to the civil law, i.e. by adding together the number of
degrees between each of the two persons whose relationship is
to be ascertained and the common ancestor. Thus, relation-
ship between two brothers is in the second degree; between
uncle and nephew in the third degree; between cousins, in the
fourth, &c.
I n a few states such degrees are computed according to the commo n
law, i.e. by counting from the common ancestor to the most remote
descendant of the two from him — thus, brothers would be related
in the first degree, uncle and nephew in the second, &c. In most
states representation amongst collaterals is restricted — in some
to the descendants of brothers and sisters, in others to their children
only.
569
In some states, e.g. in California, Louisiana and Texas, the law
ot community property " of husband and wife prevails. This is
derived from the French and Spanish law existing in the territories
out of which those states were formed, as the result of theconquestof
Mexico by Spain and the colonizing of Louisiana by France. The
foundation idea is an equal division at death of either party of all
property acquired during their marriage except by gift, devise or
descent. In general the husband has the control and management
thereof during the marriage, and either survivor has the administra-
tion of the moiety of the one deceased. There is a conflict in the
laws in such states as to the exact definition and as to whether or not
the gams or profits of such property are to be deemed separate
property or community property [ Succession of Dielman (Louisiana,
!907), 43 Southern Rep. 972].
INHIBITION (from Lat. inhibere, to restrain, prevent), an
act of restraint or prohibition, an English legal term, particularly
used in ecclesiastical law, for a writ from a superior to an inferior
court, suspending proceedings in a case under appeal, also for
the suspension of a jurisdiction of a bishop's court on the visita-
tion of an archbishop, and for that of an archdeacon on the
visitation of a bishop. It is more particularly applied to a form
of ecclesiastical censure, suspending an offending clergyman from
the performance of any service of the Church, or other spiritual
duty, for the purpose of enforcing obedience to a monition or
order of the bishop or judge. Such inhibitions are at the discre-
tion of the ordinary if he considers that scandal might arise
from the performance of spiritual duties by the offender (Church
Discipline Act 1860, re-enacted by the Clergy Discipline Act
1892, sect. 10). By the Sequestration Act 1871, sect. 5, similar
powers of inhibition are given where a sequestration remains in
force for more than six months, and also, by the Benefices Act
1898, in cases where a commission reports that the ecclesiastical
duties of a benefice are inadequately performed through the
negligence of the incumbent.
INISFAIL, a poetical name for Ireland. It is derived from
Paul or Lia-fail, the celebrated stone, identified in Irish legend
with the stone on which the patriarch Jacob slept when he
dreamed of the heavenly ladder. The Lia-fail was supposed to
have been brought to Ireland by the Dedannans and set up at
Tara as the " inauguration stone " of the Irish kings; it was
subsequently removed to Scone where it became the coronation
stone of the Scottish kings, until it was taken by James VI. of
Scotland to Westminster and placed under the coronation chair
in the Abbey, where it has since remained. Inisfail was thus
the island of the Fail, the island whose monarchs were crowned
at Tara on the sacred inauguration stone.
INITIALS (Lat. initialis, of or belonging to a beginning,
inilium), the first letters of names. In legal and formal docu-
ments it is usually the practice in appending a signature to write
the name in full. But this is by no means necessary, even in
cases where a signature is expressly required by statute. It
has been held that it is sufficient if a person affixes to a document
the usual form in which he signs his name, with the intent that
it shall be treated as his signature. So, signature by initials
is a good signature within the Statute of Frauds (Phillimore v.
Barry, 1818, i Camp. 513), and also under the Wills Act 1837
(In re Blewitt, 1880, 5 P.O. 116).
INITIATION (Lat. initium, beginning, entrance, from inire,
to go in), the process of formally entering, and especially the
rite of admission into, some office, or religious or secret society,
&c. Among nearly all primitive races initiatory rites of a bloody
character were and are common. The savage pays homage to
strength, and the purpose of his initiatory rites is to test physical
vigour, self-control and the power of enduring pain. Initiation
is sometimes religious, sometimes social, but in primitive society
it has always the same character. Thus, in Whydah (West
Africa) the young girls consecrated to the worship of the serpent,
" the brides of the Serpent," had figures of flowers and animals
burnt into their skins with hot irons; while in the neighbouring
Yorubaland the power of enduring a sound thrashing is the
qualification for the throne. In no country was the practice
of initiatory rites more general than in the Americas. The
Colombian Indians compelled their would-be chief to submit
to terrible tests. He had first to bear severe beatings without
a murmur. Then, placed in a hammock with his hands tied,
570
venomous ants were placed on his naked body. Finally a fire
was lit beneath him. All this he had to bear without flinching.
In ancient Mexico there were several orders of chivalry, entry
into which was only permitted after brutal initiation. The nose
of the candidate was pierced with an eagle's talon or a pointed
bone, and he was expected to dig knives into his body. In
Peru the young Inca princes had to fast and live for weeks
without sleep. Among the North American Indians initiatory
rites were universal. The Mandans held a feast at which the
young " braves " supported the weight of their bodies on pieces
of wood skewered through the muscles of shoulders, breasts
and arms. With the Sioux, to become a medicine-man, it was
necessary to submit to the ordeal known as " looking at the sun."
The sufferer, nearly naked, was bound on the earth by cords
passed through holes made in the pectoral muscles. With bow
and arrow in hand, he lay in this position all day gazing at the
sun. Around him his friends gathered to applaud his courage.
Religious brotherhoods of antiquity, too, were to be entered
only after long and complicated initiation. But here the char-
acter of the ordeal is rather moral than physical. Such were
the rites of admission to the Mysteries of Isis and Eleusis.
Secret societies of all ages have been characterized by more or
less elaborate initiation. That of the Femgerichte, the famous
medieval German secret tribunal, took place at night in a cave,
the neophyte kneeling and making oath of blind obedience.
Imitations of such tests are perpetuated to-day in freemasonry;
while the Mafia, the Camorra, the Clan-na-Gael, the Molly
Maguires, the Ku-Klux Klan, are among more recent secret
associations which have maintained the old idea of initiation.
INJECTOR (from Lat. injicere, to throw in) , an appliance for
supplying steam-boilers with water, and especially used with
locomotive boilers. It was invented by the French engineer
H. V. Giffard in 1858, and presents the paradox that by the
pressure of the steam in the boiler, or even, as in the case of
the exhaust steam injector, by steam at a
much lower pressure, water is forced into
the boiler against that pressure. A dia-
grammatic section illustrating its construc-
tion is shown in figure. Steam enters at A
and blows through the annular orifice C,
the size of which can be regulated by a
valve not shown in the figure. The feed
water flows in at B and meeting the steam
at C causes it to condense. Hence a vacuum
is produced at C, and consequently the
water rushes in with great velocity and
streams down the combining cone D, its
velocity being augmented by the impact of
steam on the back of. the column. In the
lower part of the nozzle E the stream
expands; it therefore loses velocity and,
by a well-known hydrodynamic principle,
gains pressure, until at the bottom the pressure is so great that it
is able to enter the boiler through a check valve which opens only
in the direction of the stream. An overflow pipe F, by providing
a channel through which steam and water may escape before the
stream has acquired sufficient energy to force its way into the
boiler, allows the injector to start into action. Means are also pro-
vided for regulating the amount of water admitted between D and
C. In the exhaust-steam injector, which works with steam from
the exhaust of non-condensing engines, the steam orifice is larger
in proportion to other parts than in injectors working with boiler
steam, and the steam supply more liberal. In self-starling
injectors an arrangement is provided which permits free overflow
until the injector starts into action, when the openings are
automatically adjusted to suit delivery into the boiler.
INJUNCTION (from Lat. injungere, to fasten, or attach to, to
lay a burden or charge on, to enjoin), a term meaning generally
a command, and in English law the name for a judicial
process whereby a party is required to refrain from doing a
particular thing according to the exigency of the writ. Formerly
it was a remedy peculiar to the court of chancery, and was one
INJECTOR— INJUNCTION
of the instruments by which the jurisdiction of that court was
established in cases over which the courts of common law were
entitled to exercise control. The court of chancery did not
presume to interfere with the action of the courts, but, by direct-
ing an injunction to the person whom it wished to restrain from
following a particular remedy at common law, it effected the
same purpose indirectly. Under the present constitution of
the judicature, the injunction is now equally available in all
the divisions of the high court of justice, and it can no longer
be used to prevent an action in any of them from proceeding
in the ordinary course.
Although an injunction is properly a restraining order, there
are instances in which, under the form of a prohibition, a positive
order to do something is virtually expressed. Thus in a case of
nuisance an injunction was obtained to restrain the defendant
from preventing water from flowing in such regular quantities
as it had ordinarily done before the day on which the nuisance
commenced. But generally, if the relief prayed for is to compel
something to be done, it cannot be obtained by injunction,
although it may be expressed in the form of a prohibition —
as in the case in which it was sought to prevent a person from
discontinuing to keep a house as an inn. The injunction was
used to stay proceedings in other courts " wherever a party by
fraud, accident, mistake or otherwise had obtained an advantage
in proceeding in a court of ordinary jurisdiction, which must
necessarily make that court an instrument of injustice." As
the injunction operates personally on the defendant, it may be
used to prevent applications to foreign judicatures; but it is
not used to prevent applications to parliament, or to the legis-
lature of any foreign Country, unless such applications be in
breach of some agreement, and relate to matters of private
interest. In so far as an injunction is used to prohibit acts, it
may be founded either on an alleged contract or on a right
independent of contract. The jurisdiction of the court to prevent
breaches of contract has been described as supplemental to its
power of compelling specific performance; i.e. if the court has
power to compel a person to perform a contract, it will interfere
to prevent him from doing anything in violation of it. But
even when it is not within the power of the court to compel
specific performance, it may interfere by injunction; thus,
e.g. in the case of an agreement of a singer to perform at the
plaintiff's theatre and at no other, the court, although it could
not compel her to sing, could by injunction prevent her from
singing elsewhere in breach of her agreement.
An injunction may as a general rule be obtained to prevent
acts which are violations of legal rights, except when the same
may be adequately remedied by an action for damages at law.
Thus the court will interfere by injunction to prevent waste,
or the destruction by a limited owner, such as a tenant for life,
of things forming part of the inheritance. Injunctions may
also be obtained to prevent the continuance of nuisances, public
or private, the infringement of patents, copyrights and trade
marks. Trespass might also in certain cases be prevented by
injunction. Under the Common Law Procedure Act of 1854,
and by other statutes in special cases, a limited power of injunc-
tion was conferred on the courts of common law. But the
Judicature Act, by which all the superior courts of common
law and chancery were consolidated, enacts that an injunction
may be granted by an interlocutory order of the court in all
cases in which it shall appear to be just or convenient; . . .
and, if an injunction is asked either before or at or after the hear-
ing of any cause or matter, to prevent any threatened or appre-
hended waste or trespass, such injunction may be granted
whether the person against whom it is sought is or is not in
possession under any claim of title or otherwise, or if not in
possession does or does not claim to do the act sought to be
restrained under colour of any title, and whether the estates
claimed are legal or equitable.
An injunction obtained on interlocutory application during
the progress of an action is superseded by the trial. It may
be continued either provisionally or permanently. In the latter
case the injunction is said to be perpetual. The distinction
INK
between " special " and " common " injunctions — the latter
being obtained as of course — is now abolished in English law.
In the courts of the United States the writ of injunction
remains purely an equitable remedy. It may be issued at the
instance of the president to prevent any organized obstruction
to inter-state commerce or to the passage of the mails (in re
Debs, 158 United States Reports, 564). Temporary restraining
orders may be issued, ex parte, pending an application for a
temporary injunction. In the state courts temporary injunc-
tions are often issued, ex parte, subject to the defendant's
right to move immediately for their dissolution. Generally,
however, notice of an application for a temporary injunction is
required.
For the analogous practice in Scots law see INTERDICT.
INK (from Late Lat. encaustum, Gr. tyKavaTOV, the purple
ink used by Greek and Roman emperors, from eyKalfiv, to
burn in), in its widest signification, a substance employed for
producing graphic tracings, inscriptions, or impressions on
paper or similar materials. The term includes two distinct
conditions of pigment or colouring matter: the one fluid, and
prepared for use with a pen or brush, as writing ink; the other a
glutinous adhesive mass, printing ink, used for transferring to
paper impressions from types, engraved plates and similar
surfaces.
The ancient Egyptians prepared and used inks (Flinders
Petrie discovered a papyrus bearing written characters as old as
2500 B.C.), and in China the invention of an ink is assigned to
Tien-Tcheu, who lived between 2697 B.C. and 2597 B.C. These
early inks were prepared from charcoal or soot mixed with gum,
glue or varnish. Sepia (q.v.), the black pigment secreted by the
cuttle-fish, was used as a writing fluid by the Romans. The
iron-gall ink, i.e. an ink prepared from an iron salt and tannin,
appears to have been first described by the monk Theophilus,
who lived in the nth century A.D., although Pliny, in the ist
century A.D., was acquainted with the blackening of paper
containing green vitriol by immersion in an infusion of nut-galls.
Iron-gall inks, prepared by mixing extracts of galls, barks, &c.,
with green vitriol, subsequently came into common use, and
in the i6th century recipes for their preparation were given
in domestic encyclopaedias. Their scientific investigation was
first made by William Lewis in 1748. The earlier iron-inks
were essentially a suspension of the pigment in water. In the
early part of the igih century the firm of Stephens introduced
the first of the so-called blue-black inks under the name of
" Stephens' writing fluid." Solutions of green vitriol and tannin,
coloured by indigo and logwood, were prepared, which wrote
with a blue tint and blackened on exposure, this change being
due to the production of the pigment within the pores of the
paper. The " alizarine " inks, patented by Leonhardi in 1856,
are similar inks with the addition of a little madder. The
application of aniline colours to ink manufacture in England
dates from Croc's patent of 1861.
Writing Inks. — Writing inks are fluid substances which contain
colouring matter either in solution or in suspension, and com-
monly partly in both conditions. They may be prepared in
all shades of colour, and contain almost every pigment which
can be dissolved or suspended in a suitable medium. The most
important of all varieties is black ink, after which red and blue
are most commonly employed. Apart from colour there are
special qualities which recommend certain inks for limited
applications, such as marking inks, ineradicable ink, sympathetic
ink, &c. A good writing ink for ordinary purposes should
continue limpid, and flow freely and uniformly from the pen;
it should not throw down a thick sludgy deposit on exposure
to the air; nor should a coating of mould form on its surface.
It should yield distinctly legible characters immediately on
writing, not fading with age; and the fluid ought to penetrate
into the paper without spreading, so that the characters will
neither wash out nor be readily removed by erasure. Further,
it is desirable that ink should be non-poisonous, that it should
as little as possible corrode steel pens, that characters traced
in it should dry readily on the application of blotting paper
without smearing, and that the writing should not present a
glossy, varnished appearance.
Tannin Inks. — These inks are prepared from galls, or other
sources of tannin, and a salt of iron, with the addition of some
agglutinant in the case of the so-called oxidized inks, or a
colouring matter in the case of unoxidized inks. Such mixtures
form the staple black inks of commerce; they are essentially
an insoluble iron gallate in extremely fine division held in
suspension in water or a soluble compound dissolved in water.
On long exposure to air, as in inkstands, or otherwise, tannin
inks gradually become thick and ropy, depositing a slimy
sediment. This change on exposure is inevitable, resulting
from the gradual oxidation of the ferrous compound, and it can
only be retarded by permitting access of air to as small surfaces
as possible. The inks also have a tendency to become mouldy,
an evil which may be obviated by the use of a minute proportion
of carbolic acid; or salicylic acid may be used.
The essential ingredients of ordinary black ink are — first,
tannin-yielding bodies, for which Aleppo or Chinese galls are the
most eligible materials; second, a salt of iron, ferrous sulphate
(green vitriol) being alone employed; and third, a gummy or
mucilaginous agent to keep in suspension the insoluble tinctorial
matter of the ink. For ink-making the tannin has first to be
transformed into gallic acid. In the case of Aleppo galls this
change takes place by fermentation when the solution of the
galls is exposed to the air, the tannin splitting up into gallic
acid and sugar. Chinese galls do not contain the ferment
necessary for inducing this change; and to induce the process
yeast must be added to their solution. To prepare a solution
of Aleppo galls for ink-making, the galls are coarsely powdered,
and intimately mixed with chopped straw. This mixture is
thrown into a narrow deep oak vat, provided with a perforated
false bottom, and having a tap at the bottom for drawing off
liquid. Over the mixture is poured lukewarm water, which,
percolating down, extracts and carries with it the tannin of the
galls. The solution is drawn off and repeatedly run through
the mixture to extract the whole of the tannin, the water used
being in such proportion to the galls as will produce as nearly
as possible a solution having S% of tannin. The object of
using straw in the extraction process is to maintain the porosity
of the mixture, as powdered galls treated alone become so
slimy with mucilaginous extract that liquid fails to percolate
the mass. For each litre of the 5% solution about 43 grammes
of the iron salt are used, or about 100 parts of tannin for 90
parts of crystallized green vitriol. These ingredients when first
mixed form a clear solution, but on their exposure to the air
oxidation occurs, and an insoluble blue-black ferrosoferric
gallate in extremely fine division, suspended in a coloured
solution of ferrous gallate, is formed. To keep the insoluble
portion suspended, a mucilaginous agent is employed, and
those most available are gum Senegal and gum arabic. An
ink so prepared develops its intensity of colour only after some
exposure; and after it has partly sunk into the paper it becomes
oxidized there, and so mordanted into the fibre. As the first
faintness of the characters is a disadvantage, it is a common
practice to add some adventitious colouring matter to give
immediate distinctness, and for that purpose either extract
of logwood or a solution of indigo is used. When logwood extract
is, employed, a smaller proportion of extract of galls is required,
logwood itself containing a large percentage of tannin. For
making an unoxidized or blue-black ink indigo is dissolved in
strong sulphuric acid, and the ferrous sulphate, instead of being
used direct, is prepared by placing in this indigo solution a
proper quantity of scrap iron. To free the solution from excess
of uncombined acid, chalk or powdered limestone is added,
whereby the free acid is fixed and a deposit of sulphate of lime
formed. A solution so prepared, mixed with a tannin solution,
yields a very limpid sea-green writing fluid, and as all the
constituents remain in solution, no gum or other suspending
medium is necessary. In consequence the ink flows freely, is
easily dried and is free from the glossy appearance which arises
through the use of gum.
572
INK
China ink or Indian ink is the form in which ink was earliest
prepared, and in which it is still used in China and Japan for
writing with small brushes instead of pens. It is extensively
used by architects, engineers and artists generally, and for
various special uses. China ink is prepared in the form of
sticks and cakes, which are rubbed down in water for use. It
consists essentially of lamp-black in very fine condition,
baked up with a glutinous substance; and the finer Oriental
kinds are delicately perfumed. The following description
of the manufacture as conducted in Japan is from a native
source: —
" The body of the ink is soot obtained from pine wood or rosin,
and lamp-black from sesamum oil for the finest sort. This is mixed
with liquid glue made of ox-skin. This operation is effected in a
large round copper bowl, formed of two spherical vessels, placed I in.
apart, so that the space between can be filled up with hot water to
prevent the glue from hardening during the time it is being mixed
by hand with the lamp-black. The cakes are formed in wooden
moulds, and dried between paper and ashes. Camphor, or a peculiar
mixture of scents which comes from China, and a small quantity of
carthamine (the red colouring substance of safflower), are added to
the best kinds for improving the colour as well as for scenting the ink.
There is a great difference both in price and in quality of the various
kinds of ink, the finest article being rather costly."
It is said that the size used in Chinese kinds is of vegetable
origin.
Logwood Ink. — Under the name of chrome ink a black ink
was discovered by Runge, which held out the promise of cheap-
ness combined with many excellent qualities. It is prepared
by dissolving 15 parts of extract of logwood in goo parts of
water, to which 4 parts of crystallized sodium carbonate are
added. A further solution of i part of potassium chromate
(not bichromate) in 100 parts of water is prepared, and is added
very gradually to the other solution with constant agitation.
The ink so obtained possesses an intense blue-black colour, flows
freely and dries readily, is neutral in reaction and hence does
not corrode steel pens, and adheres to and sinks into paper so
that manuscripts written with it may be freely washed with a
sponge without danger of smearing or spreading. It forms a
good copying ink, and it possesses all the qualities essential
to the best ink; but on exposure to air it very readily undergoes
decomposition, the colouring matter separating in broad flakes,
which swim in a clear menstruum. It is affirmed by Viedt
that this drawback may be overcome by the use of soda, a method
first suggested by Bottger.
Logwood forms the principal ingredient in various other black
inks used, especially as copying ink. A very strong decoction
of logwood or a strong solution of the extract with ammonium-
alum yields a violet ink which darkens slowly on exposure.
Such an ink is costly,'on account of the concentrated condition
in which the logwood must be used. If, however, a metallic
salt is introduced, a serviceable ink is obtained with the expendi-
ture of much less logwood. Either sulphate of copper or sulphate
of iron may be used, but the former, which produces a pleasing
blue-black colour, is to be preferred. The following is the formula
most highly recommended for this ink. A clear solution of 20
kilos of extract of logwood in 200 litres of water is obtained,
to which is added, with agitation, 10 kilos of ammonium-alum
dissolved in 20 litres of boiling water. The solution is acidified
with o- 2 kilo of sulphuric acid, which has the effect of preventing
any deposit, and finally there is added a solution of 1-5 kilos
of sulphate of copper dissolved in 20 litres of water. This
compound is exposed to the ah" for a few days to allow the colour
to develop by oxidation, after which it is stored in well-corked
bottles. The acid condition of this ink has a corrosive influence
on steel pens; in all other respects it is a most valuable writing
fluid.
Aniline Inks. — Solutions of aniline dye-stuffs in water are
widely used as inks, especially coloured varieties. They are
usually fugitive. Nigrosine is a black ink, which, although
not producing a black so intense as common ink, possesses
various advantages. Being perfectly neutral, it does not attack
pens; it can easily be kept of a proper consistency by making
up with water; and its colour is not injuriously affected by the
action of acids. Its ready flow from stylographic pens led to
the name " stylographic ink." Other aniline inks are mentioned
below.
Copying Ink. — Ink which yields by means of pressure an im-
pression, on a sheet of damped tissue paper, of characters
written in it is called copying ink. Any ink soluble in water,
or which retains a certain degree of solubility, may be used as
copying ink. Runge's chrome ink, being a soluble compound,
is, therefore, so available; and the other logwood inks as well
as the ordinary ferrous gallate inks contain also soluble con-
stituents, and are essentially soluble till they are oxidized in
and on the paper after exposure to the air. To render these
available as copying inks it is necessary to add to them a sub-
stance which will retard the oxidizing effect of the air for some
time. For this purpose the bodies most serviceable are gum
arabic or Senegal, with glycerin, dextrin or sugar, which last,
however, renders the ink sticky. These substances act by
forming a kind of glaze or varnish over the surface of the ink
which excludes the air. At the same time when the damp sheet
of tissue paper is applied to the writing, they dissolve and allow
a portion of the yet soluble ink to be absorbed by the moistened
tissue. As copying ink has to yield two or more impressions,
it is necessary that it should be made stronger, i.e. that it should
contain more pigment or body than common ink. It, therefore,
is prepared with from 30 to 40 % less of water than non-copying
kinds; but otherwise, except in the presence of the ingredients
above mentioned, the inks are the same. Copying ink pencils
consist of a base of graphite and kaolin impregnated with a very
strong solution of an aniline colour, pressed into sticks and
dried.
Red Ink. — The pigment most commonly employed as the basis
of red ink is Brazil-wood. Such an ink is prepared by adding
to a strong decoction of the wood a proportion of stannous
chloride (tin spirits), and thickening the resulting fluid with
gum arabic. In some instances alum and cream of tartar are
used instead of the stannous chloride. Cochineal is also employed
as the tinctorial basis of red ink; but, while the resulting
fluid is much more brilliant than that obtained from Brazil-
wood, it is not so permanent. A very brilliant red ink may be
prepared by dissolving carmine in a solution of ammonia, but
this preparation must be kept in closely stoppered bottles.
A useful red ink may also be made by dissolving the rosein
of Brook, Simpson and Spiller in water, in the proportion of
i to from 1 50 to 200 parts.
Blue Ink. — For the production of blue ink the pigment
principally used is Prussian blue. It is first digested for two
or three days with either strong hydrochloric acid, sulphuric
acid or nitric acid, the digested mass is next very largely diluted
with water, and after settling the supernatant liquid is siphoned
away from the sediment. This sediment is repeatedly washed,
till all traces of iron and free acid disappear from the water
used, after which it is dried and mixed with oxalic acid in the
proportion of 8 parts of Prussian blue to i of the acid, and in
this condition the material is ready for dissolving in water to
the degree of c6lour intensity necessary. An aniline blue ink
may be prepared by dissolving i part of bleu de Paris in from
200 to 250 parts of water.
Marking Ink. — The ink so called, used principally for marking
linen, is composed of a salt of silver, usually the nitrate, dissolved
in water and ammonia, with a little provisional colouring matter
and gum for thickening. The colour resulting from the silver
salt is developed by heat and light; and the stain it makes,
although exceedingly obstinate, gradually becomes a faint
brownish-yellow. The following yields a good marking ink.
Equal parts of nitrate of silver and dry tartaric acid are triturated
in a mortar, and treated with water, when a reaction takes place,
resulting in the formation of tartrate of silver and the liberation
of nitric acid. The acid is neutralized, and at the same time
the silver tartrate is dissolved by the addition of ammonia,
and this solution with colouring matter and gum forms the ink,
which may be used with an ordinary steel pen.
Many vegetable juices, e g. of Coriaria thymifolia, Semecarpus
INKERMAN, BATTLE OF
573
anacardium, Anacardium occidentale (Cashew), are inks of this
type.
Gold and silver inks are writing fluids in which gold and silver,
or imitations of these metals, are suspended in a state of fine
division. In place of gold, Dutch leaf or mosaic gold is frequently
substituted, and bronze powders are used for preparing a similar
kind of ink. The metallic foil isjfirst carefully triturated into a
fine paste with honey, after which it is boiled in water containing
a little alkali, and then repeatedly washed in hot water and dried
at a gentle heat. A solution is prepared consisting of i part of
pure gum arabic and i part of soluble potash glass in 4 parts of
distilled water, into which the requisite quantity of the metallic
powder prepared is introduced. Owing to the superior covering
nature of pure gold, less of the metal is required than is necessary
in the case of silver and other foils. In general i part of foil to
3 or 4 parts of solution is sufficient. The metallic lustre of
writing done with this solution may be greatly heightened by
gently polishing with a burnishing point. Another gold ink
depends upon the formation of purple of Cassius; the linen is
mordanted with stannous chloride, and the gold applied as a
gummy solution of the chloride.
Indelible or incorrodible ink is the name given to various
combinations of lamp-black or other carbonaceous material
with resinous substances used for writing which is exposed to
the weather or to the action of strong acids or alkaline solutions.
An ink having great resisting powers may be conveniently
prepared by rubbing down Indian ink in common ink till the
mixture flows easily from the pen. Other combinations have
more the character of coloured varnishes.
Sympathetic inks are preparations used for forming characters
which only become visible on the application of heat or of some
chemical reagent. Many chemicals which form in themselves
colourless solutions, but which develop colour under the influence
of reagents, may be used as sympathetic ink, but they are of
little practical utility. Characters written in a weak solution
of galls develop a dark colour on being treated with a solution
of copperas; or, vice versa, the writing may be done in copperas
and developed by the galls solution. Writing done in various
preparations develops colour on heating which fades as the
paper cools. Among such substances are solutions of the
chlorides of cobalt and of nickel. Very dilute solutions of the
mineral acids and of common salt and a solution of equal parts
of sulphate of copper and sal-ammoniac act similarly. Writing
with rice water and developing with iodine was a device much
used during the Indian Mutiny.
Printing Inks. — Printing inks are essentially mixtures of a
pigment and a varnish. The varnish is prepared from linseec
oil, rosin and soap; the oil must be as old as possible; the rosin
may be black or amber; and the soap, which is indispensable
since it causes the ink to adhere uniformly to the type and also
to leave the type clean after taking an impression, is yellow,
or turpentine soap for dark inks, and curd soap for light inks
The varnish is prepared as follows: The oil is carefully heatec
until it " strings " properly, i.e. a drop removed from the vesse
on a rod, when placed upon a plate and the rod drawn away
forms a thread about % in. long. The rosin is carefully and slowly
added and the mixture well stirred. The soap is then stirred
in. The ink is prepared by mixing the varnish with the pigment
and grinding the mass to impalpable fineness either inalevigatinf
mill or by a stone and muller. For black ink, lamp-black mixed
with a little indigo or Prussian blue is the pigment employed
for wood engravings it may be mixed with ivory black, and fo:
copper plates with ivory or Frankfurt black; for lithographic
reproductions Paris black is used. Red inks are made with
carmine or cochineal; red lead is used in cheap inks, but i
rapidly blackens. Blue inks are made with indigo or Prussian
blue; yellow with lead chromate or yellow ochre; green i
made by mixing yellow and blue; and purple by mixing re'
and blue.
See C. A. Mitchell and T. C. Hepworth, Inks, their Comppsittott
and Manufacture (1904); S. Lehner, Ink Manufacture (1902)
A. F. Gouillon, Encres et cirages (1906) ; L. E. Ande"s, Schreib-, Kopur
und andere Tinten (1906).
INKERMAN, BATTLE OF, fought on the 5th of November
854 between a portion of the Allied English and French army
icsieging Sevastopol and a Russian army under Prince Menshikov
see CRIMEAN WAR). This battle derives its name from a ruin
n the northern bank of the river Tchernaya near its mouth, but
t was fought some distance away, on a nameless ridge (styled
Mount Inkerman after the event) between the Tchernaya and
he Careenage Ravine, which latter marked the right of the siege-
works directed against Sevastopol itself. Part of this ridge, called
lome Ridge and culminating in a knoll, was occupied by the
British, while farther to the south, facing the battleground of
Jalaklava, a corps under General Bosquet was posted to cover
he rear of the besiegers against attacks from the direction of
Traktir Bridge. The Russians arranged for a combined attack on
the ridge above-mentioned by part of Menshikov's army (16,000)
and a corps (19,000) that was to issue from Sevastopol. This
attack was to have, beside its own field artillery, the support of
fifty-four heavy guns, and the Russian left wing on the Balaklava
battleground was to keep Bosquet occupied. If successful, the
attack on' the ridge was to be the signal for a general attack all
along the line. It was apparently intended by Menshikov that
the column from the field army should attack the position
from the north, and that the Sevastopol column should ad-
vance along the west side of the Careenage Ravine. But he
only appointed a commander to take charge of both columns
at the last moment, and the want of a clear understanding as to
what was to be done militated against success from the first.
General Soimonov, with the Sevastopol column, after assembling
his troops before dawn on the 5th, led them on to the upland east
of Careenage Ravine, while the field army column, under General
Pavlov, crossed the Tchernaya near its mouth, almost at right
angles to Soimonov's line of advance.
574
INLAYING
The British troops on or near the ground were the 2nd Division,
3000, encamped on the ridge; Codrington's brigade of the
Light Division, 1400, on the slopes west of the Careenage Ravine;
and the Guards' brigade, 1350, about f m. in rear of the 2nd
Division camp. No other forces, French or British, were within
2 m. except another part of Sir George Brown's Light Division.
A mist overhung the field and the hillsides were slippery with
mud. Soimonov, with his whole force deployed in a normal
attack formation (three lines of battalion columns covered by
a few hundred skirmishers) pushed forward along the ridge
(6 A.M.) without waiting for Pavlov or for Dannenberg, the officer
appointed to command the whole force. Shell Hill, guarded only
by a picquet, was seized at once. The heavy guns that had been
brought from the fortress were placed in position on this hill, and
opened fire (7 A.M.) on the knoll, 140x5 yds. to the S., behind
which the 2nd Division was encamped. The Russian infantry
halted for the guns to prepare the way, and the heavy projectiles
both swept the crest of the British knoll and destroyed the camp
in rear. But already General Pennefather, commanding the
division, had pushed forward one body of his infantry after
another down the forward slope, near the foot of which they
encountered the Russians in great force. On his side, Soimonov
had been compelled to break up his regular lines of columns
at the narrowest part of the ridge and to push his battalions
forward a few at a time. This and the broken character of
the ground made the battle even in the beginning a melee.
The obscurity of the mist, which had at first allowed the
big battalions to approach unobserved, now favoured the
weaker side. Soimonov himself, however, formed up some
9000 men, who drove back the British left wing — for the whole
of Pennefather's force at the time was no more than 3600
men. But the right wing, not as yet attacked, either by
Soimonov or by Pavlov, held on to its positions on the forward
slope, and a column of Russian sailors and marines, who had
been placed under Soimonov's command and had moved up the
Careenage Ravine to turn the British left, were caught, just as
they emerged on to the plateau in rear of Pennefather's line,
between two bodies of British troops hurrying to the scene of
action. On the front, too, the Russian attack came to a standstill
and ebbed, for Soimonov's overcrowded battalions jostled one
another and dissolved on the narrow and broken plateau.
Soimonov himself was killed, and the disciplined confidence and
steady volleys of the defenders dominated the chaotic ilan of the
Russians. Thus 3300 defenders were able to repulse and even
to " expunge from the battlefield " the whole of the Sevastopol
column, except that portion of it which drifted away to its left
and joined Pavlov. This stage of the battle had lasted about
forty minutes. But, brilliant as was this overture, it is the
second stage of the battle that gives it its epic interest.
The first attack made by Pavlov's advanced guard, aided by
parts of Soimonov's corps, was relatively slight, but General
Dannenberg now arrived on the field, and arranged for an
assault on the British centre and right, to be delivered by
10,000 men (half his intact forces) chiefly by way of the Quarry
Ravine, the attack to be prepared by the guns on Shell Hill.
Pennefather had been reinforced by the Guards' brigade and a
few smaller units. Not the least extraordinary feature of the
battle that followed is the part played by a sangar of stones at
the head of Quarry Ravine and a small battery, called the
Sandbag Battery, made as a temporary emplacement for two
heavy guns a few days before. The guns had done their work
and been sent back whence they came. Nevertheless these two
insignificant works, as points to hold and lines to defend on an
otherwise featureless battlefield, became the centres of gravity
of the battle.
The sangar at first fell into the hands of the Russians, but they
were soon ejected, and small British detachments reoccupied and
held it, while the various Russian attacks flowed up and past it
and ebbed back into the Quarry Ravine. Possession of the
Sandbag Battery was far more fiercely contested. The right wing
was defended by some 700 men of the 2nd Division, who were
reinforced by 1300 of the Guards. The line of defence adjacent
to the battery looked downhill for about 300 yds., giving a clear
field of fire for the new Enfield rifle the English carried; but
a sharp break in the slope beyond that range gave the assailants
plenty of " dead ground " on which to form up. For a time,
therefore, the battle was a series of attacks, delivered with great
fierceness by the main body of Pavlov's corps, the repulse of
each being followed by the disappearance of the assailants.
But the arrival of part of the British 4th Division under Sir
George Cathcart gave the impulse for a counter-attack. Most
of the division indeed had to be used to patch up the weaker
parts of the line, but Cathcart himself with about 400 men
worked his way along the lower and steeper part of the eastern
slope so as to take the assailants of the battery in flank. He
had not proceeded far, however, when a body of Russians
moving higher up descended upon the small British corps and
scattered it, Cathcart himself being killed. Other counter-strokes
that his arrival had inspired were at the same time made from
different parts of the defensive front, and had the effect of
breaking up what was a solid line into a number of disconnected
bands, each fighting for its life in the midst of the enemy. The
crest of the position was laid open and parts of the Russian
right wing seized it. But they were flung back to the lower
slopes of the Quarry Ravine by the leading French regiment
sent by Bosquet. This regiment was quickly followed by
others. The last great assault was delivered with more pre-
cision, if with less fury than the others, and had Dannenberg
chosen to employ the 9000 bayonets of his reserve, who stood
idle throughout the day, to support the 6000 half-spent
troops who made the attack, it would probably have been
successful.
As it was, supported by the heavy guns on Shell Hill, the
assailants, though no longer more than slightly superior in
numbers, carried not only the sangar, but part of the crest line
of the allied position. But they were driven back into the Quarry
Ravine, and, relieving the exhausted British, the French took
up the defence along the edge of the ravine, which, though
still not without severe fighting, they maintained till the
close of the battle. Inkerman, however, was not a drawn
battle. The allied field artillery, reinforced by two long i8-pr.
guns of the British siege train and assisted by the bold advance
of two French horse-artillery batteries which galloped down the
forward slope and engaged the Russians at close range, gained
the upper hand. Last of all, the dominant guns on Shell Hill
thus silenced, the resolute advance of a handful of British
infantry decided the day, and the Russians retreated. The final
shots were fired about 1.30 P.M.
The total British force engaged was 8500, of whom 2357 were
killed and wounded. The French lost 939 out of about 7000 who came
on to the field, though not all these were engaged. The Russians are
said to have lost 11,000 out of about 42,000 present. The percentage
(27-7) of loss sustained by the British is sufficient evidence of the
intensity of the conflict, and provides a convincing answer to certain
writers who have represented the battle as chiefly a French affair.
On the other hand, the reproaches addressed by some British writers
to General Bosquet for not promptly supporting the troops at Inker-
man with his whole strength are equally unjustifiable, for apparently
Sir George Brown and Sir George Cathcart both declined his first
offers of support, and he had Prince Gorchakov with at least 20,000
Russians in his own immediate front. He would therefore have risked
the failure of his own mission in order to take part in a battle where
his intervention was not, so far as he could tell, of vital importance.
When Lord Raglan definitely asked him for support, he gave it
willingly and eagerly, sending his troops up at the double, and it
must be remembered that several British divisions took no part in the
action for the same reason that actuated-Bosquet. But, in spite of
the seemingly inevitable controversies attendant on an " allied "
battle, it is now generally admitted that, as a " soldiers' battle,"
Inkerman is scarcely to be surpassed in modern history.
INLAYING, a method of ornamentation, by incrusting or
otherwise inserting in one material a substance or substances
differing therefrom in colour or nature. The art is practised in
the fabrication of furniture and artistic objects in all varieties
of wood, metal, shell, ivory and coloured and hard stone, and
in compound substances; and the combinations, styles and
varieties of effect are exceedingly numerous. Several special
classes of inlaying may be here enumerated and defined, details
INMAN— INN AND INNKEEPER
575
regarding most of which will be found under their separate
headings. In the ornamental treatment of metal surfaces
Niello decoration, applied to silver and gold, is an ancient and
much-practised species of inlaying. It consists in filling up
engraved designs with a composition of silver, copper, lead and
sulphur incorporated by heat. The composition is black, and
the finished work has the appearance of a drawing in black on
a metallic plate. An art, analogous in effect, called bidri, from
Bider in the Deccan, is practised in India. In bidri work the
ground is an alloy of zinc, with small proportions of copper and
lead, in which shallow patterns and devices are traced, and
filled up with thin plates of silver. When the surface has been
evened and smoothed, the bidri ground is stained a permanent
black by a paste the chief ingredients of which are sal-ammoniac
and nitre, leaving a pleasing contrast of bright metallic silver
in a dead black ground. The inlaying of gold wire in iron or
steel is known as DAMASCENING (<?.».). It has been very largely
practised in Persia and India for the ornamentation of arms
and armour, being known in the latter country as Kuft work or
Kuftgari. In Kashmir, vessels of copper and brass are very
effectively inlaid with tin — an art which, like many other
decorative arts, appears to have originated in Persia. In the
ornamental inlaying of metal surfaces the Japanese display the
most extraordinary skill and perfection of workmanship. In
the inlaying of their fine bronzes they use principally gold and
silver, but for large articles and also for common cast hollow
ware commoner metals and alloys are employed. In inlaying
bronzes they generally hollow out and somewhat undercut the
design, into which the ornamenting metal, usually in the form
of wire, is laid and hammered over. Frequently the lacquer
work of the Japanese is inlaid with mother-of-pearl and other
substances, in the same manner as is practised in ornamenting
lacquered papier-mache among Western communities. The
Japanese also practise the various methods of inlaying referred
to under DAMASCENING. The term Mosaif (q.v.) is generally
applied to inlaid work in hard stones, marble and glass, but the
most important class of mosaics — those which consist of innumer-
able small separate pieces — do not properly come under the
head of inlaying. Inlaid mosaics are those in which coloured
designs are inserted in spaces cut in a solid ground or basis,
such as the modern Florentine mosaic, which consists of thin
veneers of precious coloured stones set in slabs of marble. The
Taj Mahal at Agra is an example of inlaid mosaic in white
marble, and the art, carried to that city by a French artist,
is still practised by native workmen. Pietra dura is a fine
variety of inlaid mosaic in which hard and expensive stones
— agate, cornelian, amethyst and the like — are used in relief.
Certain kinds of enamel might also be included among the
varieties of inlaying. (See also MARQUETRY and BOMBAY
FURNITURE.)
INMAN, HENRY (1801-1846), American artist, was born in
Utica, New York, on the 2Oth of October 1801. Apprenticed
to the painter John W. Jarvis at the age of fourteen, he left
him after seven years and set up for himself, painting portraits,
genre and landscape. He was one of the organizers of the
National Academy of Design in New York and its first vice-
president (from 1826 until 1832). As a portrait painter he was
highly successful both in New York and Philadelphia, and going
to England in 1844, he had for sitters the Lord Chancellor
(Cottenham), the poet Wordsworth, Doctor Chalmers, Lord
Macaulay and others. His American sitters included President
Van Buren and Chief Justice Marshall. He died in New York
City on the iyth of January 1846.
INN, a river of Europe, an important right bank tributary
of the Danube. It rises at an elevation of 7800 ft., in a small
lake under the Piz Longhino, in the Swiss canton of the Grisons.
After flowing for a distance of 55 m., through the Engadine it
leaves Swiss territory at Martinsbruck and enters Austria. It
next plunges through the deep ravine of Finstermunz, and,
continuing in the main a north-easterly direction, receives
at Landeck the Rosanna. Hence its course becomes more
rapid, until, after swirling through the narrow and romantic
Oberinnthal, it enters the broader and pastoral Unterinnthal.
It next passes Innsbruck and from Hall, a few miles lower down,
begins to be navigable for barges. At Kufstein, down to which
point it has still pursued a north-easterly direction, it breaks
through the north Tirol limestone formation, and, now keeping
a northerly course, enters at Rosenheim the Bavarian high
plateau. Its bed is now broad, studded with islands and
enclosed by high banks. Its chief tributaries on this last portion
of its course are the Alz and the Salzach, and at Passau, 309 m.
from its source, it joins the Danube, which river down to that
point it equals in length and far exceeds in volume of water.
Its rapid current does not permit of extensive navigation, but
timber rafts are floated down from above Innsbruck.
See Greinz, Eine Wanderung durch das Unterinnlal (Stuttgart,
1902).
INN and INNKEEPER. An km is a house where travellers
are fed and lodged for reward. A distinction has been drawn
between tavern, inn and hotel, the tavern supplying food and
drink, the hotel lodging, the inn both; but this is fanciful.
Hotel" now means "inn," and "inn" is often applied to a
mere public-house, whilst " tavern " is less used. " Inn," still
the legal and best, as it is the oldest, is a form of the word " in "
or " within." This sense is retained in the case of the English
legal societies still known as INNS OF COURT (q.v.). In the Bible
" inn " means " lodging-place for the night." Hospitality has
always been a sacred duty in the East. The pilgrim or the
traveller claims it as a right. But some routes were crowded,
as that from Bagdad to Babylon. On these, khans (in or near
a town) and caravanserais (in waste places) were erected at the
expense of the benevolent. They consisted of a square building
surrounded by a high wall; on the roof there was a terrace and
over the gateway a tower; inside, was a large court surrounded
by compartments in which was some rude provision for the
animals and baggage of the traveller as well as for himself.
The latter purchased his own food where he chose, and had to
"do for himself." In some such place Jesus was born. Tavern
is mentioned once in Scripture (Acts xxviii. 15) where it is said
the brethren from Rome met Paul at "the Three Taverns."
This was a station on the Appian Way, referred to also in Cicero's
Letters (Ad Alt. ii. 12). So, in modern London, stations are
called " Elephant and Castle," or " Bricklayers' Arms," from
adjacent houses of entertainment. Among the Greeks inns and
innkeepers were held in low repute. The houses were bad and
those who kept them had a bad name. A self-respecting Greek
entered them as seldom as possible; if he travelled he relied on
the hospitality of friends. In Rome under the emperors some-
thing akin to the modern inn grew up. There is, however,
scarcely any mention of such institutions hi the capital as distin-
guished from mere wine-shops or eating-houses. Ambassadors
were lodged in apartments at the expense of the state. But
along the great roads that radiated from Rome there were inns.
Horace's account of his journey to Brundisium (Sat. i. 5),
that brilliant picture of contemporary travel, tells us of their
existence, and the very name of the Three Taverns shows that
there was sufficient custom to support a knot of these institutions
at one place. Under the Roman law, the innkeeper was answer-
able for the property of his guests unless the damage was due to
damnum fatale or vis major, in modern language the act of God
or the king's enemies. He was also liable for damage done by
his servant or his slave or other inhabitant of the house.
In the middle ages hospitality was still regarded as a duty, and
provision for travellers was regularly made in the monasteries.
People of rank were admitted to the house itself, others sought
the guest-chamber, which sometimes stood (as at Battle Abbey)
outside the precincts. It consisted of a hall, round which were
sleeping-rooms, though the floor of the hall itself was often
utilized. Again, hospitality was rarely denied at the castle or
country house. The knight supped with his host at the dais
or upper part of the great hall, and retired with him into his own
apartment. His followers, or the meaner strangers, sat lower
down at meat, and after the tables had been removed stretched
themselves to rest upon the floor. In desolate parts hospices
S7&
INN AND INNKEEPER
were erected for the accommodation of pilgrims. Such existed
in the Alps and on all the great roads to the Holy Land or to
famous shrines, notably to that of Canterbury. The still impres-
sive remains of the Travellers' Hospital at Maidstone, founded
by Archbishop Boniface in 1260, give an idea of the extent of
such places. The mention of Canterbury recalls two inns
celebrated by Chaucer. The pilgrims started from the " Tabard "
at Southwark under the charge of Harry Baily the host, and
they put up at the " Checquers of the Hope," in Mercery Lane,
Canterbury. It is easy to infer that, as time went on, the
meagre hospitality of the monastery or the hospice was not
sufficient for an increasing middle class, and that the want
was met by the development of the mere ale-house into the inn.
The " ale-house," to give it the old English name, was always
in evidence, and even in pre-Reformation days was a favourite
subject for the satirist. In Langland's Piers the Plowman and
in Skelton's Elynour Rummynge we have contemporary pictures
of ale-houses of the I4th and i6th centuries, but the Tabard
is quite a modern inn, with a table d'hote supper, a sign, a landlord
(" right a mery man ") and a reckoning!
It has been conjectured (Larwood and Hotten, History of
Signboards, 1874) that the inn sign was taken or imitated from
that displayed on the town houses or inns of noblemen and
prelates. The innkeeper alone of tradesmen retains his individual
sign. The inn shared with the tavern the long projecting pole
garnished with branches. These poles had become of such
inordinate length in London that in 1375 they were restricted
to 7 ft. But the inn of those times was still a simple affair. In
each room there were several beds, the price of which the prudent
traveller inquired beforehand. Extortion was frequent, though
it was forbidden by a statute of Edward III. The fare was simple ;
bread, meat and beer, with fish on Fridays. The tavern senti-
ment is strong in Elizabethan literature. The " Boar's Head "
in Eastcheap is inseparably connected with Sir John FalstaS
and Dame Quickly. " Shall I not take mine ease in mine Inn? "
(i Henry IV., Act iii. sc. 3) is well-nigh the most famous word
of the famous knight. A passage in Holinshed's Chronicle
(1587, i. 246) explains the inner meaning of this. He assures
us that the inns of England are not as those of other
lands. Abroad the guest is under the tyranny of the host, but
in England your inn is as your own house; in your chamber
you can do what you will, and the host is rather your servant
than your master. The " Mermaid " in Bread Street is associated
with the memory of many wits and poets — Raleigh, Shakespeare,
Beaumont, Fletcher, Ben Jonson — who frequented it and
praised it.
Shenstone's lines as to " the warmest welcome at an inn "
vent a common but rather cheap cynicism. Doctor Johnson
was a great frequenter of inns and was outspoken in praise and
blame. In the time immediately preceding railways the inn,
which was also a post-house where the public coach as well as
that of the private traveller changed horses, was a place of much
importance. We have it presented over and over again in the
pages of Dickens. The " Maypole " in Barnaby Rudge may be
singled out for mention; it survives at Chigwell, Essex, as the
"King's Head."
The effect of railways was to multiply hotels in great centres
and gradually increase their size till we have the huge structures
so plentiful to-day. The bicycle and later the motor car, through
the enormous traffic they caused on the country roads, have
restored the old wayside inns to more than their former prosperity.
In Scotland a statute (1424) of James I. ordained inns for
man and beast, with food and drink at reasonable prices, in
each borough, and a subsequent act prohibited lodging in
private houses in places where there were inns, under a penalty
of 405. But for centuries the Scots inn was a poor affair. The
Clachan of Aberfoyle in Rob Roy, kept by the widow MacAlpine,
was probably typical. In St Ronan's Well Scott gives the more
pleasing picture of the Cleikum Inn, kept by the delightful Meg
Dods, and mention should be made of St Mary's Cottage, with
its hostess Tibby Shiels, the scene of one of the Nodes Ambro-
sianae, with memories not merely of Scott but of Christopher
North and the Ettrick Shepherd. Burns had much to do with
inns and taverns. If Poosie Nancie's, where the Jolly Beggars
held wild revel, is long vanished, the Globe at Dumfries still
exists, a fair sample of an inn of the period. As late as 1841
Dickens, writing to John Foster during his first visit to Scotland,
describes the Highland inns as very poor affairs, " a mere knot
of little outhouses " he says of one; and even in Queen
Victoria's Leaves from the Journal of Our Life in the Highlands
the inn is described as invariably small and unassuming. Thus
the development of hotels in Scotland did not begin much before
the middle of the ipth century.
In America the first hotel mentioned in New York is " Kriger's
Tavern " about 1642, replaced in 1703 by the " King's Arms."
When the town came to be English a proclamation was issued
regulating the inns. Meals were not to cost more than 8d. or
beer 2d. per quart.
Law Relating to Innkeepers. — Whether any special building
is an inn is a question of fact. A temperance hotel is an inn,
but a mere public-house is not. An innkeeper is bound to
receive, lodge and feed travellers if he has accommodation, if
they are able and willing to pay, and are not obviously objection-
able. If he refuse he is liable at common law to indictment,
or an action will lie against him at the suit of the would-be guest.
Under the Army Act soldiers of all kinds may be billeted on the
innkeeper, even beyond his power to provide in his own house;
he must find accommodation for them elsewhere. An innkeeper
must keep the goods and chattels of his guest in safety, unless
they are destroyed by the act of God or the king's enemies.
Under this last the king's rebellious subjects are not included.
He is not liable for goods stolen or destroyed by the companion
of the guest or through the guest's own negligence. There are
two theories as to the origin of this common law liability of the
innkeeper: (i) it was a survival of the liability of the common
trader, or (2) specially imposed from the nature of his calling.
Old English law held him to some extent suspect. The traveller
amongst strangers seemed forlorn and unprotected, and con-
spiracy with thieves was dreaded. In modern limes the landlord's
responsibilities were cut down by the Innkeepers Liability Act
1863. He is not liable (save for horses and other live animals with
their gear and carriages) to a greater extent than £30, unless
the loss is caused by the default or neglect of himself or his
servants, or the goods have been formally deposited with him.
He must conspicuously exhibit a copy of the material parts of
the act. The innkeeper may contract himself out of his common
law obligation, and, apart from negligence, he is not liable for
injury to the person or clothes of his guest. In return for these
responsibilities the law gives him a lien over his guest's goods
till his bill be paid. This is a particular and not a general lien.
It attaches only to the special goods brought by the guest to
the inn, and housed by the innkeeper with him. When several
guests go together, the lien extends to all their goods. The
innkeeper is only bound to take ordinary care of goods thus held,
but he cannot use them or charge for their house-room. By
the custom of London and Exeter, " when a horse eats out the
price of his head, "namely, when the cost of keep exceeds value,
the host may have him as his own. By the Innkeepers Act 1878,
if goods have been kept for six weeks they may be advertised
and then sold after the interval of a month. Although an
advertisement in a London paper is directed, this act (it would
seem) applies to Scotland (J.A.Fleming, in Green's Encyclopaedia
of the Law of Scotland, vi. 363). In that country the law is
generally the same as in England, though it has been held that
the innkeeper is not responsible for loss by accidental fire. Nor
is his refusal to receive a guest a criminal offence. In the United
States the common law follows that of England, though laws
of the various states have diminished the liability of the innkeeper
in much the same fashion as in England. Innkeepers as retailers
of intoxicating liquors are subject to the provisions of the
Licensing Laws.
See Angus, Bible Handbook (new ed., 1904); Beckmann's In-
ventions, tr. by Johnson (1846); Jusserand, Les Anglais au ntoyen
age (1884); Liebenau, Das Gasthof- und Wirtshauswesen der Schuieiz
INNERLEITHEN— INNOCENT (POPES)
in alterer Zeit (1891); Kempt, Convivial Caledonia (1893); F. W.
Hackwood, Inns, Ales and Drinking Customs of Old England (1909) ;
Jelf and Hurst, The Law of Innkeepers (1904). English and Roman
law are compared in Pymar's Law of Innkeepers (1892). For Scots
law, see Bell's Principles. An American treatise is S. H. Wandell,
Law of Inns, Hotels and Boarding Houses (1888). (F. WA.)
INNERLEITHEN, a police burgh and health resort of Peebles-
shire, Scotland, on Leithen Water, near its junction with the
Tweed, 6j m. S.E. of Peebles by the North British railway.
Pop. (1901) 2181. In olden times it seems to have been known
as Hornehuntersland, and to have been mentioned as early as
1159, when a son of Malcolm IV. (the Maiden) was drowned in
a pool of the Tweed, close to Leithenfoot. Its chief industry
is the manufacture of tweeds and fine yarns, which, together with
the fame of its medicinal springs, brought the burgh into promin-
ence towards the end of the i8th century. The spa, alleged to
be the St Ronan's well of Scott's novel of that name, has a
pump-room, baths, &c. The saline waters are useful in minor cases
of dyspepsia and liver complaints. The town is flanked on the
W. by the hill fort of Caerlee (400 ft. long) and on the E. by that
of the Pirn (350 ft. long). Farther E., close to the village of
Walkerburn, are Purvis Hill terraces, a remarkable series of
earthen banks, from 50 ft. to more than 100 ft. wide, and with
a length varying up to 900 ft., the origin and purpose of which
are unknown. Traquair House, or Palace, on the right bank
of the Tweed, is believed to be the oldest inhabited house in
Scotland, the most ancient portion dating from the loth century,
and including a remnant of the castle. It was largely added to
by Sir John Stewart, first earl of Traquair (d. 1659) and is a
good example of the Scottish Baronial mansion with high-pitched
roof and turreted angles. To the west of the house was the arbour
which formed the " bush aboon Traquair " of the songs by
Robert Crawford (d. 1733) and John Campbell Shairp, its site
being indicated by a few birch trees. James Nicol (1769-1819),
the poet, was minister of Traquair, and his son James Nicol
(1810-1879), the geologist and professor of natural history in
Aberdeen University, was born in the manse.
INNESS, GEORGE (1825-1894), American landscape painter,
was born near Newburgh, N.Y., on the ist of May 1825. Before
he was five years of age his parents had moved to New York
and afterwards to Newark, N.J., in which latter city his boyhood
was passed. He would not " take education " at the town
academy, nor was he a success as a greengrocer's boy. He had
a strong bent towards art, and his parents finally placed him with
a drawing-master named Barker. At sixteen he went to New
York to study engraving, but soon returned to Newark, where
he continued sketching and painting after his own initiative.
In 1843 he was again in New York, and is said to have passed
a month in Gignoux's studio. But he was too impetuous, too
independent in thought, to accept teaching; and, besides, the
knowledge of his teachers must have been limited. Practically
he was self-taught, and always remained a student. In 1851
he went to Europe, and in Italy got his first glimpse of real art.
He was there two years, and imbibed some traditions of the
classic landscape. In 1854 he went to France, and there studied
the Barbizon 'painters, whom he greatly admired, especially
Daubigny and Rousseau. After his return to America he opened
a studio in New York, then went to Medfield, Mass., where he
resided for five years. A pastoral landscape near this town
inspired the characteristic painting " The Medfield Meadows."
Again he went abroad and spent six years in Europe. He came
back to New York in 1876, and lived there, or near there, until
the year of his death, which took place at Bridge of Allan on the
3rd of August 1894 while he was travelling in Scotland. He was
a National Academician, a member of the Society of American
Artists, and had received many honours at home and abroad.
He was married twice, his son, George Inness (b. 1854), being also
a painter. Inness was emphatically a man of temperament, of
moods, enthusiasms, convictions. He was fond of speculation
and experiment in metaphysics and religion, as in poetry and art.
Swedenborgianism, symbolism, socialism, appealed to him as
they might to a mystic or an idealist. He aspired to the perfect
unities, and was impatient of structural foundations. This was
577
his attitude towards painting. He sought the sentiment, the
light, air, and colour of nature, but was put out by nature's
forms. How to subordinate form without causing weakness
was his problem, as it was Corel's. His early education gave
him no great technical facility, so that he never was satisfied
with his achievement. He worked over his pictures incessantly,
retouching with paint, pencil, coal, ink — anything that would
give the desired effect — yet never content with them. In his
latter days it was almost impossible to get a picture away from
him, and after his death his studio was found to be full of experi-
mental canvases. He was a very uneven painter, and his
experiments were not always successful. His was an original —
a distinctly American — mind in art. Most of his American
subjects were taken from New York state, New Jersey and
New England. His point of view was his own. At his best he
was often excellent in poetic sentiment, and superb in light,
air and colour. He had several styles: at first he was somewhat
grandiloquent in Roman scenes, but sombre in colour; then
under French influence his brush grew looser, as in the " Grey
Lowering Day "; finally he broke out in full colour and light,
as in the " Niagara " and the last " Delaware Water-Gap."
Some of his pictures are in American museums, but most of
them are in private hands. (J. C. VAN D.)
INNOCENT (INNOCENTIUS), the name of thirteen popes and
one anti-pope.
INNOCENT I., pope from 402 to 417, was the son of Pope
Anastasius I. It was during his papacy that the siege of Rome
by Alaric (408) took place, when, according to a doubtful anecdote
of Zosimus, the ravages of plague and famine were so frightful,
and help seemed so far off, that papal permission was granted
to sacrifice and pray to the heathen deities; the pope was,
however, absent from Rome on a mission to Honorius at Ravenna
at the time of the sack in 410. He lost no opportunity of main-
taining and extending the authority of the Roman see as the
ultimate resort for the settlement of all disputes; and his still
extant communications to Victricius of Rouen, Exuperius of
Toulouse, Alexander of Antioch and others, as well as his action
on the appeal made to him by Chrysostom against Theophilus
of Alexandria, show that opportunities of the kind were numerous
and varied. He took a decided view on the Pelagian controversy,
confirming the decisions of the synod of the province of pro-
consular Africa held in Carthage in 416, which had been sent to
him. He wrote in the same year in a similar sense to the fathers
of the Numidian synod of Mileve who, Augustine being one of
their number, had addressed him. Among his letters are one to
Jerome and another to John, bishop of Jerusalem, regarding
annoyances to which the first named had been subjected by the
Pelagians at Bethlehem. He died on the izth of March 417,
and in the Roman Church is commemorated as a confessor along
with Saints Nazarius, Celsus and Victor, martyrs, on the 28th
of July. His successor was Zosimus.
INNOCENT II. (Gregorio Paparesci dei Guidoni), pope from
1130 to 1143, was originally a Benedictine monk. His ability,
pure life and political connexions raised him rapidly to power.
Made cardinal deacon of Sant Angelo in Pescheria by Paschal II.
he was employed in various diplomatic missions. Calixtus II.
appointed him one of the ambassadors who made peace with the
Empire and drew up the Concordat of Worms (1122), and in the
following year, with his later enemy Cardinal Peter Pierleoni,
he was papal legate in France. On the I3th of February 1130
Honorius II. died, and on that night a minority of the Sacred
College elected Paparesci, who took the name of Innocent II.
After a hasty consecration he was forced to take refuge with a
friendly noble by the faction of Pierleoni, who was elected pope
under the name of Anacletus II. by a majority of the cardinals.
Declaring that the cardinals had been intimidated, Innocent
refused to recognize their choice; by June, however, he was
obliged to flee to France. Here his title was recognized by a
synod called by Bernard of Clairvaux at fitampes. Similar
action was taken in Germany by the synod of Wiirzburg. In
January 1131 Innocent held a personal interview with King
Henry I. of England at Chartres, and in March, at Liege, with
xiv. 19
578
INNOCENT (POPES)
the German King Lothair, whom he induced to undertake a
campaign against Anacletus. The German army invaded Italy
in August 1132, and occupied Rome, all except St Peter's church
and the castle of St Angelo which held out against them. Lothair
was crowned emperor at the Lateran in June 1133, and as a
further reward Innocent gave him the territories of the Countess
Mathilda as a fief, but refused to surrender the right of investiture.
Left to himself Innocent again had to flee, this time to Pisa.
Here he called a council which condemned Anacletus. A second
expedition of Lothair expelled Roger of Sicily (to whom Anacletus
had given the title of king in return for his support) from southern
Italy, but a quarrel with Innocent prevented the emperor
attacking Rome. At this crisis, in January 1138, Anacletus died,
and a successor elected by his faction, as Victor IV., resigned
after two months. The Lateran council of 1139 restored peace
to the Church, excommunicating Roger of Sicily, against whom
Innocent undertook an expedition which proved unsuccessful.
In matters of doctrine the pope supported Bernard of Clairvaux
in his prosecution of Abelard and Arnold of Brescia, whom he
condemned as heretics. The remaining years of Innocent's life
were taken up by a quarrel with the Roman commune, which had
set up an independent senate, and one with King Louis VII.
of France, about an appointment. France was threatened
with the interdict, but before matters came to a head Innocent
died on the 22nd of September 1143.
See Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopadie, " Innocenz II.," with full
references. Gregorovius, History of Rome in the Middle Ages, trans.
by Hamilton (London, 1896), vol. iv. part ii. pp. 420-453. (P. SM.)
INNOCENT III. (Lando da Sezza), antipope (1179-1180),
sprang from a noble Lombard family. Opponents of Alex-
ander III. tried to make him pope in September 1179.
Alexander, however, bribed his partisans to give him up, and
imprisoned him in the cloister of La Cava in January 1180.
INNOCENT III. (Lotario de' Conti di Segni), pope from 1198
to 1216, was the son of Trasimondo, count of Segni, and of
Claricia, a Roman lady of the noble family of Scotti, and was
born at Anagni about 1160. His early education he received
at Rome, whence he went to the university of Paris and sub-
sequently to that of Bologna. At Paris, where he attended the
lectures of Peter of Corbeil, he laid the foundations of his profound
knowledge of the scholastic philosophy; at Bologna he acquired
an equally profound knowledge of the canon and civil law. Thus
distinguished by birth, intellect and attainments, on his return
to Rome he rose rapidly in the church. He at once became a
canon of St Peter's; he was made subdeacon of the Roman Church
by Gregory VIII.; and in 1190 his uncle, Pope Clement III.,
created him cardinal-deacon of Santi Sergio e Baccho. The
election of Celestine III. in the following year withdrew Lotario
for a while from the active work of the Curia, the new pope
belonging to the family of the Orsini, who were at feud with the
Scotti. Lotario, however, employed his leisure in writing
several works: Mysteriorum evangelicae legis ac sacramenti
eucharistiae libri VI., De contemtu mundi, sive de miseria humanae
conditionis, and De quadrapartila specie nuptiarum. Of these
only the two first are extant; they are written in the scholastic
style, a sea of quotations balanced and compared, and they
witness at once to the writer's profound erudition and to the fact
that his mind had not yet emancipated itself from the morbid
tendencies characteristic of one aspect of medieval thought.
Yet Lotario was destined to be above all things a man of action,
and, though his activities to the end were inspired by impractic-
able ideals, they were in their effects intensely practical; and
Innocent III. is remembered, not as a great theologian, but as
a great ruler and man of affairs.
On the 8th of January 1198 Celestine III. died, and on the
same day Lotario, though not even a priest, was unanimously
elected pope by the assembled cardinals. He took the name of
Innocent III. On the 2ist of February he was ordained priest,
and on the 22nd consecrated bishop. Innocent was but thirty-
seven years old at this time, and the vigour of youth, guided by a
master mind, was soon apparent in the policy of the papacy.
His first acts were to restore the prestige of the Holy See in Italy,
where it had been overshadowed by the power of the emperor
Henry VI. As pope it was his object to shake off the imperial
yoke, as an Italian prince to clear the land of the hated Germans.
The circumstances of the time were highly favourable to him.
The early death of Henry VI. (September 1197) had left Germany
divided between rival candidates for the crown, Sicily torn by
warring factions of native and German barons. It was, then,
easy for Innocent to depose the imperial prefect in Rome itself
and to oust the German feudatories who held the great Italian
fiefs for the Empire. Spoleto fell; Perugia surrendered;
Tuscany acknowledged the leadership of the pope; papal
rectores once more governed the patrimony of St Peter. Finally,
Henry's widow, Constance, in despair, acknowledged the pope
as overlord of the two Sicilies, and on her death (November 27,
1198) appointed him guardian of her infant son Frederick.
Thus in the first year of his pontificate Innocent had established
himself as the protector of the Italian nation against foreign
aggression, and had consolidated in the peninsula a secure basis
on which to build up his world-power.
The effective assertion of this world-power is the characteristic
feature of Innocent's pontificate. Other popes before him — from
Gregory VII. onwards — had upheld the theory of the supremacy
of the spiritual over the temporal authority, with various fortune;
it was reserved for Innocent to make it a reality. The history
of the processes by which he accomplished this is given elsewhere.
Here it will suffice to deal with it in the broadest outline. In
Germany his support of Otto IV. against Philip of Swabia, then
of Philip against Otto and finally, after Philip's murder (June 21,
1208), of the young Frederick II. against Otto, effectually
prevented the imperial power, during his pontificate, from
again becoming a danger to that of the papacy in Italy. Conces-
sions at the cost of the Empire in Italy were in every case the
price of his support (see GERMANY: History}. In his relations
with the German emperors Innocent acted partly as pope,
partly as an Italian prince; his victories over other and more
distant potentates he won wholly in his spiritual capacity.
Thus he forced the masterful Philip Augustus of France to put
away Agnes of Meran and take back his Danish wife Ingeborg,
whom he had wrongfully divorced; he compelled Peter of Aragon
to forgo his intended marriage with Bianca of Navarre and
ultimately (1204) to receive back his kingdom as a fief of the
Holy See; he forced Alphonso IX. of Leon to put away his wife
Berengaria of Castile, who was related to him within the pro-
hibited degrees, though he pronounced their children legitimate.
Sancho of Portugal was compelled to pay the tribute promised
by his father to Rome, and Ladislaus of Poland to cease from
infringing the rights of the church. Even the distant north
felt the weight of Innocent's power, and the archbishop of
Trondhjem was called to order for daring to remove the ban of
excommunication from the repentant King Haakon IV., as an
infringement of the exclusive right of the pope to impose or
remove the ban of the church in the case of sovereigns. So
widespread was the prestige of the pope' that Kaloyan, prince
of Bulgaria, hoping to strengthen himself against internal foes
and the aggressions of the Eastern Empire, submitted to Rome
and, in November 1204, received the insignia of royalty from the
hands of the papal legates as the vassal of the Holy See.
Meanwhile Innocent had been zealous in promoting the
crusade which ultimately, under the Doge Dandolo, led to the
Latin occupation of Constantinople (see CRUSADES). This
diversion from its original object was at first severely censured
by Innocent; but an event which seemed to put an end to the
schism of East and West came to wear a different aspect; he
was the first pope to nominate a patriarch of Constantinople,
and he expressed the hope that henceforth the church would be
" one fold under one shepherd." By a bull of October 12, 1204,
moreover, Innocent proclaimed the same indulgences for a
crusade to Livonia as the Holy Land. The result was the
"conversion" of the Livonians (1206) and the Letts (1208)
by the crusaders headed by the knights of the Teutonic Order.
The organization of the new provinces thus won for the church
INNOCENT (POPES)
Innocent kept in his own hands, instituting the new archbishopric
of Riga and defining the respective jurisdictions of the arch-
bishops and the Teutonic Knights, a process which, owing to
the ignorance at Rome of the local geography, led to curious
confusion.
Another crusade, horrible in its incidents and momentous in
its consequences, was that proclaimed by Innocent in 1207
against the Albigenses. In this connexion all that can be said
in his favour is that he acted from supreme conviction; that
the heresies against which he appealed to the sword were really
subversive of Christian civilization; and that he did not use
force until for ten years he had tried all the arts of persuasion
in vain (see ALBIGENSES).
Of all Innocent's triumphs, however, the greatest was his
victory over King John of England. The quarrel between the
pope and the English king arose out of a dispute as to the election
to the vacant see of Canterbury, which Innocent had settled by
nominating Stephen Langton over the heads of both candidates.
John refusing to submit, Innocent imposed an interdict on the
kingdom and threatened him with a crusade; and, to avert
a worse fate, the English king not only consented to recognize
Langton but also to hold England and Ireland as fiefs of the
Holy See, subject to an annual tribute (May 1213). The sub-
mission was no idle form; for years the pope virtually ruled
England through his legates (see ENGLISH HISTORY and JOHN,
king of England). So great had the secular power of the papacy
become that a Byzantine visitor to Rome declared Innocent to
be " the successor not of Peter but of Constantine."
As in the affairs of the world at large, so also in those of the
church itself, Innocent's authority exceeded that of all his
predecessors. Under him the centralization of the ecclesiastical
administration at Rome received a great impulse, and the
independent jurisdiction of metropolitans and bishops was
greatly curtailed. In carrying out this policy his unrivalled
knowledge of the canon law gave him a great advantage. To
his desire to organize the discipline of the church was due the
most questionable of his expedients: the introduction of the
system of provisions and reservations, by which he sought to
bring the patronage of sees and benefices into his own hands — a
system which led later to intolerable abuses.
The year before Innocent's death the twelfth ecumenical
council assembled at the Lateran under his presidency. It was
a wonderful proof at once of the world-power of the pope and
of his undisputed personal ascendancy. It was attended by
the plenipotentiaries of the emperor, of kings and of princes,
and by some 1500 archbishops, bishops, abbots and other
dignitaries. The business before it, the disciplining of heretics
and Jews, and the proclamation of a new crusade, &c., vitally
concerned the states represented; yet there was virtually
no debate and the function of the great assembly was little
more than to listen to and endorse the decretals read by the
pope (see LATERAN COUNCILS). Shortly after this crowning
exhibition of his power the great pope died on the i6th of
July 1216.
Innocent III. is one of the greatest historical figures, both in
the grandeur of his aims and the force of character which brought
him so near to their realization. An appreciation of his work
and personality will be found in the article PAPACY; here it
will suffice to say that, whatever judgment posterity may have
passed on his aims, opinion is united as to the purity of the
motives that inspired them and the tireless self-devotion with
which they were pursued. " I have no leisure," Innocent once
sighed, " to meditate on supermundane things; scarce I can
breathe. Yea, so much must I live for others, that almost I
am a stranger to myself." Yet he preached frequently, both at
Rome and on his journeys — many of his sermons, inspired by a
high moral earnestness, have come down to us — and, towards
the end of his life, he found time to write a pious exposition of
the Psalms. His views on the papal supremacy are best explained
in his own words. Writing to the patriarch of Constantinople
(Inn. III., lib. ii. ep. 200) he says: " The Loxd left to Peter the
governance not of the church only but of the whole world; "
579
and again in his letter to King John of England (lib. xvi. ep. 131) :
" The King of Kings ... so established the kingship and the
priesthood in the church, that the kingship should be priestly,
and the priesthood royal (ut sacerdotale sit regnum el sacerdotium
sit regale), as is evident from the epistle of Peter and the law
of Moses, setting one over all, whom he appointed his vicar
on earth." In his answer to the ambassadors of Philip Augustus
he states the premises from which this stupendous claim is
logically developed: —
" To princes power is given on earth, but to priests it is attributed
also in heaven; to the former only over bodies, to the latter also over
souls. Whence it follows that by so much as the soul is superior to
the body, the priesthood is superior to the kingship. . .' . Single
rulers have single provinces, and single kings single kingdoms; but
feter, as in the plenitude, so in the extent of his power is pre-eminent
over all, since he is the Vicar of Him whose is the earth and the
tullness thereof, the whole wide world and all that dwell therein."
To the emperor of Constantinople, who quoted i Peter ii.
13, 14, to the contrary, he replied in perfect good faith that the
apostle's admonition to obey " the king as supreme was addressed
to lay folk and not to the clergy." The more intelligent laymen
of the time were not convinced even when coerced. Even so
pious a Catholic as the minnesinger Walther von der Vogelweide,
giving voice to the indignation of German laymen, ascribed
Innocent's claims, not to soundness of his scholastic logic, but
to the fact that he was " too young " (owe der babest ist zejunc).
The literature on Innocent III. is very extensive; a carefully
analysed bibliography will be found in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklo-
pddie (3rd ed., 1901) i. " Innocenz III." In A. Potthast, Bibliotheca
hist. med. aem (2nd ed., Berlin, 1896), p. 650, is a bibliography of the
literature on Innocent's writings. In the Corpus juris canonici, ed.
Aemihus Friedberg (Leipzig, 1881), vol. ii., pp. xiv.-xvii., are lists of
the official documents of Innocent III. excerpted in the Decretales
Gregorii IX. The most important later works on Innocent III.
are Achille Luchaire's Innocent III, Rome et I'ltalie (Paris, 1904),
Innocent III, la croisade des Albigeois (ib. 1905), Innocent III,
la papaute et I'empire (ib. 1906), Innocent III, la question d'oftent
(ib. 1906); Innocent III, les royalties vassales du Saint-Sikge (ib.
1908) ; and Innocent III, la concile de latran et la reforme de I'eglise
(1908) ; Innocent the Great, by C. H. C. Pirie-Gordon (London, 1907) ;
is the only English monograph on this pope and contains some useful
documents, but is otherwise of little value. See also H. H. Milman,
History of Latin Christianity, vol. v. ; F. Gregorovius, Rome in the
Middle Ages, translated by A. Hamilton (1896), vol. v. pp. 5-110;
J. C. L. Gieseler, Ecclesiastical Hist., translated by J. W. Hull, vol. iii.
(Edinburgh, 1853), which contains numerous excerpts from his
letters, &c. Innocent's works are found in Migne, Patrologiae Cursus
Completus, Series Latina, vols. ccxiv.-ccxyii. For a translation of
Innocent's answer to King John on the interdict, and John's sur-
render of England and Ireland to Innocent, see Gee and Hardy,
Documents illustrative of Church History (London, 1896), pp. 73
et seq. (W. A. P.)
INNOCENT IV. (Sinibaldo Fiesco), pope 1243-1254, belonged
to the noble Genoese family of the counts of Lavagna. Born
at Genoa, he was educated under the care of his uncle Opizo,
bishop of Parma. After taking orders at Parma, when he was
made canon of the cathedral, he studied jurisprudence at Bologna.
His first recorded appearance in political affairs was in 1218-
1219, when he was associated with Cardinal Hugolinus (afterwards
Gregory IX.) in negotiating a peace between Genoa and Pisa.
This led to his rapid promotion. In 1223 Pope Honorius III.
gave him a benefice in Parma, and in 1226 he was established
at the curia as auditor contradictarum lilerarum of the pope, a
post he held also under Gregory IX., until promoted (1227)
to be vice-chancellor of the Roman Church. In September
of the same year he was created cardinal priest of San Lorenzo
in Lucina. He was papal rector (governor) of the March of
Ancona from 1235 to 1240. On the 25th of June 1243 he was
elected pope by the cardinals assembled at Anagni.
Innocent was raised to the Holy See when it was at deadly
feud with the emperor Frederick II., who lay under excommuni-
cation. Frederick at first greeted the elevation of a member
of an imperialist family with joy; but it was soon clear that
Innocent intended to carry on the traditions of his predecessors.
Embassies and courtesies were, indeed, interchanged, and on
the 3ist of March 1244 a treaty was signed at Rome, whereby
the emperor undertook to satisfy the pope's claims in return
for his own absolution from the ban. Neither side, however,
580
INNOCENT (POPES)
was prepared to take the first steps to carry out the agreement,
and Innocent, who had ventured back to Rome, began to feel
unsafe in the city, where the imperial partisans had the ascend-
ancy. Fearing a plan to kidnap him, he left Rome, ostensibly
to meet the emperor, and from Sutri fled by night on horseback,
pursued by 300 of the emperor's cavalry, to Civitavecchia,
whence he took ship for Genoa and thence proceeded across
the Alps to Lyons, at that time a merely nominal dependence
of the Empire. Thence he wrote to the French king, Louis IX.,
asking for an asylum in France; but this Louis cautiously
refused. Innocent, therefore, remained at Lyons, whence he
issued a summons to a general council, before which he cited
Frederick to appear in person, or by deputy. The council, which
met on the 5th of June 1245, was attended only by those prepared
to support the pope's cause; and though Frederick condescended
to be represented by his justiciar, Thaddeus of Suessa, the
judgment was a foregone conclusion. On the lyth of July
Innocent formally renewed the sentence of excommunication
on the emperor, and declared him deposed from the imperial
throne and that of Naples. Frederick retorted by announcing
his intention of reducing " the clergy, especially the highest,
to a 'state of apostolic poverty," and by ordaining the severest
punishments for those priests who should obey the papal sentence.
Innocent thereupon proclaimed a crusade against the emperor
and armed his ubiquitous agents, the Franciscan and Dominican
friars, with special indulgences for all those who should take up
the cross against the imperial heretic. At the same time he did
all in his power to undermine Frederick's authority in Germany
and Italy. In Naples he fomented a conspiracy among the
feudal lords, who were discontented with the centralized
government established under the auspices of Frederick's
chancellor, Piero della Vigna. In Germany, at his instigation,
the archbishops with a few of the secular nobles in 1 246 elected
Henry Raspe, landgrave of Thuringia, German king; but the
" priests' king," as he was contemptuously called, died in the
following year, William II., count of Holland, being after some
delay elected by the papal party in his stead.
Innocent's relentless war against Frederick was not supported
by the lay opinion of his time. In Germany, where it wrought
havoc and misery, it increased the already bitter resentment
against the priests. From England the pope's legate was driven
by threats of personal violence. In France not even the saintly
King Louis IX., who made several vain attempts to mediate,
approved the pope's attitude; and the failure of the crusade
which, in 1248, he led against the Mussulmans in Egypt, was,
with reason, ascribed to the deflection of money and arms from
this purpose to the war against the emperor. Even the clergy
were by no means altogether on Innocent's side; the council
of Lyons was attended by but 150 bishops, mainly French and
Spanish, and the deputation from England, headed by Robert
Grossetete of Lincoln and Roger Bigod, came mainly in order
to obtain the canonization of Edmund of Canterbury and to
protest against papal exactions. Yet, for better or for worse,
Innocent triumphed. His financial position was from the
outset strong, for not only had he the revenue from the
accustomed papal dues but he had also the support of the
powerful religious orders; e.g. in November 1245 he visited
the abbey of Cluny and was presented by the abbot with gifts,
the value of which surprised even the papal officials. At first
the war went in Frederick's favour; then came the capture
of the strategically important city of Parma by papal partisans
(June i6th, 1247). From this moment fortune changed. On
the i8th of February 1248 Frederick's camp before Parma
(the temporary town of Vittoria) was taken and sacked, the
imperial insignia — of vast significance in those days — being
captured. From this blow the emperor never recovered; and
when on the I3th of December 1250 he died Innocent greeted
the news by quoting from Psalm xcvi. n, "Let the heavens
rejoice and let the earth be glad."
On the i pth of April 1251 Innocent left Lyons, which had
suffered severely from his presence, and returned to Italy.
He continued the struggle vigorously with Frederick's son and
successor, Conrad IV., who in 1252 descended into Italy, reduced
the rebellious cities and claimed the imperial crown. Innocent,
determined that the Hohenstaufen should not again dominate
Italy, offered the crown of Sicily in turn to Richard of Cornwall,
Charles of Anjou, and Henry III. of England, the last of whom
accepted the doubtful gift for his son Edmund. Even aftel
Conrad's capture of Naples Innocent remained inexorable;
for he feared that Rome itself might fall into the hands of the
German king. But fortune favoured him. On the 2oth of May
1254 Conrad died, leaving his infant son Conradin, as Henry
VI. had left Frederick II., under the pope's guardianship.
Innocent accepted the charge and posed as the champion of the
infant king. He held, indeed, to his bargain with Henry III.
and, with all too characteristic nepotism, exercised his rights
over the Sicilian kingdom by nominating his own relations to
its most important offices. Finally, when Manfred, who by
Frederick's will had been charged with the government of the
two Sicilies, felt obliged to acknowledge the pope's suzerainty,
Innocent threw off the mask, ignored Conradin's claims, and on
the 24th of October formally asserted his own claims to Calabria
and Sicily. He entered Naples on the 27th; but meanwhile
Manfred had fled and had raised a considerable force; and the
news of his initial successes against the papal troops reached
Innocent as he lay sick and hastened his end. He died on the
7th of December 1254.
Innocent IV. is comparable to his greater predecessor Innocent
III. mainly in the extreme assertion of the papal claims. " The
emperor," he wrote, " doubts and denies that all men and all
things are subject to the See of Rome. As if we who are judges
of angels are not to give sentence on earthly things. . . . The
ignorant assert that Constantine first gave temporal power to
the See of Rome; it was already bestowed by Christ Himself,
the true King and Priest, as inalienable from its nature and
absolutely unconditional. Christ established not only a pontifical
but a royal sovereignty (principatus) and committed to blessed
Peter and his successors the empire both of earth and heaven,
as is sufficiently proved by the plurality of the keys " (Codex
epist. Vatic. No. 4957, 49, quoted in Raumer, Hohenstaufen,
iv. 78). But this language, which in the mouth of Innocent III.
had been consecrated by the greatness of his character and aims,
was less impressive when it served as a cloak for an unlimited
personal ambition and a family pride which displayed itself
in unblushing nepotism. Yet in some respects Innocent IV.
carried on the high traditions of his great predecessors. Thus
he admonished Sancho II. of Portugal to turn from his evil
courses and, when the king disobeyed, absolved the Portuguese
from their allegiance, bestowing the crown on his brother
Alphonso. He also established an ecclesiastical organization
in the newly converted provinces of Prussia, which he divided
into four dioceses; but his attempt to govern the Baltic countries
through a legate broke on the opposition of the Teutonic Order,
whose rights in Prussia he had confirmed.
It was Innocent IV. who, at the council of Lyons, first bestowed
the red hat on the Roman cardinals, as a symbol of their readiness
to shed their blood in the cause of the church.
Innocent was a canon lawyer of some eminence. His small
work De exceptionibus was probably written before he became
pope; but the Apparatus in quinque libros decretalium, which
displays both practical sense and a remarkable mastery of the
available materials, was written at Lyons immediately after
the council. His Apologeticus, a defence of the papal claims
against the Empire, written — as is supposed — in refutation of
Piero della Vigna's argument in favour of the independence of
the Empire, has been lost. Innocent was also a notable patron
of learning; he encouraged Alexander of Hales to write his
Summa universae theologiae, did much for the universities,
notably the Sorbonne, and founded law schools at Rome and
Piacenza.
Innocent's letters, the chief source for his life, are collected by
E. Berger in Les Registres d' Innocent IV (3 vols., Paris, 1884-1887).
For English readers the account in Milman's Latin Christianity,
vol. vi. (3rd ed., 1864) is still useful. Full references will be found
in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopddie, vol. ix. (1901). (W. A. P.)
INNOCENT (POPES)
INNOCENT V. (Pierre de Champagni or de Tarentaise), pope
from the 2ist of January to the 22nd of June 1276, was born
about 1225 in Savoy and entered the Dominican order at an
early age. He studied theology under Thomas Aquinas, Albertus
Magnus and Bonaventura, and in 1262 was elected provincial
of his order in France. He was made archbishop of Lyons in
1271; cardinal-bishop of Ostia and Velletri, and grand peni-
tentiary in 1275; and, partly through the influence of Charles
of Anjou, was elected to succeed Gregory X. As pope he estab-
lished peace between the republics of Lucca and Pisa, and
confirmed Charles of Anjou in his office of imperial vicar of
Tuscany. He was seeking to carry out the Lyons agreement
with the Eastern Church when he died. His successor was
Adrian V. Innocent V., before he became pope, prepared, in
conjunction with Albertus Magnus and Thomas Aquinas, a rule
of studies for his order, which was accepted in June 1259. He
was the author of several works in philosophy, theology and
canon law, including commentaries on the Scriptures and on
the Sentences of Peter Lombard, and is sometimes referred to
as famosissimus doctor. He preached the funeral sermon at
Lyons over St Bonaventura. His bulls are in the Turin collection
(i8S9).
See F. Gregoroyius, Rome in the Middle Ages, vol. 5, trans, by
Mrs G. W. Hamilton (London, 1900-1902); A. Potthast, Regesta
pontif. Roman, vol. ii. (Berlin, 1875); E. Bourgeois, Le Bienheureux
Innocent V (Paris, 1899) ; J. E. Borel, Notice biogr. sur Pierre de
Tarentaise (ChambeVy, 1890); P. J. B6thaz, Pierre des Cours de la
Salle, pape sous le nom Innocent V (Augustae, 1891); L. Carboni,
De Innocentio V. Romano pontifice (1894). (C. H. HA.)
INNOCENT VI. (Etienne Aubert), pope from the i8th of
December 1352 to the I2th of September 1362, was born at
Mons in Limousin. He became professor of civil law at Toulouse
and subsequently chief judge of the city. Having taken orders,
he was raised to the see of Noyon and translated in 1340 to
that of Clermont. In 1342 he was made cardinal-priest of Sti
Giovanni e Paolo, and ten years later cardinal-bishop of Ostia
and Velletri, grand penitentiary, and administrator of the
bishopric of Avignon. On the death of Clement VI., the cardinals
made a solemn agreement imposing obligations, mainly in favour
of the college as a whole, on whichever of their number should
be elected pope. Aubert was one of the minority who signed
the agreement with the reservation that in so doing he would
not violate any law, and was elected pope on this understanding;
not long after his accession he declared the agreement null and
void, as infringing the divinely-bestowed power of the papacy.
Innocent was one of the best Avignon popes and filled with
reforming zeal; he revoked the reservations and commendations
of his predecessor and prohibited pluralities; urged upon the
higher clergy the duty of residence in their sees, and diminished
the luxury of the papal court. Largely through the influence of
Petrarch, whom he called to Avignon, he released Cola di Rienzo,
who had been sent a prisoner in August 1352 from Prague to
Avignon, and used the latter to assist Cardinal Albornoz, vicar-
general of the States of the Church, in tranquillizing Italy and
restoring the papal power at Rome. Innocent caused Charles IV.
to be crowned emperor at Rome in 1355, but protested against
the famous " Golden Bull " of the following year, which pro-
hibited papal interference in German royal elections. He
renewed the ban against Peter the Cruel of Castile, and interfered
in vain against Peter IV. of Aragon. He made peace between
Venice and Genoa, and in 1360 arranged the treaty of Bretigny
between France and England. In the last years of his pontificate
he was busied with preparations for a crusade and for the reunion
of Christendom, and sent to Constantinople the celebrated
Carmelite monk, Peter Thomas, to negotiate with the claimants
to the Greek throne. He instituted in 1354 the festival of the
Holy Lance. Innocent was a strong and earnest man of monastic
temperament, but not altogether free from nepotism. He was
succeeded by Urban V.
The chief sources for the life of Innocent VI. are in Baluzius,
Vitae Pap. Avenion. vol. i. (Paris, 1693) ; Magnum bullarium
Romanum, vol. iv. (Turin, 1859) ; E. Werunsky, Excerpta ex registris
dementis VI. et Innocentii VI. (Innsbruck, 1885). See also L.
Pastor, History of the Popes, vol. i, trans, by F. I. Antrobus (London,
581
1899) ; F. Gregorovius, Rome in the Middle Ages, vol. 6, trans, by
Mrs G. W. Hamilton (London, 1900-1902); D. Cerri, Innocenzo
Papa VI (Turin, 1873); J. B. Christophe, Histoire de la papaute
pendant le XIV s&cle, vol. 2 (Paris, 1853); M. Souchon, Die
Papstwahlen (Brunswick, 1888); G. Daumet, Innocent VI et
Blanche de Bourbon (Paris, 1899); E. Werunsky, Gesch. Kaiser
Karls IV. (Innsbruck, 1892). There is an excellent article by
M. Naumann in Hauck's Realencyklopddie, yd ed. (C. H. HA.)
INNOCENT VII. (Cosimo dei Migliorati), pope from the i7th
of October 1404 to the 6th of November 1406, was born of middle-
class parentage at Sulmona in the Abruzzi in 1339. On account
of his knowledge of civil and canon law, he was made papal
vice-chamberlain and archbishop of Ravenna by Urban VI.,
and appointed by Boniface IX. cardinal priest of Sta Croce in
Gerusalemme, bishop of Bologna, and papal legate to England.
He was unanimously chosen to succeed Boniface, after each of
the cardinals had solemnly bound himself to employ all lawful
means for the restoration of the church's unity in the event of his
election, and even, if necessary, to resign the papal dignity. The
election was opposed at Rome by a considerable party, but
peace was maintained by the aid of Ladislaus of Naples, in
return for which Innocent made a promise, inconsistent with
his previous oath, not to come to terms with the antipope
Benedict XIII., except on condition that he should recognize
the claims of Ladislaus to Naples. Innocent issued at the close
of 1404 a summons for a general council to heal the schism, and
it was not the pope's fault that the council never assembled,
for the Romans rose in arms to secure an extension of their
liberties, and finally maddened by the murder of some of their
leaders by the pope's nephew, Ludovico dei Migliorati, they
compelled Innocent to take refuge at Viterbo (6th of August
1405). The Romans, recognizing later the pope's innocence of
the outrage, made their submission to him in January 1406.
He returned to Rome in March, and, by bull of the ist of
September, restored the city's decayed university. Innocent
was extolled by contemporaries as a lover of peace and honesty,
but he was without energy, guilty of nepotism, and showed no
favour to the proposal that he as well as the antipope should
resign. He died on the 6fh of November 1406 and was succeeded
by Gregory XII.
See L. Pastor, History of the Popes, vol. i., trans, by F. I. Antrobus
(London, 1899) ; M. Creighton, History of the Papacy, vol. i. (London,
1899); N. Valois, La France et le grand,, schisme d' accident (Paris,
1896-1902); Louis Gayet, Le Grand Schisme d' accident (Paris, 1898);
J. Loserth, Geschichte des spateren Mittelalters (1903); Theodorici
de Nyem, De schismate libri tres, ed. by G. Erler (Leipzig, 1890);
K. J. von Hefele, Conciliengeschichte, Bd. 6, 2nd ed. ; J. von Haller,
Papsttum u. Kirchenreform (Berlin, 1903). (C. H. HA.)
INNOCENT VIII. (Giovanni Battista Cibo), pope from the
2pth of August 1484 to the 25th of July 1492, successor of
Sixtus IV., was born at Genoa (1432), the son of Arano Cibo,
who under Calixtus III. had been a senator of Rome. His youth,
spent at the Neapolitan court, was far from blameless, and it
is not certain that he was married to the mother of his numerous
family. He later took orders, and, through the favour of
Cardinal Calandrini, half-brother of Nicholas V., obtained from
Paul II. the bishopric of Savona. Sixtus IV. translated him to
the see of Molfetta, and in 1473 created him cardinal-priest of
Sta Balbina, subsequently of Sta Cecilia. As pope, he addressed
a fruitless summons to Christendom to unite in a crusade against
the infidels, and concluded in 1489 a treaty with Bayezid II.,
agreeing in consideration of an annual payment of 40,000 ducats
and the gift of the Holy Lance, to detain the sultan's fugitive
brother Jem in close confinement in the Vatican. Innocent
excommunicated and deposed Ferdinand, king of Naples, by
bull of the nth of September 1489, for refusal to pay the papal
dues, and gave his kingdom to Charles VIII. of France, but
in 1492 restored Ferdinand to favour. He declared (1486)
Henry VII. to be lawful king of England by the threefold right
of conquest, inheritance and popular choice, and approved his
marriage with Elizabeth, the daughter of Edward IV. Innocent,
like his predecessor, hated heresy, and in the bull Summis
desiderantes (sth of December 1484) he instigated very severe
measures against magicians and witches in Germany; he
582
INNOCENT (POPES)
prohibited (1486) on pain of excommunication the reading of the
propositions of Pico della Mirandola; he appointed (1487)
T. Torquemada to be grand inquisitor of Spain; and he offered
plenary indulgence to all who would engage in a crusade against
the Waldenses. He took the first steps towards the canonization
of Queen Margaret of Scotland, and sent missionaries under
Portuguese auspices to the Congo. An important event of his
pontificate was the capture of Granada (2nd of January 1492),
which was celebrated at Rome with great rejoicing and for
which Innocent gave to Ferdinand of Aragon the title of " Catholic
Majesty." Innocent was genial, skilled in flattery, and popular
with the Romans, but he lacked talent and relied on the stronger
•will of Cardinal della Rovere, afterwards Julius II. His Curia
was notoriously corrupt, and he himself openly practised nepotism
in favour of his children, concerning whom the epigram is
quoted: " Octo nocens pueros genuit, totidemque puellas: — Hunc
merito poterit dicere Roma patrem." Thus he gave to his un-
deserving son Franceschetto several towns near Rome and married
him to the daughter of Lorenzo de' Medici. Innocent died on
the zsth of July 1492, and was succeeded by Alexander VI.
The sources for the life of Innocent VIII. are to be found in L.
Muratori, Rerum Italicarum Scriptores, vol. 3, and in Raynaldus,
a. 1484-1492. See also L. Pastor, History of the Popes, vol. 5,
trans, by F. I. Antrobus (London, 1898) ; M. Creighton, History of
the Papacy, vol. 4 (London, 1901); F. Gregorovius, Rome in the
Middle Ages, vol. 7, trans, by Mrs. G. W. Hamilton (London,
1900-1902) ; T. Hagen, Die Papstwahlen von 1484 u. 1492 (Brizen,
1885); S. Riezler, Die Hexenprozesse (1896); G. Viani, Memorie
della famiglia Cybo (Pisa, 1808) ;F. Serdonati, Vita e fatti d' Innocenzo
VIII. (Milan, 1829). (C. H. HA.)
INNOCENT IX. (Giovanni Antonio Fachinetti) was born in
1519. He filled the offices of apostolic vicar of Avignon, legate
at the council of Trent, nuncio to Venice, and president of the
Inquisition. He became cardinal in 1583; and under the
invalid Gregory XIV. assumed almost the entire conduct of
affairs. His election to the papacy, on the 29th of October
1591, was brought about by Philip II., who profited little by it,
however, inasmuch as Innocent soon succumbed to age and
feebleness, dying on the 3oth of December 1591.
See Ciaconius, Vitae et res gestae summorum Pontiff. Rom. (Rome,
1601-1602); Cicarella, continuator of Platina, De Vitis Pontiff.
Rom. (both contemporaries of Innocent); Ranke, Popes (Eng. trans.,
Austin), ii. 233 sq. (all brief accounts). (T. F. C.)
INNOCENT X. (Giovanni Battista Pamfili) was born in Rome
on the 6th of May 1574, served successively as auditor of the
Rota, nuncio to Naples, legate apostolic to Spain, was made
cardinal in 1627, and succeeded Urban VIII. as pope on the
1 5th of September 1644. Throughout his pontificate Innocent
was completely dominated by his sister-in-law, Donna Olimpia
Maidalchini, a woman of masculine spirit. There is no reason to
credit the scandalous reports of an illicit attachment. Never-
theless, the influence of Donna Olimpia was baneful; and she
made herself thoroughly detested for her inordinate ambition
and rapacity. Urban VIII. had been French in his sympathies;
but the papacy now shifted to the side of the Habsburgs, and
there remained for nearly fifty years. Evidences of the change
were numerous: Innocent promoted pro-Spanish cardinals;
attacked the Barberini, proteges of Mazarin, and sequestered
their possessions; aided in quieting an insurrection in Naples,
fomented by the duke of Guise; and refused to recognize the
independence of Portugal, then at war with Spain. As a reward
he obtained from Spain and Naples the recognition of ecclesi-
astical immunity. In 1649 Castro, which Urban VIII. had failed
to take, was wrested from the Farnese and annexed to the
Papal States. The most worthy efforts of Innocent were directed
to the reform of monastic discipline (1652). His condemnation
of Jansenism (1653) was met with the denial of papal infallibility
in matters of fact, and the controversy entered upon a new phase
(see JANSENISM). Although the pontificate of Innocent witnessed
the conversion of many Protestant princes, the most notable
being Queen Christina of Sweden, the papacy had nevertheless
suffered a perceptible decline in prestige; it counted for
little in the negotiations at Munster, and its solemn protest
against the peace of Westphalia was entirely ignored.
Innocent died on the 7th of January 1655, and was succeeded
by Alexander VII.
For contemporary lives of Innocent see Oldoin, continuator of
Ciaconius, Vitae et res gestae summorum Pontiff. Rom. ; and Palazzi,
Gesta Pontiff. Rom. (Venice, 1687-1688) iv. 570 sqq. ; Ciampi's Innoc.
X. Pamfili, et la sua Corte (Rome, 1878), gives a very full account of
the period. Gualdus' (pseud, of Gregorio Leti; y. bibliog. note, art.
" SIXTUS V.") Vita de Donna Olimpia Maidalchina (1666) is gossipy
and untrustworthy; Capranica's Donna Olympia Pamfili (Milan,
!875, 3rd ed.) is fanciful and historically of no value. See also
Ranke, Popes (Eng. trans., Austin), iii. 40 sqq.; v. Reumont, Gesch.
der Stadt Rom. iii. 2, p. 623 sqq.; Brosch, Gesch. des Kirchenstaates
(1880) i. 409 sqq.; and the extended bibliography in Herzog-Hauck,
Realencyklopadie, s.v. " Innocenz X." (T. F. C.)
INNOCENT XI. (Benedetto Odescalchi), pope from 1676 to
1689, was born at Como on the i6th of May 1611. He studied
law in Rome and Naples, entered the Curia under Urban VIII.
(his alleged military service seems to be questionable), and
became successively protonotary, president of the Apostolic
Chamber, governor of Macerate and commissary of Ancona.
Innocent X. made him a cardinal (1647), legate to Ferrara, and,
in 1650, bishop of Novara. His simple and blameless life, his
conscientious discharge of duty, and his devotion to the needs
of the poor had won for him such a name that, despite the
opposition of France, he was chosen to succeed Clement X. on
the 2ist of September 1676. He at once applied himself to moral
and administrative reform; declared against nepotism, intro-
duced economy, abolished sinecures, wiped out the deficit (at
the same time reducing rents), closed the gaming-houses, and
issued a number of sumptuary ordinances. He held monks
strictly to the performance of their vows; took care to satisfy
himself of the fitness of candidates for bishoprics; enjoined
regular catechetical instruction, greater simplicity in preaching,
and greater reverence in worship. The moral teaching of the
Jesuits incurred his condemnation (1679) (see LIGUORI), an act
which the society never forgave, and which it partially revenged
by forcing, through the Inquisition, the condemnation of the
quietistic doctrines of Moh'nos (1687), for which Innocent
entertained some sympathy (see MOLINOS).
The pontificate of Innocent fell within an important period
in European politics, and he himself played no insignificant role.
His protest against Louis XIV.'s extended claim to regalian
rights called forth the famous Declaration of Gallican Liberties
by a subservient French synod under the lead of Bossuet (1682),
which the pope met by refusing to confirm Louis's clerical appoint-
ments. His determination to restrict the ambassadorial right
of asylum, which had been grossly abused, was resented by
Louis, who defied him in his own capital, seized the papal
territory of Avignon, and talked loudly of a schism, without,
however, shaking the pope in his resolution. The preponderance
of France Innocent regarded as a menace to Europe. He
opposed Louis's candidate for the electorate of Cologne (1688),
approved the League of Augsburg, acquiesced in the designs
of the Protestant William of Orange, even in his supplanting
James II., whom, although a Roman Catholic, he distrusted
as a tool of Louis. The great object of Innocent's desire was
the repulse of the Turks, and his unwearying efforts to that
end entitled him to share in the glory of relieving Vienna
(1683).
Innocent died on the I2th of August 1689, lamented by his
subjects. His character and life were such as to suggest the
propriety of canonization, but hostile influences have defeated
every move in that direction.
The life of Innocent has been frequently written. See Guarnacci,
Vitae et res gestae Pontiff. Rom. (Rome, 1751), i. 105 sqq.; Palazzi,
Gesta Pontiff. Rom. (Venice, 1690); also the lives byAlbnzzi(Rome,
1695); Buonamici (Rome, 1776); and Immich (Berlin, 1900).
Particular phases of Innocent's activity have been treated by
Michaud, Louis XIV. et Innoc.XI. (Paris, 1882 sqq., 4 vols.) ; Dubruel,
La Correspond. . . . du Card. Carlo Pio, &c. (see Rev. des quest,
hist. Ixxv. (1904) 602 sqq.); and Gerin, in Rev. des quest, hist., 1876,
1878, 1886. For correspondence of Innocent see Colombo, Notizie
biogr. e lettere di P. Innoc. XL (Turin, 1878); and Berthier, Innoc.
PP. XI. Epp. ad Principes (Rome, 1890 sqq.). An extended biblio-
graphy may be found in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopadie, s.v.
?' Innocenz XI." (T. F. C.)
INNOCENTS' DAY— INNSBRUCK
5B3
INNOCENT XII. (Antonio Pignatelli), pope from 1691 to 1700
in succession to Alexander VIII., was born in Naples on the
i3th of March 1615, was educated at the Jesuit College in Rome,
entered upon his official career at the age of twenty, and became
vice-legate of Urbino, governor of Perugia, and nuncio to
Tuscany, to Poland and to Austria. He was made cardinal and
archbishop of Naples by Innocent XI., whose pontificate he took
as a model for his own, which began on the i2th of July 1691.
Full of reforming zeal, he issued ordinances against begging,
extravagance and gambling; forbade judges to accept presents
from suitors; built new courts of justice; prohibited the sale
of offices, maintaining the financial equilibrium by reducing
expenses; and, an almost revolutionary step, struck at the root of
nepotism, in a bull of 1692 ordaining that thenceforth no pope
should grant estates, offices or revenues to any relative. Innocent
likewise put an end to the strained relations that had existed
between France and the Holy See for nearly fifty years. He
adjusted the difficulties over the regalia, and obtained from the
French bishops the virtual repudiation of the Declaration of
Gallican Liberties. He confirmed the bull of Alexander VIII.
against Jansenism (1696); and, in 1699, under pressure from
Louis XIV., condemned certain of Fenelon's doctrines which
Bossuet had denounced as quietistic (see FENELON). When the
question of the Spanish succession was being agitated he advised
Charles II. to make his will in favour of the duke of Anjou.
Innocent died, on the eve of the great conflict, on the 27th of
September 1700. Moderate, benevolent, just, Innocent was one
of the best popes of the modern age.
See Guarnacci, Vitae et res gestae Pontiff. Rom. (Rome, 1751),
i. 389 sqq.; Ranke, Popes (Eng. trans., Austin), iii. 186 sqq.; v.
Reumont, Gesch. der Stadt Rom. iii. 2, p. 640 sqq.; and the Bullarium
Innoc. XII. (Rome, 1697). (T. F. C.)
INNOCENT XIII. (Michele Angelo Conti), pope from 1721 to
1724, was the son of the duke of Poli, and a member of a family
that had produced several popes, among them Innocent III.,
was born in Rome on the i3th of May 1655, served as nuncio in
Switzerland, and, for a much longer time, in Portugal, was made
cardinal and bishop of Osimo and Viterbo by Clement XL, whom
he succeeded on the 8th of May 1721. One of his first acts was
to invest the emperor Charles VI. with Naples (1722); but
against the imperial investiture of Don Carlos with Parma and
Piacenza he protested, albeit in vain. He recognized the
Pretender, "James III.," and promised him subsidies conditional
upon the re-establishment of Roman Catholicism in England.
Moved by deep-seated distrust of the Jesuits and by their
continued practice of " Accommodation," despite express papal
prohibition (see CLEMENT XI.), Innocent forbade the Order to
receive new members in China, and was said to have meditated
its suppression. This encouraged the French Jansenist bishops
to press for the revocation of the bull Unigenitus; but the pope
commanded its unreserved acceptance. He weakly yielded to
pressure and bestowed the cardinal's hat upon the corrupt and
debauched Dubois. Innocent died on the 7th of March 1724,
and was succeeded by Benedict XIII.
See Guarnacci, Vitae et res gestae Pontiff. Rom. (Rome, 1751), ii.
137 sqq., 381 sqq.; Sandini, Vitoe Pontiff. Rom. (Padua, 1739);
M. v. Mayer, Die Papstwahl tnnocenz' XIII. (Vienna, 1874);
Michaud, "La Fin du Clement XI. et le commencement du pontifical
d'Innocent XIII." in the Internal. Theol. Zeitschr. v. 42 sqq., 304 sqq.
(T. F. C.)
INNOCENTS' DAY, or CHILDERMAS, a festival celebrated in
the Latin church on the 28th of December, and in the Greek
church on the 29th (O.S.) in memory of the massacre of the
children by Herod. The Church early regarded these little ones
as the first martyrs. It is uncertain when the day was first kept
as a saint's day. At first it seems to have been absorbed into the
celebration of the Epiphany, but by the 5th century it was kept
as a separate festival. In Rome it was a day of fasting and
mourning. In the middle ages the festival was the occasion for
much indulgence to the children. The boy-bishop (q.v.), whose
tenure of office lasted till Childermas, had his last exercise of
authority then, the day being one of the series of days which
were known as the Feast of Fools. Parents temporarily abdicated
authority, and in nunneries and monasteries the youngest nun
and monk were for the twenty-four hours allowed to masquerade
as abbess and abbot. These mockeries of religion were con-
demned by the Council of Basel (1431); but though shorn of its
extravagances the day is still observed as a feast day and merry-
making for children in Catholic countries, and particularly as an
occasion for practical joking like an April Fool's Day. In
Spanish-America when such a joke has been played, the phrase
equivalent to "You April fool!" is Que la inocencia le valgat
May your innocence protect yoa! The society of Lincoln's Inn
specially celebrated Childermas, annually electing a " king of the
Cockneys." Innocents' Day was ever accounted unlucky.
Nothing was begun and no marriages took place then. Louis XI.
prohibited all state business. The coronation of Edward IV.,
fixed for a Sunday, was postponed till the Monday when it was
found the Sunday fell on the 28th of December. In rural England
it was deemed unlucky to do housework, put on new clothes or
pare the nails. At various places in Gloucestershire, Somerset
and Worcestershire muffled peals were rung (Notes and Queries,
ist series, vol. viii. p. 617). In Northampton the festival was
called " Dyzemas Day " (possibly from Gr. 6wr- " ill " and
"mass "), and there is a proverb "What is begun on Dyzemas
will never be finished." The Irish call the day La Croasla na
bliana, " the cross day of the year," or Diar dasin darg, " blood
Thursday," and many legends attach to it (Notes and Queries,
4th series, vol. xii. p. 185). In medieval England the children
were reminded of the mournfulness of the day by being whipped
in bed on Innocents' morning. This custom survived to the
1 7th century.
INNSBRUCK, the capital of the Austrian province of Tirol,
and one of the most beautifully situated towns in Europe. In
1900 the population was 26,866 (with a garrison of about 2000
men), mainly German-speaking and Romanist. Built at a
height of 1880 ft., in a wide plain formed by the middle valley
of the Inn and on the right bank of that river, it is surrounded by
lofty mountains that seem to overhang the town. It occupies
a strong military position (its commercial and industrial import-
ance is now but secondary) at the junction of the great highway
from Germany to Italy over the Brenner Pass, by which it is by
rail 1095 m. from Munich and 1745 m. from Verona, with that
from Bregenz in the Vorarlberg, distant 122 m., by rail under the
Arlberg Pass. It takes its name from its position, close to the
chief bridge over the Inn. It is the seat of the supreme judicial
court of the Tirol, the Diet of which meets in the Landhaus.
The streets are broad, there are several open places and the
houses are handsome, many of those in the old town dating
from the i7th and i8th centuries, and being adorned with
frescoes, while the arcades beneath are used as shops.
The principal monument is the Franciscan or Court church
(1553-1563). In it is the magnificent 16th-century cenotaph
(his body is elsewhere) of the emperor Maximilian (d. 1519),
who, as count of the Tirol from 1490 onwards, was much beloved
by his subjects. It represents the emperor kneeling in prayer
on a gigantic marble sarcophagus, surrounded by twenty-eight
colossal bronze statues of mourners, of which twenty-three
figure ancestors, relatives or contemporaries of Maximilian,
while five represent his favourite heroes of antiquity — among
these five are the two finest statues (both by Peter Vischer of
Nuremberg), those of King Arthur of Britain and of Theodoric,
the Ostrogothic king. On the sides of the sarcophagus are
twenty-four marble reliefs, depicting the principal events in
the life of Maximilian, nearly all by Alexander Colin of Malines,
while the general design of the whole monument is attributed
to Gilg Sesselschreiber, the court painter. In one of the aisles
of the same church is the Silver Chapel, so called from a silver
Madonna and silver bas-reliefs on the altar; it contains the tombs
of Archduke Ferdinand, count of the Tirol (d. 1595) and his
non-royal wife/ Philippine Welser of Augsburg (d. 1580), whose
happy married life spent close by is one of the most romantic
episodes in Tirolese history. In the other aisle are the tombs,
with monuments, of the heroes of the War of Independence of
1809, Hofer, Haspinger and Speckbacher. It was in this church
584
INNS OF COURT
that Queen Christina of Sweden, daughter of Gustavus Adolphus,
abjured Protestantism, in 1655. There are also several other
churches and convents, among the latter the first founded (1593)
in Germany by the Capuchins.
The university of Innsbruck was formally founded in 1677,
and refounded (after two periods of suspension, 1782-1792
and 1810-1826) in 1826. It is attended by about 1000 students
and has a large staff of professors, the theological faculty being
controlled by the Jesuits. It has a library of 176,000 books,
and 1049 MSS. The University or Jesuit church dates from the
early lyth century. The Ferdinandeum is the provincial museum
(founded in 1823, though the present building is later). The
house known as the Goldne Dachl has its roof covered with
gilded copper tiles; it was built about 1425, by Frederick, count
of the Tirol, nicknamed " with the empty pockets," but the
balcony and gilded roof were added in 1500 by the emperor
Maximilian. Among the other monuments of Innsbruck may
be mentioned the Pillar of St Anne, erected in 1706 to com-
memorate the repulse of the French and the Bavarians in 1703;
the Triumphal Arch, built in 1765, on the occasion of the marriage
of the future emperor Leopold II. with the Infanta Maria Louisa
of Spain; and a fountain, with a bronze statue of Archduke
Leopold V., set up in 1863-1877, in memory of the five-hundredth
anniversary of the union of the Tirol with Austria.
The Roman station of Veldidena was succeeded by the Pre-
monstratensian abbey of Wilten, both serving to guard the
important strategical bridge over the Inn. In 1180 the count
of Andechs (the local lord) moved the market-place over to the
right bank of the river (where is the convent), and in 1187 we
first hear of the town by its present name. Between 1233 and
1235 it was fortified, and a castle built for the lord. But it was
only about 1420 that Archduke Frederick IV. (" with the
empty pockets ") built himself a new castle in Innsbruck, which
then replaced Meran as the capital of Tirol. The county of
Tirol was generally held by a cadet line of the Austrian house,
the count being almost an independent ruler. But the last
princeling of this kind died in 1665, since which date Innsbruck
and Tirol have been governed from Vienna. In 1552 Maurice
of Saxony surprised and nearly took Innsbruck, almost capturing
the emperor Charles V. himself, who escaped owing to a mutiny
among Maurice's troops. In the patriotic war of 1809, Innsbruck
played a great part and suffered much, while in 1848, at the
time of the revolution in Vienna, it joyfully received the emperor
Ferdinand. (W. A. B. C.)
INNS OF COURT. The Inns of Court and Chancery are
voluntary non-corporate legal societies seated in London, having
their origin about the end of the I3th and the commencement
of the 1 4th century.
Dugdale (Origines Juridiciales) states that the learned in
English law were anciently persons in holy orders, the justices
of the king's court being bishops, abbots and the like. But in
1207 the clergy were prohibited by canon from acting in the
temporal courts. The result proving prejudicial to the interests
of the community, a commission of inquiry was issued by
Edward I. (1290), and this was followed up (1292) by a second
commission, which among other things directed that students " apt
and eager" should be brought from the provinces and placed in
proximity to the courts of law now fixed by Magna Carta at
Westminster (see INN). These students were accordingly
located in what became known as the Inns of Court and Chancery,
the latter designated by Fortescue ( De Laudibus) as " the earliest
settled places for students of the law," the germ of what Sir
Edward Coke subsequently spoke of as our English juridical
university. In these Inns of Court and Chancery, thus con-
stituted, and corresponding to the ordinary college, the students,
according to Fortescue, not only studied the laws and divinity,
but further learned to dance, sing and play instrumental music,
" so that these hostels, being nurseries or seminaries of the court,
were therefore called Inns of Court."
Stow in his Survey (1598) says: "There is in and about
this city a whole university, as it were, of students, practisers
or pleaders and judges of the laws of this realm"; and he goes
on to enumerate the several societies, fourteen in number, then
existing, corresponding nearly with those recognized in the
present day, of which the Inns of Court, properly so-called, are
and always have been four, namely Lincoln's Inn, the Inner
Temple, the Middle Temple and Gray's Inn. To these were
originally attached as subordinate Inns of Chancery, Furnival's
Inn, Th'avie's Inn (to Lincoln's Inn), Clifford's Inn, Clement's
Inn (to the Inner Temple), New Inn (to the Middle Temple),
Staple's Inn, Barnard's Inn (to Gray's Inn), but they were cut
adrift by the older Inns and by the middle of the i8th century
had ceased to have any legal character (vide infra). In addition
to these may be specified Serjeant's Inn, a society composed
solely of serjeants-at-law, which ceased to exist in 1877. Besides
the Inns of Chancery above enumerated, there were others, such
as Lyon's Inn, which was pulled down in 1868, and Scrope's Inn
and Chester or Strand Inn, spoken of by Stow, which have long
been removed, and the societies to which they belonged have
disappeared. The four Inns of Court stand on a footing of
complete equality, no priority being conceded to or claimed
by one inn over another. Their jurisdictions and privileges are
equal, and upon affairs of common interest the benchers of the
four inns meet in conference. From the earliest times there has
been an interchange of fellowship between the four houses;
nevertheless the Middle Temple and Lincoln's Inn, and the
Inner Temple and Gray's Inn, have maintained a closer alliance.
The members of an Inn of Court consist of benchers, barristers
and students. The benchers are the senior members of the
society, who are invested with the government of the body
to which they belong. They are more formally designated
" masters of the bench," are self-elected and unrestricted as
to numbers. Usually a member of an inn, on attaining the
rank of king's counsel, is invited to the bench. Other members
of long standing are also occasionally chosen, but no member
by becoming a king's counsel or by seniority of standing acquires
the right of being nominated a bencher. The benchers vary in
number from twenty in Gray's Inn to seventy and upwards in
Lincoln's Inn and the Inner Temple. The powers of the benchers
are practically without limit within their respective societies;
their duties, however, are restricted to the superintendence and
management of the concerns of the inn, the admission of candi-
dates as students, the calling of them to the bar and the exercise
of discipline generally over the members. The meetings of the
benchers are variously denominated a " parliament " in the
Inner and Middle Temples, a " pension " in Gray's Inn and a
" council " in Lincoln's Inn. The judges of the superior courts
are the visitors of the inns, and to them alone can an appeal be
had when either of the societies refuses to call a member to the
bar, or to reinstate in his privileges a barrister who has been
disbarred for misconduct. The presiding or chief officer is the
treasurer, one of the benchers, who is elected annually to that
dignity. Other benchers fulfil the duties of master of the library,
master of the walks or gardens, dean of the chapel and so forth,
while others are readers, whose functions are referred to below.
The usages of the different inns varied somewhat formerly
in regard both to the term of probationary studentship enforced
and to the procedure involved in a " call " to the bar by which
the student is converted into the barrister. In the present day
the entrance examination, the course of study and the examina-
tions to be passed on the completion of the curriculum are
identical and common to all the inns (see ENGLISH LAW).
When once called to the bar, no hindrance beyond professional
etiquette limits a barrister's freedom of action; so also members
may on application to the benchers, and on payment of arrears
of dues (if any), leave the society to which they belong, and thus
cease altogether to be members of the bar likewise. A member
of an Inn of Court retains his name on the lists of his inn for life
by means of a small annual payment Varying from £i to £5,
which at one or two of the inns is compounded for by a fixed
sum taken at the call to the bar.
The ceremony of the " call " varies in detail at the different
inns. It takes place after dinner (before dinner at the Middle
Temple, which is the only inn at which students are called in
INNS OF COURT
585
their wigs and gowns), in the " parliament," " pension " or
" council " chamber of the benchers. The benchers sit at a
table round which are ranged the students to be called. Each
candidate being provided with a glass of wine, the treasurer or
senior bencher addresses them and the senior student briefly
replies. " Call Parties " are also generally held by the new
barristers; at the Middle Temple they are allowed in hall.
During the reign of Edward III. the Inns of Court and Chancery,
based on the collegiate principle, prospered under the supervision
and protection of the crown. In 1381 Wat Tyler invaded the
Temple, and in the succeeding century (1450) Jack Cade
meditated pulling down the Inns of Court and killing the lawyers.
It would appear, moreover, that the inmates of the inns were
themselves at times disorderly and in conflict with the citizens.
Fortescue (c. 1464) describing these societies thus speaks of
them: " There belong to the law ten lesser inns, which are
called the Inns of Chancery, in each of which there are one
hundred students at least, and in some a far greater number,
though not constantly residing. After the students have made
some progress here they are admitted to the Inns of Court. Of
these there are four, in the least frequented of which there are
about two hundred students. The discipline is excellent, and
the mode of study well adapted for proficiency." This system
had probably existed for two centuries before Fortescue wrote,
and continued to be enforced down to the time of Sir Thomas
More (1498), of Chief Justice Dyer (1537) and of Sir Edward
Coke (1571). By the time of Sir Matthew Hale (1629) the
custom for law students to be first entered to an Inn of Chancery
before being admitted to an Inn of Court had become obsolete,
and thenceforth the Inns of Chancery have been abandoned to
the attorneys. Stow in his Survey succinctly points out the
course of reading enforced at the end of the i6th century. He
says that the Inns of Court were replenished partly by students
coming from the Inns of Chancery, who went thither from the
universities and sometimes immediately from grammar schools;
and, having spent some time in studying the first elements
of the law, and having performed the exercises called " bolts,"
" moots " and " putting of cases," they proceeded to be admitted
to, and become students in, one of the Inns of Court. Here
continuing for the space of seven years or thereabouts, they
frequented readings and other learned exercises, whereby,
growing ripe in the knowledge of the laws, they were, by the
general consent either of the benchers or of the readers, called
to the degree of barrister, and so enabled to practise in chambers
and at the bar. This ample provision for legal study continued
with more or less vigour down to nearly the commencement
of the i8th century. A languor similar to that which affected
the church and the universities then gradually supervened, until
the fulfilment of the merest forms sufficed to confer the dignity
of advocate and pleader. This was maintained until about 1845,
when steps were taken for reviving and extending the ancient
discipline and course of study, bringing them into harmony
with modern ideas and requirements.
The fees payable vary slightly at the different inns, but average
about £150. This sum covers all expenses from admission to an
inn to the call at the bar, but the addition of tutorial and other
expenses may augment the cost of a barrister's legal education
to £400 or £500. The period of study prior to call must not be
less than twelve terms, equivalent to about three years. Solicitors,
however, may, be called without keeping any terms if they have
been in practice for not fewer than five consecutive years.
It has been seen that the studies pursued in ancient times
were conducted by means of " readings," " moots " and " bolts."
The readings were deemed of vital importance, and were delivered
in the halls with much ceremony; they were frequently regarded
as authorities and cited as such at Westminster in argument.
Some statute or section of a statute was selected for analysis and
explanation, and its relation to the common law pointed out.
Many of these readings, dating back to Edward I., are extant,
and well illustrate the importance of the subjects and the
exhaustive and learned manner in which they were treated.
The function of " reader " involved the holder in very weighty
expenses, chiefly by reason of the profuse hospitality dispensed —
a constant and splendid table being kept during the three weeks
and three days over which the readings extended, to which were
invited the nobility, judges, bishops, the officers of state and
sometimes the king himself. In 1688 the readers were paid
£200 for their reading, but by that time the office had become a
sinecure. In the present day the readership is purely honorary
and without duties. The privilege formerly assumed by the
reader of calling to the bar was taken away in 1664 by an order
of the lord chancellor and the judges. Moots were exercises of
the nature of formal arguments on points of law raised by the
students and conducted under the supervision of a bencher and
two barristers sitting as judges in the halls of the inns. Bolts
were of an analogous character, though deemed inferior to moots.
In the early history of the inns discrimination was exercised
in regard to the social status of candidates for admission to them.
Sir John Feme, a writer of the i6th century, referred to by
Dugdale, states that none were admitted into the houses of court
except they were gentlemen of blood. So also Pliny, writing in
the ist century of the Christian era (Letters, ii. 14), says that before
his day young men even of the highest families of Rome were
not admitted to practice except upon the introduction of some
man of consular rank. But he goes on to add that all barriers
were then broken down, everything being open to everybody —
a remark applicable to the bar of England and elsewhere in the
present day. It may here be noted that no dignity or title
confers any rank at the bar. A privy councillor, a peer's son,
a baronet, the speaker of the House of Commons or a knight —
all rank at the bar merely according to their legal precedence.
Formerly orders were frequently issued both by the benchers and
by the crown on the subject of the dress, manners, morals and
religious observances of students and members. Although
some semblance of a collegiate discipline is still maintained,
this is restricted to the dining in hall, where many ancient
usages survive, and to the closing of the gates of the inns at night.
Each inn maintains a chapel, with the accompaniment of
preachers and other clergy, the services being those of the
Church of England. The Inner and the Middle Temple have
joint use of the Temple church. The office of preacher is usually
filled by an ecclesiastic chosen by the benchers. The principal
ecclesiastic of the Temple church is, however, constituted by
letters patent by the crown without episcopal institution or
induction, enjoying, nevertheless, no authority independently
of the benchers. He bears the title of Master of the Temple.
It has already been stated, on the authority of Fortescue,
that the students of the Inns of Court learned to dance, sing and
play instrumental music; and those accomplishments found
expression in the " masques " and " revels " for which the
societies formerly distinguished themselves, especially the Inner
Temple and Gray's Inn. These entertainments were of great
antiquity and much magnificence, involving very considerable
expense. Evelyn (Diary) speaks of the revels at the Middle
Temple as an old and riotous custom, having relation neither
to virtue nor to policy. The last revel appears to have been
held at the Inner Temple in 1734, to mark the occasion of the
elevation of Lord Chancellor Talbot to the woolsack. The plays
and masques performed were sometimes repeated elsewhere
than in the hall of the inn, especially before the sovereign at
court. A master of the revels was appointed, commonly desig-
nated Lord of Misrule. There is abundant information as to the
scope and nature of these entertainments: one of the festivals
is minutely described by Gerard Leigh in his Accedence of Armorie,
1612; and a tradition ascribes the first performance of Shake-
speare's Twelfth Night to a revel held in the Middle Temple hall
in February 1601. The hospitality of the inns now finds expres-
sion mainly in the " Grand Day," held once in each of the four
terms, when it is customary for the judges and other distinguished
visitors to dine with the benchers (who sit apart from the
barristers and students on a dais in some state), and " Readers'
Feast," on both which occasions extra commons and wine are
served to the members attending. But the old customs also
found some renewal in the shape of balls, concerts, garden-parties
xrv. 19 a
586
INNS OF COURT
and other entertainments. In 1887 there was a revival (the
first since the 1 7th century) of the Masque of Flowers at both
the Inner Temple and Gray's Inn. The Royal Horticultural
Society's annual exhibition of flowers and fruit is held in May in
the Temple Gardens. Plays are also occasionally performed in
the Temple, Robert Browning's Sordello being acted in 1902
by a company of amateurs, most of whom were either members
of the bar or connected with the legal profession.
The Inner and the Middle Temple, so far as their history can be
traced, have always been separate societies. Fortescue, writing
between 1461 and 1470, makes no allusion to a previous junction of
the two inns. Dugdale (1671) speaks of the Temple as having been
one society, and states that the students so increased in number
that at length they divided, becoming the Inner and Middle Temple
respectively. He does not, however, give any authority for this
statement, or furnish the date of the division. The first trustworthy
mention of the Temple as an inn of court is found in the Paston
Letters, where, under date November 1440, the Inner Temple is
spoken of as a college, as is also subsequently the Middle Temple.
The Temple had been the seat in England of the Knights Templars,
on whose suppression in 1312 it passed with other of their possessions
to the crown, and after an interval of some years to the Knights
Hospitallers of St John of Jerusalem, who in the reign of Edward III.
demised the mansion and its surroundings to certain professors of
the common law who came from Thavie's Inn. Notwithstanding
the destruction of the muniments of the Temple by fire or by popular
commotion, sufficient testimony is attainable to show that in the
reigns of Edward III. and Richard II. the Temple had become the
residence of the legal communities which have since maintained
there a permanent footing. The two societies continued as tenants
to the Knights Hospitallers of St John until the dissolution of the
order in 1539; they then became the lessees of the crown, and so
remained until 1609, when James I. made a grant by letters patent of
the premises in perpetuity to the benchers of the respective societies
on a yearly payment by each of £10, a payment bought up in the
reign of Charles II. In this grant the two inns are described as
" the Inner and the Middle Temple or New Temple," and as " being
two out of those four colleges the most famous of all Europe " for
the study of the law. Excepting the church, nothing remains of the
edifices belonging to the Knights Templars, the present buildings
having been almost wholly erected since the reign of Queen Elizabeth
or since the Great Fire, in which the major part of the Inner Temple
perished. The church has been in the joint occupation of the Inner
and Middle Temple from time immemorial — the former taking the
southern and the latter the northern half. The round portion of
the church was consecrated in 1185, the nave or choir in 1240.
It is the largest and most complete of the four remaining round
churches in England, and is built on the plan of the church of the
Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem. Narrowly escaping the ravages of
the fire of 1666, this beautiful building is one of the most perfect
specimens of early Gothic architecture in England. In former
times the lawyers awaited their clients for consultation in the Round
Church, as similarly the serjeants-at-Law were accustomed to resort
to St Paul's Cathedral, where each serjeant had a pillar assigned him.
The Inner Temple, comprehending a hall, parliament chamber,
library and other buildings, occupies the site of the ancient mansion
of the Knights Templars, built about the year 1240, and has from
time to time been more or less rebuilt and extended, the present
handsome range of buildings, including a new dining hall, being
completed in 1870. The library owes its existence to William
Petyt, keeper of the Tower Records in the time of Queen Anne, who
was also a benefactor to the library of the Middle Temple. The
greatest addition by gift was made by the Baron F. Maseres in 1825.
The number of volumes now in the library is 37,000. Of the Inns of
Chancery belonging to the Inner Temple Clifford's Inn was anciently
the town residence of the Barons Clifford, and was demised in 1345
to a body of students of the law. It was the most important of the
Inns of Chancery, and numbered among its members Coke and
Selden. At its dinners a table was specially set aside for the
" Kentish Mess," though it is not clear what connexion there was
between the Inn and the county of Kent. It was governed by a
principal and twelve rulers. Clement's Inn was an Inn of Chancery
before the reign of Edward IV., taking its name from the parish
church of St Clement Danes, to which it had formerly belonged.
Clement's Inn was the inn of Shakespeare's Master Shallow, and was
the Shepherd's Inn of Thackeray's Pendennis. The buildings of
Clifford's Inn survive (1910), but of Clement's Inn there are left but
a few fragments.
The Middle Temple possesses in its hall one of the most stately
of existing Elizabethan buildings. Commenced in 1562, under
the auspices of Edmund Plowden, then treasurer, it was not com-
pleted until 1572, the richly carved screen at the east end in the style
of the Renaissance being put up in 1575. The belief that the screen
was constructed of timber taken from ships of the Spanish Armada
(1588) is baseless. The hall, which has been preserved unaltered,
has been^ie scene of numerous historic incidents, notably the enter-
tainments given within its walls to regal and other personages from
Queen Elizabeth downwards. The library, which contains about
28,000 volumes, dates from 1641, when Robert Ashley, a member
of the society, bequeathed his collection of books in all classes of
literature to the inn, together with a large sum of money; other
benefactors were Ashmole (the antiquary), William Petyt (a bene-
factor of the Inner Temple) and Lord Stowell. From 171 1 to 1826 the
library was greatly neglected ; and many of the most scarce and valu-
able books were lost. The present handsome library building, which
stands apart from the hall, was completed in 1861, the prince of
Wales (afterwards Edward VII.) attending the inauguration cere-
mony on October 3 1st of that year, and becoming a member and
bencher of the society on the occasion. He afterwards held the office
of treasurer (1882). The MSS. in the collection are few and of no
special value. In civil, canon and international law, as also in divinity
and ecclesiastical history, the library is very rich; it contains also
some curious works on witchcraft and demonology. There was but
one Inn of Chancery connected with the Middle Temple, that of
New Inn, which, according to Dugdale, was formed by a society of
students previously settled at St George's Inn, situated near St
Sepulchre's Church without Newgate; but the date of this transfer
is not known. The buildings have now been pulled down.
Lincoln' slnn stands on the site partly of an episcopal palace erected
in the time of Henry III. by Ralph Nevill, bishop of Chichester
and chancellor of England, and partly of a religious house, called
Black Friars House, in Holborn. In the reign of Edward II., Henry
Lacy, earl of Lincoln, possessed the place, which from him acquired
the name of Lincoln's Inn, probably becoming an Inn of Court soon
after his death (in 1310), though of its existence as a place of legal
study there is little authentic record until the time of Henry VI.
(1424), to which date the existing muniments reach back. The fee
simple of the inn would appear to have remained vested in the see
of Chichester; and it was not until 1580 that the society which for
centuries had occupied the inn as tenants acquired the absolute
ownership of it. The old hall, built about 1506, still remains, but
has given place to a modern structure designed by Philip Hardwick,
R.A., which, along with the buildings containing the library, was
completed in 1845, Queen Victoria attending the inauguration
ceremony (October 13). The chapel, built after the designs of Inigo
Tones, was consecrated in 1623. The library — as a collection of
law books the most complete in the country — owes its foundation
to a bequest of John Nethersale, a member of thesociety, in 1497,
and is the oldest of the existing libraries in London. Various entries
in the records of the inn relate to the library, and notably in 1608,
when an effort was made to extend the collection, and the first
appointment of a master of the library (an office now held in annual
rotation by each bencher) was made. The library has been much
enriched by donations and by the acquisition by purchase of collec-
tions of books on special subjects. It includes also an extensive
and valuable series of MSS., the whole comprehending 50,000
volumes. The prince of Wales (George V.), a bencher of the society,
filled the office of treasurer in 1904. The Inns of Chancery affiliated
to Lincoln's Inn were Thavie's Inn and Furnival's Inn. Thavie's
Inn was a residence of students of the law in the time of Edward III.,
and is mentioned by Fortescue as having been one of the lesser
houses of Lincoln's Inn for some centuries. It thus continued down
to 1769, when the inn was sold by the benchers, and thenceforth it
ceased to have any character as a place of legal education. Furnival's
Inn became the resort of students about the year 1406, and was pur-
chased by the society of Lincoln's Inn in 1547. It was governed
by a principal and twelve antients. In 1817 the Inn was rebuilt,
but from that date it ceased to exist as a legal community and is now
demolished.
The exact date of Gray's Inn becoming the residence of lawyers is
not known, though it was so occupied before the year 1370. The
inn stands upon the site of the manor of Portpoole, belonging in
ancient times to the dean and chapter of St Paul's, but subsequently
the property of the family of Grey de Wilton and eventually of the
crown, from which a grant of the manor or inn was obtained, many
years since discharged from any rent or payment. The hall of the
inn is of handsome design, similar to the Middle Temple hall in its
general character and arrangements, and was completed about the
year 1560. The chapel, of much earlier date than the hall, has,
notwithstanding its antiquity, little to recommend it to notice, being
small and insignificant, and lacking architectural features of any kind!
The library, including about 13,000 volumes, contains a small but
important collection of MSS. and missals, and also some valuable
works on divinity. Little is known of the origin or early history of
the library, though mention is incidentally made of it in the society's
records in the l6th and I7th centuries. The gardens, laid out about
!597t it is believed under the auspices of the lord chancellor Bacon,
at that time treasurer of the society, continue to this day as then
planned, though with some curtailment owing to the erection of
additional buildings. Among many curious customs maintained in
this inn is that of drinking a toast on grand days " to the glorious,
pious and immortal memory of Queen Elizabeth." Of the special
circumstances originating this display of loyalty there is no record.
The Inns of Chancery connected with Gray's Inn are Staple'and
Barnard's Inns. Staple Inn was an Inn of Chancery in the reign
of Henry V., and is probably of yet earlier date. Readings and
moots were observed here with regularity. Sir Simonds d'Ewes
mentions attending a moot in February 1624. The Inn, with its
INNUENDO— INQUISITION
picturesque Elizabethan front, faces Holborn. It was sold by the
antients in 1884 for £68,000. It is in a very good state of preservation,
and it is the intention of the purchasers, the Prudential Assurance
Company, to preserve it as a memorial of vanishing London. Bar-
nard's Inn, anciently designated Mackworth Inn, was an Inn of
Chancery in the reign of Henry VI. It was bequeathed by him to
the dean and chapter of Lincoln. It is now the property of the
Mercer's Company and is used as a school.
The King's Inns, Dublin, the legal school in Ireland, corresponds
closely to the English Inns of Court, and is in many respects in unison
with them in its regulations with regard to the admission of students
into the society, and to the degree of barrister-at-law, as also in the
scope of the examinations enforced. Formerly it was necessary to
keep a number of terms at one of the Inns in London — the stipulation
dating as far back as 1542 (33 Henry VIII. c. 3). Down to 1866 the
course of education pursued at the King's Inns differed from the
English Inns of Court in that candidates for admission to the legal
profession as attorneys and solicitors carried on their studies with
those studying for the higher grade of the bar in the same building
under a professor specially appointed for this purpose, — herein
following the usage anciently prevailing in the Inns of Chancery in
London. This arrangement was put an end to by the Attorneys
and Solicitors Act (Ireland) 1866. The origin of the King's Inns may
be traced to the reign of Edward I., when a legal society designated
Collett's Inn was established without the walls of the city; it was
destroyed by an insurrectionary band. In the reign of Edward III.
Sir Robert Preston, chief baron of the exchequer, gave up his resi-
dence within the city to the legal body, which then took the name
of Preston's Inn. In 1542 the land and buildings known as Preston's
Inn were restored to the family of the original donor, and in the same
year Henry VIII. granted the monastery of Friars Preachers for the
use of the professors of the law in Ireland. The legal body removed
to the new site, and thenceforward were known by the name of the
King's Inns. Possession of this property having been resumed by
the government in 1742, and the present Four Courts erected thereon,
a plot of ground at the top of Henrietta Street was purchased by
the society, and the existing hall built in the year 1800. The library,
numbering over 50,000 volumes, with a few MSS., is housed in build-
ings specially provided in the year 1831, and is open, not only to
the members of the society, but also to strangers. The collection
comprises all kinds of literature. It is based principally upon a
purchase made in 1787 of the large and valuable library of Mr Justice
Robinson, and is maintained chiefly by an annual payment made
from the Consolidated Fund to the society in lieu of the right to
receive copyright works which was conferred by an Act of 1801, but
abrogated in 1836.
In discipline and professional etiquette the members of the bar
in Ireland differ little from their English brethren. The same style of
costume is enforced, the same gradations of rank — attorney-general,
solicitor-general, king's counsel and ordinary barristers — being found.
There are also serjeants-at-law limited, however, to three in number,
and designated 1st, 2nd and 3rd Serjeant. The King's Inns do not
provide chambers for business purposes; there is consequently no
aggregation of counsel in certain localities, as is the case in London
in the Inns of Court and their immediate vicinity.
The corporation known as the Faculty of Advocates in Edinburgh
corresponds with the Inns of Court in London and the King's Inns
in Dublin (see ADVOCATES, FACULTY OF).
AUTHORITIES. — Fortescue, De laudibus legum Angliae, by A.
Amos (1825); Dugdale, Origines juridicales (2nd ed., 1671);
History and Antiquities of the Four Inns of Court, &c. (1780, 2nd ed.) ;
Foss, Judges of England (1848-1864, 9 vols.); Herbert, Antiquities
of the Inns of Court (1804); Pearce, History of the Inns of Court
(1848); Report of the Commissioners appointed to inquire into the
Inns of Court and Chancery, 1855; Ball, Student's Guide to the Bar
(1878); Stow, Survey of London and Westminster, by Strype (1754-
1755) ; Nichols, Progresses of Elizabeth and James I. ; Lane, Student's
Guide through Lincoln's Inn (2nd ed., 1805) ; Spilsbury, Lincoln's Inn,
with an Account of the Library (2nd ed., 1873); Douthwaite, Notes
illustrative of the History and Antiquities of Gray's Inn (1876),
and Gray's Inn, its History and Associations (1886); Fasten Letters
(1872); Law Magazine, 1859-1860; Quarterly Review, October,
1871 ; Cowel, Law Dictionary (1727); Duhigg, History of the King's
Inns in Ireland (1806); Mackay, Practice of the Court of Session
(1879); Bellot, The Inner and Middle Temple (1902); Inderwick,
The King's Peace (1895); Fletcher, The Pension Book of Gray's Inn
(1901); Loftie, The Inns of Court (1895); Hope, Chronicles of an
Old Inn (Gray's Inn) (1887); A Calendar of the Inner Temple
Records (ed. F. A. Inderwick, 3 vols.). Q. C. W.)
INNUENDO (Latin for " by nodding," from innuere, to indicate
by nodding), an insinuation, suggestion, in prima facie innocent
words, of something defamatory or disparaging of a person.
The word appears in legal documents in Medieval Latin, to
explain, in parenthesis, that to which a preceding word refers;
thus, " he, innuendo, the plaintiff, is a thief." The word is still
found in pleadings in actions for libel and slander. The innuendo,
in the plaintiff's statement of claim, is an averment that words
587
written or spoken by the defendant, though prima facie not
actionable, have, in fact, a defamatory meaning, which is
specifically set out (see LIBEL AND SLANDER).
INOUYE, KAORU, MARQUESS (1835- ), Japanese states-
man, was born in 1835, a samurai of the Choshu fief. He was
a bosom friend of his fellow-clansman Prince Ito, and the two
youths visited England in 1863, serving as common sailors
during the voyage. At that time all travel abroad was forbidden
on pain of death, but the veto did not prove deterrent in the
face of a rapidly growing conviction that, as a matter of self-
protection, Japan must assimilate the essentials of Western
civilization. Shortly after the departure of Inouye and Ito, the
Choshu fief, having fired upon foreign vessels passing the strait
of Shimonoseki, was menaced by war with the Yedo government
or with the insulted powers, and Inouye and Ito, on receipt of
this news, hastened home hoping to avert the catastrophe.
They repaired to the British legation in Yedo and begged that
the allied squadron, then about to sail for Shimonoseki to call
Choshu to account, should be delayed that they might have an
opportunity of advising the fief to make timely submission.
Not only was this request complied with, but a British frigate
was detailed to carry the two men to Shimonoseki, and, pending
her departure, the British legation assisted them to lie perdu.
Their mission proved futile, however, and Inouye was subse-
quently waylaid by a party of conservative samurai, who left
him covered with wounds. This experience did not modify
his liberal views, and, by the time of the Restoration in 1867,
he had earned a high reputation as a leader of progress and
an able statesman. Finance and foreign affairs were supposed
to be the spheres specially suited to his genius, but his name
is not associated with any signal practical success in either,
though his counsels were always highly valued by his sovereign
and his country alike. As minister of foreign affairs he conducted
the long and abortive negotiations for treaty revision between
1883 and 1886, and in 1885 he was raised to the peerage with
the title of count, being one of the first group of Meiji statesmen
whose services were thus rewarded. Prior to his permanent
retirement from office in 1898, he held the portfolios of foreign
affairs, finance, home affairs, and agriculture and commerce,
and throughout the war with Russia he attended all important
state councils, by order of the emperor, being also specially
designated adviser to the minister of finance. In 1907 he was
raised to the rank of marquess. His name will go down in his
country's history as one of the five Meiji statesmen, namely,
Princes Ito and Yamagata, Marquesses Inouye and Matsukata
and Count Okuma.
INOWRAZLAW, the Polish form of the German Jung-Breslau,
by which the place was formerly known, a town in the Prussian
province of Posen, situated on an eminence in the most fertile
part of the province, 21 m. S.W. of Thorn. Pop. (1900) 26,141.
Iron-founding, the manufacture of machinery and chemicals, and
an active trade in cattle and country produce are carried on. In
the vicinity are important salt works and a sulphur mine, and
since 1876 a brine bath has been within the town. Inowrazlaw is
mentioned as early as 1185, and in 1772 it passed to Prussia.
INQUEST (O. Fr. enqueste, modern enquetejrom 'La.t.inquisitum,
inquirers, to inquire), an inquiry, particularly a formal legal
inquiry into facts. The word is now chiefly confined to the
inquiry held by a coroner and jury into the causes of certain
deaths, in matters of treasure trove, and, in the city of London,
in cases of fires (see CORONER). Formerly the term was applied
to many formal and official inquiries for fixing prices, &o.
INQUISITION, THE (Lat. inquisitio, an inquiry), the name
given to the ecclesiastical jurisdiction dealing both in the middle
ages and in modern times with the detection and puai,t,.
punishment of heretics and all persons guilty of any meat Of
offence against Catholic orthodoxy. It is incorrect bensy
to say that the Inquisition made its appearance '" <fte
in the i3th century complete in all its principles and g^,1"™
organs. It was the result of, or rather one step in,
a process of evolution, the beginnings of which are to
be traced back to the origins of Christianity. St Paul (i Tim.
588
INQUISITION
i. 20) " delivered unto Satan " Hymenaeus and Alexander,
" that they might learn not to blaspheme." The penalty of
death by stoning inflicted by the book of Deuteronomy upon
those who deserted the true faith (Deut. xiii. 6-9, xvii. 1-6) is
thus reduced to a purely spiritual excommunication. During
the first three centuries of the Church there is no trace of any
persecution, and the earlier Fathers, especially Origen and
Lactantius, reject the idea of it. Constantine, by the edict
of Milan (313), inaugurated an era of official tolerance, but from
the time of Valentinian I. and Theodosius I. onwards, laws against
heretics began to appear, and increased with astonishing regularity
and rapidity. We can count sixty-eight distributed over
fifty-two years; heretics are subjected to exile or confiscation,
disqualified from inheriting property, and even, in the case
of a few groups of Manichaeans and Donatists, condemned to
death; but it should be noticed that these penalties apply only
to the outward manifestations of heresy, and not, as in the middle
ages, to crimes of conscience. Within the Church,
St Optatus alone (De schismate Donatistarum, lib. iii.
Fathers, cap. iii.) approved of this violent repression of the
Donatist heresy; St Augustine only admitted a
temperata severitas, such as scourging, fines or exile, and at the
end of the 4th century the condemnation of the Spanish heretic
Priscillian, who was put to death in 385 by order of the emperor
Maximus, gave rise to a keen controversy. St Martin of Tours,
St Ambrose and St Leo vigorously attacked the Spanish bishops
who had obtained the condemnation of Priscillian. St John
Chrysostom considered that a heretic should be deprived of the
liberty of speech and that assemblies organized by heretics
should be dissolved, but declared that " to put a heretic to death
would be to introduce upon earth an inexpiable crime." From
la the the 6th to the gth century the heterodox, with the
early exception of the Manichaean sects in certain places,
were hardly subjected to persecution. They were,
moreover, rare and generally isolated, for groups
of sectaries only began to appear to any extent at the
time of the earliest appearances of Catharism. However, at
the end of the loth century, the disciples of Vilgard, a heretic
of Ravenna, were destroyed in Italy and Sardinia, according
to Glaber, ferro el incendio, probably by assimilation to the
Manichaeans. Perhaps this was the precedent for the punish-
ment of the thirteen Cathari who were burnt at Orleans in 1022
by order of King Robert, a sentence which has been commonly
quoted as the first action of the " secular arm " (or lay power)
against heresy in the West during the middle ages. However
that may be, after 1022 there were numerous cases of the execu-
tion of heretics, either by burning or strangling, in France, Italy,
the Empire and England. Up till about 1200 it is not quite
easy to determine what part was taken by the Church and its
bishops and doctors in this series of executions. At Orleans
the people, supported by the Crown, were responsible for the
death of the heretics; the historians give only the faintest indica-
tions of any direct intervention of the clergy, except perhaps for
the examination of doctrine. At Goslar (1051-1052) the pro-
ceedings were the same. At Asti (1034) the bishop's name
appears side by side with those of the other lords who attacked
the Cathari, but it seems clear that it was not he who had the chief
voice in their execution; at Milan, it was again the civil magis-
trates, and this time against the wish of the archbishop — who
gave the heretics the choice between the adoration of the cross
and death. At Soissons (1114) the mob, distrusting the weakness
of the clergy, took advantage of their bishop's absence to burn
heretics at the stake. It was also the mob who, infuriated at
seeing him destroy and burn crosses, burnt the heresiarch Peter
of Bruis (c. 1140). At Liege (1144) the bishop saved from the
flames certain persons whom the faithful were attempting to
burn. At Cologne (1163) the archbishop was less successful,
and the mob put the heretics to death without even a trial.
The condemnation of Arnold of Brescia was entirely political,
though he was denounced as a heretic to the secular arm by
Bernard of Clairvaux, and his execution was the act of the prefect
of Rome (1155). At Vezelay, on the contrary (1167), the
heretics were burnt after ecclesiastical judgment had been
pronounced by the abbot and several bishops. From 1183 to
1206 Hugh, bishop of Auxerre, took upon himself the discre-
tionary power of exiling, dispossessing or burning heretics,
while about the same time William of the White Hands, arch-
bishop of Reims, in concert with Philip, count of Flanders,
stamped out heresy from his diocese by fire. There was a
similar unanimity between the lay and ecclesiastical authorities
in the famous condemnation of the disciples of Amalric of Bena,
who were burnt at Paris in 1209 by order of Philip Augustus
after an ecclesiastical inquiry and judgment. The theory in
these matters was at first as uncertain as the practice;
in the nth century one bishop only, Theodwin of conflict-
Liege (d. 1075) , affirms the necessity for the punishment iag views
of heretics by the secular arm (1050). His predecessor, as to the
Wazo, bishop of Liege from 1041 to 1044, had expressly puoish-
condemned any capital punishment and advised the ™e'
bishop of Chalons to resort to peaceful conversion.
In the 1 2th century Peter the Cantor1 protested against the
death penalty, admitting at the most imprisonment. It was
imprisonment again, or exile, but not death, which the German
abbot Gerhoh of Reichersperg (1093-1169) demanded in the
case of Arnold of Brescia, and in dealing with the heretics of
Cologne, St Bernard, who cannot be accused of leniency where
heterodoxy was concerned, recommended pacific refutation,
followed by excommunication or prison, but never the death
penalty (see BERNARD, ST, of Clairvaux). In the councils, too,
it is clear that the appeal to the secular arm was
equally guarded: at Reims (1049) excommunication
alone is decreed against heretics; and when, as at councils.
Toulouse (1119) and the Lateran council (1139), it
is laid down that heretics, in addition to excommunication,
should be dealt with per poteslates exteras, or when, as at the
council of Reims (1148), the secular princes are forbidden to
support or harbour heretics, there is never any suggestion of
capital punishment. But it must be noticed that from the
opening years of the I2th century date the beginnings ia/iuence
of a decided evolution in the canon law, continuing up Of the
to the time of Innocent III., which substituted for Canon
arbitrary decisions according to circumstances an L*w'
organized and particularized legislation, in which judgment was
given secundum canonicas et legitimas sanctiones. Anselm of
Lucca and the Panormia attributed to Ivo of Chartres reproduced
word for word under the rubric De ediclo imperatorum in dampna-
tionem hoereticorum, law 5 of the title De hereticis of Justinian's
code, which pronounces the sentence of death against the
Manichaeans; and we should remember that the Cathari, and
in general all heretics in the West in the nth and I2th centuries
were considered by contemporary theologians as Manichaeans.
Gratian in the Decretum proclaims the views of St Augustine
(exile and fines). Certain of his commentators (2° pars Caus. '
xxiii.), and notably Rufinus Johannes Teutonicus, and the
anonymous glossator (in Uguccio's Great Summa of The
the Decretum) declare that impenitent heretics may, Council
or even should, be punished by death. As early as of Tours,
1 1 63, the council of Tours suggested to the ecclesiastical lt63'
authorities definite penalties to be inflicted on heretics, namely,
imprisonment and loss of all their property. Pope Alexander
III., who had attended the council of Tours of 1 163, re- Definition
newed at the Lateran council ( 1 1 79) the decisions which of the
had already been made with regard to the heterodox P™<**»*
in the south of France, and at Verona in 1184 ""* r
Pope Lucius III., in concert with the emperor a^"^e
Frederick Barbarossa, took still more severe measures: Emperor
obstinate heretics were to be excommunicated, and Frederick
then handed over to the secular arm, which would '•
inflict a suitable penalty. The emperor, on his side, laid them
under the imperial ban (exile, confiscation, demolition of
their houses, infamia, loss of civil rights, disqualification from
1 Pierre de Beauvoisis (?), choir-master (grand-chantre) of the
university of Paris (1184), bishop of Tournai (1191), of Paris (1196);
died as a Cistercian in 1 197. He was beatified.
INQUISITION
589
"m
public offices, &c.). The usage, then, was already quite clear;
but the death penalty had not as yet been demanded
penalty. or inflicted. Possibly it was Count Raymond V. of
Toulouse, in whose territories heretics abounded,
who in 1194 enacted a law threatening them with the
penalty of death; but the authenticity of this act has been
questioned. It was more probably Peter II. of Aragon who
was the first to decree, in 1197, the punishment of death by
burning against the heretics who should not have left his kingdom
within a given time. But it was Innocent III. who gave the
most powerful impetus to the anti-heretical movement
in the secular world by his frequent exhortations
(beginning in 1198) to the secular princes (letters of
March 25th, 1199, and September 22nd, 1207). As a jurist he
henceforward assimilated the crime of high treason against God
to that of high treason against temporal rulers, and admitted
all the terrible consequences of this assimilation.
It is therefore incorrect to believe that the Inquisition arose
out of, and at the time of, the crusade against the Albigenses.
These executions en masse certainly created a definitive
precedent for violent repression, but there was still
Crusade, no regular organization: the council of Toulouse,
Noregu- held in November 1229 by the Roman legate after the
'"ui'ttion treatV °f peace, attempted to organize one, and
constituted itself the tribunal. But the procedure was
still uncertain; in the north, from 1200 to 1222, at Paris (execu-
tion of the disciples of Amalric of Bena), at Strassburg, Cambrai,
Troyes and Besancon executions took place, after trials in which
the bishops were the judges, the exercise of the secular power
being based on vague phrases in the decrees of Louis VIII.
(that heretics be punished animodversione debita), or in those
of Louis IX., ordering his baillis or barons to do to them quod
debebunt. The emperor Frederick II. defined his jurisprudence
n more clearly: from 1220 to 1239, supported by Pope
Emperor Honorius III., and above all by Gregory IX., he
Frederick established against the heretics of the Empire in
a' general a legislation in which the penalties of death,
banishment and confiscation of property were formulated so
clearly as to be henceforth incontestable. Gregory IX. felt his
Qre o influence, and also that of the Dominican Guala,
ix. creates bishop of Brescia, who had subjected his episcopal
the moo- town to the full rigour of the imperial laws. The pope
astic la- no ionger hesitated as to the principle or the degree
of repression; but introduced new methods of inquiry
and judgment: he created out of the material furnished
him by the mendicant orders, and especially the Dominicans,
who were more disciplined than the rest and better theologians,
the monastic inquisition, which was more elastic,
TheDoml- . . .
nicaas more constant in its activities and more numerous
than the inquisition by legate, and better disciplined
than the episcopal inquisition. In November 1232 the Dominican
Alberic went round Lombardy with the title of Inquisitor
haereticae pravitatis. In 1231 a similar commission was given
to the Dominicans of Friesach and to the terrible Conrad of
Marburg, whose zeal in Germany even exceeded the pope's
wishes. In 1233 Gregory IX. addressed a letter to the bishops
in the south of France, in which he announced his intention of
employing the preaching friars in future for the discovery and
repression of heresy.
The inquisition was now regularly instituted, but its juris-
prudence was elaborated by successive additions or limitations,
by the force of custom and the detailed prescriptions
Beginnings acyed by the papal constitutions. The pope's com-
missi°ners " in the matter of heresy " at first travelled
from place to place. On arriving in a district they
addressed its inhabitants, called upon them to confess, if they
were heretics, or to denounce those whom they knew to be
heretics: a " time of grace " was opened, during which those
who freely confessed were dispensed from all penalties, or only
given a secret and very light penance; while those whose
heresy had been openly manifested were exempted from the
penalties of death and perpetual imprisonment. But this time
could not exceed one month. After that began the inquisition.
As soon as their mission was at an end, and heresy was considered
to be stamped out, the inquisitors left the country. Later,
inquisitorial districts were formed. The seat of the
Inquisition in each district was the monastery of
the order (Dominican or Franciscan) to which the
inquisitors for that part belonged. There was never
any special court or prison: the munis (prison) was lent to the
Inquisition by the ecclesiastical or secular authorities. The
maintenance of the prisoners and the duty of providing the
prison fell in principle upon the bishops (council of Toulouse,
1229), but they tried to evade it. The kings of France, and in
particular Louis VIII., granted subsidies to the
inquisitors. For each district the inquisitors were ,itorsaad
chosen by the provincials of their order, approved their
or rejected by the pope, and removable by him only. *"*'*•
Their discretionary powers were absolute. They "**"
conducted their interrogations before two persons (laymen or
ecclesiastics) and only pronounced their sentence after consulta-
tion with leading men in the district (communicate bonorum
virorum consilio). This was the only protection for the accused.
It was in vain that the civil lawyers tried to prove that the
secular authorities had a right to see the documents bearing on
the case; the Inquisition always succeeded in setting aside these
claims. The share taken in the proceedings by the bishops, the
accused or their representatives, though admitted in principle,
was as a rule merely illusory. The Inquisition had in addition
to these boni viri certain other lay assistant officials, its sworn
notaries, messengers and familiars, all of whom were closely
bound to it.
Bernard Guy (Bernardus Guidonis),1 one of the earliest and
most complete exponents of the theory of the Inquisition,
admits distinctly that in its procedure mtdla sunt pr^^n
specidia. The procedure was secret and in the oithe
highest degree arbitrary, proceeding sine strepitu et laquiti-
figura judicii, its object being to ascertain not so tloa'
much particular offences as tendencies: the murderers of the
inquisitor Peter Martyr2 were tried, not as assassins, but as
guilty of heresy and adversaries of the Inquisition; and on the
other hand, external acts of piety and verbal professions of faith
were held of no value. Moreover the Inquisition was not bound
by the ordinary rules of procedure in its inquiries: the accused
was surprised by a sudden summons, and as a rule imprisoned
on suspicion. All the accused were presumed to be guilty, the
judge being at the same time the accuser. Absence was naturally
considered as contumacy, and only increased the presumption
of guilt by seeming to admit it. The accused had the right to
demand a written account of the offences attributed to him
(capitula accusationis) , but the names of the witnesses were
withheld from him (Innocent IV.; bulls Cum negocium and
Licet sicut accepimus), he did not know who had denounced him,
nor what weight was attached by the judges to the denunciations
made against him. The utmost that was allowed him was the
unsatisfactory privilege of the recusationes dirinatrices, i.e. at
his first examination he was asked for the names of any enemies
of whom he knew, and the causes of their enmity. Heretics or
persons deprived of civil rights (infames) were admitted as
witnesses in cases of heresy. Women, children or slaves could
be witnesses for the prosecution, but not for the defence, and
cases are even to be found in which the witnesses were only ten
years of age. Langhino Ugolini states that a witness who should
retract his hostile evidence should be punished for false witness,
but that his evidence should be retained, and have its full effect
on the sentence. No witness might refuse to give evidence,
under pain of being considered guilty of heresy. The prosecution
went on in the utmost secrecy. The accused swore that he
would tell the whole truth, and was bound to denounce all those
1 He was born c. 1261 , was a Dominican at Limoges in 1279, succes-
sively prior of Albi (1294), Carcassonne (1297), Castres (1301) and
Limoges (1305), inquisitor at Toulouse (1307), bishop of Tuy (1323)
and of Lod6ve (1325). He died in 1331.
2 Peter, a Dominican, born at Verona, was murdered near Milan
in 1252 and canonized in 1253.
59°
INQUISITION
Use of
torture.
who were partners of his heresy, or whom he knew or suspected
to be heretics. If he confessed, and denounced his accomplices,
relatives or friends, he was " reconciled " with the Church, and
had to suffer only the humiliating penalties prescribed by the
canon law. If further examination proved necessary, it was
continued by various methods. Bernardus Guidonis enumerates
many ways of obtaining confessions, sometimes by
means of moral subterfuges, but sometimes also by a
process of weakening the physical strength. And as
a last expedient torture was resorted to. The Church was
originally opposed to torture, and the canon law did not admit
confessions extorted by that means; but by the bull Ad extir-
panda (1252) Innocent IV. approved its use for the discovery
of heresy, and Urban IV. confirmed this usage, which had its
origin in secular legislation (cf. the Veronese Code of 1228, and
Sicilian Constitution of Frederick II. in 1231). In 1312 excessive
cruelty had to be suppressed by the council of Vienna. Canonic-
ally the torture could only be applied once, but it might be
" continued." The next step was the torture of witnesses,
a practice which was left to the dispretion of the inquisitors.
Moreover, all confessions or depositions extorted in the torture-
chamber had subsequently to be " freely " confirmed. The
confession was always considered as voluntary. The procedure
was of course not litigious; any lawyer defending the accused
would have been held guilty of heresy. The inquiry might last
a long time, for it was interrupted or resumed according to the
discretion of the judges, who disposed matters so as to obtain
as many confessions or denunciations as possible. After the
different phases of the examination, the accused were divided
into two categories: (i) those who had confessed and abjured,
(2) those who had not confessed and were consequently convicted
of heresy. There was a third class, by no means the least
numerous, namely, those who having previously confessed
and abjured had relapsed into error. Next came the moment
of the sentence: " there was never any case of an acquittal
pure and simple " (H. C. Lea). The formula for full and complete
acquittal given by Bernardus Guidonis in his Practica, should,
he says, never or very rarely be employed. The sentences were
solemnly pronounced on a Sunday, in a church or public place,
in the presence of the inquisitors, their auxiliaries, the
bishops, the secular magistrates and the people.
This was the sermo generalis (see ATJTO DA FE). The
accused who had confessed were reconciled, and the penalties
were then pronounced; these were, in order of severity,
penances, fasting, prayers, pilgrimages (Palestine, St James of
Compostella, Canterbury, &c.), public scourging, the compulsory
wearing on the breast or back of crosses of yellow felt sewn
on to the clothes or sometimes of tongues of red, letters, &c.
These were the poenae confusibiles (humiliating) . The inquisitors
eventually acquired the right of inflicting fines at discretion. In
1244 and 1251 Innocent IV. reproved them for their exactions.
All these minor penalties could be commuted for payments in
money in the same way as absolution from the crusader's vow,
and the council of Vienna tried to put an end to these extortions.
Beyond these minor penalties came the severer ones of imprison-
ment for a period of time, perpetual imprisonment and imprison-
ment of various degrees of severity (murus largus, murus striclus
vel strictissimus) . The murus strictus consisted in the deepest
dungeon, with single or double fetters, and " the bread and water
of affliction "; but the severity of the prison regime varied very
much. The murus largus, especially for a rich prisoner, amounted
to a fairly mild imprisonment, but the mortality among those
confined in the murus strictus became so high that Clement V.
ordered an inquiry to be made into the prison regime in Langue-
doc, in spite of Bernard Guy's protest against the investiga-
tion as likely to diminish the prestige of the inquisitors. After
the sentences had been pronounced, the obstinate heretics and
renegades were for the last time called upon to submit and to
confess and abjure. If they consented, they were received as
penitents, and condemned on the spot to perpetual imprisonment;
if they did not consent, they were handed over to the secular
arm. When the heretic was handed over to the secular arm,
Punish
meats.
the agents of the secular power were recommended to punish
him debita animadversione, and the form of recommending him
to mercy was gone through. But, as M. Vacandard t
says, " If the secular judges had thought fit to take layover
this formula literally, they would soon have been to the
brought back to a recognition of the true state of secular
affairs by excommunication." In effect, handing over
to the secular arm was equivalent to a sentence of death, and
of death by fire. The Dominican Jacob Sprenger, provincial
of his order in Germany (1494) and inquisitor, does not hesitate
to speak of the victims quas incinerari fecimus (" whom we
[the inquisitors] caused to be burnt to ashes "). But we must
accept the conclusions of H.C. Lea and Vacandard that compara-
tively few people suffered at the stake in the medieval Inquisition.
Between 1308 and 1323, Bernard Guy, who cannot be accused
of inactivity, only handed over to the secular arm 42 persons,
out of 930 who were convicted of heresy.
From the point of view of jurisprudence of the Inquisition,
the confiscation of the condemned man's property by the
ecclesiastical and secular powers is only the accompani- 'p,,alsh.
ment to the more severe penalties of perpetual im- meat by
prisonment or death; but from the point of view of confisca-
te economic history the importance of the confisca- "ofl 0/
tion is supreme. The practice originated in the Roman *°°'
law, and all secular princes had already, in their own interest,
recognized it as lawful (Frederick Barbarossa, Decree of Verona;
Louis VIII., ordinances of 1226, 1229; Louis IX., ordinance
of 1234; Raymond VII. of Toulouse, &c.). In the kingdom
of France there was a special official, the procureur des encours
(confiscation in the matter of heresy), whose duty it was to
collect the personal property of the heretics, and to incorporate
their landed estates in the royal domain; in Languedoc crying
abuses arose, especially under the reign of Alphonse
of Poitiers. Soon the papacy managed to gain a share
of the spoils, even outside the states of the Church, system.
as is shown by the bulls ad extirpanda of Innocent IV.
and Alexander IV., and henceforward the inquisitors had, in
varying proportions, a direct interest in these spoliations. In
Spain this division only applied to the property of the clergy
and vassals of the Church, but in France, Italy and Germany,
the property of all those convicted of heresy was shared between
the lay and ecclesiastical authorities. Venice alone decided
that all the receipts of the Holy Office should be handed over
in full to the state. Clement V., in his attempted reform and
regularization of inquisitorial procedure, endeavoured to reduce
the confiscations to a fairly reasonable minimum, and in 1337-
1338 a series of papal inquiries was held into this financial aspect
of the matter. The Assize of Clarendon, the Constitutions of
Frederick II. (1232) and of Count Raymond of Toulouse (1234)
had also come to a joint decision with the councils on this
question. King Charles V. of France prevailed upon the papacy
to abolish this regulation (1378). Confiscation was, indeed,
most profitable to the secular princes, and there is no doubt
that the hope of considerable gain was what induced many
princes to uphold the inquisitorial administration,
especially in the days of the decay of faith. The ^
resistance of the south of France to the Capetian
monarchs was to a large extent broken owing to the portaace
decimation of the bourgeoisie by the Inquisition a^^m
and their impoverishment by the extortions of the
encours. The same was the case in certain of the Italian re-
publics; while in districts such as the north of France, where
heretics were both poor and few and far between, the Inquisition
did not easily take root, nor did it prove very profitable. These
confiscations, the importance of which in the political and
economic history of the middle ages was first shown fully by
H. C. Lea, were a constant source of uncertainty in transactions
of all kinds; there was, for instance, always a risk in entering
into a contract in a place where the existence of heretics was
suspected, since any contract entered into with a heretic was
void in itself. Nor was there any more security in the trans-
mission of inheritances for posthumous trials were frequent;
INQUISITION
591
books.
the Liber sententiarum inquisitionis of Bernardus Guidonis
(1307-1323) records sentences pronounced after death against
89 persons during a period of 15 years. But not only was their
property confiscated and their heirs disinherited; they were
subject to still further penalties. Frederick II. extended to
heresy the application of the Roman law disqualifying from
holding office, and even included under its operation the children
and grandchildren of the guilty man. Alexander IV. and
Boniface VIII. lightened the severity of this law, and removed
certain disqualifications, notably in the case of ecclesiastical
offices and property.
Among other accessory penalties, we must notice the con-
demnation of books. There were many precedents for this:
Constantine had had the Arian writings burnt,
Tneodosius IJ. and Valentinian III. those of the
Nestorians and Manichaeans, Justinian the Talmud.
In 1210 were burnt the books of David of Dinant and
the Periphyseon of Aristotle. In 1255 the De periculis novis-
simomm temporum of William of St Amour 1 was burnt by order
of Pope Alexander IV., and from 1248 to 1319 was pronounced
a series of condemnations of the Talmud. Nicholas Eymerich
(c. 1320-1399), the Spanish inquisitor, demanded from Pope
Gregory XI. the condemnation of Raymond Lully's books,
and in 1376 obtained it, but before long the Lullists returned
into favour with the pope and Eymerich was banished. This
rebuff suffered by an inquisitor shows how uncertain the censure
of books still was, even in a country where in less than two
centuries' time it was to become one of the chief spheres of
inquisitorial activity.
The definite object of the Inquisition was the prosecution of
heresy; but its sphere of action was gradually extended by
the theologians and casuists until sorcery and magic
Sorcery ranked with dogmatic heresy. The council of Valence
"magic. (1248) dealt with sorcerers as well as sacrilegious per-
sons, but did not treat them as heretics. Alexander IV.
went further, declaring that divination and sorcery should
only come within the competence of the inquisitor when they
directly affected the unity or faith of the Church (gth December
1257; cf. bull Quod super nonnullis, loth January 1260). Cases
of simple sorcery were left to be dealt with by the ordinary
judges. The distinction was very subtle, but it was not tampered
with until 1451, at which date Nicholas V. gave the inquisitor
Hugues Lenoir the cognizance of cases of divination, even when
the crime did not savour of heresy. In dealing with such a
subtle question, great variations had naturally arisen in practice,
and the repression of sorcery was carried on jointly by the
inquisitors, the bishops and the secular courts. John XXII.,
in consequence of a perfect epidemic of sorcery about 1320,
handed over to the inquisitors for a time (1320-1333) all cases
of crimes involving magic; but this measure was temporary
and exceptional and only confirms the rule. There were
various occasions during the middle ages when men's minds
became infatuated, and it seemed as if the scourge of magic
were likely entirely to destroy the Catholic faith; and during
such times, morbidly infected with fear and the spirit of persecu-
tion, the ecclesiastical judges regained all their prestige. One
of these crises culminated in the affair of the "Vauderie"2
of Arras (1459), in which twelve unfortunates perished at the
stake; and there were similar occurrences at the same period
in Dauphine and Gascony; of this nature again was the violent
persecution in the Germanic countries begun by the bull Summis
desiderantes of Innocent VIII. (sth December 1484), in the
course of which the two authors of the Malleus maleficorum,
the inquisitors Sprenger and Institoris (Heinrich Kramer),
distinguished themselves as much by their knowledge of theoreti-
cal demonology as by their zeal as persecutors. In France
'Guillaume de St Amour (d. 1272), named after his birthplace
in the Jura, was canon of Beauvais and rector of the university
of Paris. He was conspicuous as the mouthpiece of the secular
clergy in their attacks on the mendicant orders, the Dominicans in
particular.
2 The name of vauderie, i.e. the Vaudois or Waldensian heresy,
had come to be used of witchcraft:
the secular authority was not long in claiming and obtaining
jurisdiction over sorcerers (parlement of Paris, 1374), and as
early as 1378 the university of Paris gave judgment in a case
of demonology. Those unfortunates who were charged with
sorcery gained, however, nothing by this change of jurisdiction,
for they were invariably put to death.
The inquisitors could not take proceedings against Jews as
such. They might profess their religion and observe its rites
without being in a state of heresy; they were only fog In-
heretic when they attacked the Christian faith or quisit/oa
community, made proselytes, or returned to Judaism and the
after being converted. Further, those who practised Jews-
usury were " suspected of not holding very orthodox doctrine as
to theft " (Vacandard), and on this account the Inquisition gained
a hold on them. Pope Martin V. (6th November 1419) authorized
inquisitors to take proceedings against usurers.
But these are merely extensions of competence resulting from
the works of the casuists; the Inquisition was primarily the
instrument for the repression of all kinds of breaches Treatmeat
of orthodoxy. Its work in this capacity we will now 0/ heresy
describe in outline for each of the great countries of la the
medieval Christendom. England, whether before or varlous
after the establishment of the Inquisition, had but few °
trials for heresy and, particularist in this as in all her religious
activity, judged them according to her own discipline, without
asking Rome for laws or special judges. In 1166, a Enriand.
few heretics having been apprehended, Henry II. called
a council at Oxford and summoned them to appear before it;
they all confessed, and were condemned to be scourged, branded
on the face with the mark of a key, and expelled from the country,
and by the 2ist article of the Assize of Clarendon the king
forbade any one to harbour on their lands or in the house any
" of that sect of renegades who had been excommunicated at
Oxford. " Any one offending against this law was to be " at
the king's mercy " and his house was to be " carried outside the
town and burnt." The sheriffs were obliged to swear observance
of this law and to require a similar oath from all barons' stewards,
knights and free tenants. This was the first civil law against
heresy since the end of the Roman empire, and preceded the
famous rescripts of Frederick II. against sectaries in the I3th
century. It should, however, be noted that the political acts
of Henry II. and Frederick II. drew down the most explicit
condemnation of the church. Orthodoxy remained almost
unimpaired in England up till the time of Wycliffe. Apparently
neither the Catharist, Waldensian nor Pantheistic heresies
gained any footing in Great Britain. The affair of the Templars
in France, which was quite political, was repeated in England:
Clement V. having ordered their arrest, Edward II., after much
hesitation, gave orders to the sheriffs to execute it and then
decided that the ecclesiastical law should be applied. The papal
inquisitors sent to England met with a bad reception, and the
pope was obliged to forbid them to use torture, which was contrary
to the laws of the kingdom. It was found impossible to establish
the Templars' guilt and only canonical penalties were inflicted
on them. The rising of the Lollards having alarmed both the
church and the state, the article De haeretico comburendo was
established by statute in 1401, and gained a melancholy notoriety
during the religious struggles of the i6th century; it seems to
have been not so much a measure for the safeguarding of dogma
as a violent assertion of the secular absolutism. It was not
till 1676 that Charles II. caused it to be abrogated, and obtained
a decision that in cases of atheism, blasphemy, heresy, schism
and other religious offences, the ecclesiastical courts should be
confined to the penalties of excommunication, removal from
office, degradation and other ecclesiastical means of censure,
to the exclusion of the death penalty. Scotland was much
later than England in giving up persecution and blood- s^y,,,,,.
shed; and so late as 1687 a student of medicine aged
eighteen and named Hikenhead was accused of heresy and
hanged at Edinburgh. In Ireland Richard de Lederede or
Ledred, a Franciscan and bishop of Ossory, in 1324 prosecuted
on suspicion of heresy and for sorcery a certain Dame Alice
592
INQUISITION
Kettle or Kyteler and her accomplices, Petronilla of Meath and
her daughter Bassilla, who were accused of holding " nightly
inland conference with a spirit called Robert Artisson, to
whom she sacrificed in the high way nine red cocks
and nine peacocks' eyes." The lady had powerful connexions,
and her brother-in-law, Arnold le Powre, seneschal of Kilkenny,
even went so far as to imprison the bishop. But in spite of the
refusal of the secular authorities to co-operate with him, the bishop
was strong enough to force them in 1325 to burn some of the
accused. Dame Kettle herself, however, who had been cited
to appear at Dublin before the dean of St Patrick's, escaped
with the assistance of some of the nobles to England. Mean-
while the bishop, who had attempted to involve Arnold le Powre
in the same charge, became involved in a quarrel with the
administrators of the English government in Ireland; counter
charges were brought against him, he was excommunicated
by his metropolitan, Alexander de Bicknor, archbishop of
Dublin; and in defiance of the king's commands, after pub-
lishing countej charges against the archbishop, he appealed to
Rome and left the country. In 1335 Benedict XII. wrote to
Edward III. deploring the absence of any inquisition in the
king's dominions, and exhorting him to lend the aid of the secular
arm in repressing heresy. Archbishop Alexander, who in 1347
was denounced as an abettor of heresy, died in 1349, and his
successor was ordered to chastise those heretics who had taken
refuge in the diocese from Richard de Lederede's violence, and
whom his predecessor had protected. Finally, in 1354, Richard
de Lederede himself was allowed to return to his diocese, where
his zeal for persecution does not, however, seem to have found
much further scope. He died in 1360.
The scene of the activities of the monastic Inquisition in France
lay chiefly in the south. The repression of the Albigensian
France heresy (see ALBIGENSES) went on even t when its
importance had quite disappeared. The chronicle
of the inquisitor Guilhem Pelhisso (d. 1268) shows us the most
tragic episodes of the reign of terror which wasted Languedoc
for a century. Guillaume Arnaud, Peter Cella, Bernard of
Caux, Jean de St Pierre, Nicholas of Abbeville, Foulques de
St Georges, were the chief of the inquisitors who played the part
of absolute dictators, burning at the stake, attacking both the
living and the dead, confiscating their property and land, and
enclosing the inhabitants both of the towns and the country
in a network of suspicion and denunciation. The secular
authorities were of the utmost assistance to them in this task;
owing to the confiscations, the crown had too direct an interest
in the success of the inquisitorial trials not to connive at all their
abuses. Under the regency of Alphonse of Poitiers Languedoc
was regularly laid under contribution by the procureur des
encours. There were frequent attempts at retaliation, directed
for the most part against the inquisitors, and isolated attacks
were made on Dominicans. In 1234-1235 there were regular
risings of the people at Albi and Narbonne, which forced the
inquisitors to retreat. In 1235 the inquisitors were driven out
of Toulouse. These risings were followed by terrible measures
of repression, which, in turn, led to violent outbreaks on the part
of the relatives, friends or compatriots of the sufferers. During
the night of the 28th or 29th of May 1242 the inquisitors and
their agents were massacred at the castle of Avignonet. This
massacre led to a persecution which went on without opposition
and almost without a lull for nearly fifty years. At the beginning
of the i4th century the terrified people found a defender
in the heroic Franciscan Bernard D61icieux. For a moment
King Philip the Fair and Pope Clement V. seemed to interest
themselves in the misfortunes of Languedoc, and the king of
France sent down reformers; but they had no effect, their
activity being restrained by the king himself, who was alarmed
at a separatist movement which was arising in Languedoc.
The work of repression which followed this moment of hope was
carried out, between 1308 and 1323, by the inquisitor Bernard
Guy, and completed the destruction of the Catharist heresy,
the appearances of which after the middle of the I4th century
became less and less frequent. Other heretics, for a time at least,
took their place, namely the Spirituals, who had developed
out of a branch of the Franciscans, and were remotely disciples
of Joachim, abbot of Floris (q.v.), and whom their rigid rule
of absolute poverty led, by a reaction against the cupidity of
the ordinary ecclesiastics, to repudiate any hierarchy and to
uphold the doctrines of Peter John de Oliva against the word
of the pope. On the i7th of February 1317 John XXII. con-
demned all these irregular followers of St Francis, " fratuelli,
fratres de paupere vita, bizochi or beghini," and the Inquisition of
Languedoc was at once set in motion against them. Four
spirituals were burnt at Marseilles in 1318, and soon the persecu-
tion was extended to the Franciscan beguins or tertiarii, many
people being burnt about 1320 at Narbonne, Lunel, Beziers,
Carcassonne, &c. The persecution stopped for lack of an object,
for the small groups of beguins were soon destroyed, and those
of the Spirituales who were not sent to the stake or to prison
were compelled by the papacy to enter other orders than the
Franciscan. The Waldenses (q.v) were more difficult to destroy:
originally less dangerous to the church than the Cathari, they
resisted longer, and their dispersal in scattered communities
aided their long resistance.
In the north of France the workings of the Inquisition were
very intermittent; for there were fewer heretics there than in
the south, and as they were poorer, there was less zeal on the
part of the secular arm to persecute them. At its outset, how-
ever, the Inquisition in the north of France was marked by a
series of melancholy events: the inquisitor Robert le Bougre,
formerly a Catharist, spent six years (1233-1239) in going through
the Nivernais, Burgundy, Flanders and Champagne, burning
at the stake in every place unfortunates whom he condemned
without a judgment, supported as he was by the ecclesiastical
authorities and by princes such as Theobald of Champagne.
The pope was forced to put a check on his zeal, and, after an
inquiry, condemned him to imprisonment for life. We know
that there were inquisitors settled in lie de France, Orleanais,
Touraine, Lorraine and Burgundy during the I2th century,
but we know next to nothing of what they did. In the i4th
century, the Flemish and German heresies of the Free Spirit
made their appearance in France; in 1310 a heretic named
Marguerite Porette was burnt at Paris, and in 1373 another
named Jeanne Daubenton, both of whom seem to have professed
a kind of rudimentary pantheism, the latter being the head of
a sect called the Turlupins. The Turlupins reappeared in 1421
at Arras and Douai and were persecuted in a similar way. But
in the isth century, with the exception of a few condemnations
aimed against the Hussites, the Inquisition acted but feebly
against heresy, which, as in the famous case of the " Vauderie "
of Arras, was often nothing but fairly ordinary sorcery.
From the middle of the I4th century onward, the parlement
had taken upon itself the right of hearing appeals from persons
sentenced by the Inquisition. And the University again, by
its faculty of theology, escaped the jurisdiction of the Inquisition.
It was these two great bodies which at the time of the Re-
formation took the place of the Inquisition in dealing with
heresy.
In Italy heresy not infrequently took on a social or political
character; it was sometimes almost indistinguishable from the
opposition of the Ghibellines or the communalist
spirit of independence. Lombardy, besides a number
of Cathari, contained a certain number of vaguely-defined sects
against whom the efforts of the Apostolic Visitors sent by
Innocent III. were not of much effect. From the very earliest
days of the Inquisition, John of Vicenza, Roland of Cremona
and Rassiero Sacchoni directed their persecutions against
Lombardy, and especially against Milan. St Peter Martyr,
who was conspicuous for his bigoted violence, was assassinated
in 1252. On the 2oth of March 1256 Alexander IV. ordered the
provincial of the friar preachers of Lombardy to increase the
number of inquisitors in that province from four to eight. At
Florence both heresy and Ghibellinism were alike crushed by
the terrible severities of Fra Ruggieri, and indulgences were
promised to all who should aid in the extinction of heresy in
Italy.
INQUISITION
593
Tuscany. Certain districts revolted against this violence,
which threatened to devastate Italy as it had devastated
Provence; in 1277 Fra Corrado Pagano was killed on an expedi-
tion against the heretics of the Vattelline, and two years after
the people of Parma rose against the inquisitors. Besides,
this reign of terror only raised to a furious pitch the passionate
and independent piety of the Italian peoples. The body of a
heretic, Armanno Ponzilupo, who was killed at Ferrara in 1269,
was venerated by the people, and his mediation was even
invoked, until the Inquisition had to suppress this cult. But
it had a harder struggle against the successes of Gerard Legarelli,
and especially Dolcino (see APOSTOLICI), which only came to an
end after a long and difficult trial of the adepts of the Messianist
sect of Guglielma, some of whom belonged to the noble families
of Lombardy. Up till the beginning of the uth century, how-
ever, the power of the Inquisition steadily increased, and at
this period Zanghino Ugolini appeared as the most skilful
exponent of its theory and procedure. About the same time
Charles of Anjou introduced the Inquisition into the Two Sicilies,
but it could rarely effect anything there; the religious cohesion
of the country was weak, and refugees were sure of safe hiding,
both Waldenses and Fraticell'i being frequently harboured
there. When Sicily passed into the hands of Peter III. of
Aragon, moreover, it came into a position of open hostility
to the Holy See and became a refuge for heretics.
Venice always preserved its autonomy as regards the repression
of heresy; she was perfectly orthodox, but remained entirely
independent of Rome; Innocent IV. sent inquisitors there, but
the heretics continued actually to be subject to the secular
tribunals. In 1 288 a compromise was arrived at, and the papal
Inquisition was admitted into the republic, but only on con-
dition that it should remain under the control of the secular
power; thus there was established a mixed regime which sur-
vived till the last days of the Venetian state. In Savoy the
Inquisition constantly carried on severe measures against the
Waldenses of the Alps. During the i4th and isth centuries
there was an uninterrupted succession of trials.
As regards the papal states, " it was in the nature of things
that, by a confusion of the two personages, the pope should
consider all opposition to him qua Italian prince as
resistance offered to the head of the church, i.e. to the
Church. church "(Ch.V.Langlois). The Colontia had a personal
animosity against the Gaetani ; therefore Boniface
VIII., a Gaetano, declared the Colonna to be heretics. Rienzi was
accused of heresy for having questioned the temporal sovereignty
of the pope at Rome. The Venetians, who in 1309 opposed the
annexation of Ferrara by Clement V. to the detriment of the
house of Este, were proclaimed heretics and placed under the
ban of Christendom. Savonarola was attacked because he
interfered with the policy of Alexander VI. at Florence. It
was this same desire for the hegemony of Italy which inspired
the attitude of the popes throughout the middle ages, causing
them to excommunicate, apparently without reason so far
as doctrine was concerned, the Visconti of Milan, the Delia
Scala of Verona, the Maffredi of Faenza, &c., and prompting
them to lay under an interdict or preach a crusade against
certain rebellious great towns (Clement V. against Venice,
John XXII. against Milan). Further, in each of the great
cities of Lombardy and Tuscany, the papal party directed the
local inquisition, and this power was rarely abused.
In Germany heresies, especially of a mystical character, were
numerous in the middle ages; some of them affected the mass
Germ °^ tne Pe°P^e' an(^ 'e^ to religi°us and social movements
<aay' of no little importance. The repression of heresy went
on by fits and starts, and the Inquisition was never exercised
so regularly in the Germanic as in certain of the Latin countries.
At the outset of the I3th century persecutions of the Waldenses
and Ortlibarii (followers of Ortlieb of Strassburg, c. 1200) took
place at Strassburg; measures were taken locally until, in
1231, Gregory IX. issued definite instructions to the German
prelates with a view to a regular repression of heresy, and gave
full powers to execute them to Conrad of Marburg. Certain
States
of the
nobles having offered him resistance, he preached a crusade
against them, but died by the hand of an assassin. The council
of Mainz (April 1234) dealt gently with Conrad's murderers,
but severely with the false witnesses whom he had employed.
Shortly before (February 1234), the diet of Frankfort had
decided, in spite of the pope's injunctions, that the destruction
of heresy should be entrusted to the ordinary magistrates. And
besides, thanks to the struggle between the Empire and the
papacy, the German prelates always limited the prerogatives
of the papal Inquisition. Again, by the municipal laws of the
north (Sachsenspiegel) the ecclesiastical jurisdiction in the matter
of heresy was very much limited, while the Sclrwabenspiegel
(municipal laws for southern Germany) does not seem to be aware
of the existence of any inquisitional jurisdiction or procedure.
When in the i4th century communities of Beghards developed
with extraordinary rapidity, it was the episcopal authority,
both at Cologne and Strassburg, which undertook to deal with
these groups of sectaries, and at the very height of the conflict
between the Empire and the papacy. Marsilius of Padua, the
theoretical exponent of the imperial rights, attributes to the
secular judge the right and obligation to punish heresy, the
priest's r61e being merely advisory. In 1353 Innocent VI. tried
to implant the papal Inquisition in Germany once for all; its
success was but short, and Urban V.'s attempt in 1362 succeeded
little better, in spite of the fact that Charles IV. (edicts of
Lucca, June 1369) gave him the support of the secular power.
Towards 1372, however, Gregory XI. succeeded in regularizing
the exercise of the powers of the papal inquisitors on German
soil; and the latter, notably Kerh'nger, Hetstede, &c., set to
work to destroy the communities of the Beghards, to burn their
books, to close those beguinages which were under suspicion,
and to check by more or less violent means mystical epidemics
such as those of the " flagellants," " dancers," &c. But these
measures provoked angry protests from the people, the secular
magistrates and even the bishops, so that Gregory XI., perceiving
that he was face to face with the popular party, invited the
bishops to control the inquiries of his own envoys. At the end
of the 1 5th century the two inquisitions were acting con-
currently.
In Bohemia and the provinces subject to it the Waldenses
had found their chosen country, and by the middle of the I3th
century their propaganda was very flourishing. In Bohemia.
1245 Innocent IV. ordered the bishops to prosecute
them with the aid of the secular arm, and in 1257, at the request
of King Premysl Ottokar IL, Alexander IV. introduced the
Inquisition into Bohemia. But from this date till 1335 inquisi-
torial missions succeeded one another without effecting any
sensible diminution in the material and moral strength of the
heresy. The Waldenses had been joined by other sectaries, the
Luciferani, and especially the Brethren of the Free Spirit. It
was in vain that the bishops of Bohemia and Silesia carried
on during the second half of the i4th century an active campaign
against heresy; the spirit of criticism which had arisen with
regard to the morals, and even to the dogmas of the church, was
already preparing the way for Hussitism.
In the regions east of the Adriatic, Catharism, the first com-
munities of which had very probably settled here, was supreme in
the time of Innocent III. and Honorius III. The first
Dominicans who established themselves in these parts Balkan
had much to suffer from the aggression of those very states.
heretics whom they had come to convert. Gregory XI . ,
implacable in his persecution of Catharism, preached a crusade
against them in 1234, and Bosnia was laid waste by fire and
sword. But in spite of these violent measures Catharism only
gained strength in the churches of Bulgaria, Rumania, Slavonia
and Dalmatia. In 1298 Boniface VIII. tried to organize the
Inquisition there, but the project remained fruitless. The
attempt was revived in 1323 by John XXII. with doubtful
success. The persecutions undertaken in the I4th and isth
centuries merely resulted in binding the Cathari to the invading
Turks, with whom they found more tolerance than with the
Slav princes converted to Roman orthodoxy.
594
INQUISITION
In Spain the papal Inquisition could gain no solid footing
in the middle ages. Spain had been, in turn or simultaneously,
Arian under the Visigoths, Catholic under the Hispano-
Spaia. Romans, Mussulman by conquest, and under a regime
of religious peace Judaism had developed there. After the
reconquest, and even at the height of the influence of the Cathari
its heresies had been of quite minor importance. At the end of
the 1 2th century Alphonso II. and Peter II. had on principle
promulgated cruel edicts against heresy, but the persecution
seemed to be dormant. By the bull Declinante of the 26th of
May 1232 inquisitors were sent to Aragon by Gregory IX. on
the request of Raymond of Penaforte, and by 1237-1238 the
Inquisition was practically founded. But as early as 1233
King James I. had promulgated an edict against the heretics
which quite openly put the Inquisition in a subaltern position,
and secularized a great part of its activities. The people, more-
over, showed great hostility towards it. The inquisitor Fray
Pedro de Cadrayta was murdered by the mob, and in 1235 the
Cortes, with the consent of King James, prohibited the use of
inquisitorial procedure and of the torture, as constituting a
violation of the Fueros, though they made no attempt to give
effect to their prohibition. In Castile Alphonso the Wise had,
by establishing in his Fuero Real and his Siete Partidas an
entirely independent secular legislation with regard to heretics
(1255), removed his kingdom from all papal interference. At the
opening of the I4th century Castile and Portugal had still no
Inquisition. But at that time in Spain orthodoxy was generally
threatened only by a few Fraticelli and Waldenses, who were not
numerous enough to call for active repression. The Spanish
inquisitor Nicholas Eymerich, the author of the famous Direc-
torium Inquisitorum, had rarely to exercise his functions during
the whole of his long career (end of I4th century). It was not
against heresy that the church had to direct its vigilance. A
mutual tolerance between the different religions had in fact
sprung up, even after the conquest; the Christians in the
north recognized the Mahommedan and Jewish religions, and
Alphonso VI. of Castile took the title of imperador de losdoscullos.
But for a long time past both the decisions of councils and papal
briefs had proclaimed their surprise and indignation at this
ominous indifference. As early as 1077 the third council of
Rome, and in 1081 Gregory VII., protested against the admission
of Jews to public offices in Spain. Clement IV., in a brief of
1266, exhorted James I. of Aragon to expel the Moors from his
dominions. In 1278 Nicholas III. blamed Peter III. for having
made a truce with them. One of the canons of the council of
Vienne (1311-1312) denounces as intolerable the fact that
Mahommedan prayers were still proclaimed from the top of
the mosques, and under the influence of this council the Spanish
councils of Zamora (1313) and Valladolid (1322) came to decisions
which soon led to violent measures against the Mudegares
(Mussulmans of the old Christian provinces). Already in 1210
massacres of Jews had taken place under the inspiration of
Arnold of Narbonne, the papal legate; in 1276 fresh disturbances
took place as a result of James I.'s refusal to obey the order of
Clement IV., who had called upon him to expel the Jews from
his dominions. In 1278 Nicholas IV. commanded the general
of the Dominicans to send friars into all parts of the kingdom
to work for the conversion of the Jews, and draw up lists of those
who should refuse to be baptized. It was in vain that a few
princes such as Peter III. or Ferdinand of Castile interfered; the
Spanish clergy directed the persecution with ever increasing
zeal. In the I4th century the massacres increased, and during
the year 1391 whole towns were destroyed by fire and sword,
while at Valencia eleven thousand forced baptisms took place.
In the 1 5th century the persecution continued in the same way;
it can only be said that the years 1449, 1462, 1470, 1473 were
marked by the greatest bloodshed. Moreover, the Mudegares
were also subjected to these baptisms and massacres en masse.
From those, or the children of those who had escaped death by
baptism, was formed the class of Converses or Marranos, the latter
name being confined to the converted Jews. This class was
still further increased after the conquest of the kingdom of
Granada and the completion of the conquest by Ferdinand and
Isabella, and after the pacification of the kingdoms of Aragon
and Valencia by Charles V. The Mahommedans and Jews in
these parts were given the choice between conversion and exile.
Being of an active nature, and desiring some immediate powers
as a recompense for their moral sufferings, the Jewish or Mussul-
man Converses soon became rich and powerful. In addition to
the hatred of the church, which feared that it might quickly
become Islamized or Judaized in this country which had so
little love for theology, hatred and jealousy arose also among
laymen and especially in the rich and noble classes. Limpieza,
i.e. purity of blood, and the fact of being an " old Christian "
were made the conditions of holding offices. It is true, this
mistrust had assumed a theological form even before the Mahom-
medan conquest. As early as 633 the council of Toledo had
declared heretics such converts, forced or voluntary, as returned
to their old religion. When this principle was revived and,
whether through secular jealousy, religious dislike or national
pride, was applied to the Converses, an essentially national
Inquisition, directed against local heretics, was founded in Spain,
and founded without the help of the papacy. It was created
in 1480 by Ferdinand and Isabella. Sixtus IV. had wished the
papal Inquisition to be established after the form and spirit of
the middle ages; but Ferdinand, in his desire for centralization
(his efforts in this direction had already led to the creation of the
Holy Hermandad and the extension of the royal jurisdiction)
wished to establish an inquisition which should be entirely
Spanish, and entirely royal. Rome resisted, but at last gave
way. Sixtus IV., Alexander VI., Innocent VIII., Julius II.
and after them all the popes of the i6th century, saw in this
secular attempt a great power in favour of orthodoxy, and
approved it when established, and on seeing its constant activity.
The Inquisition took advantage of this to claim an almost complete
autonomy. The decisions of the Roman Congregation of the
Index were only valid for Spain if the Holy Office of Madrid
thought good to countersign them; consequently there were
some books approved at Rome and proscribed in the peninsula,
such as the Historia pelagiana of Cardinal Nores, and some which
were forbidden at Rome and approved in the peninsula, such
as the writings of Fathers Mateo Moya and Juan Bautista Poza.
The Spanish Holy Office perceived long before Rome the dangers
of mysticism, and already persecuted the mystics, the Alumbrados
while Rome (impervious to Molinism) still favoured them.
" During the last few centuries the church of Spain was at once
the most orthodox and the most independent of the national
churches " (Ch. V. Langlois). There was even a financial dispute
between the Inquisition and the papacy, in which the Inquisition
had the better of the argument; the Roman Penitentiary sold
exemptions from penalties (involving loss of civil rights), such as
prison, the galleys and wearing the sanbenito, and dispensations
from the crime of Marrania (secret Judaism). The inquisitors
tried to gain control of this sale, and at a much higher price, and
were seconded in this by the kings of Spain, who saw that it was
to their own interest. At first they tried a compromise; the
unfortunate victims had to pay twice, to the pope and to the
Inquisition. But the payment to the pope was held by the
Inquisition to reduce too much its own share of the confiscated
property, and the struggle continued throughout the first half
of the 1 6th century, the Curia finally triumphing, thanks to the
energy of Paul III. Since, however, the Inquisition continued to
threaten the holders of papal dispensations, most of them found
it prudent to demand a definite rehabilitation, in return for
payments both to the king and the Inquisition. As a national
institution the Inquisition had first of all the advantage of a
very strong centralization and very rapid procedure, consisting
as it did of an organization of local tribunals with a supreme
council at Madrid, the Suprema. The grand inquisitor was
ex officio president for life of the royal council of the Inquisition.
It was the grand inquisitor, General Jimenez de Cisneros, who
set in motion the inquisitorial tribunals of Seville, Cordova,
Jaen, Toledo, Murcia, Valladolid and Calahorra. There was no
such tribunal at Madrid till the time of Philip IV. The inquisitor-
INQUISITION
595
general of Aragon established inquisitors at Saragossa, Barcelona,
Valencia, Majorca, Sardinia, Sicily and Pampeluna (moved later
to Calahorra) . From the very beginning the papacy strengthened
this organization by depriving the Spanish metropolitans, by
the bull of the 25th of September 1487, of the right of receiving
appeals from the decisions given jointly by the] bishops of the
various dioceses, their suffragans and the apostolic inquisitors,
and by investing the inquisitor-general with this right. And,
more than this, Torquemada actually took proceedings against
bishops, for example, the accusation of heresy against Don
Pedro Aranda, bishop of Calahorra (1498); while the inquisitor
Lucero prosecuted the first archbishop of Granada, Don Ferdi-
nando de Talavera. Further, when once the Inquisition was
closely allied to the crown, no Spaniard, whether clerk or layman,
could escape its power. Even the Jesuits, though not till after
1660, were put under the authority of the Suprema. The
highest nobles were kept constantly under observation; during
the reigns of Charles III. and Charles IV. the duke of Almodovar,
the count of Aranda, the great writer Campomanes, and the two
ministers Melchior de Jovellanos and the count of Florida- Alanca,
were attacked by the Suprema. But the descendants of Moors
and Jews, though they were good Christians, or even nobles,
were most held in suspicion. Even during the middle ages the
descendants of the Paterenes were known, observed and de-
nounced. In the eyes of the Inquisition the taint of heresy was
even more indelible. A family into which a forced conversion
or a mixed marriage had introduced Moorish or Jewish blood
was almost entirely deprived of any chance of public office,
and was bound, in order to disarm suspicion, to furnish agents
or spies to the Holy Office. The Spaniards were very quick to
accept the idea of the Inquisition to such an extent as to look
upon heresy as a national scourge to be destroyed at all costs,
and they consequently considered the Inquisition as a powerful
and indispensable agent of public protection; it would be going
too far to state that this conception is unknown to orthodox
present-day historians of the Inquisition, and especially certain
Spanish historians (cf. the preface to Menendez y Pelayo's
Heterodoxos espanoles) . As had happened among the Albigenses,
commerce and industry were rapidly paralysed in Spain by this
odious regime of suspicion, especially as the Converses, who
inherited the industrial and commercial capacity of the Moors
and Jews, represented one of the most active elements of the
population. Besides, this system of wholesale confiscations
might reduce a family to beggary in a single day, so that all
transactions were liable to extraordinary risks. It was in vain
that the counsellors of Charles V., and on several occasions
the Cortes, demanded that the inquisitors and their countless
agents should be appointed on a fixed system by the state; the
state, and above all the Inquisition, refused to make any such
change. The Inquisition preferred to draw its revenues from
heresy, and this is not surprising if we think of the economic
aspect of the Albigensian Inquisition; the system of encours
was simply made general in Spain, and managed to exist there
for three centuries. In the case of the Inquisition in Languedoc,
there still remained the possibility of an appeal to the king,
the inquisitors, or more rarely the pope, against these extortions;
but there was nothing of the kind in Spain. The Inquisition and
the Crown could refuse each other nothing, and appeals to the
pope met with their united resistance. As early as the reign of
Ferdinand certain rich Converses who had bought letters of
indulgence from the Holy See were nevertheless prosecuted
by Ferdinand and Torquemada, in spite of the protests of
Sixtus IV. The papacy met with the most serious checks under
the Bourbons. Philip V. forbade all his subjects to carry appeals
to Rome, or to make public any papal briefs without the royal
exequatur.
The political aspect of the work and character of the Inquisi-
tion has been very diversely estimated; it is a serious error to
attribute to it, as has too often been done, extreme ideas of
equality, or even to represent it as having favoured centralization
and a royal absolutism to the same extent as the Inquisition of
the i3th and i4th centuries in Languedoc. " It was a mere
coincidence," says H. C. Lea," that the Inquisition and absolut-
ism developed side by side in Spain." The Suprema did not
attack all nobles as nobles; it attacked certain of them as
Converses, and the Spanish feudal nobles were sure enough of
their limpieza to have nothing to fear from it. But it is undeni-
able that it frequently tended to constitute a state within the
state. At the time of their greatest power, the inquisitors paid
no taxes, and gave no account of the confiscations which
they effected; they claimed for themselves and their agents the
right of bearing arms, and it is well known that their declared
adversaries, or even those who blamed them in some respects,
were without fail prosecuted for heresy. But that was not the
limit to their pretensions. In 1574, under Philip II., there was
an idea of instituting a military order, that of Santa Maria de la
Espada Blanca, having as its head the grand inquisitor, and to
him all the members of the order, i.e. all Spaniards distinguished
by limpieza of blood, were to swear obedience in peace and in war.
Moreover, they were to recognize his jurisdiction and give up to
him the reversion of their property. Nine provinces had already
consented, when Philip II. put a stop to this theocratic movement,
which threatened his authority. It was, however, only the
Bourbons, who had imbibed Galilean ideas, who by dint of
perseverance managed to make the Inquisition subservient to
the Crown, and Charles III., " the philosopher king," openly
set limits to the privileges of the inquisitors. Napoleon, on
his entry into Madrid (December 1808), at once suppressed the
Inquisition, and the extraordinary general Cortes on the izth
of February 1813 declared it to be incompatible with the constitu-
tion, in spite of the protests of Rome. Ferdinand VII. restored
it (July 21, 1814) on his return from exile, but it was impoverished
and almost powerless. It was again abolished as a result of the
Liberal revolution of 1820, was restored temporarily in 1823 after
the French military intervention under the due d'Angouleme,
and finally disappeared on the i5th of July 1834, when Queen
Christina allied herself with the Liberals. " It was not, however,
till the 8th of May 1869 that the principle of religious liberty
was proclaimed in the peninsula; and even since then it has been
limited by the constitution of 1876, which forbids the public
celebration of dissident religions " (S. Reinach). In 1816 the
pope abolished torture in all the tribunals of the Inquisition.
It is a too frequent practice to represent as peculiar to the Spanish
Inquisition modes of procedure in use for a long time in the
inquisitorial tribunals of the rest of Europe. There are no special
manuals, or practica, for the inquisitorial procedure in Spain;
but the few distinctive characteristics of this procedure may be
mentioned. The Suprema allowed the accused an advocate
chosen from among the members or familiars of the Holy Office ;
this privilege was obviously illusory, for the advocate was chosen
and paid by the tribunal, and could only interview the accused
in presence of an inquisitor and a secretary. The theological
examination was a delicate and minute proceeding; the " quali-
ficators of the Holy Office," special functionaries, whose equivalent
can, however, easily be found in the medieval Inquisition,
charged those books or speeches which had incurred " theological
censures," with " slight, severe or violent " suspicion. There
was no challenging of witnesses; on the contrary, witnesses
who were objected to were allowed to give evidence on the most
important points of the case. The torture, to the practice of
which the Spanish Inquisition certainly added new refinements,
was originally very much objected to by the Spaniards, and
Alphonso X. prohibited it in Aragon; later, especially in the
iSth, 1 6th and i7th centuries it was applied quite shamelessly
on the least suspicion. But by the end of the i8th century,
according to Llorente, it had not been employed for a long time;
the fiscal, however, habitually demanded it, and the accused
always went in dread of it. The punishment of death by burning
was much more often employed by the Spanish than by the
medieval Inquisition; about 2000 persons were burnt in
Torquemada's day. Penitents were not always reconciled, as
they were in the middle ages, but those condemned to be burnt
were as a rule strangled previously.
With the extension of the Spanish colonial empire the
INQUISITION
Inquisition spread throughout it almost contemporaneously with
S aaisb tne Catholic faith. Ferdinand IV. decreed the estab-
aad Portu- lishment of the Inquisition in America, and Jimenes in
guese jjjg appointed Juan Quevedo, bishop of Cuba,
Colonies. inqujsitor-general delegate with discretionary powers.
Excesses having been committed by the agents of the Holy
Office, Charles V. decreed (October 15, 1538) that only the
European colonists should be subject to the jurisdiction of the
Inquisition; but Philip II. increased the powers of the inquisitors'
delegate and, in 1541, established on a permanent basis three
new provinces of the Inquisition at Lima, Mexico and Cartagena.
The first auto-da-fe took place at Mexico in 1574, the year in
which Hernando Cortez died. The Inquisition of Portugal
was no less careful to ensure the orthodoxy of the Portuguese
colonies. An Inquisition of the East Indies was established at
Goa, with jurisdiction over all the dominions of the king of
Portugal beyond the Cape of Good Hope. Finally Philip II.
even wished to establish an intinerant Inquisition, and at
his request the pope created, by a brief of the 2ist of
July 1571, the " Inquisition of the galleys," or " of fleets and
armies."
After the expulsion of the Jews under Isabella the Catholic
(1492), followed under Philip III. by that of the Moriscoes (1609),
the Inquisition attacked especially Catholics descended
activities fr°m infidels, the Marrams and Converses, who were,
of the not without reason, suspected of often practising in
Spanish secret the rites of their ancestral religions. As late as
1715 a secret association was discovered at Madrid,
consisting of twenty families, having a rabbi and a
synagogue. In 1727 a whole community of Moriscoes was
denounced at Granada, and prosecuted with the utmost rigour.
Again, a great number of people were denounced, sent to
the galleys, or burnt, for having returned to their ancestral
religion, on the flimsiest of evidence, such as making ablutions
during the day time, abstaining from swine's flesh or wine,
using henna, singing Moorish songs, or possessing Arabic manu-
scripts. During the i6th and I7th centuries the Inquisition in
Spain was directed against Protestantism. The inguisitor-
general, Fernando de Valdes, archbishop of Seville, asked the
pope to condemn the Lutherans to be burnt even if they were
not backsliders, or wished to be reconciled, while in 1560 three
foreign Protestants, two Englishmen and a Frenchman were
burnt in defiance of all international law. But the Reformation
never had enough supporters in Spain to occupy the attention
of the Inquisition for long. After the Marranes the mystics
of all kinds furnished the greatest number of victims to the
terrible tribunal. Here again we should not lose sight of the
tradition of the medieval Inquisition; the mysticism of the
Beghards, the Brethren of the Free Spirit and the innumerable
pantheist sects had been pitilessly persecuted by the inquisitors
of Germany and France during the i4th and isth centuries.
The Illuminati (alumbrados), who were very much akin to the
medieval sectaries, and the mystics of Castile and Aragon were
ruthlessly examined, judged and executed. Not even the most
famous persons could escape the suspicious zeal of the inquisitors
Valdes and Melchior Cano. The writings of Luis de Granada
were censured as containing cosas de alumbrados. St Ignatius
de Loyola was twice imprisoned at the beginning of his career;
St Theresa was accused of misconduct, and several times de-
nounced; one of her works, Conceptos del amor divino, was
prohibited by the Inquisition, and she was only saved by the
personal influence of Philip II. Countless numbers of obscure
visionaries, devotees both men and women, clerks and laymen,
were accused of Illuminism and perished in the fires or the
dungeons of the Inquisition. From its earliest appearance
Molinosism was persecuted with almost equal rigour. Molinos
himself was arrested and condemned to perpetual imprisonment
(1685-1687), and during the i8th century, till 1781, several
Molinosists were burnt. The Inquisition also attacked Jansenism ,
freemasonry (from 1738 onwards; cf. the bull In eminent?) and
" philosophism," the learned naturalist Jos6 Clavigo y Faxarcho
(1730-1806), the mathematician Benito Bails (1730-1797),
the poet Tomas de Iriarte, the ministers Clavigo Ricla, Aranda
and others being prosecuted as " philosophers." Subject also
to the tribunal of the Holy Office were bigamists, blasphemers,
usurers, sodomites, priests who had married or broken the
secrecy of the confessional, laymen who assumed ecclesiastical
costume, &c. " In all these matters, though the Inquisition
may have been indiscreet in meddling with affairs which did not
concern it, it must be confessed that it was not cruel, and that it
was always preferable to fall into the hands of the Inquisition
rather than those of the secular judges, or even the Roman
inquisitors " (S. Reinach). Apart from certain exceptional
cruelties such as those of the Inquisition of Calahorra, perhaps
the greatest number of executions of sorcerers took place in the
colonies, in the Philippines and Mexico. In Spain the persecu-
tion was only moderate; at certain times it disappeared almost
completely, especially in the time of the clear-sighted inquisitor
Salazar.
Two features of the Spanish Inquisition are especially note-
worthy: the prosecutions for " speeches suspected of heresy "
and the censure of books. The great scholar Pedro de Lerma,
who after fifty years at Paris (where he was dean of the faculty of
theology) had returned to Spain as abbot of Compluto, was called
upon in 1537 to abjure eleven " Erasmian " propositions, and
was forced to return to Paris to die. Juan de Vergara and his
brother were summoned before the Inquisition for favouring
Erasmus and his writings, and detained several years before
they were acquitted. Fray Alonso de Virues, chaplain to
Charles V., was imprisoned on an absurd charge of depreciating
the monastic state, and was only released by the pope at the
instance of the emperor. Mateo Pascual, professor of theology
at Alcala, who had in a public lecture expressed a doubt as to
purgatory, suffered imprisonment and the confiscation of his
goods. A similar fate befell Montemayor, Las Brozas and Luis
de la Cadena.
The censure of books was established in 1502 by Ferdinand
and Isabella as a state institution. All books had to pass through
the hands of the bishops; in 1521 the Inquisition took upon
itself the examination of books suspected of Lutheran heresy.
In 1554 Charles V. divided the responsibility for the censorship
between the Royal Council, whose duty it was to grant or refuse
the imprimatur to manuscripts and the Inquisition, which
retained the right of prohibiting books which it judged to be
pernicious; but after 1527 it also gave the licence to print.
In 1547 the Suprema produced an Index of prohibited books,
drawn up in 1546 by the university of Lou vain; it was completed
especially as regards Spanish books, in 1551, and several later
editions were published. Moreover, the reuisores de libros might
present themselves in the name of the Holy Office in any private
library or bookshop and confiscate prohibited books. In 1558
the penalty of death and confiscation of property was decreed
against any bookseller or individual who should keep in his
possession condemned books. The censure of books was
eventually abolished in 1812.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — A critical bibliography was drawn up by P.
Fredericq in the preface to the French translation (1900) of H. C.
Lea's important standard work: History of the Inquisition in the
Middle Ages (3 vols., London, 1888). See also J. Hayet, L'Heresie
el le bras seculier au may en dgejusqu'au XIII' siecle in the (Enures
completes, vol. ii. (Paris, 1896) ; Ch. V. Langlois, L' Inquisition d'apres
des travaux recents (Paris, 1901); Douais, L' Inquisition (Paris, 1907);
E. Vncandard, L' Inquisition (Paris, 1907); Douais, Documents pour
servir a Vhistoire de I'inquisition dans le Languedoc (2 vols., Paris,
1900); Dollinger, Beitrdge zur Sektengeschichte des Mittelalters
(2 vols., Munich, 1890. The second volume is composed of docu-
ments) ; Molinier, L Inquisition dans le midi de la France au
XIII' el au XIV'_ siecle. Etude sur les sources de son histoire (Paris,
1880); P. Fredericq, Corpus documentorum inquisitionis haereticae
pravitatis neerlandicae (1205-1525) (4 vols., Ghent, 1889-1900);
Tanon, Histoire des tribunaux de I'inquisition en France (Paris,
1893); Hansen, Inquisition, Hexenwahn und Hexenverfolgung
(Munich, 1900) ; Llorente, Histoire critique de I'inquisition d'Espagne
(4 vols., Paris, 1818); H. C. Lea, History of the Inquisition of
Spain (§ vols., London, 1905-1908); S. Reinach, articles on
Lea's History of the Inquisition of Spain in the Revue critique
(1906, 1907, 1908) and Cultes, mythes et religions (Paris, 1908),
tome iii. (P. A.)
INSANITY
597
INSANITY (from Lat. in, not, and sanus, sound), a generic
term applied to certain morbid mental conditions produced
by defect or disease of the brain. The synonyms in more or less
frequent use are lunacy (from a supposed influence of the moon),
mental disease, alienation, derangement, aberration, madness,
unsoundness of mind. The term Psychiatry (^vx^l, mind, and
larptia, treatment) is applied to the study and treatment of
the condition.
I. MEDICAL AND GENERAL
There are many diseases of the general system productive
of disturbance of the mental faculties, which, either on account
of their transient nature, from their being associated
with the course of a particular disease, or from their
slight intensity, are not included under the head of -insanity
proper. From a strictly scientific point of view it cannot
be doubted that the fever patient in his delirium, or the
drunkard in his excitement or stupor, is insane; the brain of
either being under the influence of a morbific agent or of a poison,
the mental faculties are deranged; yet such derangements
are regarded as functional disturbances, i.e. disturbances pro-
duced by agencies which experience tells will, in the majority
of cases, pass off within a given period without permanent
results on the tissues'of the organ. The comprehensive scientific
view of the position is that all diseases of the nervous system,
whether primary or secondary, congenital or acquired, should, in
the words of Griesinger, be regarded as one inseparable whole,
of which the so-called mental diseases comprise only a moderate
proportion. However important it may be for the physician
to keep this principle before him, it may be freely admitted that
it cannot be carried out fully in practice, and that social considera-
tions compel the medical profession and the public at large to
draw an arbitrary line between such functional diseases of the
nervous system as hysteria, kypochondriasis and delirium on the
one hand, and such conditions as mania, melancholia, stupor and
dementia on the other.
All attempts at a short definition of the term " insanity "
have proved unsatisfactory; perhaps the nearest approach
to accuracy is attained by the rough statement that it is a
symptom of disease of the brain inducing disordered mental symptoms
— the term disease being used in its widest acceptance. But
even this definition is at once too comprehensive, as under it
might be included certain of the functional disturbances alluded
to, and too exclusive, as it does not comprehend certain rare
transitory forms. Still, taken over all, this may be accepted as
the least defective short definition; and moreover it possesses
the great practical advantage of keeping before the student the
primary fact that insanity is the result of disease of the brain
(see BRAIN, and NEUROPATHOLOGY), and that it is not a mere
immaterial disorder of the intellect. In the earliest epochs of
medicine the corporeal character of insanity was generally
admitted, and it was not until the superstitious ignorance of
the middle ages had obliterated the scientific, though by no
means always accurate, deductions of the early writers, that any
theory of its purely psychical character arose. At the present
day it is unnecessary to combat such a theory, as it is universally
accepted that the brain is the organ through which mental
phenomena are manifested, and therefore that it is impossible
to conceive of the existence of an insane mind in a healthy brain.
On this basis insanity may be defined as consisting in morbid
conditions of the brain, the results of defective formation or altered
nutrition of its substance induced by local or general morbid processes
and characterized especially by non-development, obliteration, im-
pairment or perversion of one or more of its psychical functions.
Thus insanity is not a simple condition; it comprises a large
number of diseased states of the brain, gathered under one
popular term, on account of mental defect or aberration being
the predominant symptom.
The insanities are sharply divided into two great classes —
the Congenital and the Acquired. Under the head of Congenital
Insanity must be considered all cases in which, from whatever
cause, brain development has been arrested, with consequent
impotentiality of development of the mental faculties ; under that
of Acquired Insanity all those in which the brain has been bora
aealthy but has suffered from morbid processes affect-
"ng it primarily, or from diseased states of the general
system implicating it secondarily. In studying the
causation of these two great classes, it will be found that certain
remote influences exist which are believed to be commonly
predisposing; these will be considered as such, leaving the
proximate or exciting causes until each class with its subdivisions
comes under review.
In most treatises on the subject will be found discussed the
bearing whichcivilization,nationality, occupation, education, &c.,
have, or are supposed to have, on the production of ,
• Causation,
insanity. Such discussions are as a rule eminently
unsatisfactory, founded as they are on common observa-
tion, broad generalizations, and very imperfect statistics.
As they are for the most part negative in result, at the best
almost entirely irrelevant to the present purpose, it is proposed
merely to summarize shortly the general outcome of what has
been arrived at by those authorities who have sought to assess
the value to be attached to the influence exercised by such
factors, without entering in any detail on the theories involved.
The causes of insanity may be divided into (a) general, and (6)
proximate.
(a) GENERAL CAUSES. — I. Civilization. — Although insanity is by
no means unknown amongst savage races, there can be no reasonable
doubt that it is much more frequently developed in civilized com-
munities; also that, as the former come under the influence of
civilization, the percentage of lunacy is increased. This is in con-
sonance with the observation of disease of whatever nature, and is
dependent in the case of insanity on the wear and tear of nerve
tissue involved in the struggle for existence, the physically de-
pressing effects of pauperism, and on the abuse of alcoholic stimu-
lants ; each of which morbid factors falls to be considered separately
as a proximate cause. In considering the influence of civilization
upon the production of insanity, regard must be had to the more
evolved ethical attitude towards disease in general which exists in
civilized communities as well as to the more perfect recognition and
registration of insanity.
2. Nationality. — In the face of the imperfect social statistics
afforded by most European and American nations, and in their
total absence or inaccessibility amongst the rest of mankind, it is
impossible to adduce any trustworthy statement under this head.
3. Occupation. — There is nothing to prove that insanity is in any
way connected with the prosecution of any trade or profession
per se. Even if statistics existed (which they do not) showing the
proportion of lunatics belonging to different occupations to the 1000
of the population, it is obvious that no accurate deduction quoad
the influence of occupation could be drawn.
4. Education. — There is no evidence to show that education has
any influence over either the production or the prevention of in-
sanity. The general result of discussions on the above subjects has
been the production of a series of arithmetical statements, which
have either a misleading bearing or no bearing at all on the question.
In the study of insanity statistics are of slight value from the scien-
tific point of view, and are only valuable in its financial aspects.
5. Inheritance. — The hereditary transmission of a liability to
mental disease must be reckoned as the most important among all
predisposing causes of insanity. It is probably well within the
mark to say that at least 50 % of the insane have a direct or colla-
teral hereditary tendency towards insanity. The true significance
of this factor cannot as yet be explained or described shortly and
clearly, but it cannot be too definitely stated that it is not the
insanity which is inherited, but only the predisposition to the
manifestation of mental symptoms in the presence of a sufficient
exciting cause. The most widely and generally accepted view of
the exciting cause of insanity is that the predisposed brain readily
breaks down under mental stress or bodily privations. There is,
however, another view which has been recently advanced to the
effect that the majority of mental diseases are secondary to bodily
disorders, hereditary predisposition being the equally predisposing
causal factor. There is probably truth in both these views, and
such an admission accentuates the complexity of the factorship of
heredity. If insanity can be induced by physical disorders, which
must essentially be of the nature of toxic action or of mechanical
agency which can alter or influence the functional powers of the
brain, then it is probable that hereditary predisposition to insanity
means, not only the transmission of an unstable nervous system,
but also a constitution which is either peculiarly liable to the pro-
duction of such toxic or poisonous substances, or incapable of
effectively dealing with the toxins or poisonous substances normally
formed during metabolic processes. Such a view broadens our
conception of the factorship of hereditary transmission and offers
INSANITY
[MEDICAL AND GENERAL
explanation as to the manner in which insanity may appear in
families previously free from the taint. Very frequently we find in
the history of insane patients that although there may be no in-
sanity in the family there are undoubted indications of nervous
alongside of physical instability, the parental nervous defects
taking the form of extreme nervousness, vagabondage, epilepsy,
want of mental balance, inequality in mental development or
endowment, extreme mental brilliancy in one direction associated
with marked deficiency in others, the physical defects showing
themselves in the form of insanity; liability to tubercular and
rheumatic infections. The failure of constitutional power which
allows of the invasion of the tubercle bacillus and the micrococcus
rheumaticus in certain members of a family is apparently closely
allied to that which favours the development of mental symptoms
in others.
6. Consanguinity. — It has been strongly asserted that con-
sanguineous marriage is a prolific source of nervous instability.
There is considerable diversity of opinion on this subject; the
general outcome of the investigations of many careful inquirers
appears to be that the offspring of healthy cousins of a healthy
stock is not more liable to nervous disease than that of unrelated
parents, but that evil consequences follow where there is a strong
tendency in the family to degeneration, not only in the direction
of the original diathesis, but also towards instability of the nervous
system. The objection to the marriage of blood relations does not
arise from the bare fact of their relationship, but has its ground in
the fear of their having a vicious variation of constitution, which,
in their children, is prone to become intensified. There is sufficient
evidence adducible to prove that close breeding is productive of
degeneration; and when the multiform functions of the nervous
system are taken into account, it may almost be assumed, not only
jthat it suffers concomitantly with other organs, but that it may
also be the first to suffer independently.
7. Parental Weakness. — Of the other causes affecting the parents
.which appear to have an influence in engendering a predisposition
to insanity in the offspring, the abuse of alcoholic stimulants and
opiates, over-exertion of the mental faculties, advanced age and
weak health may be cited. Great stress has been laid on the in-
fluence exercised by the first of these conditions, and many extreme
statements have been made regarding it. Such statements must be
accepted with reserve, for, although there is reason for attaching
considerable weight to the history of ancestral intemperance as a
probable causating influence, it has been generally assumed as the
proved cause by those who have treated of the subject, without
reference to other agencies which may have acted in common with
it, or quite independently of it. However unsatisfactory from a
scientific point of view it may appear, the general statement must
stand that whatever tends to lower the nervous energy of a parent
may modify the development of the progeny. Constitutional
tendency to nervous instability once established in a family may
make itself felt in various directions — epilepsy, hysteria, hypo-
chondriasis, neuralgia, certain forms of paralysis, insanity, eccen-
tricity. It is asserted that exceptional genius in an individual
member is a phenomenal indication. Confined to the question of
insanity, the morbid inheritance may manifest itself in two direc-
tions— in defective brain organization manifest from birth, or
from the age at which its faculties are potential, i.e. congenital
insanity; or in the neurotic diathesis, which may be present in a
brain to all appearance congenitally perfect, and may present itself
merely by a tendency to break down under circumstances which
would not affect a person of originally healthy constitution.
8. Periodic Influence. — The evolutional periods of puberty,
adolescence, utero-gestation, the climacteric period and old age
exercise an effect upon the nervous system. It may be freely
admitted that the nexus between physiological processes and
mental disturbances is, as regards certain of the periods, obscure,
and that the causal relation is dependent more on induction than
on demonstration ; but it may be pleaded that it is not more obscure
in respect of insanity than of many other diseases. The pathological
difficulty obtains mostly in the relation of the earlier evolutional
periods, puberty and adolescence, to insanity; in the others a
physiologico-pathological nexus may be traced; but in regard to
the former there is nothing to take hold of except the purely
physiological process of development of the sexual function, the
expansion of the intellectual powers, and rapid increase of the bulk
of the body. Although in thoroughly stable subjects due provision
is made for these evolutional processes, it is not difficult to conceive
that in the nervously unstable a considerable risk is run by the
brain in consequence of the strain laid on it. Between the adolescent
and climacteric periods the constitution of the nervous, as of the
other systems, becomes established, and disturbance is not likely
to occur, except from some accidental circumstances apart from
evolution. In the most healthily constituted individuals the
" change of life " expresses itself by some loss of vigour. The
nourishing (trophesial) function becomes less active, and either
various degrees of wasting occur or there is a tendency towards
restitution in bulk of tissues by a less highly organized material.
The most important instance of the latter tendency is fatty de-
generation of muscle, to which the arterial system is very liable.
In the mass of mankind those changes assume no pathological
importance : the man or woman of middle life passes into advanced
age without serious constitutional disturbance; on the other hand,
there may be a break down of the system due to involutional changes
in special organs, as, for instance, fatty degeneration of the heart.
In all probability the insanity of the climacteric period may be
referred to two pathological conditions: it may depend on structural
changes in the brain due to fatty degeneration of its arteries and
cells, or it may be a secondary result of general systemic disturbance,
as indicated by cessation of menstruation in the female and possibly
by some analogous modification of the sexual function in men.
The senile period brings with it further reduction of formative
activity ; all the tissues waste, and are liable to fatty and calcareous
degeneration. Here again, the arteries of the brain are very generally
implicated; atheroma in some degree is almost always present,
but is by no means necessarily followed by insanity.
The various and profound modifications of the system which
attend the periods of utero-gestation, pregnancy and child-bearing
do not leave the nervous centres unaffected. Most women are liable
to slight changes of disposition and temper, morbid longings, strange
likes and dislikes during pregnancy, more especially during the
earlier months; but these are universally accepted as accompani-
ments of the condition not involving any doubts as to sanity. But
there are various factors at work in the system during pregnancy
which have grave influence on the nervous system, more especially
in those hereditarily predisposed, and in those gravid for the first
time. There is modification of direction of the blood towards a
new focus, and its quality is changed, as is shown by an increase of
fibrin and water and a decrease of albumen. To such physical
influences are superadded the discomfort and uneasiness of the
situation, mental anxiety and anticipation of danger, and in the
unmarried the horror of disgrace. In the puerperal (recently
delivered) woman there are to be taken into pathological account,
in addition to the dangers of sepsis, the various depressing influences
of child-bed, its various accidents reducing vitality, the sudden
return to ordinary physiological conditions, the rapid call for a new
focus of nutrition, the translation as it were of the blood supply
from the uterus to the mammae — all physical influences liable to
affect the brain. These influences may act independently of moral
shock; but, where this is coincident, there is a condition of the
nervous system unprepared to resist its action.
(b) PROXIMATE CAUSES. — The proximate causes of insanity may
be divided into (l) toxic agents, (2) mechanical injury to the brain,
including apoplexies and tumours, and (3) arterial degeneration.
l. Toxic Agents. — The definite nature of the symptoms in the
majority of the forms of acute insanity leave little reason to doubt
that they result from an invasion of the system by toxins of various
kinds. The symptoms referred to may be briefly indicated as
follows: (i.) Pyrexia, or fever generally of an irregular type;
(ii.) Hyperleucocytosis, or an increase of the white blood corpuscles,
which is the chief method by which the animal organism protects
itself against the noxious influence of micro-organisms and their
toxins. In such cases as typhoid fever, which is caused by a bacillus,
or Malta fever which is caused by a coccus, it is found that if the
blood serum of the patient is mixed in vitro with a broth culture of
the infecting organism in a dilution of I in 50, that the bacilli or
the cocci, as the case may be, when examined microscopically, are
seen to run into groups or clusters. The organisms are said to be
agglutinated, and the substance in the serum which produces this
reaction is termed an agglutinine. In many of the forms of insanity
which present the symptom of hyperleucocytosis there can also be
demonstrated the fact that the blood serum of the patients contains
agglutinines to certain members of a group of streptococci (so
called on account of their tendency to grow in the form of a chain,
<TTP«TTOS; (iii.) the rapid organic affection of the special nerve
elements depending upon the virulence of the toxin, and the resist-
ance of the individual to its influence; (iv.) the marked physical
deterioration as indicated by emaciation and other changes in
nutrition; (v.) the close analogy between the character of many
of the mental symptoms, e.g. delirium, hallucinations or depression,
and the symptoms produced artificially by the administration of
certain poisonous drugs.
The toxic substances which are generally believed to be associated
with the causation of mental disorders may be divided into three
great classes: (a) those which arise from the morbific products of
metabolism within the body itself " auto-intcxicants " ; (6) those
due to the invasion of the blood or tissues by micro-organisms;
(c) organic or inorganic poisons introduced into the system volun-
tarily or accidentally.
(a) Auto-intoxication may be due to defective metabolism or to
physiological instability, or to both combined. The results of
defective metabolism are most clearly manifested in the mental
symptoms which not infrequently accompany such diseases as
gout, diabetes or obesity, all of which depend primarily upon a
deficient chemical elaboration of the products of metabolism.
The association of gout and rheumatism with nervous and mental
diseases is historical, and the gravest forms of spinal and cerebral
degeneration have been found in association with diabetes. Until
the pathology of these affections is better understood we are not in
a position to determine the nature of the toxins which appear to be
the cause of thtse diseases and of their accompanying nervous
MEDICAL AND GENERAL]
INSANITY
symptoms. Physiological instability is usually manifested by
neurotic persons under the strain of any unusual change in their
environment. If, for instance, any material change in the food
supply consisting either in a decrease of its quality or quantity,
or in a failure to assimilate it properly, the nerve-cells become
exhausted and irritable, sleep is diminished and a condition known
as the delirium of collapse or exhaustion may supervene. An extreme
instance of this condition is presented by the delirium occurring in
shipwrecked persons, who having to take to the boats are suddenly
deprived of food, water or both. Poisoning of the nervous system
may also result from the defective action of special glands such
as the thyroid, the liver or the kidneys. These conditions are
specially exemplified in the mental disturbances which accompany
exophthalmic goitre, uraemic poisoning, and the conditions of
depression which are observed in jaundice and other forms of hepatic
insufficiency.
The results of modern research point to a growing belief in the
frequency of infection of the nervous system from the hosts of
micro-organisms which infest the alimentary tract. No definite
or substantiated discoveries have as yet been formulated which
would justify us in treating this source of infection as more than a
highly probable causative influence.
(b) When we turn, however, to the potentiality of infection by
micro-organisms introduced from without into the system we are
upon surer if not upon entirely definite ground. A special form of
insanity called by Weber, who first described it, the delirium of
collapse, was observed by him to follow certain infectious diseases
such as typhus fever and pneumonia. In later years it has been
frequently observed to follow attacks of influenza. Recently our
views have broadened and we find that the delirium of collapse is
an acute, confusional insanity which may arise without any previous
febrile symptoms, and is in fact one of the common forms of acute
insanity. The nature of the physical symptoms, the mental con-
fusion and hallucinations which accompany it, as well as the fact
that it frequently follows some other infective disease, leave no
doubt as to its toxic origin. A similar and analogous condition is
presented by incidence ofgeneral paralysis after a previous syphilitic
infection. The symptoms of general paralysis coupled with the
extensive and rapid degeneration of not only the nervous but of the
whole of the body tissues point to a microbic disease of intense
virulence which, though probably not syphilitic, is yet induced, and
enhanced in its action by the previous devitalizing action of the
syphilitic toxin. There is abundant evidence to show that emotions
which powerfully affect the mind, if long continued, conduce towards
a condition of metabolic change, which in its turn deleteripusly
affects the nervous system, and which may terminate in inducing a
true toxic insanity.
One of the best examples of insanity arising from micro-organisms
is that form which occurs after childbirth, and which is known as
puerperal mania. Other insanities may, it is true, arise at this
period, but those which occur within the first fourteen days after
parturition are generally of infective origin. The confusional nature
of the mental symptoms, the delirium and the physical symptoms
are sufficient indications of the analogy of this form of mental
aberration with such other toxic forms of insanity as we find arising
from septic wounds and which sometimes accompany the early
toxic stages of virulent infectious diseases such as typhus, diphtheria
or malignant scarlet fever.
The infective origin of puerperal mania is undoubted, though,
as yet, no special pathogenic organism has been isolated. Dr
Douglas (Ed. Med. Journ., 1897, i. 413) found the staphylococcus
pyogenes aureus present in the blood in one case; Jackman (quoted
loc. cit.) found the micrococcus pneumonial crouposae in one case;
while Haultain (Ed. Med. Journ., 1897, ii. 131) found only the
bacillus coli communis in the blood and secretions of several cases.
From our experience of similar mental and physical symptoms
produced as a result of septic wounds or which succeed surgical
operations there seems to be no doubt that several forms of micro-
cocci or streptococci of a virulent character are capable by means
of the toxins they exude of causing acute delirium or mania of a
confusional clinical type when introduced into the body.
(c) Accidental and voluntary poisonings of the system which
result in insanity are illustrated by the forms of insanity which
follow phosphorus or lead poisoning and by Pellagra. The voluntary
intoxication of the system by such drugs as morphia and alcohol
will be treated of below.
2 and 3. Mechanical injuries to the brain arise from direct violence
to the skull, from apoplectic hemorrhage or embolism, or from
rapidly growing tumours, or from arterial degeneration.
The forms of insanity may be divided into (I.) Congenital
Mental Defect and (II.) Acquired Insanity.
Forms of ^" Congenital Menial Defect. — The morbid mental
Insanity. conditions which fall to be considered under this head
are Idiocy (with its modification, Imbecility) and
Cretinism (q.v.).
IDIOCY (from Gr. t5icbrijs, in its secondary meaning of a
deprived person). In treating of idiocy it must be carefully
599
borne in mind that we are dealing with mental phenomena dis-
sociated for the most part from active bodily disease, and that,
in whatever degree it may exist, we have to deal with
a brain condition fixed by the pathological circum-
stances under which its possessor came into the world or by
such as had been present before full cerebral activity could be
developed, and the symptoms of which are not dependent on the
intervention of any subsequent morbid process. From the
earliest ages the term Amentia has been applied to this condition,
in contradistinction to Dementia, the mental weakness following
on acquired insanity.
The causes of congenital idiocy may be divided into four
classes: (i) hereditary predisposition, (2) constitutional con-
ditions of one or both parents affecting the constitution of the
infant, (3) injuries of the infant prior to or at birth, and (4)
injuries or diseases affecting the infant head during in/ancy.
All these classes of causes may act in two directions: they
may produce either non-development or abnormal development
of the cranial bones as evidenced by microcephalism, or by
deformity of the head; or they may induce a more subtle morbid
condition of the constituent elements of the brain. As a rule,
the pathological process is more easily traceable in the case of the
last three classes than in the first. For instance, in the case of
constitutional conditions of the parents we may have a history
of syphilis, a disease which often leaves its traces on the bones of
the skull; and in the third case congenital malformation of the
brain may be produced by mechanical causes acting on the child
in utero, such as an attempt to procure abortion, or deformities
of the maternal pelvis rendering labour difficult and instrumental
interference necessary. In such cases the bones of the skull
may be injured; it is only fair, however, to say that more brains
are saved than injured by instrumental interference. With
regard to the fourth class, it is evident that the term congenital
is not strictly applicable; but, as the period of life implicated is
that prior to the potentiality of the manifestation of the in-
tellectual powers, and as the result is identical with that of the
other classes of causes, it is warrantable to connect it with them,
on pathological principles more than as a mere matter of con-
venience.
Dr Ireland, in his work On Idiocy and Imbecility (1877),
classifies idiots from the standpoint of pathology as follows:
(i) Genetous idiocy: in this form, which he holds to be complete
before birth, he believes the presumption of heredity to be
stronger than in other forms; the vitality of the general system
is stated to be lower than normal; the palate is arched and narrow,
the teeth misshapen, irregular and prone to decay and the
patient dwarfish in appearance; the head is generally unsym-
metrical and the commissures occasionally atrophied; (2)
Microcephalic idiocy, a term which explains itself; (3) Eclampsic
idiocy, due to the effects of infantile convulsions; (4) Epileptic
idiocy; (5) Hydrocephalic idiocy, a term which explains itself;
(6) Paralytic idiocy, a rare form, due to the brain injury causing
the 'paralysis; (7) Traumatic idiocy, a form produced by the
third class of causes above mentioned; (8) Inflammatory idiocy;
(9) Idiocy by deprivation of one or more of the special senses.
The general conformation of the idiot is generally imperfect;
he is sometimes deformed, but more frequently the frame is
merely awkwardly put together, and he is usually of short
stature. Only about one-fourth of all idiots have heads smaller
than the average. Many cases are on record in which the cranial
measurements exceed the average. It is the irregularity of
development of the bones of the skull, especially at the base,
which marks the condition. Cases, however, often present
themselves in which the skull is perfect in form and size. In such
the mischief has begun in the brain matter. The palate is often
highly arched; hare-lip is not uncommon; in fact congenital
defect or malformation of other organs than the brain is more
commonly met with among idiots than in the general community.
Of the special senses, hearing is most frequently affected. Sight
is good, although co-ordination may be defective. Many are
mute. On account of the mental dullness it is difficult to
determine whether the senses of touch, taste and smell suffer
6oo
INSANITY
[MEDICAL AND GENERAL
impairment; but the impression is that their acuteness is below
the average. It is needless to attempt a description of the
mental phenomena of idiots, which range between utter want
of intelligence and mere weakness of intellect.
The term Imbecility has been conventionally employed to
indicate the less profound degrees of idiocy, but in point of fact
no distinct line of demarcation can be drawn between the
conditions. As the scale of imbeciles ascends it is found that
the condition is evidenced not so much by obtuseness as by
irregularity of intellectual development. This serves to mark
the difference between the extreme stupidity of the lowest of
the healthy and the highest forms of the morbidly deprived
type. The two conditions do not merge gradually one into the
other. Absolute stupidity and sottishness mark many cases
of idiocy, but only in the lowest type, where no dubiety of opinion
can exist as to its nature, and in a manner which can never be
mistaken for the dulness of the man who is less talented than the
average of mankind. Where in theory the morbid (in the sense
of deprivation) and the healthy types might be supposed to
approach each other, in practice we find that, in fact, no debatable
ground exists. The uniformity of dulness of the former stands
in marked opposition to the irregularity of mental conformation
in the latter. Comparatively speaking, there are few idiots or
imbeciles who are uniformly deprived of mental power; some
may be utterly sottish, living a mere vegetable existence, but
every one must have heard of the quaint and crafty sayings of
manifest idiots, indicating the presence of no mean power of
applied observation. In institutions for the treatment of idiots
and imbeciles, children are found not only able to read and write,
but even capable of applying the simpler rules of arithmetic.
A man may possess a very considerable meed of receptive faculty
and yet be idiotic in respect of the power of application; he may
be physically disabled from relation, and so be manifestly a
deprived person, unfit to take a position in the world on the same
platform as his fellows.
Dr Ireland subdivides idiots, for the purpose of education,
into five grades, the first comprising those who can neither speak
nor understand speech, the second those who can understand a
few easy words, the third those who can speak and can be taught
to work, the fourth those who can be taught to read and write,
and the fifth those who can read books for themselves. The
treatment of idiocy and imbecility consists almost entirely of
attention to hygiene and the building up of the enfeebled
constitution, along with endeavours to develop what small
amount of faculty exists by patiently applied educational in-
fluences. The success which has attended this line of treatment
in many public and private institutions has been very consider-
able. It may be safely stated that most idiotic or imbecile
children have a better chance of amelioration in asylums devoted
to them than by any amount of care at home.
In the class of idiots just spoken of, imperfect development of
the intellectual faculties is the prominent feature, so prominent
that it masks the arrest of potentiality of development of the
moral sense, the absence of which, even if noticed, is regarded as
relatively unimportant; but, in conducting the practical study
of congenital idiots, a class presents itself in which the moral
sense is wanting or deficient, whilst the intellectual powers are
apparently up to the average. It is the custom of writers on the
subject to speak of " intellectual " and " moral " idiots. The
terms are convenient for clinical purposes, but the two conditions
cannot be dissociated, and the terms therefore severally only
imply a specially marked deprivation of intellect or of moral
sense in a given case. The everyday observer has no difficulty
in recognizing as a fact that deficiency in receptive capacity is
evidence of imperfect cerebral development; but it is not so
patent to him that the perception of right or wrong can be com-
promised through the same cause, or to comprehend that loss of
moral sense may result from disease. The same difficulty does
not present itself to the pathologist; for, in the case of a child
born under circumstances adverse to brain development, and in
whom no process of education can develop an appreciation of
what is right or wrong, although the intellectual faculties appear
to be but slightly blunted, or not blunted at all, he cannot avoid
connecting the physical peculiarity with the pathological
evidence. The world is apt enough to refer any fault in intel-
lectual development, manifested by imperfect receptivity, to a
definite physical cause, and is willing to base opinion on com-
paratively slight data; but it is not so ready to accept the
theory of a pathological implication of the intellectual attributes
concerned in the perception of the difference between right and
wrong. Were, however, two cases pitted one against another —
the first one of so-called intellectual, the second one of so-called
moral idiocy — it would be found that, except as regards the
psychical manifestations, the cases might be identical. In both
there might be a family history of tendency to degeneration, a
peculiar cranial conformation, a history of previous symptoms
during infancy, and of a series of indications of mental in-
capacities during adolescence, differing only in this, that in the
first the prominent indication of mental weakness was inability
to add two and two together, in the second the prominent feature
was incapacity to distinguish right from wrong. What compli-
cates the question of moral idiocy is that many of its subjects
can, when an abstract proposition is placed before them, answer
according to the dictates of morality, which they may have
learnt by rote. If asked whether it is right or wrong to lie or
steal they will say it is wrong; still, when they themselves are
detected in either offence, there is an evident non-recognition of
its concrete nature. The question of moral idiocy will always be
a moot one between the casuist and the pathologist; but, when
the whole natural history of such cases is studied, there are
points of differentiation between their morbid depravation and
mere moral depravity. Family history, individual peculiarities,
the general bizarre nature of the phenomena, remove such cases
from the category of crime.
Statistics. — According to the census returns of 1901 the total
number of persons described as idiots and imbeciles in England and
Wales was 48,882, the equality of the sexes being remarkable,
namely, 24,480 males and 24,402 females. Compared with the
entire population the ratio is I idiot or imbecile to 665 persons,
or 15 per 10,000 persons living. Whether the returns are defective,
owing to the sensitiveness of persons who would desire to conceal
the occurrence of idiocy in their families, we have no means of
knowing; but such a feeling is no doubt likely to exist among
those who look upon mental infirmity as humiliating, rather than,
as one of the many physical evils which afflict humanity. Dr. Ire-
jand estimates that there is I idiot or imbecile to every 500 persons
in countries that have a census. The following table shows the num-
ber of idiots according to official returns of the various countries:—
Males.
Females.
Total.
Proportion
to 100,000
of Pop.
England and Wales
Scotland ....
Ireland ....
France (including
cretins) (1872)
Germany (1871) . .
Sweden (1870) . .
Norway (1891) . .
Denmark (i 888-89).
24,480
3.246
2,946
20,456
1,357
2,106
24,402
3,377
2,270
14,677
1,074
i,75i
48,882
6,623
5,2i6
35,133
33,739
1,632
2,43i
3,857
ISO
148
H7
97
82
38
121
200
For the United States there are no later census figures than 1890
when the feeble-minded or idiotic were recorded 3395,571 (52,940
males and 42,631 females). In 1904 (Special Report of Bureau of
Census, 1906) the "feeble-minded" were estimated at 150,000.
The relative frequency of congenital and acquired insanity in
various countries is shown in the following table, taken from Koch's
statistics of insanity in Wurttemberg, which gives the number of
idiots to loo lunatics: —
Prussia
Bavaria
Saxony
Austria
Hungary
Canton ol
America
Bt
rn
158
154
162
53
140
"7
79
France .
Denmark
Sweden .
Norway .
England an
Scotland
Ireland .
1\\
rale
66
58
22
65
s 74
68
69
It is difficult to understand the wide divergence of these figures,
except it be that in certain states, such as Prussia and Bavaria,
dements have been taken along with aments and in others cretins.
MEDICAL AND GENERAL]
INSANITY
601
This cannot, however, apply to the case of France, which is stated
to have only 66 idiots to every 100 lunatics. In many districts of
France cretinism is common; it is practically unknown in England,
where the proportion of idiots is stated as higher than in France;
and it is rare in Prussia, which stands at 158 idiots to loo lunatics.
Manifestly imperfect as this table is, it shows how important an
element idiocy is in social statistics; few are aware that the number
of idiots and that of lunatics approach so nearly.
II. Acquired Insanity. — So far as the mental symptoms of
acquired insanity are concerned, Pinel's ancient classification,
into Mania, Melancholia and Dementia, is still applic-
able to every case> and although numberless classifica-
tions have been advanced they are for the most
part merely terminological variations. Classifications of the
insanities based on pathology and etiology have been held
out as a solution of the difficulty, but, so far, pathological
observations have failed to fulfil this ideal, and no thoroughly
satisfactory pathological classification has emerged from them.
Classifications are after all matters of convenience; the
following system admittedly is so: —
Melancholia.
Mania.
Delusional Insanity.
Katatonia.
Hebephrenia.
Traumatic Insanity.
Insanity following upon arterial degeneration.
Insanities associated or caused by: General Paralysis; Epilepsy.
Insanities associated with or caused by Alcoholic and Drug intoxi-
cation: Delirium Tremens, Chronic Alcoholic Insanity, Dip-
somania, Morphinism.
SENILE INSANITY. — The general symptoms of acquired insanity
group themselves naturally under two heads, the physical and
the mental.
The physical symptoms of mental disease generally, if not
invariably, precede the onset of the mental symptoms, and the
patient may complain of indefinite symptoms of
malaise for weeks and months before it is suspected
that the disorder is about to terminate in mental
symptoms. The most general physical disorder common
to the onset of all the insanities is the failure of nutrition, i.e.
the patient rapidly and apparently without any apparent cause
loses weight. Associated with this nutritional failure it is usual
to have disturbances of the alimentary tract, such as loss
of appetite, dyspepsia and obstinate constipation. During the
prodromal stage of such conditions as mania and melancholia the
digestive functions of the stomach and intestine are almost or
completely in abeyance. To this implication of other systems
consequent on impairment of the trophesial (nourishment-
regulating) function of the brain can be traced a large number of
the errors which exist as to the causation of idiopathic melan-
cholia and mania. Very frequently this secondary condition is
set down as the primary cause; the insanity is referred to
derangements of the stomach or bowels, when in fact these are,
concomitantly with the mental disturbance, results of the
cerebral mischief. Doubtless these functional derangements
exercise considerable influence on the progress of the case by
assisting to deprave the general economy, and by producing
depressing sensations in the region of the stomach. To them
may probably be attributed, together with the apprehension of
impending insanity, that phase of the disease spoken of by the
older writers as the stadium melancholicum, which so frequently
presents itself in incipient cases.
The skin and its appendages — the hair and the. nails — suffer
in the general disorder of nutrition which accompanies all
insanities. The skin may be abnormally dry and scurfy or moist
and offensive. In acute insanities rashes are not uncommon, and
in chronic conditions, especially conditions of depression, crops
of papules occur on the face, chest and shoulders. The hair is
generally dry, loses its lustre and becomes brittle. The nails
become deformed and may exhibit either excessive and irregular
or diminished growth.
Where there are grave nutritional disorders it is to be ex-
pected that the chief excretions of the body should show de-
partures from the state of health. In this article it is impossible
to treat this subject fully, but it may suffice to say that in many
states of depression there is a great deficiency in the excretion of
the solids of the urine, particularly the nitrogenous waste pro-
ducts of the body; while in conditions of excitement there is
an excessive output of the nitrogenous waste products. It has
lately been pointed out that in many forms of insanity indoxyl
is present in the urine, a substance only present when putrefactive
processes are taking place in the intestinal tract.
The nervous system, both on the sensory and motor side,
suffers very generally in all conditions of insanity. On the
icnsory side the special senses are most liable to disorder of their
function, whereby false sense impressions arise which the patient
from impairment of judgment is unable to correct, and hence arise
the psychical symptoms known as hallucinations and delusions.
Common sensibility is generally impaired.
On the motor side, impairment of the muscular power is
present in many cases of depression and in all cases of dementia.
The incontinence of urine so frequently seen in dementia and in
acute insanity complicated with the mental symptom of con-
fusion depends partly on impairment of muscular power and
partly on disorder of the sensory apparatus of the brain and
spinal cord.
The outstanding mental symptom in nearly all insanities, acute
and recent or chronic, is the failure of the capacity of judgment
and loss of self-control. In early acute insanities, however, the
two chief symptoms which are most evident and easily noted are
depression on the one hand and excitement or elevation on the
other. Some distinction ought to be made between these two
terms, excitement and elevation, which at present are used
synonymously. Excitement is a mental state which may be
and generally is associated with confusion and mental impair-
ment, while elevation is an exaltation of the mental faculties, a
condition in which there is no mental confusion, but rather an
unrestrained and rapid succession of fleeting mental processes.
The symptoms which most strongly appeal to the lay mind as
conclusive evidence of mental disorder are hallucinations and
delusions. Hallucinations are false sense impressions which occur
without normal stimuli. The presence of hallucinations certainly
indicates some functional disorder of the higher brain centres, but
is not an evidence of insanity so long as the sufferer recognizes that
the hallucinations are false sense impressions. So soon, however, as
conduct is influenced by hallucinations, then the boundary line
between sanity on the one hand and insanity on the other has been
crossed. The most common hallucinations are those of sight and
hearing.
Delusions are not infrequently the result of hallucinations. _
the hallucinations of a melancholic patient consist in hearing voices
which make accusatory statements, delusions of sin and unworthiness
frequently follow. Hallucinations of the senses of taste and smell
are almost invariably associated with the delusion that the patient's
food is being poisoned or that it consists of objectionable matter.
On the other hand, many delusions are apparently the outcome
of the patient's mental state. They may be pleasant or disagreeable
according as the condition is one of elevation or depression. The
intensity and quality of the delusions are largely influenced by the
intelligence and education of the patient. An educated man, for
instance, who suffers from sensory disturbances is much more
ingenious in his explanations as to how these sensory disturbances
result from electricity, marconigrams, X-rays, &c., which he believes
are used by his enemies to annoy him, than an ignorant man suffering
from the same abnormal sensations. Loss of self-control is char-
acteristic of all forms of insanity. Normal self-control is so much
a matter of race, age, the state of health, moral and physical up-
bringing, that it is impossible to lay down any law whereby this
mental quality can be gauged, or to determine when deficiency has
passed from a normal to an abnormal state. In many cases of in-
sanity there is no difficulty in appreciating the pathological nature
of the deficiency, but there are others in which the conduct is other-
wise so rational that one is apt to attribute the deficiency to physio-
logical rather than to pathological causes. Perversion of the moral
sense is common to all the insanities, but is often the only symptom
to be noticed in cases of imbecility and idiocy, and it as a rule may
be the earliest symptom noticed in the early stages of the excitement
of manic-depressive insanity and general paralysis.
The tendency to commit suicide, which is so common among
the insane and those predisposed to insanity, is especially prevalent
in patients who suffer from depression, sleeplessness and delusions
of persecution. Suicidal acts may be divided into accidental, im-
pulsive and premeditated. The accidental suicides occur in patients
who are partially or totally unconscious of their surroundings,
and are generally the result of terrifying hallucinations, to escape
602
INSANITY
[MEDICAL AND GENERAL
from which the patient jumps through a window or runs blindly
into water or some other danger. Impulsive suicides may be
prompted by suddenly presented opportunities or means of self-
destruction, such as the sight of water, fire, a knife, cord or poison.
Premeditated suicides most frequently occur in states of long
continued depression. Such patients frequently devote their
attention to only one method of destruction and fail to avail them-
selves of others equally practicable. As a rule the more educated
the patient, the more ingenious and varied are the methods adopted
to attain the desired result.
The faculty of attention is variously affected in the subjects of
insanity. In some the attention is entirely subjective, being
occupied by sensations of misery, depression or sensory disturb-
ances. In others the attention is objective, and attracted by every
accidental sound or movement. In most of the early acute insanities
the capacity of attention is wholly abolished, while in hebephrenia
the stage of exhaustion which follows acute excitement, and the
condition known as secondary dementia, loss of the power of at-
tention is one of the most prominent symptoms. The memory for
both recent and remote events is impaired or abolished in all acute
insanities which are characterized by confusion and loss or impair-
ment of consciousness. In the excited stage of manic-depressive
insanity it is not uncommon tc find that the memory is abnormally
active. Loss of memory for recent but net remote events is char-
acteristic of chronic alcoholism and senility and even the early
stage of general paralysis.
Of all the functions of the brain that of sleep is the most liable to
disorder in the insane. Sleeplessness is the earliest symptom in the
onset of insanity; it is universally present in all the acute forms,
and the return of natural sleep is generally the first symptom of
recovery. The causes of sleeplessness are very numerous, but in the
majority of acute cases the sleeplessness is due to a state of toxaemia.
The toxins act either directly on the brain cells producing a state of
irritability incompatible with sleep, or indirectly, producing physical
symptoms which of themselves alone are capable of preventing the
condition of sleep. These symptoms are high arterial tension and
a rapid pulse-rate. The arterial tension of health ranges between
no and 120 millimetres of mercury, and when sleep occurs the
arterial tension falls and is rarely above 100 millimetres. In ob-
servations conducted by Bruce (Scottish Medical and Surgical
Journal, August 1900) on cases of insanity suffering from sleepless-
ness the arterial tension was found to be as high as 140 and 150
millimetres. When such sleep was obtained the tension always
sank at once to no millimetres or even lower. In a few cases
suffering from sleeplessness the arterial tension was found to be
below loo millimetres, accompanied by a rapid pulse-rate. When
sleep set in, in these cases, no alteration was noted in the arterial
tension, but the pulse was markedly diminished.
MELANCHOLIA. — Melancholia is a general term applied to
all forms of insanity in which the prevailing mental symptom
is that of depression and dates back to the time of
Hippocrates. Melancholic patients, however, differ
very widely from one another in their mental symptoms,
and as a consequence a perfectly unwarrantable series of sub-
divisions have been invented according to the prominence of
one. or other mental symptoms. Such terms as delusional
melancholia, resistive melancholia, stuporose melancholia,
suicidal melancholia, religious melancholia, &c. have so arisen;
they are, however, more descriptive of individual cases than
indicative of types of disease.
So far as our present knowledge goes, at least three different
and distinct disease conditions can be described under the
general term melancholia. These are, acute melancholia,
excited melancholia and the state of depression occurring in
Folie circulaire or alternating insanity, a condition in which
the patient is liable to suffer from alternating attacks of excite-
ment and depression.
Acute Melancholia is a disease of adult life and the decline
of life. Women appear to be more liable to be attacked than
men. Hereditary predisposition, mental worry, exhausting
occupations, such as the sick-nursing of relatives, are the chief
predisposing causes, while the direct exciting cause of the condi-
tion is due to the accumulation in the tissues of waste products,
which so load the blood as to act in a toxic manner on the cells
and fibres of the brain.
The onset of the disease is gradual and indefinite. The
patient suffers from malaise, indigestion, constipation and
irregular, rapid and forcible action of the heart. The urine
become scanty and high coloured. The nervous symptoms
are irritability, sleeplessness and a feeling of mental confusion.
The actual onset of the acute mental symptoms may be sudden,
and is not infrequently heralded by distressing hallucinations
of hearing, together with a rise in the body temperature. In
the fully developed disease the patient is flushed and the skin
hot and dry; the temperature is usually raised i° above the
normal in the evening. The pulse is hard, rapid and often
irregular. There is no desire for food, but dryness of the mouth
and tongue promote a condition of thirst. The bowels are
constipated. The urine is scanty and frequently contains large
quantities of indoxyl. The blood shows no demonstrable de-
parture from the normal. The patient is depressed, the face
has a strained, anxious expression, while more or less mental
confusion is always present. Typical cases suffer from dis-
tressing aural hallucinations, and the function of sleep is in
abeyance.
Acute melancholia may terminate in recovery either gradually
or by crises, or the condition may pass into chronicity, while
in a small proportion of cases death occurs early in the attack
from exhaustion and toxaemia. The acute stage of onset generally
lasts for from two to three weeks, and within that period the
patient may make a rapid and sudden recovery. The skin
becomes moist and perspiration is often profuse. Large quantities
of urine are excreted, which are laden with waste products.
The pulse becomes soft and compressible, sleep returns, and the
depression, mental confusion and hallucinations pass away.
In the majority of untreated cases, however, recovery is much
more gradual. At the end of two or three weeks from the onset
of the attack the patient gradually passes into a condition of
comparative tranquillity. The skin becomes moister, the pulse
less rapid, and probably the earliest symptom of improvement
is return of sleep. Hallucinations accompanied by delusions
persist often for weeks and months, but as the patient improves
physically the mental symptoms become less and less prominent.
If the patient does not recover, the physical symptoms are
those of mal-nutrition, together with chronic gastric and intestinal
disorder. The skin is dull and earthy in appearance, the hair
dry, the nails brittle and the heart's action weak and feeble.
Mentally there is profound depression with delusions, and
persistent or recurring attacks of hallucinations of hearing.
When death occurs, it is usually preceded by a condition known
as the " typhoid state." The patient rapidly passes into a state
of extreme exhaustion, the tongue is dry and cracked, sordes
form upon the teeth and lips, diarrhoea and congestion of the
lungs rapidly supervene and terminate life.
Treatment. — The patient in the early stage of the disease must be
confined to bed and nursed by night as well as day. The food to
begin with should be milk, diluted with hot water or aerated water,
given frequently and in small quantities. The large intestine should
be thoroughly cleared out by large enemata and kept empty by
large normal saline enemata administered every second day. Sleep
may be secured by lowering the blood pressure with half-grain doses
of erythrol-tetra-nitrate. If a hypnotic is necessary, as it will be
if the patient has had no natural sleep for two nights in succession,
then a full dose of paraldehyde or veronal may be given at bed-time.
Under this treatment the majority of cases, if treated early, improve
rapidly. As the appetite returns great care must be taken that the
patient does not suddenly resume a full ordinary dietary. A sudden
return to a full dietary invariably means a relapse, which is often
less amenable to treatment than the original attack. Toast should
first be added to the milk, and this may be followed by milk puddings
and farinaceous foods in small quantities. Any rise of temperature
or increase of pulse-rate or tendency to sleeplessness should be
regarded as a threatened relapse and treated accordingly.
Excited Melancholia. — Excited melancholia is almost invariably
a disease of old age or the decline of life, and it attacks men and
women with equal frequency. Chronic gastric disorders, deficient
food and sleep, unhealthy occupations and environments,
together with worry and mental stress, are all more or less
predisposing causes of the disease. The direct exciting cause
or causes have not as yet been demonstrated, but there is no
doubt that the disease is associated with, or caused by, a condition
of bacterial toxaemia, analogous to the bacterial toxaemias
of acute and chronic rheumatism.
The onset of the disease is always gradual and is associated
with mal-nutrition, loss of body weight, nervousness, depres-
sion, loss of the capacity for work, sleeplessness and attacks of
MEDICAL AND GENERAL]
INSANITY
603
restlessness. These attacks of restlessness become more and
more marked as self-control diminishes, and as the depression
increases the disease passes the borderland of sanity.
In the fully developed disease the appearance of the patient
is typical. The expression is drawn, depressed, anxious or
apprehensive. The skin is yellow and parchment like. The
hair is often dry and stands out stiffly from the head. The hands
are in constant movement, twisting and untwisting, picking the
skin, pulling at the hair or tearing at the clothes. The patient
moans continuously, or emits cries of grief and wanders aimlessly.
Mentally the patient, although depressed, miserable and self-
absorbed, is not confused. There is complete consciousness
except during the height of a paroxysm of restlessness and de-
pression, and the patient can talk and answer questions clearly
and intelligently, but takes no interest in the environment.
Some of the patients suffer from delusions, generally a sense of
impending danger, but very few suffer from hallucinations.
Physically there is loss of appetite, constipation and rapid
heart action, a great increase in the number of the white blood
corpuscles, particularly of the multinucleated cells which are
frequently increased in bacterial infections. In the blood serum
also there can be demonstrated the presence of agglutinines
to certain members of the streptococci group.
The course of the disease is prolonged and chronic. The acute
symptoms tend to remit at regular intervals, the patient becoming
more quiet and less demonstratively depressed; but as a rule
these remissions are extremely temporary. Excited melancholia
is a disease characterized by repeated relapses, and recoveries
are rare in cases above the age of forty.
Treatment. — There is no curative treatment for excited melan-
cholia. The patient must be carefully nursed ; kept in bed during
the exacerbations of the disease and treated with graduated doses
of nepenthe or tincture of opium, to secure some amelioration of
the acute symptoms. Careful dieting, tonics and baths are of
benefit during the remissions of the disease, and in a few cases seem
to promote recovery.
Folie circulaire, or alternating insanity, was first described
by Falret and Baillarger, and more recently Kraepelin has
considerably widened the conception of this class of disease,
which he describes under the term "manic-depressive insanity."
Of the two terms (folie circulaire and manic-depressive insanity)
the latter is the more correct. Folie circulaire implies that the
disease invariably passes through a complete cycle, which descrip-
tion is only applicable to very few of the cases. Manic-depressive
insanity implies that the patient may either suffer from excite-
ment or depression which do not necessarily succeed one another
in any fixed order. As a mat'er of fact, the majority of patients
who suffer from the disease either have marked excited attacks
with little or no subsequent depression, or marked attacks of de-
pression with a subsequent period of such slight exaltation as
hardly to be distinguisr id from a state of health.
Depression of the -name-depressive variety, therefore, may
either precede or foil jw upon an attack of maniacal excitement,
or it may be the chiof and only obvious symptom of the disease
and may recur ag-a'n and again. The disease attacks men and
women with equal Irequency, and as a rule manifests itself either
late in adolescer -e or during the decline of life. Hereditary
predisposition has been proved to exist in over 50 % of cases,
beyond which no definite predisposing cause is at present known.
A considerable number of cases follow upon attacks of infective
disease such as typhoid fever, scarlet fever or rheumatic fever.
The actual exciting cause is probably an intestinal toxaemia
of bacterial origin; at all events, mal-nutrition, gastric and
intestinal symptoms not infrequently precede an attack, and
the condition of the blood — the increase in number in the
multinucleated white blood corpuscles and the presence of
agglutinines to certain members of the streptococci group of
bacteria — are symptoms which have been definitely demon-
strated by Bruce in every case so far examined.
If the depression is the sequel to an attack of excitement,
the onset may be very sudden or it may be gradual. If, on the
other hand, the depression is not the sequel of excitement, the
onset is very gradual and the patient complains of lassitude,
incapacity for mental or physical work, loss of appetite, con-
stipation and sleeplessness often for months before the case is
recognized as one of insanity. In the fully developed disease the
temperature is very rarely febrile, on the contrary it is rather
subnormal in character. The stomach is disordered and the
bowels confined. The urine is scanty, turbid and very liable to
rapid decomposition. The heart's action is slow and feeble and
the extremities become cold, blue and livid. In extreme cases
gangrene of the lower extremities may occur, but in all there is
a tendency to oedema of the extremities. The skin is greasy,
often offensive, and the palms of the hands and the soles of the
feet are sodden.
Mentally there is simple depression, without, in the majority
of cases, any implication of consciousness. Many patients pass
through attack after attack without suffering from hallucinations
or delusions, but in rare cases hallucinations of hearing and sight
are present. Delusions of unworthiness and unpardonable sin
are not uncommon, and if once expressed are liable to recur again
during the course of each successive attack. The disease is
prolonged and chronic in its course, and the condition of the
patient varies but little from day to day. When the depression
follows excitement, the patient as a rule becomes fat and flabby.
On the other hand, if the illness commences with depression, the
chief physical symptoms are mal-nutrition and loss of body
weight, and the return to health is always preceded by a return of
nutrition and a gain in body weight.
The attacks may last from six months to two or three years.
The intervals between attacks may last for only a few weeks
or months or may extend over several years. During the interval
the patient is not only capable of good mental work but may show
capacity of a high order. In other words this form of mental
disorder does not tend to produce dementia; the explanation
probably being that between the attacks there is no toxaemia.
Treatment. — There is no known curative treatment for the de»
pression of manic-depressive insanity, but the depression, the
sleeplessness and the gastric disorder are to some extent mitigated
by common sense attention to the general health of the body.
If the patient is thin and wasted, then treatment is best conducted
in bed. The diet should be bland, consisting largely of milk, eggs
and farinaceous food, given in small quantities and frequently.
Defecation should be maintained by enemata, and the skin kept
clean by daily warm baths. What is of much more importance is
the fact that in some instances subsequent attacks can be prevented
by impressing upon the patient the necessity for attending to the
state of the bowels, and of discontinuing work when the slightest
symptoms of an attack present themselves. If these symptoms
are at all prominent, rest in bed is a wise precaution, butcher-meat
should be discontinued from the dietary and a tonic of arsenic or
quinine and acid prescribed.
MANIA. — The term mania, meaning pathological elevation
or excitement, has, like the term melancholia, been applied to
all varieties of morbid mental conditions in which Mania.
the prevailing mental symptom is excitement or eleva-
tion. As in melancholia so in mania various subdivisions have
been invented, such as delusional mania, religious mania, homi-
cidal mania, according to the special mental characteristics of
each case, but such varieties are of accidental origin and cannot
be held to be subdivisions.
Under the term mania two distinct diseased conditions can be
described, viz. acute mania, and the elevated stage of folie circu-
laire or manic-depressive insanity.
Acute Mania. — Acute mania is a disease which attacks both
sexes at all ages, but its onset is most prevalent during adoles-
cence and early adult life. Hereditary predisposition, physical
and mental exhaustion, epileptic seizures and childbirth are all
predisposing causes. The direct exciting cause or causes are un-
known, but the physical symptoms suggest that the condition
is one of acute toxaemia or poisoning, and the changes in the
blood are such as are consequent on bacterial toxaemia.
The onset is gradual in the large majority of cases. Histories of
sudden outbursts of mania can rarely be relied on, as the illness
is almost invariably preceded by loss of body weight, sleepless-
ness, bad dreams, headaches and symptoms of general malaise,
sometimes associated with depression. The actual onset of the
mental symptoms themselves, however, are frequently sudden.
604
INSANITY
[MEDICAL AND GENERAL
*A typical case of the fully developed disease is not easily mistaken.
The patient is usually anaemic and thin, the expression of the
face is unnatural, the eyes widely opened and bright; and there
is great motor restlessness, the muscular movements being
purposeless and inco-ordinate. This inco-ordination of movement
affects not only the muscles of the limbs and trunk but also those
of expression, so that the usual aspect of the face becomes
entirely altered. The temperature is generally slightly febrile.
The tongue and lips are cracked and dry through excessive
shouting or speaking. There is often no desire for food or drink.
The heart's action is rapid and forcible. The skin is soft and
moist. The urine is scanty, turbid and loaded with urates.
The white blood corpuscles per cubic millimetre of blood are
markedly increased, and the blood serum contains agglutinines
to certain strains of streptococci which are not present in healthy
persons. Sensibility to pain is lost or much impaired. Such
patients will swing and jerk a broken limb apparently unaware
that it is broken. Sleep is absent or obtained in short snatches,
and even when asleep the patient is often restless and talkative
as if the disease processes were still active.
Mentally the patient is excited, often wildly so, quite confused
and unable to recognize time or place. Answers to questions may
sometimes be elicited by repeated efforts to engage the attention
of the patient. The speech is incoherent, and for all practical
purposes the patient is mentally inaccessible. This state of acute
excitement lasts usually for two or three weeks and gradually
passes into a condition of chronic restlessness and noise, in which
the movements are more co-ordinate and purposeful. The con-
fusion of the acute stage passes off and the attention can be
more readily attracted but cannot be concentrated on any
subject for any length of time. The patient will now recognize
friends, but the affections are in abeyance and the memory is de-
fective. The appetite becomes insatiable, but the patient does not
necessarily gain in weight. This stage of subacute excitement
may last for months, but as a rule favourable cases recover
within six months from the onset of the disease. A recovering
patient gradually gains weight, sleeps soundly at night and has
periods of partial quiescence during the day, particularly in the
morning after a good night's sleep. These lucid intervals become
more and more prolonged and finally pass into a state of sanity.
Some cases on the other hand, after the acute symptoms decline,
remain confused, and this state of confusion may last for months;
by some alienists it is described as secondary stupor.
The symptoms detailed above are those typical of an attack
such as is most frequently met with in adult cases. Acute mania,
however, is a disease which presents itself in various forms.
Adolescent cases, for instance, very commonly suffer from re-
current attacks, and the recurrent form of the disease is also to
be met with in adults. The recurrent form at the onset does not
differ in symptoms from that already described, but the course
of the attack is shorter and more acute, so that the patient
after one or two weeks of acute excitement rapidly improves,
the mental symptoms pass off and the patient is apparently
perfectly recovered. An examination of the blood, however,
reveals the fact that the patient is still suffering from some
disorder of the system, inasmuch as the white blood corpuscles
remain increased above the average of health. Subsequent
attacks of excitement come on without any obvious provocation.
The pulse becomes fast and the face flushed. The patient
frequently complains of fullness in the head, ringing in the ears
and a loss of appetite. Sleeplessness is an invariable symptom.
Self-control is generally lost suddenly, and the patient rapidly
passes into a state of delirious excitement, to recover again, appar-
ently, in the course of a few weeks. Recurrent mania might
therefore be regarded as a prolonged toxaemia, complicated at
intervals by outbursts of delirious excitement. Acute mania in
the majority of cases ends in recovery. In the continuous attack
the recovery is gradual. In the recurrent cases the intervals
between attacks become longer and the attacks less severe until
they finally cease. In such recovered cases very frequently a
persistent increase in the number of the white blood corpuscles
is found, persisting for a period of two or three years of apparently
sound mental health. A few cases die, exhausted by the acute-
ness of the excitement and inability to obtain rest by the natural
process of sleep. When death does occur in this way the patient
almost invariably passes into the typhoid state.
The residue of such cases become chronic, and chronicity
almost invariably means subsequent dementia. The chronic
stage of acute mania may be represented by a state of continuous
subacute excitement in which the patient becomes dirty and
destructive in habits and liable from time to time to exacerba-
tions of the mental symptoms. Continuous observation of the
blood made in such cases over a period extending for weeks
reveals the fact that the leucocytosis, if represented in chart
form, shows a regular sequence of events. Just prior to the onset
of an exacerbation the leucocytosis is low. As the excitement
increases in severity the leucocytosis curve rises, and just before
improvement sets in there may be a decided rise in the curve
and then a subsequent fall; but this fall rarely reaches the
normal line. In other cases, which pass into chronicity, a state
of persistent delusion, rather than excitement, is the prevailing
mental characteristic, and these cases may at recurrent intervals
become noisy and dangerous.
Treatment. — Acute mania can only be treated on general lines.
During the acute stage of onset the patient should be placed in bed.
If there is difficulty in inducing the patient to take a sufficient
quantity of food, this difficulty can be got over by giving food in
liquid form, milk, milk-tea, eggs beaten up in milk, meat juice and
thin gruel, and it is always better to feed such a patient with small
quantities given frequently. Cases of mania following childbirth
are those which most urgently demand careful and frequent feeding,
artificially administered if necessary. If there is any tendency to
exhaustion, alcoholic stimulants are indicated, and in some cases
strychnine, quinine and cardiac tonics are highly beneficial. The
bowels should be unloaded by large enemata or the use of saline
purgatives. The continuous use of purgatives should as a rule be
avoided, as they drain the system of fluids. On the other hand,
tne administration of one large normal saline enema by supplying
the tissues with fluids, and probably thereby diluting the toxins
circulating in the system, gives considerable relief. A continuous
warm bath frequently produces sleep and reduces excitement. The
sleeplessness of acute mania is best treated by warm baths wherever
possible, and if a drug must be administered, then paraldehyde is
the safest and most certain, unless the patient is also an alcoholic,
when chloral and bromide is probably a better sedative.
The Elevated Stage of Folie Circulaire or Manic Depressive
Insanity. — As previously mentioned in the description of the
depressed stage of this mental disorder, the disease is equally
prone to attack men and women, generally during late adolescence
or in early adult life, and in a few cases first appears during the
decline of life. Hereditary predisposition undoubtedly plays a
large part as a predisposing caust , and after that is said it is
difficult to assign any other definite predisposing causes and
certainly no exciting causes. As in ,he stage of depression, so
in the stage of excitement the first attack may closely follow
upon typhoid fever, erysipelas or rheumatic fever. On the other
hand many cases occur without any su>-h antecedent disease.
Another fact which has been commentei. upon is that these
patients at the onset of an attack of exciiement often appear
to be in excellent physical health.
The earliest symptoms of onset are moral ra her than physical.
The patient changes in character, generally foi the worse. The
sober man becomes intemperate. The steady .nan of business
enters into foolish, reckless speculation. There is a tendency
for the patient to seek the society of inferiors and to ignore the
recognized conventionalities of life and decency. The dress
becomes extravagant and vulgar and the speech loud, boastful
and obscene. These symptoms may exist for a considerable
period before some accidental circumstance or some more than
usually extravagant departure from the laws and customs of
civilization draws public attention to the condition of the patient.
The symptoms of the fully developed disease differ in degree
in different cases. The face is often flushed and the expression
unnatural. There is constant restlessness, steady loss of body
weight, and sleeplessness. In very acute attacks there are
frequently symptoms of gastric disorder, while in other cases
the appetite is enormous, gross and perverted. The Jeucocytosis
is above that usually met with in health, and the increase in the
MEDICAL AND GENERAL]
INSANITY
605
early stages is due to the relative and absolute increase in the
multinucleated or polymorphonuclear leucocytes. The hyper-
leucocytosis is not, however, so high as it is in acute mania, and
upon recovery taking place the leucocytosis always falls to
normal. In the serum of over 80% of cases there are present
agglutinines to certain strains of streptococci, which agglutinines
are not present in the serum of healthy persons. The changes
in the urine are those which one would expect to find in persons
losing weight; the amount of nitrogenous output is in excess of
the nitrogen ingested in the food.
Mentally there is always exaltation rather than excitement,
and when excitement is present it is never of a delirious nature,
that is to say, the patient is cognizant of the surroundings, and
the special senses are abnormally acute, particularly those of
sight and hearing. Hallucinations and delusion are sometimes
present, but many cases pass through several attacks without
exhibiting either of these classes of symptoms. The patient
is always garrulous and delighted to make any chance acquaint-
ance the confidant of his most private affairs. The mood is
sometimes expansive and benevolent, interruption in the flow
of talk may suddenly change the subject of the conversation or
the patient may with equal suddenness fly into a violent rage,
use foul and obscene language, ending with loud laughter and
protestations of eternal friendship. In other words the mental
processes are easily stimulated and as easily diverted into other
channels. The train of thought is, as it were, constantly being
changed by accidental associations. Although consciousness
is not impaired, the power of work is abolished as the attention
cannot be directed continuously to any subject, and yet the
patient may be capable of writing letters in which facts and
fiction are most ingeniously blended. A typical case will pass
through the emotions of joy, sorrow and rage in the course of a
few minutes. The memory is not impaired and is often hyper-
acute. The speech may be rambling but is rarely incoherent.
The course of the attack is in some cases short, lasting for from
one to three weeks, while in others the condition lasts for years.
The patient remains in a state of constant restlessness, both of
body and mind, untidy or absurd in dress, noisy, amorous,
vindictive, boisterously happy or virulently abusive. As time
passes a change sets in. The patient sleeps better, begins to lay
on flesh, the sudden mental fluctuations become less marked
and finally disappear. Many of these patients remember every
detail of their lives during the state of elevation, and many are
acutely ashamed of their actions during this period of their
illness. As a sequel to the attack of elevation there is usually
an attack of depression, but this is not a necessary sequel.
The majority of patients recover even after years of illness,
but the attacks are always liable to recur. Even recurrent
attacks, however, leave behind them little if any mental impair-
' ment.
Treatment. — General attention to the health of the body, and an
abundance of nourishing food, and, where necessary, the use of
sedatives such as bromide and sulphonal, sum up the treatment of
the elevated stage of manic-depressive insanity. In Germany it is
the custom to treat s'uch cases in continuous warm baths, extending
sometimes for weeks. The use of warm baths of several hours'
duration has not proved satisfactory.
DELUSIONAL INSANITY. — Considerable confusion exists at
the present day regarding the term delusional insanity. It is
not correct to define the condition as a disease in which
fixed delusions dominate the conduct and are the
chief mental symptom present. Such a definition
would include many chronic cases of melancholia and mania.
All patients who suffer from attacks of acute insanity and who
do not recover tend to become delusional, and any attempt
to include and describe such cases in a group by them-
selves and term them delusional insanity is inadmissible. The
fact that delusional insanity has been described under such
various terms as progressive systematized insanity, mania of
persecution and grandeur, monomanias of persecution, unseen
agency, grandeur and paranoia, indicates that the disease is
obscure in its origin, probably passing through various stages,
and in some instances having been confused with the terminal
Delusional
Insanity,
stages of mania and melancholia. If this is admitted, then
probably the best description of the disease is that given by
V. Magnan under the term of "systematized delusional insanity,"
and it may be accepted that many cases conform very closely
to Magnan's description.
The disease occurs with equal frequency in men and women,
and in the majority of cases commences during adolescence
or early adult life. The universally accepted predisposing cause
is hereditary predisposition. As to the exciting causes nothing
is known beyond the fact that certain forms of disease, closely
resembling delusional insanity, are apparently associated or
caused by chronic alcoholism or occur as a sequel to syphilitic
infection. In the vast majority of cases the onset is lost in
obscurity, the patient only drawing attention to the diseased
condition by insane conduct after the delusional state is definitely
established. The friends of such persons frequently affirm that
the patient has always been abnormal. However, this may be,
there is no doubt that in a few cases the onset is acute and
closely resembles the onset of acute melancholia. The patient
is depressed, confused, suffers from hallucinations of hearing and
there are disturbances of the bodily health. There is generally
mal-nutrition with dyspepsia and vague neuralgic pains, often
referred to the heart and intestines. Even at this stage the
patient may labour under delusions. These acute attacks are of
short duration and the patient apparently recovers, but not
uncommonly both hallucinations and delusions persist, although
they may be concealed.
The second or delusional stage sets in very gradually. This is
the stage in which the patient most frequently comes under
medical examination. The appearance is always peculiar and
unhealthy. The manner is unnatural and may suggest a state of
suspicion. The nutrition of the body is below par, and the patient
frequently complains of indefinite symptoms of malaise referred
to the heart and abdomen. The heart's action is often weak and
irregular, but beyond these symptoms there are no special
characteristic symptoms.
Mentally there may be depression when the patient is sullen and
uncommunicative. It will be found, however, that he always
suffers from hallucinations. At first hallucinations of hearing
are the most prominent, but later all the special senses may be
implicated. These hallucinations constantly annoy the patient
and are always more troublesome at night. Voices make accusa-
tions through the walls, floors, roofs or door. Faces appear at the •
window and make grimaces. Poisonous gases are pumped into
the room. Electricity, Rontgen rays and marconigrams play
through the walls. The food is poisoned or consists of filth. In
many cases symptoms of visceral discomfort are supposed to be
the result of nightly surgical operations or sexual assaults. All
these persecutions are ascribed to unknown persons or to some
known person, sect or class. Under the influence of these sensory
disturbances the patient may present symptoms of angry excite-
ment, impulsive violence or of carefully-thought-out schemes of
revenge; but the self-control may be such that although the
symptoms are concealed the behaviour is peculiar and unreason-
able. It is not uncommon to find that such patients can converse
rationally and take an intelligent interest in their environments,
but the implication of the capacity of judgment is at once apparent
whenever the subject of the persecutions is touched upon.
All cases of delusional insanity at this stage are dangerous and
their actions are not to be depended upon. Assaults are common,
houses are set on fire, threatening letters are written and accusa-
tions are made which may lead to much worry and trouble before
the true nature of the disease is realized.
This, the second or persecutory stage of delusional insanity, may
persist through life. The patient becomes gradually accustomed
to the sensory disturbances, or possibly a certain amount of mental
enfeeblement sets in which reduces the mental vigour. In other
cases, the disease goes on to what Magnan calls the third stage or
stage of grandiose delusions. The onset of this stage is in some
cases gradual. The patient, while inveighing against the persecu-
tions, hints at a possible cause. One man is an inventor and his
enemies desire to deprive him of the results of his inventions.
6o6
INSANITY
[MEDICAL AND GENERAL
Kata-
tonla.
Another is the rightful heir to a peerage, of which he is to be
deprived. Women frequently believe themselves to be abducted
princesses or heirs to the throne. Others of both sexes, even
more ambitious, assume divine attributes and proclaim them-
selves Virgin Marys, Gabriels, Holy Ghosts and Messiahs. Cases
are recorded in which the delusions of grandeur were of sudden
onset, the patient going to bed persecuted and miserable and
rising the following morning elated and grandiose. In this stage
the hallucinations persist but appear to change in character and
become pleasant. The king hears that arrangements are being
made for his coronation and waits quietly for the event. The
angel Gabriel sees visions in the heavens. The heirs and heiresses
read of their prospective movements in the court columns of the
daily papers and are much soothed thereby. In short, no delusion
is too grotesque and absurd for such patients to believe and
express.
Cases of delusional insanity never become demented in the true
sense of the word, but their mental state might be described as a
dream in which an imaginary existence obliterates the experiences
of their past lives.
Treatment. — No treatment influences the course of the disease.
During the stage of persecution such patients are a danger to them-
selves, as they not infrequently commit suicide, and to their supposed
persecutors, whom they frequently assault or otherwise annoy.
KATATONIA. — This disease, so called on account of the symptom
of muscular spasm or rigidity which is present during certain of
its stages, was first described and named by K. L.
Kahlbaum in 1874. Many British alienists refuse to
accept katatonia as a distinct disease, but as it has
been accepted and further elaborated by such an authority as
E. Kraepelin reference to it cannot be avoided.
Katatonia attacks women more frequently than men, and is
essentially a disease of adolescence, but typical cases occasionally
occur in adults. Hereditary predisposition is present in over 50%
of the cases and is the chief predisposing cause. Childbirth, worry,
physical strain and mental shocks are all advanced as secondary
predisposing causes. The disease is one of gradual onset, with
loss of physical and mental energy. Probably the earliest mental
symptom is the onset of aural hallucinations. For convenience of
description the disease may be divided into (i) the stage of onset;
(2) the stage of stupor; (3) the stage of excitement.
The symptoms of the stage of onset are disorders of the alimentary
tract, such as loss of appetite, vomiting after food and obstinate
constipation. The pulse is rapid, irregular and intermittent.
The skin varies between extreme dryness and drenching perspira-
tions-. In women the menstrual function is suppressed. At un-
certain intervals the skeletal muscles are thrown into a condition
of rigidity, but this symptom does not occur invariably. The
instincts of cleanliness are in abeyance, owing to the mental state
of the patient, and as a result these cases are inclined to be wet
and dirty in their habits.
Mentally there is great confusion, vivid hallucinations, which
apparently come on at intervals and are of a terrifying nature, for
the patient often becomes frightened, endeavours to hide in corners
or escape by a window or door. A very common history of such a
case prior to admission is that the patient has attempted suicide
by jumping out of a window, the attempt being in reality an un-
conscious effort on the part of the patient to escape from some
imaginary danger. During these attacks the skin pours with
perspiration. The patient is oblivious to his surroundings and is
mentally inaccessible. In the intervals between these attacks
the patient may be conscious and capable of answering simple
questions. This acute stage, in which sleep is abolished, lasts from
a few days to four or six weeks and then, generally quite sud-
denly, the patient passes into the state of stupor. In some cases
a sharp febrile attack accompanies the onset of the stupor, while
in others this symptom is absent; but in every case examined
by Bruce during the acute stage there was an increase in the
number of the white blood corpuscles, which, just prior to the
onset of stupor, were sometimes enormously increased; the in-
crease being entirely due to multiplication of the multinucleated
or polymorphonuclear leucocytes.
In the second or stuporose stage of the disease the symptoms
are characteristic. The patient lies in a state of apparent
placidity, generally with the eyes shut. Consciousness is never
entirely abolished, and many of the patients give unmistakable
evidence that they understand what is being said in their
presence. Any effort at passive movement of a limb immediately
sets up muscular resistance, and throughout this stage the
sternomastoid and the abdominal muscles are more or less in a
state of over-tension, which is increased to a condition of rigidity
if the patient is interfered with in any way. This symptom of
restiveness or negativism is one of the characteristics of the
disease. The patient resists while being fed, washed, dressed and
undressed, and even the normal stimuli which in a healthy man
indicate that the bladder or rectum require to be emptied are
resisted, so that the bladder may become distended and the lower
bowel has to be emptied by enemata. The temperature is low,
often subnormal, the pulse is small and weak, and the extremities
cold and livid. This symptom is probably due in some part to
spasm of the terminal arterioles. Mentally the symptoms are
negative. Though conscious, the patient cannot be got to speak
and apparently is oblivious to what is passing around. Upon
recovery, however, these cases can often recount incidents which
occurred to them during their illness, and may also state that
they laboured under some delusion. Coincidently with the
onset of the stupor sleep returns, and many cases sleep for
the greater part of the twenty-four hours. The duration of
the stuporose state is very variable. In some cases it lasts for
weeks, in others for months or years, and may be the terminal
stage of the disease, the patient gradually sinking into dementia
or making a recovery. The third stage or stage of excitement
comes on in many cases during the stage of stupor: the stages
overlap; while in others a distinct interval of convalescence may
intervene between the termination of the stupor and the onset
of the excitement. The excitement is characterized by sudden
impulsive actions, rhythmical repetition of words and sounds
(verbigeration), and by rhythmical movements of the body or
limbs, such as swaying the whole frame, nodding the head, swing-
ing the arms, or walking in circles. The patient may be absolutely
mute in this stage as in the stage of stupor. Others again are
very noisy, singing, shouting or abusive. The speech is staccato
in character and incoherent. Physically the patient, who often
gains weight in the stage of stupor, again becomes thin and
haggard in appearance owing to the incessant restlessness and
sleeplessness which characterize the stage of excitement. The
patient may, during the stage of onset, die through exhaustion,
or accidentally and unconsciously commit suicide usually by
leaping from a window. During the stuporose stage symptoms of
tubercular disease of the lungs may commence. All the adolescent
insane are peculiarly liable to contract and die from tubercular
disease. Accidental suicide is also liable to occur during this
stage. The stage of excitement, if at all prolonged, invariably
ends in dementia. According to Kraepelin 13% of the cases
recover, 27 make partial recoveries, and 60% become more or
less demented.
Treatment. — No treatment arrests or diverts the course of katatonia,
and the acute symptoms of the disease as they arise must be treated
on hospital principles.
HEBEPHRENIA. — This is a disease of adolescence (Gr.
which was first described by Hecker and Kahlbaum and more
recently by Kraepelin and other foreign workers.
Hebephrenia is not yet recognized by British alienists, ptrenia.
The descriptions of the disease are indefinite and
confusing, but there are some grounds for the belief that such
an entity does exist, although it is probably more correct to say
that as yet the symptoms are very imperfectly understood.
Hebephrenia is always a disease of adolescence and never
occurs during adult life. It attacks women more frequently
than men, and according to Kahlbaum hereditary predisposition
to insanity is present in over 50% of the cases attacked. The
onset of the disease is invariably associated with two symptoms.
On the physical side an arrested or delayed development and
on the mental a gradual failure of the power of attention and
MEDICAL AND GENERAL]
INSANITY
607
Ti-auniatic
Insanity.
concentrated thought. The onset of the condition is always
gradual and the symptoms which first attract attention are
mental. The patient becomes restless, is unable to settle to
work, becomes solitary and peculiar in habits and sometimes
dissolute and mischievous. As the disease advances the patient
becomes more and more enfeebled, laughs and mutters to himself
and wanders aimlessly and without object. There is no natural
curiosity, no interest in life and no desire for occupation. Later,
delusions may appear and also hallucinations of hearing, and
under their influence the patient may be impulsive and violent.
Physically the subjects are always badly developed. The
temperature is at times slightly elevated and at intervals the
white blood corpuscles are markedly increased. The menstrual
function in women is suppressed and both male and female
cases are addicted to masturbation. According to Kraepelin
5% of the cases recover, 15% are so far relieved as to be able
to live at home, but are mentally enfeebled, the remaining 80%
become hopelessly demented. The patients who recover fre-
quently show at the onset of their disease acute symptoms,
such as mild excitement, slightly febrile temperature and quick
pulse-rate. When recovery does take place there is marked
improvement in development. The subjects of hebephrenia
are peculiarly liable to tubercular infection and many die of
phthisis.
There is no special treatment for hebephrenia beyond attention
to the general health.
INSANITY FOLLOWING UPON INJURIES TO THE BRAIN, OR
APOPLEXIES OR TUMOURS OR ARTERIAL DEGENERATION, (a)
Traumatic Insanity. — Insanity following blows on the head
is divided into (i) the forms in which the insanity immedi-
ately follows the accident; (2) the form in which there
is an intermediate prodromal stage characterized by
strange conduct and alteration in disposition; and
(3) in which the mental symptoms occur months or years after
the accident, which can have at most but a remote pre-
disposing causal relation to the insanity. The cases which
immediately succeed injuries to the head are in all respects
similar to confusional insanity after operations or after fevers.
There is generally a noisy incoherent delirium, accompanied by
hallucinations of sight or of hearing, and fleeting unsystematized
delusions. The physical symptoms present all the features of
severe nervous shock.
In those cases in which there is an intervening prodromal
condition, with altered character and disposition, there is usually
a more or less severe accidental -implication of the cortex cerebri,
either by depression of bone or local hemorrhage, or meningitic
sub-inflammatory local lesions. Most of the cases during the
prodromal stage are sullen, morose or suspicious, and indifferent
to their friends and surroundings. At the end of the prodromal
stage there most usually occurs an attack of acute mania of a
furious impulsive kind. The cases which for many years after
injury are said to have remained sane will generally be found
upon examination and inquiry to exhibit symptoms of hereditary
degeneration or of acquired degeneracy, which may or may not
be a consequence of the accident.
The most common site of vascular lesion is one of the branches
of the middle cerebral artery within the sylvian fissure, or of one
of the smaller branches of the same artery which go directly to
supply the chief basal ganglia. When an artery like the middle
cerebral or one of its branches becomes either through rupture
or blocking of its lumen, incapable of performing its function of
supplying nutrition to important cerebral areas, there ensues
devitality of the nervous tissues, frequently followed by softening
and chronic inflammation. It is these secondary changes which
give rise to and maintain those peculiar mental aberrations known
as post-apoplectic insanity.
Various characteristic physical symptoms, depending upon
the seat of the cerebral lesion, are met with in the course of this
form of insanity. These consist of paraplegias, hemiplegias and
muscular contractures. Speech defects are very common,
being due either to the enfeebled mental condition, to paralysis
of the nerve supplying the muscles of the face and tongue,
or to aphasia caused by implication of those parts of the
cortex which are intimately associated with the faculty of
speech. Mental symptoms vary considerably in different cases
and in accordance with the seat and extent of the lesion. There
is almost always present, however, a certain degree of mental
enfeeblement, accompanied by loss of memory and of judgment,
often by mental confusion. Another very general mental
symptom is the presence of emotionalism which leads the patient
to be affected either to tears or to laughter upon trifling and
inadequate occasions.
Cerebral tumours do not necessarily produce insanity. Indeed
it has been computed that not one half of the cases become
insane. When insanity appears it is met with in all degrees
varying from slight mental dulness up to complete dementia,
and from mere moral perversion up to the most intense form
of maniacal excitement. On the physical side the various
symptoms of cerebral tumour such as coma, ataxia, paralysis,
headache, vomiting, optic neuritis and epileptiform convulsions
are met with. All forms of so-called moral changes and of
changes of disposition are met with as mental symptoms and
all the ordinary forms of insanity may occur in varying in-
tensity; but by far the most common mental change occurring
in connexion with cerebral tumour is a progressive enfeeble-
ment of the intelligence, unattended with any more harmful
symptoms than mental deterioration which ends in complete
dementia.
(b) Arterial Degeneration. — Arterial degeneration is a common
cause of mental impairment, especially of that form iatlulHy
of mental affection known as " Early " dementia, aue to
It also predisposes to embolism and thrombosis, Arterial
which often results in the paralytic and aphasic DW****-
groups of nerve disturbance, and which are always**"1'
accompanied by more or less marked interference with normal
cerebral action.
The commonest seat for atheroma of the cerebral vessels is the
arteries at the base of the brain and their main branches, especi-
ally the middle cerebral. As a general rule the other arteries
of the cerebrum are not implicated to the same extent, although
in a not inconsiderable number of cases of the disease all the
arteries of the brain may participate in the change. When this
is so, we obtain those definite symptoms of slowly advancing
dementia commencing in late middle hie and ending in complete
dementia before the usual period for the appearance of senile
dementia. The same appearances are met with in certain patients
who have attained the age in which senile changes in the arteries
are not unexpected. As a rule atheroma in the cerebral vessels
is but a part of a general atheroma of all the arteries of the body.
Atheroma is common after middle life and increases in frequency
with age. The chief causes are syphilis, alcoholism, the gouty
and rheumatic diatheses and above all Bright's disease of the
kidneys. Perhaps certain forms of Bright's disease, owing to the
tendency to raise the blood pressure, are of all causes the most
common.
It is not easy to say to what extent, alone, the arteriosclerosis
is effectual in inducing the gradual failure of the mental powers,
and to what extent it is assisted in its operation by the action on
the brain-cells of the general toxic substances which give rise
to the arterial atheroma. In any case there can be no question
that the gradual mechanical diminution of the blood-supply to
the cortex caused by the occlusion of the lumen of the arteries
is a factor of great importance in the production of mental
incapacity.
GENERAL PARALYSIS OF THE INSANE (syn. General Paralysis,
dementia paralytica, progressive dementia) is a disease character-
ized by symptoms of progressive degeneration of the Oeaenl
central nervous system, more particularly of the motor paralyslSf
centres. The disease is almost invariably fatal.
Apparent recoveries do very occasionally occur, though this
is denied by the majority of alienists. The disease is in every
case associated with gradually advancing mental enfeeble-
ment, and very frequently is complicated by attacks of mental
disease.
6o8
INSANITY
[MEDICAL AND GENERAL
General paralysis, which is a very common disease, was first
recognized in France; it was identified by J. E. D. Esquirol,
and further described and elaborated by A. L. J. Beyle, Delaye
and J. L. Calmeil, the latter giving it the name of paralysie
generate des alienes.
As first described by the earlier writers the disease was re-
garded as being invariably associated with delusions of grandeur.
At the present day this description does not apply to the
majority of cases admitted into asylums. The change may be
explained as being either due to an alteration in the type of the
disease, or more probably the disease is better understood and
more frequently diagnosed than formerly, the diagnosis being
now entirely dependent on the physical and not on the mental
symptoms. This latter may also be the explanation why general
paralysis is much more common at the present day in British
asylums than it was. The total death-rate from this disease in
English and Scottish asylums rose from 1321 in 1894 to 1795 in
1904.
General paralysis attacks men much more frequently than
women, and occurs between the ages of 35 and 50 years. It is
essentially a disease of town life. In asylums which draw their
patients from country districts in Scotland and Ireland, the
disease is rare, whereas in those which draw their population from
large cities the disease is extremely common.
Considerable diversity of opinion exists at present regarding
the causation of general paralysis. Hereditary predisposition
admittedly plays a very small part in its causation. There is,
however, an almost universal agreement that the disease is
essentially the result of toxaemia or poisoning, and that acquired
or inherited syphilitic infection is an important predisposing
factor. A history of syphilitic infection occurs in from 70 to
90% of the patients affected. At first it was held that general
paralysis was a late syphilitic manifestation, but as it was found
that no benefit followed the use of anti-syphilitic remedies the
theory was advanced that general paralysis was a secondary
auto-intoxication following upon syphilitic infection. The latest
view is that the disease is a bacterial invasion, to which syphilis,
alcoholism, excessive mental and physical strain, and a too
exclusively nitrogenous diet, only act as predisposing causes.
This latter theory has been recently advanced and elaborated by
Ford Robertson and McRae of Edinburgh.
Whatever the cause of general paralysis may be, the disease is
essentially progressive in character, marked by frequent re-
missions and so typical in its physical symptoms and pathology
that we regard the bacterial theory with favour, although we are
far from satisfied that the actual causative factor has as yet been
discovered.
For descriptive purposes the disease is most conveniently
divided into three stages, — called respectively the first, second
and third, — but it must be understood that no clear line of
demarcation divides these stages from one another.
The onset of general paralysis is slow and gradual, and the
earliest symptoms may be either physical or mental. The
disease may commence either in the brain itself or the spinal cord
may be primarily the seat of lesion, the brain becoming affected
secondarily. When the disease originates in the spinal cord the
symptoms are similar to those of locomotor ataxia, and it is now
believed that general paralysis and locomotor ataxia are one and
the same disease; in the one case the cord, in the other the brain,
being the primary seat of lesion. The early physical symptoms
are generally motor. The patient loses energy, readily becomes
tired, and the capacity for finely co-ordinated motor acts, such
as are required in playing games of skill, is impaired. Transient
attacks of partial paralysis of a hand, arm, leg or one side of the
body, or of the speech centre are not uncommon. In a few cases
the special senses are affected early and the patient may complain
of attacks of dimness of vision or impairment of hearing. Or the
symptoms may be purely mental and affect the highest and most
recently acquired attributes of man, the moral sense and the
faculty of self-control. The patient then becomes irritable,
bursts into violent passions over trifles, changes in character and
habits, frequently takes alcohol to excess and behaves in an
extravagant, foolish manner. Theft is often committed in this
stage and the thefts are characterized by an open, purposeless
manner of commission. The memory is impaired and the patient
is easily influenced by others, that is to say he becomes facile.
In other cases a wild attack of sudden excitement, following upon
a period of restlessness and sleeplessness may be the first symptom
which attracts attention. Whatever the mode of onset the
physical symptoms which characterize the disease come on
sooner or later. The speech is slurred and the facial muscles lose
their tone, giving the face a flattened expression. The muscular
power is impaired, the gait is straddling and the patient sways on
turning. All the muscles of the body, but particularly those of
the tongue, upper lip and hands, which are most highly inner-
vated, present the symptom of fine fibrillary tremors. The
pupils become irregular in outline, often unequal in size and either
one or both fail to react normally to the stimuli of light, or of
accommodation for near or distant vision.
As the disease advances there is greater excitability and a
tendency to emotionalism. In classical cases the general
exaltation of ideas becomes so great as to lead the patient to the
commission of insanely extravagant acts, such as purchases of
large numbers of useless articles, or of lands and houses far beyond
his means, numerous indiscriminate proposals of marriage, the
suggestion of utterly absurd commerical schemes, or attempts
at feats beyond his physical powers. The mental symptoms, in
short, are very similar to those of the elevated stage of manic-
depressive insanity.
Delusions of the wildest character may also be present. The
patient may believe himself to be in possession of millions of
money, to be unsurpassed in strength and agility, to be a great
and overruling genius, and the recipient of the highest honours.
This grandiose condition is by no means present in every case and
is not in itself diagnostic of the disease. But mental facility,
placid contentment, complete loss of judgment and affection for
family and friends, with impaired memory, are symptoms
universally present. As the disease advances the motor
symptoms become more prominent. The patient has great
difficulty in writing, misses letters out of words, words out of
sentences, and writes in a large laboured hand. The expression
becomes fatuous. The speech is difficult and the facial muscles
are thrown into marked tremors whenever any attempt at speech
is made. The voice changes in timbre and becomes high-pitched
and monotonous. The gait is weak and uncertain and the re-
flexes are exaggerated. In the first stage the patient, through
restlessness and sleeplessness, becomes thin and haggard. As the
second stage approaches sleep returns, the patient lays on flesh
and becomes puffy and unhealthy in appearance. The mental
symptoms are marked by greater facility and enfeeblement, while
the paralysis of all the muscles steadily advances. The patient
is now peculiarly liable to what are called congestive seizures or
epileptiform attacks. The temperature rises, the face becomes
flushed and the skin moist. Twitchings are noticed in a hand or
arm. These twitchings gradually spread until they may involve
the whole body. The patient is now unconscious, bathed in
perspiration, which is offensive. The bowels and bladder empty
themselves reflexly or become distended, and bedsores are very
liable to form over the heels, elbows and back. Congestive
seizures frequently last for days and may prove fatal or, on the
other hand, the patient may have recurrent attacks and finally
die of exhaustion or some accidental disease, such as pneumonia.
In the second stage of the disease the patient eats greedily, and as
the food is frequently swallowed unmasticated, choking is not an
uncommon accident. The special senses of taste and smell are
also much disordered. We have seen a case of general paralysis,
in the second stage drink a glass of quinine and water under the
impression that he was drinking whisky.
The third stage of the disease is characterized by sleeplessness
and rapid loss of body weight. Mentally the patient becomes
quite demented. On the physical side the paralysis advances
rapidly, so that the patient becomes bed-ridden and sp>eechless.
Death may occur as the result of exhaustion, or a congestive
seizure, or of some intercurrent illness.
MEDICAL AND GENERAL]
INSANITY
609
The duration of the disease is between eighteen months and
three years, although it has been known to persist for seven.
No curative measures have so far proved of any avail in the
treatment of general paralysis.
INSANITY ASSOCIATED WITH EPILEPSY. — The term " epileptic
insanity," which has for many years been in common use, is
e lie tic n°w re8ar^e<^ as a misnomer. There is in short no
insanity. suc^ disease as epileptic insanity. A brain, however,
which is so unstable as to exhibit the sudden discharges
of nervous energy which are known as epileptic seizures, is
prone to be attacked by insanity also, but there is no form of
mental disease exclusively associated with epilepsy. Many
epileptics suffer from the disease for a lifetime and never exhibit
symptoms of insanity. The majority of patients, however, who
suffer from epilepsy are liable to exhibit certain mental symptoms
which are regarded as characteristic of the disease. Some suffer
from recurrent attacks of depression, ill-humour and irritability,
which may readily pass into violence under provocation. Others
are emotionally fervid in religious observances, though sadly
deficient in the practice of the religious life. A third class are
liable to attacks of semi-consciousness which may either follow
upon or take the place of a seizure, and during these attacks
actions are performed automatically and without consciousness
on the part of the patient.
When epileptics do become insane the insanity is generally
one of the forms of mania. Either the patient suffers from sudden
furious attacks of excitement in which consciousness is entirely
abolished, or the mania is of the type of the elevated stage of
folie circulaire (manic-depressive insanity) and alternates with
periods of deep depression. In the elevated period the patient
shows exaggerated self-esteem, with passionate outbursts of
anger, and periods of religious emotionalism. While in the
stage of depression the patient is often actively suicidal.
Epileptic patients who suffer from recurrent attacks of
delirious mania are liable to certain nervous symptoms which
indicate that not only are the motor centres in the brain
damaged, but that the motor tracts in the spinal cord are also
affected. The gait becomes awkward and laboured, the feet
being lifted high off the ground and the legs thrown forward with
a jerk. The tendon reflexes are at the same time exaggerated.
These symptoms indicate descending degeneration of the motor
tracts of the cord.
If the mental attacks partake of the character of elevation or
depression the mental functions suffer more than the motor.
These patients, in course of time, become delusional, enfeebled
and childish, and in some cases the enfeeblement ends incomplete
dementia of a very degraded type.
Where insanity is superadded to epilepsy the prognosis is
unfavourable.
INSANITY ASSOCIATED WITH OR CAUSED BY ALCOHOLIC AND
DRUG INTOXICATION. — The true r61e of alcoholic indulgence in
the production of insanity is at present very imperfectly
insanity, understood. In many cases the alcoholism is merely a
symptom of the mental disease — a result, not a cause.
In others, alcohol seems to act purely as a predisposing factor,
breaking down the resistance of the patient and disordering the
metabolism to such an extent that bodily disorders are en-
gendered which produce well-marked and easily recognized
mental symptoms. In others, again, alcohol itself may possibly
act as a direct toxin, disordering the functions of the brain.
In the latter class may be included the nervous phenomena of
drunkenness, which commence with excitement and confusion
of ideas, and terminate in stupor with partial paralysis of all the
muscles. Certain brains which, either through innate weakness
or as the result of direct injury, have become peculiarly liable
to toxic influences, under the influence of even moderate quan-
tities of alcohol pass into a state closely resembling delirious
mania, a state commonly spoken of as mania a potu.
Delirium Tremens. — Delirium tremens is the form of mental
disorder most commonly associated with alcoholic indulgence
in the lay mind. Considerable doubt exists, however, as to
whether the disease is directly or secondarily the result of
alcoholic poisoning. Much evidence exists in favour of the latter
supposition. Delirium tremens may occur in persons who have
never presented the symptom of drunkenness, or it may occur
weeks after the patient has ceased to drink alcohol, and in such
cases the actual exciting cause of the disease may be some
accidental complication, such as a severe accident, a surgical
operation, or an attack of pneumonia or erysipelas.
The early symptoms are always physical. The stomach is
disordered. The desire for food is absent, and there may be
abdominal pain and vomiting. The hands are tremulous, and
the patient is unable to sleep. At this stage the disease may be
checked by the administration of an aperient and some sedative
such as bromide and chloral. The mental symptoms vary
greatly in their severity. In a mild case one may talk to the
patient for some time before discovering any mental abnormality,
and then it will be found that confusion exists regarding his
position and the identity of those around him, while the memory .
is also impaired for recent events. Hallucinations of sight and
hearing may be present. The hallucinations of sight may be
readily induced by pressure upon the eyeballs. If the symptoms
are more acute they usually come on suddenly, generally during
the evening or night. The patient becomes excited, suffers from
vivid hallucinations of sight and hearing which produce great
fear, and these hallucinations may be so engrossing as to render
him quite oblivious to the environment. The hallucinations of
sight are characterized by the false sense impressions taking the
forms of animals or insects which surround or menace the patient.
Visions may also appear in the form of flames, goblins or fairies.
The hallucinations of hearing rarely consist of voices, but are
more of the nature of whistlings, and ringings in the ears, shouts,
groans or screams which seem to fill the air, or emanate from the
walls or floors of the room. All the special senses may be affected,
but sight and hearing are always implicated. Delirium tremens
is a short-lived disease, generally running its course in from four
to five days. Recovery is always preceded by the return of the
power of sleep.
The patient must be carefully nursed and constantly watched,
as homicidal and suicidal impulses are liable to occur under the
terrifying influence of the hallucinations. The food should be
concentrated and fluid, given frequently and in small quantities.
Chronic Alcoholic Insanity. — Almost any mental disorder may
be associated with chronic alcoholism, but the most characteristic
mental symptoms are delusions of suspicion and persecution
which resemble very closely those of the persecution stage of
systematized delusional insanity. The appearance of the patient
is bloated and heavy; the tongue is furred and tremulous, and
symptoms of gastric and intestinal disorder are usually present.
The gait is awkward and dragging, owing to the partial paralysis
of the extensor muscles of the lower limbs. All the skeletal
muscles are tremulous, particularly those of the tongue, lips
and hands. The common sensibility of the skin is disordered so
that the patient complains of sensory disturbances, such as
tinglings and prickings of the skin, which may be interpreted
as electric shocks. In some cases the mental symptoms may
be concealed, but delusions and hallucinations, particularly
hallucinations of sight and hearing, are very commonly present.
The delusions are often directly the outcome of the physical
state; the disordered stomach suggesting poisoning, and the
disturbances of the special senses being interpreted as various
forms of persecution. The patient hears voices shouting foul
abuse at him; all his thoughts are read and repeated aloud;
electric shocks are sent through him at night; gases are pumped
into his room. Sexual delusions are very common and frequently
affect marital relations by arousing suspicions regarding the
fidelity of wife or husband; or the delusions may be more gross
and take the form of belief in actual attempts at sexual mutila-
tions. The memory is always impaired.
Patients who in addition to chronic alcoholism are also insane
are always dangerous and liable to sudden and apparently
causeless outbursts of violence.
Dipsomania. — Dipsomania is a condition characterized by
recurrent or periodic attacks of an irresistible craving for
xiv. 20
6io
INSANITY
[MEDICAL AND GENERAL
stimulants. The general bodily condition has a great deal to
do with the onset of the attack, that is to say, the patient is more
liable to an attack when the bodily condition is low than when the
health is good. The attacks may be frequent or recur at very
long intervals. They generally last for a few weeks, and may
be complicated by symptoms of excitement, delusions or
hallucinations.
Treatment consists in attention to the general health between
attacks, with .the use of such tonics as arsenic and strychnine.
During the attack the patient should be confined to bed and treated
with sedatives.
Morphinism. — The morphia habit is most commonly con-
tracted by persons of a neurotic constitution. The mental
symptoms associated with the disease may arise either as the
result of an overdose, when the patient suffers from hallucinations,
confusion and mild delirium, frequently associated with vomiting.
On the other hand, mental symptoms very similar to those of
delirium tremens may occur as the result of suddenly cutting
off the supply of morphia in a patient addicted to the habit.
Finally, chronic morphia intoxication produces mental symptons
very similar to those of chronic alcoholism. This latter condition,
characterized by delusions of persecution, mental enfeeblement
and loss of memory, is hopelessly incurable. The patient is
always thin and anaemic on account of digestive disturbances.
There is weakness or slight paralysis of the lower limbs, and the
skeletal muscles are tremulous.
Treatment. — The quantity of the drug used must be gradually
reduced until it is finally discontinued, and during treatment the
patient must be confined to bed.
SENILE INSANITY. — States of mental enfeeblement are always
the result of failure of development or of structural changes in
the cortical grey matter of the brain. If the enfeeble-
fnsaaity ment is due to failure of development or brain damage
occurring in early life, it is spoken of as idiocy or
imbecility. Every form of insanity which occurs after a
certain period of life is apt to be regarded by some observers
as senile, but although the failing mental power may colour
the character of the symptoms it cannot be regarded as correct
to designate, for instance, a recurrent form of mania as senile
merely because it necessarily manifests itself in a subject who
has lived into the senile period. On the other hand, many persons
first suffer from mental derangement at an advanced period of
life without at the same time manifesting any marked failure
of mental power, while others only manifest their insanity as a
result of the decay of their mental faculties.
From this statement it will be seen that senile insanity is a
complex of different conditions, some of them accompanied by
dementia, others without dementia.
Senile Dementia is distinguished occasionally into " senile "
properly so called, and " presenile " dementia, which supervenes
at middle age or even earlier.
The occurrence of dementia is sometimes preceded by an
acute hallucinatory phase, accompanied by mania or melancholia;
but as a general rule, in the presenile cases, by neurasthenia,
indifference, and mental apathy which extends to a disregard
for the ordinary conventions and the means of subsistence.
It has pithily been remarked that the age of a man is the age
of his blood-vessels. The two conditions of senile and presenile
dementia cannot therefore be separated scientifically. From
a clinical point of view, however, the two are distinguishable
in so far as their symptoms are concerned, for the presenile cases
are more complete and the process of dementia achieves its
consummation earlier and quicker, while in the senile the gradual
disease of the arteries and the slow decay of the mental faculties
offer a different background for the manifestation of mental
symptoms. Moreover, the senile patients more frequently
present symptoms of recurrent attacks of acute insanity, a more
pronounced emotionalism, and a greater tendency to restlessness
at night. The presenile cases, on the other hand, except at the
commencement of their malady, are usually free from acute and
troublesome symptoms and present chiefly an apathetic indif-
ference and irresponsiveness on the mental side, and on the
physical side a neurasthenic and enfeebled bodily state. In
both conditions memory is greatly impaired.
Added to senile dementia there is often found a condition of
mania or melancholia or even of systematized delusional insanity.
The chief symptoms of the maniacal attacks are the great motor
restlessness and excitement, which are worst during the night
time. Sleep is almost always seriously disturbed, and the
patients rapidly become exhausted unless carefully nursed and
tended. The actions of senile maniacs are often puerile and
foolish, and they may exhibit impulses of a homicidal, suicidal
or sexual character. The melancholic cases are also extremely
restless, and their emotion is loudly expressed in an uncontrollable
manner. They often have delusions of persecution. Their cries
and groans have an automatic character, as if the patient, though
compelled to utter them, did not experience the mental pain which
he expressed. They also, many of them, eat their food ravenously,
although a few obstinately refuse it. The senile delusional cases
may manifest any of the classical forms of paranoia described
above, but their delusions are of a rudimentary and unfinished
type. The most common of all senile delusions is that they are
being robbed. They therefore often hide their small valuables
in corners and out-of-the-way places, and as their memories are
very defective they are afterwards unable to find them. Others,
who live alone, barricade their doors and try to prevent any one
entering for fear of thieves. Delusions of ambition in senile
subjects are usually of a very improbable and childish character.
Hallucinations are generally present in the senile delusional cases.
The treatment of senile insanity is from the medical point of view
not hopeful; it resolves itself largely into instructions for careful
nursing, suitable feeding, and the protection of the patient from all
the physical dangers to which he may be exposed.
Statistics. — The statistics of lunacy are merely of interest from a
sociological point of view; for under that term are comprised all
forms of insanity. It is needless to produce tables illustrative of
the relative numbers of lunatics in the various countries of Europe,
the systems of registration being so unequal in their working as to
afford no trustworthy basis of comparison.
Even in Great Britain, where the systems are more perfect than
in any other country, the tables published in the Blue Books of the
three countries can only be regarded as approximately correct, the
difficulty of registering all cases of lunacy being insuperable. On
the 1st of January 1907, according to the returns made to the
offices of the Commissioners in Lunacy, the numbers of lunatics
stood thus on the registers : —
Males.
Females.
Totals.
England and Wales .
Scotland
Ireland
Gross total
57,176
8,594
12,254
66,812
8,999
11,300
123,988
17,593
23,554
78,024
87,111
165,135
These figures show the ratio of lunatics to 100,000 of the popula-
tion to be 354 in England and Wales, 312 in Scotland, and 538 in
Ireland.
Numbers of Lunatics on the 1st of January of the years 1857—1907
inclusive, according to Returns made to the Offices of the Com-
missioners in Lunacy for England and Wales, Scotland and
Ireland.
Years.
England
and
Wales.
Scotland.
Ireland.
1858
5,823
..
1859
36,762
6,072
i860
38,058
6,273
1861
39,647
6,327
1862
41,129
6,398 '
8,055
1863
43, "8
6,386
7,862
1864
44-795
6,422
8,272
1865
45,950
6,533
8,845
1866
47,648
6,730
8,964
1867
49,086
6,888
8,962
1868
51,000
7,055
9,086
1869
53,177
7,310
9,454
1870
54-713
7,571
10,082
1871
56,755
7,729
10,257
1872
58,640
7,849
10,767
1873
60,296
7,982
10,958
LEGAL ASPECTS]
INSANITY
6n
Years.
England
and
Wales.
Scotland.
Ireland.
1874
60,027
8,069
11,326
1875
63.793
8,225
"-583
1876
64,916
8,509.
11,777
1877
66,636
8,862
12,123
1878
68,538
9,097
12,380
1879
69,885
9,386
12.585
1880
71,191
9,624
12,819
1881
73,113
10,012
13,062
1882
74,842
10,355
13.444
1883
76,765
10,510
13,882
1884
78,528
10,739
14,088
1885
79,704
10,918
14,279
1886
80,156
11,187
H.590
1887
80,891
11,309
14,702
1888
82,643
11,609
15.263
1889
84,340
n,954
15.685
1890
86,067
12,302
16,159
^89 1
86,795
12,595
16,251
1892
87,848
12,799
16,688
1893
89,822
13,058
17,124
1894
92,067
13,300
17,276
1895
94,081
13,852
17.665
1896
96,446
14,093
18,357
1897
99,365
14,500
18,966
1898
101,972
14,906
19.590
1899
105,086
15,399
20,304
1900
106,611
15,663
20,863
1901
107,944
15,899
21,169
1902
110,713
16,288
21,630
1903
113,964
16,658
22,138
1904
117,199
16,894
22,794
1905
119,829
17,241
22,996
1906
121,979
17,450
23.365
1907
123,988
17,593
23,554
There is thus an increased ratio in England and Wales of lunatics
to the population (which in 1859 was 19,686,701, and in 1907 was
estimated at 34,945,600) of 186-8 per 100,000 as against 354-8, and
in Scotland of 157 as against 312 per 100,000. The Irish figures on
the same basis have increased from 130-9 in 1862 to 538-1 in 1907.
The publication of these figures has given rise to the question
whether lunacy has actually become more prevalent during the last
twenty years, whether there is real increase of the disease. There
is a pretty general consent of all authorities that if there has been
an increase it is very slight, and that the apparent increase is due,
first to the improved systems of registration, and secondly (a far
more powerful reason) to the increasing tendency among all classes,
and especially among the poorer class, to recognize the less pro-
nounced forms of mental disorder as being of the nature of insanity.
Thirdly, the grant of four shillings per week which in 1876 was made
by parliament from imperial sources for the maintenance of pauper
lunatics has induced parochial authorities to regard as lunatics a
large number of weak-minded paupers, and to force them into
asylums in order to obtain the benefit of the grant and to relieve
the rates. These views receive support from the fact that the
increase of private patients, i.e. patients who are provided for out
of their own funds or those of the family, has advanced in a vastly
smaller ratio. In their case the increase, small as it is, can be
accounted for by the growing disinclination on the part of the
community to tolerate irregularities of conduct due to mental
disease. And again, careful inquiry has failed to show a proportional
increase of admissions into asylums of such well-marked forms as
general paralysis, puerperal mania, &c. The main cause of the
registered increase of lunatics is thus to be sought for in the improved
registration, and parochial and family convenience. If there is an
actual increase, and there is reason for believing that there is a slight
actual increase, it is due to the tendency of the population to gravi-
tate towards towns and cities, where the conditions of health are
inferior to those of rural life, and where there is therefore a greater
disposition to disease of all kinds.
The futility of seeking for accurate figures bearing on the relative
number of lunatics in other countries is illustrated by the tables
set forth in a report by the United States Census Bureau. They
show that the number of registered lunatics in 1903 was 150,151;
in 1890, 74,028; and in 1880, 40,942. An attempt was made in
1890 to estimate the number of insane persons outside of hospitals,
which was stated to be 32,457. In 1903 no such attempt was made,
as it was admitted that so many sources of fallacy existed as to render
it useless. Thus the mere statement that of every 100,000 of the
population (calculated at 80,000,000) 186-2 were registered as insane
is of no value.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The following are systematic works: Bucknil
and Tuke, Psychological Medicine (4th edition, 1879); Griesinger
On Mental Diseases (New Sydenham Society, 1867) ; Maudsley
The Pathology of Mind (1895); Bevan Lewis, A Text-Book oj
Mental Diseases (1899); Clouston, Clinical Lectures on Mental
Diseases (1892); Kraepelin, Psychiatric (1893); Krafft-Ebing,
Lehrbuch der Psychiatric (1893); Regis, A Practical Manual oj
Mental Medicine (London, 1895); Magnan, Legons cliniques sur les
maladies mentales (1807); Mendil, Leitfaden der Psychiatric (1902);
Mercier, A Text-Book of Insanity (1902); Lewis C. Bruce, Studies
In Clinical Psychiatry (1906) ; Macpherson, Mental Affections (1899) ;
Brower-Banmster, Practical Manual of Insanity (1902); Ford
Robertson, Text-Book of Pathology in Relation to Mental Diseases
(1900). (J- B. T.; J. MN.; L. C. B.)
II. LEGAL ASPECTS
The effect of insanity upon responsibility and civil capacity
has been recognized at an early period in every system of law.
Roman Law. — In the Roman jurisprudence its consequences
were very fully developed, and the provisions and terminology
of that system have largely affected the subsequent legal treat-
ment of the subject. Its leading principles were simple and
well marked. The insane person having no intelligent will, and
being thus incapable of consent or voluntary action, could acquire
no right and incur no responsibility by his own acts (see Sohm's
Inst. Roman Law, 3rd ed. pp. 216, 217, 219); his person and
property were placed after inquiry by the magistrate under the
control of a curator, who was empowered and bound to manage
the property of the lunatic on his behalf (Sohm, p. 513; Hunter,
Roman Law, pp. 732-735). The different terms by which the
insane were known, such as demens, furiosus, fatuus, although
no doubt signifying different types of insanity, did not in Roman
law infer any difference of legal treatment. They were popular
names, which all denoted the complete deprivation of reason.
Medieval Law. — During the middle ages the insane were
little protected. Their legal acts were annulled, and their
property placed under control, but little or no attempt was made
to supervise their personal treatment. In England the wardship
of idiots and lunatics, which was annexed before the reign of
Edward II. to the king's prerogative, had regard chiefly to the
control of their lands and estates, and was only gradually
elaborated into the systematic control of their persons and
property now exercised under the jurisdiction in lunacy. Those
whose means were insignificant were left to the care of their
relations or to charity. In criminal law the plea of insanity
was unavailing except in extreme cases. About the beginning
of the ipth century a very considerable change commenced.
The public attention was strongly attracted to the miserable
condition of the insane incarcerated in asylums without any
efficient check or inspection; and at the same time the medical
knowledge of insanity entered on a new phase. The possibility
and advantages of a better treatment of insanity were illustrated
by eminent physicians, Philippe Pinel in France, H. Tuke in
England, Bond, B. Rush and I. Ray in the United States; its
physical origin became generally accepted; its mental phenomena
were more carefully observed, and its relation was established
to other mental conditions.
Modern Law. — From this period we date the commencement
of legislation such as that known in England as the Lunacy Acts,
which aimed at the regulation and control of all constraint
applied to the insane. Hitherto, the criteria of insanity had been
very rude, and the evidence was generally of a loose and popular
character; but, whenever it was fully recognized that insanity
was a disease with which physicians who had studied the subject
were peculiarly conversant, expert evidence obtained increased
importance, and from this time became prominent in every case.
The newer medical views of insanity were thus brought into
contact with the old narrow conception of the law courts, and a
controversy arose in the field of criminal law which in England,
at least, still continues.
Relations between Insanity and Law. — The fact of insanity
may operate in law — (i) by excluding responsibility for crime;
(2) by invalidating legal acts; (3) by affording ground for depriv-
ing the insane person by a legal process of the control of his
person and property; or (4) by affording ground for putting him
under restraint.
Legal Terminology. — Before proceeding, however, to deal with
6l2
INSANITY
[LEGAL ASPECTS
these matters in succession, it may be desirable to say something
with regard to the chief legal terms respecting persons suffering
under mental disabilities. The subject is now of less importance
than formerly, because the modern tendency of the law is to
'determine the capacity or responsibility of a person alleged to
be insane by considering it with reference to the particular
matter or class of matters which brings his mental condition
sub judice. But the literature of the law of lunacy cannot be
clearly understood unless the distinctions between the different
terms employed to describe the insane are kept in view. The
term non compos mentis is as old as the statute De praerogatiiia
regis (1325), and is used sometimes, as in that statute, to indi-
cate a species contrasted with idiot, sometimes (e.g. in Co. Litt.
246 (6)) as a genus, and afterwards, chiefly in statutes relating to
the insane, in connexion with the terms " idiot " and " lunatic "
as a word ejusdem generis. The word " idiot " (Gr. iSios, a
private person, one who does not hold any public office, and
iSuonjs, an ignorant and illiterate person) appears in the statute
De praerogativa regis as fatuus naturalis, and it is placed in
contradistinction to non compos mentis. The " idiot " is denned
by Sir E. Coke (4 Rep. 124 (&)) as one who from his nativity,
by a perpetual infirmity, is non compos mentis, and Sir M. Hale
(Pleas of the Crown, i. 29) describes idiocy as " fatuity a nativitate
vel dementia naturalis." In early times various artificial criteria
of idiocy were suggested. Fitzherbert's test was the capacity
of the alleged idiot to count twenty pence, or tell his age, or
who were his father and mother (De natura brevium, 233).
Swinburne proposed as a criterion of capacity, inter alia, to
measure a yard of cloth or name the days in the week ( Testaments,
42). Hale propounded the sounder view that " idiocy or not is
a question of fact triable by jury and sometimes by inspection "
(Pleas of the Crown, i. 29). The legal incidents of idiocy were at
one time distinct in an important particular from those of lunacy.
Under the statute De praerogativa regis the king was to have the
rents and profits of an idiot's lands to his own use during the
life of the idiot, subject merely to an obligation to provide him
with necessaries. In the case of the lunatic the king was a trustee,
holding his lands and tenements for his benefit and that of his
family. It was on account of this difference in the legal con-
sequences of the two states that on inquisitions distinct writs,
one de idiota inquirendo, the other de lunatico inquirendo, were
framed for each of them. But juries avoided finding a verdict of
idiocy wherever they could, and the writ de idiota inquirendo fell
into desuetude. A further blow was struck at the distinction
when it came to be recognized even by the legislature (see the
Idiots Act 1886) that idiots are capable of being educated and
trained, and it was practically abolished when the Lunacy
Regulation Act 1862, in a provision reproduced in substance in
the Lunacy Act 1890, limited the evidence admissible in proof
of unsoundness of mind on an inquisition (without special leave
of the Master trying the case) to a period of two years before the
date of the inquiry, and raised a uniform issue, viz. the state of
mind of the alleged lunatic at the time when the inquisition is
held.
The term " lunatic," derived from the Latin luna in con-
sequence of the notion that the moon had an influence on mental
disorders,1 does not appear in the statute-book till the time of
Henry VIII. (1541). Coke defines a lunatic as a " person who
has sometimes his understanding and sometimes not, qui gaudet
lucidis interoallis, and therefore he is called non compos mentis
so long as he has not understanding " (Co. Litt. 247 (a), 4 Rep.
124 (6)). Hale defines " lunacy " as " interpolated " (i.e. inter-
mittent) dementia accidentalis vel adventitia, whether total or
(a description, it will be observed, of " partial insanity ") quoad
hoc vel illud (Pleas of the Crown, i. 29). In modern times, the
word " lunacy " has lost its former precise signification. It is
employed sometimes in the strict sense, sometimes in contra-
distinction to "idiocy" or "imbecility"; once at least — viz.
in the Lunacy Act 1890 — as including " idiot "; and frequently
1 The word for " lunatic " in several other languages has a similar
etymology. Cp. lta\. lunatico, Span. olunodo,Gr. «\Tj«aic65 (epileptic),
Ger. mondsuchtig.
in conjunction with the vague terms " unsound mind " (non-sane
memory) and " insane." Section 116 of the Lunacy Act 1890
has by implication extended the meaning of the term lunacy so
as to include for certain purposes the incapacity of a person
to manage his affairs through mental infirmity arising from
disease or age. " Imbecility " is a state of mental weakness
" between the limits of absolute idiocy on the one hand and
of perfect capacity on the other " (see i Haggard, Eccles. Rep.
p. 401).
i. The Criminal Responsibility of the Insane. — The law as to
the criminal responsibility of the insane has pursued in England
a curious course of development. The views of Coke and Hale
give the best exposition of it in the iyth century. Both were
agreed that in criminal causes the act and wrong of a madman
shall not be imputed to him; both distinguished, although in
different language, between dementia naturalis (or a nativitate)
and dementia accidentalis or adventitia; and the main points
in which the writings of Hale mark an advance on those of Coke
are in the elaboration by the former of the doctrine of " partial
insanity," and his adoption of the level of understanding of a
child of fourteen years of age as the test of responsibility in
criminal cases (Pleas of the Crown, i. 29, 30; and see Co. 4 Rep.
124 (b)). In the i8th century a test, still more unsatisfactory
than this " child of fourteen " theory, with its identification of
" healthy immaturity " with " diseased maturity " (Steph.
Hist. Crim. Law, ii. 150), was prescribed. On the trial of Edward
Arnold in 1723 for firing at and wounding Lord Onslow, Mr
Justice Tracy told the jury that " a prisoner, in order to be
acquitted on the ground of insanity, must be a man that is totally
deprived of his understanding and memory, and doth not know
what he is doing, no more than an infant, than a brute or wild
beast." In the beginning of the igth century a fresh statement
of the test of criminal responsibility in mental disease was
attempted. On the trial of Hadfield for shooting at George III.
in Drury Lane Theatre on i5th May 1800, Lord Chief Justice
Kenyon charged the jury in the following terms: " If a man is
in a deranged state of mind at the time, he is not criminally
answerable for his acts; but the material part of the case is
whether at the very time when the act was committed the man's
mind was sane." The practical effect of this ruling, had it been
followed, would have been to make the question of the amen-
ability of persons alleged to be insane to the criminal law very
much one of fact, to be answered by juries according to the
particular circumstances of each case, and without being aided or
embarrassed by any rigid external standard. But in 1812, on
the trial of Bellingham for the murder of Mr Perceval, the First
Lord of the Treasury, Sir James Mansfield propounded yet
another criterion of criminal responsibility in mental disease,
viz. whether a prisoner has, at the time of committing an offence,
a sufficient degree of capacity to distinguish between good and
evil. The objection to this doctrine consisted in the fact, to
which the writings of Continental and American jurists soon
afterwards began to give prominence, that there are very many
lunatics whose general ideas on the subject of right and wrong
are quite unexceptionable, but who are yet unable, in con-
sequence of delusions, to perceive the wrongness of particular
acts. Sir James Mansfield's statement of the law was dis-
credited in the case (4 State Tri. (n.s.) 847; loCl. and
Fin. 200) of Daniel Macnaughton, who was tried in toa-s case.
March 1843, before Chief Justice Tindal, Mr Justice
Williams and Mr Justice Coleridge, for the murder of Mr Drum-
mond, the private secretary of Sir Robert Peel. Mr (afterwards
Lord Chief Justice) Cockburn, who defended the prisoner, used
Hale's doctrine of partial insanity as the foundation of the
defence, and secured an acquittal, Chief Justice Tindal telling the
jury that the question was whether Macnaughton was capable
of distinguishing right from wrong with respect to the act with
which he stood charged. This judicial approval of the doctrine of
partial insanity formed the subject of an animated debate in the
House of Lords, and in the end certain questions were put by
that House to the judges, and answered by Chief Justice Tindal
on behalf of all his colleagues except Mr Justice Maule, who gave
LEGAL ASPECTS]
INSANITY
613
independent replies. The answers to those questions are com-
monly called " The Rules in Macnaughton's case," and they still
nominally contain the law of England as to the criminal responsi-
bility of the insane. The points affirmed by the Rules that must
be noted here are the propositions that knowledge of the nature
and quality of the particular criminal act, at the time of its com-
mission, is the test of criminal responsibility, and that delusion
is a valid exculpatory plea, when, and only when, the fancies of
the insane person, if they had been facts, would have been so.
The Rules in Macnaughton's case are open to serious criticism.
They ignore, at least on a literal interpretation, those forms of
mental disease which may, for the present purpose, be roughly
grouped under the heading " moral insanity," and in which the
moral faculties are more obviously deranged than the mental —
the affections and the will, rather than the reason, being appar-
ently disordered. The test propounded with reference to delu-
sions has also been strenuously attacked by medical writers, and
especially by Dr Maudsley in his work on Responsibility in
Mental Disease, on the ground that it first assumes a man to have
a delusion in regard to a particular subject, and then expects
and requires him to reason sanely upon it. It may be pointed out,
however, that in thus localizing the range of the immunity which
insane delusion confers^ the criminal law is merely following the
course which, mutatis mutandis, the civil law has, with general
acceptance, adopted in questions as to the contractual and
testamentary capacity of the insane.
The Rules in Macnaughton's case have, as regards moral
insanity, undergone considerable modification. Soon after they
were laid down, Sir (then Mr) James Fitz- James Stephen, in an
article in the Juridical Papers, i. 67, on the policy of maintaining
the existing law as to the criminal responsibility of the insane,
foreshadowed the view which he subsequently propounded in his
History of the Criminal Law, ii. 163, that no man who was deprived
by mental disease of the power of passing a fairly rational judg-
ment on the moral character of an act could be said to " know "
its nature and quality within the meaning of the Rules; and it
has in recent years been found possible in practice so to manipu-
late the test of the criminal responsibility which they prescribed
as to afford protection to the accused in the by no means infre-
quent cases of insanity which in its literal interpretation it
would leave without excuse.
In Scotland the Rules in Macnaughton's case are recognized,
but, as in England, there is a tendency among judges to adopt
a generous construction of them. Mental unsoundness in-
sufficient to bar trial, or to exempt from punishment, may still,
it is said, be present in a degree which is regarded as reducing
the offence from a higher to a lower category, — a doctrine first
practically applied in Scotland, it is believed, in 1867 by Lord
Deas; and the fact that a prisoner is of weak or ill-regulated
mind is often urged with success as a plea in mitigation of punish-
ment. The Indian Penal Code (Act XLV. of 1 860, § 84) expressly
adopts the English test of criminal responsibility, but the qualifi-
cations noted in the case of Scotland have received some measure
of judicial acceptance (see Mayne, Crim. Law Ind., 3rd ed.,
pp. 403-419; Nelson, Ind. Pen. Code, 3rd ed., pp. 135 et seq.).
The Rules in Macnaughton's case have also been adopted in
substance in those colonies which have codified the criminal law.
The following typical references may be given: 55 and 56 Viet.
(Can.) c. 29, § ii ; 57 Viet. (N.Z.), No. 56 of 1893, § 23; No. 101
of 1888 (St Lucia), § 50; No. 5 of 1876 (Gold Coast), § 49 (&);
No. 2 of 1883, art. 77 (Ceylon); No. 4 of 1871, art. 84 (Straits
Settlements). On the other hand, a departure towards a recogni-
tion of " moral insanity " is made by the Queensland Criminal
Code (No. 9 of 1899), § 27 of which provides that " a person is
not criminally responsible for an act " if at the time of doing it
" he is in such a state of mental disease ... as to deprive him
... of capacity to control his actions " : and the law has been
defined in the same sense in the Cape of Good Hope in the case
of Queen v. Hay (1899, 16 S.C.R. 290). The Rules were rapidly
reproduced in the United States, but the modern trend of
American judicial opinion is adverse to them (see Clevenger,
Med. Jur. of Ins. p. 125; Parsons v. State (1887) 81 Ala. 577).
On the Continent of Europe moral insanity and irresistible
impulse are freely recognized as exculpatory pleas (see the
French Code Penal, § 64 ; Belgian Code Penal, § 71; German
Penal Code, § 51; Italian Penal Code, §§ 46, 47).
Not only is insanity at the time of the commission of an offence
a valid exculpatory plea, but supervening insanity stays the
action of the criminal law at every stage from arrest up to punish-
ment. High treason was formerly an exception, but the statute
making it so (33 Hen. VIII. c. 20) was repealed in the time of
Philip and Mary. The Home Secretary has power, under the
Criminal Lunatics Act 1884 to order by warrant the removal
of a prisoner, certified to be insane, to a lunatic asylum, before *
trial or after trial, whether under sentence of death or not.
Prisoners dealt with under these provisions are styled " Secretary
of State's lunatics." On the other hand, a prisoner who on
arraignment appears, or is found by the jury to be unfit to plead,
or who is found " guilty but insane " at the time of committing
the offence — a verdict substituted by the Trial of Lunatics Act
1883 for the old verdict of " acquitted on the ground of insanity,"
in the hope that the formal conviction recorded in the new finding
might have a deterrent effect on the mentally unstable — is
committed to a criminal lunatic asylum by the order of the judge
trying the case, to be detained there " during the king's pleasure."
Lunatics of this class are called " king's pleasure lunatics."
There was no doubt at common law as to the power of the courts
to order the detention of criminal lunatics in safe custody, but,
prior to 1800, the practice was varying and uncertain. On the
acquittal of Hadfield, however, in that year for the attempted
murder of George III., a question arose as to the provision which
was to be made for his detention, and the Criminal Lunatics Act
1800, part of which is still in force, was passed to affirm the law on
the subject.
The Criminal Lunatics Act contains provisions similar to those
of the Lunacy Act 1890, as to the discharge (conditional or
absolute) and transfer of criminal lunatics and the detention of
persons becoming pauper lunatics. The expenses of the main-
tenance of criminal lunatics are defrayed out of moneys provided
by Parliament (Crim. Luns. Act 1884, and Hansard, 3rd series,
vol. ccxc. p, 75; 139 Com. Jo. pp. 336, 340, 344). The Lunatics'
Removal (India) Act 1851 provides for the removal to a criminal
lunatic asylum in Great Britain of persons found guilty of crimes
and offences in India, and acquitted on the ground of insanity.
Similar provisions with regard to colonial criminal lunatics are
contained in the Colonial Prisoners' Removal Act 1884; and the
policy of this statute has been followed by No 5. of 1894 (New
South Wales), and Ordin. No 2 of 1895 (Falkland Islands).
Indian law (see Act V. of 1898, §§ 464-475) and the laws of the
colonies (the Cape Act No. i of 1897 is a typical example) as to the
trial of lunatics are similar to the English. In Scotland all the
criminal lunatics, except those who may have been removed to the
ordinary asylums or have been discharged, are confined in the
Criminal Asylum established at Perth in connexion with H.M.'s
General Prison, and regulated by special acts (23 & 24 Viet. c.
105, and 40 & 41 Viet. c. 53). Provision similar to the English
has been made for prisoners found insane as a bar to trial, or
acquitted on the ground of insanity or becoming insane in con-
finement. In New York, Michigan and other American states
there are criminal lunatic asylums. Elsewhere insane criminals
are apparently detained in state prisons, &c. The statutory
rules as to the maintenance of criminal lunatic asylums, the
treatment of the criminal insane, and the plea of insanity in
criminal courts in America, closely resemble English practice.
1 It has sometimes been stated that this power, which ought
clearly, in the interests alike of prisoners and of the public, to be
exercised with caution, is in fact exerted in an unduly large number
of cases. The following figures, taken from the respective volumes
of the Criminal Judicial Statistics, show the number of criminal
lunatics certified insane before trial. In 1884-1885, out of a total of
938 criminal lunatics, 169 were so certified; in 1885-1886, 149 out of
8go; in 1889-1890, 108 out of 926; in 1890-1891, 95 out of 900; in
1894, 78 out of 738; in 1895, 84 out of 757; in 1896, 88 out of
769; in 1897, 85 out of 764; in 1898, 17 out of 209; in 1899, 13
out of 159; in 1900, 12 out of 185; in 1901, 15 out of 205; in
1902, 7 out of 233; in 1903, II out of 229.
614
INSANITY
[LEGAL ASPECTS
The only special point in Continental law calling for notice is the
system by which official experts report for the guidance of the
tribunals on questions of alleged criminal irresponsibility (see,
e.g., the German Code of Penal Procedure, § 293, and cp. § 81).
2. Insanity and Civil Capacity. — The law as to the civil
capacity of the insane was for some time influenced in Great
Britain by the view propounded by Lord Brougham in 1848 in the
case of Waring v. Waring, and by Sir J. P. Wilde in a later case,
raising the question of the validity of a marriage, that, as the
mind is one and indivisible, the least disorder of its faculties was
fatal to civil capacity. In the leading case of Banks v. Good-
fellow in 1870, the court of queen's bench, in an elaborate
judgment delivered by Chief Justice Cockburn, disapproved of
this doctrine, and in effect laid down the principle that the
question of capacity must be considered with strict reference to
the act which has to be or has been done. Thus a certain degree
of unsoundness of mind is not now, in the absence of undue
influence, a bar to the formation of a valid marriage, if the party
whose capacity is in question knew at the time of the marriage
the nature of the engagement entered into (but see 51 Geo. III. c.
37 as to the marriage of lunatics so found by inquisition). Again,
a man whose mind is affected may make a valid will, if he
possesses at the time of executing it a memory sufficiently active
to recall the nature and extent of his property, the persons who
have claims upon his bounty, and a judgment and will sufficiently
free from the influence of morbid ideas or external control to
determine the relative strength of those claims. So far has this
rule been carried, that in 1893 probate was granted of the will of
a lady who was a Chancery lunatic at the date of its execution,
and died without the inquisition having been superseded. (Roe
v. Nix, 1893, p. 55.) It is also now settled that the simple con-
tract of a lunatic is voidable and not void, and is binding upon
him, unless he can show that at the time of making it he was, to
the knowledge of the other party, so insane as not to know what
he was about. (Imperial Loan Co. v. Stone, 1892, i Q.B. 599.)
The test established by Banks v. Goodfellow is applied also in
a number of minor points in which civil capacity comes into
question, e.g. competency of the insane as witnesses. The law
implies, on the part of a lunatic, whether so found or not, an
obligation to pay a reasonable price for " necessaries " supplied
to him; and the term " necessaries " means goods suitable to his
condition in life and to his actual requirements at the time/jf sale
and delivery (Sale of Goods Act 1893).
The question of the liability of an insane person for tort
appears still to be undecided (see Pollock on Torts, 7th ed. p. 53;
Clerk and Lindsell on Torts, 2nd ed. pp. 39, 40; Law Quart. Rev.
vol. xiii. p. 325). Supervening insanity is no bar to proceedings
by or against a lunatic husband or wife for divorce or separation
for previous matrimonial offences. It does not avoid a marriage
nor constitute per se a ground either for divorce or for judicial
separation. But cruelty does not cease to be a cause of suit if it
proceeds from disorderly affections or want of moral control
falling short of positive insanity; and possibly even cruelty
springing from intermittent or recurrent insanity might be held a
ground for judicial separation, since in such case the party
offended against cannot obtain protection by securing the per-
manent confinement of the offending spouse. Whether insanity
at the time when an alleged matrimonial offence was committed
is a bar to a suit for divorce or separation is an open question;
and in any event, in order that it may be so, the insanity must be
of such a character as to have prevented the insane party from
knowing the nature and consequences of the act at the time of its
commission. The laws of Scotland, Ireland, India (see, e.g.,
Act IX. of 1872, § 12), the colonies and the United States are
substantially identical with English law on the subject of the
civil capacity of the insane. The German Civil Code (§1569)
recognizes the lunacy of a spouse as a ground for divorce, but
only where the malady continues during at least three years of
the union, and has reached such a pitch that intellectual inter-
course between the spouses is impossible, and that every prospect
of a restoration of such association is excluded. If one of the
spouses obtains a divorce on the ground of the lunacy of the other
the former has to allow alimony, just as a husband declared to
be the sole guilty party in a divorce suit would have to do
(§§ 1585, 1578).
3. The Jurisdiction in Lunacy. — In order to effect a change in
the status-of persons alleged to be of unsound mind, and to bring
their persons and property under control, the aid of the juris-
diction in lunacy must be invoked. Under the unrepealed statute
De Praerogativa Regis (1325) the care and custody of lunatics
belong to the Crown. But the Crown has, at least since the
1 6th century, exercised this branch of the prerogative by dele-
gates, and principally through the Lord Chancellor — not as
head of the Court of Chancery, but as the representative and
delegate of the sovereign. Under the Lunacy Acts 1890 and
1891, the jurisdiction in lunacy is exercised first by the Lord
Chancellor and such of the Lords Justices and other judges as
may be invested with it by the sign-manual; and, secondly, by
the two Masters in Lunacy, appointed by the Lord Chancellor,
from members of the bar of at least ten years';standing, whose
duties include the holding of inquisitions and summary inquiries,
and the making of most of the consequential orders dealing with
the persons and estates of lunatics. County court judges may
also exercise a limited jurisdiction in lunacy in the case of
lunatics as to whom a reception order has been made, if their
entire property is under £200 in value, and no relative or friend
is willing to undertake the management of it; in partnership
cases where the assets do not exceed £500; and upon application
by the guardians of any union for payment of expenses incurred
by them in relation to any lunatic.
Persons of unsound mind are brought under the jurisdiction in
lunacy either by an inquisition de lunatico inquirendo, or, in
certain cases which will be adverted to below, by proceedings
instituted under §116 of the Lunacy Act 1890, which is now the
great practice section in the Lunacy Office. Prior to 1853 a
special commission was issued to the Masters in each alleged case
of lunacy. But by the Lunacy Regulation Act of that year a
general commission was directed to the Masters, empowering
them to proceed in each case in which the Lord Chancellor by
order required an inquisition to be held. This procedure is still
in force. A special commission would now be issued only where
both Masters were personally interested in the subject of the
inquiry, or for some other similar reason. An inquisition is
ordered by the judge in lunacy (a term which does not, for this
purpose, at present include the Masters, although this is one of
the points in regard to which a change in the law has been
suggested, on the petition generally of a near relative of the
alleged lunatic. The inquiry is held before one of the Masters,
and a jury may be summoned if the alleged lunatic, being within
the jurisdiction, demands it, unless the judge is satisfied that he
is not competent to form and express such a wish; and even in
that case the Master has power to direct trial by jury if he thinks
fit on consideration of the evidence. Where the alleged lunatic
is not within the jurisdiction the trial must be by jury; and the
judge in lunacy may direct this mode of trial to be adopted in any
case whatever.
A few points of general interest in connexion with inquisitions
must be noted. In practice thirty-four jurors are summoned by
the sheriff, and not more than twenty-four are empanelled.
Twelve at least must concur in the verdict. Counsel for the
petitioner ought to act in the judicial spirit expected from counsel
for the prosecution in criminal cases. The issue to be determined
on an inquisition is " whether or not the alleged lunatic is at the
time of the inquisition of unsound mind, and incapable of
managing himself and his affairs" (a special verdict may,
however, be found that the lunatic is capable of managing himself,
although not his affairs, and that he is not dangerous to others) ;
and without the direction of the person holding the inquisition,
no evidence as to the lunatic's conduct at any time being more
than two years before the inquisition is to be receivable. This
limitation, both of the issue and of the evidence, was imposed
with a view to preventing the recurrence of such cases as that
of Mr Windham in 1861-1862, when the inquiry ranged over the
whole life of an alleged lunatic, forty-eight witnesses being
LEGAL ASPECTS]
INSANITY
615
examined on behalf of the petitioners and ninety-one on behalf
of the respondents, while the hearing lasted for thirty-four days.
For the purpose of assisting the Master or jury in arriving at a
decision, provision is made for the personal examination of the
alleged lunatic by them on oath or otherwise, and either in open
court or in private, as may be directed. The proceedings on
inquisition are open to the public. When a person has been
found lunatic by inquisition he becomes subject to the jurisdiction
in lunacy, and remains so (unless he succeeds in setting aside the
verdict by a " traverse " — a proceeding which ultimately comes
before, and is determined by, the King's Bench Division in
London or at the assizes) until his recovery, when the inquisition
may be put an end to by a procedure technically known as
" supersedeas," or by his death. The results of the inquisition
are worked out in the Lunacy Office. The control of the estate,
and, except where he was found incapable of managing his
property only, of the person of the lunatic is entrusted to com-
mittees of the estate and person, who are appointed by, and
accountable to, the Master in Lunacy, and whose legal position
corresponds roughly with that of the tutors and curators of the
civil law. The committee of the estate in particular exercises
over the property of the lunatic, with the sanction or by the order
of the Master, very wide powers of management and administra-
tion, including the raising of money by sale, charge or otherwise,
to pay the lunatic's debts, or provide for his past or future main-
tenance, charges for permanent improvements, the sale of any
property belonging to the lunatic, the execution of powers vested
in him and the performance of contracts relating to property.
The alternative method of bringing a person of unsound
mind under lunacy jurisdiction was created by §116 of the
Lunacy Act 1890. The effect of that section briefly is to enable
the Master, on a summons being taken out in his chambers
and heard before him, to apply the powers of management and
administration summarized in the last preceding paragraph,
without any inquisition, to the following classes of cases:
lunatics not so found by inquisition, for the protection or admini-
stration of whose property any order was made under earlier
acts; every person lawfully detained, within the jurisdiction
of the English courts, as a lunatic, though not so found by
inquisition; persons not coming within the foregoing categories
who are " through mental infirmity arising from disease or age"
incapable of managing their affairs; persons of unsound mind
whose property does not exceed £2000 in value, or does not
yield an annual income of more than £100; and criminal lunatics
continuing insane and under confinement.
In Scotland the insane are brought under the jurisdiction in
lunacy by alternative methods, similar to the English inquisition
and summary procedure, viz. " cognition," the trial taking place
before the Lord President of the Court of Session, or any judge
of that court to whom he may remit it, and a jury of twelve —
see 31 & 32 Viet. c. 100, and Act of Sederunt of 3rd December
1868 — and an application to the Junior Lord Ordinary of the
Court of Session or (43 & 44 Viet. c. 4, § 4) to the Sheriff Court,
when the estate in question does not exceed £100 a year, for the
appointment of a curator bonis or judicial factor.
The powers of the Lord Chancellor of Ireland with regard to
lunatics are generally similar to those of the English Chancellor
(see the Lunacy Regulations (Ireland) Act 1871, 34 & 35 Viet.
c. 22, and the Lunacy (Ireland) Act 1901, i Ed. VII. c. 17;
also Colleson The Lunacy Regulation (Ireland) Act).
The main feature of the French system is the provision made
by the Civil Code (arts. 489-512) for the interdiction of an
insane person by the Tribunal of First Instance, with a right of
appeal to the Court of Appeal, after a preliminary inquiry and
a report by a family council (arts. 407, 408), consisting of six
blood relatives in as near a degree of relationship to the lunatic
as possible, or, in default of such relatives, of six relatives by
marriage. The family council is presided over by the Juge
de Paix of the district in which the lunatic is domiciled. This
system is also in force in Mauritius.
There are provisions, it may be noted, in Scots law for the
interdiction of lunatics, either voluntarily or judicially (see
Bell's Principles, § 2123). The German Civil Code provides
for insane persons being made subject to guardianship (vormun-
dung), on conditions similar to those of Scots and French law
(see Civil Code, §§ 6, 104 (1896, 1906), 645-679). In the United
States the fundamental procedure is an inquisition conducted
on practically the same lines as in England. (Cf. Indiana, Rev.
Stats. (1894) §§ 2715 et seq.; Missouri, Annot. Code (1892) §§
2835 et seq.; New Mexico, General Laws (1880) c. 74 §§ i et seq.).
4. Asylum Administration. — Asylum administration in England
is now regulated by the Lunacy Acts 1800 and 1891. Receptacles
for the insane are divisible into the following classes: (i.)
Institutions for lunatics, including asylums, registered hospitals
and licensed houses. The asylums are provided by counties
or boroughs, or by union of counties or boroughs. Registered
hospitals are hospitals holding certificates of registration from
the Commissioners in Lunacy, where lunatics are received and
supported wholly or partially by voluntary contributions or
charitable bequests, or by applying the excess of the payments
of some patients towards the maintenance of others. Licensed
houses are houses licensed by the Commissioners, or, beyond
their immediate jurisdiction, by justices; (ii.) Workhouses —
see article POOR LAW; (iii.) Houses in which patients are boarded
out; (iv.) Private houses (unlicensed) in which not more than
a single patient may be received. A person, not being a pauper
or a lunatic so found by inquisition, cannot, in ordinary cases,
be received and detained as a lunatic in any institution for the
insane, except under a " reception order " made by a county
court judge or stipendiary magistrate or specially appointed
justice of the peace. The order is made on a petition presented
by a relative or friend of the alleged lunatic, and supported by
two medical certificates, and after a private hearing by the
judicial authority. The detention of a lunatic is, however,
justifiable at common law, if necessary for his safety or that of
others; and the Lunacy Act 1890, borrowing from the lunacy
law of Scotland, provides for the reception of a lunatic not a
pauper into an asylum, where it is expedient for his welfare or
the public safety that he should be confined without delay, upon
an " urgency order," made if possible by a near relative and
accompanied by one medical certificate. The urgency order
only justifies detention for seven days (the curtailment of this
period to four days is proposed), and before the expiration of
that period the ordinary procedure must be followed. " Summary
reception orders" may be made by justices otherwise than on
petition. There are four classes of cases in which such orders
may be made, viz. : (i.) lunatics (not paupers and not wandering
at large) who are not under proper care and control, or are
cruelly treated or neglected; (ii.) resident pauper lunatics;
(iii.) lunatics, whether pauper or not, wandering at large; (iv.)
lunatics in workhouses. (As to pauper lunatics generally, see
article POOR LAW.) A lunatic may also be received' into an
institution under an order by the Commissioners in Lunacy;
and a lunatic so found by inquisition under an order signed by
the committee of his person.
The chief features of English asylum administration requiring
notice are these. Mechanical restraint is to be applied only
when necessary for surgical or medical purposes, or in order to
prevent the lunatic from injuring himself or others. The privacy
of the correspondence of lunatics with the Lord Chancellor, the
Commissioners in Lunacy, &c., is secured. Provision is made
for regular visits to patients by their relatives and friends.
The employment of males for the custody of females is, except
on occasions of urgency, prohibited. Pauper lunatics may be
boarded out with relatives and friends. Elaborate provision is
made for the official visitation of every class of receptacle for the
insane. The duties of visitation are divided between the Com-
missioners in Lunacy, the Chancery Visitors and various other
visitors and visiting committees. There are ten Commissioners
in Lunacy — four unpaid and six paid, three of the latter being
barristers of not less than five years' standing at the date of
appointment, and three medical. The Commissioners in Lunacy,
who are appointed by the Lord Chancellor, visit every class of
lunatics except persons so found by inquisition. These are
6i6
INSANITY
[HOSPITAL TREATMENT
visited by the Chancery Visitors. There are three Chancery
Visitors, two medical and one legal (a barrister of at least five
years' standing at the date of his appointment), who are appointed
and removable by the Lord Chancellor. The Chancery Visitors
(together with the Master in Lunacy) form a Board, and have
offices in the Royal Courts of Justice. In addition to these two
classes of visitors, every asylum has a Visiting Committee of
not less than seven members, appointed by the local authority;
and the justices of every county and quarter-sessions borough
not within the immediate jurisdiction of the Commissioners in
Lunacy annually appoint three or more of their number as visitors
of licensed houses.
Provision is made for the discharge of lunatics from asylums,
&c., on recovery, or by habeas corpus, or by the various visiting
authorities. Any person who considers himself to have been
unjustly detained is entitled on discharge to obtain, free of
expense, from the secretary to the Lunacy Commissioners a copy
of the documents under which he was confined.
The Irish [Lunacy Acts 1821-1890; Lunacy (Ireland) Act
1901] and Scottish [Lunacy Acts 1857 (20 & 21 Viet. c. 71),
1887 (50 & 51 Viet. c. 39)] asylum systems present no feature
sufficiently different from the English to require separate notice,
except that in Scotland " boarding out " is a regular, and not
merely an incidental, part of asylum administration. The
" boarding out " principle has, however, received its most
extended and most successful application in the Gheel colony
in Belgium. The patients, after a few days' preliminary observa-
tion, are placed in families, and, except that they are under
ultimate control by a superior commission, composed of the
governor of the province, the Procureur du Roi and others,
enjoy complete liberty indoors as well as out of doors. The
patients are visited by nurses from the infirmary, to which they
may be sent if they become seriously ill or unmanageable. They
are encouraged to work. The accommodation provided for them
is prescribed, and is to be of the same quality as that of the
household in which they live. Clothing is provided by the
administration.
In the French (see laws of 3oth June 1838 and i8th December
1839) and German (see Journal of Comparative Legislation, n.s.
vol. i. at pp. 271, 272) asylum systems the main features of
English administration are also reproduced.
The lunacy laws of the British colonies have also closely
followed English legislation (cf. Ontario, R.S. 1897, cc. 317, 318;
Manitoba, R.S. 1902, c. 80; Victoria (No. 1113, 1890); New
Zealand (No. 34 of 1882 and Amending Acts); Mauritius (No. 37
of 1858).
In America the different states of the Union have each their
own lunacy legislation. The national government provides
only for the insane of the army and navy, and for those residing
in the District of Columbia and in Alaska. The various laws as
to the reception, &c., of tlje insane into asylums closely resemble
English procedure. But in several states the verdict of a jury
finding lunacy is a necessary preliminary to the commitment
of private patients (Kentucky, Act of 1883, c. 900, § 14; Mary-
land, R.S. 1878, c. 53, § 21 ; Illinois, R.S. 1874, c. 85, § 22).
AUTHORITIES. — The following works may be consulted : Collin-
son on the Law of Lunatics and Idiots (2 vols., London, 1812);
Shelford on the Law of Lunatics and Idiots (London, 1847). On all
points relating to the history and development of the law these two
treatises are invaluable. Pope on Lunacy (2nd ed., London, 1890) ;
Archbold's Lunacy (4th ed., London, 1895) ; Elmer on Lunacy (7th
ed., London, 1892) ; Wood Renton on Lunacy (London and Edin-
burgh, 1896); Fry's Lunacy Laws (yA ed., London, 1890); Pitt-
Lewis, Smith and Hawke, The Insane and the Law (London, 1895);
Hack-Tuke, Dictionary of Psychological Medicine (London, 1892),
and the bibliographies attached to the various legal articles in
that work; Clevenger, Medical Jurisprudence of Insanity (2 vols.,
New York, 1899); Semelaigne, Les Alienistes fran^ais (Paris 1849);
Bertrand. Loi sur les alienes (Paris, 1872), presents a comparative
view of English and foreign legislations. In forensic medicine the
works of Taylor, Medical Jurisprudence (sth ed., London, 1905);
Dixon Mann, Foreign Medicine and Toxicology (3rd ed., London, 1902) ;
and Wharton and Stille, A Treatise on Medical Jurisprudence (Phila-
delphia, 1873); Hamilton and Godkin, System of Legal Medicine
(New York, 1895) ; are probably the English authorities in most
common use. See also Casper and Liman, Praktisches Handbuch
der gerichtlichen Medicin (Berlin, 6th ed., 1876); Tardieu, Etude
medico-legate sur la folie (Paris, 1872); Legrand du Saulle, La Folie
devant les tribunaux (Paris, 1864); Dubrac, Traite de jurisprudence
medicale (Paris, 1894); Tourdes, Traite de medecine legale (Paris,
1897) ; and especially Krafft-Ebing, Lehrbuch der gerichtlichen Psycho-
pathologie (Stuttgart, 1899). (A. W. R.)
III. HOSPITAL TREATMENT
The era of real hospitals for the insane began in the igth
century. There had been established here and there in different
parts of the world, it is true, certain asylums or places of restraint
before the beginning of the igth century. We find mention in
history of such a place established by monks at Jerusalem in
the latter part of the 5th century. There is evidence that even
earlier than this in Egypt and Greece the insane were treated
as individuals suffering from disease. Egyptian priests employed
not only music and the beautiful in nature and art as remedial
agents in insanity, but recreation and occupation as well. A
Greek physician protested against mechanical restraint in the
care of the insane, and advocated kindly treatment, the use of
music, and of some sorts of manual labour. But these ancient
beneficent teachings were lost sight of during succeeding centuries.
The prevailing idea of the pathology of insanity in Europe
during the middle ages was that of demoniacal possession. The
insane were not sick, but possessed of devils, and these devils
were only to be exorcised by moral or spiritual agencies.
Medieval therapeutics in insanity adapted itself to the etiology
indicated. Torture and the cruellest forms of punishment were
employed. The insane were regarded with abhorrence, and
were frequently cast into chains and dungeons. Milder forms
of mental disease were treated by other spiritual means — such
as pilgrimages to the shrines of certain saints who were reputed
to have particular skill and success in the exorcism of evil
spirits. The shrine of St Dymphna at Gheel, in Belgium, was
one of these, and seems to have originated in the 7th century,
a shrine so famed that lunatics from all over Europe were brought
thither for miraculous healing. The little town became a resort
for hundreds of insane persons, and as long ago as the i7th
century acquired the reputation, which still exists to this day, of
a unique colony for the insane. At the present time the village
of Gheel and its adjacent farming hamlets (with a population
of some 13,000 souls) provides homes, board and care for nearly
2000 insane persons under medical and government supervision.
Numerous other shrines and holy wells in various parts of Europe
were resorted to by the mentally afflicted — such as Glen-na-Galt
in Ireland, the well of St Winifred, St Nun's Pool, St Fillans, &c.
At St Nun's the treatment consisted of plunging the patient
backwards into the water and dragging him to and fro until
mental excitement abated. Not only throughout the middle
ages, but far down into the I7th century, demonology and
witchcraft were regarded as the chief causes of insanity. And
the insane were frequently tortured, scourged, and even burned
to death.
Until as late as the middle of the i8th century, mildly insane
persons were cared for at shrines, or wandered homeless about
the country. Such as were deemed a menace to the community
were sent to ordinary prisons or chained in dungeons. Thus large
numbers of lunatics accumulated in the prisons, and slowly there
grew up a sort of distinction between them and criminals, which
at length resulted in a separation of the two classes. In time many
of the insane were sent to cloisters and monasteries, especially
after these began to be abandoned by their former occupants.
Thus " Bedlam " (Bethlehem Royal Hospital) was originally
founded in 1247 as a priory for the brethren and sisters of the
Order of the Star of Bethlehem. It is not known exactly when
lunatics were first received into Bedlam, but some were there in
1403. Bedlam was rebuilt as ari asylum for the insane in 1676.
In 1815 a committee of the House of Commons, upon investiga-
tion, found it in a disgraceful condition, the medical treatment
being of the most antiquated sort, and actual inhumanity
practised upon the patients. Similarly the Charenton Asylum,
just outside Paris, near the park of Vincennes, was an old
monastery which had been given over to the insane. Numerous
HOSPITAL TREATMENT]
INSANITY
617
like instances could be cited, but the interesting point to be
borne in mind is, that with a general tendency to improvement in
the condition of imbeciles upon public charge, idiots and insane
persons came gradually to be separated from criminals and other
paupers, and to be segregated. The process of segregation was,
however, very slow. Even after it had been accomplished in the
larger centres of civilization, the condition of these unfortunates
in provincial districts remained the same. Furthermore, the
transfer to asylums provided especially for them was not followed
by any immediate improvement in the patients.
Twenty-five years after Pinel had, in 1792, struck the chains
from the lunatics huddled in the Salpetriere and Bicetre of Paris,
and called upon the world to realize the horrible injustice done
to this wretched and suffering class of humanity, a pupil of Pinel,
Esquirol, wrote of the insane in France and all Europe: " These
unfortunate people are treated worse than criminals, reduced to a
condition worse than that of animals. I have seen them naked,
covered with rags, and having only straw to protect them against
the cold moisture and the hard stones they lie upon ; deprived of
air, of water to quench thirst, and all the necessaries of life; given
up to mere gaolers and left to their surveillance. I have seen
them in their narrow and filthy cells, without light and air,
fastened with chains in these dens in which one would not keep
wild beasts. This I have seen in France, and the insane are every-
where in Europe treated in the same way." It was not until 1838
that the insane in France were all transferred from small houses
of detention, workhouses and prisons to asylums specially conv
structed for this purpose.
In Belgium, in the middle ages, the public executioner was
ordered to expel from the towns, by flogging, the poor lunatics
who were wandering about the streets. In 1804 the Code
Napoleon " punished those who allowed the insane and mad
criminals to run about free." In 1841 an investigation showed
in Belgium thirty-seven establishments for the insane, only six of
which were in good order. In fourteen of them chains and irons
were still being used. In Germany, England and America, in
1841, the condition of the insane was practically the same as in
Belgium and France.
These facts show that no great advance in the humane and
scientific care of the insane was made till towards the middle of
the i pth century. Only then did the actual metamorphosis of
asylums for detention into hospitals for treatment begin to take
place. Hand in hand with this progress there has grown, and still
is growing, a tendency to subdivision and specialization of
hospitals for this purpose. There are now hospitals for the
acutely insane, others for the chronic insane, asylums for the
criminal insane, institutions for the feeble-minded and idiots,
and colonies for epileptics. There are public institutions for
the poor, and well-appointed private retreats and homes for
the rich. All these are presided over by the best of medical
authorities, supervised by unsalaried boards of trustees or
managers, and carefully inspected by Government lunacy com-
missioners, or boards of charities — a contrast, indeed, to the
gaols, shrines, holy wells, chains, tortures, monkish exorcisms,
&c., of the past!
The statistics of insanity have been fairly well established.
The ratio of insane to normal population is about i to 300 among
civilized peoples. This proportion varies within narrow limits in
different races and countries. It is probable that intemperance in
the use of alcohol and drugs, the spread of venereal diseases, and
the over-stimulation in many directions induced by modern
social conditions, have caused an increase of insanity in the igth
as compared with past centuries. The amount of such increase is
probably very small, but on superficial examination might seem
to be large, owing to the accumulation of ;he chronic insane and
the constant upbuilding of asylums in new communities. The
imperfections of census-taking in the past must also be taken
into account.
The modern hospital for the insane does credit to latter-day
civilization. Physical restraint is no longer practised. The day
of chains — even of wristlets, covered cribs and strait-jackets —
is past. Neat dormitories, cosy single rooms, and sitting- and
dining-rooms please the eye. In the place of bare walls and
floors and curtainless windows, are pictures, plants, rugs, birds,
curtains, and in many asylums even the barred windows have
been abolished. Some of the wards for milder patients have
unlocked doors. Many patients are trusted alone about the
grounds and on visits to neighbouring towns. An air of busy
occupation is observed in sewing-rooms, schools, shops, in the
fields and gardens, employment contributing not only to economy
in administration, but to improvement in mental and physical
conditions. The general progress of medical science in all
directions has been manifested in the department of psychiatry
by improved methods of treatment, in the way of sleep-producing
and alleviating drugs, dietetics, physical culture, hydrotherapy
and the like. There are few asylums now without pathological
and clinical laboratories. While it is a far cry from the prisons
and monasteries of the past to the modern hospital for the
insane, it is still possible to trace a resemblance in many of our
older asylums to their ancient prototypes, particularly in those
asylums built upon the so-called corridor plan. Though each
generation contributed something new, antecedent models were
more or less adhered to. Progress in asylum architecture has
hence advanced more slowly in countries where monasteries
and cloisters abounded than in countries where fixed models
did not exist. Architects have had a freer hand in America,
Australia and Germany, and even in Great Britain, than in the
Catholic countries of Europe.
Germany approaches nearest to an ideal standard of provision
for the insane. The highest and best idea which has yet been
attained is that of small hospitals for the acutely insane in all
cities of more than 50,000 inhabitants, and of colonies for the
chronic insane in the rural districts adjacent to centres of
population. The psychopathic hospital in the city gives easy and
speedy access to persons taken suddenly ill with mental disease,
aids in early diagnosis, places the patients within reach of the
best specialists in all departments of medicine, and associated,
as it should be, with a medical school or university, affords
facilities not otherwise available for scientific research and for
instruction in an important branch of medical learning. A
feature of the psychopathic hospital should be the reception of
patients for a reasonable period of time, as sufferers from disease,
without the formality of legal commitment papers. Such papers
are naturally required for the detention and restraint of the
insane for long periods of time, but in the earlier stages they
should be spared the stigma, delay and complicated procedure
of commitment for at least ten days or two weeks, since in that
time many may convalesce or recover, and in this way escape
the public record of their infirmities, unavoidable by present
judicial procedures.
There should be associated with such hospitals for the acutely
insane in cities out-door departments or dispensaries, to which
patients may be brought in still earlier stages of mental disorder,
at a period when early diagnosis and preventive therapeutics
may have their best opportunities to attain good results. In
Germany a psychopathic hospital now exists in every university
town, under the name of Psychiatrische Klinik.
Colonies for the chronic insane are established in the country,
but in the neighbourhood of the cities having psychopathic
hospitals, to receive the overflow of the latter when the acute
stage has passed. The true colony is constructed on the principle
of a farming hamlet, without barracks, corridored buildings,
or pavilions. It is similar in most respects to any agricultural
community. The question here is one of humane care and
economical administration. Humane care includes medical
supervision, agreeable home-life, recreation, and, above all
things, regular manual and out-of-door occupation in garden,
farm and dairy, in the quarry, clay-pit or well-ventilated shop.
Employment for the'patients is of immense remedial importance,
and of great value from the standpoint of economical administra-
tion. In the colony system the small cottage homes of the
patients are grouped about the centres of industry. The workers
in the farmstead live in small families about the farmstead
group of buildings; the tillers of the soil adjacent to the fields,
xrv. 20 a
6i8
INSCRIPTIONS
meadows and gardens; the brickmakers, quarrymen and
artizans in still other cottages in the neighbourhood of the
scenes of their activities. In addition to these groups of cottages,
which constitute the majority of the buildings in the village,
an infirmary for bedridden, excited and crippled patients is
required, and a small hospital for the sick. All the inhabitants
of the colony are under medical supervision. A laboratory for
scientific researches forms a highly important part of the equip-
ment . The colony is not looked upon as a refuge for the incurable ;
it is still a hospital for the sick, where treatment is carried on
under the most humane and most suitable conditions, and
wherein the precentage of recoveries will be larger than in
asylums and hospitals as now conducted. In respect of the
establishment of colonies for the insane upon the plan outlined
here, Germany has, as in the case of the psychopathic hospital,
led the world. It has been less difficult for that country to set
the example, because she had fewer of the conditions of the past
to fight, and with her the progress of medical science and of
methods of instruction in all departments of medicine has been
more pronounced and rapid.
Among the German colonies for the insane, that at Alt-
Scherbitz, near Leipzig, is the oldest and most successful, and
is pre-eminent in its close approach to the ideal village or colony
system. In 1899 Professor Kraeplin of Heidelberg stated
(Psychiatric, 6th edition) that the effort was made everywhere
in Germany to give the exterior of asylums, by segregation of
the patients in separate home-like villas, rather the appearance
of hamlets for working-people than prisons for the insane, and
he said, further, that the whole question of the care of the insane
had found solution in the colony system, the best and cheapest
method of support. " I have myself," he writes, " had oppor-
tunity to see patients, who had lived for years in a large closed
asylum, improve in the most extraordinary manner under the
influence of the freer movement and more independent occupa-
tion of colony life."
In America the colony scheme has been successfully adopted
by the state of New York at the Craig Colony for Epileptics
at Sonyea and elsewhere.
That the tendency nowadays, even outside of Germany,
in the direction of the ideal standard of provision for the insane
is a growing one is manifested in all countries by a gradual
disintegration of the former huge cloister-like abodes. More
asylums are built on the pavilion plan. Many asylums have,
as it were, thrown off detached cottages for the better care of
certain patients. Some asylums have even established small
agricultural colonies a few miles away from the parent plant, like
a vine throwing out feelers. What is called the boarding-out
system is an effort in a similar direction. Patients suffering
from mild forms of insanity are boarded out in families in the
country, either upon public or private charge. Gheel is an
example of the boarding-out system practised on a large scale.
But the ideal system is that of the psychopathic hospital and
the colony for the insane.
AUTHORITIES. — SirJ. B.Tuke, Dictionary of Psychological Medicine
(Londonfand Philadelphia, 1892); W. P. Letchworth, The Insane
in Foreign Countries (New York, 1889); Care and Treatment of
Epileptics (New York, 1900); F. Peterson, Mental Diseases (Phila-
delphia, 1899); " Annual Address to the American Medico- Psycho-
logical Association," Proceedings (1899). (F- P-*)
INSCRIPTIONS (from Lat. inscribere, to write upon), the
general term for writings cut on stone or metal, the subject
matter of epigraphy. See generally WRITING and PALAEO-
GRAPHY. Under this heading it is convenient here to deal more
specifically with four groups of ancient inscriptions, Semitic,
Indian, Greek and Latin, but further information will be found
in numerous separate articles on philological subjects. See
especially CUNEIFORM, BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA, SUMER,
BEHISTUN, EGYPT (Language and Writing), ETHIOPIA, PHOE-
NICIA, ARABIA, HITTITES, SABAEANS, MINAEANS, ETRURIA,
AEGEAN CIVILIZATION, CRETE, CYPRUS, BRITAIN, SCANDINAVIAN
LANGUAGES, TEUTONIC LANGUAGES, CENTRAL AMERICA: Archae-
ology, &c.
I. SEMITIC INSCRIPTIONS
Excluding cuneiform (q.v.), the inscriptions known as Semitic
are usually classed under two main heads as North and South
Semitic. The former class includes Hebrew (with Moabite),
Phoenician (with Punic and neo-Punic), and Aramaic (with
Nabataean and Palmyrene). The South Semitic class includes
the Minaean and Sabaean inscriptions of South Arabia. In most
of these departments there has been a very large increase of
material during recent years, some of which is of the highest
historical and palaeographical importance. The North Semitic
monuments have received the greater share of attention because
of their more general interest in connexion 'with the history of
surrounding countries.
i. North Semitic. — The earliest authority for any North
Semitic language is that of the Tel-el- Amarna tablets (isth
century B.C.) which contain certain "Canaanite glosses,"1 i.e.
North Semitic words written in cuneiform characters. From
these to the first inscription found in the North Semitic alphabet,
there is an interval of about six centuries. The stele of Mesha,
commonly called the Moabite Stone, was set up in the gth
century B.C. to commemorate the success of Moab in shaking
off the Israelitish rule. It is of great value, both historically as
relating to events indicated in 2 Kings i. i , iii. 5, &c., and linguistic-
ally as exhibiting a language almost identical with Hebrew — that
is to say, another form of the same Canaanitish language. It
was discovered in 1868 by the German missionary, Klein, on
the site of Dibon, intact, but was afterwards broken up by
the Arabs. The fragments,2 collected with great difficulty by
Clermont-Ganneau and others, are now in the Louvre. Its
genuineness was contested by A. Lowy (Scottish Review, 1887;
republished, Berlin, 1903) and recently again by G. Jahn (ap-
pendix to Das Buck Daniel, Leipzig, 1904), but, although there
are many difficulties connected with the text, its authenticity is
generally admitted.
Early Hebrew inscriptions are at present few and meagre,
although it cannot be doubted that others would be found by
excavating suitable sites. The most important is that discovered
in 1880 in the tunnel of the pool of Siloam, commemorating
the piercing of the rock. It is generally believed to refer to
Hezekiah's scheme for supplying Jerusalem with water (2 Kings
xx. 20), and therefore to date from about 700 B.C. It consists
of six lines in good Hebrew, and is the only early Hebrew inscrip-
tion of any length. The character does not differ from that of
the Moabite Stone, except in the slightly cursive tendency of its
curved strokes, due no doubt to their having been traced for the
stone-cutter by a scribe who was used to writing on parchment.
There are also a few inscribed seals dating from before the Exile,
some factory marks and an engraved capital at al-Amwas, which
last may, however, be Samaritan. Otherwise this character is
only found (as the result of an archaizing tendency) on coins of
the Hasmoneans, and, still later, on those of the first and second
(Bar Kokhba's) revolts.
The new Hebrew character, which developed into the modern
square character, is first found in a name of five letters at 'Araq-
al-amir, of the 2nd century B.C. Somewhat later, but probably
of the ist century B.C., is the tombstone of the B'ne Hezir
(" Tomb of St James ") at Jerusalem. An inscription on a
ruined synagogue at Kafr Bir'im, near §afed, perhaps of
about A.D. 300, or earlier, shows the fully developed square
character.
Since the publication of the Corpus Inscr. Sem. it has been
customary to treat papyri along with inscriptions, and for
palaeographical reasons it is convenient to do so. Hebrew
papyri are few, all in square character and not of great interest.
The longest, and probably the earliest (6th century A.D.), is one
now in the Bodleian Library at Oxford, containing a private
1 See Winckler in Schrader's Keilinschr. Bibl. v. (Berlin, &c.,
1896).
2 A nearly complete text has been made from these with the help
of a squeeze taken before its destruction. See the handbooks
mentioned below.
SEMITIC]
INSCRIPTIONS
619
letter * written in a character closely resembling that of the
Kafr Bir'im inscription. Other fragments were published by
Steinschneider 2 (perhaps 8th century), and by D. H. Muller and
Kaufmann.3 -7
Hebrew inscriptions outside Palestine are the cursive graffiti
in the catacombs at Venosa (znd-sth century), the magical texts
on Babylonian bowls (yth-Sth century), and the numerous tomb-
stones 4 in various parts of Europe, of all periods from the 6th
century to the present time.
The few Samaritan inscriptions in existence are neither early
nor interesting.
Closely related to the Hebrews, both politically and in language,
were the Phoenicians in North Syria. Their monuments in
Phoenicia itself are few and not earlier than the Persian period.
The oldest yet found, dating probably from the sth or 4th
century B.C., is that of Yehaw-milk, king of Gebal (modern Jebel)
or Byblus, where it was found. It records at some length the
dedication of buildings, &c., to the goddess of Gebal. Of the 3rd
century B.C. are the inscriptions on the sarcophagi of Tabnith
and his son Eshmun'azar, kings of Sidon, and some records
of other members of the same family, Bod-'ashtart and his son
Yathan-milk, found in 1902 a short distance north of Sidon.
Outside Phoenicia the inscriptions are numerous and widely
scattered round the Mediterranean coasts, following the course
of Phoenician trade. The earliest is that on some fragments of
three bronze bowls, dedicated to Baal of Lebanon, found in
Cyprus. The character is like that of the Moabite Stone, and
the date is probably the Sth century B.C., though some scholars
would put it nearer to 1000 B.C. In the latter case, the Hiram,
king of Sidon, mentioned in the inscriptions would be the same
as Hiram, king of Tyre, in Solomon's time. Similar bowls (of
about 700 B.C.) found at Nimrud sometimes bear the maker's
name in Phoenician characters.
Many monumental inscriptions have also been found in Cyprus,
at Kition, Idalioji, Tamassos, &c. They are chiefly votive, some
dated in the 4th century, and some being perhaps as late as the
2nd century B.C., so that they afford valuable evidence as to the
succession of the local kings. Several also are bilingual, and it
was one of these which supplied George Smith with the clue to the
Cypriote syllabic system of writing Greek. Similar memorials
of Phoenician settlements were found at Athens (Piraeus), in
Egypt, Sardinia, Malta and Gozo. Most interesting of all is the
celebrated sacrificial tablet of Marseilles, giving an elaborate
tariff of payments at or for the various offerings, and showing
some striking analogies with the directions in the book of
Leviticus. For the information it gives as to civil and priestly
organization, it is the most important Phoenician text in exist-
ence. It was probably brought from Carthage, where similar
tariffs have been found. On the site of that important colony,
and indeed throughout the parts of North Africa once subject
to its rule, Punic inscriptions are, as might be expected, very
numerous. By far the majority are votive tablets, probably
belonging to the period between the 4th and the 2nd centuries
B.C., many of them in a wonderfully perfect state of preservation.
One of the most interesting, recently discovered, mentions a
high-priestess who was head of the college of priests, and whose
husband's family had been suffetes for four generations. Later
inscriptions, called neo-Punic, dating from the fall of Carthage
to about the ist century A.D., are written in a debased character
and language differing in several respects from the earlier Punic,
and presenting many difficulties.
In Aramaic the earliest inscriptions are three found in 1890-
1891 at and near Zinjirli in North-west Syria, dating from the
Sth century B.C. Of these, one was set up by Panammu, king
of Ya'dl, in honour of the god Hadad, and is inscribed on a
1 Published with other fragments in the Jew. Quart. Review,
xvi. i.
^ Zeitsch. f. Aegypt. Spr. (1879). These were the first specimens
found. See also Erman and Krebs, Aus den Papyrus d. kgl. Mus.
p. 290 (Berlin, 1899).
3 Mittheilungen . . . Rainer, i. 38 (Wien, 1886).
4 Those in France were collected by Schwab in Nouvelles archives,
xii. 3. See also Chwolson, Corpus Inscr. Hebr. (St Petersburg, 1882)
statue of him, the other two were set up by Bar-rekub, son of
Panammu, one in honour of his father and on his statue, the
second commemorating the erection of his new house. They
are remarkable as being engraved in relief, a peculiarity which
has been thought to be due to " Hittite " influence. Otherwise
the character resembles that of the Moabite Stone. The texts
consist of 77 lines (not all legible), giving a good deal of informa-
tion about an obscure place and period hitherto known only
From cuneiform sources. The ornamentation is Assyrian in
style, as also is that of the inscriptions of Nerab (near Aleppo),
commemorative texts engraved on statues of priests, of about
the 7th century.
Of shorter inscriptions there is a long series from about the
Sth century B.C., on bronze weights found at Nineveh (generally
accompanied by an Assyrian version), and as "dockets"6
to cuneiform contract-tablets, giving a brief indication of the
contents. Aramaic, being the commercial language of the East,
was naturally used for this purpose in business documents. For
the same reason it is found in the 6th~4th centuries B.C. sporadic-
ally in various regions, as in Cilicia, in Lycia 6 (with a Greek
version), at Abydos (on a weight). At Taima also, in North
Arabia, an important trading centre, besides shorter texts, a
very interesting inscription of twenty-three lines was found,
recording the foundation and endowment of a new temple,
probably in the 5th century B.C. But by far the most extensive
collection of early Aramaic texts comes from Egypt, where the
language was used not only for trade purposes, as elsewhere,
but also officially under the Persian rule. From Memphis
there is a funeral inscription dated in the fourth year of Xerxes
(482 B.C.), and a dedication on a bowl of about the same date.
A stele recently published by de Vogue 7 is dated 458 B.C. Another
which is now at Carpentras in France (place of origin unknown)
is probably not much later. At Elephantine and Assuan in
Upper Egypt, a number of ostraka have been dug up, dating
from the 5th century B.C. and onward, all difficult to read and
explain, but interesting for the popular character of their contents,
style and writing. There was a Jewish (or Israelitish 8) settle-
ment there in the 5th century from which emanated most, if
not all, of the papyrus documents edited in the C.I.S. Since
the appearance of this part of the Corpus, more papyri have
come to light. One published by Euting 9 is dated 411 B.C. and
is of historical interest, eleven others,10 containing legal documents,
mostly dated, were written between 471 and 411 B.C.; another
(408 B.C.) is a petition to the governor of Jerusalem.11 The
fragments in the C.I.S. are in the same character and clearly
belong to the same period. The language continued to be used
in Egypt even in Ptolemaic times, as shown by a papyrus 12
(accounts) and ostrakon 13 containing Greek names, and belonging,
to judge from the style of the writing, to the 3rd century B.C.
The latest fragments 14 are of the 6th-8th century A.D., written
in a fully developed square character. They are Jewish private
letters, and do not prove anything as to the use of Aramaic
in Egypt at that time.
Nabataean inscriptions are very numerous. They are written
in a peculiar, somewhat cursive character, derived from the
square, and date from the 2nd century B.C. The earliest dated
is of the year 40 B.C., the latest dated is of A.D. 95. The
Nabataean kingdom proper had its centre at Petra C=Sela in
2 Kings xiv. 7), which attained great importance as the emporium
on the trade route between Arabia and the Persian Gulf on the
5 These have been collected by J. H. Stevenson, Babyl. and Assyr.
Contracts (New York, 1902). A more complete collection has been
prepared by Professor A. T. Clay.
• For the literature see Kalinka, Tituli Lyciae, No. 152 (Vienna,
1901).
7 Repertoire d'epigr. sent., No. 438.
8 So Bacher in /. Q. R. xix. 441.
» In Mem. Acad. inscr. i" ser. xi. 297. See also Rep. d eptgr.
sent., for some smaller fragments, Nos. 244-248.
10 Sayce and Cowley, Aramaic Papyri (London, 1906).
11 Sachau, " Drei aram. Papyrusurkunden " Abh. d. kgl. Preuss.
Akad. (Berlin, 1907).
12 See P.S.B.A. (1907), P- 260. .
13 See Lidzbarski, Ephemeris, 11. 247. 14 J.Q.R. xvi. 7.
620
INSCRIPTIONS
[SEMITIC
one side and Syria and Egypt on the other. The commercial
activity of the people, however, was widely extended, and their
monuments are found not only round Petra and in N. Arabia,
but as far north as Damascus, and even in Italy, where there
was a trading settlement at Puteoli. The inscriptions are mostly
votive or sepulchral, and are often dated, but give little historical
information except in so far as they fix the dates of Nabataean
kings.
A distinct subdivision of Nabataean is found in the Sinaitic
peninsula, chiefly in the WadI Firan and Wadl Mukattib, which
lay on the caravan route. The inscriptions are rudely scratched
or punched on the rough rock, without any sort of order, and
some of them are accompanied by rude drawings. A few only
are dated, but, as shown by de Vogue in the C.I.S. (ii. i, p. 353),
they must all belong to the 2nd and 3rd centuries A.D. This
accounts for the fact that already in the 6th century Cosmas
Indicopleustes L has no correct account of their origin, and
ascribes them to the Israelites during their wanderings in the
wilderness.2 They were first correctly deciphered as Nabataean
by Beer in 1848, when they proved to consist chiefly of proper
names (many of them of Arabic formation), accompanied by
ejaculations or blessings. It is clear that they are not the work
of pilgrims either Jewish or Christian,* nor are they of a religious
character. The frequent recurrence of certain names shows
that only a few generations of a few families are represented,
and these must have belonged to a small body of Nabataeans
temporarily settled in the particular Wadis, no doubt for purposes
connected with the caravan-traffic. The form of the Nabataean
character in which they are written is interesting as being the
probable progenitor of the Kufic Arabic alphabet.
Another important trading centre was Tadmor or Palmyra in
northern Syria. Numerous inscriptions found there, and hence
called Palmyrene, were copied by Waddington in 1861 and
published by de Vogue in his great work Syrie Centrale (1868,
&c.), which is still the most extensive collection of them. The
difficulties of exploration have hitherto prevented any further
increase of the material, but much more would undoubtedly
be found if excavation were possible. The texts are mostly
sepulchral and dedicatory, some of them being accompanied
by a Greek version. The language is a form of western Aramaic,
and the character, which is derived from the Hebrew and
Aramaic square, is closely related to the Syriac estrangelo
alphabet. The inscriptions are mostly dated, and belong to the
period between 9 B.C. and A.D. 271. The most important is the
tariff of taxes on imports, dated A.D. 137. Nearly all were found
on the surface at or round Palmyra and remain in situ. Of
the very few in other places, one (with a Latin version) was found
at South Shields, the tombstone of Regina liberta et conjux of
a native of Palmyra.
Syriac inscriptions are few. The earliest is that on the sarco-
phagus of Queen Saddan (in the Hebrew version, Sadda), perhaps
of about A.D. 40, found at Jerusalem. Others were found by
Sachau 4 at Edessa, of the 2nd and 3rd centuries, and by Pognon. 6
2. South Semitic. — The South Semitic class of inscriptions
comprises the Minaean, Sabaean, Himyaritic and Lihyanitic
in South Arabia, the Thamudic and Safaitic in the north and
the Abyssinian. A great deal of material has been collected by
Halevy, Glaser and Euting, and much valuable work has been
done by them and by D. H. MUller, Hommel and Littmann.
Many of the texts, however, are still unpublished and the rest
is not very accessible (except so far as it has appeared in the
C.I.S.), so that South Semitic has been less widely studied than
North Semitic.
The successive kingdoms of South Arabia (Yemen) were essenti-
ally commercial. Their country was the natural intermediary
*ed. E. O. Winstedt (Cambr. 1909), p. 154.
* A view revived by C. Forster, even after Beer, in The Israelitish
Authorship of the Sinaitic Inscriptions (London, 1856) and other
works.
1 The cross and other Christian symbols often found with the
inscriptions have been added later by pilgrims. — C.I.S. ii. I, p. 352.
4 Reise in Syrien (Leipzig, 1883).
6 Inscriptions sent, de la Syrie, Sfc. i. (Paris, 1907).
between Asia (India), Africa and Syria, and this position, com-
bined with its natural fertility, made the south far more prosper-
ous than the north. In language, the two most important peoples,
the Minaeans and Sabaeans, differ only dialectically, both
writing forms of southern Arabic. The Minaean capital was at
Ma'ln, about 300 m. N. of Aden and 200 m. from the west coast.
Here and in the neighbourhood numerous inscriptions were found,
as well as in the north at al-'Ola.6 Their chronology is much
disputed. D. H. Muller makes the Minaean power contemporary
with the Sabaean, but Glaser (with whom Hommel and D. S.
Margoliouth agree) contends that the Sabaeans followed the
Minaeans, whom they conquered in 820 B.C. Mention is made in
a cuneiform text (Annals of Sargon, 715 B.C.) of Ithamar the
Sabaean, who must be identical with one (it is not certain which)
of the kings of that name mentioned in the Sabaean inscriptions.
Their capital was Marib, a little south of Ma'in, and here they
appear to have flourished for about a thousand years. In the ist
century A.D., with the establishment of the Roman power in the
north, their trade, and consequently their prosperity, began to
decline. The rival kingdom of the Himyarites, with its capital
at Zafar, then rose to importance, and this in turn was con-
quered by the Abyssinians in the 6th century A.D. With the
spread of Islam the old Arabic language was supplanted by the
northern dialects from which classical Arabic was developed.
A peculiarity of the South Arabian inscriptions is that many of
them are engraved on bronze tablets. Besides being historically
important, they are of great value for the study of early Semitic
religion. The gods most often named in Sabaean are 'Athtar
Wadd and Nakrah, the first being the male counterpart of the
Syrian Ashtoreth. The term denoting the priests and priestesses
who are devoted to the temple-service is identified by Hommel
and others with the Hebrew " Levite."
Closely connected wth South Arabia is Abyssinia. Indeed
a considerable number of Sabaean inscriptions have been found
at Yeha and Aksum, showing that merchants from Arabia must
at some time have formed settlements there. D. H. Muller 7
thinks that some of these belong to the earliest and others to the
latest period of Sabaean power. The inscriptions hitherto found
in Ethiopic (the alphabet of which is] derived from the Sabaean)
date from the 4th century A.D. onward. They are few in number,
but long and of great historical importance. There can be no
doubt that exploration, if it were possible, would bring many
more to light.
From time to time emigrants from the southern tribes settled
in the north of Arabia. Mention has already been made of
Minaean inscriptions found at al-'Ola, which is on the great
pilgrim road, about 70 m. south of Taima. In recent years a
number of others has been collected belonging to the people of
Lihyan and dating from about A.D. 250. Nearly related to the
Lihyanitic are the Thamudic (so called from the tribe of the
Thamud mentioned in them), and the Safaitic, both of which,
though found in the north, belong in character to south Arabia
and no doubt owe their origin to emigrants from the south.
The Thamudic inscriptions, collected by Euting (called Proto-
Arabian by Halevy),8 are carelessly scrawled graffiti very like
those of the Sinai peninsula. Their date is uncertain, but they
cannot be much earlier than the Safaitic, which resemble them
in most respects. These last are called after the mountainous
district about 20 m. S.E. of Damascus. The inscriptions are,
however, found not in Mount Safa itself but in the desert of
al-Harrah to the west and south and in the fertile plain of
ar-Ruhbah to the east. They were first deciphered by Halevy,9
whose work has been carried on and completed by Littmann.10
Their date is again uncertain, since graffiti of this kind give very
few facts from which dates can be deduced. Littmann thinks
that one of his inscriptions refers to Trajan's campaign of A.D. 106,
• J. H. Mordtmann, " Beitr. zur Minaischen Epigraphik," in
Semitistische Studien, 12 (Weimar, 1897).
7 In Bent's Sacred City of the Ethiopians (London, 1893).
8 Revue semitique (1901).
* Journ. As. x., xvii., xix.
w Zur Entzifferung d. Safa-Inschr. (Leipzig, 1901).
INDIAN]
INSCRIPTIONS
621
and that they all belong to the first three centuries. They are
found together with the earlier Greek and Latin graffiti of Roman
soldiers and with later Moslem remarks in Kufic. Many of them
are not yet published.
BIBLIOGRAPHY — The best introductions are, for North Semitic,
Lidzbarski's Handbuch d. nordsemitischen Epigraphik (Weimar,
1898) ; and G. A. Cooke's Text-book of North-Semitic Inscriptions
(Oxford, 1903) ; for South Semitic, Rommel's Sud-arabische Chrestp-
mathie (Munich, 1893); Alphabets and facsimiles in Berger, Histoire
de I'tcriture, 2nd ed. (Paris, 1892). The parts of the Corpus Inscr.
Sem. published up to 1910 are: pars i., torn, i., and torn. 11., fascc.
1-3, 1881-1908 (Phoenician); pars ii., torn, i., 1889-1902 (Aramaic
with Nabataean), torn, ii., fasc. i., 1907 (Sinaitic); pars iv., torn i.,
fascc. 1-4, 1889-1908 (Himyaritic, including Minaean and Sabaean).
In all these parts a full bibliography is given. For Palmy rene see
de Vogue"'s Syrie Centrale (Paris, 1868-1877). Works on special
departments of the subject have already been mentioned in the
notes. (A. CY.)
II. INDIAN INSCRIPTIONS
The inscriptions of India are extremely numerous, and are
found, on stone and other substances, in a great variety of circum-
stances. They were mostly recorded by incision.
But we have a few> referable to the 2nd or 3rd century
the la- B.C., which were written with ink on earthenware, and
scriptions some others, of later times, recorded by paint, — one
we" "' on a rock, the others on the walls of Buddhist cave-
temples. Those, however, were exceptional methods;
and equally so was the process of casting, with the result of bring-
ing the letters out in relief, of which we know at present only one
instance, — the Sohgaura plate, mentioned again below. The
Mussulman inscriptions on stone were, it is believed, nearly
always carved in relief ; and various Hindu inscriptions were
done in the same way in the Mussulman period: but only one
instance of a stone record prepared in that manner can as yet be
cited for the earlier period; it is an inscription on the pedestal
of an image of Buddha, of the Gupta period, found in excavations
made not long ago at Sarnath.
Amongst the inscriptions on metal there is one that stands out
by itself, in respect of the peculiarity of having been incised on
iron: it is the short poem, constituting the epitaph of the Gupta
king Chandragupta II., which was composed in or about A.D. 415,
and was placed on record on the iron column, measuring 23 ft.
8 in. in height, and estimated to weigh more than six tons,
which stands at Meharaul! near Delhi. We have a very small
number of short Buddhist votive inscriptions on gold and
silver, a larger number of records of various kinds on brass,
and a larger number still on bronze. The last-mentioned consist
chiefly of seals and stamps for making seals. And one of these
seal-stamps, belonging to about the commencement of the
Christian era, is of particular interest in presenting its legend
in Greek characters as well as in the two Indian alphabets
which were then in use. For the period, indeed, to which
it belongs, there is nothing peculiar in the use of the Greek
characters; those characters were freely used on the coins
of India and adjacent territories, sometimes along with the
native characters, sometimes alone, from about 325 B.C. to the
first quarter of the 2nd century A.D.: but this seal-stamp
and the coins of the Kshaharata king Nahapana (A.D. 78 to
about 125), furnish the only citable good instances of the use ol
the three alphabets all together. For the most part, however
the known inscriptions on metal were placed on sheets of copper
ranging in size from about 25 in. by if in. in the case of the
Sohgaura plate to as much as about 2 ft. 6 in. square in the
case of a record of 46 B.C. obtained at Sue-Vihar in the neighbour
hood of Bahawalpur in the Punjab. Some of these records on
copper were commemorative and dedicatory, and were depositec
inside the erections — relic-mounds, and, in the case of the Sue
Vihar plate, a tower — to which they belonged. The usua
copper record, however, was a donative charter, in fact a title
deed, and passed as soon as it was issued into private persona
custody; and many of the known records of this class have come
to notice through being produced by the modern possessors o
them before official authorities, in the expectation of establishing
privileges which (it is hardly necessary to say) have long sine
eased to exist through the lapse of time, the dying out of families
>f original holders, rights of conquest, and the many changes of
government that have taken place: but others have been found
>uried in fields, and hidden in the walls and foundations of build-
ngs. The plates on which these inscriptions were incised vary
greatly in the number of the leaves, in the size and shape of them,
and in the arrangement of the records on them; partly, of course,
according to the lengths of individual records, but also according
o particular customs and fashions prevalent in different parts of
he country and in different periods of time. In some cases a
ingle plate was used; and it was inscribed sometimes on only one
iide of it, sometimes on both. More often, however, more plates
.han one were used, and were connected together by soldered
rings; and the number ranges up to as many as thirty-one in the
case of a charter issued by the Choja king Rajendra Chola I.
n the period A.D. ion to 1037. It was customary that such of
he records on copper as were donative charters should be
authenticated. This was sometimes done by incising on the
plates what purports to be more or less an autograph signature
of the king or prince from whom a charter emanated. More
usually, however, it was effected by attaching a copper or bronze
reproduction of the royal seal to the ring or to one of the rings
on which the plates were strung; and this practice has given us
another large and highly interesting series of Indian seals, some
of them of an extremely elaborate nature. In this class of records
we have a real curiosity in a charter issued in A.D. 1272 by
Ramachandra, one of the Yadava kings of Devagiri: this
record is on three plates, each measuring about i ft. 3 in. in width
by i ft. 85 in. in height, which are so massive as to weigh 59 Ib.
2 oz.; and the weight of the ring on which they were strung,
and of an image of Garuda which was secured to it by another
ring, is ii Ib. 12 oz.: thus, the total weight of this title-deed,
which conveyed a village to fifty-seven Brahmans, is no less than
70 Ib. 14 oz. ; appreciably more than half a hundredweight.
Amongst substances other than metal we can cite only one
instance in which crystal was used; this material was evidently
found too hard for any general use in the inscriptional line:
the solitary instance is the case of a short record found in the
remains of a Buddhist stupa or relic-mound at Bhattiprolu in
the Kistna district, Madras. In various parts of India there are
found in large numbers small tablets of clay prepared from
stamps, sometimes baked into terra-cotta, sometimes left to
harden naturally. Objects of this class were largely used as
votive tablets, especially by the Buddhists; and their tablets
usually present the so-called Buddhist formula or creed: " Of
those conditions which spring from a cause, Tathagata (Buddha)
has declared the cause and the suppression of them; it is of
such matters that he, the great ascetic, discourses": but others,
from Sunet in the Ludhiana district, Punjab, show by the
legends on them that the Saivas and Vaishnavas also habitually
made pious offerings of this kind on occasions of visiting sacred
places. Recent explorations, however, in the Gorakhpur and
Muzaffarpur districts have resulted in the discovery, in this
class of records, of great numbers of clay seals bearing various
inscriptions, which had been attached to documents sent to and
fro between administrative offices, both royal and municipal,
between religious establishments, and between private indi-
viduals: and amongst these we have seals of the monastery at
Kusinara, one of the places at which the eight original portions
of the corporeal relics of Buddha were enshrined in relic-mounds,
and also a seal-stamp used for making seals of the monastery at
Vethadipa, another of those places. And from Kathiawar we
have a similar seal-stamp which describes itself as the property
" of the prince and commander-in-chief Pushyena, son of the
illustrious prince Ahivarman, whose royal pedigree extends back
unbroken to Jayadratha." There are no indications that the
use of brick for inscriptional purposes was ever at all general in
India, as it was in some other eastern lands: but there have
been found in the Ghazlpur district numerous bricks bearing the
inscription " the glorious Kumaragupta," with reference to
either the first or the second Gupta king of that name, of the sth
century A.D.; in the Gorakhpur district there have been found
622
INSCRIPTIONS
[INDIAN
so valu-
brick tablets bearing Buddhist texts, one of which is a version
in Sanskrit of a short sermon preached by Buddha; and from
the Jaunpur district we have a brick tablet bearing an inscription
which registers a mortgage, made in A.D. 1217, of some lands
a security for a loan. Inscribed earthenware relic-receptacles
have been found in the Bhopal state: donative earthenware jars,
bearing inscriptions, have been obtained near Charsadda in the
North- West Frontier province: and from Kathiawar we have
a piece of earthenware, apparently a fragment of a huge pot,
bearing an inscription which presents a date in A.D. 566-67 and
the name of "the glorious Guhasena," one of the Maitraka
princes of Valabhi. For the great bulk of the inscriptions,
however, stone was used: but limitation of space prevents us
from entering into any details here, and only permits us to say
that in this class the records are found all over India on rocks,
on isolated monolith columns and pillars, of which some were
erected simply to bear the records that were published on them,
others were placed in front of temples as flagstaffs of the gods,
and others were set up as pillars of victory in battle; on relic-
receptacles hidden away in the interiors of Buddhist stupas;
on external structural parts of stupas; on facades, walls, and
other parts of caves; on pedestals and other parts of images
and statues, sometimes of colossal size; on moulds for making
seals; on walls, beams, pillars, pilasters, and other parts of
temples; and on specially prepared slabs and tablets, sometimes
built into the walls of temples and other erections, sometimes
set up inside temples or in the courtyards of them, or in con-
spicuous places in village-sites and fields, where they have
occasionally in the course of time become buried.
The inscriptional records of India which have thus come down
Reasons *o us do not, as far as they are known at present,
why the pretend to the antiquity of the Greek inscriptions of
inscrip' the Hellenic world; much less to that of the inscrip-
tionsare tions of Egypt and Assyria. But they are no less
important ; since we are dependent on them for almost
all our knowledge of the ancient history of the country.
The primary reason for this is that the ancient Hindus, though
by no means altogether destitute of the historical instinct, were
not writers of historical books. In some of the Puraitas, indeed,
they have given us chapters which purport to present the succes-
sion of their kings from the commencement of the present age,
the Kaliyuga, in 3102 B.C.: but the chronological details of
those chapters disclose the fault of treating contemporaneous
dynasties, belonging to different parts of India, as successive
dynasties ruling over one and the same territory; with the
result that they would place more than three centuries in the
future from the present time the great Gupta kings who reigned
in Northern India from A.D. 320 to about 530. They have given
us, for Kashmir the Rdjataramgiyi, the first eight cantos of
which, written by Kalhana in A.D. 1148-49, purport to present
the general history of that country, with occasional items relating
to India itself, from 2448 B.C., and to give the exact length, even
to months and days, of the reign of each king of Kashmir from
1182 B.C.: but, while we may accept Kalhana as fairly correct
for his own time and for the preceding century or so, an examina-
tion of the details of his work quickly exposes its imaginative
character and its unreliability for any earlier period: notably,
he places towards the close of the period 2448 to 1182 B.C. the
great Maurya king Asoka, whose real initial date was 264 B.C.;
and he was obliged to allot to one king, Ranaditya I., a reign
of three centuries (A.D. 222 to 522, as placed by him) simply
in order to save his own chronology. They have given us
historical romances, such as the Harshacharita of Buna, written
in the 7th century, the Vikramankadevacharita of Bilhana,
written about the beginning of the 1 2th century, and the Tamil
poems, the Kalaval.i, the Kalifigaltu-Paraifi, and the Vikrama-
Cholan-Ul.a, the first of which may be of somewhat earlier date
than Sana's work, while the second and third are of much the
same time with Bilhana's: but, while these present some
charming reading in the poetical line, with much of interest, and
certainly a fair amount of important matter, they give us no
dates, and so no means without extraneous help of applying the
information that is deducible from them. Again, they have
given us, especially in Southern India, a certain amount of
historical details in the introductions and colophons of their
literary works; and here they have often furnished dates which
give a practical shape to their statements: but we quickly find
that the historical matter is introduced quite incidentally, to
magnify the importance of the authors themselves rather than
to teach us anything about their patrons, and is not handled
with any particular care and fulness; and it would be but a
sketchy and imperfect history, and one relating to only a limited
and comparatively late period, that we could piece together even
from these more precise sources. The ancient Hindus, in short,
have not bequeathed to us anything that, can in any way compare
with the historical writings of their Greek and Roman con-
temporaries. They have not even given us anything like the
Dlpavamsa of Ceylon, which, while it contains a certain amount
of fabulous matter, can be recognized as presenting a real and
reliable historical account of that island, taken from records
written up during the progress to the events themselves, from
at any rate the time of Asoka to about A.D. 350; or like the
Mahavamsa, which, commenting on and amplifying the details
of the Dipavamsa, takes up a similar account from the end of the
period covered by that work. Even the Greek notices of India,
commencing with the accounts of the Asiatic campaign of
Alexander the Great, have told us more about its political history
and geography during the earlier times than have the Hindus
themselves: and in fact, in mentioning Sandrokottos, i.e.
Chandragupta, the grandfather of Asoka, and in furnishing
details which fix his initial date closely about 320 B.C., the
Greeks gave us the first means of making a start towards arrang-
ing the chronology of India on accurate lines. It is in these
circumstances, in the absence of any indigenous historical
writings of a plain, straightforward, and authentic nature, that
the inscriptions of India are of such great value. They are
supplemented — and to an important extent for at any rate the
period from the end of Asoka 's reign in 227 B.C. to the com-
mencement of the reign of Kanishka in 58 B.C., and again from
about a century later to the rise of the Gupta dynasty in A.D. 320
— by the numismatic remains. But the coins of India present
no dates until nearly the end of the 2nd century A.D.; the case
of Parthia, which has yielded dated coins from only 38 B.C.,
illustrates well the difficulty of arranging undated coins in
chronological order even when the assistance of historical books
is available; and what we may deduce from the coins of India
is still to be put into a final shape in accordance with what we
can determine from the inscriptions. In short, the inscriptions
of India are the only sure grounds of historical results in every
line of research connected with its ancient past; they regulate
everything that we can learn from coins, architecture, art,
literature, tradition, or any other source.
That is one reason why the inscriptions of India are so valu-
able; they fill the void caused by the absence of historical books.
Another reason is found in the great number of them and the
wide area that is covered by them. They come from all parts of
the country: from Shahbazgarhl in the north, in the Yusufzai
subdivision of the Peshawar district, to the ancient Pandya
territory in the extreme south of the peninsula; and from
Assam in the east to Kathiawar in the west. For the time
anterior to about A.D. 400, we already have available in published
form, more or less complete, the contents of between noo and
1200 records, large and small; and the explorations of the
Archaeological Department are constantly bringing to light,
particularly from underground sites, more materials for that
period. For the time onwards from that point, we have similarly
available the contents of some 10,000 or 11,000 records of
Southern India, and of at any rate between 700 and 800 records of
Northern India where racial antagonism came more into play and
worked more destruction of Hindu remains than in the south.
Another reason is found in the fact that from the first century
B.C. the inscriptions are for the most part specifically dated:
some in various eras the nature and application of which are now
thoroughly well understood, often with also a mention of the
INDIAN]
INSCRIPTIONS
623
year of the twelve-years or of the sixty-years cycle of the planet
Jupiter; others in the regnal years of kings whose periods are
now well fixed. And, in addition to usually stating the month
and the day along with the year, the inscriptions sometimes give,
under the influence of Hindu astrology, other details so exact that
we can determine, even to the actual hour, the occurrence of the
event registered by a particular record.
A final reason is found in the precise nature of the inscriptions.
A certain proportion of them consists of plain statements of
events, — recitals of the pedigrees and achievements of kings,
records of the carrying out of public works, epitaphs of kings,
heroes, and saints, compacts of political alliance, and so on; and
some of these present, in fact, short historical compositions
which illustrate well what the ancient Hindus might have done
if they had felt any special call to write plain and veracious
chronicles on matter-of-fact lines. But we are indebted for the
great bulk of the inscriptions, not to any historical instinct, but
to the religious side of the Hindu character, and to the constant
desire of the Hindus to make donations on every possible occasion.
The inscriptions devoted simply to the propagation of morality
and religion are not very numerous: the most notable ones in
this class are the edicts of Asoka, which we shall notice again
farther on. The general object of the inscriptions was to register
gifts and endowments, made sometimes to private individuals,
but more usually to gods, to priests on behalf of temples and
charitable institutions, and to religious communities. And, as
the result of this, in the vast majority of the inscriptional remains
we have a mass of title-deeds of real property, and of certificates
of the right to duties, taxes, fees, perquisites, and other privileges.
Now, the essential part of the records was of course the speci-
fication of the details of the donor, of the donee, and of the
donation. And we have to bear in mind that not only are the
donative records by far the most abundant of all, but also, among
them, by far the most numerous are those which we may call the
records of royal donations; by which we mean grants that were
made either by the kings themselves, or by the great feudatory
nobles, or by provincial governors and other high officials who
had the royal authority to alienate state lands and to assign
allotments from the state revenues: also, that many of them
register, not simply the gift of small holdings, but grants of entire
villages, and large and permanent assignments from the public
revenues. It is to these facts that we are indebted for the great
value of the records from the historical point of view. The
donor of state lands or of an assignment from the public revenues
must show his authority for his acts. A provincial governor or
other high official must specify his own rank and territorial juris-
diction, and name the king under whom he holds office. A great
feudatory noble will often give a similar reference to his para-
mount sovereign, in addition to making his own position clear.
And it is neither inconsistent with the dignity of a king, nor
unusual, for something to be stated about his pedigree in charters
and patents issued by him or in his name. The records give
from very early times a certain amount of genealogical informa-
tion. More and more information of that kind was added as
time went on. The recital of events was introduced, to magnify
the glory and importance of the donors, and sometimes to com-
memorate the achievements of recipients. And it was thus, not
with the express object of recording history, but in order to
intensify the importance of everything connected with religion
and to secure grantees in the possession of properties conveyed
to them, that there was gradually accumulated almost the whole
of the great mass of inscriptional records upon which we are so
dependent for our knowledge of the ancient history of India in all
its branches.
Coming now to a survey of the inscriptions themselves, we must
premise that India is divided, from the historical point of view,
though not so markedly in some other respects, into
tfTeTn^0' two well-defined parts, Northern and Southern. A
scHptions. classical name of Northern India is Aryavarta, " the
abode of the Aryas, the excellent or noble people,"
Another name, which figures both in literature and in the inscrip-
tions, is Uttarapatha, " the path of the north, the northern road."
And, as a classical name of Southern India answering to that
we have Dakshinapatha, " the path of the south, the southern
road," from the first component of which name comes our
modern term Deccan, Dekkan, or Dekhan. Sanskrit literature
names as the dividing-line between Aryavarta or the Uttara-
patha and the Dakshinapatha, i.e. between Northern and
Southern India, sometimes the Vindhya mountains, sometimes
the river Nerbudda (Narmada, Narbada) which, flowing close
along the south of the Vindhya range, empties itself into the
gulf of Cambay near Broach, in Gujarat, Bombay. The river
seems, on the whole, to furnish the better dividing-line of the
two. But it does not reach, any more than the range exactly
extends, right across India from sea to sea. And, to complete
the dividing-line beyond the sources of the Narbada, which
are in the Maikal range and close to the Amarkantak
hill in the Rewa State, Baghelkhand, we have to follow
some such course as first the Maniarl river, from its sources,
which are in that same neighbourhood but on the south of the
Maikal range, to the point where, after it has joined the Seonath,
the united rivers flow into the MahanadI, near Seori-Narayan in
the Bilaspur district, Central Provinces, and then the MahanadI
itself, which flows into the bay of Bengal near Cuttack in Orissa.
Even so, however, we have only a somewhat rough dividing-line
between the historical Northern and Southern India; and the
distinction must not be understood too strictly in connexion
with the territories lying close on the north and the south of the
line sketched above. In Western India, Kathiawar and all the
portions of Gujarat above Broach lie to the north of the Narbada;
but from the palaeographic point of view, if not so much from
the historical, they belong essentially to Southern India. Our
modern Central India lies entirely in Northern India, but has
various palaeographic connexions with Southern India. Our
Central Provinces extend in the Saugar district into Northern
India; and that portion of them presents in ancient times both
northern and southern characteristics. Eastern India may be
defined as consisting of Bengal, with Orissa and Assam: it
belongs to Northern India.
The inscriptional remains of India, as known at present,
practically begin with the records of Asoka, the great Maurya king
of Northern India, — grandson of that king Chandragupta whose
name was written by the Greeks as Sandrokottos, — who reigned
264 to 227 B.C. The state of the alphabets, indeed, in the time of
Asoka renders it certain that the art of writing must have been
practised in India for a long while before his period; and it gives
us every reason to hope that systematic exploration, especially of
buried sites, will eventually result in the discovery of records
framed by some of his predecessors or by their subjects. But
those discoveries have still to be' made; and matters stand just
now as follows. From before the time of Asoka we have an
inscription on a relic-vase from a stupa or relic-mound at Piprahwa
in the north-east corner of the Basti district, United Provinces,
which preserves the memory of the slaughtered kinsmen of
Buddha, the Sakyas of Kapilavastu according to the subsequent
traditional nomenclature. We may perhaps place before his
time the record on the Sohgaura plate, from the Gorakhpur
district, United Provinces, which notifies the establishment of
two public storehouses at a junction of three great highways of
vehicular traffic to meet any emergent needs of persons using
these roads. And we may possibly decide hereafter to refer to the
same period a few other records which are not at present regarded
as being quite so early. But, practically, the known inscriptions
of India begin with the records of that king who calls himself in
them " the king Devanampiya-Piyadassi, the Beloved of the
Gods, He of Gracious Mien," but who is best known as Asoka by
the name given to him in the literature of India and Ceylon and in
an inscription of A.D. 150 at Junagadh (Junagarh) in Kathiawar.
From his time onwards we have records from all parts in con-
stantly increasing numbers, particularly during the earlier
periods, from caves, rock-cut temples, and Buddhist stupas.
Many of them, however, are of only a dedicatory nature, and,
valuable as they are for purposes of religion, geography, and other
miscellaneous lines of research, are not very helpful in the
624
INSCRIPTIONS
[INDIAN
historical line. We are interested here chiefly in the historical
records; and we can notice only the most prominent ones even
among them.
Of this king Asoka we have now thirty-five different records,
some of them in various recensions. Amongst them, the most
famous ones are the seven pillar-edicts and the fourteen rock-
edicts, found in various versions, and in a more or less complete
state, at different places from Shahbazgarhl in the Yusufzai
country in the extreme north-west, to Radhia, Mathia, and
Rampurwa in the Champaran district, Bengal, at Dhauli in the
Cuttack district of Orissa, at Jaugada in the Ganjam district,
Madras, at Girnar (Junagadh) in Kafhiawar, and even at Sopara
in the Thana district, Bombay. These edicts were thus published
in conspicuous positions in or near towns, or close to highways
frequented by travellers and traders, or in the neighbourhood
of sacred places visited by pilgrims, so that they might be freely
seen and perused. And the object of them was to proclaim the
firm determination of Asoka to govern his realm righteously and
kindly in accordance with the duty of pious kings, and with
considerateness for even religious beliefs other than the Brahmani-
cal faith which he himself at first professed, and to acquaint his
subjects with certain measures that he had taken to that end,
and to explain to them how they might co-operate with him in
his objects. But, in addition to mentioning certain contem-
poraneous foreign kings, Antiochus II. (Theos) of Syria, Ptolemy
Philadelphus of Egypt, Antigonus Gonatas of Macedonia,
Magas of Cyrene, and Alexander II. of Epirus, they yield items
of internal history, in detailing some of Asoka's administrative
arrangements; in locating the capital of his empire at Pataliputra
(Patna), and seats of viceroys at Ujjeni (Ujjain) and Takhasila
(Taxila); in giving the names of some of the leading peoples
of India, particularly the Cholas, the Pandyas, and the Andhras;
and in recording the memorable conquest of the Kalinga country,
the attendant miseries of which first directed the thoughts of the
king to religion and to solicitude for the welfare of all his subjects.
Another noteworthy record of Aioka is that notification, contain-
ing his Last Edict, his dying speech, issued by local officials just
after his death, which is extant in various recensions at Sahasram,
Rupnath, and Bairat in Northern India, and at Brahmagiri,
Siddapura, and Jatinga-Ramesvara in Mysore. Some three
years before the end of his long reign of thirty-seven years,
Asoka became a convert to Buddhism, and was admitted as an
Upasaka or lay-worshipper. Eventually, he formally joined
the Buddhist order; and, following a not infrequent custom
of ancient Indian kings, he abdicated, took the vows of a monk,
and withdrew to spend his remaining days in religious retire-
ment in a cave-dwelling on Suvarnagiri (Songir), one of the
hills surrounding the ancient city of Girivraja, belowRajagriha
(Rajgir), in the Patna district in Behar. And there, about a
year later, in his last moments, he delivered the address incorpor-
ated in this notification, proclaiming as the only true religion that
which had been promulgated by Buddha, and expanding the
topic of the last words of that great teacher: "Work out your
salvation by diligence!" This record, it may be added, is also
of interest because, whereas such of the other known records of
Asoka as are dated at all are dated according to the number of
years elapsed after his anointment to the sovereignty, it is dated
256 years after the death of Buddha, which event took place in
483 B.C.
For the two centuries or nearly so next after the end of the
reign of Asoka, we have chiefly a large number of short inscrip-
tions which are of much value in miscellaneous lines of research —
palaeography, geography, religion, and so on. But historical
records are by no means wanting; and we may mention in
particular the following. From the caves in the NagarjunI
Hills in the Gaya district, Bengal, we have (along with three
of the inscriptions of Asoka himself) three records of a king
Dasaratha who, according to the Vishnu- Pur ana, was a grandson
of Asoka. From the stupa at Bharaut in the Nagod state,
Central India, we have a record which proves the existence of
the dynasty of the Suhga kings, for whom the Purdnas, placing
them next after the line of Chandragupta and Asoka, indicate
the period 183 to 71 B.C. Two of the records from the stupa at
Bhattiprolu in the Kistna district, Madras, give us a king of
those parts, reigning about 200 B.C., whose name appears both
as Kubiraka and as Khubiraka. From Besnagar in the Gwalior
state we have an inscription, referable to the period 175 to 135
B.C., which mentions a king of Central India, by name Bhagab-
hadra, and also mentions, as his contemporary, one of the Greek
kings of the Punjab, Antalkidas, whose name is familiar from
his coins in the form Antialkidas. From the Hathigumpha
cave near Cuttack, in Orissa, we have a record, to be placed
about 140 B.C., of king Kharavela, a member of a dynasty which
reigned in that part of India. From a cave at Pabhosa in the
Allahabad district, United Provinces, we have two records
which make known to us a short succession of kings of Adhi-
chatra, otherwise known as Ahichchhattra. From a cave
at the Nanaghat Pass in the Poona district, Bombay, we have
a record of queen Nayanika, wife of one of the great Satavahana-
Satakarni kings of the Deccan. And from the stupa No. i at
Sanchi in the Bhopal state, Central India, we have a record
of a king Sri-Satakarni, belonging to perhaps another branch
of the same great stock.
The historical records become more numerous from the time
of the Kushan king Kanishka or Kanishka, who began to
reign in 58 B.C., and founded the so-called Vikrama era, the
great historical era of Northern India, beginning in that year, i
For the period of him and his immediate successors, Vasishka,
Huvishka and Vasudeva, we have now between seventy and
eighty inscriptions, ranging from 54 B.C. to A.D. 42, and disclosing
a sway which reached at its height from Bengal to Kabul: we
are indebted for some of these to the Buddhists, in connexion
with whose faith the memory of Kanishka was preserved by
tradition, but for most of them to the Jains, who seem to have
been at that time the more numerous sect in the central part of
his dominions.
The dynasty of Kanishka was succeeded by another foreign
ruler, Gondophernes, popularly known as Gondophares, whose
coins indicate that, in addition to a large part of north-western
India and Sind, his dominions included Kabul, Kandahar, and
Seistan. This king is well known to Christian tradition, in con-
nexion with the mission of St Thomas the Apostle to the East.
And the tradition is substantially supported by an inscription
from Takht-i-Bahal in the Yusufzai country on the north-west
frontier, which, like some of his coins, mentions him as Guduphara
or Gunduphara, and proves that he was reigning there in A.D. 47.
Gondophernes was followed by the Kadphises kings, belonging
to another branch of the Kushan tribe, who perhaps extended
their sway farther into India, as far at least as Mathura (Muttra),
and reigned for about three-quarters of a century. For their
period, and in fact for the whole time to the rise of the Guptas
in A.D. 320 we have as yet but scanty help from the inscriptions
in respect of the political history of Northern India: we are
mostly dependent on the coins, which tend to indicate that that
part of India was then broken up into a number of small sove-
reignties and tribal governments. An inscription, however,
from Panjtar in the Yusufzai territory mentions, without giving
his name, a Kushan king whose dominion included that territory
in A.D. 66. And an inscription of A.D. 242 from Mathura has
been understood to indicate that some descendant of the same
stock was then reigning there. The inscriptional records for
that period belong chiefly to Southern India.
Meanwhile, however, in the south-west corner of Northern
India, namely in Kathiawar, there arose another foreign king,
apparently of Parthian extraction, by name Nahapana, described
in his records, whether by a family name or by a tribal appella-
tion, as a Chhaharata or Kshaharata, in whom we have the
1 It may be remarked that there are about twelve different views
regarding the date of Kagishka and the origin of the Vikrama era.
Some writers hold that Kanishka began to reign in A.D. 78: one
writer would place his initial date about A.D. 123: others would
place it in A.D. 278. The view maintained by the present writer
was held at one time by Sir A. Cunningham; and, as some others
have already begun to recognize, evidence is now steadily accumula-
ting in support of the correctness of it.
INDIAN]
INSCRIPTIONS
625
founder of the so-called Saka era, the principal era of Southern
India, beginning in A.D. 78: in respect of him we learn from the
Periplus of the Erythraean Sea that he was reigning between A.D.
80 and 89, and from inscriptions that he was still reigning in
A.D. 120 and 124: at the latter time, his dominions included
Nasik and other territories on the south of the Narbada; and the
Periplus names as his capital a town which it calls Minnagar,
and which Ptolemy would locate in such a manner as to suggest
that it may be identified with the modern Dohad in the Panch
Mahals district of Gujarat, Bombay. Nahapana was over-
thrown, and his family was entirely wiped out, soon after A.D.
125, by the great Satavahana king Gautamiputra-Sri-Satakarni,
who thereby recovered the territories on the south of the Nar-
bada. On the north of that river, however, he was followed
by a line of kings founded by his viceroy Chashfcana, son of
Ghsamotika, to whom Ptolemy, mentioning him as Tiastanes,
assigns Ujjain as his capital: these names, again, show a foreign
origin; but, from the time of his son Jayadaman, the descend-
ants of Chashtana became Hinduized, and mostly bore purely
Indian appellations. The coins show that the descendants of
Chashtana ruled till about A.D. 388, when they were overthrown
by the great Gupta dynasty of Northern India. Only a few of
their inscriptional records have been discovered: but amongst
them a very noteworthy one is the Junagadh (Junagarh) in-
scription of Chashtana's grandson, Rudradaman, bearing a date
in A.D. 150; it is remarkable as being the earliest known long
inscription written entirely in Sanskrit.
From Southern India we have, at Nasik, inscriptions of the
Satavahana king Gautamlputra-Srl-Satakarni, mentioned just
above, and of his son Vasisthiputra-Sri-Pulumayi, and of another
king of that line named Gautamiputra-Sri-Yajna-Satakarni;
and other records of the last-mentioned king come from Kanheri
near Bombay, and from the Kistna district, Madras, and testify
to the wide extent of the dominions of the line to which he be-
longed. The records of this king carry us on to the opening years
of the 3rd century, soon after which time, in those parts at any
rate, the power of the Satavahana kings came to an_ end. And
we have_next, also from Nasik, an inscription of an Abhlra king
named Isvarasena, son of Sivadatta; in this last-mentioned
person we probably have the founder of the so-called Kalachuri
or Chedi era, beginning in A.D. 248 or 249, which we trace in
Western India for some centuries before the time when it was
transferred to, or revived in, Central India, and was invested
with its later appellation: we trace it notably in the records of a
line of kings who called themselves Traiku^akas, apparently from
Trikuta as the ancient name of the great mountain Harischan-
dragad in the Western Ghauts, in the Ahmadnagar district.
We can, of course, mention in this account only the most
prominent of the inscriptional records. Keeping for the present
to Southern India, we have from Banawasi in the North Kanara
district, Bombay, and from MalavaJJi in the Shimoga district,
Mysore, two inscriptions of a king Harit putra-Satakarni of the
Vinhukadda-Chutu family, reigning at VaijayantI, i.e. Banawasi,
which disclose the existence there of another branch, apparently
known as the Chutu family and having its origin at a place
named Vishnugarta, of the great stock to which the Satavahana-
Satakarnis belonged. And another Malavaili inscription, of a
king Siva-Skandavarman, shows that the Satakarnis of that
locality were followed by a line of kings known as the Kadambas,
who left descendants who continued to rule until about A.D. 650.
From the other side of Southern India, an inscription from the
stupa at Jaggayyapeta in the Kistna district, Madras, referable
to the 3rd century A.D., gives us a king Madhariputra-Sri-Vlra-
Purushadatta, of the race of Ikshvaku. And some Prakrit
copperplate inscriptions from the same district, referable to the
4th century, disclose a line of Pallava kings at Kanchi, the
modern Conjeeveram near Madras, whose descendants, from
about A.D. 550, are well known from the later records.
Reverting to Northern India, we have from the extreme
north-west a few inscriptions dated in the era of 58 B.C. which
carry us on to A.D. 322. The tale is then taken up chiefly by the
records of the great Gupta kings of Pafcaliputra, i.e. Patna, who
rose to power in A.D. 320, and gradually extended their sway until
it assumed dimensions almost commensurate with those of
Asoka and Kanishka: the records of this series are somewhat
numerous; and a very noteworthy one amongst them is the
inscription of Samudragupta, incised at some time about A.D.
375 on one of the pillars of Asoka now standing at Allahabad,
which gives us a wide insight into the political divisions, with
their contemporaneous rulers, of both Northern and Southern
India: it is also interesting because it, or another record of the
same king at Eran in the Saugar district, Central Provinces, marks
the commencement of the habitual use of Sanskrit for inscrip-
tional purposes. The inscriptions of the Gupta series run on to
about A.D. 530. But the power of the dynasty had by that time
become much curtailed, largely owing to an irruption of the
Huns under Toramana and Mihirakula, who established them-
selves at Sialkot, the ancient Sakala, in the Punjab. We have
inscriptional records of these two persons, not only from Kura in
the Salt Range, not very far from Sialkot, but also from Eran
and from Gwalior. And next after these we have inscriptions
from Mandasor in Malwa, notably on two great monolith pillars
of victory, of a king Vishnuvardhana-Yasodharman, which show
that he overthrew Mihirakula shortly before A.D. 532, and,
describing him as subjugating territories to which not even
the Guptas and the Huns had been able to penetrate, indicate
that he in his turn established for a while another great para-
mount sovereignty in Northern India.
We have thus brought our survey of the inscriptions of India
down to the 6th century A.D. There then arose various dynasties
in different parts of the country: in Northern India, i.i Kathi-
awar, the Maitrakas of Valabhl; at Kanauj, the Maukharis,
who, after no great lapse of time, were followed by the line to
which belonged the great Harshavardhana, " the warlike lord
(as the southern records style him) of all the region of the
north;" and, in Behar, another line of Guptas, usually known
as the Guptas of Magadha: in Southern India, the Chalukyas,
who, holding about A.D. 625 the whole northern part of Southern
India from sea to sea, then split up into two branches, the
Western Chalukyas of Badami in the Bijapur district, Bombay,
and the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi in the Godavari district,
Madras; and, below them, the successors of the original Pallavas
of Kanchi (Conjeeveram). These all had their time, and passed
away. And they and their successors have left us so great a
wealth of inscriptional records that no further detailed account
can be attempted within the limits available here. We must
pass on to a few brief remarks about the language of the records
and the characters in which they were written.
The inscriptions of Asoka present two alphabets, which differ
radically and widely: one of them is known as the Brahmi; the
other, as the Kharoshthi or Kharoshtri. For the decipher- AJaha-
ment of the Brahmi alphabet we are indebted to James ^^
Prinsep, who determined the value of practically all the
letters between 1834 and 1837. The decipherment of the Kharoshthi
alphabet was a more difficult and a longer task: it was virtually
finished, some twenty years later, by the united efforts of C. Masson,
Prinsep, C. L. Lassen, H. H. Wilson, E. Norris, Sir A. Cunningham,
and John Dowson; but there are still a few points of detail in respect
of which finality has not been attained.
The Kharoshthi script was written from right to left, and is un-
deniably of Semitic origin; and the theory about it, based on the
known fact that the valley of the Indus was a Persian satrapy in the
time of Darius (521-485 B.C.), is that the Aramaic script was then
introduced into that territory, and that the Kharosh^hi is an adapta-
tion of it. Except in a few intrusive cases, the use of the Kharosh^hi
in India was limited to the valley of the Indus, and to the Punjab as
defined on the south by the territory watered by the Bias (Beas) and
the Satlaj (Sutlej): and the eastern locality of the meeting of the
two alphabets is marked by coins bearing Kharoshthi and Brahmi
legends which come from the districts of the Jalandhar (Jullundhur)
division, and by two short rock-cut records, each presented in both
the alphabets, at Pathyar and Kanhiara in the Kangra valley.
Outside India, this script was notably current in Afghanistan; and
documents written in it have in recent years been found in Chinese
Turkestan. In India it continued in use, as far as our present know-
ledge goes, down to A.D. 343.
The Brahml alphabet, written from left to right, belonged to the
remainder of India; but it must also have been current in learned
circles even in the territory where popular usage favoured the other
script. Various views about its origin have been advanced : amongst
626
INSCRIPTIONS
[GREEK
them is the theory that it was derived from the oldest north-Semitic
alphabet, which prevailed from Phoenicia to Mesopotamia, and may,
it is held, have been introduced into India by traders at some time
about 800 B.C. It is, however, admitted that the earliest known form
of the Brahmi is a script framed by Brahmans for writing Sanskrit.
Also, the theory is largely based on a coin from Eran, in the Saugar
district, Central Provinces, presenting a Brahmi legend running
retrograde from right to left ; from which it is inferred that that was
the original direction of this writing, and that the script eventually
assumed the other direction, which alone it has in the inscriptions,
after passing, like the Greek, through a stage in which the lines were
written in both directions alternately. But we can cite many
instances in which ancient die-sinkers were careless, wholly or
partially, in the matter of reversing the legends on their dies, with
the result that not only syllables frequently, but sometimes entire
words, stand in reverse on the coins themselves; moreover, the Eran
coin, being one of the earliest known Indian coins bearing a legend at
all, may quite possibly belong to a period before the time when the
desirability of working in reverse on the dies presented itself to the
Indian die-sinkers. In all the circumstances, the evidence of the
Eran coin cannot be regarded as conclusive; and we require some
inscription on stone, or at least some longer record on metal than a
brief legend of five syllables, to satisfy us that the Brahmi writing
ever had a direction different from that which it has in the inscrip-
tions. Further, if there is any radical connexion between the Brahmi
and the Semitic alphabet indicated above, so many curious and
apparently capricious changes must have been made, in adapting
that alphabet, that it would seem more probable that the two scripts
were derived from a joint original source. In view of the high state
of civilization to which the Hindus had evidently attained even
before the time of Chandragupta, the grandfather of Asoka, it must
still be regarded as possible that they were the independent inventors
of that which was emphatically their national alphabet. The Brahmi
alphabet is the parent of all the modern Hindu scripts, including on
one side the Nagari or Devanagari, and on the other the widely
dissimilar rounded forms of the Kanarese, Tamil, Telugu, and other
southern alphabets; and the inscriptions enable us to trace clearly
the gradual development of all the modern forms.
The great classical Indian language, Sanskrit, is not found in any
inscriptional records of the earliest times. It is not, however, to be
L*a- supposed therefrom that the use and cultivation of
rufreff Sanskrit ever lay dormant, and that there was a revival
of this language when it did eventually come to be used in
the inscriptions; the case simply is that, during the earlier periods,
Sanskrit was not known much, if at all, outside the Brahmanical and
other literary and priestly circles, and so was not recognized as a
suitable medium for the notifications which were put on record in the
inscriptions for the information of the people at large.
In Northern India, the inscriptions of the period before 58 B.C.
present various early Prakrits, i.e. vernaculars more or less derived
from Sanskrit or brought into a line with it. From 58 B.C., however,
the influence of Sanskrit began to manifest itself in the inscriptions,
with the result that the records present from that time a language
which is conveniently known as the mixed dialect, meaning neither
exactly Prakrit nor exactly Sanskrit, but Prakrit with an inter-
mixture of Sanskrit terminations and some other features; and
we have, in fact, from Mathura (Muttra), a locality which has
yielded interesting remains in various directions, a short
Brahmanical inscription of 33 B.C. which was written wholly in
Sanskrit. The mixed dialect appears to have been the general one
for inscriptional purposes in Northern India until about A.D. 320.
But a remarkable exception is found in the inscription of Rudra-
daman, dated in A.D. 150, at Junagadh in Ka^hiawar (mentioned on a
preceding page), which is a somewhat lengthy record composed in
thoroughly good literary Sanskrit prose. Also, the extant inscrip-
tions of the descendants of Rudradaman — (but only four of their
records, ranging from A. p. 181 to 205, are at present available for
study)-^-are in almost quite correct Sanskrit ; and this suggests that,
from his time, the language may have been habitually used for in-
scriptional purposes in the dominions of his dynasty. That, however,
is only a matter of conjecture; and elsewhere pure and good Sanskrit,
without any Prakrit forms, appears next, and is found in verse as
well as in prose, in the two inscriptions from Kr.n.i and Allahabad,
referable to the period about A.D. 340 to 375, of the great Gupta king
Samudragupta. From that time onwards, as far as our present
knowledge goes, Sanskrit, with a very rare introduction of Prakrit or
vernacular forms, was practically the only inscriptional language in
the northern parts of India. We can, however, cite a record of
A.D. 862 from the neighbourhood of Jodhpur in Raj pu tana, the body
of which was written in Mfilifirfisht.ri Prakrit.
In Southern India we have,an instance of the mixed dialect in the
Nasik inscription, referable to A. p. 257 or 258, of the Abhira king
Isvarasena, son of Sivadatta, which has been mentioned on a pre-
ceding page. With the exception, however, of that record and of the
few which are mentioned just below, the inscriptional language of
Southern India appears to have been generally Prakrit of one kind
or another until about A.D. 400, or perhaps even somewhat later.
Sankrit figures first in one of the records at Nasik of Rishabhadatta
(Ushavadata), son-in-law of the Kshaharata king Nahapana, which
consequently gives it almost as early an appearance in the south
as that which is established for it in the north; but it is confined
in this instance to a preamble which recites the previous donations
and good works of Rishabhadatta; the record passes into Prakrit
for the practical purpose for which it was framed. Sanskrit figures
next, in an almost correct form, in the short inscription of not much
later date at Kanheri, near Bombay, of the queen (her name is not
extant) of Vasishthiputra-Sri-Satakarni. It next appears in certain
formulae, and benedictive and imprecatory verses, which stand at the
end of some of the Prakrit records of the Pallava series referable to
the 4th century; but here we have quotations from books, not
instances of original composition. We have a Sanskrit record, ob-
tained in Khandesh but probably belonging to some part of Gujarat,
of a king named Rudradasa, which is perhaps dated in A.D. 367.
But the next southern inscription in Sanskrit, of undeniable date, is a
record of A.D. 456, belonging to the Vyara subdivision of the Baroda
state in Gujarat, of the Traiku^aka king Dahrasena. The records of
the early Kadamba kings of Banawasi in North Kanara, Bombay,
exhibit the use of Sanskrit from an early period in the 6th century;
and records of the Pallava kings show it from perhaps a somewhat
earlier time on the other side of India. The records of the Chalukya
kings present Sanskrit from A.D. 578 onwards. And from this latter
date the language figures freely in the southern records. But some of
the vernaculars, in their older forms, shortly begin to present them-
selves alongside of it; and, without entirely superseding Sanskrit
even to the latest times, the use of them for inscriptional purposes
became rapidly more and more extensive. The vernacular that first
makes its appearance is Kanarese, in a record of the Chalukya king
Mangalesa, of the period A.D. 597 to 608, at Badami in the Bijapur
district, Bombay. Tamil appears next, between about A.D. 610 and
675, in records of the Pallava king Mahendravarman I. at Vallam in
the Chingalpat (Chingleput) district, Madras, and of his great-
grandson ParamesVaravarman I. from Kuram in the same district.
Telugu appears certainly in A.D. ion, in a record of the Eastern
Chalukya king Vimaladitya; and it is perhaps given to us in A.D.
843 or 844 by a record of his ancestor Vishnuvardhana V. ; in the
latter case, however, the authenticity of the document is not certain.
Malayalam appears about A.D. 1150, in inscriptions of the rulers of
Kerala from the Travancore state. And on the colossal image of
Gommatesvara at Sravana-Belgola, in Mysore, there are two lines of
Marathi, notifying for the benefit of pilgrims from the Maratha
country the names of the persons who caused the image and the
enclosure to be made, which are attributed to the first quarter of the
I2th century: this language, however, figures first for certain in a
record of A.D. 1207, of the time of the Devagiri-YadavakingSihghana,
from Khandesh in the north of Bombay.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The systematic publication of the Indian in-
scriptions has not gone far. Cunningham inaugurated a Corpus
Inscriptionum Indicarum, by giving us in 1877 the first volume of it,
dealing with the records of Asoka; but the only other volume
which has been published is vol. iii., by Fleet, dealing with the
records of the Gupta series. The other published materials are
mostly to be found here and there in the Journals of the Royal
Asiatic Society of London, its Bombay branch, and the Asiatic
Society of Bengal, in the Reports of the various Archaeological
Surveys, and in the Indian Antiquary, the Epigraphia Indica and
the Epigraphia Carnatica; and much work has still to be done in
bringing them together according to the periods and dynasties to
which they relate, and in revising some of them in the light of new
discoveries and the teachings of later research. The authority on
Indian palaeography is Bilhler's work, published in 1896 as part 2
of vol. i of the Grundriss der Indo-Arischen Philologie und Altertums-
kunde; an English version of it was issued in 1904 as an appendix
to the Indian Antiquary, vol. xxxiii. (J. F. F.)
III. GREEK INSCRIPTIONS
Etymologically the term inscription (tmypa.^) would include
much more than is commonly meant by it. It would include
words engraved on rings, or stamped on coins,1 vases, lamps,
wine-jar handles,2 &c. But Boeckh was dearly right in excluding
this tiara supellex from his Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum,
or only admitting it by way of appendix. Giving the term
inscription a somewhat narrower sense, we still include within
it a vast store of documents of the greatest value to the student
of Greek civilization. It happens, moreover, that Greek in-
scriptions yield the historian a richer harvest than those of Rome.
Partly from fashion, but partly from the greater abundance
1 The legends on coins form part of numismatics, though closely
connected with inscriptions.
* The amphorae which conveyed the wine and other products of
various localities have imprinted on their handles the name of the
magistrate and other marks of the place and date. Large collections
have been made of them, and they repay inquiry. See Dumont,
Inscriptions ctramiques (1872); Paul Becker, Henkelinschriften
(Leipzig, pt. i. 1862, pt. ii. 1863); Hiller v. Gaertringen, I.G. xii.
1065-1441.
GREEK]
INSCRIPTIONS
627
of the material, the Romans engraved their public documents
(treaties, laws, &c.) to a large extent on bronze. These bronze
tablets, chiefly set up in the Capitol, were melted in the various
conflagrations, or were carried off to feed the mint of the con-
queror. In Greece, on the contrary, the mountains everywhere
afforded an inexhaustible supply of marble, and made it the
natural material for inscriptions. Some Greek inscribed tablets
of bronze have come down to us,1 and many more must have
perished in the sack of cities and burning of temples. A number
of inscriptions on small thin plates of lead, rolled up, have sur-
vived; these are chiefly imprecations on enemies2 or questions
asked of oracles.3 An early inscription recently discovered
(1905) at Ephesus is on a plate of silver. But as a rule the
material employed was marble. These marble monuments
are often found in situ; and, though more often they were
used up as convenient stones for building purposes, yet they
have thus survived in a more or less perfect condition.4
Inscriptions were usually set up in temples, theatres, at the
side of streets and roads, in rejuei^j or temple-precincts, and
near public buildings generally. At Delphi and Olympia were
immense numbers of inscriptions — not only those engraved
upon the gifts of victorious kings and cities, but also many of
a more public character. At Delphi were inscribed the decrees
of the Amphictyonic assembly, at Olympia international docu-
ments concerning the Peloponnesian cities; the Parthenon
and Acropolis were crowded with treaties, laws and decrees
concerning the Athenian confederation; the Heraeum at Samos,
the Artemisium at Ephesus, and indeed every important
sanctuary, abounded with inscriptions. It is a common thing
for decrees (^r;<£io>iaTa.) to contain a clause specifying where
they are to be set up, and what department of the state is to
defray the cost of inscribing and erecting them. Sometimes
duplicates are ordered to be set up in various places; and, in
cases of treaties, arbitrations and other international documents,
copies were always set up by each city concerned. Accordingly
documents like the M armor Ancyranum and the Edict of Dio-
cletian have been restored by a comparison of the various frag-
ments of copies set up in diverse quarters of the empire.
Greek inscribed marbles varied considerably in their external
appearance. The usual form was the oTi^Xij, the normal type of
which was a plain slab, from 3 to 4 or even 5 ft. high,6 3 or 4 in.
thick, tapering slightly upwards from about 2 ft. wide at
bottom to about 18 in. at the top, where it was either left plain
or often had a slight moulding, or still more commonly was
adorned with a more or less elaborate pediment; the slab was
otherwise usually plain. Another form was the /3w/^6s or altar,
sometimes square, oftener circular, and varying widely in size.
Tombstones were either oriJXcu (often enriched beneath the
pediment with simple groups in relief, commemorative of the
deceased), or doves, pillars, of different size and design, or
sarcophagi plain and ornamental. To these must be added
statue-bases of every kind, often inscribed, not only with the
names and honours of individuals, but also with decrees and other
documents. All these forms were intended to stand by themselves
in the open air. But it was also common to inscribe state docu-
ments upon the surface of the walls of a temple, or other public
building. Thus the antae and external face of the walls of the
pronaos of the temple of Athena Polias at Priene were covered
1 e.g. Treaty between Elis and the Heraeans, about 550^500 B.C.,
from Olympia (Boeckh, C.I.G. II, Hicks, 29, and others in Ditten-
berger-Purgold, Inschr. v. Olympia, 1-43) ; a similar bronze treaty
from the Locri Ozolae (Dittenberger, I.G. ix. 334); bronze plate
from Dodona, recording the victory of Athens over the Lacedae-
monians in a sea-fight, probably 429 B.C. (Dittenberger, Syll. 2. 30).
1 See Wunsch I.G. iii., App. ; Audollent, Defixionum Tabellae
(1904).
3 See Karapanos, Dodone et ses mines; Hoffman, Gr. Dial.
Inschr. 1558-1598.
4 What was done by Themistocles under stress of public necessity
(Thucyd. i. 93) was done by others with less justification elsewhere;
and from Byzantine times onward Greek temples and inscriptions
were found convenient quarries.
6 It appears from Cicero, De Legibus, ii. 26, 27, that the size of
Athenian gravestones was limited by law.
with copies of the awards made concerning the lands disputed
between Samos and Priene (see Gk. Inscr. in Brit. Mus. iii.
§ i) ; similarly the walls of the Artemisium at Ephesus contained
a number of decrees (ibid. iii. § 2), and the proscenium of the
Odeum was lined with crustae, or " marble-veneering," under
i in. thick, inscribed with copies of letters from Hadrian, Anto-
ninus and other emperors to the Ephesian people (ibid.
p. 151). The workmanship and appearance of inscriptions
varied considerably according to the period of artistic develop-
ment. The letters incised with the chisel upon the wall or the
0-7-17X77 were painted in with red or blue pigment, which is often
traceable upon newly unearthed inscriptions. When Thucydides,
in quoting the epigram of Peisistratus the younger (vi. 54), says
" it may still be read ijuuSpoIs ypawiaai," he must refer to the
fading of the colour; for the inscription was brought to light in
1877 with the letters as fresh as when they were first chiselled
(see Kumanudes in 'ABrivcuov, vi. 149; I.G. suppl. to vol.
i. p. 41). The Greeks found no inconvenience, as we should,
in the bulkiness of inscriptions as a means of keeping public
records. On the contrary they made every temple a muni-
ment room; and while the innumerable orfjXeu, Hermae, bases
and altars served to adorn the city, it must also have encouraged
and educated the sense of patriotism for the citizen to move
continually among the records of the past. The history of a
Greek city was literally written upon her stones.
The primary value of an inscription lay in its documentary
evidence (so Euripides, Suppl. 1202, fol.). In this way they
are continually cited and put in evidence by the orators (e.g.
see Demosth. Fals. Leg. 428; Aeschin. In Ctes. § 75). But
the Greek historians also were not slow to recognize their im-
portance. Herodotus often cites them (iv. 88, 90, 91, v. 58
sq., vii. 228); and in his account of the victory of Plataea he
had his eye upon the tripod-inscription (ix. 81; cf. Thuc. i.
132). Thucydides's use of inscriptions is illustrated by v. 18
fol., 23, 47, 77, vi. 54, 59. Polybius used them still more.
In later Greece, when men's thoughts were thrown back upon the
past, regular collections of inscriptions began to be made by
such writers as Philochorus (300 B.C.), Polemon (2nd century
B.C., called oTJjXoKOTras for his devotion to inscriptions), Aristo-
demus, Craterus of Macedon, and many others.
At the revival of learning, the study of inscriptions revived
with the renewed interest in Greek literature. Cyriac of Ancona,
early in the i5th century, copied a vast number of inscriptions
during his travels in Greece and Asia Minor; his MS. collections
were deposited in the Barberini library at Rome, and have been
used by other scholars. (See Bull. Corr. Hellen. i.; Larfeld
in Muller's Handbuch i.2, p. 368 f.; Ziebarth, " de ant. Inscript.
Syllogis " in Ephem. Epigr. ix.). Succeeding generations of
travellers and scholars continued to collect and edit, and English-
men in both capacities did much for this study.
Thus early in the igth century the store of known Greek inscrip-
tions had so far accumulated that the time had come for a compre-
hensive survey of the whole subject. And it was the work of one
great scholar, Augustus Boeckh, to raise Greek epigraphy into a
science. At the request of the Academy of Berlin he undertook to
arrange and edit all the known inscriptions in one systematic work,
and vol. i. of the Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum was published in
1828, vol. ii. in 1833. He lived to see the work completed, although
other scholars were called in to help him to execute his great design ;
vol. iii., by Franz, appeared in 1853; vol. iv., by Kirchhoff, in 1856. l
The work is a masterpiece of lucid arrangement and profound learn-
ing, of untiring industry and brilliant generalization. Out of the
publication of the Corpus there grew up a new school of students,
who devoted themselves to discovering and editing new texts, and
working up epigraphical results into monographs upon the many-
sided history of Greece. In the Corpus Boeckh had settled for ever
the methods of Greek epigraphy; and in his Staatshaushaltung der
Athener (3rd ed. of vols. i. ii. by Frankel, 1886; well known to
English readers from Sir G. C. Lewis's translation, The Public
Economy of Athens, 2nd ed., 1842) he had given a palmary specimen
of the application of epigraphy to historical studies. At the same
time Franz drew up a valuable introduction to the study of inscrip-
tions in his Elementa Epigraphices Graecae (1840).
Meanwhile the liberation of Greece and increasing facilities for
1 An index to the four volumes was long wanting; it was at length
completed and appeared in 1877.
628
INSCRIPTIONS
[GREEK
visiting the Levant combined to encourage the growth of the subject,
which nas been advanced by the labours of many scholars, and chiefly
Ludwig Ross, Leake, Pittakys, Rangabe, Le Bas and later by Meier,
Sauppe, Kirchhoff, Kumanudes, Waddington, Kohler, Dittenberger,
Homolle, Haussoullier, Wilhelm and others. Together with the
development of this school of writers, there has gone on a systematic
exploration of some of the most famous sites ofantiquity, with the
result of exhuming vast numbers of inscriptions. To mention only
some of the most important : Cyrene, Rhodes, Cos, Cnidus, Halicar-
nassus, Miletus, Priene, Ephesus, Magnesia on the Maeander, Per-
gamum, Delos, Thera, Athens, Eleusis, Epidaurus, Olympia, Delphi,
Dodona, Sparta, have been explored or excavated by the Austrians,
English, French, Germans and Greeks. German, French, British,
Austrian and American institutes have been established at Athens,
to a great extent engaged in the study of inscriptions. From every
part of the Greek world copies of inscriptions are brought home by
the students of these institutes and by other travellers. And still the
work proceeds at a rapid rate. For indeed the yield of inscriptions is
practically inexhaustible: each island, every city, was a separate
centre of corporate life, and it is significant to note that in the island
of Calymnos alone C. T. Newton collected over one hundred inscrip-
tions, many of them of considerable interest.
The result of this has been that Boeckh's great work, though it
never can be superseded, yet has ceased to be what its name implies.
The four volumes of the C.I.G. contain about 10,000 inscriptions.
But the number of Greek inscriptions now known is probably more
than three or four times as great. Many of these are only to be found
published in the scattered literature of dissertations, or in Greek,
German and other periodicals. But several comprehensive collections
have been attempted, among which (omitting those dealing with more
limited districts of the Greek world) the following may be named : —
Rangabe, Antiquites helleniques (2 vols., 1842-1855); Le Bas-
Waddington, Voyage archeologique, inscriptions (3 vols., 1847-1876,
incomplete) ; Newton, Hicks and Hirschfeld, Greek Inscriptions in the
British Museum (parts i.-iv.) ; and above all the Inscriptions Graecae,
a Corpus undertaken by the Berlin Academy (absorbing the Corpus
Inscr. Attic, and other similar collections). Of this work six complete
volumes and parts of others have appeared (by 1906) representing
Attica, Argolis, Megaris, Boeotia, Phocis, Locris, Aetolia, Acarnania,
Ionian Islands, Aegean Islands (exc. Delos), Sicily, Italy and western
Europe; they are edited by Kirchhoff, Kohler, Dittenberger,
Frankel, Hiller von Gaertringen, Kaibel and others. Of a similar
Austrian publication dealing with Asia Minor (Tituli Asiae Minoris)
only the first part (Lycian Inscriptions) has appeared. Of general
selections of inscriptions on a smaller scale it is necessary to mention:
Dittenberger, Sylloge Inscriptionum Graec. (2nd ed., 1898-1901, 3
vols.) ; the same, Orientis Graeci Inscr. SeUctae (2 vols., 1903-1905) ;
Hicks, Greek Historical Inscriptions (ist ed., 1882; 2nd ed., 1901);
Michel, Recueil d' inscriptions grecques (1900); Roberts and Gardner,
Introd. to Gk. Epigraphy (2 vols., 1887-1905); Rohl, Inscr. gr.
anliquissimae (1882), and Imagines Inscriptionum (2nd ed., 1898).
The oldest extant Greek inscriptions appear to date from
the middle of the 7th century B.C. During the excavations at
Olympia a number of fragments of very ancient in-
Oree*'/n- ^"P1'0113 were found (see Olympia, Textband v.); and
scriptioas. otner verv early inscriptions from various places, as
Thera and Crete, have been published (see R6hl,o/>. «'/.).
But what is wanted is a sufficient number of very early inscrip-
tions of fixed date. One such exists upon the leg of a colossal
Egyptian statue at Abu-Simbel on the upper Nile, where certain
Greek mercenaries in the service of King Psammetichus recorded
their names, as having explored the river up to the second
cataract (C.I.G. 5126; Rohl, 482; Hicks;2, 3). Even if Psam-
metichus II. is meant, the inscription dates between 594 and
589 B.C. Another, but later, instance is to be found in the frag-
mentary inscriptions on the columns dedicated by Croesus in
the Ephesian temple (c. 550 B.C.; Gk. Inscr. in the Brit. Mus.
518). Documents earlier than the Persian War are not very
frequent; but after that period the stream of Greek inscriptions
goes on, generally increasing in volume, down to late Byzantine
times.
Greek inscriptions may most conveniently be classified under
the following heads: (i) those which illustrate political history;
(2) those connected with religion; (3) those of a private char-
acter.
i Foremost among the inscriptions which illustrate Greek history
and politics are the decrees of senate and people (^r^ianaTa /SouXiis,
kitXijo-laf, &c.) upon every subject which could concern
the interests of the state. These abound from every part
of Greece. It is true that a large number of them are
honorary, i.e. merely decrees granting to strangers, who
have done service to the particular city, public honours (crowns,
statues, citizenship and other privileges). One of these privileges
Political
was the proxenia, an honour which entailed on the recipient the
burthen of protecting the citizens of the state which granted it when
they came to his city. But the importance of an honorary decree
depends upon the individual and the services to which it refers.
And even the mere headings and datings of the decrees from various
states afford curious and valuable information upon the names and
titles of the local magistrates, the names of months and other details.
On the formulae, see Swoboda, Die gr. Volksbeschlusse (1890).
Droysen in his Hellenismus (1877-1878) has shown how the history
of Alexander and his successors is illustrated by contemporary
<f/rj<j>iatiaTa. And when the student of Athenian politics of the 5th and
4th centuries turns to the 1st and 2nd volumes of the I.G., he may
wonder at the abundance of material before him ; it is like turning
over the minutes of the Athenian parliament. One example put of
many must suffice — No. 17 in I.G. ii. pt. I (Hicks2, 101) is the
famous decree of the archonship of Nausinicus (378 B.C.) concerning
the reconstruction of the Athenian confederacy. The terms of
admission to the league occupy the face of the marble; at the
bottom and on the left edge are inscribed the names of states which
had already joined.
Inscribed laws (v6i±oC) occur with tolerable frequency. The
following are examples: — A citation of a law of Draco's from the
TTpojros &&v of Solon's laws (I.G. i. 61 ; cf. Dittenberger, Syll.1 §2) ; the
Civil Codes of Gortyna (5th century, Dareste, &c., Inscr. jund. gr, i.
352 ff.) ; a reassessment of the tribute payable by the Athenian allies
in 425 B.C. (I.G. i. 37; Kohler Urkunden und Untersuchungen zur
Geschichte des delisch-attischen Bundes, 1870, p. 63; Hicks2, 64); a
law passed by the Amphictyonic council at Delphi, 380 B.C. (Boeckh,
C.I.G. 1688; I.G. ii. 545); law concerning Athenian weights and
measures (Boeckh, Staatshaushaltung 8, ii. 318; I.G. ii. 476); the
futile sumptuary law of Diocletian concerning the maximum prices
for all articles sold throughout the empire (Mommsen-Bliimner, Der
Maximaltarif des Diocletian, 1893). For a collection of such legal
documents, see Dareste, Haussoullier and Reinach, Recueil des inscr.
juridiques gr. (1891-1898).
Besides the inscribed treaties previously referred to, we may
instance the following: Between Athens and Chalcis in Euboea,
446 B.C. (7.G. suppl. to vol. i. 27A) ; between Athens and Rhegium,
433 B.C. (Hicks 2, 51) ; between Athens and Leontini, dated the same
day as the preceding (ibid. 52); between Athens and Boeotia, 395
B.C. (ibid. 84); between Athens and Chalcis, 377 B.C. (ibid. 102);
between Athens and Sparta, 271 B.C. (I.G. ii. No. 332); between
Hermias of Atarneus and the Ionian Erythrae, about 350 B.C.
(Hicks2 138); treaties in the local dialect between the Eleans and
the Heraeans, 6th century (Olympia Inschr. 9) , and between various
cities of Crete, 3rd century B.C. (C.I.G. 2554-2556 ; Griech. Dial. Inschr.
5039-5041, 5075). Egger's Etudes historiques sur les traites publics
chez les Grecs et chez les Remains (Paris, 1866) embraces a good many
of these documents; see also R. von Scala, Die Staatsvertrdge des
Altertums, pt. i. (1898).
The international relation of Greek cities is further illustrated by
awards of disputed lands, delivered by a third city called in (liuXijToj
7r6X«) to arbitrate between the contending states, e.g. Rhodian award
as between Samos and Priene (Gk. Inscr. in Brit. Mus. 405 ; Ditten-
berger, Syll.2 315); Milesian between Messanians and Spartans,
discovered at Olympia (ibid. 314; see Tac. Ann. iv. 43); and many
others. Akin to these are decrees in honour of judges called in from
a neutral city to try suits between citizens which were complicated
by political partisanship (see C.I.G. No. 23496, with Boeckh's re-
marks; I.G. xii. 722). On the general subject, E. Sonne, De arbitris
externis (1888).
Letters from kings are frequent; as from Darius I. to the satrap
Gadates, with reference to the shrine of Apollo at Magnesia (Hicks 2,
20); from Alexander the Great to the Chians (ibid. 158); from
Lysimachus to the Samians (C.I.G. 2254; Hicks1, 152); from
Antigonus I. directing the transfer of the population of Lebedus to
Teos (Dittenberger, Syll? 177) ; from the same to the Scepsians
(Dittenberger, Or. Gr. Inscr. Sel. 5). Letters from Roman emperors
are commoner still; such as Dittenberger, Syll.* 350, 356, 373,
384-388, 404.
The internal administration of Greek towns is illustrated by the
minute and complete lists of the treasures in the Parthenon of the
time of the Peloponnesian War (Boeckh, Staatshaush.* vol. ii.);
public accounts of Athenian expenditure (ibid.)-, records of the
Athenian navy in the 4th century, forming vol. iii. of the 1840 ed.
of the same work. To the same category belong the so-called
Athenian tribute-lists, which are really lists of the quota (of the
tribute paid by the Athenian allies) which was due to the treasury of
Athena (ivapxal rij 0t<j> M"£ &TTO ToXivTou). Being arranged according
to the tributary cities, they throw much light on the constitution of
the Athenian empire at the time (I.G. i. 226-272 and suppl. p. 71 f. ;
Kohler, Urkunden und Untersuchungen zur Gesch. des altisch-delischen
Seebundes 1870; Boeckh, Staatshaush.* ii. 332-498). The manage-
ment of public lands and mines is specially illustrated from
inscriptions (Boeckh, op. cit. vol. i. passim) ; and the political
constitution of different cities often receives light from inscriptions
which cannot be gained elsewhere (e.g. see the document from
Cyzicus, C.I.G. 3665, and Boeckh's note, or that from Mytilene,
Dittenberger, Or. Gr. Inscr. 2, and the inscriptions from Ephesus,
Gk. Inscr. in Brit. Mus. pt. iii. § 2).
LATIN]
INSCRIPTIONS
629
Inscriptions in honour of kings and emperors are very common.
The Marmor Ancyranum (ed. Mommsen,2 1883) has already been
mentioned ; but an earlier example is the Monumentum Adulitanum
(from Abyssinia, C.I. G. 5I27A) ; Dittenberger, (Inscr. or. Cr. 54)
reciting the achievements of Ptolemy III. Euergetes I.
Offerings in temples (dvofliJ/iaTa) are often of great historical value.
e.g. the dedications on the columns of Croesus at Ephesus mentioned
above; Gelo's dedication at Delphi, 479 B.C. (Hicks2 16); the helmet
of Hiero, now in the British Museum, dedicated at Olympia after his
victory over the Etruscans, 474 B.C. (C.I.G. 16; Hicks2 22); and
the bronze base of the golden tripod dedicated at Delphi after the
victory of Plataea, and carried off to Constantinople by Constantino
(Dethierand Mordtma.nn,EpigraphikvonByzantion,l8f4; Hicks2 19).
2. The religion of Greece in its external aspects is the subject of a
great number of inscriptions (good selections in Dittenberger, Syll.1
550-816, and Michel 669-1330). The following are a few
Religious specimens. (l) Institution of festivals, with elaborate
*" ritual directions: see Sauppe, Die Mysterieninschrift aus
Andania (1860) ; Dittenberger, Syll.1 653, and the singular
document from the Ephesian theatre in Gk. Inscr. in Brit. Mus.
481; the following also relate to festivals — C.I.G. 1845, 2360,
2715, 3059, 3599, 36416; Dittenberger, Syll.1 634 (the lesser Pan-
athcnaea), and Or. Gr. Inscr. 383 (law ofAntiochus I. of Commagene).
(2) Laws denning the appointment, duties or perquisites of the priest-
hood: Dittenberger, Syll.2 601 ; Boeckh, Staatshaush. ii. 109 seq.
(3) Curious calendar of sacrifices from Myconus: Dittenberger, Syll.1
615. (4) Fragment of augury rules, Ephesus, 6th century B.C. : ibid.
801. (5) Leases of TtpkvT) and sacred lands (see Dareste, &c., Inscr.
JUT. Gr. ii. § 19 and commentary). (6) Imprecations written on lead,
and placed in tombs or in temples: Wunsch, I.G. iii. App. ; Audol-
lent. Defixionum tabellae (1904). (7) Oracles are referred to I.G. xii.
248; Michel 840-856. (8) Among the inscriptions from Delphi few
are more curious than those relating to the enfranchisement of slaves
under the form of sale to a god (see Gr. dial. Inschr. nos. 1684-2342;
for enfranchisement-inscriptions of various kinds, Dareste, &c., Inscr.
jur. Gr. § xxx. (9) Cures effected in the Asclepieum at Epidaurus
(Dittenberger, Syll.'' 802-805). (10) Inventories, &c., of treasures in
temples: Michel 811-828, 832, 833, &c. (ii) Inscriptions relating to
dramatic representations at public festivals: A. Wilhelm, Urkunden
dramatischer Auffiihrungen in Athen (Vienna, 1906). This catalogue
might be enlarged indefinitely.
3. There remain a large number of inscriptions of a more strictly
private character. The famous Parian marble (I.G. xii. 444) falls
under this head; it was a system of chronology drawn
Private Up^ perhaps by a schoolmaster, in the 3rd century B.C.
lascrlp- -pne excessive devotion of the later Greeks to athletic and
tloas. other competitions at festivals is revealed by the numerous
dedications made by victorious competitors who record their suc-
cesses (see Michel 915-960; Dittenberger, Syll.1 683 f.). The
dedications and honorary inscriptions relating to the Ephebi of later
Athens (which occupy half of I.G. iii. pt. l), dreary as they seem,
have yet thrown a curious light upon the academic life of Roman
Athens (see A. Dumont, Essai sur I'ephebie attique; Reinach,
Traite, pp. 408-418; Roberts and Gardner ii. 145); and from
these and similar late inscriptions the attempt has been made to
construct Fasti of the later archons (von Schoffer in Pauly-Wissowa,
Realencyklop&die, s.v. " Archontes " ; W. S. Ferguson in Cornell
Studies, x). The sepulchral monuments have been beautifully
illustrated in Stackelberg's Grdber der Hellenen; for the Attic stelae
see Conze, Die attischen Grabreliefs (1893 ff.). Some of the most
interesting epitaphs in the C.I.G. are from Aphrodisias and Smyrna.
Kumanudes's collection of Attic epitaphs has been mentioned above ;
see also Gutscher, Die attischen Grabschr. (1889); they yield a good
deal of information about the Attic demes, and some of them are of
high importance, e.g. the epitaph on the slain in the year 458 B.C.
(Dittenberger, Syll.1 9), and on those who fell in the Hellespont,
c. 440 B.C. (Hicks2 46). For the metrical inscriptions see Kaibel,
Epigrammata Graeca (1878). Closely connected with sepulchral in-
scriptions is the famous " Will of Epicteta " (I.G. xii. 330). It was
also customary at Athens for lands mortgaged to be indicated by
boundary-stones inscribed with the names of mortgagor and mort-
gagee, and the amount (I.G. ii. 1103-1153; Dareste, &c., Inscr. jur.
i. pp. 107-142) ; other 6poi are common enough.
The names of sculptors inscribed on the bases of statues have been
collected by E. Lowy (Inschriften gr. Bildhauer, 1885). In most cases
the artists are unknown to fame. Among the exceptions are the
names of Pythagoras of Rhegium, whom we now know to have been
a native of Samos (Lowy 23, 24); Pyrrhus, who made the statue of
Athena Hygieia dedicated by Pericles (Plut. Per. 13; Lowy 53);
Polyclitus the younger (Lowy 90 f.), Paeonius of Mende, who
sculptured the marble Nike at Olympia (Lowy 49); Praxiteles
Lowy 76), &c.
The bearing of inscriptions upon the study of dialects is very
obvious. A handy selection has been made by Cauer (Delectus inscr.
Gr. 2nd ed., Leipzig, 1883) of the principal inscriptions
illustrating this subject, and a complete collection is in
course of publication (Collitz and others, Sammlung der
griechischen Dialekt-Inschriften, Gottingen, 1884 ff.).
See also R. Meister, Die griech. Dialekle (1882-1889), a"d O. Hoffman,
Die griech. Dialekte (1891-1898). The grammar of Attic inscriptions
Study
of
Dialects.
is treated by Meisterhans, Grammatik der alt. Inschr. (3rd ed. by
Schwyzer, 1900).
The date of inscriptions is determined partly by the internal
evidence of the subject, persons, and events treated of, and the
character of the dialect and language. But the most im-
portant evidence is the form of the letters and style of Date
execution. For the Attic inscriptions the development ,
from the earliest times to about A.D. 500 is elaborately ">*cHp-
treated by Larfeld, Handbuch der att. Inschr. (1902). bk. ii. Uoa*'
Much of the evidence is of a kind difficult to appreciate from a mere
description. Yet — besides the /Jouorpo^njSdc writing of many early
documents — we may mention the contrast between the stiff, angular
characters which prevailed before 500 or 450 B.C. and the graceful
yet simple forms of the Periclean age. This development was part
of the general movement of the time. Inscriptions of this period are
usually written aTMxnUv, i.e. the letters are in line vertically as
well as horizontally. From the archonship of Eucleides (403 B.C.)
onwards the Athenians officially adopted the fuller alphabet which
had obtained in Ionia since the 6th century. Before 403 B.C. £ and ^
were expressed in Attic inscriptions by XS and <t>1,, while E did duty
for >;, «, and sometimes «, O for o, ou, and u — H being used only for
the aspirate. There is, however, occasional use of the Ionic alphabet
in Attica, even in official inscriptions, as early as the middle of the 5th
century. The Macedonian period betrays a falling off in neatness and
firmness of execution — the letters being usually small and scratchy,
excepting in inscriptions relating to great personages, when the
characters are often very large and handsome. In the 2nd century
came in the regular use of apices as an ornament of letters. These
tendencies increased during the period of Roman dominion in Greece,
and gradually, especially in Asia Minor, the iota adscriptum was
dropped. The Greek characters of the Augustan age indicate a
period of restoration; they are uniformly clear, handsome, and
adorned with apices. The lunate epsilon and sigma (e, c) establish
themselves in this period ; so does the square form C, and the cursive
o> is also occasionally found. The inscriptions of Hadrian's time show
a tendency to eclectic imitation of the classical lettering. But from
the period of the Antonines (when we find a good many pretty
inscriptions) the writing grows more coarse and clumsy until Byzan-
tine times, when the forms appear barbarous indeed beside an in-
scription of the Augustan or even Antonine age.
The finest collections of inscribed Greek marbles are of course at
Athens. There are also good collections, public and private, at
Smyrna and Constantinople. The British Museum con-
tains the best collection out of Athens (see the publica-
tion mentioned above) ; the Louvre contains a good many
tains the best collection out of Athens (see the publica-
tion mentioned above) ; the Louvre contains a good many I| 1,
(edited by Frohner, Les Inscriptions grecques du musee du
Louvre, 1865); the Oxford collection is very valuable, and fairly
large ; and there are some valuable inscriptions also at Cambridge.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The following essays give good outlines of the
whole subject: — Boeckh, C.I.G., preface to vol. i. ; C. T. Newton,
Essays on Art and Archaeology (1880), pp. 95, 209; S. Reinach, Traite
d'epigraphie grecque (Paris, 1885). Besides the works already
quoted the following should be mentioned: — Boeckh's Kleine
Schriften; Michaelis, Der Parthenon; Waddington, Pastes des
provinces asiatiques, part i. (1872), and Memoire sur la chronologic
de la vie du rheteur Aristide; Kirchhoff, Studien zur Geschichte des
griechischen Alphabets (4th ed., 1887) ; Schubert, De proxenia (Leipzig,
1881); Monceaux, Les Proxenies gr. (Paris, 1886); Latyshev,
Inscr. ant. orae septentr. Ponti EuxiniGr. et Lat. (2 vols., St Petersburg,
1885-1890); Bechtel, Inschriften des ionischen Dialekts (Gottingen,
1887); Paton and Hicks, Inscriptions of Cos (Oxford, 1891);
Frankel and others, Inschriften yon Pergamon (2 vols., Berlin, 1890-
1895); Comparetti, Le Leggi di Gprtyna, &c. (Monum. antichi, iii.,
1893); E. Hoffmann, Sylloge epigrammatum Grace. (Halle a. S.,
1893); O. Kern, Inschriften von Magnesia am Maeander (Berlin,
1900) ; S. Chabert, Histoire sommaire des etudes d'epigraphie grecque
(Paris, 1906); Hackl, Merkantile Inschr. auf attischen Vasen (Munch,
arch. Stud., 1909) ; Wilhelm, Beitrage zur griech. Inschriftenkunde
(Vienna, 1909). (E. L. H.; G. F. H.*)
IV. LATIN INSCRIPTIONS
I. Latin or Roman Inscriptions (by which general name are
designated, in classical archaeology, all non-literary remains
of the Latin language, with the exception of coins, letters and
journals) fall into two distinct classes, viz. (i) those which were
written upon other objects of various kinds, to denote their
peculiar purpose, and in this way have been preserved along with
them; and (2) those which themselves are the objects, written,
to be durable, as a rule, on metal or stone. The first class is that
of inscriptions in the stricter sense of the word (styled by the
Romans tituli, by the Germans Aufschriften); the second is
that of instruments or charters, public and private (styled by
the Romans first leges, afterwards instrumenta or tabulae, and by
the Germans Urkunden).
No ancient Latin authors have professedly collected and
explained or handed down to us Roman inscriptions. Some of
630
INSCRIPTIONS
[LATIN
the orators and historians, such as Cicero, Livy, Pliny the elder,
and Suetonius among the Latins, and Polybius, Dionysius of
Halicarnassus and Josephus among the Greeks, occasionally
mention inscriptions of high historical interest. A few gram-
marians, as, for example, Varro, Verrius Flaccus and Valerius
Probus of Berytus, quote ancient words or formulae from them,
or explain the abbreviations used in them. Juridical instru-
ments, laws, constitutions of emperors, senatus consulta and the
like appear in the various collections of Roman jurisprudence.
Inscriptions (in the wider sense, as we shall henceforth call
them without regard to the distinction which has been drawn)
have been found in nearly every centre of ancient Roman life,
but, like many other remains of antiquity, only seldom in their
original sites. The great mass of them has to be sought for in the
large European museums of ancient art, and in the smaller local
collections of ancient remains which occur nearly everywhere in
the European provinces of the former Roman empire as well as
in the north of Africa, and also here and there in Asia Minor.
Only those copies of inscriptions are to be received with
full confidence which are furnished by experienced and well-
equipped scholars, or which have been made with the help of
mechanical methods (casts, photographs, moist and dry rubbings) ,
not always applicable with equal success, but depending on the
position and the state of preservation of the monuments.1 From
the first revival of classical learning in the Carolingian age
attention was paid anew, by pilgrims to Rome and other places
worth visiting, to epigraphic monuments also. In the time of
the Renaissance, from the end of the I4th century downwards,
some of the leading Italian scholars, like Poggio and Signorili,
and the antiquarian traveller Cyriacus of Ancona, collected
inscriptions, Greek and Latin.2 In the isth century large collec-
tions of the inscriptions of all countries, or of limited districts,
were made by Giovanni Marcanova, Fra Felice Feliciano, Fra
Michele Ferrarino, Fra Giocondo the architect of Verona, Marino
Sanudo the Venetian polyhistor, and others. At the end of the
15th and the beginning of the i6th, the first printed collections
can be recorded (Spreti's for Ravenna, 1489; Peutinger's for
Augsburg, 1508; Huttich's for Mainz, 1520; Francesco degli
Albertini's for Rome, printed in 1521 by Jacopo Mazochi),
while during the same century a long list of epigraphic travellers,
like Pighius, Rambertus and Accursius, or antiquarian collectors,
like Sigonius, Panvinius, Antonius Augustinus with his colla-
borators Ursinus and Metellus, and many others, were busy in
augmenting the stock of epigraphic monuments. The series
of printed epigraphic Corpora begins with that of Apianus
(Ingolstadt, 1534), the only one arranged in geographical order,
and is continued in those of Smetius (1558, but edited only after
the author's death by Justus Lipsius, 1588), Grater (with Joseph
Scaliger's Indices, 1603, and re-edited by Graevius, 1707), Gudius
(about 1660, edited by Hessel, 1731), Reinesius (1682), Fabretti
(1699), Gori (1726), Doni (1731), Muratori (1739), Maffei (1749),
Donati (1765-1775). These collections, manuscript and printed,
will never altogether lose their value, as great numbers of in-
scriptions known to the ancient collectors have since been lost
or destroyed. But, inasmuch as even towards the beginning of
the 1 5th century, as well as afterwards, especially from the i6th
down to a very recent period, all sorts of inaccuracies, interpola-
tions and even downright falsifications, found their way into
the Corpora, these can be employed only with the greatest caution.
Modern critical research in the field of epigraphy began with the
detection of those forgeries (especially of the very extensive
and skilful ones of Pirro Ligorio, the architect to the house of
Este) by Maffei, Olivieri and Marini. The last-named scholar
opens a new era of truly critical and scientific handling of Roman
inscriptions (especially in his standard work on the Atti dei
fralelli arvali, Rome, 1795); his disciple and successor, Count
Bartolomeo Borghesi (who died at San Marino in 1860), may be
rightly called the founder of the modern science of Roman
1 See E. Hubner, Vber mechanische Copieen von Inschriften
(Berlin, 1881).
'Compare De Rossi, Bullettino deli' institute archeologico (1871),
p. I sq.
epigraphy.3 Orelli's handy collection of Roman inscriptions
(2 vols., Zurich, 1828) is a first attempt to make accessible to
a larger scientific public the results of the researches of Marini
and his successors; but it was not completed (and thoroughly
corrected) until nearly thirty years later, by Henzen (Orelli,
iii., with the indispensable Indices, Zurich, 1856), who, with
Mommsen and De Rossi, carried out the plan of a universal
Corpus inscriplionum Lalinarum, previously projected by Maffei
(1732), by Kellermann and Sard (1832), with Borghesi's help,
and by Letronne and Egger (1843). After the appearance of
Mommsen's Inscriptiones regni Neapolitani Latinae (Leipzig,
1852) and his Inscriptiones confoederationis Heheticae Latinae
(vol. x. of the publications of the Zurich Antiquarian Society,
1854), the publication of the C.I.L., following the similar work
of the Greek inscriptions, was undertaken by the Royal Academy
of Sciences of Berlin.
This work, in which the previous literature is fully described and
utilized, consists of the following parts: — vol. i., Inscriptiones
antiquissimae ad C. Caesaris mortem (1863; 2nd ed., part i., 1893);
Ritschl's Priscae Latinitatis monumenta epigraphica (Berlin, 1862,
fol.) form the graphic illustration to vol. i., giving all extant monu-
ments of the republican epoch (with five Supplements, Bonn, 1862-
1865; R. Garrucci's Sylloge inscnptionum Latinarum aevi Romanae
reipublicae usque ad C. lulium Caesarem plenissima, 2 vols., Turin,
1875-1877, must be used with caution); vol. ii., Inscr. Hispaniae
(1869; with Supplement, 1892); vol. iii., Inscr. Asiae, provinciarum
Europae Graecarum, Illyrici (1873; with Supplements and Index,
1889-1902); vol. iv., Inscr. parietariae Pompeianae Herculanenses
Stabianae (the scratched and painted inscriptions chiefly of Pompeii)
(1871 ; with Supplement, part i., 1898; part ii., 1909) ; vol. v., Inscr.
Galliae cisalpinae (1872-1877; with Suppl., Et. Pais, C.I.L. suppl.
Italica); vol. vi., Inscr. urbis Romae (1876-1902; with Supplement,
1902); vol. vii., Inscr. Briianniae (1873); vol. via., Inscr. Africae
(1881 ; with Supplement, 1891-1894, 1904); vol. ix., Inscr. Calabriae,
Apuliae, Samnii, Sabinorum, Piceni (1883); vol. x., Inscr. Bruttio-
rum, Lucaniae, Campaniae, Siciliae, Sardiniae (1883); vol. xi., Inscr.
Aemiliae, Umbriae, Etruriae (1888; part ii., 1901 sqq.); vol. xii.,
Inscr. Galliae Narbonensis (1888); vol. xiii., Inscr. trium Galliarum
et duarum Germaniarum (1899 sqq-I part ii., 1905 sqq.); vol. xiv.,
Inscr. Latii antiqui; vol. xv., Inscr. laterum (1891 ; part ii., i. [vasa,
lucernae,fistulae], 1899). The arrangement observed in the Corpus is
the geographical (as in Apianus) ; within the single towns the order of
subjects (tituli sacri, magistratuum, privatorum, &c., as in Smetius)
is followed, with some few exceptions, where the monuments are so
numerous (as in the forum of Rome and at Pompeii and Lambaesis)
that they can be assigned to their original places. Running supple-
ments to the C.I.L. are given in the Ephemeris epigraphica, Corporis
inscr. Latinarum supplemenlum (Berlin, 1872 sqq.); and the new
discoveries of each year are recorded in Cagnat's L'A nnee epigraphique.
The inscriptions in the other Italian dialects have been published
by Conway, Italic Dialects (Cambridge, 1897); cf. vol. ii. of von
Planta, Grammatik der oskisch-umbrischen Dialekte (Strassburg, 1897).
A Corpus of the Etruscan inscriptions was begun in 1893 by Pauli
and is now nearly complete. The inscriptions of the Veneti, a N.
Italian people of the Illyrian stock, will be found in vol. iii. of Pauli,
Altitalische Forschungen (Leipzig, 1891). For the Christian in-
scriptions see De Rossi's Inscr. Christianae urbis Romae septimo
saeculo antiquiores, vol. i. (Rome, 1857), vol. ii. (1888); the Inscrip-
tions chretiennes de la Gaule of Le Slant (2 vols., Paris, 1857-1865;
new edition, 1892); the AltchrisUiche Inschriften der Rheinlande of
Kraus (1890); the ChrisUiche Inschriften der Schweiz vom IV. -IX.
Jahrhundert of Egli (1895) ; and the Inscr. Hispaniae Christianae and
Inscr. Britanniae Christianae of Hubner (Berlin, 1871, 1876). As
splendidly illustrated works on the Latin inscriptions of some
districts Alphonse de Boissieu's Inscriptions antiques de Lyon
(Lyons, 1846-1854), Ch. Robert's Epigraphie romaine de la Moselle
(Paris, 1875), and J. C. Bruce's Lapidarium septentrionale (London
and Newcastle, 1875) can be recommended. Besides the above-
mentioned Orelli-Henzen collection, G. Wilmanns's Exempla in-
scriplionum Lalinarum (2 vols, Berlin, 1873, with copious indexes),
and Dessau's Inscriptiones Latinae selectae (vol. i., 1892; vol. ii.,
1903 ; ii., 1906) give a general synopsis of the materials. Inscriptions
of interest to students of history are collected in Rushforth's Latin
Historical Inscriptions (Oxford, 1893); Leroux, Revue des publica-
tions epigraphiques relatives a VantiquM romaine, records those which
bear on antiquities. Of other works may be mentioned Ruggiero,
Dizionario epigrafico di antichita romane (1886); Olcott, Thesaurus
linguae Latinae epigraphicae (1904 sqq.).
II. Information regarding the forms of letters used on Roman
inscriptions will be found under the articles LATIN LANGUAGE,
PALAEOGRAPHY and WRITING (cf. Hubner, Exempla scriplurae
1 His works have been published by the French government in
several volumes 410 (Paris, 1862 sqq.).
LATIN]
INSCRIPTIONS
631
epigraphicae Latinae, 1895). The forms of the single letters
vary not inconsiderably according to the material of the
monuments, their age and their origin. Carefully cut letters,
especially when on a large scale, naturally differ from those
scratched or painted on walls by non-professional hands, or hewn
on rocks by soldiers; and small incised (or dotted) letters on
metal or ivory and bone, and those painted on earthenware, or
impressed on it or on glass before burning, are also necessarily
of a different character. The letters, ordinarily drawn with
minium on the monument before being cut (and also often
painted, after having been cut, with the same colour), sometimes
have been painted with a brush, and thence receive a peculiar
form. To save space, on coins first and afterwards in inscriptions
also, two or three or even more letters were joined, especially at
the end of the lines, to a nexus or a ligatura. This system of
compendious writing, very rare in the republican epoch, and
slowly extending itself during the ist century, became rather
frequent in the 2nd and 3rd, especially in Spain and Africa.
There is no constant system in these nexus littemrum, but gener-
ally the rule is observed that no substantial element of a single
letter is to be counted for twice (thus e.g. -f1 is it or ti, not Titi) .
Numerals are usually distinguished from letters in the ancient
period, down to the end of the republic, by a stroke drawn
through them, as in -H-VIR, duo(m) irir(om) -H-S duo semis
(sestertius), -B 500; it was afterwards put above them, as in IIVIR,
XVIR,ll7Ti|VIR, duovir, decemmr, sevir.1
The direction of the writing is in the very oldest inscriptions
from right to left and from left to right in alternate lines, an
arrangement technically called Povarpofabbv (D. Comparetti,
Iscrizione arcaica del Foro Romano, Florence, 1900; H. Jordan,
Hermes, vol. xv. p. 5, 1880), and in the Sabellic inscriptions
similar arrangements are not infrequent. In all others it is from
left to right. Each word is separated from the other by a sign
of interpunction, which is not wanted, therefore, at the end of
lines or of the whole text. Exceptions to this rule occur only in
the later period (from the 2nd century downwards), and some-
times under special conditions, as when abridged words form the
end of the line. Here and there even the different syllables of
each word are separated by interpunction. The interpunction is
formed by a single dot (except in some very ancient inscriptions,
such as the recently found Forum inscription of the regal period
and those of Pisaurum, where, as in Greek and other Italian
monuments, three dots • are used. According to the technical
skill of the different periods in stone-cutting this dot is in some
very ancient inscriptions quadrangular, or similar to an oblique
cross ( X ), or oblong (as a bold stroke), but, as a rule, triangular,
and never circular. This triangular dot changes, by ornamenta-
tion, into a hook (?) or a leaf (f); the ivy-leaf-shaped dot is
especially frequent in inscriptions from about the 2nd century
downwards. The dot is always placed at the middle height of
the letters, not, as now, at the foot of the line. In large texts of
instruments the interpunction is often omitted; in the later
period it is often entirely wanting; and in short texts, in the
disposition of the lines, in the varying sizes of the letters em-
ployed, in the division of words at the end of the lines, &c.,
certain rules are observed, which cannot be detailed here. In
some instances older inscriptions have been cancelled and more
recent ones substituted (e.g. on milestones), especially in the case
of the damnatio memoriae (in cases of high treason), in conse-
quence of which the names of consuls and emperors are often
cancelled; but in modern times also inscriptions have been
deliberately destroyed or lost ones restored.
For understanding the texts of the inscriptions an accurate
knowledge of the system of abbreviations used in them is
necessary (see Cagnat, Cours d'epigraphie latine, 3rd ed., 1898).
These are almost invariably litter ae singulares', that is to say,
the initial letter is employed for the entire word (in all its gram-
matical forms), or if one initial, as belonging to more than one
word, is not sufficiently clear, the first two or even the first
three letters are employed; rarely more than three. Abbrevia-
1 For other details of numerical notation, fractions, &c., see the
manuals of metrology.
tions in the true sense of the word (by dropping some letters at
the end) are to be found, in the older period, only at the end of
lines, and not frequently. In the later period some instances of
them have been observed. The litterae singulares, as Valerius
Probus taught, are either generally employed (usus generalis) in
all classes of written documents (and so in literature also), as,
for instance, those of the individual names (the praenomina), the
names of days and feasts (kal. for kalendae), and those of the
chief magistrates (cos. for consul) and the like; or they belong
chiefly (but not exclusively) to certain classes of documents, such
as those used in juridical acts (/. for lex, h. for heres, s. d. m. for
sine dolo malo, and so on), in sepulchral inscriptions (h. s. e., hie
situs esf) or in dedicatory inscriptions (». s. I. m., votum solvit
libens merito) , &c.2
It may be observed here that the praenomina are, as a rule,
always written in the universally known abbreviations (in the few
instances where they are written in full it is a consequence of
Greek influence or of peculiar circumstances). The gentUicia in
-ius are abridged, in the republican period, in -i (in the nomin-
ative, perhaps for -is). In the always abbreviated indications of
ancestors or patrons (in the case of slaves and freedmen), as
C.f., Gaifilius, M.I., Marci libertus (s. for serous is not frequent),
the feminine gender is sometimes indicated by inversion of the
letters. Thus 0. /. (or lib.) or W (an inverted M) /. designates a
mulieris libertus; 1 and 1 are used for fiha, pupilla. On the
tribus and their abbreviations, and on the so-called military
tribus (which are names of colonies collocated, lor the sake of
symmetry, at the place usually occupied, in the nomenclature,
by the tribus), and on the other indications of origin used in the
designation of individuals, the indexes to the above-named works
give sufficient information; on the geographical distribution of
the tribus see Grotefend's Imperium Romanum tributim de-
scriptum (Hanover, 1863). For the abbreviations of official
charges, urban and municipal, and, in the imperial period, civil
and military (to which, beginning with the 4th century, some
Christian designations are to be added), see also the explanations
given in the indexes. Among these abbreviations the first
instances are to be found of the indication of the plural number
by doubling the last letter; thus Augg., Caess., coss., dd. nn.
(domini nostri), are used from the 3rd century downwards (see
De Rossi's preface to the Inscriptiones Christ, urbis Romae) to
distinguish them from Aug., Caes., as designating the singular.
In the later period, a dot or a stroke over the abridged word, like
that upon numerals, here and there indicates the abbreviation.
III. — i. Among the inscriptions in the stricter sense (the tituli),
perhaps the oldest.'and certainly the most frequent, are the sepulchral
inscriptions (tituli sepulcrales). Of the different forms of Roman
tombs, partly depending upon the difference between burial and
cremation, which were in use side by side, a very complete account
is given in Marquardt's Handbuch der romischen Altertiimer (vol. vii.
part i., Leipzig, 1879, p. 330 seq.). The most ancient examples are
those of a sepulcretum at Praeneste (C.I.L. i. 74, 165, 1501 a-d;
Ephem. epigr. \. 25-131 ; Wil. 153) ; the oldest of these contain nothing
but the name of the deceased in the nominative ; those of more recent
date give it in the genitive. The oldest and simplest form remained
always in use down to Christian times: it is that used on the large
tectonic monuments of the Augustan age (e.g. that of Caeciha
Metella, C.I.L. vi. 1274) and in the mausolea of most of the emperors,
and is still frequent in the tituli of the large columbaria of the same
age (C.I.L. vi. part ii.). It was early succeeded by the lists of
names, given also in the nominative, when more than one individual,
either dead or alive, were to be indicated as sharers of a tomb. To
distinguish the members still alive, a v (vivit, vivos, vivi) was prefixed
to their names (e.g. C.I.L. i. 1020, 1195, 1271); the deceased were
sometimes marked by the BTJTO. nigrum (C.I.L. i. 1032; Wil. 158;
see also C.I.L. vi. 10251 seq.). Only the names in the nominative
are shown, too, on the sarcophagi of the Turpleii and Fourii at
2 On the system of Roman nomenclature and the abbreviations
employed in it see Cagnat's textbook, and for more detail Mommsen
in Romische Forschungen, i. i seq., and in Hermes, iii. (1869),
p. 70, W. Schulze, Zur Geschichte lateinischen Eigennamen (Berlin,
1904); on the cognomina (but only those occurring in ancient
literature), Ellendt, De cognomine et agnomine Romano (Konigsberg,
1853), and on the local cognomina of the Roman patriciate, Mommsen,
R6m. Forsch. ii. 290 seq.; on the nomina genttticia, Hubner
(Ephem. epigr. ii. 25 seq.). The indexes to Orelli, Wilmanns, and
the volumes of the Corpus may also be consulted.
632
INSCRIPTIONS
[LATIN
Tusculum (C.I.L. i. 65-72; Wil. 152), and in the oldest inscriptions
on those of the Scipiones, painted with minium (C.I.L. i. 29; Wil.
537), to which were added afterwards the insignia of the magistrates
curules (C.I.L. i. 31; Wil. 538) and the poetical elogia. Of a some-
what different kind are the inscriptions scratched without much care
on very simple earthen vessels which belonged to a sepulcretum of the
lower class, situated outside the porta Capena at Rome, on the
Appian road, near the old church of San Cesario (C.I.L. i. 882-1005,
!539. !539 a-d = C.I.L. vi. 8211-8397; Wil. 176); they can be
ascribed to the period of the Gracchi. On these ollae, besides the
name of the deceased, also for the most part in the nominative, but
on the more recent in the genitive, the date of a day, probably that
of the death, is noted; here and there obit (or o.) is added. About
the same epoch, at the beginning of the 6th century, along with the
growing taste for tectonic ornamentation of the tombs in the Greek
style, poetical epigrams were added to the simple sepulchral
titulus, especially amongst the half-Greek middle class rapidly in-
creasing in Rome and Italy; Saturnian (C.I.L. i. 1006), iambic
(1007-1010) and dactylic (ion) verses become more and more
frequent in epitaphs (see Buecheler, Anthologia Latino, ii.). In prose
also short designations of the mental qualities of the deceased (homo
bonus, misericors, amans pauperum, or uxor Jrugi, bona, pudica and
the like), short dialogues with the passer-by (originally borrowed
from Greek poetry), as vale salve, salvus ire, vale et tu, te rogo prae-
teriens dicas " sit tibi terra levis," &c. (Wil. 180), then indications of
his condition in his lifetime, chiefly among the Greek tradesmen and
workmen, e.g. Itmius de colle Viminale (C.I.L. i. ion), margaritarius
de sacra via (1027) and the like, and some formulae, such as ossa hie
sita sunt, heic cubat, heic situs est (in republican times mostly written
in full, not abridged) were added (J. Church " Zur Phraseologie der
lat. Grabinschriften " in Arch. lat. Lexikogr. 12. 215 sqq.). The
habit of recording the measurement of the sepulchre, on the sepul-
chral cippus, by such formulae as locus patet in fronte pedes tot, in
agro (or in via, or retro) pedes tot, seems not to be older than the
Augustan age (C.I.L. i. 1021, with Mommsen's note; Wil. 188).
About the same time also the epitaphs more frequently state how
long the deceased lived, which was formerly added only on certain
occasions (e.g. in the case of a premature death), and mostly in poetical
form. The worship of the dei Manes, though undoubtedly very
ancient, is not alluded to in the sepulchral inscriptions themselves
until the close of the republic. Here and there, in this period, the
tomb is designated as a (locus) deum Maanium (e.g. at Hispellum,
C.I.L. i. 1410); or, it is said, as on a cippus from Corduba in Spain
(C.I.L. ii. 2255; Wil. 218), C. Sentio Sat(urnino) co(n)s(ule) — that
is, in the year 19 B.C. — dei Manes receperunt Abulliam N(umerii)
l(ibertam) Nigellam. In the Augustan age the titulus sepulcralis
begins to be confounded with the titulus sacer; it adopts the form of
a dedication deis Manibus, offered to the dei Manes (or dei inferi
Manes, the dei parentum being the Manes of the parents) of the
deceased (see Orel. 4351; Wil. 217-228). This formula, afterwards
so common, is still very rare at the end of the republic, and is usually
written in full, while in later times it is employed, both simply and in
many varied forms (as dis manibus sacrum, or d. m. et memoriae, d. m.
et genio, or memoriae aeternae, pact et quieti, quieli aeternae, somno
aeternali and so on; Wil. 246), in thousands of monuments. By
similar degrees the titulus sepulcralis adopts many of the elements of
the titulus honorarius (the indication of the cursus honorum, of the
military charges, &c., as e.g. in the inscription of Cn. Calpurnius Piso,
C.I.L. i. 598 = vi. 1276, Wil. 1105, on the pyramid of Cestius, C.I.L.
vi. 1374, and on the monument at Ponte Lucano of Ti. Plautius
Silvanus Aelianus, consul A.D. 74, Orel. 750, Wil. 1145 and many
others), of the tituli operum publicorum (e.g. monumentum fecit, sibi
et suis, &c.), and of the instrumenta. Testaments (like those of
Dasumius of the year A.D. 109. — C.I.L. vi. 10229; Wil. 314; and T.
Flavius Syntrophus — C.I.L. vi. 10239; Henz. 7321; Wil. 313), or
parts of them (like that on the tomb of a Gaul of the tribe of the
Lingones, belonging to Vespasian's time, Wil. 315), funeral orations
(as those on Tuna — C.I.L. vi. 1527; Notizie degli scavi (1898), p. 412;
Hirschfeld, Wiener Studien Bormannheft, p. 283; Fowler, Classical
Review, xix. 261; on Murdia — C.I.L. vi. 10230; Orel. 4860;
Rudorff, Abhandlungen der Konigl. Akademie der Wissenschaften zu
Berlin (1868), p. 217 seq. ; and that of Hadrian on the elder Matidia,
found at Tivoh — Mommsen in the same Abhandlungen (1863), p. 483
seq; Dehner, Laudatio Matidiae, Neuwied (1891), numerous state-
ments relating to the conservation and the employment of the monu-
ments (C.I.L. vi. 10249; Wil. 287-290), to their remaining within
the family of the deceased — from which came the frequent formula
" h(oc) m(onumentum) h(eredem) n(on) s(equetur) " and the like
(Wil. 280; cf. Hor. Sat. i. 8. 13), — and relating to the annual
celebration of parentalia (Wil. 305 seq.), down to the not uncommon
prohibition of violation or profanation of the monument noli violare,
&c., with many other particulars (on which the index of Wil. p. 678
seq. may be consulted), form the text of the sepulchral inscriptions of
the later epoch from Augustus downwards. The thoroughly pagan
sentiment non fui non sum non euro, or n. f. n. s. n. c., is common,
apparently a translation of the Greek ofa 1\in\v, ky(vdni\v- OVK iaopaC ol>
iu\ti noi. Another type of epitaph, much affected by the poorer
classes (like our " Affliction sore " &c.), is: noli dolere mater eventum
meum, Properavit aetas, hoc voluit fatus (sic) mihi ((Lier, " Topica
carminum sepulcralium Latinorum " in Philologus, 62. 445 sqq.).
To these are to be added many local peculiarities of provinces (as
Spain and Africa), districts (as the much-disputed sub ascia dedicare
of the stones of Lyons and other parts of Gaul), and towns, of which
a full account cannot be given here.
2. Of the dedicatory inscriptions (or tituli sacri), the oldest known
are the short indications painted (along with representations of
winged genii, in the latest style of Graeco-Italian vase painting),
with white colour on black earthen vessels, by which those vessels
(pocula) are declared to be destined for the worship, public or
private, of a certain divinity (C.I.L. i. 43-50; Ephem. epigr. i.
5-6; Wil. 2827 a-i); they give the name of the god, as that of
the possessor, in the genitive (e.g. Saeturni pocolom, Lavernai pocolom) .
The proper form of the dedication, the simple dative of the name of a
divinity and often nothing else (as Apolenei, Fide, Junone, &c., which
are all datives), is shown on the very primitive altars found in a
sacred wood near Pisaurum (C.I.L. i. 167-180; Wil. 1-14); but also
the name of the dedicants (matrona, matrona Pisaurese, which are
nomin. plur.) and the formulae of the offering (dono dedrot or dedro,
donu dat, where dono and donu are accus.) are already added to them.
This most simple form (the verb in the perfect or in the present)
never disappeared entirely; it occurs not infrequently also in the
later periods. Nor did the dative alone, without any verb or formula,
go entirely out of use (see C.I.L. i. 630; Wil. 36; C.I.L. i. 814 =
vi. 96; Orel. 1850; Wil. 32; C.I.L. i. 1153; Henz. 5789; Wil.
1775)- But at an early date the verb donum dare and some synonyms
(like donum portare, ferre, mancupio dare, parare) were felt to be
insufficient to express the dedicator's good-will and his sense of the
justice of the dedication, which accordingly were indicated in the
expanded formula dono dedet lub(e)s mereto (C.I.L. i. 183, cf. p. 555;
Wil. 21 ; C.I.L. i. 190; Wil. 22), or, with omission of the verb, dono
mere(to) lib(e)s (C.I.L. i. 182). The dative case and this formula,
completely or partially employed (for merito alone is also used, as
C.I.L. i. 562, cf. Ephem. epigr. ii. 353, Wil. 29), remained in solemn
use. To lubens (or libens) was added laetus (so in Catullus 31. 4),
and, if a vow preceded the dedication, volum solvit (or voto con-
demnatus dedit; see C.I.L. i. 1175; Henz. 5733; Wil. 142, and
C.I.L. ii. 1044); so, but not before the time of Augustus (see C.I.L.
i. 1462 = iii. 1772), the solemn formula of the dedicatory inscriptions
of the later period, v. s. I. m. or v. s. 1. 1. m., arose. To the same effect,
and of equally ancient origin with the solemn words dare and donum
dare, the word sacrum (or other forms of it, as sacra [ara]), conjoined
with the name of a divinity in the dative, indicates a gift to it (e.g.
C.I.L. i. 814; Wil. 32; C.I.L. i. 1200-1201; Wil. 33 a ft); the same
form is to be found also in the later period (e.g. C.I.L. i. 1124; Henz.
5624-5637), and gave the model for the numerous sepulchral in-
scriptions with dis Manibus sacrum mentioned before. Sacrum
combined with a genitive very seldom occurs (Orel. 1824; Wil. 34);
ara is found more frequently (as ara Neptuni and ara Ventorum, Orel.
1340). Dedications were frequently the results of vows; so victori-
ous soldiers (such as L. Mummius, the conqueror of Corinth — C.I.L.
i. 541 seq.; Orel. 563; Wil. 27), and prosperous merchants (e.g. the
brothers Vertuleii — C.I.L. i. 1175; Henz. 5733; Wil. 142) vow a
tenth part of their booty (de praedad, as is said on the basis erected
by one of the Fourii of Tusculum — C.I.L. i. 63, 64; Henz. 5674;
Wil. 1 8) or gain, and out of this dedicate a gift to Hercules or other
divinities (see also C.I.L. i. 1503; Wil. 24; C.I.L. 1113; Wil. 43).
Again, what one man had vowed, and had begun to erect, is, by his
will, executed after his death by others (as the propylum Cereris et
Proserpinae on the Eleusinian temple, which Appius Claudius
Pulcher, Cicero's well-known predecessor in the Cilician proconsulate,
began — C.I.L. i. 6ig = iii. 347; Wil. 31); or the statue that an
aedilis vowed is erected by himself as duovir (C.I.L. iii. 500; Henz.
5684); what slaves had promised they fulfil as freedmen (C.I.L.
1233, servos vovit liber solvit; C.I.L. 816, Wil. 51, " ser(vos) vov(it)
leibert(us) solv(it)"), and so on. The different acts into which an
offering, according to the circumstantially detailed Roman ritual, is
to be divided (the consecratio being fulfilled only by the solemn
dedicatio) are also specified on dedicatory inscriptions (see for
instance, consacrare or consecrare, Orel. 2503, and Henz. 6124, 6128;
for dedicare, C.I.L. i. 1159, Henz. 7024, Wil. 1782, and compare
Catullus's hunc lucum tibi dedico cpnsecroque Priape; for dicare see
the aara leege Albana dicata to Vediovis by the genteiles luliei, C.I.L.
i. 807, Orel. 1287, Wil. 101). Not exactly dedicatory, but only
mentioning the origin of the gift, are the inscriptions on the pedestals
of offerings (6.raBriiJiara, donaria) out of the booty, like those of M.
Claudius Marcellus from Enna (C.I.L. i. 530; Wil. 25, " Hinnad
cepit '') or of M. Fulvius Nobilior, the friend of the poet Ennius, from
Aetolia (C.I.L. i. 534; Orel. 562; Wil. 26 a, and Bullettino del-
V Institute, 1869, p. 8; C.I.L. vi. 1307; Wil. 26 b, "Aetolia cepit" and
" Ambracia cepit "); they contain only the name of the dedicator,
not that of the divinity. Of the similar offerings of L. Mummius,
already mentioned, two only are preserved in their original poetical
form, the Roman in Saturnian verses of a carmen triumphale (C.I.L.
i. 541; Orel. 563; Wil. 27 a) and that found at Reate in dactylic
hexameters (C.I.L. i. 542; Wil. 27 ft); the rest of them contain only
the name of the dedicant and the dative of the community to which
they were destined (C.I.L. i. and Wil. I.e.). Of a peculiar form is the
very ancient inscription on a bronze tablet, now at Munich, probably
from Rome, where two aidiles, whose names are given at the begin-
ning as in the other donaria, " vicesma(m) parti(m) or [ex] vicesma
LATIN]
INSCRIPTIONS
633
parti Apolones (that is, Apollinis) dederi (that is, dedere) " (C.I.L. \.
187; Orel. 1433). Many, but not substantial, varieties arise, when
old offerings are restored (e.g. C.I.L. i. 638, 632=Orel. 2135, and
Wil. 48; C.I.L. i. 803; Henz. 5669, 6122); or the source of the
offering (e.g. de stipe, C.I.L. i. 1105; Henz. 56330; ex reditu
pecuniae, ex patrimonio suo, ex ludis, de munere gladiatorip, and so
on) ; or the motive (ex jusso, ex imperio, ex visu, ex oraculo, monitu,
visa moniti, somnio admonitus and the like), or the person or object,
for which the offering was made (C.I.L. i. 188, pro poplod; Ephem.
epigr. ii. 208, pro trebibos, in the British Museum; pro se, pro
salute, in honorem domus divinae, &c.), are indicated; or, as in the
tituli operum publicorum, the order of a magistrate (de senati sententia,
C.I.L. i. 56o = vi. 1306; Orel. 5351; i. 632=vi. no; Orel. 2135;
Wil. 48; decurionum thereto, &c.), and the magistrates or private
persons executing or controlling the work, the place where and the
time when it was erected, are added. On all these details the indexes,
especially that of Wil. (ii. 675), give further information. The
objects themselves which are offered or erected begin to be named
only in the later period just as in the tituli operum publicorum
(" basim donum dant," C.I.L. i. 1167; " signum basim," C.I.L. i.
1154; " aram," C.I.L. i. 1468; Orel. 1466; Wil. 52; C.I.L. i.
1109; Wil. 54); in the later period this custom becomes more
frequent. It is hardly necessary to observe that all kinds of offerings
have very frequently also been adorned with poetry ; these carmina
dedicatoria are given by Buecheler, Anthologia Latina, ii. ; cf. Wil.
142-151.
3. Statues to mortals, whether living or after their death (but not
on their tombs), with honorary inscriptions (tituli honorarii), were
introduced into the Roman republic after the Greek model and
only at a comparatively late date. One of the oldest inscriptions of
this class comes from Greek soil and is itself Greek in form, with the
name in the accusative governed by some (suppressed) verb like
"honoured" (C.I.L. i. 533; Wil. 649), " Italicei L. Cornelium
Scipionem (i.e. Asiagenum) honoris caussa," lost and of not quite
certain reading, belonging to 561 A.u.c. (193 B.C.); the same form
(in the accusative) appears in other <Latin or Latin and Greek)
inscriptions from Greece (C.I.L. i. 596 = !!!. 532; Wil. 1103; C.I.L.
iii. 365, 7240; compare also C.I.L. i. 587, 588; Orel. 3036). The
noble house of the Scipios introduced the use of poetical elogia in the
ancient form of the carmina triumphalia in Saturnian verses (from the
6th century in elegiac distichs). They were added to the short
tituli, painted only with minium on the sarcophagi, giving the name
of the deceased (in the nominative) and his curulian offices (ex-
clusively), which were copied perhaps from the well-known imagines
preserved in the atrium of the house (C.I.L. i. 29 sq ; Orel. 550 sq. ;
Wil. 537 sq., and elsewhere). They hold, by their contents, an
intermediate place between the sepulchral inscriptions, to which they
belong properly, and the honorary ones, and therefore are rightly
styled elogia. What the Scipios did thus privately for themselves was
in other cases done publicly at a period nearly as early. The first
instance preserved of such a usage, of which Pliny the elder speaks
(Hist. nat. xxxiv. § 17 sq.), is the celebrated columna rostrata of
C. Duilius, of which only a copy exists, made in or before the time of
the emperor Claudius (C.I.L. i. 195 =vi. 1300; Orel. 549; Wil. 609).
Then follow the elogia inscribed at the base of public works like the
Arcus Fabianus (C.I.L. i. 606, 607 and 278, elog. i.-iii. =vi. 1303,
1304; Wil. 610), or of statues by their descendants, as those belong-
ing to a sacrarium domus Augustae (C.I.L. i. elog. iv.-vi. = C.I.L.
vi. 1310, 1311) and others belonging to men celebrated in politics or
in letters, as Scipio, Hortensius, Cicero, &c., and found in Rome either
on marble tablets (C.I.L. i. vii.-xii. = C.I.L. vi. 1312, 1279, 1283,
1271, 1273; Wil. 611-613) or on busts (C.I.L. i. xv.-xix. = C.I.L.
vi. 1327, 1295, 1320, 1309, 1325, 1326; Wil. 618-621; see also C.I.L.
i. 40 = vi. 1280; Wil. lioi; and C.I.L. i. 631 =vi. 1278; i. 64O = vi.
1323, vi. 1321, 1322, where T. Quincti seems to be the nominative),
and 'in divers other places (C.I.L. i. xiii., xiv.; Wil. 614, 615).
This custom seems to have been resumed by Augustus (Suet. Aug.
31) with a political and patriotic aim, praised by the poet Horace
(Od. iv. 8. 13, " incisa notis marmora publicis, per quae spiritus et
vita redit bonis post mortem ducibus ") ; for he adorned his forum with
the statues of celebrated men from Aeneas and Romulus downwards
(C.I.L. i. xxiv., xxv., xxvii., xxxii. = C.I.L. vi. 1272, 1308, 1315,
1318; Wil. 625, 626, 627, 632), and other towns followed his example
(so Pompeii, C.I.L. i. xx., xxii. =Wil. 622, 623; Layinium, C.I.L.
i xxi • Wil. 617; Arretium, C.I.L. i. xxiii., xxviii., xxix., xxx., xxxi.,
xxxiii., xxxiv. =Wil. 624, 625, 629-633). All these elogia are written
in the nominative. In the same way in the colonies statues seem to
have been erected to their founders or other eminent men, as in
Aquileia (C.I.L. i. 538 = v. 873; Wil. 650; compare also C.I.L. v.
862; Orel. 3827) and Luna (C./.L. i. 539 = Wil. 651).
But along with this primitive and genuine form of the titulus
honorarius another form of it, equivalent to the dedicatory inscrip-
tion, with the name of the person honoured in the dative, begins
to prevail from the age of Sulla onwards. For the oldest examples
of this form seem to be the inscriptions on statues dedicated to the
dictator at Rome (C.I.L. i. 584 = vi. 1297; Orel. 567; Wil. 11020)
and at other places (Caieta and Clusium, C.I.L. i. 585, 586; Wil.
1 1026, c), in which the whole set of honours and offices is not enumer-
ated as in the elogia, but only the honores praesentes ; compare also
the inscription belonging to about the same date, of a quaestor urbanus
(C.I.L. i. 636). Within the Greek provinces also, at the same period,
this form is adopted (C.I.L. i. 595 = iii. 531; Henz. 5294; Wil.
1104). Similar dedications were offered to Pompey the Great (at
Auximum and Clusium, C.I.L. i. 615, 616; Orel. 574; Wil. 1107)
and to his legate L. Afranius (at Bologna, but erected by the citizens
of the Spanish colony Valentia, C.I.L. i. 601 ; Henz. 5127; Wil.
1 1 06). They are succeeded by the statues raised to Caesar (at
Bovianum, C.I.L. i. 620; Orel. 582; Wil. 1108), and, after his death,
iussu pppuli Romani, in virtue of a special law, at Rome (C.I.L. i.
626 = vi. 872; Orel. 586; Wil. 877). With him, as is well known,
divine honours begin to be paid to the princeps, even during life.
In this same form other historical persons of high merit also begin
to be honoured by posterity, as, for example, Scipio the elder at
Saguntum (C.I.L. ii. 3836; Wil. 653), Marius at Cereatae Marianae,
the place which bears his name (C.I.L. x. 5782; Wil. 654). Of
statues erected by the community of a municipium to a private
person, that of L. Popillius Flaccus at Ferentinum seems to be the
oldest example (C.I.L. i. 1164; Wil. 655, and his note). In Rome,
Augustus and his successors in this way permitted the erection of
statues, especially to triumphatores, in the new fora, including that of
Augustus (C.I.L. vi. 1386; Orel. 3187; Wil. 634; C.I.L. vi. 1444;
Henz. 5448; Wil. 635) and that of Trajan (C.I.L. vi. 1377; Henz.
5478; Wil. 636; vi. 1549; Henz. 5477; Wil. 639; iv. 1549; Orel.
1386; Wil. 637; C.I.L. 1565, 1566; Wil. 640); and this custom
lasted to a late period (C.I.L. vi. 1599; Henz. 3574; Wil. 638), as is
shown by the statues of Symmachus the orator (C.I.L. vi. 1698,
1699; Orel. 1186, 1187; Wil. 641), Claudian the poet (C.I.L. vi.
1710; Orel. 1182; Wil. 642), Nicomachus Flavianus (C.I.L. vi.
1782, 1783; Orel. 1188; Henz. 5593; Wil. 645, 6450), and many
other eminent men down to Stilicho (C.I.L. vi. 1730, 1731; Orel.
H33> II34I Wil. 648, 6480), who died in the year 408. In similar
forms are conceived the exceedingly numerous dedications to the
emperors and their families, in which the names and titles, according
to the different historical periods, are exhibited, in the main with
the greatest regularity. They are specified in detailed indexes by
Henzen and Wilmanns, as well as in each volume of the Corpus. In
the provinces, of course, the usages of the capital were speedily
imitated. Perhaps the oldest example of a titulus honorarius in the
form of an elogium (but in the dative), with the full cursus honorum
of the person honoured, is a bilinguis from Athens, of the Augustan
age (C.I.L. iii. 551; Henz. 6456 a; Wil. 1122); the honours are here
enumerated in chronological order, beginning with the lowest; in
other instances the highest is placed first, and the others follow in
order.1 In the older examples the formula " honoris causa," or
virtutis ergo (Hermes, vi., 1871, p. 6), is added at the end, as in an
inscription of Mytilene belonging to the consul of the year 723 A.u.c.,
i.e. 31 B.C. (C.I.L. iii. 455; Orel. 4111; Wil. 11046); the same,
abbreviated (h.c.), occurs on an inscription of about the same
age from Cirta in Africa (C.I.L. viii. 7099; Wil. 2384). Shortly
afterwards the honour of a statue became as common in the
Roman municipia as it was in Athens and other Greek cities
in the later period. Each province furnishes numerous examples,
partly with peculiar formulae, on which the indexes of Wilmanns
(pp. 673, 696 sq.) may be consulted. Special mention may be made
of the numerous honorary inscriptions belonging to aurigae,
histriones and gladiatores ; for those found in Rome see C.I.L. vi.
10,044-10,210.
He who erects a temple or a public building, or constructs a road,
a bridge, an aqueduct or the like, by inscribing his name on the
work, honours himself, and, as permission to do so has to be given
by the public authorities, is also honoured by the community.
Therefore the tituli operum publicorum, though in form only short
official statements (at least in the older period) of the origin of the
work, without any further indications as to its character and purpose,
partake of the style of the older honorary inscriptions. Of the ancient
and almost universally employed method of erecting public buildings
by means of the locatio censoria one monument has preserved some
traces (Ephem. epigr. ii. 199). The oldest instance of this class is
that commemorating the restoration of the temple of the Capitoline
Jupiter, begun, after its destruction by fire in the year 671 (83 B.C.),
by Sulla and continued five years later by the well-known orator and
poet Q. Lutatius Catulus, but completed only about twenty years
afterwards. Here, after the name of Catulus in the nominative and
the indication of the single parts of the building (as, for example,
substructionem et tabularium), follows the solemn formula de s(enali)
s(ententia) faciundum coeravit eidemque probavit (C.I.L. i. 592 =
vi. 1314; Orel. 31, 3267; Wil. 700). With the same formula the
praetor Calpurnius Piso Frugi (of about the same period) dedicated
an unknown building (C.I.L. i. 594 = vi. 1275), restored afterwards by
Trajan. On a work executed by the collegium tribunorum plebis
(C.I.L. i. 593 =vi. 1299; Wil. 787), perhaps the public streets within
the town, the sum employed for it is also inscribed. Precisely similar
is the oldest inscription of one of the bridges of Rome, the ponte dei
quattro capi, still preserved, though partly restored, on its original
site, which commemorates its builder, the tribune of the year 692
1 This observation, applied to a large number of monuments, gave
rise to many of the splendid epigjaphical labours of Borghesi (see
e.g. his dissertation upon the inscription of the consul L. Burbuleius,
CEuvres, iv. 103 sq.).
634
INSCRIPTIONS
[LATIN
(62 B.C.), L. Fabricius (C.I.L. i. 6oo = vi. 1305; Orel. 50; Wil. 788);
it was restored by the consuls of the year 733 (2 1 B.C.).1 On privately
erected buildings the founder after his name puts a simple fecit (as
also on sepulchral inscriptions) ; so, possibly, did Pompey, when he
dedicated his theatre as a temple of Venus Victrix and, on Cicero's
clever advice, as Varro and Tiro had it from Cicero himself, in-
scribed on it COS-TERT (not tertium or tertio) (see Gellius, Noct.Att.
x. l). So Agrippa, when he dedicated his Pantheon in the year
727 (27 B.C.), inscribed on it only the words M. Agrippa, L. f. cos.
tertium fecit (C. I.L. vi. 896; Orel. 34; Wil. 731), as all who visit the
Eternal City know. Of municipal examples it will be sufficient to
name those of the majestic temple of Cora (C.I.L. i. 1 149-1 150; Wil.
722, 723), of Ferentinum, with the measurements of the foundation
(C.I.L. i. 1161-1163; Wil. 708), of the walls and towers at Aeclanum
(C.I.L. i. 1230; Orel. 566; Henz. 6583; Wil. 699), of the theatre,
amphitheatre, baths and other structures at Pompeii (C.I.L. i.
1246, 1247, 1251, 1252; Orel. 2416, 3294; Henz. 6153; Will. 730,
1899-1901). At Aletrium a munificent citizen gives an enumeration
of a number of works executed by him in the period of the Gracchi,
in his native town (" haec quae in/era scripta sunt de senatu sententia
facienda coiravit," C.I.L. i. 1166; Orel. 3892; Wil. 706); and, more
than a century later, the same is done at Cartima, a small Spanish
town near Malaga, by a rich woman (C.I.L. ii. 1956; Wil. 746).
Military works, executed by soldiers, especially frequent in the
Danubian provinces, Africa, Germany and Britain, give, in this way,
manifold and circumstantial information as to the military adminis-
tration of the Romans. On a column found near the bridge over the
Minho at Aquae Flaviae, the modern Chaves in northern Portugal,
ten communities inscribed their names, probably as contributors to
the work, with those of the emperors (Vespasian and his sons), the
imperial legate of the province, the legate of the legion stationed in
Spain, the imperial procurator, and the name of the legion itself
(C.I.L. ii. 2477; Wil. 803); and similarly, with the name of Trajan,
on the famous bridge over the Tagus at Alcantara, in Spanish
Estremadura, the names of the municipia provinciae Lusitaniae
stipe conlata quae opus pontis perfecerunt are inscribed (C.I.L. ii.
759-762; Orel. 161, 162; Wil. 804).
As in some of the already-mentioned inscriptions of public works
the measurements of the work to which they refer (especially, as
may be supposed, in the case of works of great extent, such as
walls of towns or lines of fortification, like the walls of Hadrian
and Antoninus Pius in Britain) are indicated, so it early became a
custom in the Roman republic to note on milestones the name of
the founder of the road and, especially at the extremities of it and
near large towns, the distances. So in the val di Diana in Lucania
P. Popillius Laenas, the consul of the year 622 (132 B.C.), at the end
of a road built by him, set up the miliarium Popilianum (C.I.L.
i. 551 ; Orel. 3308; Wil. 797), which is a general elogium to himself,
in which he speaks in the first person (viamfecei ab Regio ad Capuam,
&c.). One of the single miliaria set up by him is also preserved
(C.I.L. i. 550; Henz. 7174 d; Wil. 808), which contains only his
name and the number of miles. In the same brief style are con-
ceived the other not very frequent republican miliaria found in Italy
down to the time of Augustus (C.I.L. x. 6895, 6897, 6899; Wil. 813),
and also the even more rare specimens from the provinces (from Asia
—C.I.L. i. 557 =iii. 479, Wil. 826, C.I.L. i. 622 = iii. 462, Wil. 827;
from Spain — C.I.L. i. 1484-1486 = ii. 4920-4925, 4956, Wil. 828,
829). Augustus inscribed on each milestone on his road across
Spain " a Baete et Jano Augusta ad Oceanum " (e.g. C.I.L. ii. 4701 ;
Wil. 832), Claudius on those of a road in Upper Italy founded by
his father Drusus " mam Claudiam Augustam quam Drusus pater
Alpibus hello patefactis derexserat munit ab Altino (or aflumine Pado)
ad flumen Danuvium " (C.I.L. v. 8002, 8003; Orel. 648, 708; Henz.
5400; Wil. 818). The later milestones vary greatly in form, but all
contain most precious materials for ancient geography and topo-
graphy; in the volumes of the Corpus they are taken together under
the special head viae publicae (and here and there privatae) at the end
of each chapter.
A similar character, resulting from the combination of a mere
authentic record with the peculiar form of the honorary inscription,
belongs to the kindred classes of inscriptions of the aqueducts and of
the different boundary-stones. The large dedicatory inscriptions of
the celebrated aqueducts2 of Rome (as the Aquae Marcia, Tepula
and Julia, C.I.L. vi. 1244-1246, Orel. 51-53, Wil. 765; the Virgo,
C.I.L vi. 1252, Orel. 703, Wil. 763; the Claudia, &c., C.I.L. vi.
1 The character of an elogium is assumed in a special way by the
inscriptions on triumphal arches, such as that of Augustus on the arch
of Susa in Piedmont, dating from the year 745 (9 B.C.) (C.I.L. v.
7231; Orel. 626), and the similar one on the tropaea Augusti (la
Turbia) (C.I.L. v. 7817) of the year 747 (7 B.C.), which Pliny also
(Hist. Nat. iii. § 136) records, and those of the other emperors at
Rome, of which only that of Claudius, the conqueror of Britain
(C.I.L. vi. 920, 921 ; Orel. 715; Wil. 899), with the statues of himself
and his family, need be mentioned.
1 See the important work of R. Lanciani, Commentari di Frontino
intorno le acque e gli acquedolti, &c. (Rome, 1880).
1256-1258, Orel. 54-56, Wil. 764) have quite the character of honorary
inscriptions, while the various cippi terminales, which mark the
ground belonging to the aqueduct, show the greatest analogy to
the milestones (e.g. C.I.L. vi. 1243 a-g; Henz. 6635, 6636; Wil. 775-
779)- The other Italian and provincial varieties cannot be specified
here. Of boundary-stones, or cippi terminales, some very ancient
specimens have been preserved. To the age preceding the Second
Punic War belong two, found at Venusia and erected by municipal
magistrates (C.I.L. i. 185, 186; Orel. 3527, 3528; Wil. 863); they
give a short relation of a decree, by which certain localities were
declared to be sacred or public (" aut sacrom aut poublicom locom
ese "). Then follow the cippi Gracchani, by which Gaius Gracchus
and his two colleagues, as tres viri agris iudicandis adsignandis,
measured the ager Campanus, for its division among the plebs. They
contain the names of the tres viri in the nominative, and in addition,
on the top, the lines and angles of the cardo and decumanus, according
to the rules of the agrimensores, or the boundary lines between the
ager publicus and privatus (C.I.L. i. 552-556; Henz. 6464; Wil.
859-861). From the age of Sulla we still have various boundary-
stones giving the line of demarcation between different communities
-, ..-. ~. --. . ome belong
the termini ripae Tiberis (C.I.L. i. 608-614 = vi. I234 a-l), beginning
in the Augustan age, and the termini of the pomoerium of Claudius
and Vespasian as censors, and of the collegium augurum under
Hadrian (C.I.L. vi. 1231-1233; Orel. 710, 811; Wil. 843, 844),
while others, of the consuls of the year A.D. 4 (C.I.L. vi. 1263; Orel.
3260; Wil. 856), of Augustus (C.I.L. vi. 1265; Henz. 6455; Wil.
852), &c., show the boundary between the ager publicus and privatus.
With similar objects boundary-stones were erected by the emperors,
or, under their authority, by magistrates, mostly military, in the rest
of Italy also (as in Capua — C.I.L. x. 3825, Orel. 3683, Wil. 858 ; at
Pompeii — C.I.L. x. 1018, Wil. 864) and in the provinces (as in
Syria — C.I.L. iii. 183; and Macedonia — C.I.L. iii. 594; in Dalmatia
— C.I.L. iii. 2883; in Africa— C.I.L. viii. 7084-7090, 8211, 8268,
10,803, 10,838, Wil. 869, 870; in Spain — C.I.L. ii. 2349, 2916, Wil.
871 — where the pratum of a legion is divided from the territory of a
municipium; in Gaul — Wil. 867; in Germany, in the column found
at Miltenberg on the Main, Banner Jahrbiicher, vol. Ixiv., 1878, p.
46, &c.). Private grounds (pedaturae) were unfrequently marked off
by terminal cippi. To this class of tituli must be added also the
curious inscriptions incised upon the steps of Roman circuses,
theatres and amphitheatres (see Hiibner, Annali dell' Institute
archeologico, vol. xxviii., 1856, p. 52 sq., and vol. xxxi., 1859, p.
122 sq.), as, for instance, upon those of the Coliseo at Rome (C.I.L.
vi., 1796, 1-37; compare R. Lanciani, Bullettino archeologico munici-
pale, 1881).
4. We now come to the last class of tituli, viz. those which in the
Corpus are arranged, at the end of each volume, under the head
of Instrumentum. By this very comprehensive term are designated
objects which vary greatly among themselves, but which are of such
a character as not to fall within any of the classes of tituli described
before, or the class of the instrumenta in the proper sense of that word,
— the laws, &c. The tituli of the instrumentum embrace movable
objects, destined for public and private use, and illustrate almost
every side of the life of the ancient Romans. As systematic treat-
ment of them is hardly possible, a simple enumeration only of their
different classes can be given, without citing special examples. The
first species of them is metrological, comprehending the inscriptions
on measures and weights. The gold and silver plate used in the best
Roman houses was also always marked with a note of its weight, —
as is seen, for instance, on the different objects belonging to the
Hildesheim find (see Hermes, iii., 1868, p. 469 sq.; Philologus,
xxviii., 1869, p. 369), the Corbridge lanx in Northumberland House
(C.I.L. vii. 1268) and many others. A second species is formed by
the tesserae, tokens or marks, mostly in bronze, bone and ivory, but
also earthen, of which the most interesting are the so-called tesserae
gladiatoriae, little staves of bone with holes at the top, and with
names of slaves or freedmen and consular dates upon them, the
relation of which to the munera gladiatoria is by no means certain
(see C.I.L. i. 717 sq., and Hermes, xxi. p. 266; Rhein. Mus. xli.
p.5i7;xlii.p. 122; Berl. phil. Woch., 1888, p. 24). The other circular
tesserae (the so-called tesserae theatrales) of ivory or bone, with
emblems and short inscriptions, partly Greek and Latin, used to be
attributed to the ludi scaenici (see Henzen, Annali dell' Institute
archeologico, vol. xx., 1848, p. 273 sq., and vol. xxii., 1850, p. 357 sq.)
and to other ludi; but this account has been questioned (Huelsen,
Bulletl. dell' Institute, 1896, p. 227). A third species is that of
inscriptions carved, inscribed, painted or stamped upon various
materials, raw or manufactured, for trade or household use. Such
are, to begin with, the most solid and heavy, the inscriptions carved
or painted on masses of stone, mostly columns, in the quarries, and
preserved either on the rocks themselves in the quarries or on the
roughly hewn blocks transported to the Roman emporium on the
Tiber bank. Curious specimens of the first kind are preserved in
Lebanon, and in the north of England, near Hadrian's Wall and
elsewhere; on the second may be consulted a learned treatise by
Padre L. Bruzza (" Iscrizioni dei marmi grezzi," in the Annali del-
I'lnstiluto archeologico, vol. xlii., 1870, pp. 106-204). Of a kindred
LATIN]
INSCRIPTIONS
character are the inscriptions, mostly stamped or engraved in the
mould, of pigs of silver, bronze and lead (and pewter), found in
the Roman mines in Spain and England (see Hubner, " Romische
Bleigruben in Britannien," in Rheinisches Museum fur Philologie,
vol. xi., 1857, p. 347 sq., and C.I.L. vii. 220 sq.; A. Way, Archaeo-
logical Journal, vol. xyi., 1859, p. 23, and vol. xxiii., 1866, p. 63). A
fourth species of tituli of this class is strictly related to the military
institutions of the Roman empire. Many of the weapons are marked
with the names of the bearer and of the military corps to which he
belonged, — so, for example! the buckles of their shields (see Hubner,
" Romische Schildbuckel," in Archdologisch-epigraphische Miltei-
lungen aus Osterreich, vol. ii., 1878, p. 105 sq. ; by far the best extant
specimen is the umbo of a legionary soldier of the eighth legion found
in the Tyne near South Shields, C.I.L. vii. 495), and sometimes the
swords, as that of Tiberius from Mainz (now in the British Museum,
see Banner Winckelmannsprogramm of 1848). The leaden glandes
used by the funditores, the slingers, in the Roman army bear curious
historical inscriptions (see C.I.L. i. 642 sq., Ephem. epigr. vi.
and, on the question of the authenticity of many of them, Zange-
meister, C.I.L. ix., 35* sqq.). Special mention must be made also
of the leaden seals or marks (bullae), evidently of military origin
(perhaps to be borne by the soldiers as a countersign), which have
been found inimany parts of England (C.I.L. vii. 1269; Ephem.
epigr. iii. 144, 318, iv. 209, vii. 346). Of the highest interest are the
manifold productions of the Roman tile and brick kilns (C.I.L. xv.
Inscriptiones laterum; cf. Descemet in the Bibliotheque des holes
franchises, vol. xv.). Next to the tiles with consular dates made at
Veleia (C.I.L. i. 777 sqq.), those signed with the name of legions or
other military corps, and employed in the various military buildings
of these, are especially worthy of mention ; they form an important
chapter in every geographical part of the Corpus. But private
persons, too, especially the rich landed proprietors, and afterwards
the emperors and their kinsmen, kept large figulinae, and their
manufactures — tiles of every description and other earthenware —
were spread over the Roman empire (Dressel, Untersuchungen uber
die Chronologie der Ziegelstempel der Gens Domitia, 1888; C.I.L. xv.).
The different sorts of earthen vessels and lamps, the fragments of
which are found in great quantities wherever Roman settlements
occurred, are arranged at the end of each volume of the Corpus and
are collected in vol. xv. part ii. p. i. On the maker's marks on earthen-
ware, see Habert, La Poterie antique parlante (1893); Dragendorf,
" Terra Sigillata," in Bonn. Jahrbuch. xcvi. 18. On Roman lamps
and their inscriptions the accurate catalogue of the Vienna collection
by Kenner (" DieantikenThonlampendesK. K. Miinz-und Antiken-
Cabinetes und der K. K. Ambraser Sammlung," in the Archiv fur
Kunde osterreichischer Geschichtsquellen, vol. xx., Vienna, 1858) may
be consulted with advantage. The chief deposit of earthenware
fragments, the Monte testaccio in Rome, has been explored by
Dressel (" Ricerche sul Monte testaccio," in the Annali dell' Institute
archeologico, vol. i., 1878, p. 118-192). Inscriptions are found on
various classes of vessels, painted (as the consular dates on the large
dolia for wine, oil, &c., see Schone, C.I.L. iv. 171 sq., and Ephem.
epigr. \. 160 sq.), stamped on the clay when still wet or in the mould,
and scratched in the clay when dry, like those on the walls of ancient
buildings in Pompeii, Rome and other places of antiquity. Like the
corresponding Greek ware, they contain chiefly names of the makers
or the merchants or the owners, and can be treated in a satisfactory
manner only when brought together in one large collection (C.I.L.
xv. part ii.), inasmuch as, besides being made in many local potteries,
they were exported principally from some places in Italy (e.g. Arezzo)
and Spain, in nearly every direction throughout northern and western
Europe, the countries outside the Roman frontiers not excluded.
Vessels and utensils of glass and of metal (gold, silver and especially
bronze) were also exported from Italy on a large scale, as is being
more and more readily recognized even by those antiquaries who
formerly were wont to assume a local origin for all bronze finds made
in the north of Europe. These utensils, ornaments and other objects
made of precious metals (such as cups, spoons, mirrors, fibulae, rings,
gems), not unfrequently bear Latin inscriptions. On the very
ancient silver and bronze caskets, for holding valuable articles of the
female toilet, which have been found at Praeneste, are inscribed, in
addition to the names of the artist and of the donor, occurring once,
the names of the persons in the mythical representations engraved
upon them (C.I.L. i. 54-60, 1500, 1501; Jordan, Kritische Beitrage
zur Geschichte der lateinischen Sprache, Berlin, 1879, p. 3 sq.). In the
ancient well of the Aquae Apollinares, near Vicarello in Tuscany,
three silver cups have been found with circumstantial itineraries
" a Cades (sic) usque Romam " engraved upon them, evidently gifts
to the divinity of the bath for recovered health presented by travellers
from the remote city named (Henzen 5210). Similar is the Rudge
Cup, found in Wiltshire and preserved at Alnwick Castle, which
contains, engraved in bronze, an itinerary along some Roman
stations in the north of England (C.I.L. vii. 1291). The inscriptions
of the Hildesheim silver find and others of a similar character have
been already mentioned; and many examples might be enumerated
besides. On the ancient glass ware and the inscriptions on it the
splendid works of Deville (Histoire de I'art de la verrerie dans
I'antiquite, Paris, 1873) and Froehner (La Verrerie antique, description
de la collection Chanel, Paris, 1879) may be consulted; on the
Christian glasses that of Garrucci ( Vetri ornati di figure in oro trovati
I 635
nei cimiteri dei cristiani primitivi di Roma, Rome, 1858); on the
makers' marks on bronze objects, Mowat, Marques de bronziers sur
objets trouves on rapportes en France (1884) (extracted from Bulletin
epigraphique, 1883-1884). The last species of tituli is formed by the
stamps themselves with which the inscriptions on many of the objects
already named are produced. They are mostly of bronze, and con-
tain names; but it is not easy to say what sort of objects were
marked with them, as scarcely any article stamped with a still
;xisting stamp has been found. Amongst the materials stamped
father also is to be mentioned. One class only of stamps differs
widely from the rest, — the oculists' stamps, engraved mostly on
steatite (or similar stones), and containing remedies against
diseases of the eyes, to be stamped on the glass bowls in which
such remedies were sold, or on the medicaments themselves (see
Grotefend, Die Stempel der romischen Augendrzte resammell und
erklart (Gottingen, 1867); de Villefosse and Thecienat, Cachets
d'oculistes remains (1882) ; EspeVandieu, Recueil des cachets d'oculistes
•omains (1894).
IV. The other great class of inscriptions above referred to, the
instrumenta or leges, the laws, deeds, &c., preserved generally on
metal and stone, from the nature of the case have to be considered
:hiefly with regard to their contents; their form is not regulated
by such constant rules as that of the tituli, so far as may be inferred
from the state of completeness in which they have been preserved.
The rules for each special class therefore, though, generally speaking,
maintained — as was to be expected of Roman institutions — with
remarkable steadiness from the earliest times down to a late period,
must be based upon a comprehensive view of all the examples, in-
cluding those preserved by ancient writers, and not in the monu-
mental form. These documents are, as a rule, incised on bronze
plates (only some private acts are preserved on wood and lead),
and therefore have their peculiar form of writing, abbreviation,
interpunction, &c., as has been already explained. The older
Roman laws are now collected, in trustworthy texts, in the Corpus,
vol. i. ; of the documents belonging to the later period a very
comprehensive sylloge is given in C. G. Bruns's Fontes juris Romani
antiqui.
I. Among the earliest occasions for committing to writing agree-
ments, which may be supposed to have been originally verbal only,
must certainly be reckoned international transactions (leges foederis
or foedera). At the head of the prose records written in the Latin
language we find the treaties of alliance of Tullus Hpstilius with
the Sabini (Dionysius Halic. iii. 33), of Seryius Tullius with the
Latini (Dionysius iv. 26; Festus p. 1 60; this was, partly, at the
same time, as will afterwards appear, the oldest document of the
sacred class), of the second Tarquinius with Gabii (Dionysius iv.
58; Festus, Epit, p. 56). They are followed, in the oldest republican
period, by the celebrated foedera with Carthage ; by the pacts of
Sp. Cassius Vecellinus with the Latini of the year 261 (493 B.C.),
which Cicero seems to have seen still in the/or«m behind the rostra,
written on a bronze column (Pro Balbo, 23, 53; see also Livy ii. 33;
Festus p. 166; and Mommsen's Romische Forschungen, ii. 153 sq.) ;
and by the foedus Ardeatinum of 310 (444 B.C.) mentioned by Livy
(iv. 7). Of all these documents nothing has been preserved in an
authentic form, save some few words quoted from them by the ancient
grammarians. Of one foedus only is there a fragment still in exist-
ence, relating to the Oscan civitas libera Bantia (C.I.L. i. 197); it
contains the clausula of the foedus, which was written in Latin and
in Oscan (see APULIA). On account of this peculiar circumstance,
the document gave occasion to Klenze, and afterwards to Mpmmsen,
to resume (for the sake of Roman jurisprudence, in the first instance)
inquiry into the Oscan and other Italian dialects. Some other
Roman foedera are preserved only in Greek, e.g. that with the Jews
of the year 594 (160 B.C.) (Josephus, Ant. xii. 6. 10). Some others,
made with the same nation between 610 and 615 (144 and 139 B.C.)
(Jos. Ant. xiii. 5. 6 and 7. 8), are mentioned in an abridged form
only, or given in that of a senatus consultum, to which they must
formally be ascribed. Amongst the foedera may be reckoned also the
curious oath, sworn, perhaps, according to a general rule obtaining
for all civitates foederatae, by the citizens of a Lusitanian oppidum,
Aritium, to Gaius Caesar on his accession to the throne in A.D. 37
(C.I.L. ii. 172; Wil. 2839).
Closely related to the foedera are the pacts between communities
and private individuals, respecting patronatus or hospitium (tabulae
patronatus el hospitii, also, when in small portable form, tesserae
hospitales; cf. Plautus, Poen. 1047, of which many specimens from
the end of the republic down to a late period of the empire have been
preserved (see Gazzera, Memorie dell' Academia di Torino, vol. xxxv.,
1831, p. I sq., and Mommsen, Romische Forschungen, i. 341 sq.).
Of the numerous examples scattered through the different volumes
of the Corpus may be quoted the tessera Fundana, containing the pact
of hospitality between the community of Fundi and a certain Ti.
Claudius (who cannot, with certainty, be identified), the oldest
hitherto known, in the form of a bronze fish (C.I.L. i. 532; Henz.
7000; Wil. 2849); the tabula of the pagus Gurzensium in Africa,
delivering the patronate to L. Domitius Ahenobarbus, Nero's grand-
father, in 742 (12 B.C.), in the afterwards solemn form of a tabella
fastigata, to be fixed in the atrium of the person honoured (Orel.
3693- Wil. 2850); that of the civitas Pallantina with a peregrinus
named Acces Licirni of the year 752 (2 B.C.) (Ephem. epigr. i. 141 ;
636
INSCRIPTIONS
[LATIN
Hermes, v., 1871, p. 371 seq.); that of Lacilbula, in Spain, with one
four relating ._ _
at Brescia (C.I.L. v. 4919-4922); that of the colorna Julia Aug.
legionis vii. Tupusuciu, in Africa, with the imperial legate Q. Julius
Secundus, of A.D. 55 (C.I.L. viii. 8837; Wil. 2851); that of two
gentilitates, the Desonci and Tridiavi, of the gens of the Zoelae, in
Spain, now in the museum of Berlin, which contains an older act of
the year 27, and another more recent of the year A.D. 127 (C.I.L. ii.
2633- Orel. 156); that of the respublica Pompelonensis (Pampeluna
in Spain) of A.p. 185 (C.I.L. ii. 2960; Wil. 2854); that of the
Segisamonenses, in Spain, of A.D. 239, now in the museum at Burgos
(Ephem. epigr. ii. 322) ; that of the fabri subidiani (i.e. subaediani,
qui sub aede consistunt) of Cordova, of A.D. 348 (C.I.L. ii. 2211;
Wil. 2861) ; and, in addition to many others, those found together at
Rome, on the site of the palace of Q. Aradius Valerius Proculus, and
belonging to him and other members of his family, from divers
African cities and executed in A.D. 321 and 322 (C.I.L. vi. 1684-1688;
Orel. 1079, 3058).
2. Hardly inferior in antiquity, and of superior value, are the
remains of laws in the stricter sense of the word (leges and plebiscita),
preserved to us in the originals, although unfortunately only in
fragments more or less extensive. Of those laws the oldest and most
important are the lex Acilia (for so it is in all probability to be styled)
repetundarum of the year 631 (C.I.L. i. 198), which is incised on a
bronze table about 2 metres broad, in 90 lines of about 200 to 240
letters each, and therefore extremely inconvenient to read, and the
lex agraria of 643 (l 1 1 B.C.), written on the reverse of the table of the
Acilia, abrogated shortly afterwards (C.I.L. i. 200) ; this is the third
of the celebrated laws of C. Gracchus bearing upon the division of
public lands. Then follow the lex Cornelia de viginti quaestoribus, a
fragment of Sulla's legislation, the eighth table only, of the whole set,
being preserved (C.I.L. i. 202) ; the plebiscitum de Thermensibus, on
the autonomy of Termessus in Pisidia, proposed by the tribuni plebis,
in 682 (72 B.C.), one of four or five large bronze plates (C.I.L. i. 204) ;
the lex Rubria de civitate Collide cisalpinae of 705 (49 B.C.), written in
a new and more convenient form (belonging as it does to Caesar's
legislation), in two columns, with numbered divisions, being the
fourth out of an unknown number of plates (C.I.L. i. 205) ; the
lex Julia municipalis, or, from the place where it was found, the
tabulae Heracleenses of 709 (45 B.C.), written on the reverse of the
much older Greek law of that community, preserved partly at
Naples, partly in the British Museum (C.I.L. i. 206), also a fragment
of Caesar's general municipal institutions; it contains a curious
passage relating to the public promulgation of laws (v. 15). These
are the laws o? the Roman republic preserved in important frag-
ments; some minor ones (brought together in C.I.L. i. 207-211) may
be left out of account here. In the imperial age, laws in general were
replaced by senatus consulta or by imperial decrees. It was also in
the form of a senatus consultum that the leges de imperio, on the
accession of the emperors, seem to have been promulgated. An
example of such a law, preserved in part on a bronze tablet found at
Rome, is the lex de imperio Vespasiani (C.I.L. vi. 930; Orel. i. 567).
There is, besides, one special category of imperial constitutions which
continued to be named leges, viz. the constitutions given by the
emperors to the divers classes of civitates, based upon the ancient
traditional rules of government applied to Rome itself as well as to
the coloniae and municipia. Of this sort of leges some very valuable
specimens have come from Spanish soil, viz. the lex coloniae Juliae
Cenetivae Urbanorum sive Ursonis (now Osuna), given to that colony
by Caesar in 710 (44 B.C.), but incised, with some alterations, in the
time of Vespasian, of which three bronze tables out of a much larger
number remain (Hiibner and Mommsen, Ephem. epigr. ii. 150 sq.
and 221 sq.); the lex Salpensana and the lex Malacitana, given to
these two municipia by Domitian, between A.D. 8 1 and 84, each on
a large bronze plate, written respectively in two and in five columns,
with the single chapters numbered and rubricated (C.I.L. ii. 1963,
1964 ; compare Mommsen, " Die Stadtrechte der lateinischen Gemein-
den Salpensa und Malacca in der Provinz Baetica," in the Abhand-
lungen der sachsischen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften, philol.-histor.
Classe, vol. iii., 1857, p. 363 sq.); the lex melalli Vipascensis, given,
with all probability, by one of the three Flavii, as a constitution to a-
miningldistrict of southern Portugal, one bronze plate numbered iii. —
three or more, therefore, being lost (see Hiibner, Ephem. epigr. iii.
165 sq. and, for a popular account, the Deutsche Rundschau, August
1877, p. 196 sq.). The so-called military diplomas, although in
certain respects nearly related to the leges of the later period, are
better placed along with the imperial decrees.
3. A third species of official documents is formed by decrees of
the senate of Rome, of the analogous corporations in the coloniae
and municipia, and of the divers collegia and sodalicia, constituted,
as a rule, after a similar fashion and debating in nearly the same
way as the Roman and the municipal senates. The oldest Roman
senatus consulta are those translated into the Greek language and
containing treaties of alliance, as already mentioned. They are
preserved either on monuments or by ancient authors, as Josephus:
e.g. the fragment found at Delphi, from the year 568 (186 B.C.), and
the senatus consultum Thisbaeum, from Thisbe in Boeotia, 584 (170
B.C.) (Ephem. epigr. i. 278 sq., ii. 102, and Joh. Schmidt, Zeit-
schrift der Savigny-Stiftung, vol. iii., 1881), those of 616, 619, 621,
649 (138-105 B.C.) (C. /. Graec. 2905, 2908, ii. 2485, 2737; Le Bas
and Waddington iii. 195-198; Annali dell' Instituto, vol. xix.
1847, p. 113; Ephem. epigr. iv. 213 sq.), and those relating to the
Jews, dating from 615, 621 and 710 (139, 133 and 44 B.C.) (Josephus,
Ant. xiii. 9. 2, xiv. 8. 5 and 10. 9). The two oldest senatus consulta
written in Latin are also preserved in a more or less complete form
only by ancient authors; they are the sc. de philosophis el rheloribus
°f 593 (161 B.C.) (Gellius, Noct. Alt. xv. n. i) and that de hastis
Martiis of 655 (99 B.C.) (Gellius iv. 6. 2). The only one belonging to
the oldest period preserved in the original Latin form, of which only
a part exists, together with the Greek translation, is the sc. Luta-
tianum, relating to Asclepiades of Clazomenae and his companions,
dating from 676 (77 B.C.) (C.I.L. i. 203). The rest, belonging to the
later epoch from Cicero downwards, about twenty in number, are
mostly preserved only in an abridged form by ancient writers, — such
as Cicero, Frontinus, Macrobius, — or in Justinian's Digesta (see
Hiibner, De senatus populique Romani actis, Leipzig, 1859, p. 66 sq.) ;
a few exist, however, in a monumental form, complete or in frag-
ments— as the two sc. on the ludi saeculares, dating from 17 B.C. and
A.D. 47, preserved on a marble slab found at Rome (C.I.L. vi. 877);
the fragments of two sc. in honour of Germanicus and the younger
Drusus, from Rome, on bronze tablets (C.I.L. vi. 911-912; Henz.
5381-5282); the two sc. Hosidianum and Volusianum, containing
regulations for the demolition and rebuilding of houses in Rome,
incised on the same bronze plate, found at Herculaneum, dating
from Nero's time, between A.D. 41 and 46 and from 56 (Orel. 3115;
Mommsen, Berichte der sacks. Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften, philol.-
histor. Classe, 1852, p. 272 sq.); and, of a later period, the sc. Cas-
sianum or Nonianum of A.p. 138, containing a market regulation for
the saltus Beguensis in Africa, where it has been found preserved in
two examples on stone slabs (Ephem. epigr. ii. 271 sq., not complete
in Wil. 2838), and the fragment of that for Cyzicus, belonging to the
reign of Antoninus Pius (Ephem. epigr. iii. 156 sq.). There exists,
besides, a chapter of a sc., relating to the collegia, inserted in the
decree of a collegium at Lanuvium, to be mentioned below. Of the
municipal decrees, of which a greater number is preserved (see
Hiibner, De sen. populique Rom. actis, p. 71 sq.), only a few of the
more important may be mentioned here: the lex Puteolana de
parieti faciundo of 649 (105 B.C.) (C.I.L. i. 577; Orel. 3697; Wil.
697); the two decreta (or so-called cenotaphia) Pisana in honour of
Lucius and Gaius Caesar, the grandsons of Augustus, of A.D. 3 (C.I.L.
xi. 1420, 1421; Orel. 642, 643; Wil. 883); the decretum Lanuvinum
of A.D. 133, containing the regulations of a collegium funeraticium,
styled collegium salutare Dianae et Antinoi (Orel. 6086; Wil. 319);
and the decretum Tergestinum, belonging to the time of Antoninus
Pius (C.I.L. v. 532; Hcnz. 7167; Wil. 693). There are, however,
more than thirty others preserved, some of them, such as those from
Naples, written in the Greek language. Of the third speciality, the
decreta collegiprum, only the lex collegii aquae of the 1st century
(Marini, Atti de' fratelli arvali, p. 70; Rudorff and Mommsen,
Zeitschriftfur Rechtsgeschichte, vol. xv., 1850, pp. 203, 345 sq.), and the
lex collegii Aesculapii et Hygiae, of 153 (C.I.L. vi. 10,234; Orel. 2417;
Wil. 320) need be mentioned here; many more exist. One of them,
the lex collegii Jovis Cerneni, dating from A.D. 167, found at Alburnus
major in Dacia, is preserved on the original tabella cerata on which it
was written (C.I.L. iii. 924; Henz. 6087; Wil. 321).
4. The fourth species of instrumenta are the decrees, sometimes in
the form of letters, of Roman and municipal magistrates, and of
the emperors and their functionaries, incised, as a rule, on bronze
tablets. The oldest decree in the Latin language which has been
preserved is that of L. Aemilius Paulus, when praetor in Hispania
Baetica, dating from 189 B.C., for the Turris Lascutana in southern
Spain (C.I.L. ii. 5041; Wil. 2837); of the same date is a Qreek
one of Cn. Manlius, consul of the year 565, for the Heracleenses
Cariae (Le Bas and Waddington n. 588). Then follow the famous
epistula consulum (falsely styled senatus consultum) ad Teuranos de
bacchanalibus, dated 568 (186 B.C.) (C.I.L. i. 196); the sentence of
the two Minucii, the delegates of the senate, on a dispute concerning
the boundaries between the Genuates and Viturii, 117 B.C. (C.I.L. i.
199; Orel. 3121; Wil. 872); and the epistula of the praetor L.
Cornelius (perhaps Sisenna), the praetor of 676 (78 B.C.) ad Tiburtes
(C.I.L. i. 201). These belong to the republican age. From the
imperial period a great many more have come down to us of varying
quality. Some of them are decrees or constitutions of the emperors
themselves. Such are the decree of Augustus on the aqueduct of
Venafrum (C.I.L. x. 4842; Henz. 6428; Wil. 784); that of
Claudius, found in the Val di Nona, belonging to A.D. 46 (C.I.L. v.
5050; Wil. 2842); of Vespasian for Sabora in Spain (C.I.L. ii.
1423), and for the Vanacini in Corsica (Orel. 4031) ; of Domitian for
Falerii (Orel. 3118); the epistles of Hadrian relating to Aezani in
Phrygia, added to a Greek decree of Avidius Quietus (C.I.L. iii.
355; Henz. 6955), and relating to Smyrna, in Greek, with a short
one of Antoninus Pius, in Latin (C.I.L. iii. 411; Orel. 3119); the
decrees of Commodus relating to the saltus Burunitanus in Africa
(C.I.L. viii. 10,570; cf. Eph. epigr. v. 471); of Sevcrus and
Caracalla for Tyra (Akkerman in Moesia), Latin and Greek (C.I.L.
iii. 781 ; Henz. 6429) ; of Valerian and Gallienus for Smyrna, also
Latin and Greek (C.I.L. iii. 412); of Diocletian de pretiis rerum
venalium, containing a long list of prices for all kinds of merchandise,
LATIN]
INSCRIPTIONS
63?
preserved in divers copies more or less complete, in Latin and Greek
(C.I.L. iii. 801 sq.; compare Ephem. epigr. iv. 180, and, as similar
monuments, the lex portus of Cirta, of A.D. 202 Wil. 2738, and the
fragment of a regulation for the importation of wines into Rome,
Henz. 5089, Wil. 2739) ; and some of the age of Constantino, as that
relating to Hispellum In Umbria (Henz. 5580; Wil. 2843), that of
Julian found at Amorgos (C.I.L. iii. 459; Henz. 6431), and some
others, of which copies exist also in the juridical collections. Of two
imperial rescripts of a still later age A.D. 413, fragments of the
originals, written on papyri, have been found in Egypt (see Mommsen
and Jaff6, Jahrbuchdes gemeinen deutschen Rechts, vol. vi., 1861 , p. 398 ;
Hanel, Corpus legum, p. 281). Imperial decrees, granting divers
privileges to soldiers, are the diplomata militaria also, mentioned
above, incised on two combined bronze tabjets in the form of
diptycha (L. Renier, " Recueil de dipl6mes militaires " ; C.I.L. iii.
842 sqq., 1955 sqq. ; Wil. 2862-2869), belonging to nearly all emperors
from Claudius down to Diocletian. Though not a decree, yet as a
publication going back directly to the emperor, and as being pre-
served in the monumental form, the speech of the emperor Claudius,
delivered in the senate, relating to the Roman citizenship of the
Gauls, of which Tacitus gives an abstract (Ann. xi. 23), ought also to
be mentioned here; it was engraved on large bronze slats by the
public authority of Lugudunum (Lyons), where a large fragment of
it is still preserved (Boissieu, Inscriptions antiques de Lyon, p. 132
sq.). Another sort of decrees, relating to a great variety of subjects,
has to be mentioned, emanating, not directly from the emperors, but
from their functionaries. Such are the decree of the proconsul L.
Helvius Agrippa, of the year A.D. 68, on the boundaries of some
tribes on the island of Sardinia (C.I.L. x. 7852 ; Wil. 872 a) ; that
of the prefect of Egypt, Tiberius Julius Alexander, written in Greek,
the same year (C. I. Grace. 4957) ; that of C. Helvidius Priscus,
on a similar question relating to Histonium, belonging perhaps to the
end of the 1st century (Wil. 873); that of the legate of Trajan, C.
Avidius Nigrinus, found at Delphi, in Greek and Latin (C.I.L. iii.
567; Orel. 3671; Wil. 874); a rescript of Claudius Quartinus,
perhaps the imperial legate of the Tarraconensis, of the year A.D. 1 19,
found at Pampluna (C.I.L. ii. 2959; Orel. 4032); the epistle of the
praefecti praetorio to the magistrates of Saepmum, of about A.D. 166-
169 (C.I.L. ix. 2438; Wil. 2841); the decree of L. Novius Rufus,
another legate of the Tarraconensis, who ex Mia recitavit, of A.D. 193
(C.I.L. ii. 4125; Orel. 897; Wil. 876); the sentence of Alfenius
Senecio, then subprefect of the dassis praetoria Misenensis, belonging
to the beginning of the 3rd century, formerly existing at Naples
(C.I.L. x. 3334) ; and some others of the 4th and 5th centuries, not
requiring specific mention here. Quite a collection of epistles of high
Roman functionaries is found in the celebrated inscription of Thorigny
(Mommsen, Berichte der sacks. Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften, 1852,
&235 sqO- The letter of a provincial functionary, a priest of Gallia
arbonensis, to the fabri subaediani of Narbonne, of the year 149,
may also be mentioned (Henz. 7215; Wil. 6960). To thesemust be
added the tabulae alimentariae, relating to the well-known provision
made by Trajan for the relief of distress among his subjects, such as
that of the Ligures Baebiani (C.I.L. ix. 1455; Wil. 2844) and that
of Veleia near Parma (Wil. 2845) ; while evidence of similar institu-
tions is furnished by inscriptions at Tarracina, at Sicca in Africa, and
at Hispalis in Spain (Wil. 2846-2848; C.I.L. ii. 1174). At the close
of this long list of official documents may be mentioned the
libellus of the procurator operum publicorum a columna divi Marci
of the year 193 (C.I.L. vi. 1585; Orel. 39; Wil. 2840) and the
interlocutiones of the praefecti vigilum on a lawsuit of the fullones
of Rome, of A.D. 244, inscribed on an altar of Hercules (C.I.L. vi.
266; Wil. 100). These documents form a most instructive class
of instrumenta.
5. Many documents, as may be supposed, were connected with
religious worship, public and private. The oldest lex templi, which
continued in force until a comparatively late period, was the regu-
lation given by Servius Tullius to the temple of Diana on the
Aventine, after the conclusion of the federal pact with the Latini,
noticed above. Mention is made of this ancient law as still in force
in two later documents of a similar character, viz. the dedication of
an altar to Augustus by the plebs of Narbo in southern France,
of A.D. 764, but existing only, at Narbonne, in a copy, made perhaps
in the 2nd century (C.I.L. xii. 4333; Orel. 2489; Wil. 104), and
that of an altar of Jupiter, dedicated at Salonae in Dalmatia in A.D.
137, still existing in part at Padua (C.I.L. iii. 1933; Orel. 2490; Wil.
163). Another lex fani still existing is that of a temple of Jupiter
Liber at Furfo, a mcus of southern Italy, of the year 696 (58 B.C.),
but copied, in vernacular language, from an older original (C.I.L.
i. 603; Orel. 2488; Wil. 105; compare Jordan in Hermes, vol. vii.,
1872, pp. 201 sq.). The lists of objects belonging to some sanctuaries
or to the ornaments of statues are curious, such as those of the
Diana Nemorensis at Nemi (Henz. Hermes, vol. vi., 1871, pp. 8 sq.),
and of a statue of Isis in Spain (Hiibner, Hermes, vol. i., 1866, pp. 345
sq.; compare C.I.L. ii. 2060, 3386, Orel. 2510, Wil. 210), and two
synopses from a temple at Cirta in Africa (Wil. 2736, 2737). The
sortes given by divinities may also be mentioned (see C.I.L. i. 267
sq.; Wil. 2822). To a temple also, though in itself of a secular
character, belonged a monument of the highest historical import-
ance, viz. the Index rerum a se gestarum, incised on bronze slabs,
copies of which Augustus ordered to be placed, in Latin and Greek,
where required, in the numerous Augustea erected to himself in
company with the Dea Roma. This is known as the Monumentum
Ancyranum, because it is at Angora in Asia Minor that the best
preserved copy of it, in Greek and Latin, exists; but fragments
remain of other copies from other localities (see C.I.L. iii. 779 sq.,
and the special editions of Mommsen, Berlin, 1865, and Bergk,
Gottingen, 1873). Among the inscriptions relating to sacred build-
ings must also be reckoned the numerous fragments of Roman
calendars, or fasti anni Juliani, found at Rome and other places,
which have been arranged and fully explained by Mommsen (C.I.L.
i., 2nd ed., part ii. ; compare for those found in Rome, C.I.L. vi.
2294-2306). Local, provincial or municipal calendaria have likewise
been found (as theferiale Cumanum, C.I.L. i. part ii. p. 229, and the
Capuanum, C.I.L. x. 3792). Many other large monumental in-
scriptions bear some relation, more or less strict, to sacred or public
buildings. Along with the official calendar exhibited on the walls
of the residence of the pontifex maximus, the list of the eponymous
magistrates, inscribed by the order of Augustus on large marble
slabs, was publicly shown — the fasti consulares, the reconstruction
and illustration of which formed the life-work of Borghesi. These
have been collected, down to the death of Augustus, by Henzen, and
compared with the additional written testimonies, by Mommsen,
in the Corpus (vol. i., 2nd ed., part ii.), along with the acta trium-
phorum and other minor fragments of fasti found in various Italian
communities, while the fasti sacerdotum publicorum populi Romani,
together with the tabula feriarum Latinarum, are given in the volume
devoted exclusively to the monuments of Rome (vol. vi. 441 sq.;
compare Hermes, vol. v., 1870, p. 379, and Ephem. epigr. ii. 93,
iii. 74, 205 sq.). Documents of the same kind, as, for example, the
album ordinis Thamugadensis from Africa (C.I.L. viii. 2403, 17903),
and a considerable mass of military lists (latercula, of which those
belonging to the garrison of the metropolis are brought together in
C.I.L. vi. 651 sq.), are given on many dedicatory and honorary
monuments, chiefly from Lambaesis in Africa (C.I.L. viii.). As
those documents, though having only a partial claim to be ranked
with the sacred ones, derive, like many other dedicatory monuments,
their origin and form from that class, so also the protocols (acta),
which, from Augustus downwards, seem to have been preserved in the
case of all important collegia magistratuum, now survive only from
one of the largest and most distinguished collegia sacerdotum, in the
acta collegii fratrum Analium, to which Marini first drew the attention
of epigraphists; they form one of the most important masses of
cpigraphic monuments preserved to us in the Latin language (see
C.I.L. vi. 459 sq., Ephem. epigr. ii. 211 sq., and Henzen's Acta
fratrum Arualium, Berlin, 1874).
6. Another species of instruments is formed by private documents.
They have been incidentally preserved (inserted, for instance, into
sepulchral and honorary inscriptions), in the later period not un-
frequently in monumental form, as the testaments, given partly or
in full, mentioned above (viz. that of Dasumius and the Gaul, C.I.L.
vi. 10229, Wil. 314, 315, and some capita testamentorum or codicilli,
as that of M. Meconius Leo found at Poetelia — C.I.L. x. 113, 114;
Orel. 3677, 3678; Wil. 696), and the donations, such as those of
T. Flavius Syntrophus (C.I.L. vi. 10239; Wil. 313), of T. Flavius
Artemidorus (Wil. 310), of Statia Irene and Julia Monime (C.I.L.
vi. 10231, 10247; Wil. 311, 318). Of a peculiar description is the
pactum fiduciae, found in Spain, engraved on a bronze tablet, and
belonging, in all probability, to the 1st century (C.I.L. ii. 5042),
which seems to be a formulary. Other documents relating to private
affairs exist in their original form, written on tabellae ceratae. Those
found together in a mining district of Dacia have been arranged and
explained by Mommsen and Zangemeister (C.I.L. iii. 291 sq., with
facsimiles); those found at Pompeii in 1875, containing receipts of
the banker L. Caecilius Jucundus, have been published in C.I.L. iv.
suppl.). These documents are written in cursive letters; and so
mostly, too, are some ocher curious private monuments, belonging
partly to the sacred inscriptions — the defixiones (cf. Tac. Ann. ii.
69), imprecations directed against persons suspected of theft or other
offences, who, according to a very ancient superstition, were in this
way believed to be delivered to punishment through the god to whom
the defixio was directed. The numerous Greek and Latin (and even
Oscan) examples of this usage have been brought together by
Audollent, Defixionum tabellae quotquot innotuerunt tarn in Graecis
Orientis quam in totius Occidents partibus praeter Atticas (Paris, 1904) ;
compare C.I.L. i. 818-820, C.I.L. vii. 140). Only a few of them are
incised on stone (as that to the Dea Ataecina from Spain, C.I.L. ii.
462); for the most part they are written, in cursive letters, or in
very debased capitals, on small bronze or lead tablets (so C.I.L. i.
818, 819; Henz. 6114, 6115; Wil. 2747, 2748), to be laid in the
tombs of the " defixi," or deposited in the sanctuaries of some
divinity.
7. Many of the private documents just alluded to have not a
monumental character similar to that of the other inscriptions in
the wider sense of the word, as they are written on materials not
very durable, such as wood and lead — in the majority of cases, in
cursive characters; but, -nevertheless, they cannot be classed as
literature. As a last species, therefore, of instrumenta, there remain
some documents, public and private, which similarly lack the strict
monumental character, but still are to be reckoned among inscrip-
tions. These arc the inscriptions painted or scratched (graffiti) on
638
INSECT— INSECTIVORA
the walls of the buildings of ancient towns, like Pompeii, where, as
was to be expected, most of them have been preserved, those from
other ancient cities buried by the eruptions of Vesuvius and from
Rome being very small in number. All the various classes of these
inscriptions — public and private advertisements, citations for the
municipal elections, and private scribblings of the most diverse (anc
sometimes most indecent) character, one partly collected by Chr
Wordsworth (Inscriptiones Pompeianae, &c., London, 1837, 1846) —
are now arranged by Zangemeister in the Corpus, vol. iv. with supple-
ment (some specimens in Wil. 1951 sq.), whence their peculiar
palaeographic and epigraphic rules may be learned. And, lastly,
as related to some of these advertisements, though widely differing
from them in age and character, may be mentioned the so-called
diptycha consularia, monuments, in the first instance, of the still very
respectable skill in this branch of sculpture to be found at this late
period. They are carved-ivory tablets, in the form of pugillaria, and
seem to have been invitations to the solemnities connected with the
accession of high magistrates, especially to the spectacles of the
circus and amphitheatre; for they contain, along with representa-
tions of such spectacles, the names, and often the portraits, of high
functionaries, mostly of the 5th and 6th centuries. Since Gori's
well-known work on this class of monuments (Thesaurus veterum
diptychorum, &c., 3 vols., Florence, 1759) no comprehensive collection
of them has been published, but a full list is given by H. de Villefosse
in the Gazette Archeologique of 1884; as specimens see C.I.L. ii. 2699,
and v. 8120, 1-9.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — As a "Textbook" of Roman epigraphy R.
Cagnat, Cours d'epigraphie latine (3rd ed., Paris, 1898, with supple-
ment, 1904) can be heartily recommended. But students must be
warned against Zell's Handbuch der romischen Epigraphik (2 vols.,
Heidelberg, 1850-1852), an unsatisfactory work which is open to
serious criticism. J. C. Egbert's Introduction to the Study of Latin
Inscriptions (1896) is designed for American and English students.
For Christian inscriptions Le Slant's Manuel d'epigraphie chretienne
d'apres les marbres de la Gaule (Paris, 1869) may still be consulted
with advantage. (E.Hu.; W. M. L.)
INSECT, the anglicized form of the Late Lat. insectum, used
by Pliny in his Natural History as the equivalent of the Gr.
tvronov. Aristotle had included in one class " Entoma" the
six-legged arthropods which form the modern zoological class
of theHexapodaorlnsecta, besides the Arachnida, the centipedes
and the millipedes. The word was introduced to English readers
in a translation (1601) of Pliny's Natural History by Philemon
Holland, who denned " insects " as " little vermine or smal
creatures which have (as it were) a cut or division betwene their
heads and bodies, as pismires, flies, grashoppers, under which
are comprehended earthworms, caterpilers, &c." Few zoological
terms have been more loosely used both by scientific and popular
writers. The definition just quoted might include all animals
belonging to the groups of the Arthropoda and Annelida, and
U. Aldrovandi in De animations insectis (1602) almost contem-
poraneously distinguished between " terrestrial insects," includ-
ing woodlice, earthworms and slugs, and " aquatic insects,"
comprising annelids and starfishes. Perhaps the widest meaning
ever attached to the word was that of R.A.F. de Reaumur, who
" would willingly refer to the class of insects all animals whose
form would not allow them to be placed in the class of ordinary
quadrupeds, in that of birds, or in that of fishes. The size of an
animal should not suffice to exclude it from the number of
insects. ... A crocodile would be a terrible insect; I should
have no difficulty, however, in giving it that name. All reptiles
belong to the class of insects, for the same reasons that earth-
worms belong to it."
The class Insecta of Linnaeus (1758) was coextensive with the
Arthropoda of modern zoologists. The general practice for
many years past among naturalists has been to restrict the terms
" Insecta " and " insect " to the class of Arthropods with three
pairs of legs in the adult condition: bees, flies, moths, bugs,
grasshoppers, springtails are " insects," but not spiders, centi-
pedes nor crabs, far less earthworms, and still less slugs, star-
fishes or coral polyps.
For a general account of the structure, development and relation-
ships of insects, see ARTHROPODA and HEXAPODA, while details of
the form, habits and classification of insects will be found in articles
on the various orders or groups of orders (APTERA, COLEOPTERA,
DIPTERIA,HEMIPTERA,HYMENOPTERA,LEPIDOPTERA,NEUROPTERA,
PRTHOPTERA, THYSANOPTERA), and in special articles on the more
familiar divisions (ANT, BEE, DRAGON-FLY, EARWIG, &c.). The
history of the study of insects is sketched under ENTOMOLOGY.
(G. H. C.)
INSECTIVORA, an order of non-volant placental mammals
of small size, with a dentition adapted to an insect-diet. In
nearly all cases these creatures are nocturnal, and the majority
are terrestrial, many burrowing in the ground, although a few
are arboreal and others aquatic. They have plantigrade or
partially plantigrade feet, that is to say, they apply the whole
or the greater portion of the soles to the ground when walking;
and there are generally five toes, each terminating in a claw,
and the first never being opposable to the others in either the
fore or hind limb. A full series of differentiated teeth, including
temporary or deciduous milk-molars, is developed, and the
cheek-teeth have distinct roots and are crowned with sharp cusps,
which in some instances are three in number and arranged in a
triangle. Very frequently the number of the teeth is the typical
forty-four, arranged as i. f , c. \ , p. f- , m. f , but occasionally there
is a fourth pair of molars, while the incisors may be reduced to
two pairs above and one below, and the canine is frequently
like an incisor or a premolar. The skull is of a primitive type,
often with vacuities on the palate, as in marsupials, with a
small brain-chamber, and the tympanic bone generally ring-like
instead of forming a bladder-shaped bulla; except in the
African Potamogale, clavicles, or collar-bones, are always present ;
the humerus generally has a perforation on the inner side of its
lower extremity; and a centrale bone is usually present in the
carpus. In the brain the smooth hemispheres are so short as to
leave the cerebellum and sometimes even the corpora quadrige-
mina exposed. The uterus is two-horned; the placenta, so far
as known, is deciduate and discoidal; the testes are abdominal
or inguinal; and the teats usually numerous. The body in
several instances is covered with sharp spines in place of hair.
The great majority of the Insectivora are nocturnal in their
habits, and their whole structure indicates an extremely low
grade of organisation, fully as low as that of marsupials. It is
noteworthy that the dentition in several of the groups approxi-
mates to that of the extinct mammals of the Jurassic epoch (see
MARSUPIALIA), and exhibits more or less distinctly the primitive
tritubercular type. Although the past history of the group is
very imperfectly known, it seems probable that the Insectivora
are nearly related to the original primitive mammalian stock.
Indeed, it has been stated that were it not for the apparently
advanced type of placenta, they might easily be regarded as
the little modified descendants of the ancestors of most, other
mammals. Probably they are in some way related to the
creodont carnivores (see CREODONTA), but if, as has been sug-
gested, the latter are akin to the primitive ungulates, the con-
nexion would seem to be less close than has been sometimes
supposed.
Representatives of this order are found throughout the
temperate and tropical parts of both hemispheres, with the
exception of South America (where only a few shrews have
effected an entrance from the north) and Australia, and exhibit
much variety both in organization and in habit. The greater
number are cursorial, but some (Talpa, Chrysochloris, Oryzorictes)
are burrowing, others (Limnogale, Potamogale, Neclogale, Myogale)
aquatic, and some (Tupaiidae) arboreal. To the great majority
the term insectivorous is applicable, although Potamogale is
said to feed on fish, and the moles live chiefly on worms. Not-
withstanding the nature of their food, much variety prevails
in the form and number of the teeth, and while in many cases
the division into incisors, canines, premolars and molars may
be readily traced, in others, forming the great majority of the
species, such as the shrews, this is difficult.
In most cases the brain-cavity is of small relative capacity,
and in no instance is the brain-case elevated to any considerable
extent above the face-line. The facial part of the skull is gener-
ally much produced, and the premaxillary and nasal bones well
developed; but the cheek, or zygomatic arch, is usually slender
or deficient, the latter being the case in most of the species, and
post-orbital processes of the frontals are found only in the
Tupaiidae and Macroscelididae. The number of dorsal vertebrae
varies from 13 in Tupaia to 19 in Centeles, of lumbar from 3
'n Chrysochloris to 6 in Talpa and Sorex, and of caudal from
INSECTIVORA
639
the rudimentary vertebrae of Centetes to the 40 or more well-
developed ones of Microgale.
The breast -bone, or sternum, is variable, but generally narrow,
bilobate in front and divided into segments. The shoulder-
girdle presents extreme adaptive modifications in the mole, in
relation to the use of the fore-limbs in burrowing; but in the
golden moles the fore-arm and fore-foot alone become specially
modified. In Macroscelid.es the bones of the fore-arm are united
at their lower ends, but in all other Insectivora the radius and
ulna are distinct. The fore-foot has generally five digits; but
in Rhynchocyon and in one species of Oryzorictes the first toe
is absent, and in the moles it is extremely modified. The femur
has, in most species, a prominent ridge below the greater tro-
chanter presenting the characters of a third trochanter. In
Tupaia, Centetes, Hemicentetes, Ericulus and Solenodon the tibia
and fibula are distinct, but in most other genera united. The
hind-foot consists usually of five digits (rarely four by reduction
of the first), and in some, as in the leaping species (Macroscelides,
Rhynchocyon), the tarsal bones are elongated. The form of the
pelvis, and especially of the symphysis pubis, varies within
certain limits, so that while in the Tupaiidae and Macroscelididac
there is a long symphysis, in the Erinaceidae, Centetidae and
Potamogalidae it is short, and in the Soricidae, Talpidae and
Chrysochloridae there is none.
Owing to the similarity in the character of the food, the
truly insectivorous species, forming more than nine-tenths of
the order, present little variety in the structure of the digestive
organs. The stomach is a simple, thin- walled sac; sometimes
as in Centetes, with the pyloric and oesophageal openings close
together; the intestinal canal has much the same calibre
throughout, and varies from three (in the shrews) to twelve
times (in the hedgehogs) the length of the head and body. In the
arboreal Tupaia and the allied Macroscelididae, which probably
feed on vegetaole substances as well as insects most of the
species possess a caecum. The liver is deeply divided into lobes,
the right and left lateral being cut off by deep fissures; both the
caudate and Spigelian lobes are generally well developed, and
the gall-bladder, usually large and globular, is placed on the
middle of the posterior surface of the right central lobe.
All the members of the order appear to be highly prolific,
the number of young varying from two to eight in the hedgehog,
and from twelve to twenty-one in the tenrec. The position of
the milk-glands and the number of teats vary greatly. In
Solenodon there is a single pair of post-inguinal teats, but in
most species these organs range from the thorax to the abdomen,
varying from two pairs in Gymnura to twelve in the tenrec.
In the golden moles the thoracic and inguinal teats are lodged in
deep cut-shaped depressions.
Scent-glands exist in many species. In most shrews they
occur on the sides of the body at a short distance behind the
axilla, and their exudation is probably protective, as few carni-
vorous animals will eat their dead bodies. In both species of
Gymnura and in Potamogale large pouches are situated on each
side of the rectum, and discharge their secretions by ducts, opening
in the first-named genus in front of and in the latter within
the margin of the vent. In the tenrec similarly situated glands
discharge by pores opening at the bottom of deep pits.
The skin is thin, but in many species lined with well-developed
muscles, which are probably more developed in hedgehogs than
in any other mammals. In this family and in the tenrec most of
the species are protected by spines implanted in the skin-muscle,
or panniculus carnosus.
The Insectivora may be divided into two groups, according to the
degree of development of the union between the two halves of the
_ pelvis. The first group is characterized by the full
™e" development of this union, both pubis and ischium
entering into the symphysis. The tympanum remains as
a ring within an auditory bulla; the orbit is either surrounded by
bone, or separated from the hinder part of the skull by a post-
orbital process of the frontal ; the upper molars have broad 5-cusped
crowns with a W-shaped pattern; and the intestine is generally
furnished with a caecum. The first family of this group is the
Tupaiidae, represented by the tree-shrews, or tupaias, of the Indo-
Malay countries, characterized by the complete bony ring round the
eye-socket, the freedom of the fibula from the tibia in the hind-limb,
and the absence of any marked elongation of the tarsus. The dental
formula is i. f, c. \,p. f, m. 3, total 38. In appearance and habits
tree-shrews are extremely like squirrels, although they differ, of
course, in toto as regards their dentition. A large number of species
are included as the typical genus Tupaia, which ranges from north-
eastern India to the great Malay Islands. In these animals the tail
has a fringe of long hairs on opposite sides throughout its length.
In the pen-tailed tree-shrew (Ptilocercus lowii), fig. I, the only repre-
sentative of its genus, and a native of Sumatra, Borneo and the
Malay Peninsula, the fringes of long hair are confined to the terminal
third of the tail. There are also differences in the skulls of the two
genera. A third genus, Urogale, represented by U. cylindrura of the
mountains of Mindanao, in the Philippines, and U. everetti, of Borneo,
has been established for the round-tailed tupaias, in which the tail is
uniformly short-haired, and the second upper incisor and the lower
canines are unusually large, the third lower incisor being proportion-
ately small, and also erect, while the second upper incisor resembles
a canine. (See TREE-SHREW.)
In Africa the tupaias are apparently represented by the jumping-
shrews, or elephant-shrews (so called from their elongated muzzles),
constituting the family Macroscelididae. From the Tupaiidae the
members ofthis family are readily distinguished by the fact that the
socket of the eye, in place of having a complete bony ring, is separated
from the hinder part of the skull merely by a post-orbital process of
FIG. i. — Pen-tailed Tree-Shrew (Ptilocercus lorni). X 3-
the frontal bone, and also by the more or less marked elongation of
the tarsus or lower portion of the hind-limb; another feature being
the union of the lower ends of the tibia and fibula. As indicated by
one of their names, the members of the group leap after the fashion
of gerbils, or jerboas, and hence walk much more on their toes than
the majority of the order. In the typical genus Macroscelides,
which ranges all over Africa and has numerous specific representa-
tives, the dental formula is i. | ,c.{, p. }, m. , total 40 or 42;
while there are five toes to each foot, and the lower ends of the radius
and ulna are united. In Petrodromus (fig. 2) of East Africa, there are
only four front-toes, and the hairs on the lower part of the tail form
stiff bristles, with swollen tips; the dental formula being the same
as that of those species of Macroscelides as have only two lower
molars. A further reduction of the number of the digits takes place
in the long-nosed jumping-shrews of the genus Rhynchocyon, which
are larger animals with a much longer snout, only four toes to each
foot, and a dental formula of i. I or °' c.{, p. |, m. f , total 36 or 34.
Some of the species, all of which are East African, differ from the
members of the typical genus by the deep rufous brown instead of
olive-grey colour of their coat. (See JuMpiNG-SHREW.)
In the second group, which includes all the other members
of the order, the pelvic symphysis is either lacking or formed
merely by the epiphyses of the pubes; the orbit and temporal
region of the skull are confluent ; and, except in the Talpidae and
Chrysochloridae, the tympanum is ring-like, the tympanic cavi'y
being formed by the ahsphenoid and basisphenoid bones. The
upper molars are triconodcnt, being either of the typical or a modified
640
INSECTIVORA
form of what is known as the tritubercular sectorial type. There is
no caecum.
The first representatives of this group are the moles, or Talpidae,
in which the lower ends of the tibia and fibula are united (fig 3,
t,fb), there is a descent of the testes, the tympanum forms
a bladder-like bulla, the zygomatic, or cheek-arch,
although slender, is complete, there is no pelvic symphysis, the upper
molars are five-cusped, and the first upper incisor is simple, and the
lower vertical. In habits the majority of the family are burrowing,
but a few are aquatic; and all feed on animal substances. The
distribution is limited to the temperate regions of Europe, Asia and
North America.
Throughout the family the eyes are minute, and in some species
are covered with skin; the ears are short and hidden in the fur;
and the fore-limbs are generally more or less modified for digging.
The true moles of the genus Talpa are the typical representatives
of the first subfamily, or Talpinae, in which the clavicle (fig. 3, d.)
and humerus (h) are very short and broad, while there is an addi-
tional sickle-like bone (fc) on the inner side of the fore-foot. In
Talpa itself the first upper incisor is but little larger than the second,
the fore-foot is very broad, and the dental formula is i. g, c,- ,
p- I. f , or I. "*. |. There are about a dozen species, all confined to
FIG. 2. — Peter's Jumping-Shrew (Petrodromus tetradactylus). X J.
the Old World. The variation in the dental formula of some of the
best known of these is as follows : —
*• i. c- i. P- i. rn. ?X2 (T. wogura, robusta).
i. I, c. }, p. -J, m jf X2 (T, europaea, caeca, romana, longiro-
stris, micrura).
i- i, c. \, p. f, m. |X2 (T. leucura leptura).
i- I. c. i, p. |, m.'iX2(T. moschata).
Except in T. europaea, the eyes are covered by a membrane. In
T. micrura the short tail is concealed by the fur. T. europaea
extends from England to Japan.
T. caeca and T. romana are found south of the Alps, the remaining
species are all Asiatic, two only — T. micrura and T. leucura —
occurring south of the Himalaya.
The genus may be split up into subgenera corresponding with the
above table; these subdivisions being sometimes accorded full
generic rank. For instance the Japanese T. wogura and the Siberian
T. robusta are often referred to under the ill-sounding titles of
Mogera wogura and M. robusta.
Referring more fully to the European species, it may be mentioned
that the mole exhibits in its organization perfect adaptation to its
mode of life. In the structure of the skeleton striking departures
from the typical mammalian forms are noticeable. The first sternal
bone is so much produced as to extend forward as far as a vertical
line from the second cervical vertebra, carrying with it the very short
almost quadrate clavicles, which are articulated with its anterior
extremity and externally with the humeri, being also connected
ligamentously with the scapula. The fore-limbs are thus brought
opposite the sides of the neck, and from this position a threefold
advantage is derived: — in the first place, as this is the narrowest
part of the body, they add little to the width, which, if increased,
would lessen the power of movement in a confined space; secondly
this position allows of a longer fore-limb than would otherwise be
possible, and so increases its lever power; and, thirdly, although the
entire limb is relatively short, its anterior position enables the
animal, when burrowing, to thrust the claws so far forward as to be
in a line with the end of
the muzzle, the import-
ance of which is evident.
Posteriorly, we find the
hind-limbs removed out of
the way by approximation
of the hip-joints to the
centre line of the body.
This is effected by inward
curvature of the innomi-
nate bones at the aceta-
bulum to such an extent
that they almost meet in
the centre, while the pubic
bones are widely separated
behind. The shortness of
the fore-limb is due to the
humerus, which, like the
clavicle, is so reduced in
length as to present the
appearance of a flattened
X- shaped bone, with
prominent ridges and deep
depressions for the attach-
ments of powerful muscles.
Its upper extremity pre-
sents two rounded promin-
ences; the smaller, the true
head of the bone, articu-
lates as usual with the
scapula ; the larger, which
is the external tuberosity
rounded off, forms a sepa-
rate joint with the end of
the clavicle. This double
articulation gives the
rigidity necessary to sup-
port the great lateral
pressure sustained by the
fore-limb in excavating.
The bones of the fore-leg
are normal, but those of
the fore-foot are flattened
and laterally expanded. FIG. 3. — Skeleton of Mole (Talpa
The great width of the europaea) X| (lower jaw removed to
fore-foot is also partly due show base of skull).
to the presence of a peculiar c
bone on the inner side of c.h,
the palm and articulating
with the wrist. cl,
The muscles acting on e.c,
these modified limbs are /,
homologous with those of fb,
cursorial insectivora.differ- fc,
ing only in their relative h,
development. The tendon i-C,
of the biceps traverses a it,
long bony tunnel, formed i-p,
by the expansion of the is,
margin of the bicipital l.d,
groove for the insertion
of the pectoralis major l.t,
muscle; the anterior m,
division of the latter o,
muscle is unconnected with
the sternum, extending ol,
across as a band between p,
the humeri, and co-ordi-
nating the motions of the pa,
Calcaneum.
Clavicular articulation of the
humerus.
Clavicle.
External condyle of humerus.
Femur.
Fibula.
Falciform bone (radial scsamoid).
Humerus.
Internal condyle of humerus.
Left iliac bone.
Ramus of the ilium and pubis.
Ischium.
Ridge of insertion of latissimus
dorsi muscle.
Lesser trochanter.
Manubrium sterni.
Fourth hypapophysial sesamoid
ossicle.
Olecranon.
Pubic bone widely separated
from that of the opposite side.
Patella.
fore-limbs. The teres major p.m, Ridge for insertion of pectoralis
and latissimus dorsi
muscles are of immense pt,
size, inserted into the r,
prominent ridge below the rb,
pectoral attachment, and s,
are the principal agents in
the excavating action of
the limb. The cervical sc,
muscles connecting the s.h,
slender scapulae, and
through them the fore- t,
limbs, with the centre line of u,
the neck and with the occi-
put are large, and the ligamentum nuchae between them is ossified.
The latter condition appears to be due to the prolongation forwards
of the sternum, preventing flexion of the head downwards; and,
accordingly, the normal office of the ligament being lost, it ossifies,
major muscle.
Pectineal eminence.
Radius.
First rib.
Plantar sesamoid ossicle corre-
sponding to the radial sesamoid
(os falciform) in the manus.
Scapula.
Scapular articulation of the
humerus.
Tibia.
Ulna.
INSECTIVORA
641
and affords a fixed point for the origins of the superficial cervical
muscles.
The skull is long, with slender zygomatic arches; the nasal bones
are strong and early become united, and in front of them the nostrils
are continued forwards in tubes formed of thick cartilage, the septum
between which becomes partially or wholly ossified beneath. There
are 7 cervical, 13 dorsal, 6 lumbar, 6 sacral and 10-12 caudal verte-
brae; of the dorsal and lumbar there may be one more or less.
The sacral vertebrae are united by their expanded and compressed
spinous processes, and all the others, with the exception of the
cervical, are closely and solidly articulated together, so as to support
the powerful propulsive and fossorial actions of the limbs. The
upper incisors are simple chisel-edged teeth; the canine is long and
two-rooted; then follow three subequal conical premolars, and a
fourth, much larger, and like a canine; these are succeeded by three
molars with W-shaped cusps. In the lower jaw the three incisors on
each side are slightly smaller, and slant more forwards; close behind
them is a tooth which, though like them, must, from its position in
front of the upper canine, be considered as the canine; behind it,
but separated by an interval, is a large double-rooted conical tooth,
the first premolar; the three following premolars are like the corre-
sponding teeth above, but smaller, and are succeeded, as above, by
the three molars. See MOLE.
In the other members of the Talpinae, which are North American,
the first upper incisor is much taller than the second. They include
the curious star-nosed mole (Condylura cristata), which has the typical
series of 44 teeth and a series of fleshy appendages round the ex-
tremity of the snout; the species known as Scapanus townsendi
FIG. 4. — Russian Desman (Myogale moschata). XJ.
and Parascalops americanus, each representing a genus by itself, and
characterized by the absence of nasal appendages and the presence
of only two pairs of lower incisors; and, finally, Scalops aquaticus,
in which the dentition is further reduced by the loss of the lower
canine, the total number of teeth thus being forty.
Forming a transition to the subfamily Myogalinae, in which the
clavicle and humerus are typically of normal form, and there is no
sickle-shaped bone in the fore-foot, is the Chinese mole (Scaptonyx
piscicauda), characterized by having the clavicle and humerus of
the true mole-type, but the foot like that of the under-mentioned
Urotrichus. The relative proportions of the first and second upper
incisors are also as in Talpa, but there are only two pairs of lower
incisors.
Among the more typical Myogalinae, mention may be made of
Dymecodon pilirostris, from Japan, representing a genus by itself;
nearly allied to which are the shrew-moles, as represented by the
small and long-tailed Urotrichus of Japan, with incisors f and pre-
molars f, and U. (Neurotrichus) gibbsi of North America, in which
the premolars are f. A still more interesting form is the Tibetan
Uropsilus soricipes, a non-burrowing species, with the external
appearance of a shrew combined with the skull of a mole, the feet
being much narrower than in Urotrichus, and the dental formula
«. f , c. \, p. |, m. f.
The typical representatives of the subfamily are the two European
desmans, Myogale moschata and M. pyrenaica, which are aquatic in
habits and have the feet webbed and the full series of 44 teeth.
The former is by far the largest member of the whole family, its total
length being about 16 in. Its long proboscis-like snout projects far
XIV. 21
c pm,
FIG. 5. — Skull and Dentition
beyond the margin of the upper lip; the toes are webbed as far as
the bases of the claws; and the long scaly tail is laterally flattened,
forming a powerful instrument of propulsion when swimming. This
species inhabits the banks of streams and lakes in south-east Russia,
where its food consists of various aquatic insects. M. pyrenaica,
living in a similar manner in the Pyrenees, is much smaller, has a
cylindrical tail, and a relatively long snout.
The Shrew-mice, or, shortly, shrews (Soncidae), are closely related
to the Talpidae, with which they are connected by means of some
of the subfamily Myogalinae. They are, however, dis-
tinguished by the ring-like tympanic, the incompleteness t>"rews-
of the zygomatic arch, the tubercular-sectorial type of upper molar,
the two-cusped first upper incisor, and the forward direction of the
corresponding lower tooth. As a rule they are terrestrial, but a few
are aquatic.
The dentition (fig. 5) is characteristic, and affords one of the chief
means of classifying this exceedingly difficult group of mammals.
1 here are no lower canines, and
always six functional teeth on each
side of the lower jaw, but in some
rare instances an additional rudi- j
mentary tooth is squeezed in be- :
tween two of the others. The first ' -
pair of teeth in each jaw differ from
the rest; in the upper jaw they
are hooked and have a more or
less pronounced basal cusp; in the
lower jaw they are long and pro-
ject horizontally forwards, some-
times with an upward curve at
the tip. Behind the first upper
incisor comes a variable number
of small teeth, of which, when all
are developed, the first two are in- a. „., .tlllllluil
cisors, the third the canine, and of a Shrew-mouse (Sorex-verae-
the next two premolars; behind pacis); i, first incisors; c in
these, again, are four larger teeth, of the upper jaw is the canine-
which the front one is the last and p-m the three premolars
premolar, while the other three are behind which are the three
molars. Thus we have in the molars; in the lower jaw c is
typical genus Sorex(fig. 5) the dental the second incisor, and p the
formula i. f , c. J, p. f , m. |, total single premolar.
32, or twenty upper and twelve
lower teeth. The lower formula, as already stated, is constant, but
the number of the upper series varies from the above maximum of
twenty to a minimum of fourteen in Diplomesodon and Anurosorex,
in which the formula is i. 2, c. I, p. i, m. 3. From the relation of the
fourth upper tooth to the premaxillo-maxillary suture it has been
supposed that shrews, like many polyprotodont marsupials, have four
pairs of upper incisors; but this is improbable, and the formula is
accordingly here taken to follow the ordinary placental type.
Shrews may be divided into two sections, according as to whether
the teeth are tipped with brownish or reddish or are wholly white,
the former group constituting the Soricinae and the latter the
Crocidurinae.
In the red-tipped group is the typical genus Sorex, which ranges
over Europe and Asia north of the Himalaya Mountains to North
America. There are twenty upper teeth with the formula given
above, the ears are well developed, the tail is long and evenly haired,
and the aperture of the generative organs in at least one of the sexes
is distinct from the vent. The common shrew-mouse (Sorex araneus)
has a distribution co-extensive with that of the genus in the Old
World, and the North American 5. richardsoni can scarcely be re-
garded as more than a local race. A few species, such as Sorex
hydrodomus of Alaska and 5. palustris of the United States, have
fringes of long hairs on the feet, and are aquatic in habit. The latter
has been made the type of the genus Neosorex, but such a distinction,
according to Dr J. E. Dobson, is unnecessary. The same authority
likewise rejects the separation of the North American 5. bendirei as
Atophyrax, remarking that this species is an inhabitant of marshy
land, and appears to present many characters intermediate between
S. palustris and the terrestrial species of the genus, differing from the
former in the absence of well-defined fringes to the digits, but agree-
ing with it closely in dentition, in the large size of the infra-orbital
foramen, and in the remarkable shortness of the angular process
of the lower jaw. In India and Burma the place of Sorex is taken
by Soriculus, in which the upper teeth are generally 18, although
rarely 20, and the generative organs have an opening in common with
the vent after the fashion of the monotreme mammals. The latter
feature occurs in the North American Blarina, which is characterized
by the truncation of the upper part of the ear and the short tail, the
number of upper teeth being 20 or 1 8. Another American genus,
Notiosorex, in which the ear is well developed and thetail medium,
has only 16 upper teeth. From all the rest of the red-toothed group
the water-shrew, Neomys (or Crossopus) fodiens, of Europe and
northern Asia, differs by the fringe of long hairs on the lower surface
of the tail; the number of upper teeth being 18.
In the white- toothed, or crocidurine, group, the small African genus
Myosorex, which has either 18 or 20 upper teeth, includes long-
tailed and large-eared species in which the aperture of the generative
642
INSECTIVORA
organs and the vent, although close together, are yet distinct. In
the musk-shrews (Crocidura), on the other hand, which are common
to Europe, Asia and Africa, the reproductive organs and the ali-
mentary canal discharge into a common cloaca, the long tail is
sparsely covered with long and short hairs, there are anal glands
secreting a strong musky fluid, and the number of upper teeth is 1 6
or 1 8. Diplomesodon pulchellus of the Kirghiz steppes, has, on the
other hand, only 14 upper teeth, and is further characterized by the
moderately long tail and the hairy soles of the hind-feet. Another
genus is represented by the Tibetan Anurosorex squamipes, which has
the same dental formula, but a mole-like form, rudimentary tail and
scaly hind-soles. Lastly, we have two Asiatic mountain aquatic
species, Chimarrogale htmalayaca of the Himalayas and Nectogale
elegans of Tibet, which have fringed tails like the European water-
shrew, and 16 upper teeth, the former characterized by the small but
perfect external ears, and the latter (fig. 6) by the absence of the ears
and presence of adhesive disks on the feet.
It will be seen that the red- and the white-toothed series have
parallel representative forms, which may indicate that the division
of the family into the two groups is one based rather on convenience
than on essential differences. See SHREW.
From the shrews, the hedgehogs and gymnuras, or rat-shrews,
collectively forming the family Erinaceidae, differ structurally by the
broader ring made by the tympanic, the complete zygomatic arch,
the five-cusped broad upper molars, and the presence of a short
FIG. 6. — The Tibetan Water-shrew (Nectogale elegans).
pubic symphysis. At the present day they are an exclusively Old
World group.
The typical group, or Erinaceinae, is represented only by the
hedgehogs, with the one genus Erinaceus, easily recognized by their
spiny coats, and further characterized by the rudimentary
tail, the presence of vacuities in the palate, and the broad
pelvis. Hedgehogs (Erinaceus) have the dental formula
«'. |, c. I, p. |, m, I, and are represented by over a score of species,
distributed throughout Europe, Africa and the greater part of Asia,
but unknown in Madagascar, Ceylon, Burma, Siam, the Malay
countries, and, of course, Australia. All the species resemble one
another in the armour of spines covering the upper surface and sides
of the body ; and all possess the power of rolling themselves up into
the form of a ball protected on all sides by these spines, the skin of the
back being brought downwards and inwards over the head and tail
so as to include the limbs by the action of special muscles.
Curiously enough the European hedgehog (E. europaeus) is the most
aberrant species, differing from all the rest in the peculiarly-shaped
and single-rooted third upper incisor and first premolar (fig. 7, A),
and in its very coarse harsh fur. The dentition of the long-eared
Indian E. grayi (fig. 7, B) may, on the other hand, be considered
characteristic of all the other species, the only important differences
being found in the variable size and position of the second upper
premolar, which is very small, external and deciduous in the Indian
E. micropus and E. Rictus. The former species, limited to South
India, is further distinguished by the absence of the jugal bone.
Of African species, E. diadematus, with long frontal spines, is pro-
bably the commonest, and E. albiventris has been made the type of a
separate genus on account of the total absence of the first front-toe.
See HEDGEHOG.
The members of the second subfamily, Gymnurinae, are more or
less rat-like animals, confined to the Malay countries, and easily
distinguished from the hedgehogs by the absence of spines
among the fur and the well-developed tail. They also lack
vacuities in the palate, and have a long and narrow pelvis.
The typical representative of the family is the greater rat-shrew,
or greater gymnura (Gymnura rafflesi) a creature which may be com-
Kat-
*hnw.
pared to a giant shrew, and whose colour is partly black and partly
white, although a uniformly pale-coloured race. (G. r. alba) inhabits
Borneo. In common with the next genus, it has the full series of 44
teeth; and its range extends from Tenasserim and the Malay
Peninsula to Sumatra and Borneo, the island individuals being stated
to be considerably larger than those from the mainland. In this
species the length of the tail is about three-fourths that of the head
and body; but in the lesser rat-shrew (Hylomys suillus), ranging
FIG. 7. — Fore-part' of Skulls of Common Hedgehog (Erinaceui
europaeus). A, and Gray's Hedgehog (E. grayi), B, much enlarged.
from Burma and the Malay Peninsula to Java and Sumatra, the
former dimension is only about one-sixth of the latter. In the
Philippines the group is represented by Podogymnura truei, dis-
tinguished from the other genera by the great elongation of the hind-
foot, the tail being likewise long. There are only three pairs of pre-
molars in each jaw.
In the remaining families of the Insectivora the tibia and fibula
may be either separated or united at the lower end; there is no
descent of the testes, except in Solenodon; a short
symphysis is formed by the junction of the pubic epi- /»««*'•
physes; and the upper molars are generally small, and vomut
triangular, with three cusps arranged in a V. The first °"er>
family, Potamogalidae, is represented by the otter-like Potamogale
velox of the rivers of West Africa (fig. 8), distinguished from all other
FIG. 8. — The Insectivorous Otter (Potamogale velox). X \.
members of the order by the absence of clavicles. The tibia and
fibula are united inferiorly, the skull has a ring-like tympanic, no
zygomatic arch, and the upper molars are of the tuberculo-sectorial
type, with broader crowns than in the following families. The dental
formula is i. f, c. \, p. $, m. \, total 40. This animal inhabits the
banks of streams in west equatorial Africa, and its whole structure
indicates an aquatic life. It is nearly 2 ft. in length, the tail measur-
ing about half. The long cylindrical body is continued unin-
terruptedly into the thick laterally compressed tail, the legs are very
short, and the toes are not webbed, progression through the water
depending wholly on the action of the powerful tail, while the limbs
are folded inwards and backwards. The muzzle is broad and flat,
and the nostrils are protected by valves. The fur is dark brown
INSECTIVORA
643
above, the extremities of the hairs on the back being of a metallic
violet hue by reflected light, beneath whitish.
In the remaining groups the upper molars form narrow V's of the
true tritubercular type. The family, Centetidae, represented by the
Tearec, tenrec and a number of allied animals from Madagascar,
is specially characterized by the ring-like tympanic, and
the absence of a zygomatic arch and of any constriction of the skull
behind the orbits, and the presence of teats on the breast as well as
the abdomen. In the more typical members of the family the tibia
and fibula are separate, and, as in hedgehogs, spines are mingled with
the fur. The true or great tenrec (Centetes ecaudalus), alone repre-
senting the typical genus, has the dental formula »'. 3 °r , c.\,p.\,
m. 3 °^ 4t totai 38, 40, 42 or 44. The fourth lower molar, when
developed, does not appear till late in life. Of the long and sharp
canines, the tips of the lower pair are received into pits in the upper
jaw (fig. 9). The creature grows to a length of aoout a foot. The
FIG. 9. — -Skull of the Tenrec (Cenletes ecaudalus),
somewhat reduced.
young have strong white spines arranged in longitudinal lines along
the back, but these are lost in the adult which has only a crest of
long rigid hairs on the nape of the neck. The lesser tenrecs, Hemi-
centetes semispinosus and H. nigriceps, are distinguished by the per-
sistence of the third upper incisor and the form of the skull. The
two species are much smaller than the great tenrec, and spines are
retained in the adult on the body. The hedgehog-tenrec, Ericulus
setosus, has the whole upper surface, and even the short tail, densely
covered with close-set spines. The facial bones are much shorter
than in the preceding genera, and the first upper incisors are elon-
gated ; while there are only two pairs of incisors in each jaw. Judg-
ing from the slight development of the cutaneous muscles compared
with those of the hedgehog, it would seem that these creatures
cannot roll themselves completely into balls in hedgehog-fashion.
A second species of this genus, Ericulus (Echinops) telfairi, has two,
in place of three, pairs of molars, thus reducing the total number of
teeth to 32. Moreover, the zygomatic arches of the skull are reduced
to mere threads. Here should perhaps be placed Geogale aurita, a
small long-tailed Malagasy insectivore, with 34 teeth, and no spines;
the tibia and fibula being separate. It has been classed in the
Potamogalidae, but from its habitat such a reference is improbable.
FIG. 10. — Skull of the Lesser Tenrec (Hemicentetes spinosus).
Twice nat. size.
The absence of spines may entitle it to separation from the Cente-
tinae, so that it should perhaps be regarded as representing a sub-
family, Geogalinae, by itself.
The absence of spines coupled with the union of the tibia and
fibula form the leading characteristics of the subfamily Oryzorictinae,
typified by the rice-tenrecs Oryzorictes, of which there are several
species. These creatures, which excavate burrows in the rice-fields
of Madagascar, are somewhat mole-like in appearance, but have tails
of considerable length. In the typical 0. hova the fore-feet are five-
toed, but in O. tetradactylus the number of front digits is reduced to
four. The long-tailed tenrecs (Microgale) are represented by fully
half-a-dozen species with tails of great length; that appendage in
the typical M. longicaudata being more than double the length of the
head and body, and containing no fewer than forty-seven vertebrae.
The teeth are generally similar to those of Centetes, but are not
spaced in front; their number being i. f, c. J, p. |, m. f, total 40, or
the same as in Oryzorictes. Finally, Limnogale mergulus, a creature
about the size of a black rat, has webbed toes and a laterally com-
pressed tail, evidently adapted for swimming. See TENREC.
All the foregoing are natives of Madagascar. It has been suggested,
however, that two remarkable West Indian insectivores, namely
Solenodon cubanus of Cuba (fig. n) and 5. paradoxus of
Hayti, should be regarded as representing merely a sub- don."'
family of Centetidae. It is true that the main features
distinguishing these strange creatures from the Malagasy repre-
sentatives of that family are the constriction of the skull behind the
FIG. n. — Solenodon cubanus. X i-
orbits, the descent of the testes into the perineum, and the post-
inguinal position of the teats, and that none of these are of very
great importance. But the geographical positions of the two groups
are so widely sundered that it seems preferable to await further
evidence before definitely assigning the two to a single family ; and
the family Solenodontidae may accordingly be retained for the West
Indian animals. Solenodons, which look like huge long-nosed,
parti-coloured rats, have the tibia and fibula separate, and the same
dental formula as Microgale. Each of the two species (which differ
in colour and the quality of the fur) has a long cylindrical snout,
an elongated naked tail, feet formed for running, and the body
clothed with long, coarse fur. The position of the teats on the
buttocks is unique among Insectivora. The first upper incisors are
much enlarged, and like the other incisors, canines and premolars,
closely resemble the corresponding teeth of Myogale; the second
lower incisors are much larger than the upper ones, and hollowed out
on the inner side.
The last family, Chrysochloridae, is represented by the golden
moles of South and East Africa, which differ from the Centetidae and
Solenodontidae by the development of a bulla to the .
tympanic, and the presence of a zygomatic arch to the
skull; the tibia and fibula being separate, and the sym- Mole.
physis of the pelvis formed merely by ligament. The skull is not
constricted across the orbits. The teats, which are placed both on the
FIG. 12. — A Golden Mole (Chrysochloris obtusirostris) reduced.
breast and in the groin, are situated in shallow depressions. The
ears are buried in the fur, and the eyes concealed beneath the skin;
the feet are four-toed and provided with powerful claws for burrowing
INSECTIVOROUS PLANTS— INSOMNIA
in the fashion of the mole, but it is interesting to note that the
skeleton is modified for the same purpose in a manner quite different
from that obtaining in the latter animal. These animals derive their
name from the metallic iridescence of the fur of most of the species.
In the more typical species the dental formula is the same as in
Micrcgale, that is to say, there are 40 teeth. In other species, which
it has been proposed to separate as Amblysomus, there are, however,
only 36 teeth, owing to the absence of the last pair of molars. The
group is evidently nearly related to the Centetidae — most nearly
perhaps to the Oryzorictinae.
Fossil Insectivora.
Some years ago Dr F. Ameghino, of Buenos Aires, described from
the Tertiary formation of Santa Cruz, in Patagonia, the remains of an
insectivore under the. name of Necrolestes. The occurrence of a
member of the Insectivora in these' beds is remarkable, since this
group is represented at the present day in South America only by a
shrew or two which have wandered from the north. Dr Ameghino
expressed his belief that the extinct Patagonian insectivore was nearly
related to the golden moles, and although this opinion appears to
have been withdrawn, Professor W. B. Scott states that he is con-
vinced of the close affinity existing between Necrolestes and Chryso-
chloris. Although this view may not be accepted, it must be re-
membered that it represents the opinion of a palaeontologist who
has had better opportunities than most of his fellow-workers of
forming a trustworthy judgment. So convinced is Dr Scott of the
closeness of the relationship between Necrolestes and the golden
moles that he regards it as rendering probable the former existence of
a direct land-connexion between Africa and South America. There
is no reason, he says, to suppose that the track of migration could
have been by way of Europe and North America, for no trace of the
group has been found anywhere north of the equator. This supposed
connexion between Africa and South America in Tertiary times has
often been suggested, and is supported by many independent lines
of evidence; and the presumed affinity between the two mammals
here referred to adds to the weight of such evidence.
The discovery in the Oligocene Tertiary deposits of Dakota of the
remains of a species of hedgehog is a fact of great interest, for the
hedgehog-tribe (Erinaceidae) is at the present day an exclusively
Old World group. The discovery of the fossil American species,
which has been made the type of a new genus under the name of
Protherix, serves to strengthen the view that the northern countries
of the Western and Eastern hemispheres form a single zoological
region ; and that formerly there was comparatively free communica-
tion between them in the neighbourhood of Bering Sea, under
climatic conditions which permitted of temperate forms passing from
one continent to the other. As might have been expected, remains
of hedgehog-like mammals have been obtained in the Tertiary
deposits of Europe. Among these, Palaeoerinaceus, from the Upper
Oligocene of France, seems scarcely separable from the existing
genus. Necrogymnurus (Neurogymnurus) from the Lower Oligocene,
of the same country, appears to be allied to Hylomys, which is itself
the most generalised of the family, so that the extinct genus, of which
Caluxotherium is a synonym, may represent the ancestral type of the
Erinaceidae. The genus Galerix, or Lanlhanolherium, of the Oligocene,
which has the typical series of 44 teeth, a bony ring round the orbit,
and conjoint tibia and fibula, has been regarded as representing the
Tupaiidae and Macroscelididae, but is more probably referable to
the Erinaceidae, being apparently akin to Gymnura. The moles are
represented in the French Oligocene by Amphidozotherium and in the
Miocene by Talpa, while in the North American early Tertiary we
have the primitive Talpavus. Shrews are also known from the Lower
Oligocene upwards both in the eastern and western hemispheres.
Of the Lower Eocene Adapisorex, with the typical 22 lower teeth,
Adapisoriculus and Orthaspidotherium, all from France, the affinities
are quite uncertain. The American Oligocene Leptictis, with t. 2,
c. l, p. 4, m. 3 in the upper jaw, and Ictops, with i. f , c. \. p. \, m. f ,
may be insectivorous mammals, with affinities to the creodont
Carnivora. It is, indeed, probable that not only is there a relationship
between the Creodonta and the Insectivora, but also one between
the latter and the Marsupialia, so that the marked similarity between
the cheek-teeth of the insectivorous Chrysochloris and the Marsupial
Notoryctes may be due to genetic relationship. That the bats and the
flying-lemur are descendants of the Insectivora cannot be doubted.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — G. E. Dobson, " Monograph of the Insectivora"
(London, 1883-1890) ; W. Leche, " Zur Morphologic des Zahn-
systems der Insectivoren," Anatom. Anzeiger (xiii. I and 514, 1897);
C. J. Forsyth-Major, " Diagnoses of New Mammals from Mada-
gascar," Ann. Mae. Nat. Hist. ser. 6. vol. xviii. pp. 31 8 and 461 (1896):
A. A. Mearns, " Descriptions of New Mammals from the Philippine
Islands," Proc. U.S. Museum (xxviii. 425, 1905). (R. L.*)
INSECTIVOROUS PLANTS. Insectivorous or, as they are
sometimes more correctly termed, carnivorous plants are, like
the parasites, the climbers, or the succulents, a physiological
assemblage belonging to a number of distinct natural orders.
They agree in the extraordinary habit of adding to the supplies
of nitrogenous material afforded them in common with other
plants by the soil and atmosphere, by the capture and consump-
tion of insects and other small animals. The curious and varied
mechanical arrangements by which these supplies of animal
food are obtained and utilized are described under the headings
of the more important plants.
The best known and most important order of insectivorous
plants — Droseraceae — includes six genera: Byblis, Roridula,
Drosera, Drosophyllum, Aldrovanda and Dionaea, of which the last
three are monotypic, i.e. include only one species. The Sarracenia-
ceae contain the genera Sarracenia, Darlinglonia, Heliamphora,
while the true pitcher plants or Nepenthaceae consist of the
single large genus Nepenthes. These three orders are closely
allied and form the series Sarraceniales of the free-petalled section
(Choripetalae) of Dicotyledons. The curious pitcher-plant,
Cephaloiusfollicularis, comprises a separate natural order Cephalo-
taceae, closely allied to the Saxifragaceae. Finally the genera
Pinguicula, Utricularia, Genlisea and Polypompholix belong to
the gamopetalous order Lentibulariaceae.
While the large genus Drosera has an all but world-wide distribu-
tion, its congeners are restricted to well-defined and usually com-
paratively small areas. Thus Drosophyllum occurs only in Portugal
and Morocco, Byblis in tropical Australia, and, although Aldrovanda
is found in Queensland, in Bengal and in Europe, a wide distribution
explained by its aquatic habit, Dionaea is restricted to a few localities
in North and South Carolina. Cephalotus occurs only near Albany
in Western Australia, Heliamphora on the Roraima Mountains in
Venezuela, Darlingtonia on the Sierra Nevada of California, and these
three genera too are as yet monotypic; of Sarracenia, however,
there are seven known species scattered over the eastern states of
North America. The forty species of Nepenthes are mostly natives
of the hotter parts of the Indian Archipelago, but a few range into
Ceylon, Bengal, Cochin China, and some even occur in tropical
Australia on the one hand, and in the Seychelles and Madagascar on
the other. Pinguicula is abundant in the north temperate zone, and
ranges down the Andes as far as Patagonia; the 250 species of
Utricularia are mostly aquatic, and some are found in all save polar
regions; their unimportant congeners, Genlisea and Polypompholix,
occur in tropical America and south-western Australia respectively.
It is remarkable that all the insectivorous plants agree in inhabiting
damp heaths, bogs, marshes and similar situations where water is
abundant, but where they are not brought into contact with the
plenteous supply of inorganic nitrogenous food as are the roots of
terrestrial plants.
INSEIN, a town of British India, in the Hanthawaddy district
of Burma, 10 m. N.W. of Rangoon; pop. (1001) 5350. It is an
important railway centre, containing the principal workshops
of the Burma railway company, also a government engineer-
ing school, a reformatory school and the largest gaol in the
province.
INSOMNIA, or deprivation of sleep (Lat. somnus), a common
and troublesome feature of most illnesses, both acute and chronic.
It may be due to pain, fever or cerebral excitement, as in delirium
Iremens, or to organic changes in the brain. The treatment,
when failure to sleep occurs in connexion with a definite illness,
is part of the treatment of that illness. But there is a form of
sleeplessness not occurring during illness to which the term
" insomnia " is commonly and conveniently applied. It must
not be confounded with occasional wakefulness caused by some
minor discomfort, such as indigestion, nor with the " bad
nights " of the valetudinarian. Real insomnia consists in
the prolonged inability to obtain sleep sufficient in quantity and
quality for the maintenance of health. It is a condition of
modern urban life, and may be regarded as a malady in itself.
It is a potent factor in causing those nervous breakdowns
ascribed to " overwork." It may occur as a sequel to some
exhausting illness, notably influenza, which affects the nervous
system long after convalescence. But it very often occurs
without any such cause. Professional and business men are the
most frequent sufferers. Insomnia is comparatively rare among
the poor, who do little or no brain work. It may be brought
on by some exceptional strain, by long-continued worry, or by
sheer overwork. The broad pathology is simple enough. It has
been demonstrated by exact observations that in sleep the
blood leaves the brain automatically. The function is rhythmical,
like all the vital functions, and the mechanism by which it is
carried out is no doubt the vaso-motor system, which controls
INSPIRATION
645
the contraction and dilation of the blood-vessels. In sleep the
vessels in the brain automatically contract, but when the brain is
working actively a plentiful supply of blood is required, and the
vessels are dilated. If the activity is carried to great excess the
vessels become engorged, the mechanism does not act and sleep
is banished. In insomnia this condition has become fixed.
When a breakdown has happened or is pending the only
treatment is complete rest, combined, if possible, with change of
air and scene; but if the mischief has gone far it will take very
long to repair, and may never be repaired at all. In no matter of
health is the importance of " taking it early " more pronounced.
Delay is the worst economy. A few days' holiday at the com-
mencement of trouble may save months or years of enforced
idleness. Sea-air sometimes acts like a charm. But if it is
impossible to give up work and leave worry behind, even for a
short time, sleep should be carefully wooed by every possible
means. In the first place, plenty of time should be devoted to
it, and no chance should be missed. That is to say, the night
should not be curtailed at either end, and if sleepiness approaches
in the daytime, as it often does, it should be encouraged. It is
better to lie still at night and try to sleep than to give way to
restlessness, and a few minutes snatched in the daytime, when
somnolence offers the opportunity, has a restorative effect out
of all proportion to the time occupied. Then all accidental causes
of disturbance should be avoided. Lights and sounds should be
excluded, comfort studied and digestion attended to. Fresh air
is a great help. As much time should be spent out of doors as
possible, and exercise, even to the point of fatigue, may be
found helpful. But this requires watching: in some cases bodily
exhaustion aggravates the malady. A little food (e.g. a glass of
hot milk) immediately before going to bed is useful in inducing
sleep, and persons who are apt to wake in the night and lie
awake for hours may obtain relief by the same means. Hypnotic
drugs, which have greatly multiplied of late years, should only
be taken under medical advice. The real end to aim at is the
restoration of the natural function, and the substitution of
artificial sleep, which differs in character and effect, tends rather
to prevent than to promote that end. It is often possible to
induce sleep by rhythmic breathing.
INSPIRATION (Lat. inspirare, breathe upon or into), strictly
the act of drawing physical breath into the lungs as opposed
to " expiration." Metaphorically the term is used generally
of analogous mental phenomena; thus we speak of a sudden
spontaneous idea as an " inspiration." The term is specially
used in theology for the condition of being directly under divine
influence, as the equivalent of the Greek Oeoirvtvarla (the adjec-
tive 6f<nrvevffTos is used of the Holy Scriptures in 2 Timothy
iii. 1 6). Similar in meaning is evdoucnafTufa, enthusiasm (from
tvOovcri&^o) from evOeos). Possession by the divine spirit
(TrceO^a) was regarded as necessarily accompanied by intense
stimulation of the emotions. The possibility of a human being
becoming the habitation and organ of a divinity is generally
assumed in the lower religions. In the popular religion of China
some of the priests, the Wu, claim to be able to take up into their
body a god or a spirit, and thereby to give oracles. In wild
frenzy they rush about half naked with hair hanging loose,
wounding themselves with swords, knives, daggers, and uttering
all kinds of sounds, which are then interpreted by people who
claim to be able to understand such divine speech. The Maoris
at the initiation of the young men into the tribal mysteries sing
a song, called " breath," to the mystic wind by which they believe
their god makes his presence known. An Australian woman
claimed to have heard the descent of the god as a rushing wind.
In some savage tribes blood is drunk to induce the frenzy of
inspiration; music and dancing are widely employed for the same
purpose. Dionysus, the god of wine in Greece, was also the god
of inspiration; and in their orgies the worshippers believed
themselves to enter into real union with the deity. In Dephi the
Pythia, the priestess who delivered the oracles, was intoxicated
by the vapour which rose from a well, through a small hole in
the ground. As the oracles were often enigmatic, they were
interpreted by a prophet. In Rome the inspiration of Numa
was derived from the nymph Egeria; and great value was
attached to the books of the Cumaean Sibyl. In Arabia the
kahin (priest) was recognized as the channel of divine com-
munication. Inspiration may mean only possession by the deity,
or it may mean further that the person so possessed becomes the
channel through which the deity reveals his word and will.
(See J. A. Macculloch's Comparative Theology, chap, xv., 1902).
Prophecy in the Old Testament in its beginnings is similar to
the phenomenon in other religions. Saul and his servant came
to Samuel, the man of God, the seer, with a gift in their hands
to inquire their way (i Sam. ix. 8). The companies of prophets
who went about the country in Samuel's time were enthusiasts
for Yahweh and for Israel. When Saul found himself among
them he was possessed by the same spirit (i Sam. x. 10, n.)
The prophesying in which he took part probably included violent
movements of the body, inarticulate cries, a state of ecstasy or
even frenzy. The phrase " holy spirit " in Acts, as applied to
the Apostolic Church, probably indicates a similar state of
religious exaltation; it was accompanied by speaking with
tongues, inarticulate utterances, which needed interpretation
(i Corinthians xiv. 27). In every religious revival, when the
emotions are deeply stirred, similar phenomena are met with.
Such a movement was Montanism in the 3rd century. At the
Reformation, while Luther was at the Wartburg, fanaticism broke
out, and spread from Wittenberg; prophets went about declar-
ing the revelations which they had received. The Evangelical
Revival in the i8th century also had its abnormal religious
features. The Revival in Scotland in 1860 was marked by one
curious feature — the Gospel dance — when in their excitement
men and women got up and spun round and round till they
were exhausted. Spontaneous praise and prayer marked the
revival in Wales in 1905-1906.
Prophecy, as represented by the writings of the prophets,
arose out of this state of religious exaltation, but left behind many
of its features. Yahweh was believed to guide and guard the
history of His chosen people Israel; He controlled the action of
the nations that came in contact with His people, so that, using
them as His instruments, He might accomplish His purpose.
The function of the prophets was to interpret the course of history
so as to communicate God's Word and will in judgment or in
mercy. They were divinely endowed for this function by their
inspiration. While these prophets seem to have continued in the
exercise of all their normal faculties, which were stimulated
and not suppressed, yet they do claim a distinctive divine
activity in their consciousness, and distinguish with confidence
their own thoughts from the revealed word. That abnormal
psychic states, such as visions and voices, were sometimes
experienced is not improbable; but the usual prophetic state
seems to have been one of withdrawal of attention from the outer
world, absorption of interest in the inner life, devout communion
and intercession with God, and the divine response in a moral
or a spiritual intuition rather than an intellectual ratiocination.
Possession by the Spirit in its external manifestations is ascribed
to Gideon, Jephthah, Samson, Saul, Elijah; but even when the
same language is used of the later prophets, it is probably such
an inward state as has just been described which is to be assumed.
A feature inseparable from this later phase of prophecy is pre-
diction. For the warning or the encouragement of the people the
prophet as Jehovah's messenger declares what He is about to
do. Thus the fall of Samaria in 722 B.C., the deliverance of
Jerusalem in 701, the overthrow of the kingdom of Judah in 586,
the return from exile in 537 were all heralded by prophecy.
This prediction was no shrewd political conjecture, but an
application to existing conditions of the permanent laws of
God's government. The abnormal phenomena of inspiration, the
presence and operation of the Holy Spirit, in the Apostolic
Church, have already been noticed. While Paul does not deny
nor depreciate these charisms, as tongues, miracles, &c., he
represents as the more excellent way the Christian life in faith,
hope and love (i Cor. xii. 31). The New Testament represents
the Christian life as an inspired life. It is living communion with
Christ, and therefore constant possession of the Holy Spirit.
646
INSPIRATION
Every Christian in the measure in which he has become a new
creature in Christ is a prophet, because he knows by the en-
lightening of God's Spirit " what is the good and acceptable
and perfect will of God " (Romans xii. 2). An occasional state
of divine possession in the other religions becomes in the prophets
of Israel a permanent endowment for a few select agents of
God's revelation; but when that revelation is consummated
in Christ, inspiration becomes the universal privilege of all
believers.
While there is much superstition in the view of inspiration
found in many religions, and much imposture in the claims to the
possession of it, yet it would be illogical to conclude that this
feature of religion is altogether human error and not at all divine
truth. Man's knowledge of God is conditional, and therefore
limited by his knowledge of the world and himself, and has
accordingly the same imperfection. The reality of a divine
communion and communication with man is not to be denied
because its nature has been imperfectly apprehended. We must
estimate the worth of inspiration by the higher and not the
lower stages, by the vision of an Isaiah or the consecration of
a Paul; but at the same time we must be prepared to recognize
its lowly beginnings.
In dealing with the inspiration of the Bible, to which the use
of the term has in the Christian Church been largely restricted,
it is important to remember that inspiration is primarily personal ;
and that it assumes varied forms and allows varying degrees.
Other religions besides Christianity possess their sacred
scriptures. The value attached to the Sibylline writings in Rome
has already been mentioned. In Greece, Homer and Hesiod
were esteemed as authoritative exponents of the mythology; a
distinction was made between the poet's own words and the
divine element, and what was offensive to reason, conscience or
taste was explained allegorically. Hinduism distinguishes two
classes of sacred writings, the S'ruti (hearing), which were
believed to have been heard by inspired men from a divine
source, and were endowed with supernatural powers, and the
Smriti (recollection) derived from tradition. While the poets of
the Rig-Veda, the oldest of the holy writings, do not claim
inspiration, it is ascribed to them in the highest degree. Some
of the Hindu sects — Vaishnavist and Saivist — regard some of the
later writings, as also divine revelation. In Zoroastrianism, the
books of the Zend-Avesta were conceived by later generations at
least as having been eternally formed by Ormuzd, and revealed
at the creation to his prophet Zoroaster, who, however, guarded
the communication carefully in his mind until a very much later
date in the world's history. Ormuzd drove Ahriman back to hell
by reciting one of the holy hymns. Buddhism has its Tripitaka
(three baskets), and the reading, reciting and copying of the
sacred scriptures is one of the surest means of acquiring merit.
But as it ignores the gods, and places Buddha far above them,
it does not claim divine inspiration for its writings. Buddha
himself enlightens, but every man must save himself by walking
in the true way which has been shown to him. Confucianism has
its literature of absolute authority on manners, morals, rites and
politics, but its claim does not rest on inspiration. These writings
are revered as preserving the beliefs and customs of former ages,
which are believed to have been more familiar than the present
with the Way of Heaven. For the Koran very extravagant
claims are made by orthodox Islam. Although Mahomet at
first feared that his call to be a prophet was a deception of evil
spirits, and wished to take his own life, yet afterwards he uttered
his decisions on most trivial matters as divine oracles. God
preserves the original text of the Koran in Heaven, and blots out
what He wills and leaves what He wills. By the angel Gabriel
God communicated this book word for word to the prophet, so
that the Koran is a faithful copy of the heavenly book. The
angels in heaven read the Koran. While the orthodox theology
asserted the eternity of the Koran, the Mo'tazilite school denied
this for the reason that the spoken sounds and the written signs in
which alone a revelation could be given must have come to be
in time. As Islam was not altogether independent of Christianity
and Judaism, this doctrine of the Koran was probably intended
as a reply to the claims of Jews and Christians for their holy
writings.
The Pentateuch was accepted as authoritative law by the
Jewish Church in 444 B.C. About two centuries later the Prophets
(including the histories as well as the prophetic writings proper)
were also acknowledged as sacred scriptures, although of inferior
authority to the Law. In the century before the Christian
era the Writings, including Psalms and Proverbs, were included
in the Canon. Palestinian and Hellenistic Judaism dis-
agreed about the recognition of the books now known as the
Apocrypha. The writers of the New Testament use the Old
Testament as holy scriptures, as an authoritative declaration of
the mind and will of God; but the inaccuracy of many of the
quotations, together with the use of the Greek translation as well
as the original Hebrew, forbid our ascribing to them any theory
of verbal inspiration. By the middle of the 2nd century the four
Gospels were probably accepted as trustworthy records of the
life of Jesus. The Epistles were accepted as authoritative in
virtue of apostolic authorship. By the end of the 3rd century
the use and approval of the churches had established the present
canon.
The doctrine of the inspiration of these writings in the Jewish
and Chrjstian Church now claims attention. Inspiration is first
of all ascribed to persons to account for abnormal states, or
exceptional powers and gifts; in this doctrine it is transferred
to writings, and its effects in securing for these inerrancy,
authority, &c., are discussed with little regard for the psychic
state of the writers.
The New Testament affirms the inspiration of the Old Testa-
ment. Jesus introduced a quotation from the noth Psalm with
the words " David himself by the Holy Spirit said " (Mark xii.
36), and in appealing to the law against tradition He used the
phrase " God said " (Matt. xv. 4). The author of the first
Gospel describes a prediction as that " which was spoken by the
Lord through the prophet " (Matt. i. 22), and so Peter refers to
" the scripture which the Holy Spirit spake before by the mouth
of David " (Acts i. 16). For Paul as for Peter the utterances of
the Old Testament are " the oracles of God " (Romans iii. 2;
i Peter iv. n). The final appeal is to what is written. God
spoke in the prophets (Romans ix. 25; Hebrews i. i). The use
of Btbirvtvaros in regard to the Scriptures in 2 Timothy iii.
1 6 has already been noted. The Spirit of Christ is said to have
been in the prophets (i Peter i. n); and it is affirmed that " no
prophecy ever came by the will of man; but men spake from
God. being moved by the Holy Spirit " (2 Peter i. 21). The
constant use of the Old Testament in the New confirms this
doctrine of inspiration. Contemporary Jewish thought was in
agreement with this view of the Old Testament. Philo describes
Moses as " that purest mind which received at once the gift of
legislation and of prophecy with divinely inspired wisdom "
(De congr. erud. c. 24). Josephus again and again expresses his
deep reverence for the holy Scriptures, and his belief that the
authors wrote under the influence of the Spirit of God. Accord-
ing to Weber the doctrine of the Talmud is that " the holy
scripture came to be through the inspiration of the Holy Spirit,
and has its origin in God Himself, who speaks in it." But the
nature of this inspiration must be more closely defined, and
hence have arisen a number of theories of inspiration.
The first theory is that of mechanical dictation, or verbal
inspiration. The writers of the books of the Bible were God's
pens rather than His penmen; every word was given them by
God. Their faculties were suppressed that God alone might be
active in them. This conception is found in Plato, " God has
given the art of divination, not to the wisdom, but to the foolish-
ness of man. No man, when in his wits, attains prophetic truth
and inspiration; but when he receives the inspired word, cither
his intelligence is enthralled in sleep, or he is demented by some
distemper or possession " (Timaeus, 71). Philo declares that
" the understanding that dwells in us is ousted on the arrival of
the Divine Spirit, but is restored to its own dwelling when that
Spirit departs, for it is unlawful that mortal dwell with immortal "
(Quis rer. div. haeres, c. 53). Athenagoras adopted this view
INSPIRATION
647
in regard to the prophets. " While entranced and deprived of
their natural powers of reason by the influence of the Divine
Spirit, they uttered that which was wrought in them, the spirit
using them as its instrument, as a flute player might blow a
flute." Other figures used are these; the inspired writer was
the lyre, and the Holy Spirit the plectrum, or the writer was
the vase, and the Holy Spirit filled it. The extravagances of
Montanism threw some discredit on this conception, and we find
Miltiades writing a treatise with the title That the Prophet ought
not to speak in Ecstasy. But Gregory the Great called the writers
of Scripture the calami of the Holy Spirit. After the Reforma-
tion the Protestant Scholastics revived this view. Gerhard,
Calovius and Quenstedt agree in ascribing to the Scriptures
absolute infallibility in all matters, and describe the writers as
" amanuenses of God, or Christ," " hands of the Spirit," " clerks,"
" secretaries," " manus et Spiritus sive." The Formula con-
sensus Helvetica probably reaches the extreme statement, when
it declares that the Old Testament was " turn quoad consonas,
turn quoad vocalia, sive puncta ipsa, sive punctorum saltern
potestatem, et turn quoad res, turn quoad verba OtoTrvevaros."
Seeing that the vowel-point system was introduced by Jewish
scribes centuries after the books were written, this statement
shows how recklessly theory may override fact. Of this theory,
which has now few advocates, it is sufficient to say that it ignores
all the data the Bible itself offers. On the one hand it is im-
possible to maintain the inerrancy of the Bible in matters of
science, philosophy, history, and even in doctrine and morals
there is progress; on the other hand the personal characteristics,
the historical circumstances, the individual differences of the
writers are so reproduced in the writings that the action of the
human factor must be frankly and fully recognized as well as
the divine activity.
The second theory is that of dynamic influence or degrees of
inspiration. While the Spirit controls and directs, the human
personality is not entirely suppressed. Even Philo recognized
that all portions of Scripture were not equally inspired, and
assigned to Moses the highest degree of inspiration. The Jewish
rabbis placed the Law, the Prophets and the Writings on a
descending scale of inspiration. " The schoolmen followed
them, and some distinguished four degrees of influence: super-
intendence, which saved from positive error; elevation, which
imparted loftiness to the thought; direction, which prompted
the writer what to insert and what to omit; and suggestion,
which inspired both thoughts and words " (M. Dods, The Bible,
its Origin and Nature, p. 118, 1905). The co-operation of the
divine and the human factors is recognized in Augustine's saying
about the authors: " Inspiratus a Deo, sed tamen homo." It
is interesting to note that Plutarch had to account for the same
human peculiarities and imperfections in the Pythian responses
as the Christian apologist in the Bible, and he offers a similar
explanation. " If she were obliged to write down, and not to
utter the responses, we should not, I suppose, believe the hand-
writing to be the god's, and find fault with it, because it is inferior
in point of calligraphy to the imperial rescripts; for neither is
the old woman's voice, nor her diction, nor her metre the god's;
but it is the god alone who presents the visions to this woman,
and kindles light in her soul regarding the future; for this is the
inspiration " (op. cit. p. 119). While degrees of inspiration must
be recognized, the distinction must be made objectively, and
not subjectively. We may say that where the revelation is the
clearest, there inspiration is the fullest, that nearness to the
perfect fulfilment in Christ of God's progressive purpose deter-
mines the degree of inspiration; but we cannot formulate any
elaborate theory of the operation of the Spirit from the stand-
point of the psychic states of the writers. While subjectively we
cannot separate the divine and the human spirit in the process,
so objectively we cannot distinguish the divine substance and
the human form in the product of inspiration. This theory
neither helps us to explain the origin of the writings nor guides
us in estimating the contents.
The third theory, which is a modification of the second, is
that of essential inspiration, which distinguishes matters of
doctrine and conduct as closely related to God's purpose in the
Scriptures from the remaining contents of the Scripture, and
claims for the Bible only such inspiration as was necessary to
secure accuracy in regard to these. The theology and the
morality of the Bible are inspired, but not its history, science,
philosophy. This distinction is already anticipated in Thomas
Aquinas' theory of two kinds of inspiration, " the direct, which
is to be found where doctrinal and moral truths are directly
taught, and the indirect, which appears in historical passages,
whence the doctrinal and moral can only be indirectly evolved
by the use of allegorical interpretation." This view has the
support of such names as Erasmus, Hugo Grotius, Richard
Baxter, W. Paley and J. J. I. von Dollinger. It is to be observed
that it lays emphasis on the necessity of correct views about
doctrine and conduct; and this is an intellectualist standpoint
which is not in accord either with the character or the influence
of the Bible. Further, it does not explain how the same human
mind can by divine inspiration obtain infallible knowledge in
some matters, and yet be left prone to err in others. Again it
does not take account of the fact that the teaching of the Old
Testament as regards belief and morals is progressive; and that
the imperfections of the earlier stages of the development are
corrected in the later. That it is an advance on the other theories
must be acknowledged, as from this standpoint errors in history
or science are no difficulties to the believer in the Bible as so
inspired. It is necessary here to add that this emphasis on the
infallibility of the knowledge of doctrine and morals communi-
cated by the Scriptures had as its legitimate inference in the
patristic and medieval period the claim that the Church alone
was the infallible interpreter of the Scriptures.
The fourth theory — that of the Reformers (though not of their
successors, the Protestant scholastics) — might be called that of
vital inspiration, as its emphasis is on religious and moral life
rather than on knowledge. While giving to the Scriptures
supreme authority in all matters of faith and doctrine, the
Reformers laid stress on the use of the Bible for edification;
it was for them primarily a means of grace for awakening and
nourishing the new life in the hearts of God's people. By the
enlightening work of the Spirit of God the World of God is
discovered in the Scriptures: it is the testimonium Spiritus Sancti
in the soul of the Christian that makes the Bible the power and
wisdom of God unto salvation. By thus laying stress on this
redemptive purpose of the divine revelation, the Reformers were
delivered from the bondage of the letter of Scripture, and could
face questions of date and authorship of the writings frankly and
boldly. Hence a pioneer of the higher criticism in Great Britain,
W. Robertson Smith, was able to appeal to this Reformation
doctrine. " If I am asked why I receive Scripture as the Word
of God, and as the only perfect rule of faith and life, I answer
with all the fathers of the Protestant Church, ' Because the Bible
is the only record of the redeeming love of God, because in the
Bible alone I find God drawing near to man in Christ Jesus, and
declaring to us in Him His will for our salvation. And this record
I know to be true by the witness of His Spirit in my heart,
whereby I am assured that none other but God Himself is able
to speak such words to my soul ' " (in Denney's Studies in
Theology, p. 205). The Reformers' application of this theory
to the Bible was necessarily conditioned by the knowledge of
their age; but it is a theory wide enough to leave room for our
growing modern knowledge of the Bible.
Briefly stated, these are the conclusions which our modern
knowledge allows, (i) Inspiration, or the presence and influence
of the Divine Spirit in the soul of man, cannot be limited to the
writers of the Scriptures; but, comparing the Bible with the
other sacred literature of the world, its religious and moral
superiority cannot be denied, and we may, therefore, claim for it
as a whole a fuller inspiration. (2) As different writings in the
Bible have more or less important functions in the progressive
divine revelation, we may distinguish degrees of inspiration.
(3) This inspiration is primarily personaJ, an inward enlightening
and quickening, both religious and moral, of the writer, finding
an expression conditioned by his individual characteristics in
INSTALLATION— INSTINCT
his writing. (4) The purpose of inspiration is practical; the
inspired men are used of God to give guidance in belief and
duty by declaring the word and will of God as bearing on human
life. (5) As revelation is progressive, inspiration does not exclude
defects in doctrine and practice in the earlier stages and their
correction in the later stages of development. (6) As the pro-
gressive revelation culminates in Christ, so He possesses fullest
inspiration; and it varies in others according to the closeness
of their contact, and intimacy of their communion with Him.
(7) As the primary function of Christ is redemptive, so the
inspiration of the Bible is directed to make men " wise unto
salvation." (8) It is the presence and influence in the souls of
men of the same Spirit of God as inspired the Scriptures which
makes the Bible effective as a means of grace; and only those
who yield themselves to the Spirit of God have the witness in
themselves that the Bible conveys to them the truth and the
grace of God.
In addition to the books mentioned, see: A. B. Bruce, The 'Chief
End of Revelation (1881); C. A. Briggs, The Bible, the Church,
and the Reason (1892); VV. N. Clarke, The Use of the Scriptures in
Theology (1906) ; H. E. Ryle, The Canon of the Old Testament (1892) ;
B F Westcott, A General Survey of the History of the Canon of the
New Testament (7th ed., 1896); W. Sanday, Inspiration (3rd ed.,
1896)- A B. Davidson, article "Prophecy" in Hastings s Bible
Dictionary, iv. ; A. E. Garvie, " Revelation " in Hastings's Bible
Dictionary (extra volume). (A. E. G. )
INSTALLATION, the action of installing or formally placing
some one in occupation of an office or place. The med. Lat.
installare meant literally " to place in a seat or stall " (stallum),
and the word, as now, was particularly used of the ceremonial
induction of an ecclesiastic, such as a canon or prebendary, to
his stall in his cathedral choir. Similarly knights of an order of
chivalry are ceremonially led to their stalls in the chapel of their
order. The term is transferred to any formal establishment
in office or position. From a French use of installer and installa-
tion, the word is frequently applied in a transferred sense to the
fixing in position and making ready for use of a mechanical,
particularly electrical, apparatus or plant.
INSTALMENT (for earlier stallment or estallment, from Fr.
estaler, to fix, arrange; the change is probably due to the influence
of the verb " install "), the payment of a sum of money at stated
intervals and in fixed portions instead of in a lump sum; hence
the sums of money as they fall due at the periods agreed upon.
For the system of purchase by deferred payments or instalments
see HIRE-PURCHASE AGREEMENT.
INSTERBURG, a town in the kingdom of Prussia, situated
at the point where the Angerapp and Inster join to form the
Pregel, 57 m. E. of Konigsberg by the railway to Eydtkuhnen,
and at the junction of lines to Memel and Allenstein. Pop.
(1900) 27,787. It has four Evangelical churches, of which the
town church is celebrated for its fine wood carvings, a Roman
Catholic church, a synagogue, several schools and a park.
Besides flax-spinning and iron-founding, Insterburg has manu-
factures of machinery, shoes, cement, leather and beer, along
with a considerable trade in cereals, vegetables, flax, linseed and
wood, while horse-breeding is extensively carried on in the
neighbourhood. Close to the town lies the demesne of Georgen-
burg, with an old castle which formerly belonged to the Teutonic
order. Insterburg, the " burg " on the Inster, was founded^ in
the 1 4th century by the knights of the Teutonic order. Having
passed to the margraves of Brandenburg, the village which had
sprung up round the castle received civic privileges in 1583.
During the next century it made rapid advances in prosperity,
partly owing to the settlement in it of several Scottish trading
families. In 1679 it was besieged by the Swedes; in 1690
it suffered severely from a fire; and in 1710-1711 from
pestilence.
See Tows, Urkunden zur Geschichte des Hauptamts Insterburg
(Inst., 1895-1897, 3 parts); and Kurze Chronik der Stadt Insterburg
(Konigsberg, 1883).
INSTINCT. It is in the first place desirable to distinguish
between the word " instinct " (Lat. instinctus, from instinguere
to incite, impel) as employed in general literature and the term
' instinct " as used in scientific discourse. The significance of the
ormer is somewhat elastic, and is in large measure determined
by the context. Thus in social relationships we speak of " in-
stinctive " liking or distrust; we are told that the Greeks had
' instinctive " appreciation of art; we hear of an instinct of
reverence or " instinctive " beliefs. We understand what is
meant and neither desire nor demand a strict definition. But in
any scientific discussion the term instinct must be used within
narrower limits, and hence it is necessary that the term should
je defined. There are difficulties, however, in framing a satis-
factory definition. That given by G. J. Romanes in the pth
edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica runs as" follows:
' Instinct is a generic term comprising all those faculties of mind
which lead to the conscious performance of actions that are
adaptive in character but pursued without necessary knowledge
of the relation between the means employed and the ends
attained." This has been criticized both from the biological
and from the psychological standpoint. From the biological
joint of view the reference of certain modes of behaviour,
termed instinctive, to faculties of mind for which " instinct "
is the generic term is scarcely satisfactory; from the psycho-
logical point of view the phrase " without necessary knowledge of
the relation between the means employed and the end attained "
is ambiguous. (See INTELLIGENCE OF ANIMALS.) In recent
scientific literature the term is more frequently used in^ its
adjectival than in its substantive form; and the term " in-
stinctive " is generally applied to certain hereditary modes of
behaviour. Investigation thus becomes more objective, and
this is a distinct advantage from the biological point of view.^ It
is indeed sometimes urged that instinctive modes of behaviour
should be so defined as to entirely exclude any reference to
their psychological concomitants in consciousness, which are,
it is said, entirely inferential. But as a matter of fact no small
part of the interest and value of investigations in this field of
inquiry lies in the relationships which may thereby
be established between biological and psychological
interpretations. Fully realizing, therefore, the difficulty
of finding and applying a criterion of the presence or
absence of consciousness, it is none the less desirable, in the
interests of psychology, to state that truly instinctive acts
(as defined) are accompanied by consciousness. This marks
them off from such reflex acts as are unconsciously performed,
and from the tropisms of plants and other lowly organisms.
There remains, however, the difficulty of finding any satisfactory
criterion of the presence of consciousness. We seem forced to
accept a practical criterion for purposes of interpretation rather
than one which can be theoretically defended against all adverse
criticism. We have reason to believe that some organisms
profit by experience and show that they do so by the modification
of their behaviour in accordance with circumstances. Such
modification is said to be individually acquired. To profit by
individual experience is thus the only criterion we possess of the
existence of the conscious experience itself. But if hereditary
behaviour is unaccompanied by consciousness, it can in no wise
contribute to experience, and can afford no data by which the
organism can profit. Hence, for purposes of psychological
interpretation it seems necessary to assume that instinctive
behaviour, including the stimulation by which it is initiated
and conditioned, affords that naive awareness which forms an
integral part of what may be termed the primordial tissue of
experience.
We are now in a position to give an expanded definition of
instinctive behaviour as comprising those complex groups of
co-ordinated acts which, though they contribute to experience,
are, on their first occurrence, not determined by individual
experience; which are adaptive and tend to the well-being of
the individual and the preservation of the race; which are due
to the co-operation of external and internal stimuli; which are
similarly performed by all members of the same more or less
restricted group of animals; but which are subject to variation,
and to subsequent modification under the guidance of individual
experience.
INSTINCT
649
If a brief definition of instinct, from the purely biological
point of view be required, that given in the Dictionary of Philo-
sophy and Psychology may be accepted: " An inherited
reaction of the sensori-motor type, relatively complex
and markedly adaptive in character, and common to a
group of individuals." Instinctive behaviour thus depends solely
on how the nervous system has been built through heredity;
while intelligent behaviour depends also on those characters
of the nervous system which have been acquired under the
modifying influence of individual relation to the environment.
Such definitions, however, are not universally accepted.
Wasmann, for example, divides instinctive actions under two
groups: (i) those which immediately spring from the inherited
dispositions; (2) those which indeed proceed from the same in-
herited dispositions but through the medium of sense experience.
The first group, which he regards as instinctive in the strict
acceptance of the term, seem exactly to correspond to those which
fall under the definition given above. The second group, which
he regards as instinctive in the wider acceptance of the term,
nearly, if not quite, correspond to those above spoken of as
intelligent — though he regards this term as falsely applied (see
INTELLIGENCE OF ANIMALS). By using the term instinctive
in both its strict and its wider significance, Wasmann includes
under it the whole range of animal behaviour.
It will be seen that from the biological standpoint there fall
under the stricter definition those hereditary modes of behaviour
which are analogous to hereditary forms of structure; and that
a sharp line of distinction is drawn between the behaviour which
is thus rendered definite through heredity, and the behaviour
the distinguishing characteristics of which are acquired in the
course of individual life. What in popular usage are spoken of
as the instincts of animals, for example, the hunting of prey by
foxes and wolves, or the procedure of ants in their nests, are
generally joint products of hereditary and acquired factors.
Wasmann's comprehensive definition so far accords with popular
usage. But it tends to minimize the importance of the dis-
tinction of that which is prior to individual experience and that
which results therefrom. It is the business of scientific inter-
pretation to disentangle the factors which contribute to the
joint-products. It is indeed by no means easy to distinguish
between what is dependent on individual experience, and what
is not. Only the careful observation of organisms throughout
the earlier phases of their life-history can the closely related
factors be distinguished with any approach to scientific accuracy.
By the patient study of the behaviour of precocious young birds,
such as chicks, pheasants, ducklings and moorhens, it can be
readily ascertained that such modes of activity as
runnmg> swimming, diving, preening the down, scratch-
ing the ground, pecking at small objects, with the
characteristic attitudes expressive of fear and anger, are
so far instinctive as to be definite on their first occurrence — they
do not require to be learnt. No doubt they are subsequently
guided to higher excellence and effectiveness with the experience
gained in their oft-repeated performance. Indeed it may be
said that only on the occasion of their initial performance are
they purely instinctive; all subsequent performance being in
some degree modified by the experience afforded by previous
behaviour of like nature and the results it affords. It should
be remembered that such comparatively simple activities,
though there is little about them to arrest popular attention, are
just the raw material out of which the normal active life of such
organisms is elaborated, and that for scientific treatment they
are therefore not less important than those more conspicuous per-
formances which seem at first sight to call for special treatment,
or even to demand a supplementary explanation. The instincts
of nest-building, incubation and the rearing of young, though
they occur later in life than those concerned in locomotion and
the obtaining of food, are none the less founded on a hereditary
basis, and in some respects are less rather than more liable to
modification by the experience gained by the carrying out of
hereditarily definite modes of procedure. Here the instinctive
factor probably predominates over that which is experiential.
ute.
But in the " homing " of pigeons there is little question that the
experiential factor predominates. The habit results mainly from
the modification of the higher nerve-centres through individual
and intelligent use. In the migration of birds we are still un-
certain as to the exact nature and proportional value of the
instinctive and intelligent factors. The impulse to migrate,
that is to say, the calling forth of specific activities by climatal
or other presentations, appears to be instinctive; whether the
direction of migration is in like manner instinctive is a matter of
uncertainty; and, if it be instinctive, the nature of the stimuli
and the manner in which they are hereditarily linked with re-
sponsive acts is unexplained. To say that it is due to hereditary
experience is generally regarded as inadmissible. For modern
interpretation hereditary modes of behaviour afford experience;
in no other sense can it be said that experience is inherited.
A good example of the methods of recent investigation is to be
found in Dr G. W. and Mrs Peckham's minute observations on
the habits and instincts of the solitary wasps. They
enumerate the following primary types of instinctive f"^plet
behaviour: the manner of attacking and capturing a insect lite.
particular kind of prey which alone affords the requisite
presentation to sense; the manner of conveying the prey to the
nest; the general style and locality of the nest; the method and
order of procedure in stocking the nest with food for the unseen
young. It is noteworthy, however, that although the manner in
which the prey is stung (for example) is on the whole similar in
the case of the members of any given species — that is to say, all
the wasps of the species behave in very much the same manner —
yet there are minor variations in detail. This outcome of pro-
longed and careful observation is of importance. It affords a
point of departure for the interpretation of the genesis of existing
instincts. Furthermore, the observations on American wasps
render it probable that the earlier accounts of the instinctive
behaviour of such wasps are exaggerated. Romanes thought
that the manner of stinging and paralysing their prey might be
justly deemed the most remarkable instinct in the world. Spiders,
caterpillars and grasshoppers are, he said, stung in their chief
nerve-centres, in consequence of which the victims are not
killed outright, but rendered motionless and continue to live in
this paralysed condition for several weeks, being thus available
as food for the larvae when these are hatched. Of course, he
adds, the extraordinary fact which stands to be explained is that
of the precise anatomical, not to say the physiological, know-
ledge which appears to be displayed by the insect in stinging
only the nerve-centres of its prey. But the Peckhams' careful
observations and experiments show that, with the American
wasps, the victims stored in the nests are quite as often dead
as alive; that those which are only paralysed live for a varying
number of days, some more, some less; that wasp larvae thrive
just as well on dead victims, sometimes dried up, sometimes
undergoing decomposition, as on living and paralysed prey;
that the nerve-centres are not stung with the supposed uni-
formity; and that in some cases paralysis, in others death,
follows when the victims are stung in parts far removed from any
nerve-centre. It would seem then that by the stinging of insects
or spiders their powers of resistance are overcome and their
escape prevented; that some are killed outright and some
paralysed is merely an incidental result.
Granted that instinctive modes of behaviour are hereditary
and definite within the limits of congenital variation, the question
of their manner of genesis is narrowed to a clear issue.
Do they originate through the natural selection of
those variations which are the more adaptive; or do
they originate through the inheritance of those acquired modifica-
tions which are impressed on the nervous system in the course
of individual and intelligent use ? Romanes, taking up the
inquiry where Darwin left it, came to the conclusion that some
instinctive modes of behaviour which he termed " primary "
are due to the operation of natural selection alone; that others,
which he termed " secondary," and of which he could give few
examples, were due to the inheritance of acquired modifications
from which, in the phrase of G. H. Lewes, the intelligence had
650
INSTITUTE— INSTITUTIONAL CHURCH
Crucial
tloos.
lapsed; while others, which he termed " blended," were partly
due to natural selection and partly resulted from the inheritance
of acquired habit. There has been a prolonged controversy
between the school of interpretation, commonly spoken of as
Lamarckian, which advocates a belief in the inheritance of
acquired characters, and the school, with Weismann as their
leader, which questions the evidence for, or the probability of,
such inheritance. The trend of modern opinion appears to be in
the direction of the Weismannian interpretation. And it must
be regarded as questionable, if not improbable, that instinctive
modes of behaviour are in any degree directly due to the inherit-
ance of habits intelligently acquired. That intelligent habits
may secure the survival of those organisms whose germ-plasm
bears the seeds of favourable congenital variations is not im-
probable. But in that case intelligent procedure only contributes
to the survival and not to the origin of hereditary variations.
To test the hypothesis that natural selection is an essential
condition to the genesis of instinctive behaviour it should be the
aim of investigation to find crucial cases. This is,
however, no easy task. We ought to be able to adduce
cases in which, where the incidence of natural selection
is excluded, acquired habits do not become instinctive.
But it is difficult to do so. It seems, however, that in young
chicks drinking from still water is a habit acquired through
imitation of the acts of the hen-mother. The presentation of
such water to sight does not evoke the appropriate instinctive
response, while the presentation of water taken into the bill does
at once evoke a characteristic response. Now it would seem
that in the former case, since the hen " teaches " all her chicks
to peck at the water, she shields them from the incidence of
natural selection. But though the hen can lead her young to
peck at the water, she cannot " teach " them how to perform
the complex movements of mouth, throat and head required
for actual drinking. In this matter they are not shielded from
the incidence of natural selection. Thus it would seem that,
where natural selection is excluded, the habit has not become
congenitally linked with a visual stimulus; but where natural
selection is in operation, the response has been thus linked with
the stimulus of water in the bill.
If this interpretation be correct we have here an example of
the manner in which imitation plays an important part in the
Imit* formation of habits which though oft-repeated are
not transmitted as hereditary instincts. But the
imitative act is itself instinctive. The characteristic
feature of the imitative act, at the instinctive level, is that the
presentation to sight or hearing calls forth a mode of behaviour
of like nature to, or producing like results to, that which affords
the stimulus. The nature of instinctive imitation needs working
out in further detail. But it is probable that what we speak of
as the imitative tendency is, in any given species, the expression
of a considerable number of particular responses each of which is
congenitally linked with a particular presentation or stimulus.
The group of instincts which we class as imitative (and they afford
only the foundations on which intelligent imitation is based)
are of biological value chiefly, if not solely, in those species which
form larger or smaller communities.
The study of instinct is in the genetic treatment of evolutionary
science a study in heredity. The favouring bionomic conditions
are those of a relatively constant environment under
which relatively stereotyped responses are advantage-
hendity, °us. If the environment be complex, there is a corre-
sponding complexity in instinctive behaviour. But
adjustment to a complex environment may be reached in two
ways; by instinctive adaptation through initially stereotyped
behaviour; or by plastic accommodation by acquired modifica-
tions. The tendency of the evolution of intelligence is towards
the disintegration of the stereotyped modes of response and the
dissolution of instinct. Natural selection which, under a uniform
and constant environment, leads to the survival of relatively
fixed and definite modes of response, under an environment
presenting a wider range of varying possibilities leads to the
survival of plastic accommodation through intelligence. This
plasticity is, however, itself hereditary. All intelligent procedure
implies the inherited capacity of profiting by experience. In-
stinctive in the popular sense, it does not fall within the narrower
definition of the term; it is more conveniently described as
innate. It is important to grasp clearly the distinction thus
drawn. A duckling only a few hours old if placed in water swims
with orderly strokes. The stimulus of water on the breast may
be regarded as a sensory presentation which is followed by a
definite and adaptive application of behaviour. But this specific
application is dependent upon a prolonged racial preparation of
the organism to respond in this particular way. Such response
is instinctive. It is wholly due, as such, to racial preparation.
Compare the case of a boy who learns to ride a bicycle. This is
not wholly due, as such, to racial preparation, but is also partly
due to individual preparation. The boy no doubt inherits a
capacity for riding a bicycle, otherwise he could never do so.
But he has to learn to ride none the less. Individual experience
is a condition which without the innate capacity cannot take
effect. Instinct involves inherited adaptation; intelligence, an
inherited power, embodied in the higher nerve-centres, of
accommodation to varying circumstances.
See C. Lloyd Morgan, Habit and Instinct (1896), and Animal
Behaviour (1900); G. J. Romanes, Mental Evolution in Animals
(1883), and Natural History of Instinct (1886); Lord Avebury, On
the Instincts of Animals (1889); Marshall, Instinct and Reason
(1898); Mills, Nature of Animal Intelligence (1898); St George
Mivart, Nature and Thought (1882), and Origin of Human Reason
(1899); E. Wasmann, Zur Entwickelung der Instincte (1897),
Instinct und Intettigenz im Tierreich (1899, Eng. trans. 1903); G.
and C. Peckham, Instincts and Habits of Solitary Wasps (1898) ; see
also the bibliography (section " Instinct and Impulse ") in Baldwin's
Diet, of Philosophy and Psychology. (C. LL. M.)
INSTITUTE (from Lat. instituere, to establish or set up),
something established, an institution, particularly any society
established for an artistic, educational, scientific or social purpose.
The word seems to have been first applied in English to such
institutions for the advancement of science or art as were
modelled on the great French society, the Institut National (see
ACADEMIES). It is thus the name of such societies as the Royal
Institute of British Architects, the Imperial Institute and the
like. It is extended to similar organizations, particularly to
educational, on a smaller or local scale, such as Mechanics' or
Workmen's Institutes, and is sometimes applied to charitable
foundations. In the United States the word is, in a particular
sense, applied to periodic classes giving instruction in the
principles of education to the teachers of elementary and district
schools. The term " institute " is often used to translate the
Lat. institutio, in the sense of a treatise on the elements of any
subject, and particularly of law or jurisprudence; thus the
compilation of the principles of Roman law, made by order of
the emperor Justinian, is known as Justinian's Institutes, and
hence Coke's treatise on English law, of which the first part is
better known as Coke upon Littleton, is called The Institute.
The same title is borne by Calvin's work on the elements
of the Christian doctrine. In Scots law " institute " is the
person named in a settlement or testament to whom an estate
is first limited; those who follow, failing him, are termed
" substitutes."
INSTITUTIONAL CHURCH, the name generally applied both
in the British Isles and in America to a type of church which
supplements its ordinary work by identifying itself in various
ways with the secular interests of those whom it seeks to influence.
The idea of such extension of function grew out of the recognition
of the fact that the normal activities of church work entirely
failed to retain the interest of a large class of the population to
whom the ritual formality of ordinary services was unacceptable.
Various attempts were made to overcome this deficiency, e.g. by
modifying the form of service or of some services, by the addition
to the ordinary services of more or less informal meetings
(e.g. the Pleasant Sunday Afternoon services), by specially
excusing persons from wearing the normal church-going attire
in holiday resorts, and by holding services out of doors. The
principle underlying all these changes is systematized in the
Institutional Church which, in addition to its main building for
INSTRUMENT— INSTRUMENTATION
651
specifically religious services, provides other rooms or buildings
which during the week are open for the use of members and
friends. Lectures, concerts, debates and social gatherings are
organized; there are reading rooms, gymnasiums and other
recreations rooms; various clubs (cycling, cricket, football) are
formed. The organization of the whole is subdivided into special
departments managed by committees. By these various means
many persons are attracted into the atmosphere of the church's
work who could not be induced to attend the formal services.
This expansion of normal church work may be traced back in
England to at least as early as 1840, but the full development
of the Institutional Church belongs only to the latter years
of the iQth century. The chief example in England is Whitefield's
Central Mission in Tottenham Court Road, London, a church
which, in addition to an elaborate organization on the lines above
described, has an official journal. In the United States the
movement may be said to date from about 1880. The name
" Institutional " was first applied to Berkeley Temple, Boston,
by Dr William Jewett Tucker, then president of Dartmouth
College. The obvious criticism that this epithet emphasizes
the administrative and secular side to the exclusion of the
spiritual led to the tentative adoption of other titles, e.g. the
" Open Church," the " Free Church," the former of which is
the more commonly used. In 1894 was formed the " Open and
Institutional Church League " at New York, which held a
number of conventions and served as a headquarters for the
numerous separate churches. In connexion with this league was
formed the " National Federation of Churches and Christian
Workers," which held a convention in 1905.
See C. Silvester Home, The Institutional Church (London, 1906) ;
G. W. Mead, Modern Methods in Church Work (New York, 1897);
R. A. Woods, English Social Movements (New York, 1891).
INSTRUMENT (Lat. instrumenlum, from instruere, to build
up, furnish, arrange, prepare), that which can be used as a
means to an end, hence a mechanical contrivance, implement
or tool; the word is more particularly applied to the implements
of applied science, in mathematics, surgery, surveying, &c.,
while those of the handicrafts are generally known as " tools."
A specific use of the term is for the various contrivances used
to produce musical sounds, " musical instruments."
In law an " instrument " is any formal or written document
by which expression is given to a legal act or agreement. This
is a classical use of the Lat. inslrumentum, a document, record.
The term may be used in a wide sense, as a mere writing, meant
only to form a record, or in a particular sense with reference
to certain statutes. For example, the Stamp Act 1891 defines an
instrument as an expression including every written document;
for the purposes of the Forgery Act 1861 a post-office telegram
accepting a wager has been defined as an instrument. In
expressions such as " deed, will, or other written instrument "
the word means any written document under which a right or
liability, legal or equitable, exists.
INSTRUMENTATION. " Instrumentation " is the best term
that can be found for that aspect of musical art which is concerned
with timbre. The narrower term " orchestration " is applied
to the instrumentation of orchestral music. Since the most
obvious differences of timbre are in those of various instruments,
the art which blends and contrasts timbre is most easily discussed
as the treatment of instruments; but we must use this term with
philosophic breadth and allow it to include voices. Instrumenta-
tion is in all standard text-books treated as a technical subject,
from the point of .view of practical students desirous of writing for
the modern orchestra. And as there is no branch of art in which
mechanical improvements, and the consequent change in the
nature of technical difficulties, bear so directly upon the possi-
bilities and methods of external effect, it follows that an exclusive
preponderance of this view is not without serious disadvantage
from the standpoint of general musical culture. There is
probably no other branch of art in which orthodox tradition
is so entirely divorced from the historical sense, and the history,
when studied at all, so little illuminated by the permanent
artistic significance of its subjects. When improvements in the
structure of an instrument remove from the modern composer's
memory an entire category of limitations which in classical
music determined the very character of the instrument, the
temptation is easy to regard the improvement as a kind of
access of wisdom, in comparison with which not only the
older form of the instrument, but the part that it plays in
classical music, is crude and archaic. But we should do better
justice to improvements in an instrument if we really understood
how far they give it, not merely new resources, but a new
nature. And, moreover, those composers who have done
most to realize this new nature (as Wagner has done for the
brass instruments) have also retained, to an extent unsuspected
by their imitators, the definite character which the instrument
had in its earlier form.
As it is with mechanical improvements, so is it to a still
greater degree with changes in the function of timbre in art.
Throughout the igth century so fatal was the hold obtained
on the popular mind by the technical expert's view of instru-
mentation, that it was impossible to hear the works of Handel
and Bach without " additional accompaniments " conceived
in terms of art as irrelevant to those of 18th-century polyphony s
as the terms of Turnerian landscape are irrelevant to the decora-
tion of the outside walls of a cathedral. There is some reason
to hope that the day of these misconceptions is passed; although
there is also some reason to fear that on other grounds the
present era may be known to posterity as an era of instrumenta-
tion comparable, in its gorgeous chaos of experiment and its
lack of consistent ideas of harmony and form, only to the monodic
period at the beginning of the i7th century, in which no one
had ears for anything but experiments in harmonic colour. We
do not propose to concern ourselves here with those technical
subjects which are the chief concern of standard treatises on
instrumentation. Our task is simply to furnish the general
reader with an account of the types of instrumentation prevalent
at various musical periods, and their relation to other branches
of the art.
The Vocal Style of the i6th Century. — In the i6th century
instrumentation was, in its normal modern sense, non-existent;
but in a special sense it was at an unsurpassable stage of per-
fection, namely, in the treatment of pure vocal harmony. In
every mature period of art it will be found that, however much
the technical rules may be collected in one special category,
every artistic category has a perfect interaction with all the
others; and this is nowhere more perfectly shown than when the
art is in its simplest possible form of maturity. Practically
every law of harmony in 16th-century music may be equally
well regarded as a law of vocal effect. Discords must not be
taken unprepared, because a singer can only find his note by a
mental judgment, and in attacking a discord he has to find a
note of which the harmonic meaning is at variance with that of
other notes sung at the same time. Melody must not make more
than one wide skip in the same direction, because by so doing
it would cause an awkward change of vocal register. Two parts
must not move in consecutive octaves or fifths, because by so
doing they unaccountably reinforce each other by an amount by
which they impoverish the rest of the harmony. Thus we justify,
on grounds of instrumentation, laws usually known as laws
of harmony and counterpoint. Apart from such considerations,
16th-century vocal harmony shows in the hands of its greatest
masters an inexhaustible variety of refinements of vocal colour.
A volume might be written on Orlando di Lasso's art of so
crossing the voices as to render possible successions of chords
which, on a keyed instrument where such crossing cannot
be expressed, would be a horrible series of consecutive fifths;
the beauty of the device consisting in the extreme simplicity
of the chords, combined with the novelty due to the fact that
these chords cannot be produced by any ordinary means without
incorrectness.
Decorative Instrumentation. — In the i7th century the use of
instruments became a necessity; but there were at first no
organized ideas for their treatment except those which were
grounded on their use as supporting and imitating the voice.
652
INSTRUMENTATION
The early 17th-century attempts at their independent use and
characterization are historically interesting, but artistically
almost barbarous. Sometimes they achieve rare beauty by
accident. Heinrich Schutz's Lamentatio Davidi is written for a
bass voice accompanied by four trombones and organ. The trom-
bone parts are on exactly the same material as the voice, which
in fact forms with them a five-part fugue-texture. The effect is
magnificent, and admirably suited to the dignity of the trombone.
Moreover, the opening theme is formed of slow arpeggios; and
the more modern harmonic elements, though technically chro-
matic, consist, from the modern point of view, rather in swift
changes between nearly related keys than in chromatic blurring
of the main key. All this, especially in a writer like Schiitz,
who is saturated with every progressive tendency of the time,
seems to point to a deep sense of the appropriate style of
trombone writing. Yet, so insensible is Schiitz to the euphony
of his own work, that he proposes, as an alternative for the first
and second trombones, two violins an octave higher, the other
parts remaining unaltered! Imagination boggles at the vileness
of this effect.
The chief work done in instrumentation in the I7th century
is undoubtedly that of the Italian writers for the violin, who
developed the technique of that instrument until it proved not
only more resourceful but more artistically organized than that
of the solo voice, which by the time of Handel had become
little better than an acrobatic monstrosity. In the art of
Bach and Handel, instrumentation, as distinguished from choral
writing, has attained a definite artistic coherence. Choral
writing itself has become different from what it was in the i6th
century. The free use of discords and of wider intervals, together
with the influence of the florid elements of solo-singing, enlarged
the bounds of choral expression almost beyond recognition, while
they crowded into very narrow quarters the subtleties of 16th-
century music. These, however, by no means disappeared;
and such devices as the crossing of parts in the second Kyrie of
Bach's B Minor Mass (bars 7, 8, 14, 15, 22, 23, 50) abundantly
show that in the hands of the great masters artistic truths are
not things which a change of date can make false.
But the treatment of instruments in Bach and Handel has a
radical difference from that of the art which was soon to succeed
it. It has precisely the same limitation as the treatment of
form and emotion; it cannot change as the work proceeds.
Its contrasts are like those of an architectural scheme, not those
of a landscape or a drama. It admits of the loveliest combina-
tions of timbre, and it can alternate them in considerable variety.
Modern composers have often produced their most characteristic
orchestral effects with fewer contrasting elements than Bach
uses in his Trauer-Ode, in the pastoral symphony in his Christmas
Oratorio, in the first chorus of the cantata Liebsler Colt, wann
werd' ich slerben, and in many other cases; but the modern
instrumental effects are as far outside Bach's scope as a long
passage of preparation on the dominant leading to the return
of a first subject is beyond the scope of a gigue in a suite.
Bach's conception of the function of an instrument is that it
holds a regular part in a polyphonic scheme; and his blending of
tones is like the blending of colours in a purely decorative design.
Those instruments of which the tones and compass are most
suitable for polyphonic melody are for the most part high in
pitch; a circumstance which, in conjunction with the practice
(initiated by the monodists and ratified by science and common
sense) of reckoning chords upwards from the bass, leads to the
conclusion that the instruments which hold the main threads
in the design shall be supported where necessary by a simple
harmonic filling-out on some keyed instrument capable of forming
an unobtrusive background. The chords necessary in this part,
which with its supporting bass is called the continuo, were
indicated by figures; and the evanescent and delicate tones
of the harpsichord lent themselves admirably to this purpose
where solo voices and instruments were concerned. For the
support of the chorus the more powerful organ was necessary.
It is in the attempt to supply the place of this continuo (or
figured bass) by definite orchestral parts that modern per-
formances, until the most recent times, have shown so radical an
incapacity to grasp the nature of 18th-century instrumentation.
The whole point of this filling-out is that, the polyphonic design
of the main instruments being complete in itself, there is no
room for any such additional inner parts as can attract attention.
In the interest of euphony some harmonious sound is needed to
bridge the great gap which almost always exists between the
bass and the upper instruments, but this filling out must be of
the softest and most atmospheric kind. Bach himself is known
to have executed it in a very polyphonic style, and this for the
excellent reason that plain chords would have contrasted so
strongly with the real instrumental parts that they could not fail
to attract attention even in the softest tones of the harpsichord
or the organ, while light polyphony in these tones would elude
the ear and at the same time perfectly bridge over the gap in
the harmony. There seems no good reason why in modern
performances the pianoforte should not be used for the purpose;
if only accompanists can be trained to acquire the necessary
delicacy of touch, and can be made to understand that, if they
cannot extemporize the necessary polyphony, and so have to
play something definitely written for them, it is not a mass of
interesting detail which they are to bring to the public ear. A
lamentable instance of the prevalent confusion of thought on this
point is shown by the vocal scores of the Bach cantatas corre-
sponding to the edition of the Back Gesellschaft (which must not
be held responsible for them). In these Bach's polyphonic
designs are often obliterated beneath a mass of editorial counter-
point (even where Bach has carefully written the words " laslo
solo," i.e. " no filling out "). The same comments apply to the
attempts sometimes made to fill out the bare places in i8th-
century clavier music. There is no doubt that such filling out
was often done on a second harpsichord with stops of a very light
tone; but, if it cannot be done on the modern pianoforte in a
touch so light as to avoid confusion between it and the notes
actually written as essential to the design, it certainly ought
not to be done at all. The greater richness of tone of the modern
pianoforte is a better compensation for any bareness that may
be imputed to pure two-part or three-part writing than a filling
out which deprives the listener of the power to follow the essential
lines of the music. The same holds good, though in a lesser
degree, of the resources of the harpsichord in respect of octave-
strings. To sacrifice phrasing, and distinctness in real part-
writing, to a crude imitation of the richness produced mechanic-
ally on the harpsichord by drawing 4-ft. and 8-ft. registers, is
artistically suicidal. The genius of the modern pianoforte is to
produce richness by depth and variety of tone; and players who
cannot find scope for such genius in the real part-writing of the
i8th century will not get any nearer to the 18th-century spirit
by sacrificing the essentials of its art to an attempt to imitate
its mechanical resources by a modern tour de force.
Symphonic Instrumentation. — The difference between decora-
tive and symphonic instrumentation is admirably shown by
Gluck. In the famous dedicatory letter of his Alceste he mentions
among other conceptions on which his reform of opera was to be
based, that the co-operation of the instruments ought to be
regulated in proportion to the interest and the passion, a doctrine
of which the true significance lies in its connexion with other
conditions of opera which are incompatible with the polyphonic
treatment of instruments as threads in a decorative scheme.
The date of this famous letter was 1767, but after Alceste Gluck
was still able to use material from earlier work; and the overture
to Armide is adapted from that of Telemacco, written in the year
of Bach's death (1750).
To write an account of symphonic instrumentation in any
detail would be like attempting a history of emotional expression;
and all that we can do here is to point out that the problem
which was, so to speak, shelved by the polyphonic device of the
continuo, was for a long time solved only by methods which,
in any hands but those of the greatest masters, were very in-
artistic conventions. In the new art the concentration of atten-
tion upon form, as a more important source of dramatic interest
and climax than texture, resulted in a neglect of polyphony which
INSTRUMENTATION
653
seriously damaged even Gluck's 'work, and which always had the
grave inconvenience that while the new methods of blending
and contrasting instruments stimulated an increase in the variety,
if not in the size of orchestras, there was at the same time extreme
difficulty in finding occupation for the members of the lower
middle class of the orchestra in ordinary passages. On the other
hand, it is significant how everything in the development of
new instruments seems to suggest, and be suggested by, the
new methods of expression. The invention of the damper-pedal
in the pianoforte epitomizes the difference between polyphony
and symphonic art, for it is the earliest device by which sounds
are produced and prolonged in a way contrary to the spirit of
" real " part-writing. It is possible to conceive of any number of
notes struck and sustained by the fingers as consisting of so
many quasi- vocal parts; but when a series of single sounds is
played and each sound continues to vibrate by means of a pedal
which prevents the dampers from falling on the strings, then we
are conscious that the sounds have been produced as from one
part, and that they nevertheless combine to form a chord; and
this is as remote from the spirit of polyphonic part-writing
as modern English is from classical Greek.
The pianoforte trios of Haydn are perhaps the only works
of first-rate artistic importance in which there is no doubt that
the earlier stages of the new art do not admit of sufficient poly-
phony to give the instruments fair play. Haydn finds the piano-
forte so completely capable of expressing his meaning that he is
at a loss to find independent material for any accompanying
instruments; and the violoncello in his trios has, except perhaps
in four passages in the whole collection of thirty-three works,
not a note to play that is not already in the bass of the pianoforte;
while the melodies of the violin are, more often than not, doubled
in the treble. Yet there is a certain difference between this and
the work of a poor artist whose designs are threadbare. It would
be impossible to add a note to Haydn's trio; the only question
is how to account for the superfluity of much of the string parts
and how to make the trios effective in performance. It is some-
times suggested that the 'cello part is best omitted and these
works played as violin sonatas. But experiment shows that in
this condition much of the violin part sounds incomplete; and
the truth appears to be that Haydn is thinking, like any modern
composer, of the opposition of two solid bodies of tone — the
pianoforte and the stringed instruments. And it will be found
that the method of performance which most nearly justifies the
instrumental effect of these otherwise beautiful works is that in
which the pianoforte player regards himself as frequently
doubling the stringed instruments, and not vice versa. He
should therefore in all such passages play extremely lightly,
so as to give the violin and 'cello the function of drawing the main
outline. In the time of Bach such writing was beautifully suited
to enliven the dry glitter of the harpsichord, and Bach's duets
for clavier and violin seem to have been sometimes played as
trios with a violoncello playing from the clavier bass. But this
was ineffective with the pianoforte, and is only explicable in
Haydn as a survival. His trios were, indeed, published under the
title of " pianoforte sonatas with accompaniment of violin and
violoncello "; but this in no way militates against the above
remarks as to their proper method of performance nowadays,
when we take into consideration the greater strength of tone of
the modern pianoforte, especially in the bass, and the fact that
in no case could a violinist consent to play as an accompaniment
such melodies as that at the beginning of the G major trio known
as No. i.
For Mozart there never was any such embarras de richesse
in any combination of instruments. His music is highly poly-
phonic, and modern in its instrumental treatment throughout.
It was lucky for the development of instrumentation (as in all
branches of music during the change from polyphonic to formal
design) that whenever the texture is not polyphonic the natural
place for melody is on the surface: in other words, when the
accompaniment is simple the tune is generally on the top.
Haydn, when he was not tempted by the resources of an instru-
ment so complete in itself as the pianoforte, soon learnt to write
artistically perfect string quartets in which the first violin, though
overwhelmingly the most important part, is nevertheless in
perfect balance with the other members of the scheme, inasmuch
as they contribute exactly what their pitch and the little poly-
phonic elaboration admissible by the style will enable them to
give. In the treatment of the orchestra volumes might be written
about Haydn's and Mozart's sense of fitness, as shown in Haydn's
experiments and Mozart's settled methods. Where they con-
sent to any practical custom from practical necessity they also
consent because it is artistically right for them, and if it had not
been artistically right they would have soon swept it away. For
example, it has often been said that the extent to which their
orchestral viola parts double the basses is due, partly to bad
traditions of Italian opera, and partly to the fact that viola
players were, more often than not, simply persons who had failed
to play the violin. This was in many cases true, and it is equally
true that Mozart and Haydn often had no scruple in following the
customs of very bad composers. But, when we look at the many
passages in which the violas double the basses, we shall do well
to consider whether there is room in the harmonic scheme for the
violas to do anything else, and whether the effect would not
be thin without them. As music becomes more polyphonic the
inner parts of the orchestra become more and more emancipated.
Already Mozart divides his violas into two parts quite as often
as he makes them play with the basses. In Beethoven's orchestra-
tion there is almost always room for an independent viola part.
There is not room for one together with an independent violon-
cello part; the wonderful use of muted solo violoncellos in the
slow movement of the Pastoral Symphony being a special effect,
like the earlier instance in Haydn's i2th Salomon Symphony.
Otherwise, when Beethoven has anything special for the violon-
cellos to say, he invariably softens and deepens their singularly
incisive cantabile tones by doubling them with the violas. In
the orchestras of his day this was perhaps the only safe proceeding
for players unaccustomed to such responsibilities, and that may
have been one of Beethoven's reasons for it. But it is equally
certain that the pure violoncello tone in large masses belongs to
a distinctly different region of orchestral effect. Haydn's numer-
ous examples of independent violoncello melodies are almost
all either marked solo or written for such small orchestras that
they would be played as solos.
Similar principles apply in infinite detail to the treatment of
wind instruments, and we must never lose sight of them in
speculating as to the reasons why the genius of Beethoven was
able to carry instrumentation into worlds of which Haydn and
Mozart never dreamt, or why, having gone so far, it left any-
thing unexplored. A subject so vast and so incapable of classifica-
tion cannot be discussed here, but its aesthetic principles may be
illustrated by the extreme case of the trumpets and horns, which
in classical times had no scale except that of the natural harmonic
series. This could be fixed, within certain limits, at whatever
pitch suited the composition; but on the horn it could be only
very partially filled out by notes of a muffled quality produced
by inserting the hand into the bell of the instrument, a device
impossible on the trumpet. These instruments thus produced,
in Haydn's and Beethoven's times, a very remarkable but
closely limited series of effects, which, as Sir George Macfarren
pointed out in the article " Music " in the 9th edition of the
Encyclopaedia Britannica, gave them a peculiar character and
function in strongly asserting the main notes of the key. An
instance of this characteristic function, specially remarkable
because the composer has taken exceptional measures for it,
is Beethoven's overture to Fidelia. It is in E major, while
Beethoven chooses to use trumpets in C. The only note which
these can play in E major is the tonic, to which they are accord-
ingly confined until the recapitulation of the second subject.
This is unexpectedly placed in C major, the remotest key reached
in the overture, and one that had already appeared in an impres-
sive passage in the introduction which foreshadows the reference
in the first act to the hero in his dungeon (" Der kaum mehr
lebt und wie ein Schatten schwebt "). In this key the trumpets
blaze out with an effect which entirely depends upon their
654
INSTRUMENTATION
restricted part hitherto. On a sufficient acquaintance with the
work this would probably have revealed the essential nature of
the instrument to a hearer unacquainted with technicalities,
and revealed it rather as a characteristic than as a limitation.
A still more remarkable instance will be found in the third
statement of the theme of the finale of the pth symphony. When
the trumpets take it up they make a remarkable change at its
nth bar, for no other reason than that one of the notes, though
perfectly within their scale, and, indeed, already produced by
them in the very same bar, is so harmonized as to suggest the
freedom of an instrument with a complete scale. This passage
shows that if Beethoven had had the modern trumpet at his
disposal, while he would no doubt freely have used its
resources, he would nevertheless have maintained its character
as an instrument founded on the natural scale, and would
have agreed with Brahms that the nobility and purity of
its tone depends upon its faithful adherence, at least within
symphonic limits, to types of melody suggestive of that
scale.
This brings us to the latest radical change effected in instru-
mentation, the change from symphonic to dramatic principles.
It will be convenient to take one supreme composer as the
artist who -has dealt so consistently with the essentials of the
new style that he may be conveniently regarded as its creator.
Even with this limitation the subject is too vast for us to enter
into details.
Dramatic Instrumentation. — There is hardly one of Wagner's
orchestral innovations which is not inseparably connected with
his adaptation of music to the requirements of drama; and
modern conductors, in treating Wagner's orchestration, as the
normal standard by which all previous and contemporary
music must be judged, are doing their best to found a tradition
which in another fifty years will be exploded as thoroughly as
the tradition of symphonic additional accompaniments is now
exploded in the performances of Bach and Handel. The main
difference between symphonic and modern dramatic orchestration
depends on this: that in a symphony any important incident
will probably be heard again within five minutes, in every
circumstance of formal symmetry and preparation that can
attract the attention. This being so, it is absurd in a symphony
to use only such orchestral colours as would be fit for dramatic
moments which are not likely to recur for an hour or two, if they
recur at all. Such a passage as bars 5 to 8 in the first movement
of Beethoven's 8th symphony is as unintelligible from the
point of view of Wagnerian opera as the opening of the Rheingold
is unintelligible from the point of view of symphony. But both
are quite right. The modern Wagnerian conductor is apt to
complain that Beethoven, in his four-bar phrase, drowns a melody
which lies in the weakest register of the clarinet by a crowd of
superfluous notes in oboes, horns and flutes. The complainer
entirely overlooks the fact that this is the kind of music in which
such a phrase will certainly be heard again before we have time to
forget it; and as a matter of fact the strings promptly repeat it
fortissimo in a position which nothing can overpower. A crowd of
instruments that seemed at first to overwhelm it in sympathetic
comments is perfectly dramatic and appropriate on the symphonic
scale. On the operatic scale established by Wagner such detail is
simply lost. Far greater polyphonic detail of another kind is
no doubt possible, but it requires far longer time for its expression.
It cannot change so rapidly. It engages the ear more exclusively,
and therefore it needs an accuracy and an elaboration of para-
phernalia quite irrelevant to symphonic art. The accuracy and
the paraphernalia are equally exemplified in all Wagner's
additions and alterations of the classical orchestral scheme,
for these all consist in completing the families of instruments
so that each timbre can be presented pure in complete harmony.
But the greatness of Wagner is shown in the fact that with
all the effect his additions have in revolutionizing the resources
of orchestration, he never regards his novelties as substitutes
for the natural principles of instrumental effect. His brass
instruments have lost nothing of their ancient nobility. In
his gigantic designs it inevitably happens that instrumental
resources are strained to their utmost, and there is, perhaps,
hardly anything which the makers and players of instruments
can be trained to do which is too remote to be demanded by
some extreme dramatic necessity in Wagner's scheme. But it
is always some such extreme necessity that demands it, and
never an appetite too jaded for natural resources. The crucial
example of this is what Richard Strauss has ingeniously called
the "al fresco" treatment of instruments in large orchestral
masses (Berlioz-Strauss, Instrumentationslehre, edition Peters).
Experience shows that in the modern orchestra there is safety in
numbers, and that passages may with impunity be written for
thirty-two violins which no single player can execute clearly.
Whether this justifies Wagner's successors and imitators in
showing a constant preference for passages of which not even
the general outline is practicable; whether it justifies a state
of things in which the normal compass of every instrument
in an advanced 20th-century score would appear to be about
a fifth higher than any player of that instrument will admit;
whether it proves that it is artistically desirable that when there
are eight horns in the orchestra their material should be indistin-
guishable from pianoforte writing, and that, in short, the part of
every instrument should look exactly like the part of every
other — such questions are for posterity to decide. At present
we can only be certain that the criterion according to which
Brahms, being a symphonic writer, has no mastery of orchestra-
tion whatever, is not a criterion compatible with any sense of
symphonic style. It is therefore not a criterion which can do
justice to the principles of Wagner's non-symphonic art, for its
appreciation thereof is inevitably one-sided. Least of all can
it conduce to the formation of sound critical standards for the
new instrumentation which is now in process of development
for the future forms of instrumental music. These, we cannot
doubt, will be as profoundly influenced by Wagner as the
sonata style was influenced by Gluck.
Finally it must be remembered that musical euphony and
emotional effect are inseparable from considerations of harmony
and polyphony. Timbre itself is, as Helmholtz shows, a kind of
harmony felt but not heard. Not even the imagination and
skill of Berlioz could galvanize into permanent artistic life an
instrumentation based exclusively upon instruments, however
suggestive his wonderful orchestral effects may have been to
contemporary and later artists, who realize that artistic effects
must proceed from artistic causes.
Chamber-music — The instrumentation of solo combinations
is one of the largest and most detailed subjects in the art of
music. Something has been said above as to its earlier aspects
in the time of Haydn. Before that time it was based ex-
clusively on the use of the harpsichord either as a means of
supporting the other instruments or as also contributing principal
parts to the combination. Thus there were no string-quartets
before Haydn — at least none that can be distinguished from
symphonies for string-band.
Richard Strauss, in his edition of Berlioz's works on Instru-
mentation, paradoxically characterizes the classical orchestral
style as that which was derived from chamber-music. Now it
is true that in Haydn's early days orchestras were small and
generally private; and that the styles of orchestral and chamber-
music were not distinct; but surely nothing is clearer than that
the whole history of the rise of classical chamber-music lies in
its rapid differentiation from the coarse-grained orchestral
style with which it began. Orchestral wind-parts have been
discovered belonging to Haydn's string-quartet Op. i,No. 5; his
quartet in D minor, Op. 9, No. 4, is already in a style which not even
the most casual listener could mistake for anything orchestral.
On this differentiation of styles rests the whole aesthetics of
chamber-music; but the subject is very subtle, and there is
much, as for example in Schubert's quartets and his C major
quintet, that is inspired by orchestral ideas without in the least
vitiating the chamber-music style; though, judged by its appear-
ance on paper, it seems as unorthodox as the notoriously
orchestral beginnings of Mendelssohn's quartet in D and quintet
in Bb. The beginning of Mendelssohn's F minor quartet is,
INSTRUMENT OF GOVERNMENT
655
again, a case usually, but perhaps wrongly, condemned for its
orchestral appearance on paper. Such matters cannot be decided
off-hand by the mere fact that tremolos are characteristic of
orchestras: the question is whether in individual cases they
have not a special character when played by single players.
Where this is so there need be no confusion of style; but the
danger of such confusion is great, and with the rise of modern
dramatic instrumentation it may be doubted whether there are
any standards of criticism in current use for chamber-music of
other than the sonata style. The development of pianoforte
technique since Beethoven has been in some ways even more
revolutionizing than that of the brass instruments; and piano-
forte instrumentation, both in solo and in chamber-music, is a
study for a lifetime.
Orchestral Schemes Typical of Different Periods.
1. l6th Century. — We, with our stereotyped modern notions of the
grouping of voices, may get some idea of the freedom of the 16th-
century composers' imagination by noting that the four-part move-
ments for semi-chorus or solo voices in Palestrina's Masses present
us with no fewer than seventeen different combinations of voices,
and that of these the familiar group of soprano, alto, tenor and bass
is not the most common, though it is invariable as that used for entire
four-part Masses. In three-part movements Palestrina presents us
with twelve combinations of voices. In his five-part Masses and
single movements we find eight combinations, and his six-part
Masses and single movements show eleven. And when he writes in
eight parts for a double chorus the two groups are seldom identical.
2. i8th Century. — 17th-century instrumentation may be neglected
here as having begun in chaos and ended in the schemes of
the 18th-century decorative instrumentation. The following is
Bach's fullest orchestra: the string-band, consisting (as at the
present day) of violins in two parts, violas, violoncellos, doubled
(where the contrary is not indicated) by double basses; the wind
instruments (generally one to each part, as the string-band was never
large) — 2 flutes, 2 or 3 oboes, or oboe d' amore (a lower-pitched and
gentler type), taille or oboe da caccia (some kind of alto ob'oe corre-
sponding to the cor anglais), bassoon, generally doubling the string
basses, 2 horns, with parts needing much greater practice in high
notes than is customary to-day, 3 (occasionally 4) trumpets, of which
at least the first 2 were played by players especially trained to
produce much higher notes than are compatible with the power to
produce the lower notes (the high players were called Clarin-Bldser ;
and the others Principal-Blaser); a pair of kettle-drums, tuned to
the tonic and dominant of the piece.
Handel's orchestra is less detailed. He does not seem to have
found any English trumpeters capable of playing as high parts as
those of the German Clann-Blaser, and his plan seems generally to get
as many oboes and bassoons as could be procured to double the top
and bottom of his string-band. But his definite orchestral effects in
certain places (e.g. " He led them forth like sheep," in Israel in
Egypt, and the music of the Witch of Endor, and the appearance of
Samuel's spirit in Saul) are as modern as Gluck's.
3. Symphonic Orchestration. — Mozart's full symphonic scheme
requires the string-band, I flute (rarely 2), 2 oboes, 2 clarinets (when-
ever he could obtain them, he being the first composer who really
appreciated them, instead of regarding them either as cheap substi-
tutes for the clarino or high trumpet of Bach, or, like Gluck and, with
rare and late exceptions, Haydn, as merely adding to the force of
tutti passages). Further, 2 horns, 2 bassoons, 2 trumpets and a pair
of kettle-drums.
Mozart imports from church music 3 trombones for special
passages in his operas.
Beethoven almost always has 2 flutes, and invariably 2
clarinets. In his 5th symphony he introduced 3 trombones
and extended both the upper and lower extremes of the wind-
band by a piccolo and a double bassoon. " Turkish music,"
i.e. the big drum, cymbals and triangle, was used by Haydn in his
Military Symphony, and Mozart in his Entfiihrung, for reasons of
" local colour "; it appears as an extreme means of climax in the
finale of Beethoven's gth symphony.
4. Wagner's Orchestra: Tristan und Isolde. — (Families of instru-
ments are connected by a brace.)
Strings: as usual, but subject to minutely complex grouping.
3 flutes (3rd to play piccolo when required).
2 oboes.
1 cor anglais.
3 bassoons.
2 clarinets.
I bass clarinet.
4 horns. (The mechanical improvements by which horns and
trumpets acquired a complete scale have revolutionized the
nature of those instruments; and Wagner's orchestration,
more than that of any other composer, has profited by this.
Yet, in the preface to the score Wagner speaks very strongly
of the loss of the original character of the horn in the hands of
ordinary players ; and goes so far as to say that, if experience
had not shown that they could be trained to play nearly as
smoothly as the classical players, he would have renounced all
the advantages of the new mechanism.)
3 trumpets.
3 trombones.
1 tuba.
2 or, for safety in tuning, 3 kettle-drums.
Triangle and cymbals.
i harp (multiplied quant, suf.).
In Der Ring des Nibelungen Wagner specifies the proportions of the
string-band as 16 first and 16 second violins, 12 violas, 12 violon-
cellos, 8 double basses. The rest of the orchestra consists of —
Piccolo and 3 flutes.
S3 oboes and cor anglais, or 4th oboe.
3 bassoons, or 2 and contra-fagotto.
3 clarinets and i bass clarinet.
8 horns, 4 of whom are also required to play 4 specially con-
structed tenor and bass tubas.
1 ordinary (double-bass) tuba.
5 3 trumpets.
( I bass trumpet. _(A project of Wagner's which instrument-
makers found impracticable, so that Wagner had to con-
tent himself with a kind of valve trombone shaped like a
trumpet.)
3 trombones and I double-bass trombone.
2 pairs of kettle-drums.
(Triangle.
Cymbals.
Big drum.
Gong.
6 harps.
5. Chamber-music. — Bach's and his contemporaries' combinations
with the harpsichord show the natural fondness, in his day, for
instruments of a tone too gentle for prominent use in large rooms,
or indeed for survival in modern times. Thus there was quite as
much important solo music for the flute as for the violin; and
almost more music for the viola da gamba than for the violoncello.
A frequent combination was flute, violin and harpsichord (very
probably with a violoncello doubling the bass), and in more than one
case the violin was partly tuned lower to soften its tone.
Classical and modern chamber-music in the sonata style consists
mainly of string-quartets for 2 violins, viola and violoncello;
string-trios (rare, because very difficult to write sonorously) ; piano-
forte-trios (pianoforte, violin and violoncello) ; pianoforte-quartets
(pianoforte with string-trio); pianoforte-quintets (pianoforte with
string-quartet); string-quintets (with 2 violas, very rarely with
2 violoncellos), and (in two important cases by Brahms) string-
sextets. Larger combinations, being semi-orchestral, especially
where the double-bass and wind instruments are used, lend them-
selves to a somewhat lighter style; thus Beethoven's septet and
Schubert's octet are both in the nature of a very large serenade.
Wind instruments produce very special effects in chamber-music,
and need an exceedingly adroit technique on the part of the composer.
Magnificent examples are Mozart's trio for pianoforte, clarinet and
viola, his quintet for pianoforte, oboe, clarinet, horn and bassoon
(imitated by Beethoven), his quintet for clarinet and strings,
Brahms's clarinet-quintet for the same combination, and his trio for
pianoforte, violin and horn. (D. F. T.)
INSTRUMENT OF GOVERNMENT, the name given to the
decree, or written constitution, under which Oliver Cromwell
as " lord protector of the commonwealth " governed England,
Scotland and Ireland from December 1653 to May 1657.
The Long Parliament was expelled in April 1653 and the
council of state dissolved; the Little, or Nominated, parliament
which followed ended its existence by abdication; and Cromwell,
officially lord general of the army, with a new council of state,
remained the only recognized authority in the country. It was
in these circumstances that the Instrument of Government,
drawn up by some officers in the army, prominent among whom
was John Lambert, was brought forward. The document
appears to have been under consideration since the middle of
October 1653, but Ludlow says it was " in a clandestine manner
carried on and huddled up by two or three persons," a remark
probably very near the truth. The nominated parliament
abdicated on the i2th of December 1653, and after certain
emendations the Instrument was accepted by Cromwell on the
i6th. Consisting of forty-two articles, the Instrument placed
the legislative power in the hands of " one person, and the people
assembled in parliament "; the executive power was left to
the lord protector, whose office was to be elective and not
hereditary, and a council of state numbering from thirteen to
twenty-one members. The councillors were appointed for life;
656
INSUBRES— INSURANCE
fifteen were named in the Instrument itself; and Cromwell
and the council were empowered to add six. To fill vacancies
parliament must name six persons, of whom the council would
select two, the choice between these two being left to the pro-
tector. A parliament was to meet on the 3rd of September 1654,
and until that date the protector with the consent of the council
could make ordinances which would have the force of laws.
After the meeting of parliament, however, he had no power of
legislation, nor had he any veto upon its acts, the utmost he
could do being to delay new legislation for twenty days. A new
parliament must be called "once in every third year," elaborate
arrangements being made to prevent any failure in this respect,
and for five months it could not be dissolved save with its own
consent. The parliament, composed of a single chamber, was to
consist of 460 members — 400 for England and Wales, and 30
each for Scotland and Ireland — and the representative system
was entirely remodelled, growing towns sending members for the
first time, and many small boroughs being disfranchised. A
large majority of the English members, 265 out of 400, were
to be elected by the counties, where voters must possess land
or personal property of the value of £200, while in the boroughs
the franchise remained unaltered. In Scotland and Ireland the
arrangement of the representation was left to the protector and
the council. Roman Catholics and all concerned in the Irish
rebellion were permanently disfranchised and declared incapable
of sitting in parliament, and those who had taken part in the
war against the parliament were condemned to a similar dis-
ability during the first four parliaments. The protector was
empowered to raise a revenue of £200,000 in addition to a sum
sufficient to maintain the navy and an army of 30,000 men, and
religious liberty was granted " provided this liberty be not
extended to Popery or Prelacy." The chief officers of state were
to be chosen with the consent of parliament, and a parliament
must be summoned at once in case of war. The practical effect
of the Instrument was to entrust the government of the three
countries to the parliament for five months out of every three
years, and to the protector and the council for the remainder of
the time. Although the Instrument bristled with possibilities
of difference between parliament and protector, " it is impossible, "
as Gardiner says, " not to be struck with the ability of its
framers."
Having issued many ordinances and governed in accordance
with the terms of the Instrument, Cromwell duly met parliament
on the 3rd of September, and on the following day he urged the
'members to give it the force of a parliamentary enactment. Many
representatives objected to the provision placing the supreme
power in the hands of a single person and of parliament, a dis-
cussion which was futile, as clause XII. of the Instrument
declared that " the persons elected shall not have power to alter
the government as it is hereby settled in one single person and a
parliament." The proceedings were soon stopped by Cromwell,
who on the 1 2th of September explained that there was a differ-
ence between " fundamentals " which they might not, and
" circumstantials " which they might, alter. He concluded by
stating that they would be excluded unless they subscribed a
recognition to be true to the protector and the commonwealth,
and to respect the terms of clause XII. Over three hundred
members took the required step; but they proceeded to alter
the Instrument in other ways, and over the question of the
control of the army they were soon in sharp conflict with the
protector. At length, on the 22nd of January 1655, Cromwell,
counting twenty weeks as five months, dissolved parliament.
Regarding the Instrument as still in force the protector sought
for a time to rule in accordance with its provisions; but new
difficulties and growing discontent forced him to govern in a more
arbitrary fashion. However, in July 1656 he issued writs for
a second parliament which met in the following September.
Many members, men of advanced views, were excluded by the
council of state, acting on the strength of clause XVII., which
declared that those elected must be " persons of known integrity,
fearing God, and of good conversation." The remainder dis-
cussed the question of the future government of the country,
and in May 1657 Cromwell assented to the Humble Petition and
Advice, which supplanted the Instrument of Government.
Gardiner says the Instrument was " the first of hundreds of
written constitutions which have since spread over the world,
of which the American is the most conspicuous example, in which
a barrier is set up against the entire predominance of any one
set of official persons, by attributing strictly limited functions
to each."
The text of the Instrument is printed in S. R. Gardiner's Consti-
tutional Documents of the Puritan Revolution (Oxford, 1899). See also
S. R. Gardiner, History of the Commonwealth and Protectorate, vols. ii.
and iii. (London, 1897-1901); L. von Ranke, Englische Geschichte
(1859-1868): and T. Carlyle, Cromwell's Letters and Speeches (London,
1897-1901). (A. W. H.»)
INSUBRES ("Iffoju|3pe, *lv<rovfipoC), a Celtic people of upper
Italy, the most powerful in Gallia Transpadana, inhabiting the
country between the Adda, the Ticinus and the Alps. According
to Livy (v. 34) they appear to have been a branch of the Aedui
in Gallia Transalpina, though others assume that they were
Umbrians, a view to some extent supported by the form
Is-ombr-es. Livy states that Bellovesus and his Gauls, having
crossed the Alps and defeated the Etruscans near the Ticinus,
found themselves in the territory of the Insubres (also the name
of a pagus of the Aedui). Here they built a city and called it
Mediolanum (Milan), after the name of a village in their home
in Gallia Transalpina. The name Insubres thus appears applied
to the inhabitants (i) of the Aeduan pagus, (2) of the territory
in Gallia Transpadana occupied by Bellovesus, (3) to the founders
of Mediolanum. From 222 to 195 B.C. the Insubres were
frequently at war with the Romans. In 222 they were de-
feated at Clastidium by M. Claudius Marcellus, who gained
the spolia opima by slaying with his own hand their king
Viridomarus (Virdumarus), and in 194 they were finally sub-
dued by L. Valerius Flaccus.
See H. Nissen, Italische Landeskunde (1902) ii. 179; A. Holder,
Altkeltischer Sprachschatz, ii. (1904).
INSURANCE, a term meaning generally "making oneself safe
against " something, but specially used in connexion with
making financial provision against certain risks in the business
of life. The terms Assurance and Insurance are in ordinary
usage synonymous, but in the profession " assurance " is con-
fined to the " life " business, and " insurance " to fire, marine
and other miscellaneous risks. Assurance was the earlier term,,
and was used of all forms of insurance indiscriminately till the
end of the i6th century. Insurance — in its earlier form, " ensur-
ance " — was first applied to fire risks (see note s.v. " Insurance "
in the New English Dictionary).
I. GENERAL HISTORY
During the latter half of the igth century the practice of insur-
ance extended with unprecedented rapidity, partly in novel
forms. While its several branches, such as life insurance,
casualty insurance and others, have each had an independent
and characteristic development, all these together form an
institution peculiar to the modern world, the origin and growth
of which attest a remarkable change in men's ideas and habits
of thought.
The simplest and most general conception of insurance is a
provision made by a group of persons, each singly in danger
of some loss, the incidence of which cannot be foreseen, that
when such loss shall occur to any of them it shall be distributed
over the whole group. Its essential elements, therefore, are
foresight and co-operation; the former the special distinction
of civilized man, the latter the means of social progress. But
foresight is possible only in the degree in which the consequences
of conduct are assured, i.e. it depends on an ascertained regularity
in the forces of nature and the order of society. To the savage,
life is a lottery. In hunting, rapine and war, all his interests
are put at hazard. The hopes and fears of the gambler dominate
his impulses. As nature is studied and subdued, and as society
is developed, the element of chance is slowly eliminated from
life. In a progressive society, education, science, invention,
the arts of production, with regular government and civil order.
GENERAL HISTORY]
INSURANCE
657
steadily work together to narrow the realm of chance and extend
that of foresight. But there remain certain events which may
disturb all anticipations, and in spite of any man's best wisdom
and effort may deprive him of the fruits of his labour. These
are mainly of two classes: (i) damage to property by the great
forces of nature, such as lightning and hail, by the perils of the
sea and by fire; (2) premature death. A useful life has an
economical value. But no skill can make certain its continuance
to its normal close. In the reasonable expectation that it will
last until a competence is gained or the family ceases to be
dependent, young men marry; but some will die too soon, and
in the aggregate multitudes are left destitute. Bot^h classes
of loss are alike, in that they fall on individuals in the mass who
are not known beforehand nor selected by any traceable law.
But the sufferers are ruined, while the same pecuniary loss, if
distributed over the whole number, would be little felt. Wherever
the sense of community has existed this has been discerned,
and some effort, made to act upon it. Thus in feudal Europe
it was customary for the houses of vassals to be restored after
fire at the cost of the estate. In England in the lyth century
the government practised a method of relief after accidental
fires. When such a loss was proved to the king in council, the
chancellor sent a king's brief to churches, sheriffs and justices,
asking contributions, and trustees for the sufferers administered
the funds collected. But under the last two Stuarts gross frauds
resulted, and the system fell into disrepute and disuse. At best,
the voluntary relief provided by charity after losses are incurred
is but sporadic and irregular. Insurance begins when the
liability to loss is recognized as common, and provision is made
beforehand to meet it from a common fund. The efficient
organization of communities or groups for this purpose is an
essentially modern achievement of social science. But the
history of the conception in its formative stages is extremely
obscure.
Its first appearance in business life is often sought in the marine
loans of the ancient Greeks, fully described by Demosthenes.
Money was advanced on a ship or cargo, to be repaid with large
interest if the voyage prosper, but not repaid at all if the ship be
lost, the rate of interest being made high enough to pay not only
for the use of the capital, but for the risk of losing it. Loans of
this character have ever since been common in maritime lands,
under the name of bottomry and respondentia bonds. (See
below, Marine Insurance.) But the direct insurance of sea-
risks for a premium paid independently of loans began, as far
as is known, in Belgium about A.D. 1300. During the next
century the risks of insurance for the usual voyages between
London and European ports were carefully considered, and
customary rates became established. In his address in opening
Elizabeth's first parliament in 1559, Sir Nicholas Bacon said,
"Doth not the wise merchant in every adventure of danger
give part to have the rest assured ?" In 1601 parliament
created a commission to decide disputes under contracts for
marine insurance, and the preamble of the act (43 Eliz. ch. 12)
expresses the best thought of the British mind in that day upon
the subject. Thus the business of marine insurance was intelli-
gently and wisely practised three centuries ago. But the under-
writers were private persons, acting independently, so that the
insured lacked the benefit of large aggregations of capital to make
his contract safe; while the insurer, who took one or a few risks,
was without the security of large averages and might be crushed
by an exceptional loss. A partial remedy was gradually reached
in London. Men who had capital to employ in this hazardous
business used to meet at fixed hours when shipowners and
merchants could negotiate with them. The higgling of the open
market, in view of all the circumstances of each risk — as the
character and condition of the ship, its crew and cargo, the length
and route of the voyage, the season, the current rate of interest
and profits — determined the rate of premium; and when this
obtained general assent, the written agreement was signed by
each underwriter for that part of the risk which he assumed.
Towards the end of the lyth century these meetings were held
in Lloyd's coffee-house, and their simple practice gradually
grew into the complete and complicated system of marine
insurance now general. The underwriters together evolved
rules and improved methods, but continued for generations
to insure severally, without corporate powers or common
responsibility, so that the name Lloyd's became throughout the
commercial world the symbol of marine insurance. More re-
cently the name has been adopted in the United States by associa-
tions of private or individual underwriters as distinguished from
insurance corporations.
Although the underwriters at Lloyd's often considered and
assumed other than marine risks, and made contracts some of
which were merely wagers on public or private events, there is no
record of insurances by them against fire on land. But fire
insurance, it is vaguely known, had previously been practised,
in a crude form, in several European cities. In 1635, and again
in 1638, citizens of London petitioned Charles I. for a patent
of monopoly to insure houses at the rate of one shilling yearly
for each £20 of rent, the association to repair or rebuild those
burned, to maintain a perpetual fire-watch in the streets, and to
pay £200 yearly towards rebuilding St Paul's cathedral until
finished. The attorney-general approved the project, but in
the disorders of the kingdom it was forgotten. The Great Fire
of 1666 revived interest in the subject, and led to practical
measures. In May 1680 a private fire office was opened "at the
back side of the Royal Exchange" to insure houses in London, by
assuming the risk of loss to a fixed amount for a fixed premium,
namely, 2%% of the yearly rent for brick houses and 5% for
frame houses, the rent being always assumed to be one-tenth of
the value of the fee. The estimates of the promoters are interest-
ing. In the fourteen years since the Great Fire 750 houses had
been burned in London, with an average loss of £200. A fund
of £40,000 subscribed as guaranty was to be increased by £20,000
for every 10,000 houses insured, and the interest of the fund
alone therefore might be expected to meet all losses and leave
a surplus. Thus the security was perfect and the promise of
profit great. Meagre as was the basis of facts for the calculations,
and crude as was the statistical method employed, the insurance
offered met a general want and the business grew rapidly.
Within a year a strong demand was heard that the city of London
should itself insure the houses of its citizens, and the common
council voted to do so at lower rates than the fire office. But
the courts put a speedy end to this movement, holding that the
charter conferred on the city no power to transact such business.
Thus the socialistic theory that insurance is properly a branch
of government is almost as old as the business itself, though it
has never found favour or been practically tested on a large
scale in Great Britain or America.
The next notable step in the evolution of modern methods
was the organization of mutual insurance associations. In 1684
the Friendly Society was organized. Each member paid a small
entrance fee for expenses, made a cash deposit as a reserve for
emergencies, to be returned at the end of his term, and agreed to
meet equitable assessments for current losses. Payments were
computed on the assumption that one house in 200 is burned
every fifteen years. The rivalry between the proprietary and the
mutual systems began at once, and has continued till now. In
1686 "the Fire Office at the back side of the Royal Exchange"
petitioned for a patent of the fire insurance policy and a mono-
poly of its issue for thirty-one years. The Friendly Society
opposed the grant. The most eminent lawyers for both were
heard by the king in council, and on the 3oth of January 1687
King James II. decided the case. No charter was granted, but
the Fire Office might continue its business, having a monopoly
for one year. Thereafter the Friendly Society might for three
months sell policies, but must then suspend for three months,
and so on for alternate quarters. But the Fire Office must pay
the ordinance service for its work in extinguishing fires, the
amount to be fixed for each fire by the king. This was the first
appearance of the plan, so widely prevalent in after years, of
imposing on insurance companies the support of fire departments;
that is, of taxing the prudent who insure to protect the reckless
who do not.
658
INSURANCE
[GENERAL HISTORY
After 1688 the atmosphere of England was freer, and under-
writing was soon practised without special licence. In 1704 the
societies began to insure household goods and stocks in trade,
and the insurance of personal property rapidly became as
important as that of buildings. In 1706 the Sun Fire Office was
founded, and began to issue policies on both real and personal
property in all parts of England. Other associations arose
in quick succession of which the Union Fire Office, dating from
1714, and the Westminster from 1717, still survive. Before
1720 both fire and marine insurance had become general in all
great centres of trade. But life insurance was as yet hardly
conceived. Sporadic evidences that it was needed, and that men
were feeling after it, occur in very early records. It was a
medieval custom to advance to a mariner goods or money, to
be restored with large additions, but only in case of safe
return; or to contract, for a sum in hand, to ransom him
if captured by pirates, or to pay a fixed amount to his
family if he were lost. To evade the usury laws life an-
nuities were often sold at a low rate, redeemable for a stipulated
sum. Life estates were sold upon some guess at their probable
duration; and leases, especially of church lands, were made for
one, two or three lives on rude and conventional estimates of
the time they would run. Thus there was a commercial and
social pressure for some intelligent method of valuing life con-
tingencies. But the direct insurance of life, as a means of
reducing the element of chance in human affairs, was hardly
thought of. Indeed, such contracts were commonly regarded
as mere forms of gambling, and were prohibited in France as
against good morals.
The earliest known policy of life insurance was made in the
Royal Exchange, London, on the i8th of June 1583, for
£383, 6s. 8d. for twelve months, on the life of William Gibbons.
Sixteen underwriters signed it, each severally for his own share,
and the premium was 8%. The age of the insured is not referred
to, nor was it then considered, except when far advanced, in
fixing the premium. Gibbons died on the zpth of May 1584.
The underwriters refused to pay, alleging that twelve months,
in law, are twelve times twenty-eight days, and that Gibbons
had survived the term. The court, of course, enforced payment.
A few instances of similar contracts are found, mostly in judicial
records, during the I7tb century; but every such transaction
was justly regarded as a mere wager, at least on the part of the
insurer. It could not be otherwise until the principles of proba-
bility and the uniformity of large averages were understood and
trusted A few great thinkers were groping for principles which
were profoundly to modify the practical reasoning of after-
generations. But their work first obtained wide recognition
upon the publication of the Ars Conjectandi, the posthumous
treatise of Jacques Bernoulli, in 1713. Meanwhile the social
need for insurance continued to express itself in empirical efforts,
which at least helped to make clearer the problems to be solved.
Thus in 1 699 ' 'The Society of Assurance for Widows and Orphans ' '
was founded in London, a crude form of what is now called
an assessment company. Each of 2000 healthy men under
fifty-five years of age was to pay 55. as entrance fee, is. quarterly
for expenses, and 55. at the death of another member; and at
his own death his estate should receive £500, less 3%. On
default in any payment his interest was forfeited. The society
lasted about eleven years, and the accounts of its eighth year are
preserved, showing the payment of £5200 upon twenty-four
claims. The economic significance of this society lies in its
distinct recognition of the principle of association for the distribu-
tion of losses. Together with the Friendly Society, it shows
that this principle had now been so widely grasped by business
men that, when embodied in a practical venture, it found
substantial support.
The conception of a corporation as an artificial person to hold
property and support obligations uninterrupted by the death
of individuals was found in Roman law and custom. Its first
use in modern business enterprise was perhaps the Bank of St
George in Genoa, about A.D 1200, a joint-stock company with
transferable shares, whose owners were liable only to the amount
of their shares. In England the crown, itself the chief and type
of corporations sole, was the source of chartered rights, and from
about 1600 the principle steadily gained recognition, the
advantages of incorporation being attested by the successes of
the great trading companies. Experience showed that the
corporate form was the obvious remedy for the chief difficulties
in the practice of insurance. Single risks were but speculative
wagers; a great number must be taken together to obtain a
trustworthy average. A larger capital than an average private
fortune was demanded as a guaranty, and this capital must not
be exposed to the dangers of trade, but set aside for the special
purpose. . Individual underwriters may die or fail; only a
permanent institution can be trusted in long contracts. Several
projects were devised on this basis. Early in the i8th century,
indeed, the English government refused a charter for marine
insurance, declaring that corporate insurance was an untried
and needless experiment, while private underwriting was satis-
factory and sufficient But in 1720, when two sets of promoters
offered £300,000 each for a charter, exclusive of other associations
though not of individuals, to insure marine risks, parliament
chartered the Royal Exchange and the London Assurance
Company with a monopoly to this extent. The business dis-
appointed its projectors at first, and the government accepted
half the price rather than revoke the grant. In 1 7 2 1 the companies
extended their operations to fire insurance throughout England.
Thus the principle of insurance had now become a distinct
part of the common stock of thought in enlightened nations,
and gradually, by association with successive new ideas, plans,
and methods, was developed into a business or trade, which
befor.e the middle of the i8th century already formed an essential
element of the social scheme. Most of the modern forms of
insurance against the elements were known, and at least crudely
practised. But there was no scientific basis for the business.
Premiums were fixed, not by computation from known facts
or reasonable assumptions, but by guess and the higgling of the
market. Only the competition of capital checked the extortionate
demands of underwriters. The first important steps towards
a scientific valuation of hazards were taken in dealing with the
class of risks hitherto so much neglected, those which depend
upon human mortality. Marine and fire insurance had their
origin in the pressure of need. The practice began before a
theory existed. But life insurance had its origin in the scientific
study of the facts of human mortality. Both marine and fire
insurance became general before there was any intelligent study
of the risks by statistical or mathematical methods, nor can it be
said that much progress has since been made towards establishing
a scientific basis for the valuation of risks in these classes. But
life insurance may be said to have been impossible until the
theory of probabilities had become a recognized part of the
common stock of ideas.
The value of insurance as an institution cannot be measured
by figures. No direct balance-sheet of profit and loss can
exhibit its utility. The insurance contract produces no wealth.
It represents only expenditure. If a thousand men insure
themselves against any contingency, then, whether or not the
dreaded event occurs to any, they will in the aggregate be poorer,
as the direct result, by the exact cost of the machinery for
effecting it. The distribution of property is changed, its sum
is not increased. But the results in the social economy, the
substitution of reasonable foresight and confidence for apprehen-
sion and the sense of hazard, the large elimination of chance
from business and conduct, have a supreme value. The direct
contribution of insurance to civilization is made, not in visible
wealth, but in the intangible and immeasurable forces of character
on which civilization itself is founded. It is pre-eminently a
modern institution. Some two centuries ago it had begun to
influence centres of trade, but the mass of civilized men had no
conception of its meaning. Its general application and popular
acceptance began within the first half of the igth century, and
its commercial and social importance have multiplied a hundred-
fold within living memory. It has done more than all gifts of
impulsive charity to foster a sense of human brotherhood and of
CASUALTY AND MISCELLANEOUS]
INSURANCE
659
common interests. It has done more than all repressive legisla-
tion to destroy the gambling spirit. It is impossible to conceive
of our civilization in its full vigour and progressive power without
this principle which unites the fundamental law of practical
economy, that he best serves humanity who best serves himself,
with the golden rule of religion, " Bear ye one another's burdens."
II. CASUALTY AND MISCELLANEOUS INSURANCE
Before proceeding with an account of the standard institutions
of fire and life insurance, it is proper to glance at the modern
vast extension of casualty insurance, and to notice certain novel
applications of the insurance principle to other special classes
of events. The novelty of these enterprises, however, is not
in the general idea underlying each of them. In almost every
instance in which insurance has been extended, so as successfully
to cover new kinds of risks, it will be found that the suggestion
is nearly as old as the practice of life insurance. Many more
kinds of insurance than are even now found useful were attempted
more than a century ago. But no statistical basis then existed
for determining the probability of loss from various casualties,
nor had the methods of canvassing, accounting, proving and
checking losses, reached the perfection now recognized as
necessary for efficiency and safety. The various branches of
business which, in distinction from the great standard institutions
of life, fire and marine insurance, are commonly treated as
miscellaneous insurance, differ widely in their subjects and
methods. The most general of them, and that most widely
known, is insurance against personal injury by accidents of
every kind. Much has already been done by the companies
in collecting and analysing facts, so as to determine the average
risk of injury and disablement among different classes of men.
But there is as yet no such union of effort among them to combine
their resources for such purposes as among the b'fe companies,
nor does the subject admit of treatment so exact as that of
human mortality. Hence it is impossible to speak of a theory
of accident insurance in a scientific sense; and in its practice
premiums and necessary reserves are determined by the trained
business judgment of individual managers rather than by the
calculations of actuaries from statistical collections of facts.
The insurance of railway travellers against injury upon trains
was the first form of accident insurance which proved widely
acceptable. This is still practised as a special business by
several companies, tickets, entitling the purchaser or his family
to a fixed compensation in case of his injury or death, being
offered for sale with the railway tickets. But the development
of insurance against personal injuries, which is most characteristic
of the times, is the wholesale insurance of the employer against
liability to the employed for accidental injuries sustained in his
service. This was first undertaken on a large scale by the
" Employers' Liability Assurance Corporation of London,"
founded for the purpose in 1880, immediately after the passage
of the Employers' Liability Act by parliament, which made
employers of labour liable for injuries sustained in their service
to an extent unknown to the common law. The Workmen's
Compensation Act 1906 greatly extended the classes of employers
liable for accidents to their servants, and the number of companies
devoting themselves to accidents and workmen's compensation
has greatly increased, while practically every fire insurance
office has taken up the business. The policies are issued to
employers of labour, agreeing to indemnify them for any loss to
which they may be subjected, at common law or by statute,
in consequence of bodily injuries suffered by any employee
while engaged in their service. In some cases the insurance
company undertakes the investigation and settlement of each
claim within the limits prescribed by the policy, and conducts
any litigation which may result. The adjustment of damages
can be made with more economy and skill by the companies
than is usually possible for the employer, and the danger of
fraudulent claims is largely reduced by methods experience
has taught them. The price charged for such insurance is
either a small percentage of the aggregate wages paid during the
term, or a standard rate for each particular class of employment,
or (in the case of large employers of labour) an " all-round "
rate designed to cover every class of employee.
The most common form of accident insurance, however, is still
represented by the policy which promises the assured a fixed sum in
case of death by accident, and a weekly compensation during dis-
ability from such a cause. Many policies also specify a sum to be
paid for the loss or permanent damage of a member, as an eye, a
hand or foot. Another extension of the personal accident policy is
the addition of some form of health insurance, especially the grant
of a weekly sum to the insured during incapacity for work caused
by certain named diseases. ' Besides the ordinary joint stock com-
panies which carry on this class of business with fixed premiums,
many associations organize for insurance against personal injury by
accident, relying upon the assessment of members to pay claims as
they mature. Many of these are local and ephemeral ; but a number
of them, formed by men engaged in common pursuits, for mutual
protection, have attained importance. Such are especially some of
the commercial travellers' and the railway employees' accident
associations, and a few connected with the Masonic or similar
beneficiary orders.
Another large class of casualty insurances applies to various forms
of damage to property. The branch which seems most to have
attracted promoters is the insurance of plate glass against fracture,
which is carried on by a number of companies in Great Britain, and is
the only business of several of them. In the United States there are
five corporations which insure plate glass alone, while many other
casualty companies issue also policies on glass. This business is not
conducted in any other country upon so large a scale as in the
United States, but is attracting more attention than heretofore in
Europe, and especially in Great Britain.
There are several companies in the United Kingdom and in
America which make the insurance against damage by the explosion
of steam boilers a special feature of their work, but by far the greater
part of the business is transacted by one company in each country.
The service rendered is one of special skill and vigilance, extending
far beyond the contract for indemnity. The company, in fact,
employs inspectors of the highest scientific qualifications, who
assume constant supervision of the machinery, and require its
structure and conduct to be freed from elements of danger. It is
prevention rather than compensation that is sought, and the outlay
made by the companies is mainly for inspection and control, not for
losses. It is usual to promise in a policy upon a steam boiler some
compensation also for any personal injury which may result from an
explosion.
There are some companies in England having insurance against
burglary for their principal purpose, while several of the British and
American accident companies issue policies of this kind. It is some-
what of an experiment, and the risks taken are for moderate sums, at
premiums determined in each case by an estimate of the danger
founded on a study of all the circumstances. There is no information
published concerning this branch of insurance in other countries, but
the aggregate premiums paid are not at present very large. It is
believed by many that there is an important future for burglary
insurance, in connexion with improved methods of protection, by
safes, automatic alarms and constant inspection, for dwelling-houses,
shops and offices, which are often unoccupied.
Insurance against damage to growing crops by hail is practised in
several parts of Europe and America, commonly by small local
associations on the mutual plan or as an incident to the business
of fire insurance. No statistics can be obtained of these operations.
The same is true of the insurance against the rayages of tornadoes,
and against sickness and accident in domestic animals.
A wholly distinct business, commonly classed as a branch of in-
surance, has now grown to great importance, that of guaranteeing
the fulfilment of contracts and of indemnifying employers against
defalcations in their service. The bond of a corporation of large
capital is widely taking the place which personal surety has filled in
connexion with undertakings on contract, and with offices and
occupations of trust, both in public and in private life. Fidelity
insurance is carried on by a few of the general casualty companies,
but as the practice of it extends it becomes more and more the work
of special institutions organized for this purpose alone. In the
United States there are many corporations of excellent standing,
with aggregate paid-up capital of more than $15,000,000 and surplus
funds of nearly $10,000,000 more, and collecting in premiums about
$4,000,000 annually upon bonds and guaranties amounting to more
than $1,250,000,000. The business practically only started at the
close of the igth century. It has had similar if not equal develop-
ment in Great Britain and in several other countries, but it is only in
the United States that the statistics of it are officially collected.
The insurance of titles to real property is also becoming widely
extended. This business, however, has indemnity for losses as but an
incidental purpose. The principal aim is to furnish a final and
responsible assurance that the title is flawless. Several of the com-
panies in the United States possess elaborate and expensive collec-
tions of records, covering the sources of title for cities or large
districts; all of them employ expert ability of a high order; and
when they approve a title as perfect, the purchaser or lender of
66o
INSURANCE
[FIRE INSURANCE
money may receive, with the approval, a guaranty against loss in
accepting it, which private examiners or counsel cannot give.
Titles are insured also in other countries, but the business has
nowhere else attained such importance, nor do the institutions
transacting it make full and separate statements of their accounts.
Other minor forms of insurance are against bad debts, bonds and
securities in transit, earthquakes, failure of issue, loss on investment,
leasehold redemption, non-renewal of licences, loss of or damage to
luggage in transit, damage to pictures, loss of profits through fire,
imperfect sanitation, birth of twins, &c.
III. FIRE INSURANCE
The growth of the business of fire insurance since 1880 or
thereabouts has been commensurate with the increase of wealth
and of commercial activity in the foremost nations, while the
practice of it has also become general in countries in which it was
formerly little known. The statistics of the subject have in
recent years become far more full and more accessible than
formerly; partly because many governments require detailed
reports of resources, receipts and expenditures from all com-
panies permitted to establish agencies within their jurisdiction,
and periodically publish summaries of the returns; but also
largely because the companies seek the widest publicity as their
best means of advertising. It is to be regretted that there is as
yet no uniformity of method in these returns; while some of
the most important elements of the subject are not sufficiently
illustrated for the student in the published statistics. Many
companies of the United Kingdom transact business throughout
a great part of the world, and there is no means of determining
how much of their receipts or their losses must be referred to
Great Britain. Further, they fail to give classified amounts at
risk, so that it is impossible to estimate with any confidence the
total sum for which any kind of property, such as dwellings,
factories, household goods, stocks of merchandise or wares in
transit, is insured. The returns of th,e London Fire Brigade,
however, which is in part maintained by regular contributions
from the fire underwriters at the rate of £35 for each £1,000,000
of risks assumed by them within the metropolitan district,
continue to exhibit a regular growth. The aggregate amount
insured in the metropolis was reported as follows: —
In 1882 £696,715,141
1886 741,109,316
1890 806,131,385
1895 858,899,409
1900 963,291,097
1905 1,034,819,587
It appears probable that the rate of increase here shown is not
greater than the actual growth of insurable property during the
same period, so that it may be reasonably supposed that the
custom of protecting all exposed property by insurance was
already general in London many years ago. But the transactions
of the British fire offices have grown much more rapidly, and
indicate that, outside of the metropolitan district, the practice
of insurance has extended greatly. The returns show that there
is a tendency to concentrate the business in the control of large
capital and experience, for practically all the premiums received
and losses paid were shared by thirty-one companies, although
there are at the same time a greater number of corporations of
foreign countries with agencies for fire insurance in the United
Kingdom; but many of these do but a nominal amount of
business, and twenty-three of them are exclusively or chiefly
engaged in re-insurance. This tendency has been a marked
feature in the later history of fire insurance everywhere. The
companies which are now in the field are the survivors of tenfold
as many projected enterprises which have failed. The records of
about two thousand organizations for the purpose, in America
alone, which have undertaken the work and disappeared within
fifty years, show the dangers to which inadequate skill and capital
are exposed. But a small proportion of these failures were the
direct result of sweeping disasters, though about seventy of them
followed the memorable fires in Chicago and Boston in 1871 and
1872. Many more, nearly one-half of the whole, have followed
a short career, in which the helplessness of inexperience to
compete with long training and complete organization was
demonstrated. Many hundreds of these projects were mere
speculations or even frauds from the beginning; and the better
education of the community at large in the principles and methods
of insurance has been the chief agent in checking such enterprises,
aided by the stringent legislation of several countries and of the
United States in America and by the criticism of the press.
The difficulty of establishing a new joint-stock fire insurance
company is far greater in the present highly perfected state of the
business than formerly, and constantly increases. The reports of
the state insurance departments in America show that less than
one-eighth of the premiums are now collected by companies founded
since 1880; and, except in districts remote from the principal
financial centres, or mutual associations for special classes of hazards,
new companies are not often formed. In Great Britain a consider-
able number of new corporations are registered every year, with fire
insurance among their professed objects, but almost always in
connexion with some forms of casualty insurance, which appear to be
practically the purpose in view. The reports of the fire business in
the United Kingdom for recent years, as collected in Bourne's
Manual, show that less than one-fourteenth of it is done by companies
organized since 1870. Though new companies have been registered,
usually several every year, the number actually transacting successful
business has not increased since 1880. Of the various British
companies now recognized, the twelve smallest together collect but
I % of the premiums received by one of the largest, and the tendency
to concentrate the business seems progressive. These facts are ex-
plained by the necessity of a vast basis of average and of a large
capital for security, and still more by the increasing demand for a
thoroughly trained and organized body of agents, able to protect
their companies from fraud and imposition, and at the same time to
compete for public patronage.
The Mutual principle has a strong attraction for many insurers
and projectors. When a large number of pieces of property,
so distributed that a single fire cannot destroy a
considerable proportion of the whole, are yet owned SyS"em.
and controlled by persons who can fully trust one
another, both for financial responsibility and for good faith,
there may be no need of a large capital in hand, nor of
much of the costly machinery required for general competition.
A contract for the assessment on all the property of losses as
they occur, at rates fixed by the estimated exposure, may form
a safe basis for an association. The fixed payments may be
limited to necessary expenses, with a moderate reserve for
emergencies, all excess of collections to be returned to the insured.
This simple conception of an insurance association, with such
modifications as experience indicates, has been accepted for a
time as ideal in almost every civilized community, and attempts
are continually made to realize it, but in the vast majority of
instances with complete failure as the result. Like every other
product of human skill, insurance is, for the most part, best
supplied to the market by those who make it their calling to
produce it for gain. But while the mutual plan has proved
poorly adapted to the general service of the commercial world,
in some communities, and especially among the owners of certain
classes of property, it has achieved great and apparently per-
manent success. This is particularly true of manufacturing
districts, in which numbers of mills and factories are exposed
to peculiar danger of fire by the nature of their own operations.
The best safeguard they can have is by employing great skill
in the construction, arrangement and conduct of their works.
A group of such properties, associated for the prevention of loss,
is naturally stimulated to highest efficiency when the whole
group undertakes to bear all losses which are not prevented,
and thus every member has a strong interest in making the
protection complete. It is in associations of this character that
the mutual plan of fire insurance has rendered its greatest
services. The mutual plan has been widely adopted also in
local associations for the insurance of dwellings and farm improve-
ments, where the individual risks are small, and where technical
classification and special safeguards against fraud are not
considered necessary, often with the result of affording satis-
factory protection at low rates. But the ratio of this part of
the business to that conducted by joint-stock companies
diminishes from year to year, even in the agricultural and rural
districts of the United States. According to the reports of the
insurance departments of the states, as summarized in the
FIRE INSURANCE]
INSURANCE
661
Spectator Company's Year-Book, more than half of the cash
premiums of mutual insurance companies are collected in
the two manufacturing states of Massachusetts and Rhode
Island.
It is, after all, only within a very limited field that the mutual
principle can be adopted. The essential principle of fire insurance
is the distribution of loss. It does not aim, directly at least,
at the prevention and only in a secondary way even at the
minimizing of loss; but what it seeks to accomplish is that such
losses shall not fall exclusively, and possibly with overwhelming
effect, on the owner of the property destroyed, but shall be borne
in easy proportions by a large number of persons who are all alike
exposed to the risk of a similar catastrophe. To work out the
equitable solution of such a problem an amount of technical
skill and extended experience is required which few bodies or
communities possess. Certainly, experience in Great Britain
has shown that the one system of fire insurance which has
contributed most to the public benefit is that which is conducted
by joint-stock companies, offering to the insured the guarantee
of their capital and other funds, and looking to make a profit
by the business. In France, Belgium, Holland, Russia and
Norway, also, the joint-stock plan is almost exclusively employed.
Such an opinion must be qualified by observing that, under the
fostering influence of the national and municipal governments, the
mutual plan has reached an important development in Austria-
Hungary, Germany, Switzerland and Sweden. In all these countries,
indeed, corporate enterprise on a large scale, in every branch of
business, is of comparatively late growth, and mutual fire insurance
was a familiar practice long before joint-stock companies entered
upon this field of activity. The tendency in the large cities and
commercial centres is to throw new insurances into the business cor-
porations, while the time-honoured mutual associations retain their
standard character and customary clientage. But in these countries
the mutual plan has an established place in the confidence of the rural
population, who are generally strongly prejudiced against moneyed
corporations. This is especially true of the cantons in Switzerland
and certain districts in Austria-Hungary, where fire insurance is
administered by the local governments in connexion with a minute
police supervision of the construction of buildings and of other con-
ditions affecting the risk. From the published returns of the com-
panies and the authorities, as collected for the Post Magazine
Almanack (1900), it would appear that of all the fire insurance
premiums paid in Switzerland nearly 54% is collected by the
mutual associations and the cantonal authorities; while in Italy
37 %, in Germany 27 %, in Sweden 27 % and in the Austro-
Hungarian monarchy 20 % go to mutual companies.
The earliest plan of insurance which was successful as a
business was that practised at Lloyd's Coffee-house (see LLOYD'S)
in London, and there applied almost exclusively to
marine risks. Although the association known as
Lloyd's has been for generations a strong financial institution,
with every modern safeguard, and since 1871 has been a chartered
corporation with large funds, yet its name has become accepted
as the symbol of the primitive practice of combined underwriting
by individuals, each upon his own credit, for a share of the risk
and without common liability.
A few associations on this general principle were known to exist in
America, and to issue fire policies on a small scale, before 1892, but
chiefly for mutual insurance. In that year, in a general revision of
the insurance law of New York, such associations already in exist-
ence were expressly exempted from all its provisions. Speculators
at once discerned an opportunity. If a company by omitting to take
corporate form could carry on the business free from all restrictions
and burden of state supervision, it would compete at great advantage
with the insurance corporations. While the new law was in prospect
there was time to take action ; and upon its passage there suddenly
appeared a multitude of " organizations " claiming the exemption as
Lloyd's, or associations of individual underwriters, and offering fire
policies at rates materially lower than those of the joint-stock
companies. Each of these was represented and managed by an
attorney for the subscribers, supposed to have power to bind them
severally to the amount of their subscriptions. The standard policy
prescribed by law in New York was issued, with a clause making the
liability several only, and fixing the amount. The Lloyd's entered
the market with the zeal and prestige of a new idea and a great name,
and they grew rapidly in number and in business, but made no
reports. Extending their agencies into other states, they occasioned
much litigation concerning their legal existence and rights and some
rash and inharmonious legislation. But several attempts to establish
similar Lloyd's in other places failed. Experience soon showed that
it was impossible to enforce claims in the courts, when the liability
Lloyd's.
was distributed among many, without excessive expense and delay,
even when all the subscribers were solvent, while a few good names,
however useful in canvassing, were no guarantee of the responsibility
of unknown associates. In 1896 the executive and legal authorities
of New York assumed a hostile attitude towards speculative schemes
of this class, and indictments were found against a number of pro-
moters for falsely antedating constituent agreements. The bubble
burst suddenly, and within three years more than one hundred of the
Lloyd's disappeared. A few reinsured their risks or were merged in
permanent companies, but the mass of them proved to have no
substance. Four or five only of the best Lloyd s continue to issue
fire policies within a narrow and special circle, but as a group they
no longer compete for general business.
The rate of premium varies with the supposed risk, but certain
descriptions of property are specially and more elaborately
rated. This has been done to a considerable extent by common
agreement amongst the offices, and the arrangements are known
as the " tariff system," which requires here a few words of
explanation.
We may suppose the question to arise, What ought to be paid
for insuring a cotton-mill, or a flax or woollen mill, or a weaving
factory, or a wharf or warehouse in some large city? The
experience of any one office scarcely affords adequate data, and
a rate based on the combined experience of many offices has a
greater chance of being at once safe and fair. The problem,
indeed, is a more complicated one than what has been already
said would indicate. The property to be insured may consist
of several distinct buildings and the contents of them: one
building may be devoted to operations involving in a high degree
the risk of fire ; in another the processes carried on may be
more simple and safe; a third may be used only for the storage
of materials having little tendency to burn. Fairly to measure
these various hazards it has been found necessary that the
experience and skill at the command of many companies shall
be combined, and that the rates shall be the result of consultation
and a common understanding.
Now it is clear that no office will contribute its skill and
experience to such a common stock if the effect is to be that other
offices may avail themselves of the information in order to
undersell it. Consultation about rates and a common under-
standing necessarily involve a reciprocal obligation to charge
not less than the rates thus agreed on; in other words, a tariff
of rates is developed to which each office binds itself to adhere.
The system tends to restrain and moderate the competition for
business which inevitably and to some extent properly exists
among the companies, and its value to them is manifest. But
it is also of service to the insuring public. At first sight it might
seem that free competition would suit the public best, and that
a combination among the offices must tend to keep up rates,
and to secure for the companies excessive profits, but a little
consideration will show that this is a mistake.
It is an unquestionable truth, though one often lost sight of,
that all losses by fire must ultimately be borne by the public.
The insurance companies are the machinery for distributing
these losses, nothing more. If the losses fell on them, their funds,
large as they are, would speedily be exhausted, and the service
which they render to the public would come to an end. To
those who require insurance against loss by fire it must be a
manifest advantage that they should have many sound and
prosperous offices ready to accept their business, and no less able
than desirious to earn or to retain the public favour by fair and
liberal conduct. A necessary condition of this state of things
is that the rates of premium paid for insurance should be
remunerative to the offices, and the main object of the tariff
system is to secure such remunerative rates.
This it endeavours to do by two methods — by an agreement
as to what rates are to be charged, and by affixing such a penalty
to dangerous constructions, substances and processes as to
induce, if possible, a lessening of the danger. In other words,
and reversing the order, it seeks to diminish the risk of fire, and
to secure adequate payment for what risk remains. On the
supposition that the offices are correct in their estimate or risks,
the effect, and indeed the intention, of their rule is not so much
to put money into their own coffers as to lessen the danger, and
662
INSURANCE
[FIRE INSURANCE
to save themselves in the first instance, and the owners of
property ultimately, from the consequences of preventible fires.
These rules, as will readily be seen, must have powerful influences
on trade and manufactures. Many individual warehouses and mills
are, with their contents, insured for very large sums, £10,000, £20,000,
£50,000, £100,000 and more. An additional charge of 5s. or los. %
in respect of a supposed increase of risk may mean a payment by the
owner of several hundred pounds a year, and may operate as a com-
plete veto on some arrangement or some machine which it might
otherwise be desirable to resort to. The occurrence of a few severe
fires in one town, followed by an increase of insurance rates, may
have, and indeed has had, the effect of driving some branch of trade
to another locality, the seat of greater caution or better fortune. It
is therefore obviously desirable that so important an influence should
be exercised, not precariously or capriciously, but according to the
combined wisdom and experience of those associations which may
be supposed to understand the subject best, and which obtain their
experience in the way that makes it perhaps of most value, by paying
for it.
It is equally for the public benefit that rates of insurance should
be fixed on some common scale. Suppose the system of unrestricted
competition to be tried, the first effect will be a general and great
reduction in rates. But it may be said, " So much the better for the
insured ; if the offices can afford this reduction of rate, it will only
be a fair result of competition; if they cannot afford it, they will be
the losers, but the public will gain; will the effect not be simply to
reduce the rates to the paying point and no further ? " This would
be all very well if the paying point could be absolutely ascertained or
determined in any way beforehand, but the rate comes first and the
losses come afterwards. In other businesses prices are based on some
certainty as to the cost of production, but in selling fire insurance
the cost is not known till after it has been sold. In a free competition
it is the sanguine man's views which regulate the market price, and
the rates therefore cease to be remunerative. The consequences are
that some offices disappear altogether, others take fright in time to
avoid ruin, though not to escape serious loss, persons who might
establish new offices are deterred from doing so, the business gets
the character of being a highly speculative and hazardous one, re-
quiring extravagant profits to induce men to carry it on at all, and
the public have to bear the cost. Unrestricted competition therefore
is not for their advantage.
The combination for uniform rates has another beneficial effect;
it serves to distribute the burden of losses fairly. If it is a just thing
that cotton-spinners should bear all the losses that arise in cotton-
mills, and not leave them to be borne by the owners of private
dwelling-houses, or vice versa, it is well that the loss by each class of
risks should be measured fairly. But, while the experience ol any
one office, taken by itself, furnishes a very imperfect criterion, each
contributes its quota of knowledge and experience to the common
stock, and the public get the benefit both of broad and trustworthy
data and of that peculiar and intimate acquaintance with each
different class of property or process which the conductors of one
company or another are sure to possess.
No conventional or excessive rates can, however, be maintained for
any length of time. Some member of the union is sure to perceive
that popularity and profit may be gained by introducing a lower rate,
if a lower rate is manifestly sufficient, or a new company starts into
existence to remedy the grievance. It is to be remembered, too, that
the directors and shareholders who control the offices are likewise
insurers, quick to raise the question of how far the rates they have to
pay as individuals are justified by the risks run; and if it cannot be
shown that these rates are a true measure of the risk, offices are soon
constrained by a sense of justice or by self-interest or by pressure
from without to mitigate them. In short, the association is a union
bound together by necessity and tempered by competition.
Adequately to measure the risk of loss by fire demands not merely
reference to an extended experience but a watchful regard to current
changes. While the profits of fire insurance business fluctuate con-
siderably from year to year, and seem even to follow cycles of eleva-
tion and depression, the tendency on the whole appears to be towards
a growth of risk, although excessive competition among offices
prevents the rates from rising in proportion.
The Tariff system has steadily developed in minuteness of
classification and in adaptation to wider experience, as well as
to the changes in the character of many classes of
risks by improvements in building and by the intro-
duction of new kinds of goods and machinery. The
estimates of risk and the determination of premiums
are largely governed by individual opinion and by competition,
no amount of experience furnishing a statistical basis on which
trustworthy predictions of average loss can be made. Hence it
is only by constant co-operation among insuring institutions in
the exchange and combination of their observations that justice
can be done to them and to the public. The proper extent ol
this co-operation is easily attained where the business is free
Tariff
dlffkul-
trom all restrictions except those of the common law, as in
Great Britain, and the competition of capital for profits is keen
enough to keep the rates within reasonable limits. But in
countries in which the government regulates the business in a
more paternal spirit, and meddles with all its details for the
avowed purpose of securing the safest and best public service,
many difficulties arise. This is increasingly the case in several
of the nations of Europe, notably in Austria, Switzerland and
Germany.
But it is in the several states of the United States that the govern-
ment supervision of insurance has most interfered with and modified
the natural development of the business. In recent years, beginning
with 1885, sixteen of these states have enacted legislation, dictated
by the growing jealousy of corporate powers and privileges, forbidding
fire insurance companies or their agents to combine in any form for
the determination of rates. Companies have often been indicted,
fined and deprived of authority to issue policies because of member-
ship in associations for the purely scientific purpose of ascertaining
their average experience. The courts have frequently narrowed in
their interpretations the sweeping intent of such laws, but have
generally sustained them as within the power of the legislature, and
at the present time there is an overwhelming public sentiment in
large sections of the country arrayed against every semblance of
union or consultation among the companies upon the basis of their
business. In several instances all the important insurance com-
panies have withdrawn their agencies at once from particular states,
and the business community has been sorely distressed for want of
their protection. But the popular prejudice has not yielded to its
demand, and the companies have never been able to maintain their
own position with unanimity, the temptation to secure a vast business
upon any terms being always too strong for some of them to resist.
This form of legislation has beyond dispute increased the cost of
insurance to the people, while it has embarrassed and disturbed the
regular work of the companies.
Another pernicious tendency of popular legislation in the United
States is found in the Valued Policy laws, the first of which was
adopted by Wisconsin in 1874, providing that when any insured
building is wholly destroyed by fire the amount of the policy shall be
conclusively taken as the amount of the loss. This principle, with
various modifications and extensions, has become law in some twenty
states of the Union, though in many of them its enactment has been
vigorously resisted by the executive government ; several governors
have vetoed such bills, while most of the supervising officers have
had the intelligence to disapprove them. The provision is regarded
by all insurance authorities as highly dangerous, inviting over-
insurance and incendiarism; and there is no doubt that it has
this tendency in many instances. But the statistics available, while
showing that in general the rate of loss has increased where such laws
are in force, do not demonstrate any such wide and ruinous stimula-
tion of fraudulent practices as has been apprehended by thoughtful
critics. The actual result is commonly to throw upon the insurer
the responsibility for providing in advance against over-insurance
by minute surveys and, in special cases, for continual watchfulness
against depreciation. Like all other interference of government with
private contract, however, it has a marked effect in increasing the
difficulty and expense of business transactions.
The direction in which fire insurance as a social institution
calls most pressingly for improvement is the extension of the
principle of co-insurance. The importance of this „
r. ., Need of CO-
can only be understood by remembering that the /nsurance-
aggregate losses of the community by fire are chiefly
made up of innumerable small fires and not of sweeping
conflagrations. The experience of every company confirms the
general truth, that the number of fires in which a building is
totally destroyed, or in which the loss amounts to the greater
part of the property exposed under the same risk, is comparatively
very small. It may be asserted with confidence that, in the grand
aggregate of the business, much more than three-fourths of the
loss occurs in fires in which less than one-tenth of the insurable
value at risk is destroyed. The practical result is obvious. If
fires destroy a million of dollars' worth in property insured for
its full value, and a million's worth more in property insured
for one-tenth of its value, the insurers will pay $1,000,000 upon
the first group and more than $750,000 upon the second. But
if all the insurance is taken at the same rate the insurers will
have received premiums ten times as great on the former group
as upon the latter. This rough illustration shows that in an
equitable adjustment of rates the amount insured as compared
with the value exposed is a prime element, and that premiums
might justly form a scale, highest on the smallest fractions of
FIRE INSURANCE]
INSURANCE
663
value, and diminishing rapidly as the percentage of insurance
increases. Such a scale is, however, impracticable for many
reasons, apart from the endless complications which, even if it
could be constructed, it would introduce into the classification
of risks. Any scientific plan of insurance, therefore, must provide
another method for maintaining the proportion between amounts
of premiums paid and the share in its benefits obtained for them.
This is the purpose of what are generally called average or co-
insurance clauses. The principle is, that when a proper rate
for a class of risks is found, then the insured may protect at that
rate any percentage of such a risk, and in case of fire shall be
indemnified for the same percentage of his loss. When once
clearly grasped, this principle largely simplifies and rectifies
the business. It is in universal use in marine insurance under
the name of " average," and is there recognized as indispensable.
It is embodied in all fire policies in France, Germany and several
other countries of Europe, and in 1826 was made compulsory
in Great Britain by law in all " floating policies," those, that is,
which cover stocks of goods distributed in several places and in
fluctuating amounts. But it has not yet become general in
Great Britain or America, although every writer of authority on
the subject, and every practical underwriter of large experience,
approves it. Systematic attempts have been made since about
1892 to extend its application in the United States with much
success, but they have been met by strong opposition, which
shows a widespread misunderstanding of its true bearing.
The co-insurance clause, indeed, which has been generally ap-
proved by the American associations of underwriters, and applied
in the great commercial cities, is less sweeping than the parallel
agreements used in France and Germany. The latter regard the
insured owner as self-insurer for the entire value at risk not covered
by the policy, and grant indemnity only for that fraction of the
loss which the amount insured bears to the whole amount exposed.
The American clause is less logical, commonly providing that: " If
at the time of fire the whole amount of insurance on the property
covered by this policy shall be less than 80 % of the actual cash value
thereof, this company shall ... be liable only for such portion of
such loss or damage as the amount insured by this policy shall bear
to the said 80% of the actual cash value of such property." But
this limitation of the basis of co-insurance average to 80% of the
total value is in perfect harmony with the conservative policy which
seeks in all cases to prevent overrinsurance. The most serious
danger to which the entire system is open is that a fire may promise
profit to the insured. To avoid this, it is a small enough margin to
exclude from protection by the policy one-fifth of the estimated
value, and to require the owner to assume that proportion of the risk.
It is therefore reasonable not to require in any case a larger share than
four-fifths to be covered, and not to press the co-insurance principle
so far as to offer a differential advantage to those who insure above
this limit. Thus, for practical purposes, and in the general mass of
business, the 80 % clause may be accepted as approximately the best
application of the principle. It makes possible substantial equity
in distributing the cost, while it does not interfere with proper
safeguards against over-insurance. The cordial support of the
mercantile community in the great cities, and of the most intelligent
state officers, has been given to it.
A popular outcry has, however, arisen against all forms of co-
insurance, on the superficial and mistaken assumption that in every
case the principal sum named in the policy measures the insurance
paid for by the premium ; and that any limitation upon it must be
a wrong to the insured, for the emolument of the insurance corpora-
tion. No less than ten states have passed laws prohibiting the clause
within their jurisdiction, though Maine in 1895, after a trial of two
years, repealed the prohibition. The law of Tennessee, a typical
form, is as follows: " Insurance companies shall pay their policy-
holders the full amount of loss sustained upon property insured by
them, provided said amount of loss does not exceed the amount of
insurance expressed in the policy, and all stipulations in such policies
to the contrary are and shall be null and void " (except in case of
insurance upon cotton in bales). In several states the use of the
co-insurance clause is made a penal offence. It is an interesting fact,
however, that while this principle, whenever it has been generally
applied, has led not only to a fairer equalization of premium rates,
but, on the whole, to a marked reduction of them, the laws in
question have deprived the people adopting them of the resulting
benefit. In the year 1899 the average premium rate upon all fire
risks written in the states in which co-insurance was wholly or partly
prohibited was something more than $1-20 per $1000, while in the
rest of the country, where the clause was permitted and to a large
extent used, the rate was but 96 cents per $1000. The marked
difference, which tends to increase, is a perpetual object-lesson which
must in the end appeal strongly to the popular intelligence.
The varying attitude of several civilized governments towards
the institution of insurance has found significant expression in
their tax laws. In Great Britain a stamp duty of 6d.
was imposed in 1694 upon " every piece of vellum or T*xatloa
parchment or sheet of paper upon which any policy insurance.
of insurance should be engrossed or written," and was
doubled in 1698. It was further increased (reaching 35. icd.
per policy in 1713) and varied by many subsequent acts, under
some of which the percentage duty on fire insurance was also
made payable by stamps upon policies. But in 1865 the stamp
tax was finally reduced to the nominal sum of id. upon each
policy. A far heavier burden, however, was imposed upon
insurers by the measure of Lord North in 1782, charging all
fire insurances in force with an annual duty of is. 6d. for every
£100 insured. In 1815 the general rate was made 35. per £100,
but was collected once for all upon the policy when issued; and
it so remained until reductions began in 1864. The duty was
wholly abolished in 1869. The revenue from this source reached
its highest point in 1863, when it was £1,714,622, presumably
representing insurances effected in that year to the amount of
£1,143,081,333. There are no data for determining the amount
of premium receipts or of losses realized on the same volume of
insurance; but the tax was recognized by economists as well
as by all parties to the policy contracts as an excessive burden.
In many instances it more than doubled the cost of insurance.
Its effect in discouraging the prudent custom of insuring against
fire was very serious, and after its abolition this custom extended
so rapidly that it soon became, and continues, practically
universal in Great Britain. Upon the continent of Europe
fire insurance is generally taxed quite heavily; most so in France,
where the direct duties on the premiums, together with the
registry and stamp taxes paid by the companies, have been
estimated to add one-fourth, or perhaps one-third, to the cost
of insurance.
In the United States the companies are taxed, each by the state
in which it is domiciled, upon their real estate, and often upon
their capital, surplus or profits, and are required in other states
to pay fees to the insurance departments, and commonly an
excise of from i to 2 J % of their premiums. An elaborate table
is prepared each year by a committee of the National Board of
Fire Underwriters, showing the aggregate amount of taxes paid
by the companies operating in New York in comparison with their
receipts and profits. The statement received and published by
the board in 1900 contained the following: —
For the Year
1899.
For Twelve Years
1888-1899.
Premiums (fire and marine).
8134,450,639
$1,425,929,631
Losses paid (fire and marine)
91,031,677
856,978,494
Expenses
52,849,129
517,667,238
Increase of liability (un-
earned premiums, &c.)
8,998,526
59,104,388
Net loss in the last year .
18,428,693
Net profit in twelve years .
7,820,489
Amount of taxes paid
4495.332
35,984,081
Taxes were of premiums
3-34%
2-52%
Taxes were of premiums, less
losses
io-35%
6-32%
In qualification of this statement, it may be said that the reported
expenses appear to include taxes, and that the additions charged
to liability are to some extent theoretical and flexible. It also
appears from the state reports that upon the entire capital and
net surplus of $191,000,000 employed in the business in the
United States by 316 joint-stock companies, dividends to the
amount of $8,000,000, or 4-2 %, were paid in 1899 to shareholders.
Nevertheless it is true that competition among the companies,
together with unfriendly legislation, has reduced the profit upon
their aggregate capital near the vanishing point, and that the
taxes, the average rate of which increased 50% within the period
1891-1899, are heavier in many states than can be justified by
public policy or by the analogy of other corporate interests.
The true principle, doubtless, is that while the capital employed
664
INSURANCE
[FIRE INSURANCE
in insurance for gain ought to contribute to the state the same
share of its profits as other capital, yet the premiums, agencies,
policies and entire machinery representing only losses, and
providing for their distribution, should be exempted, as far as
the necessities of the public treasury permit.
One aspect of the taxation of fire insurance is of especial interest,
namely, the very general disposition of legislatures and municipal
authorities to impose upon the underwriters the cost of fire depart-
ments. The systematic prevention and extinguishment of fires
are everywhere assumed to be proper work for the community at
large. But the first license granted by the crown to issue in-
surance policies in London in 1687 was conditioned upon regular
contributions by the authorities to support the king's gunners as a
fire brigade, and in the public mind the privilege of insuring the
prudent has ever since been vaguely associated with the duty of
guarding the property of the whole community. The voluntary
support of fire patrols by the companies in London, New York and
other cities has done much to promote this view ; and a substantial
part of the taxes paid upon fire policies in the United States is levied
for the support of fire departments,
the pay and pensions of firemen and
similar purposes. The tendency to
increase such taxes, under the pretext
that the protection afforded is for
the special benefit of the companies,
is strong in some of the states;
though it would be equally rational
to compel life insurance companies to
maintain general hospitals for the sick.
to over ten million pounds, and the prompt settlement of all claims
strengthened considerably their position in the United States.
In the United Kingdom the statistics of fire insurance are
less accessible and less complete, no official records being made
of the local distribution of the property insured, while the pub-
lished accounts of the companies are not sufficiently uniform
and detailed to make a trustworthy summary of the entire
business possible. Much of it is done by foreign companies,
of whose British business we have no separate statement. A
statement of the revenue accounts of the various British companies
insuring against fire will be found in the annual Insurance Blue
Book and Guide.
In the Dominion of Canada the insurance companies make
detailed reports to the government bureau, and the statistics
of the business are full and accurate. .The following table shows
the aggregate business of five companies in the Dominion in
1869 and 1907: —
Companies.
Net Cash
Premiums
received.
Amount of
Policies
taken.
Amount at
Risk in
1869.
Amount at
Risk in
1907.
Losses
paid.
Canadian Companies.
British Companies
American Companies.
All Companies
1
54,849,706
159,372,986
32,449,482
246,672,174
1
5,663,696,931
14.745,342,255
2,801,078,045
23,210,117,231
$
59,340,916
115,222,003
13,796,890
188,359,809
S
412,019,532
937,240,828
265,401,198
1,614,661,558
$
36,073,543
105,203,259
20,129,323
161,406,125
The most complete statistics of
the fire insurance business collected in any country are those
Statistics, presented in the United States to the National Board
of Fire Underwriters at each annual meeting. The
following summary of part of the information submitted
by the committee on statistics, loth May 1900, giving the
amount of fire risks insured in the United States, premiums
received for them, and losses paid upon them, by all joint-
stock fire insurance companies for the year 1899 will serve as
an example: —
Fire Insurance in the United States. Joint-Stock Companies.
Companies.
Fire Risks
assumed.
Fire
Premiums
received.
Fire
Losses
paid.
Premiums
per 8100
of Risk.
Loss per
$100
of Risk.
Loss per
$100 of
Premiums.
American . 218
Foreign . . 35
All ... 253
$
12,251,299,499
6,087,570,275
18,338,869,774
$
93,577-169
42,958,472
136,535-641
I
59,119,018
29,865,014
88,984,032
$
•7638
•7057
•7445
$
•4826
•4906
•4852
$
•6318
•6975
•6517
These returns do not include mutual companies. The com-
pilers of the Insurance Year-Book, however, obtain from the
several state departments of insurance the reports of all companies
made to them of the business done within each state; and from
these it appears that in 1899, for example, 160 mutual companies
assumed fire risks to the amount of $1,119,772,848. Many
small local associations have made no returns, but their operations
are too limited to materially affect the aggregate. It is note-
worthy that while mutual companies transact less than 6%
of the business of the whole country, yet in the state of Rhode
Island, a densely peopled manufacturing community, they have
more than 78%, and in Massachusetts nearly 24%; and that,
while less than one-ninth of the insured property of the United
States is situated in these two states, they contain nearly two-
thirds of that which is insured by mutual associations.
The fire insurance business of foreign companies In the United
States was comparatively small until 1870. Four strong British
corporations were then in the field, and their transactions amounted
to less than 9 % of the entire joint-stock business. But their success
attracted others in rapid succession, especially from Great Britain and
from Germany, and in 1880, 19 foreign companies assumed 23-7%
of all the risks reported to the National Board; in 1889, 23 such
companies took 30-3%; and in 1899, 35 such companies took
33'2 %• The distribution of the business among them is not given
by the board tables, but can be gathered from the reports of the
American branches to the insurance departments of the states, which
are summarized in the Spectator Company's Year-Books. The total
net payments of the British and colonial fire insurance companies in
connexion with the disastrous fire in San Francisco in 1906 amounted
Upon the continent of Europe the fire insurance business is
conducted partly by local companies in each country and partly
by the great international offices of Great Britain and Germany.
The local associations in Austria, Germany and Switzerland
are of three classes — public assurance organizations connected
with local governments, private mutual companies and joint-
stock companies. It is impossible to obtain balance-sheets of
all, nor is any information available concerning the local distribu-
tion of the risks, or the whole amount of property insured. The
capital employed by stock cor-
porations in this business in each
country, and the aggregate pre-
mium receipts and payments for
losses in the last year of which
a report is available will be found
in the annual Post Magazine
Almanack.
While most of the fire insur-
ance business in the Australian
colonies is in the hands of British companies, local institutions
for the purpose have had a considerable 'development on the same
general lines as in Great Britain and with similar freedom from
interference by the governments. But no accounts of the
receipts and losses are available, most of the companies conduct-
ing a marine or life insurance business, or both, under the same
general management.
Beyond the limits of the great commercial nations, no satis-
factory information is accessible concerning the practice of fire
insurance. Even in Spain and Portugal there is far less intelligent
interest in the subject than in neighbouring countries, and the
agencies of foreign companies transact much of the business in the
large towns. Six Portuguese companies have maintained themselves
for many years, a few of them for nearly a century, and have
established agencies in the Spanish islands and in Madeira. For other
nations than those mentioned, the only systematic effort to collect
the facts is made by the compilers of the \ 'ear-Book, and the results
are extremely meagre. The great British and German corporations
are zealous in extending their transactions to the commercial ports
everywhere, and local companies are often formed in the British
colonies. In addition to those in Canada and Australia some com-
panies in South Africa have become financially important. Small
native companies have been successful in establishing their credit in
Japan, Brazil, the Argentine Republic, Chile and Peru. A consider-
able business is done in insuring the property of foreign residents in
the Levant, on the coasts of Asia, in South Africa and the Pacific
Islands, but mostly by European companies, and as an incident to
the more general practice of marine insurance. There are several
successful fire companies among the Dutch in Java. The small
business in Mexico appears to be wholly in the hands of foreign
companies.
LIFE INSURANCE]
INSURANCE
665
IV. LIFE INSURANCE
Guesses at the probable length of life for the purpose of valuing
or commuting life-estates, leases or annuities were made even
History ^v ^ne ancien';s» and crude estimates of the number
of years' purchase such interests are worth occur in
Roman law and in many medieval writings. In 1 540 the English
parliament enacted that an estate for a single life should be
valued as a lease of seven years, one for two lives as a lease of
fourteen years, and for three lives as a lease of twenty-one years.
More than a century later The Cambridge Tables for renewing
of Leases and purchasing Liens, a standard work in England,
with the certificate of Sir Isaac Newton to its accuracy, proposed,
as a remedy for the inequity of this fanciful rule, to make the
increase for each additional life less by one year, so that, valuing
a single life at ten years, two lives shall be reckoned as nineteen
years and three lives as twenty-seven years. No distinction
of ages was recognized, and the results, tabulated to decimal
parts of months, are worthless. Thus the foremost minds of
the world had as yet no apprehension of a true method of
reasoning on the subject. The first clear insight into the character
of the problem appears in Natural and Political Observations
on the Bills of Mortality, published in 1661 under the name of
John Graunt, a haberdasher and train-band captain of London.
Graunt recognized the principle of uniformity in large groups of
vital and social facts, and actually prepared, from the mortality
registers of London, what he calls a " Table showing of one
hundred quick conceptions, how many die within six years, how
many the next decade, and so for every decade till 76." This
was the earliest crude suggestion of a table of mortality, and
Graunt's interest in the inquiry was scientific, without definite
practical purpose. But a little later the sale of annuities was
pressed upon governments as a method of discounting future
revenues. In 1671 John de Witt, grand pensionary of Holland,
reported to the states general a plan for such sales upon a
scientific method, the insight and skill of which, had he possessed
proper statistical data, would have anticipated results only
reached by later generations. The report, however, was buried
in the Dutch archives and forgotten for nearly two centuries.
It was unknown in England when, in 1692, the government
undertook thesaleof annuities. Aloanof £1,000,000 was offered,
each £100 paid in to purchase a life annuity of £14, without
distinction of age. A table accompanied the offer, purporting
to show how many of 10,000 persons now living, old and young
taken together at random, are likely to die in each year
from one to ninety-nine. The purchasers, though without
clear understanding of the principle, were instinctively shrewd
enough to select healthy young lives for annuitants, and the
nation paid enormously for the error. This speculation of the
public treasury led the eminent mathematician and astronomer,
Dr Edmund Halley, to examine the subject. In 1693 he presented
to the Royal Society a study of " The degrees of mortality of
mankind." The parish registers of England took no note of
age at death, and Halley, perceiving that the average duration
of life in large groups of persons can only be determined
when ages at death are known, sought in vain a
statistical basis for such an inquiry in his own and
in many other countries. But it happened that the city of
Breslau in Silesia had kept such records, and he succeeded in
obtaining the registers for five years, 1687-1691, including
6193 births and 5869 deaths. No census of the city having
been taken, Halley made the best estimate he could of the popula-
tion, and computed how many of a thousand children taken at
the age of one year will die in each succeeding year. Arranging
the results in three parallel columns, showing in successive
lines the age, the number living at that age, and the number
of deaths during the year, he formed the first mortality table.
The arrangement was itself a discovery, exhibiting at a glance
the essential data for valuing life-risks, and suggesting solutions
for problems which had puzzled the ablest students. This
general form of the mortality table remains in use as the natural
and best for such collections of facts. The method of using such
a table in calculating the values of life contingencies was also
discovered by Dr Halley. He showed that where a payment is
to be made at a future date, if a named person be then alive, its
present value is the sum which compounded at interest during the
interval will amount to that payment multiplied by the fraction
representing the probability that the person will survive. These
two elements, compound interest and the probability of life or
death, are the foundations of the theory of life contingencies.
From Halley's time the progress of the theory has been in
three directions: first, in accumulating facts from which averages
are deduced, and analysing the data so as to eliminate disturbing
influences, that is, in constructing trustworthy tables of
mortality; secondly, in extending the inferences from such
tables, and multiplying their applications to needs of practical
life; and thirdly, in facilitating the calculations which these
applications require. But while Halley thus firmly and lastingly
drew, in outline, the theory of life contingencies, the numerical
results attained by him were grossly imperfect. Forced by the
lack of data to assume that the population was stationary,
and to rely on a rude estimate of its numbers, he well knew that
his conclusions were but provisional. Yet they were far in
advance of the general mind of his time. As late as 1694, and
even in 1703, parliament substantially re-enacted the old law
for valuing leases at seven years for each life. The meagre
Breslau Table long remained the only serious attempt to utilize
actual observations of mortality for scientific purposes. In
1746 A. de Parcieux (1703-1768), a mathematician of Paris,
published an EssaisurlesprobabilMsdeladureede la vie humaine,
in which he presented mortality tables formed by himself, one
from the records of certain Tontine associations, and five others
from those of several religious orders in Paris. The Tontine
experience table was a much closer approximation to the true
course of mortality, as shown by later investigations, than any
of its predecessors, and indeed now appears, despite the crude
manner in which the materials were treated, to have been more
accurate and more trustworthy than the Northampton or even
the Carlisle Table of much later date. The essay oif de Parcieux
was an important source of information to advanced students
in France and Germany, but attracted no general or popular
interest, nor was it followed up by progressive researches of the
same character in continental Europe, while it remained almost
unnoticed in England.
Throughout the i8th century the customary treatment of life
annuities was as chaotic and fanciful as before, though some
writers of eminence, most notably Dr Thomas Simpson of London
(1752), treated the theory of the subject with great intelligence,
and in 1753 James Dodson of London (great-grandfather of
Augustus de Morgan) projected a life insurance company in
which the premiums should be accommodated justly to the ages
of the insured. But life insurance as a business really began
with the Equitable Society of London, founded in 1762. The
associates petitioned for a charter, but the law officers of the
crown refused it, saying that the scheme depended for success
on the truth of certain tables of life and death, " Whereby the
Chance of Mortality is attempted to be reduced to a certain
standard. This is a mere speculation, never tried in practice."
The society was organized as a voluntary association, and began
business in 1 765. Its premiums were computed from the Breslau
Table, with some corrections from the London Bills of Mortality,
and were far higher than any now in use. But the managers,
in face of actual business, needed more light. Dr Richard Price,
a student of the new science of life contingencies, was consulted,
and soon devised tests of the society's experience and measures
of the financial results, which are in principle those still practised.
He also aspired to construct a more accurate table of mortality,
and discovered data in certain parish registers of Northampton
which promised to represent the average of life in England.
From these he formed in 1780 the Northampton Table „
. , Northamp-
of Mortality, and computed a new and largely reduced ton fable.
scale of premiums for the society. The historical
importance of the Northampton Table lies in the profound
impression it made on the general mass of intelligent persons.
666
INSURANCE
[LIFE INSURANCE
Although mortality had long been recognized by special inquirers
as a promising theme for statistical inquiry, its actual treatment,
except in the narrow school founded by Johann Siissmilch in
Germany (1746), and in the isolated and almost prophetic work
of de Parcieux in France, had been speculative and vague.
Demoivre handled it with mathematical acuteness, but framed
his scale of mortality (about 1750) on a hypothesis of his own,
not on known facts. Out of each group of eighty-six deaths,
according to this scale, one dies on the average each year till all
are gone; so that x being the present age, the probability of
death within a year is always i/(86-x). This conjecture,
which, during middle life, served as a rough approximation to
the truth, almost as well as some of the early tables of repute,
long found remarkable acceptance among men of science. Dr
Price's researches first brought to general apprehension the
conviction that a large basis of observed facts is the only source
of real knowledge. The government of the day felt the influence
of the movement. In 1 786 Pitt, then chancellor of the exchequer,
consulted Dr Price on plans for the conversion of debt, and in
1789 the government first showed knowledge that in granting
annuities ages must be distinguished, and that the prospective
life at ninety and that at twenty-five are not to be estimated
as equal. About 1808 a conversion of 3% into annuities was
planned. The Northampton Table was adopted, and Morgan
computed rates from it which were used for twenty years. It
proved to represent a mortality far in excess of the average, and
in 1821 John Finlaison, being made actuary to the debt com-
missioners, protested against the rates in use. But not until
1828, when the treasury had lost two millions of pounds by
selling annuities too cheap, was the law repealed. Finlaison
then constructed a new and less wasteful scale for conversions,
but singular results followed. At the age of ninety, for instance,
£100 would purchase an annuity of £62. Combinations were
formed to purchase annuities on the lives of old people selected
for their vigour; 675 of these were taken, with a further loss of
at least a million to the treasury. The Northampton Table,
in fact, like the earlier Breslau Table, was formed without a
census, and upon the false assumption that the population was
stationary. Dr Price's estimate, founded on the recorded
baptisms, was much too low, many of the people being of a sect
which rejected infant baptism. His table represents an average
life of twenty-four years, whilst subsequent inquiries indicate
a true average of about thirty years at that time in the same
parishes. The actual mortality in the Equitable Society proved
to be less by one-third than that anticipated by the table. The
error had consequences of vast moment. The immediate and
dazzling prosperity of the societies founding rates on this sup-
posed scientific basis excited the public imagination, stimulated
the business exceedingly, and led to many extravagant projects,
followed by fluctuations and failures which impaired its healthy
growth and usefulness.
In spite of gross defects, the Northampton Table remained
for a century by far the most important table of mortality,
employed as the basis of calculation by leading com-
Parues in Great Britain, and adopted by the courts
progress, as practically a part of the common law. Parliament,
followed by some state legislatures and many courts in
America, even made it the authorized standard for valuing
annuity charges and reversionary interests. But in life insurance
practice it is now wholly antiquated. Like its most famous
successor, the Carlisle Table of Joshua Milne, it rested upon
observations of the population of a town. How far this limited
and peculiar group represented the nation was still doubtful;
no less so how far the rate of mortality among applicants for
insurance, accepted by the offices, would correspond with that
of the urban citizens or of the whole body. As soon as the
companies had sufficient records of their own experience the
work began of striving to construct, for business use, tables
which should truly express it. This branch of research has ever
since been prosecuted with all the resources they could command
of industry, practical judgment and mathematical skill; and
the successive achievements in it may be accepted as in general
the sum and measure of the progress of actuarial science. Now
the recognition of an ascertainable uniformity in human mortality
has become part of the general stock of thought. But actuarial
science, which originated in Great Britain, was long the peculiar
and almost exclusive possession of British students, and even
till now has been practised most fruitfully in its first home,
mainly by the actuaries of life insurance institutions, but with
important contributions from other inquirers, especially those
in the service of the registrar-general. The most complete
storehouse of technical and practical learning on the general
theory and on all its applications to life insurance practice is
found in the successive volumes of the Journal of the Institute
of Actuaries. The tables published by the Institute in 1872,
founded on the experience to 1863 of twenty companies (see
ANNUITY), still remain the most authoritative expression of the
mortality of insured lives, and have largely replaced all earlier
standards in the valuations of the British companies, more than
three-fourths of which, in their latest returns to the Board of
Trade, compute their reinsurance reserves by the Hm- and Hm-5
tables. But for several years a committee of the Institute and
of the Scottish Faculty of Actuaries has been engaged in collecting
and arranging for investigation the far vaster experience which
has now accumulated in the hands of sixty companies, including
the records of more than a million policies. The large basis of
facts thus obtained will be treated with special reference to
different classes of risks, and will throw much light on difficult
questions of selection, which have hitherto been treated specu-
latively, or at least without the conclusive evidence of large
averages, and are still more or less in controversy. Some of
these will require more detailed notice hereafter.
It is only since the middle of the 19th century that actuarial
science has rapidly advanced in other countries, chiefly under the
stimulus of the extending practice of life insurance. Both in
America and upon the continent of Europe the small business
transacted by the pioneer companies was largely conducted on
empirical and conjectural methods from year to year, English
custom being consulted as a guide in fixing premiums. The Gotha
Bank, the first institution to insure lives upon business principles in
Germany, adopted at its foundation in 1827 a mortality table formed
by Charles Babbage upon the basis of the Northampton Table,
corrected from cursory notes upon the early experience of the Equit-
able Society, which had been given by its actuary to a general meeting
of its members in 1800. The French companies, and several in
Germany of later origin than the Gptha, took as their standard the
so-called Table of de Parcieux, previously described ; and this table,
with modifications dictated by experience, continued until very
recently in general use in France. The Seventeen Companies' Table
of 1843 was adopted by the Insurance Commissioners of Massa-
chusetts, who in 1859 introduced the methods of state supervision of
insurance now generally practised in the United States. This table,
though long superseded in the esteem of actuaries in their ordinary
work, is still the standard for official valuations in most states of the
union, a fact which has given it undue prominence. The so-called
American Table, derived in 1868 frorti the limited experience of the
largest American company during its earliest years, was the first
important work of the kind done in America. In view of its narrow
basis of facts, it has stood the test of time singularly well, and it is
now in wider use than any other for computing the premiums of
American companies. Its most marked difference from the standard
British tables for insured lives is that it indicates a decidedly lower
rate of mortality throughout the period of mature manhood, between
the ages of thirty-five and seventy-five, though with a higher rate at
the extremes of life; and this peculiarity is also found in American
tables deduced from more recent and far larger experience.
Actuarial science has been widely cultivated in the United States
of late years, the numbers and zeal of its professional students
having kept pace with the extraordinary growth of life insurance.
The aggressive activity of the companies has brought the principles
of the business home to the popular mind as in no other country, and
a large number of periodicals are devoted entirely to the subject.
These tendencies have been strengthened by the system of super-
vision practised by the states, which has also greatly influenced
public opinion, directing attention in an extraordinary degree to
certain special and technical features, to the neglect of more com-
prehensive and more useful criticism. In the official work of the
state departments the actuary's province appears substantially to
begin and end with the valuation of liabilities upon the net premium
basis, which is applied with increasing strictness as the sole and final
standard of solvency, and the determination by it of the " legal
surplus " of each company. But a considerable number of profes-
sional actuaries have prosecuted their studies in a scientific spirit,
and most of these since 1889 have been associated in the Actuarial
LIFE INSURANCE]
INSURANCE
667
Society of America, which has established a high standard of pro-
fessional competence in its examinations and transactions. The
question how far the rate of mortality among insured lives in
America is fairly represented by tables drawn from British experi-
ence has attracted much inquiry ; and many companies have made
important contributions to it from their own records, in several
instances in the finished form of carefully graduated tables, each
with an individual character, but all with some features which
distinguish them as a group. By far the most comprehensive effort
to establish a standard table for America is that of a committee of
actuaries, for which, in 1881, L. W. Meech published the classified
experience of thirty offices to the end of 1874, including most of the
large companies in the United States, and embracing more than a
million policies. The observations collected in this work have
furnished materials for many important investigations, but the
finished tables have rarely been applied in practice, being drawn
from an aggregation of largely incongruous experiences, the influ-
ence of each of which upon the general average is indeterminate.
The business of life insurance upon the continent of Europe has
given an extraordinary stimulus to actuarial studies. Before 1883
the German companies computed their premiums and reserves by
antiquated life tables. The most approved of these, as illustrating
the duration of German life, was that prepared by Brune of Berlin
in 1837 from the records for seventy years of an annuity society for
widows, which practised careful medical selection of the husbands
and kept exact mortality registers. In 1883 was published an ad-
mirable table founded on the combined experience of twenty-three
German companies, which has superseded all other standards for
ordinary valuations within the German empire. The French com-
panies generally continued to rely on the tables of de Parcieux, with
modifications of their most glaring defects, until a still later date.
In 1898 a committee of French actuaries published a new set of tables
drawn from the experience of four of the principal offices in France,
and these are now accepted as the best basis for life insurance practice
by similar companies there. Schools of actuarial science have been
opened in both Germany and France, and the professional actuaries
of these countries, and of Austria and Belgium, have formed associa-
tions for the promotion of their pursuits. Sessions of delegates
from the several institutes and societies of actuaries throughout
the world meet triennially in general congress in the various capitals.
Such sessions do much to broaden and harmonize the scope and
aims of the profession.
Elaborate efforts have been made by several governments to
employ the machinery of census bureaus for determining the
average duration of life, such as the extension and concentration
of many industries, the vast growth of cities, the progress of
medical and hygienic science, the increase of wealth, comfort
and luxury, the changes in the frequency and destructiveness
of war. It is plausibly maintained, on the one hand, that these
and other causes have already added some years to the average
lifetime of civilized man; and, on the other hand, that their
combined effect has been to lessen the sharpness of the struggle
for existence, to rescue the weaklings from destruction and
enable them to multiply, and so to weaken society at large.
The final decision of the question will be found in the gradual
modifications of the true table of mortality through successive
epochs.
For the purposes of life insurance the future of mortality tables
looks to less ambitious problems. The business calls for exact
equity in determining the value of all life contingencies, and
therefore for the most precise forecast attainable of the dates
at which the amounts assured must be paid. Some idea of the
historical progress of this inquiry may be gathered from the
accompanying table, which epitomizes the general characteristics
of a number of typical tables of mortality, showing at ages which
are multiples of five years the annual death-rate indicated by
each of them. The comparison will be found interesting in
many ways, most strikingly, perhaps, as suggesting what is
confirmed by a detailed examination of the facts, that insured
life on the average in Great Britain is decidedly inferior to that
in the United States, but superior to that upon the continent of
Europe, and especially in Germany. From a careful investiga-
tion of the published experience, Dr McClintock concludes:
" It is an ascertained fact that after the first five years of insur-
ance the probability of death," in Great Britain, " is fully one-
fifth greater at any given age than the corresponding probability
shown by American experience"; while "the average value
of assured life in Germany is as much inferior to that shown in
the Hm- experience as that in America has been found to be
superior." 1
general rate
Table showing the number of Persons who will die in a year out of 100,000 who have attained the given Age,
according to several Tables of Mortality.
of mortality,
and it has
been the worthy ambi-
tion of able actuaries
to devise trustworthy
methods of utilizing the
census returns for this
purpose. The British
Statistical Office
under Dr William Farr
and his successors,
and, later, the Swiss
Federal Bureau of
Statistics have accom-
plished the best work
in this direction, and
the series of " English
Life Tables," founded
on successive de-
cennial censuses, in-
terpreted by the
registered deaths
during the intervals,
are the most useful data now available for the average value of
civilized life. But all such general tables are as yet but tentative
and provisional. The imperfections of mortuary registries and
of census returns are great, and corrections are largely con-
jectural. Until more complete methods of collecting the facts
are practised, the experience of life insurance companies
promises to furnish the only mortality tables having claim to
authority. It is already becoming evident that the general
rate of mortality, and in particular the rate at each age of life,
not only differs widely in different communities, but undergoes
important changes in successive generations. A multitude of
forces are at work in civilized society which must influence the
Twenty-
Age.
North-
ampton.
Carlisle.
Seventeen
Offices.
Institute
of _
Actuaries.
Institute
of
Actuaries.
American
Experi-
ence.
Thirty
American
Offices.
three Ger-
man
Offices.
Four
French
Offices.
1780.
1815.
1843.
H">- 1869.
Hm-6 1869.
1868.
1881.
1883.
1895-
10
916
449
676
490
400
749
648
364
15
922
619
694
287
325
763
659
515
20
1.403
706
729
633
833
780
676
919
690
25
1-575
731
777
663
1,050
806
703
854
628
30
1,710
,010
842
772
920
843
748
882
698
35
1,870
,026
929
877
1,000
895
821
999
807
40
2,090
,3°o
1,036
1,031
1,132
979
936
1,176
975
45
2,401
,481
1,221
1,219
1,294
I, HO
I,I2O
1,437
1,236
5«
2,835
-342
1,594
1-595
1,712
1.378
1,417
1,814
1,638
55
3,350
,792
2,166
2,103
2,219
1,857
1.893
2,506
2,258
60
4,023
3,349
3-034
2,968
3,064
2,669
2,653
3.535
3.213
65
4,902
4,109
4,408
4.343
4.461
4.013
3,864
4.943
4,675
70
6,493
5.164
6,493
6,219
6,284
6,199
5,778
7,276
6,897
75
9-615
9-552
9,556
9,816
9.949
9.437
8,779
10,647
10,241
80
13-433
12,172
14,040
H.465
H.577
14,447
13.407
I5,5i6
I5."9
85
22,043
17-528
20,509
20,988
21,010
33,555
20,363
22,211
22,332
90
26,087
26,056
32,373
27,945
28,244
45,455
32,815
32,356
32,225
No final explanation has been given, and there is no proof that
the average life in America is longer than in England or Germany.
Dr McClintock inclines to believe that one potent
cause of the great difference in the insured experience ^°
is that, while European offices have generally awaited tioa.
applications, which are commonly prompted by some
sense of need for insurance, the custom of American companies
is actively to solicit business through agents. On the average,
lives which are only induced by persuasion to insure are better
than those which voluntarily apply. That this suggestion points
1 On the Effects of Selection, by Emory McClintock (New York,
1892), p. 94.
668
INSURANCE
[LIFE INSURANCE
out a real and perhaps an important differentiating influence
upon groups of risks is not doubted, but the measure of its effects
has not yet been determined. The question is one of many
which yearly assume more prominence, and which, as a class,
are conventionally termed problems of selection. Assuming
that the general rate of mortality is precisely known, any devia-
tion from it occurring in a special group of insured lives, as the
result of some influence peculiar to that group, is called the effect
of selection. If insurance were offered on «qual terms to all,
the feeble and dying would apply in disproportionate numbers,
and the mortality would be excessive. To avoid this danger
careful medical examinations are required, excluding risks
which appear to be impaired; and this selection by the insurer
uniformly reduces the mortality below the general average
during the earliest years of insurance. During these years large
numbers of the insured withdraw, either from inability or from
indisposition to pay their premiums, but the motive to do so is
weakest with lives which have become impaired. The average
vitah'ty is lowered by the loss on the whole of a superior class,
and the average mortality of those who persist rises. The extent
of this influence varies widely with the proportionate number of
lapses and the motives which induce them, increasing in a
startling degree when lapses multiply in a discredited company,
and remaining small, or even at times doubtful, under very
favourable conditions; so that the ascertainment of its amount
in different circumstances, and for different groups of the insured,
is a problem of extreme complication. Its importance is in-
creased by two tendencies which have grown stronger in the
practice of recent years: first, to permit at all times the with-
drawal by any policy-holder of a substantial part of the technical
or average reserve upon his assurance, a privilege which legisla-
tion and public opinion in the United States have extorted from
the companies; and, secondly, the extensive introduction, under
competition for public favour, of forms of policies which grant
the option, at fixed dates in the future, between withdrawing
the entire " accumulations," or technical reserve and surplus,
and continuing the insurance. It is well known that at the
maturity of these options the motive is strong for impaired lives
to remain insured, and that the cash withdrawals are so largely
of superior lives that the subsequent rate of mortality is much
increased. Other problems in selection arise from varieties in
the forms of policies. It is commonly recognized that there are
general and marked differences between the mortality experienced
upon assurances issued at low and those at high premium rates.
Policies for short terms, on which the computed net rates are
the lowest, have been found so unprofitable to the insurers that
they are rarely granted, and only with a very heavy loading of
the tabular value. Upon those insured for life, with annual
premiums, there is a large and constant excess of death losses
above the endowment assurances, while groups of policies with
tontine or cumulative features or reserved bonuses, available
only after surviving a term of years, uniformly experience a low
mortality.
It is also to be remarked that it is found in general that the
average amount of policies matured by death is higher than the
average of all policies in force; and some actuaries incline
to believe that tables of pecuniary loss might, for practical use,
take the place of tables of mortality, since the actual claims are
in units of money, not of lives. The vast field of inquiry opened
to actuaries by these and many more special questions of selection
promises to engross more and more of their attention and labour.
The technical methods of reducing and treating the data of
mortality have been brought to a high degree of perfection, but
the necessity for a better classification of the data themselves,
with reference to special groups of lives or policies, differentiated
by social or local circumstances, by business methods, by forms
of contract, by race or personal characteristics, must assume
ever greater prominence. It is conceivable that, at some period
hereafter, the practical reliance of the offices will be more upon
tables to be computed for such special groups, from select
experience, than upon those drawn from vast aggregates without
discriminating among their somewhat incongruous divisions.
The mortality tables in common use, however, have been
proved by a vast experience to furnish a safe and fairly equitable
basis for the business of assuring lives. Assuming
that the table shows how many of a large group now T*e
assured may be expected to end in each succeeding factor.
year, the present value of the claims upon them depends
exclusively upon the rate of interest at which funds will accu-
mulate. Exact foresight of this rate being impossible, the
insurer must assume a rate which can with certainty be realized.
The difficult problem of determining the limits of safety in this
assumption attracts the more attention now, because of the
recent persistent decline in the average productiveness of invested
capital. The actuary is forced to observe that the interest factor
in his calculations is much less definitely fixed by known facts
than the mortality factor. The longer a contract has to run, the
greater the effect of the difference in rate. The value of a
payment to be made in thirty years is greater by above one-half
with interest taken at 3 % than at 45 %, and one to be made in
thirty-six years is more than twice as great. Hence the most
careful study of the forces determining for long periods the
average rate of interest is fundamental in life insurance. The
tendency of opinion is to hold that a progressive lowering of
interest rates must result from the accumulation of wealth.
In support of this belief it is pointed out that from 1872 nearly
to the present time there has been a general and somewhat
uniform decline in the yield of invested capital, as represented
by government stocks, mortgage loans, savings bank deposits
and discounts in all commercial nations. The movement has
been disguised by wide fluctuations, temporary or local, but has
been on the whole world-wide and continuous, when great masses
of capital, such as the investments of life companies, are kept in
view. The fall has been greatest, too, in countries where rates
were formerly highest, suggesting that as the great financial
markets of the world become more intimately connected the
normal rate of interest assumes a more cosmopolitan character,
with an increasing tendency to equality among them. These
considerations have had an important influence upon the com-
putations of life insurance companies. In Great Britain, and
commonly in continental Europe, the leading offices from the
first assumed lower rates of interest than those in America,
usually 33 or 3%; and the reductions in their estimates have
as yet been moderate, only thirty-one out, of seventy-four British
offices having lowered the interest basis in their valuations
reported to the Board of Trade.
These returns show that of these companies only twenty-three now
compute reserves upon a rate as high as 3 J %, while forty-four assume
3 %-and seven a still lower rate. But in America, when the business
first became important. 6 % was a more frequent rate of investment
than 5%, and the laws of New York and of many other states
countenanced the confident expectation of a permanent yield of at
least 4i%. The rate of 4% adopted by the principal companies,
and by the law of Massachusetts from 1861, was regarded as highly
conservative. But as early as 1882 one important company began
to reserve upon new business at 3 %, and since 1805 there has been a
gradual change by the leading offices to 3 J %, and in a few instances
to 3, %> as the basis of premiums and of reserves upon new policies.
Serious efforts have been made to induce legislation which will
gradually establish one of these rates as a test of technical solvency.
There are not wanting, however, indications that the pro-
tracted decline in rates of interest in the world's markets may
have been checked, and even that a reverse movement has
begun. Rates of discount everywhere, interest on government
loans except in America, and on mortgage loans in Europe, have
on the whole advanced, the minimum average rates having been
reached, after twenty-five years of gradual reduction, in 1897.
These facts are entirely consistent with the conclusions suggested
by the history of the subject. No uniform or secular tendency
to reduction in the average rate of interest, which is the index of
the average productiveness of capital, not of its amount, can be
found to have prevailed. Fluctuations in the average rate are
found, quite independent of the local and temporary fluctuations,
which are often extreme; and these long tidal waves of change
have at times, for generations together, risen and fallen with some
approach to periodicity. The prevailing rate has been a little
LIFE INSURANCE]
INSURANCE
669
Assets
and
reserve.
lower on the average in the ipth century than in the i8th, but
was lower through the middle decades of the i8th century than
through those of the ipth. On the whole, it seems clear that the
accumulation of wealth in itself has no necessary tendency to
diminish the productiveness of capital; that this productiveness,
on the general average, has not materially varied in many
generations; but that the promise and expectation of productive-
ness which prompt the demand for its use depend upon the
activity of enterprise, growing out of the prevailing spirit of
hope; upon the rapidity with which new inventions are made,
industries extended, and floating or loanable capital expended
in permanent works. These conditions are subject to fluctuations
extending through considerable periods, so that for a number of
years the rate may be higher, and then for a similar series of years
lower than the normal rate, determined by average productive-
ness, but always tending to return to this normal rate, as the tide-
swept surface of the ocean to its normal level.
While the excess of the average yield of capital in America, above
that of the older nations, is diminished as the facilities of transfer
and exchange increase, there is no reason to conclude that it will
disappear for generations to come. It seems, therefore, that the
general assumption of 3% for the valuation of British offices, and
that of 3$% which is becoming the accepted standard for the
companies of the United States, should command unquestioned
confidence.
The business of life insurance being founded on well-ascertained
natural laws, and on principles of finance which in their broad
aspect are of the simplest description, there exists no
necessity for frequent close scrutiny of the affairs of an
insurance office, in so far as the maintenance of a mere
standard of solvency is concerned. We have seen that
the premiums charged for insurances are based on certain
assumptions in regard to (i) the rate of mortality to be experi-
enced, (2) the rate of interest to be earned by the office on its
funds, and (3) the proportion of the premiums to be absorbed in
expenses and in providing against unforeseen contingencies. If
these assumptions are reasonably safe, an insurance office pro-
ceeding upon them may be confidently regarded as solvent so long
as there is no conspicuously unfavourable deviation from what
has been anticipated and provided for, and so long as the funds
are not impaired by imprudent investments or otherwise. The
ascertainment and division of profits, however, require that the
affairs should be looked into periodically; but the fluctuations
to which the surplus funds are liable within limited periods of
time are generally regarded as furnishing a sufficient reason why
such investigations should not take place too frequently. Ac-
cordingly in most offices the division of profits takes place only at
stated intervals of years — usually five or seven years — when a
complete survey is taken of the whole engagements present and
future, and of the funds available to meet these. The mode in
which the liability of an office under its current policies is esti-
mated requires explanation.
All statistical observations on the duration of human life point
to the conclusion that, after the period of extreme youth is past,
the death-rate among any given body of persons increases
gradually with advancing age. If, therefore, insurance premiums
were annually adjusted according to the chances of death
corresponding to the current age of the insured, their amount
would be at first smaller, but ultimately larger, than the uniform
annual payment required to insure a given sum whenever death
may occur. This is illustrated by the following figures, calculated
from the H* mortality table at 3% interest. In column 2 is the
uniform annual premium at age thirty for a whole-term insurance
of £100. In column 3 are shown the premiums which would be
required at the successive ages stated in column i to insure £100
in the event of death taking place within a year. Column 4 shows
the differences between the figures in column 2 and those in
column 3.
From this table it appears that if a number of persons effect,
at the age of thirty, whole-term insurances on their lives by
annual premiums which are to remain of uniform amount during
the subsistence of the insurances, each of them pays for the first
year £1-130 more than is required for the risk of that year. The
second year the premiums are each £1-111 in excess of that year's
risk. The third year the excess is only £1-093, and so it diminishes
from year to year. By the time the individuals who survive have
reached the age of fifty-four, their uniform annual premiums are
Age,
30+w.
(i)
Pao-
(2)
|lA^n.
(3)
Pafc-llAixH.,,.
(4)
30
31
32
£1-880
1-880
1-880
£•750
•769
•787
+£l-l30
+ l-lll
+ 1-093
53
54
55
I -880
1-880
1-880
i -806
1-916
2-042
+ -074
— -036
- -162
95
96
97
I -880
1-880
I -880
61-848
79-265
97-087
-59:968
-77-385
-95-207
no longer sufficient for the risk of the following year; and this
annual deficiency goes on increasing until at the extreme age in
the table it amounts to £95-207, the difference between the uni-
form annual premium (£1-880) and the present value (£97-087) of
£100 certain to be paid at the end of a year. Now, since the
uniform annual premiums are just sufficient to provide for the
ultimate payment of the sums insured, it is obvious that the
deficiencies of later years must be made up by the excess of the
earlier payments; and, in order that the insurance office may
be in a position to meet its engagements, these surplus payments
must be kept in hand and accumulated at interest until they are
required for the purpose indicated. It is, in effect, the accumu-
lated excess here spoken of which constitutes the measure of the
company's liability under its policies, or the sum which it ought
to have in hand to be able to meet its engagements. In the
individual case this sum is usually called the " reserve value "
of a policy.
In another view the reserve value of a policy is the difference
between the present value of the engagement undertaken by the
office and the present value of the premiums to be paid in future
by the insured. This view may be regarded as the counterpart
of the other. For practical purposes it is to be preferred as it
is independent of the variations of past experience, and requires
only that a rate of mortality and a rate of interest be assumed
for the future.
According to it, the reserve value (nVz) of a policy for the sum of
I, effected at age x, and which has been in force for n years — the
(n + j)th premium being just due and unpaid — may be expressed
thus, in symbols with which we have already become familiar.
V ~= A — P ( i \ ft "\ ( i ^
n v x *• »i-j-n •*• x V* i "'X+n/ • • • \* /•
If we substitute for Ax+B its equivalent PI+n(i +a*+n) this expres-
sion becomes
nVx = (Pi+n — Pi)(l+0I+n) . . . (2);
whence we see that the sum to be reserved under a policy after any
number of years arises from the difference between the premium
actually payable and the premium which would be required to assure
the life afresh at the increased age attained. By substituting for
P,+n and Pi their equivalents TJ; (i — ") and f±% — (i— «0,
we obtain another useful form of the expression,
- i _
V* = i-
= a\~+a+n (4)-
The preceding formulae indicate clearly the nature of the
calculations by which an insurance office is able to ascertain
the amount of funds which ought to be kept in hand to
provide for the liabilities to the assured. In cases
other than whole-term insurances by uniform annual
premiums, the formulae are subject to appropriate modifications.
When there are bonus additions to the sums insured, the value
of these must be added, so that by the foregoing formula (i), for
Net
liability.
6yo
INSURANCE
[LIFE INSURANCE
example, the value of a policy for i with bonus additions B is
(i+B)AI+.n — P(i+a*+n). But the general principles of calcula-
tion are the same in all cases. The present value of the whole
sums undertaken to be paid by the office is ascertained on the
one hand, and on the other hand the present value of the
premiums to be received in future from the insured. The differ-
ence between these (due provision being made for expenses and
contingencies, as afterwards explained) represents the " net
liability " of the office. Otherwise the net liability is arrived
at by calculating separately the value of each policy by an
adaptation of one or other of the above formulae. In either
case, an adjustment of the annuity-values is made, in order to
adapt these to the actual conditions of a valuation, when the
next premiums on the various policies are not actually due,
but are to become due at various intervals throughout the
succeeding year.
So far in regard to the provision for payment of the sums con-
tained in the policies, with their additions. We now come to the
provision for future expenses, and for contingencies not
Provision embraced in the ordinary calculations. In what is called
the " net-premium " method of valuation, this provision
expenses, js macje by throwing off the whole " loading " in estimat-
*ft ing the value of the premiums to be received. That is to
say, the premiums valued, in order to be set off against the value of
the sums engaged to be paid by the office, are not the whole premiums
actually receivable, but the net or pure premiums derived
from the table employed in the valuation. The practical
effect of this is that the amount brought out as the net
method. utility of the office is sufficient, together with the net-
premium portion of its future receipts from policyholders, to meet the
sums assured under its policies as they mature, thus leaving free the
remaining portion — the margin or loading — of each year's premium
income to meet expenses and any extra demands. When the margin
thus left proves more than sufficient for those purposes, as under
ordinary circumstances it always ought to do, the excess falls year
by year into the surplus funds of the office, to be dealt with as profit
at the next periodical investigation.
There appears to be a decided preference among insurance
companies for the net-premium method as that which on the whole
is best suited for valuing the liabilities of an office trans-
a"K* acting a profitable business at a moderate rate of expense,
values. an(j majclng investigations with a view to ascertaining the
amount of surplus divisible among its constituents. In certain
circumstances it may be advisable to depart from a strict application
of the characteristic feature of that method, but it must always be
borne in mind that any encroachment made upon the " margin " in
valuing the premiums is, so far, an anticipation of future profits.
Any such encroachment is indeed inadmissible, unless the margin
is at least more than sufficient to provide for future expenses, and in
any case care must be taken to guard against what are called
" negative values." These arise when the valuation of the future
premiums is greater than the valuation of the sums engaged to be
paid by the office, or when in the expression (Pt+n — Pf)(i+a,+n) the
value of P* is increased so as to be greater than that of P»+n. It is
evident that any valuation which includes " negative values " must
be misleading, as policies are thereby treated as assets instead of
liabilities, and such fictitious assets may at any time be cut off by
the assured electing to drop their policies.
In recognition ofthe fact that a large proportion of the first year's
premiums is in most offices absorbed by the expense of obtaining
new business, it has been proposed by some actuaries to treat the
first premium in each case as applicable entirely to the risk and ex-
penses of the first year. At a period of valuation the policies are to
be dealt with as if effected a year after their actual date, and at the
increased age then attained.
Another modification of the net-premium method has been
advocated for valuing policies entitled to bonus additions. It con-
sists in estimating the value of future bonuses (at an
assumed rate) in addition to that of the sum assured and
existing bonuses, and valuing on the other hand so much
of the office premiums as would have been required to
provide the sum assured and bonuses at the time of effecting the
insurance. This tends to secure, to some extent, the maintenance of
a tolerably steady rate of bonus.
An essentially different method is employed by some offices, and
is not without the support of actuaries whose judgment is entitled
to every respect. It has been called the " hypothetical method."
By it the office premiums are made the basis of valuation. Hypo-
thetical annuity-values, smaller than those which would be employed
in the net-premium method, are deduced from the office premiums
by means of the relation P'= . , — (i— v), and the policies are
valued according to the formula
thctkal
method.
where P'* and P'l+n are the office premiums at ages x and x+n
respectively, and a'i+nis the hypothetical annuity-value at the latter
age. Mr Sprague has shown (Ass. Mag. xi. 90) that the policy-
values obtained by this method will be greater or less than, or equal
to, those of the net-premium method according as the " loading " is
a constant percentage of the net premium or an equal addition to it
at all ages, or of an intermediate character, its elements being so
adjusted as to balance each other.
When the net-premium method is employed, it is important that
the office premiums be not altogether left out of view, otherwise an
imperfect idea will be formed as to the results of the valuation.
Suppose two offices, in circumstances as nearly as possible similar,
estimate their liabilities by the net-premium method upon the same
data, but office A charges premiums which contain a margin of 20%
above the net premiums, and office B charges premiums with a
margin of 30%. Then, in so far as regards their net liabilities
(always supposing the sum set aside in each case to be that required
by the valuation), the reserves of those offices will be of equal
strength, and if nothing further were taken into account they might
be supposed to stand in the same financial position. But it is obvious
that office B, which has a margin of income 50 % greater than that of
office A, is so much better able to bear any unusual strain in addition
to the ordinary expenditure, and is likely to realize a larger surplus
on its transactions. Hence it appears that in order to obtain an
adequate view of the financial position of any office it is necessary to
consider, not only the basis upon which its reserves are calculated,
but also the proportion of " loading " or " margin " contained in its
premiums, and set aside for future expenses and profits.
Valuations may be made on different data as to mortality
and interest, and the resulting net liability will be greater or
less according to the nature of these. Under any
given table of mortality a valuation at a low rate of *^"*s °'
•11 j i i- KM-* -11 different
interest will produce a larger net liability — will
require a higher reserve to be made by the office against
its future engagements to the insured — than a valuation at a
higher rate. The effect of different assumptions in regard to the
rates of mortality cannot be expressed in similar terms. A table
of mortality showing a high death-rate, and requiring conse-
quently large assurance premiums, does not necessarily produce
large reserve values. The contrary, indeed, may be the case, as
with the Northampton Table, which requires larger premiums
than the more modern tables, but gives on the whole smaller
reserve values. The amount of the net liability depends, not on
the absolute magnitude of the rates of mortality indicated by the
table, but on the ratio in which these increase from age to age.
If the values deduced by the net-premium method from any two
tables be compared, it will be seen that
,or
according as
. (I),
W;
where the accented symbols throughout refer to one table and the
unaccented symbols to the other.
We have thus the means of ascertaining whether the policy-values
of any table will be greater or less than, or equal to, those of another,
cither (i) by calculating for each table separately the ratios of the
annuity-values at successive ages, and comparing the results, or (2)
by calculating at successive ages the ratios of the annuity-values
of one table to those of another, and observing whether these ratios
decrease or increase with advancing age or remain stationary through-
out. The above relations will subsist whatever may be the differ-
ences in the data employed, and whether or not the annuity-values
by the different tables are calculated at the same rate of interest.
When the same rate of interest is employed, any divergence in the
ratios of the annuity-values will of necessity be due to differences
in the rates of mortality.
A prevailing fallacy in the popular mind, which has grown
out of the practice of net valuations, is the inference that the
average technical reserve represents the value of the Fallacy of
individual policy. Each risk is properly assumed at single-
its probable or average value at the time. But from policy
that moment its circumstances are constantly changing n*e
in directions then unforeseen, and the expectation that such
changes will occur is the motive for insuring. To treat them
singly as unchanged in value at any later time is as illogical as
LIFE INSURANCE]
INSURANCE
671
it would be after some have matured. The actual value of any
one risk borne by a company is indeterminate. It may become
a claim to-morrow, or not for a generation to come. In the
former case the company must now hold funds to pay in full;
in the latter, the future premiums will perhaps more than suffice,
so that no present reserve is needed. An entire reserve for the
whole body of risks is essential, and its amount is definite,
upon the reasonable assumption that the general average re-
mains undisturbed by individual changes. A distinct reserve
for a single policy is inconceivable. To recognize it is to deny the
first principle of insurance. The average amount by which the
reserve of a company must be increased, because of the existence
of policies of a given class, is to the actuary an important fact,
and is commonly accepted as his best guide in the distribution
of surplus. But a popular theory has seized upon the assignment
of this average sum to each policy, in the technical shorthand
of the actuary, and holds that it is in each case the special
property of the owner of that policy. The practical consequences
are serious when, as often, many of the insured cease to pay
premiums, and each demands the amount of the supposed
individual reserve. His right to claim it is countenanced by
a widespread public opinion, which has inspired statutes in
Massachusetts and some other states, requiring companies to
redeem all policies lapsing after the first two or three years of
insurance at a price founded on the technical reserve. Yet, in
by far the majority of instances, the lapse of policies is of itself
a loss to the company. It is deprived of business secured at
much expense before it has derived any of the advantage expected
from the accession. It is compelled to pay numbers of its profit-
able contributors for ceasing to contribute. The burden falls in
a mutual company upon the insured who fulfil their contracts.
Such laws favour those who withdraw after few payments at
the cost of those who maintain their insurance to the end, or for
many years. The American companies formerly yielded to the
pressure of a mistaken public sentiment, and competed for
favour by promising excessive values in case of surrender.1
Similar conditions exist in Switzerland, Austria, and other
countries in which the business is minutely regulated by govern-
ment bureaus. But in Great Britain the companies are largely
free from such influences, while an open market exists for policies
which have a commercial value, with results on the whole more
satisfactory to all parties interested than any rule of compulsory
purchase which could be enforced on the companies.
A special form of life insurance, which has wonderfully
developed, is the family insurance of the labouring people by
the so-called industrial companies. Until recently this
class °f P60?!6 had no satisfactory share in the benefits
of insurance, although the friendly societies in Great
Britain, and many forms of beneficial associations in the
United States, were attempts, often in part
successful, to provide for special wants, mainly
for maintenance of the sick and for the costs
of burial. Most of them, however, lacked a
scientific basis and an efficient and permanent
organization, while thousands of them were
grossly mismanaged. In Germany an elaborate
scheme of compulsory insurance for labourers
was established by a law of the empire in 1883,
and extended in subsequent years; and similar
legislation has been enacted in several other
countries, most thoroughly in Switzerland and
Austria. The ultimate value of this great social experiment cannot
1 As a result of investigation into the affairs of various American
insurance companies in 1905 by a committee appointed by the state
legislature of New York, a new law regulating life insurance down to
the minutest details was passed in 1906 (ch. 326). The surrender
value of a policy is to be the amount of insurance which the reserve,
computed on the 4.5% mortality table, standing to its credit, will
purchase as a single premium. Other important features of the
legislation are that no New York company may hold a contingency
reserve beyond a fixed proportion of the net value of its policies; the
limiting of types of policies permitted, the defining of the nature of
investments permitted, and provisions for state supervision, valua-
tion, and annual division of profits.
insurance.
yet be determined. That it relieves much want and does a great
service in preventing pauperism is not disputed; but that it also
undermines the independent spirit of the people, and that it
imposes a burden upon the national industry, which not only
hampers it in the world's competition, but reacts with special
injury upon the class it aims to benefit, are criticisms not
satisfactorily answered. No scheme of government insurance,
certainly, is adapted to a people impatient of paternalism in its
rulers and thoroughly habituated to voluntary association for
all common interests. The solution of the great problem, how
to apply the insurance principle to the most pressing needs for
protection of the class supported by the wages of labour, is now
sought in Great Britain and America mainly in the universal
offer to them of industrial insurance. The Prudential Assurance
Company of London was the pioneer in this work, beginning it
experimentally in 1848, but gradually adapting its methods
to the new field, until a generation later they showed themselves
so efficient that an extraordinary growth resulted, and has con-
tinued without interruption. This company and others upon a
similar plan insure whole households together for burial expenses
in case of death, and a small provision for dependants or for old
age, charging as premiums small fractions of a day's wages,
which must be collected weekly. The great difficulties en-
countered were the cost of small and frequent collections, and
the high rate of mortality, which is from 40 to 90% more than
that in the experience of the older companies. This high death-
rate is due not so much to the fact that life is shorter in the
labouring class as to the lack of efficient medical selection,
which would be too costly. The premiums, at best, must be
made higher than in offices insuring for annual payments, but
the demand for insurance extended as rapidly as the system could
be explained, and the Prudential is said to have now in force
some 12,000,000 policies, with an average premium of twopence
a week, secured by an accumulated insurance fund of £17,000,000.
It has superseded a host of petty assessment societies of various
classes without scientific basis or business responsibility, which
deluded and disappointed the poor. The British government
in 1864 undertook to administer a plan for the insurance of work-
ing men, but in thirty years accomplished less than the work
of one private company in a year. In addition to the many
insurance companies which transact industrial business in the
United Kingdom, a large number of friendly societies have
adopted similar plans.
The system of industrial insurance was introduced into the
United States in 1876. Its growth, though much more rapid than
in Great Britain, was at first slow compared with that of later
years. The following table, condensed from the Insurance Year-
Book for IQOO, is an interesting exhibit of the character as
well as of the extent of this form of insurance among working
men: —
Industrial Insurance in the United States.
Year.
No. of
Cos.
Insurance
written.
Policies in
force 3 ist
December.
Insurance in
force 3 1st
December.
Premiums
received.
Losses
paid.
1876
1880
1884
1888
1892
1896
1899
I
3
3
7
ii
ii
16
$400,000
34,212,131
89,150.302
161,260,335
276,893,923
360,852,458
519,789,085
2,500
228,357
1,076,422
2,788,000
5,ii8,897
7,375-688
10,048,625
$248,342
19,590-780
108,451,099
302,033,066
582,710,309
886,484,869
1,292,805,402
Si4,495
1,155,360
4,486,612
11-939.540
24,352,900
40,058,701
56,159,889
$1,958
430,631
1,499,432
4,162,745
8,847,322
13,420,336
17,023,485
It is remarkable that the average weekly premium in the United
States appears to be about 10 cents, or two and a half times as
high as in Great Britain. The average policy is also proportionally
larger, and the progressive increase in its amount deserves notice.
At the rate at which the practice of insurance is extending among
working men, it would require but few years for it to become as
universal in these countries as any paternal government has aimed
to make it by compulsion.
There are various sources from which a surplus of funds may
arise in an insurance company: (i) from the rate of interest
actually earned being higher than that anticipated in the
calculations; (2) from the death-rate among the insured
672
INSURANCE
[LIFE INSURANCE
being lower than that provided for by the mortality tables;
(3) from the expenses and contingent outlay being
less tnan tne " loading " provided to meet them;
and (4) from miscellaneous sources, such as profitable
investments, the cancelment of policies, &c.
Supposing a valuation to have been made on sound data and
by a proper method, and to have resulted in showing that the
funds in hand exceed the liabilities, the surplus thus ascertained
may be regarded as profit, and either its amount may be withdrawn
from the assets of the office or the liabilities may be increased in
a corresponding degree.
Various methods are employed by insurance companies in
distributing their surplus funds among the insured. In some
Bonuses. °^ces tne share or " bonus " falling to each policy-
holder is paid to him in cash; in others it is applied
in providing a reversionary sum which is added to the amount
assured by the policy; in others it goes to reduce the annual
contributions payable by the policyholder. A method of more
recent introduction is to apply the earlier bonuses on a policy
to limit the term for which premiums may be payable, thus
relieving the policyholder of his annual payments after a certain
period. Another method is to apply the bonuses towards making
the sum insured payable in the lifetime of the policyholder.
The plan of reversionary bonus additions is most common, and
when it is followed the option is usually given of exchanging
the bonuses for their value in cash or of having them applied
in the reduction of premiums.
Not only are there different modes of applying surplus, but
the basis on which it is divided among the insured also varies
in different offices. In some the reversionary bonus is calculated
as an equal percentage per annum of the sum insured, reckoning
back either to the commencement of the policy in every case, or
(more commonly) to the preceding division of profits. In others
the rate is calculated, not only on the original sums insured,
but also on previous bonus additions. In others the ratio of
distribution is applied to the cash surplus, and the share allotted
to each policy is dealt with in one or other of the ways above
indicated. The following are some of the ratios employed by
different offices in the allocation of profits: (i) in proportion
to the amount of premiums paid (with or without accumulated
interest) since the last preceding valuation; (2) in proportion
to the accumulated " loading " of the premiums so paid; (3) in
proportion to the reserve values of the policies; (4) in proportion
to the difference between the accumulated premiums and the
reserve value of the policy in each case.
Some offices have a special system of dealing with surplus,
reserving it for those policyholders who survive the ordinary
" expectation of life," or whose premiums paid, with accumulated
interest, amount to the sums insured by their policies. This
system is usually connected with specially low rates of premium.
In the United States the so-called " contribution plan " has been
accepted in theory by many companies, though carried out with
many variations in detail by different actuaries. The principle is,
that since each of the insured is charged in his premium a safe
margin above all probable outlays, when the necessary amount under
each head becomes determinate the several excesses should be
returned to him. It is therefore sought to calculate what each
member would have been charged for net premium and loading had
the mortality, rate of interest, and expenses been precisely known
beforehand, and to credit him with the balance of his payments. As
a corollary of the theory of net valuations, which regards every life
insured as an average life until its end, and assumes the rigid ac-
curacy and equity of all the formulas employed to represent business
facts, it is consistent and complete. But many minds find it more
curious than practical, and prefer to seek equity in faithfulness to
contract rights rather than in adjustments which they deem too
refined, if not fanciful. The plan has met with little favour in
England, where surplus is more commonly distributed on general
business principles. Enormous bonuses were saved by the British
offices out of the excessive premiums at first collected, and by the
American companies during the epoch of high interest rates. But
the use of more accurate tables, the decline in interest, and the in-
creased expenses of later years, have vastly reduced the apparent
profits. Former methods of distributing surplus, when ascertained,
have largely given way in America to novel and more complex plans.
The Tontine idea, historically familiar, was for many years imitated
by some offires in their insurance contracts. All premiums above
outlay, in a company or a class of policies, were accumulated, only
stipulated amounts being paid on death claims meanwhile maturing,
with no compensation to its members withdrawing, until the end of
a fixed term, when the whole fund was apportioned to the survivors.
Large returns were sometimes made, but many who could not
maintain their policies were dissatisfied. " Semi-tontines " followed,
partly meeting the difficulty by pooling only the surplus, and allow-
ing some return in case of withdrawal. But these cruder forms of
contract are now largely superseded by various " reserve-dividend,"
" accumulation," " bond," and " investment " policies, with options
at stated periods between cash withdrawals and continued insur-
ance, the simple inducement to provide against death being more or
less merged in that of making a profitable investment of capital.
In those branches of insurance where the contract is one of
indemnity against loss, the risk remaining the same from year
to year — and where the consent of both parties, insurer
and insured, is required at each periodical renewal —
no question of allowance in respect of past payments
can arise when one party or the other determines to drop the
contract. It is quite recognized that the premiums are simply
an eauivalent for the risk undertaken during the period to which
they apply, with a certain margin for expenses and for profit
to the insurer, and that therefore a favourable issue of the
particular contract supplies no argument for a return of any part
of the sums paid. In life insurance, however, we have shown
that the premiums contain a third element, namely, the portion
that is set aside and accumulated to meet the risk of the insurance
when the premium payable is no longer sufficient of itself for
that purpose.
When a policyholder withdraws from his contract with a life
insurance office, the provision made for the future in respect of
his particular insurance is no longer required, and out of it a
surrender value may be allowed him for giving up his right to the
policy. If there were no reasons to the contrary, the office
might hand over the whole of this provision, which is in fact
the reserve value of the policy. No more could be given without
encroaching upon the provision necessary for the remaining
policies. But the policyholder in withdrawing is exercising a
power which circumstances give to him only and not to the
other party in the contract. The office is bound by the policy so
long as the premiums are duly paid and the other conditions
of insurance are not infringed. It has no opportunity of review-
ing its position and withdrawing from the bargain should that
appear likely to be a losing one. The policyholder, however, is
free to continue or to drop the insurance as he pleases, and it may
fairly be presumed that he will take whichever course will best
serve his own interest. The tendency obviously is that policies
on deteriorated and unhealthy lives are kept in force, while
those on lives having good prospects of longevity are more
readily given up. Again, the retiring policyholder, by with-
drawing his annual contribution, not only diminishes the fund
from which expenses are met, but lessens the area over which
these are spread, and so increases the burden for those who
remain. Considerations like these point to the conclusion that,
in fairness to the remaining constituents of the office, the sur-
render value to be allowed for a policy which is to be given up
should be less than the reserve value. The common practice is
to allow a proportion only of the reserve value. Some offices
have adopted the plan of allowing a specified proportion of the
amount of premiums paid. This plan is not defended on any
ground of principle, but is followed for its simplicity and as a
concession to a popular demand for fixed surrender values.
Another mode of securing to retiring policyholders the benefit
of the reserve values of their insurances is that known as the
non-forfeiture system. This system was first introduced
in America, whence it found its way to the United %%~lt
Kingdom, where it was gradually adopted by a large system?
proportion of the insurance companies. In its original
form it was known as the " ten years non-forfeiture plan."
The policies were effected by premiums payable during ten years
only, the rates being of course correspondingly high. If during
those ten years the policyholder wished to discontinue his pay-
ments, he was entitled to a free " paid-up policy " for as many
tenth parts of the original sum insured as he had paid premiums.
POST OFFICE INSURANCE]
INSURANCE
673
of Insur-
ance.
The system, once introduced, was gradually extended first to
insurances effected by premiums payable during longer fixed
periods, and ultimately, by some offices, to insurances bearing
annual premiums during the whole of life. The methods of
fixing the amount of paid-up policy in the last-mentioned class
of cases vary in different offices, but the principle underlying them
all is that of applying the reserve value to the purchase of a new
insurance of reduced amount.
An office, in entering on a contract of life insurance, does
so in the faith that all circumstances material to be known
in order to a proper estimate of the risk have been
disclosed. These circumstances are beyond its own
knowledge, and as the office for the most part (except
as regards the result of the medical examination,
which may reveal features of the case unknown to the proposer
himself) is dependent on the information furnished by the party
seeking to effect the insurance, it is proper that the latter be
made responsible for the correctness of such information. Ac-
cordingly it is made a stipulation, preliminary to the issue of
every policy, that all the required information bearing upon the
risk shall have been truly and fairly stated, and that in case of
any misrepresentation, or any concealment of material facts,
the insurance shall be forfeited. In practice, however, this
forfeiture is rarely insisted on unless there has been an evident
intention to deceive. Other systems and conditions of life
insurance policies may be shortly noticed.
The usual division of policies is into " non-participating " and
" participating." Non-participating policies are contracts for
the payment on death of a certain fixed sum in consideration of
a given premium, and these amounts are not affected by the
profit made by the company. Participating policies entitle
the holders to a share in the profits of the company. These
profits are applied in various ways, as described above. A
policy may be a whole life one, that is, the policyholder may pay
a periodical premium throughout life, or it may be a limited
payment one (the holder paying a premium for a limited number
of years), or an endowment policy, under which the insurer
receives the amount he has insured for at a given age, say fifty-
five or sixty; or if death occur previously, the sum is paid to his
representatives. There are also endowment policies for children,
under which parents or others receive a specified sum on a child
attaining a given age, the premiums being returnable if the child
dies before the specified age.
As to Payment of Premiums. — A certain period of grace is allowed,
most commonly thirty days, after each premium falls due. If
payment is not made within that time, the presumption is that the
policyholder intends to drop the contract, and the risk of the office
comes to an end. It may, however, be revived on certain conditions,
usually the production of evidence of health and payment of a fine
in addition to the premium. An impression used to prevail among
the public that the offices were interested in encouraging the for-
feiture of policies. If any such impression was ever shared by the
offices themselves it must have long since passed away, every reason-
able effort being now made on their part, not only to secure in-
surances but to retain them, and to afford all the facilities that can
be extended to policyholders with that object.
A s to Foreign Travel and Residence, and as to Hazardous Occu-
pations.— When Babbage wrote his Comparative View of Assurance
Institutions in 1826, voyaging abroad was scarcely permitted under
a British life policy. The Elbe and the Garonne, Texel and Havre,
Texcl and Brest, the Elbe and Brest were the limits prescribed
by most of the English offices. Even at a much later period the
extra premiums charged for leave to travel or reside abroad were very
heavy. But improved means of conveyance — -in some places better
sanitary appliances, and habits of living more suited to the climatic
conditions — and, more than all perhaps, the knowledge that has
been gained by experience as to the extent of the extra risks involved
and the relative salubrity of foreign climates — have enabled the
offices to modify their terms very considerably. The limits of free
residence and travel have been greatly widened, and where extra
premiums are still required these are, as a rule, much lower than
formerly. The assured are now commonly permitted to reside any-
where within such limits as north of 35° N. lat. (except in Asia) or
south of 30° S. lat., and to travel to and from any places within those
limits, without extra premium.
Military men (when on active service) and seafaring men are usually
charged extra rates, as are also persons following specially dangerous
or unhealthy occupations at home.
XIV. 22
As to Suicide. — The policies of most companies used to contain a
proviso that the insurance shall be void in case the person whose life
is insured dies by his own hand, but it is now seldom inserted.
Some offices, acting on a sound principle, limit its operation to a
fixed period, the extent of which varies in different offices from six
months to seven years from the date of issue of the policy.
The practice of rendering policies indisputable and free from
restriction as to foreign travel or residence, after a certain period,
has tended greatly to simplify the contract between the office and the
insured. A declaration of indisputability covers any inaccuracies in
the original documents on which a policy was granted, unless these
inaccuracies amount to fraud, which the law will not condone under
any circumstances.
A remarkable difference in the development of life insurance
between Great Britain and the United States is, that among the
British companies only one-third of the insurances in force is in
purely mutual institutions, while in America the proportion exceeds
four-fifths. In both countries there are also "mixed" companies,
in which policyholders receive a fixed percentage of the realized
surplus, often from three-fourths to nine-tenths of the whole, but the
control and management are in the hands of shareholders. These
form the great majority of the proprietary offices in the United
Kingdom, and the profits of the business have been large. The
amount of capital paid in by shareholders of forty-one joint-stock
companies was £5,931,000, but the capital authorized and sub-
scribed was much more, and the subscriptions have often been paid,
wholly or in part, by credits from surplus. The shares of these
companies, at market prices, represent a value of at least £50,000,000,
but the dividends upon these shares are drawn largely from other
business, many of the largest and most prosperous corporations
conducting also fire insurance, and some of them marine or casualty
insurance.
No branch of social statistics has been more diligently studied
than life insurance, and several governments publish classified
accounts of corporations insuring lives within their jurisdiction.
But the reports are not uniform in method and in periods
covered, and aggregates derived from them must be used with
reserve. By the Life Assurance Companies Act 1870, and
amendments made in later years, each company issuing policies
in the United Kingdom must deposit with the Board of Trade
every year its revenue account and balance-sheet for the preced-
ing year, and must at fixed intervals cause an investigation of
its financial condition to be made by an actuary, and furnish
the public through the Board of Trade with the detailed results,
in forms prescribed by the act. Thus these returns are the
highest authority for the conditions and operations of the
offices, which often supplement or anticipate them by voluntary
publications. In the United States the laws exact still more
minute and much prompter reports to the insurance departments
of the states; and every annual statement is required to show
the results of an actuarial investigation. All these facts are
collected, classified and compared by statisticians for several
standard annuals in both countries, especially the Post Magazine
Almanack, Bourne's Directory and Manual and the Insurance
Blue Book in London, and The Insurance Year-Book of the
Spectator Company in New York.
The reports of the insurance department of New York cover more
companies than those of any other state. The institutions not in-
cluded.in them are about thirty-five in number, mostly small and
local. The New York reports represent very nearly 95 % of the
entire business of the United States. While the amount of life
assurance done by British and other foreign offices in the United
States is insignificant, fourteen companies of the United States have
agencies in Canada (ten for new business), and four transact business
in Europe and in other parts of the world. The home business of the
American companies is in the aggregate about 87 J% of the whole.
In the principal countries of continental Europe life assurance is
offered by the chief international institutions of Great Britain and
the United States, and their policies are in force probably to the
aggregate amount of £140,000,000. The domestic companies have
been stimulated to increased activity by the aggressive canvassing of
the foreign agencies, and the business in recent years has grown
rapidly, until now the total sum insured upon lives on thi continent
of Europe is little less than a milliard of pounds sterling. Much
information about life assurance in the different, countries of Europe
will be found in Ehrenzweig's Assekuranzjahrbu'ch (Vienna).
(C. T. L. ; T. A. I.)
V. BRITISH POST OFFICE INSURANCE
In 1864 Mr Gladstone, then chancellor of the exchequer,
advocated the extension of life insurance amongst persons of
small means, and, encouraged by the remarkable success of the
5
674
INSURANCE
[MARINE INSURANCE
Post Office Savings Bank, then recently established, proposed
that the services of the postmaster-general should be enlisted
in the promotion of insurance. The result was the passing of
the Government Annuities Act 1864. This act authorized the
commissioners for the reduction of the national debt, for the first
time, to insure a life without granting an annuity upon it, and
enabled the postmaster-general to act as the agent of the com-
missioners in the issue of life policies and the grant of annuities.
The limits of insurance were fixed at £20 and £100, and of
annuities at £4 and £50; and the purchase of deferred annuities
or old-age pay, by monthly, or even more frequent instalments,
was sanctioned. The work was eagerly accepted by Lord
Stanley of Alderley, the postmaster-general of the day, and the
machinery for putting the act in action was elaborated by Frank
Ives Scudamore of the Post Office and Sir Alexander Spearman
of the National Debt office. The business was commenced on
the 1 7th of April 1865. By the end of the year 560 policies of
insurance had been issued, and 94 immediate and 54 deferred
annuities granted. In the first twelve months these figures had
increased to 809 policies and 230 annuities. The opportunity
thus given of insuring through the Post Office with government
security was not, however, embraced with the warmth which had
been anticipated. In 1882, when Mr Henry Fawcett, then in
office, examined the subject, he found that the average number
of policies of insurance granted annually during the seventeen
years which had elapsed was under 400 — less, in fact, than during
the first twelve months of the system. The purchase of annuities
had increased slightly, but the business was transacted chiefly
in immediate annuities, and hardly indicated any progress in
provision for old age by means of early savings. Mr Fawcett
procured a Select Committee of the House of Commons on the
subject. Before this committee Mr James Cardin, then assistant
receiver and accountant-general of the Post Office, propounded
a scheme for combining the annuity and insurance business of
the Post Office with that of the savings bank. The Committee
recommended the adoption of this scheme, together with some
enlargement of range and some relaxation of conditions. The
recommendations of the Committee were embodied in the
Government Annuities Act 1882, which came into operation
on the 3rd of June 1884, and which forms the basis of the present
system.
Any person between 14 and 65 can now insure through the
medium of the Post Office Savings Bank for any amount from £5 to
£100; and the life of a young person between 8 and 14 can be insured
(or £5. Through the same channel can be purchased annuities,
immediate or deferred, from £i to £100, on the life of any person from
5 years old upwards. Old-age policies, that is, policies securing
payment of a specific sum either at the expiration of a fixed period
(varying from 10 to 40 years), or upon the attainment of a certain
age, or sooner in case of death, can also be obtained. Policies for a
fixed period can only be purchased by a single payment, but in all
other cases the purchase can be effected by payment either of a lump
sum or of annual instalments. Further, all purchases are effected
through the Post Office Savings Bank. As soon as a contract is
completed, the purchaser is required to pay the first instalment to his
account in the bank, or, if he has no account already, to open an
account for the purpose. This and all further instalments are then
transferred by the postmaster-general, as they become due, to the
credit of the National Debt Commissioners; all the purchaser has
to do is to keep his banking account in funds; he can pay his savings
into the bank when and as he pleases. So, also, when old-age pay,
secured either by a deferred annuity or an endowment policy, becomes
due, it is paid to the account of the purchaser; and, if it does not
cause the sum standing to his credit to exceed the statutory limits,
it can remain there earning interest, and be drawn out in such
amounts as may be convenient from time to time. The purchaser
has also the advantage of the ubiquity of the Post Office Savings
Bank. He can make his deposits, and can draw out his old-age pay
when it becomes due, at any one of the 13,000 odd post offices where
savings bank business is transacted. He can even, if his savings are
made from day to day, use the penny stamp slips introduced by Mr
Fawcett, affixing a stamp whenever he has a penny to spare, and
paying in the slip when it is worth a shilling. In short, every ad-
vantage open to the ordinary depositor in the Savings Bank is placed
at the service of the working man or woman who wishes to secure
old-age pay, or to have a small sum to aid those who may suffer
pecuniarily from his or h(?r death. Even the reluctance of many
persons to submit themselves to medical examination is tenderly
regarded. A policy for any sum up to £25 may, if the information
afforded is satisfactory, be obtained without a doctor's certificate,
on condition that, if death happens during the first year, only the
premium paid is returned, and if during the second year, only half
the sum insured is paid. As regards old-age pay, a purchaser can, by
adopting a slightly higher scale of payment, secure the return of his
purchase money if at any time before the annuity falls in he repents
of his bargain. Further, employers of labour and friendly societies
can, on behalf of their workmen or members, make all the payments
necessary to buy an insurance or annuity, and recoup themselves out
of wages or members' contributions.
The act of 1882 directed that the tables upon which annuities and
policies of insurance are granted should be revised from time to
time; and in February 1896 new tables reducing the rates of annual
premiums, and giving greater facilities for old-age insurance, were
issued. The rates are now but very slightly (less than 3 %) higher
than the average rates of the larger insurance offices. But the ex-
pense of small insurance business must necessarily be above the
average, and it is fairer to compare the Post Office rates with those of
the office which stands pre-eminent in the insurance of the working
classes. Such a comparison shows that up to the age of 40 a life
insurance can be effected with the Post Office at a cheaper rate than
with the Prudential Insurance Company; between 40 and 60 the
advantage is slightly on the side of the company.
In 1885, the first complete year after Mr Fawcett's improvement
took effect, 103 deferred annuities and 457 insurance policies were
granted; in 1905, 158 deferred annuities and 741 policies. The
increase of business, measured in percentages, is no doubt appreciable,
but the figures themselves are so small as to make such a comparison
trivial. If we compare the two periods, before and after Mr Fawcett's
reforms, we find that between the I7th of April 1865 and the 2nd of
June 1884 (about nineteen years) 7064 policies of insurance, amount-
ing to £557,625, were issued, and between the latter date and the end
of 1905, 16,577 policies, amounting to £875,496. For the whole
period the figures are 23,641 policies for £1,433,121. During the
same time 3144 contracts for old-age pay, amounting in all to
£64,378, were made. When we contrast with this sum total the fact
that in 1905 alone 1,435,329 new accounts were opened in the Post
Office Savings Bank, and more than £42,000,000 deposited in the
bank in the course of the year, it becomes apparent that, while the
Savings Bank has reached the mass of the population, insurance
against old age and death through the Post Office has not.
In 1894 Mr C. D. Lang, the Controller of the Post Office Savings
Bank, and Mr Cardin, giving evidence before the Commission on
Old-Age Pensions, ascribed the small insurance and annuity business
of the Post Office to the want of a personal canvass. They pointed
out that there had been some temporary increase in insurance,
through an appeal to the Post Office employes themselves, and they
suggested that something might be done if the masters of the ele-
mentary schools could be induced to interest themselves in recom-
mending to their scholars and the parents of their scholars the
advantages offered by the Post Office. It was also pointed out that
the friendly societies might, if they were so disposed, act as inter-
mediaries between their members and the Post Office, and thereby, as
it were, reinsure their risks with the government; but it was added
that all overtures of this nature to the societies had failed, ap-
parently from the fear — quite groundless — of introducing government
control of the societies' affairs. There may, indeed, be another reason
for the failure of the deferred annuity system. The insurance of
old-age pay is not popular even amongst the members of friendly
societies, or even in Germany, where it has been given to the work-
men largely, at the expense of other people. Insurance against
death, sickness and accidents appeals to the young working man;
but old age is too far off to be an object of solicitude, especially since
the grant of old-age pensions by the state has made the future secure
from destitution at least. However, if at any time opinion changes,
the Post Office stands ready to make foresight or philanthropy easy.
Though no great results have been achieved, a machinery has been
established which works with perfect smoothness, and which may
some day be of service to the nation.
VI. MARINE INSURANCE
Marine insurance long antedates the kindred businesses of
fire and life insurance. Villani, a 14th-century Florentine
historian, speaks of marine insurance as having History.
originated in Lombardy in 1182. This proves, at
least, that in his day it was no novelty. It is mentioned in a
Pisan ordinance of 1318, and in Venetian public documents of
the early years of the 1 5th century. The earliest form of policy
known is that given in the Florentine statute of 1523. It is
uncertain whether insurance was introduced into England
directly from Italy or by way of Flanders. The earliest policies
issued in England which have yet been discovered are in Italian,
but the subscriptions are in English (" Santa Maria di Venetia,"
Cadiz to London, 1547, " Santa Maria de Porto Salvo," Hampton
to Messina, 1548).
MARINE INSURANCE]
INSURANCE
675
The earliest known policies in English are one of 1555 on the
" Sancta Crux " " from any porte of the Isles of Indea of Calicut unto
Lixborne," and one of 1557 on the " Ele " from Velis Maliga to
Antwerp. The authority for this statement is Mr R. G. Marsden, who
edited for the Selden Society the records of the Admiralty Court;
nothing earlier had been found at the Record Office down to May 1907.
In the Sancta Crux " policy there is no detailed statement of perils
insured against, or of risks undertaken by the underwriter; the whole
obligation of the underwriter to the assured is embodied in the
following words: " We will that this assurans shall be so strong and
good as the most ample writinge of assurans, which is used to be maid
in the strete of London, or in the burse of Andwerp, or in any other
forme that shulde have more force." This reference to Antwerp
usage is 67 years before the date of C. Malynes' statement that all
Antwerp policies contained a clause providing that they should in all
things be the same as policies made in Lombard Street of London.
The wording of the English policies written in Italian is very much
simpler than the Florentine form of 1523, from which it almost
seems that the wording used in England followed an earlier Italian
form. But even the Italian policies in the two " Santa Marias "
mention the uses and customs of " questa strada Lombarda di Londra "
as the standard of the assurance they afford. The next most ancient
Eolicy we possess is dated 1613 ; it covers goods on the " Tiger " from
ondon to " Zante, Petrasse and Saphalonia." The " Tiger " policy
is interesting in another connexion. It recalls Shakespeare's Macbeth.
I. iii. 7 (written about 1605) : —
" Her husband's to Aleppo gone, master of the 'Tiger.' "
Clark & Wright's note (in the " Clarendon Press " series edition)
cites Sir Kenelm Digby's journal of 1628 mentioning " the ' Tyger ' of
London going for Scanderone " (Alexandretta). Hakluyt (Voyages)
¥'ves letters and journals of a voyage of the " Tyger of London " to
ripolis in 1583. Shakespeare again mentions a ship called the
" Tiger " in Twelfth Night, V. iii. 63 :—
" And this is he that did the ' Tiger ' board."
The policy by the " Tiger " is much more ample than any of those
already mentioned; it details the perils insured against in words
closely resembling the Florentine formula of 1523, and differing only
slightly from the form adopted by Lloyd's at a general meeting held
in 1779, and afterwards incorporated in the Sea Insurance Stamp Act
of 1795, which is the stem form of all modern British and American
marine insurance policies.
While the form of the insurance policy was thus developing, there
was a singular absence of legislation (and, as far as we can yet trace,
of litigation) on the subject. Till 1601 differences seem to have been
generally settled by arbitration. This accounts for the poverty of
the British Admiralty records in matters of marine insurance. In
1601 a special tribunal was established by statute for summary trial
of disputes arising on insurance policies; but, owing mainly to the
opposition of the common-law judges, the new court languished, and
by 1720 it had fallen into utter disuse. J. A. Park states that not
more than sixty insurance cases were reported between 1603 and
1756. Consequently, when Lord Mansfield came to the court of
king's bench in the latter year, he found a clear field. He practically
created the insurance law of England. He made use of all the
continental ordinances and codes extant in his day, taking his legal
principles largely from them; the customs of trade he learnt from
mercantile special jurors. Subsequent legislation referred solely to
the prohibiting of certain insurances (wager policies, &c.), the naming
in the policy of parties interested therein, and the stamp duty levied
on marine insurances. In 1894 Lord Herschell introduced his Marine
Insurance Bill, which endeavoured " to reproduce as exactly as
possible the existing law relating to marine insurance." After Lord
Herschell's death, Lord Chancellor Halsbury took up the bill, intro-
ducing it in the House of Lords in 1899 and again in 1900; he ap-
pointed a committee on which underwriters, shipowners and average
adjusters were represented, and, presiding himself, went through the
bill with them clause by clause. The bill was then passed by the
Lords, but was always blocked in the House of Commons till 1906,
when it was taken up by Lord Chancellor Loreburn in conjunction
with Lord Halsbury. After some amendment and modification it
was finally passed by both Houses and became law on the 1st of
January 1907 (6 Ed. VII., c. 41).' In America a less happy fate
has attended the insurance code, forming part of the proposed civil
code of New York, completed and published in 1865, of which a
very slightly altered version was adopted in California and has
been in effect there since the 1st of January 1873. On the continent
of Europe legislation at first took the form of local ordinances of
commercial cities, such as Barcelona (1434-1484), Florence (1523),
Burgos (1538), Bilbao (1560), Middelburg (1600), Rotterdam (1604-
1655). In the third quarter of the i6th century Rouen produced a
handy guide to marine insurance, Le Guidon de la mer; and in 1656
1 An important addition to the marine insurance law of the
United Kingdom was made by the Marine Insurance (Gambling
Policies) Act 1909, which made void policies taken out by persons
uninterested in ships or cargo, who only gain by the loss of the vessel.
Such policies are known as " policies proof of interest " (P.P.I.).
Etienne Cleirac published there his Us et coutumes de la mer. This
was followed in 1681 by the Ordonnance de la marine, which, through
Lord Mansfield, had a great effect on English case law. In 1807
France produced the Code de commerce, on the model of which nearly
every European nation has issued a similar code. Probably the
" best considered " (Willes, J.) of these, and the most adequate as
regards marine insurance, is that of the German empire; but
Hamburg and Bremen still preserve many of their local conditions
by special contract in their policies. In fact it is doubtful whether
the German Code could have been produced without the previous
elaboration of the Conditions of Hamburg and of Bremen. The
Hamburg Conditions of 1847, revised 1867, constitute an admirable
compendium of marine insurance as practised in that city.
Marine insurance being peculiarly an international business, being
a factor in 95 % of the operations of oversea trade, it is natural that
those engaged in this business or making use of marine _
insurance in their business should experience the diffi- .
culty and hardship arising from the differences between
the marine insurance law of different states, and should attempt to
find a remedy. Such an attempt was made at the Buffalo conference
of the International Law Association in 1899 to prepare a body of
rules dealing with those parts of marine insurance on which the
laws of maritime countries differ. This undertaking was of the same
nature as the earlier efforts of the same association which resulted in
the formulation of, the York-Antwerp rules of general average.
There are four important subjects on which great divergence prevails :
(a) Constructive total loss; (b) Deductions from costs of repairs, new
from old; (c) Effect of unseaworthiness and negligence; (d) Double
insurance.
(a) Constructive total loss results, according to the law of France,
Italy, Spain, Belgium, Holland, in case of loss or deterioration of
the things insured amounting to not less than three-quarters; in
German law a ship is considered to be " unworthy of repair " when
the cost of the repair, without deductions new for old, would amount
to over three-fourths of the ship's former value (no similar provision
seems to exist in Germany for goods) ; in the law of America a
damage over 50 % of the value of the vessel when repaired is a con-
structive total loss of the vessel, in case of the policy containing no
express provision to the contrary. None of these varying systems
appears to be so equitable to all concerned as the British rule, which
was for this reason suggested to the Buffalo conference for inter-
national adoption. As regards the time when the test for constructive
total loss should be applied, it was suggested to reject the British
rule, prescribing that it shall be the time of commencing action against
underwriters, and to adopt the continental and American rule re-
ferring to the facts as they existed at the time of abandonment.
Then, as respects the effect of a valid abandonment on the rights in
the property insured, the conference proposed to adopt the British
and American rule of making the abandonment refer back to the
time of the loss, as against the continental European system of
making the transfer operative only from the date of the notice of
abandonment. Finally, as to the freight of a properly-abandoned
ship, it was proposed to follow for international purposes the American
rule of dividing the freight of the voyage between shipowner and
underwriter in the proportion of the distances run before the disaster
and to be run thereafter, rejecting the British rule of complete
transfer to the underwriter and the various continental rules of
proportional division between shipowner and underwriter.
(b) It was proposed to adopt the deductions set forth in the York-
Antwerp rules as being suitable for international adoption in marine
insurance contracts.
(c) As regards unseaworthiness and its effect on insurances on
ships and goods, it was proposed in the case of ship to reduce
materially the obligations of the insured as required by English
and American law; to diminish the requirement from the absolute
attainment of seaworthiness to the mere exercise of all reasonable
care to make the vessel seaworthy. Even this attenuation did not
appear sufficient, as it was proposed to degrade the performance of
the already minimized warranty from being a condition of the
insurance, and its non-performance from invalidating the policy.
As to goods, they were proposed to be exempted from any warranty
of seaworthiness of ship. Concerning negligence, it was proposed
to hold the underwriter liable (subject to the new seaworthiness
warranty) for any loss caused proximately by a peril insured against,
although wholly or partly the result of the neglect of the insured,
or his servants or agents, or by the wilful act of his servants or
agents, or the inherent nature or unsoundness of the article insured.
(d) In case of double or multiple insurance, the conference proposed
to adopt the British rule of making all the policies effectual, inde-
pendently of the order in which they were effected, and of making
all the underwriters entitled to contributions inter se. As regards
the premium, it was proposed that no premium should be returnable,
where the risk has attached.
With the exception of those embodying the two suggestions named
in par. (a), all the resolutions proposed were accepted by the confer-
ence. But it appears extremely unlikely that British and American
underwriters will voluntarily' consent to the practical annihilation
of the seaworthiness warranty, and no less improbable that American
and continental assured will voluntarily accept the stricter rule of
constructive total loss embodied in English law, when their national
676
INSURANCE
(MARINE INSURANCE
Definition
law enforces on the underwriter terms more favourable to the assured.
The fewness of the international insurance markets of the world
diminishes the need for uniform international regulations in this
matter. The matter may be one for adjustment by variation in the
rate of premium, but this is not certain.
The Glasgow conference of 1901 adopted the rules, after excepting
time policies from the scope of the rule respecting seaworthiness.
The rules are known as the Glasgow Marine Insurance Rules. The
writer knows of no instance in which they have been adopted in
practice.
Returning to marine insurance in the United Kingdom, it is to be
observed that the passing of the Marine Insurance Act of 1906
sharply marks an important change in the nature of the law of the
subject. Till then it was based almost entirely on common law, only
a few disconnected points having been dealt with by statute. The
reported cases were thus of great importance, and being about 2000
in number (teste Sir M. D. Chalmers) were not easy to master. No
doubt many of them referred to commercial conditions no longer
prevalent ; still they could not be entirely ignored. But the original
introducer of the bill described it as an endeavour " to reproduce as
exactly as possible the existing law relating to marine insurance,"
and as by being made law the language of the act has become
authoritative, insured and insurers have now no call to go behind the
wording of the act in any matter with which it deals. It thus appears
that the case law of the subject existing before the 1st of January
1907 may be left aside, unless, perhaps, for use as affording examples
of the way in which the provisions of the act work.
A contract of marine insurance is a contract of indemnity
whereby the insurer undertakes to indemnify the insured, in
manner an<^ t° the extent agreed, against marine
losses, i.e. the losses incident to marine adventure.
The contract may by its express terms or by usage be extended
to cover risks on inland waters or land risks incidental to any
sea voyage. There is a " maritime adventure," where any ship,
goods or other movables are exposed to maritime perils, such
property being termed " insurable property "; also where the
earning of any freight, hire or other pecuniary profit or benefit,
or the security for any loan or expenditure, is endangered by the
exposure of insurable property to maritime perils; and where any
liability to a third party may be incurred by the person interested
in or responsible for insurable property by reason of its exposure
to maritime perils. By " maritime perils " are meant the perils
consequent on or incidental to the navigation of the sea, i.e.
perils of the seas, fire, war perils, pirates, rovers, thieves, captures,
seizures and restraints, and detainments of princes and peoples,
jettisons, barratry, and any other perils, either of the like kind
or which may be designated by the policy.
The contract being one of indemnity against maritime perils, it
is evident that no one can derive benefit from it who has not some
interest exposed to these perils. Consequently while, subject to the
provisions of the act, every lawful marine adventure may be insured,
all contracts of marine insurance are void when (i) the assured has
no insurable interest, and has entered into the contract without
expectation of acquiring such interest; (2) when the policy is a
" wager " policy, being made " interest or no interest, " without
further proof of interest than the policy itself," " without benefit of
salvage to the insurer," or subject to any similar terms. But if there
is no possibility Of salvage a policy " without benefit of salvage to the
insurer " is legally valid. Wager policies are illegal only in the sense
of being void to all legal purposes. They cannot DC sued upon, hence
they are known as honour " policies. They are of frequent use,
generally for the protection of interests which, though real, are not
easily defined, or are of pecuniary value hard to determine. But
they are ignored by the courts. The essential of insurable interest
is the pecuniary advantage seen at the time of insurance as arising
to the assured from the safety or due arrival of the adventure, or the
pecuniary disadvantage similarly arising from its loss or deterioration.
But such interest may lapse before arrival or destruction of the
venture, and with the interest lapses the right of the assured to
recover from the underwriter. Without interest at the time of the
loss there is no right to recover from the underwriter. Should the
assured simply transfer his interest to another, e.g. by sale, he can
assign his policy to the party who acquires his interest — unless, of
course, the policy contains terms expressly prohibiting assignment.
The customary form of assignment is endorsement of the policy
either in blank or to a specified party. Within the limits already
named, interests are insurable whether complete or partial, de-
feasible or contingent ; similarly loans on bottomry or respondcntia,
advance freight not repayable in case of loss, charges of insurance,
also shipmaster's, officers and seamen's wages.
The owner of insurable property may insure its full value even
though some third party have agreed or become liable to in-
demnify him in case of loss: a mortgagor has the same right of
insuring to full value; while a mortgagee may insure only up to
the sum due or to become due to him under the mortgage, unless
themortgagee is insuring forthe benefit of themortgagor
as well as for himself, in which case, even though he
insure in his own name only, he may insure up to the full value.
A consignee may insure in his own name the total amount of his
interest and that of others for whose benefit he insures. Where
no special contract is made between insured and underwriter,
the insurable value of certain matters of insurance is ascertained
as follows: — Ship — Her value at the commencement of the risk,
including outfit, provisions, stores, advances of wages, and any
other outlays expended to make the ship fit for the voyage or
period of navigation covered, plus cost of insurance upon the
whole. In the case of a steamship, the word " ship " includes
machinery, boilers, coals and engine stores. In the case of a
vessel engaged in a special trade, the word " ship " includes the
ordinary fittings necessary for that trade. Freight (whether paid
in advance or not) — The gross amount of freight at the risk of the
assured, plus cost of insurance. Goods — The prime cost, plus
expenses of and incidental to shipping and cost of insurance.
Other interests — The amount at the insured's risk when the policy
attaches, plus cost of insurance.
To be admissible in evidence a contract of marine insurance
must be embodied in a document called a policy, which must
specify the name of the assured (or of his agent in the pan-,
effecting of the policy), the objects insured, and the risk
insured against, the voyage or time (or both) covered, the sum
insured, the name of the assurers. The signature of the assurer is
necessary; it is found at the end of the policy, and the assurer is
often on this account called the underwriter. The objects insured
must be designated with reasonable certainty, regard being had
to customary usage. The undertaking to insure is usually ex-
pressed by saying that the insured or his agent " doth make
assurance and cause himself to be insured." The risks are either
the whole body of maritime perils detailed above, or any one or
set of these, or any other named peril against which the assured
desires protection. There is no restriction by law of the length
of voyage that may be insured, but time policies are, subject to
the Finance Act 1901, invalid if made for more than one year;
a voyage and a period of time may be covered on one policy.
Policies are classed as " time " or " voyage " policies. It is not
necessary to state in the policy the value of the objects insured,
but generally the value is given ; policies are therefore classed as
" valued " or " unvalued;" the latter being often called " open "
policies. The values of objects insured under open or unvalued
policies are the insurable values given above. As it frequently
happens that merchants desire to have all their shipments of
whatever nature covered, by whatever vessel they may come,
they require insurance in general terms; such a policy is termed
a " floating " policy. It states the limits of voyage and value
covered by the underwriter, and the class of ships to be employed.
The particulars of each shipment are declared as the shipments
occur, and in the order of despatch or shipment, the declarations
being usually endorsed on the policy. All shipments within the
terms of the policy must be declared at their honest value, or
in accordance with the special provisions of the policy, if any.
An omission or erroneous declaration may be corrected even after
loss or arrival, provided it was made in good faith.
The consideration paid by the insured to the underwriter in
return for the protection granted by the latter is called the premium.
Until payment be made or tendered the policy is not ordinarily
issuable, i.e. unless otherwise agreed. When the insured effects
insurance with an underwriter through a broker, then, unless other-
wise agreed, the broker is liable for tne premium to the underwriter,
who is, however, directly responsible to the assured for losses or
liabilities falling on the policy and for returnable premium. But
the broker has a lien on the policy for the premium and for his
brokerage, and in case he has had dealings as a principal with the
insured, he has a lien on the policy for any balance due to himself
in insurance transactions, unless he should have known that in these
transactions the insured was merely an agent. Some policy forms
state definitely that the premium has been paid; when such a. form
is used and no fraud is proved, this receipt is binding between
assured and underwriter, but not between broker and underwriter.
If an insurance is effected at a premium " to be arranged," and no
MARINE INSURANCE]
INSURANCE
677
arrangement is made, then a reasonable premium is payable. The
same holds where additional premiums have to be charged at a rate
to be arranged and no arrangement is made.
It is evident that in nearly all the particulars of any adventure
insured by an underwriter he is entirely dependent upon the insured
for correct information. It is therefore the law that an insurance
contract can be avoided and broken by either of the parties to it if
the utmost good faith (uberrima fides) be not observed by the other.
The obligation of perfect good faith is thus made reciprocal. Bad
faith may show itself either in concealment or in misrepresentation.
It is therefore made essential to the stability of any insurance con-
tract that the insured must disclose before conclusion of the contract
every material circumstance known by him, failing which the under-
writer may avoid the contract. The insured is deemed to know
every circumstance which in the ordinary course of business ought
to be known by him. Every circumstance is deemed material
which would influence the underwriter in his decision as to acceptance
of the risk or the fixing of the rate of premium. Consequently the
insured is not bound, unless specially asked by the underwriter, to
disclose the favourable features of the risk offered, or matters known
or presumably known by the underwriter (matters which are of
common knowledge, and such as an underwriter ought in his usual
business to be aware of), or matters respecting which the under-
writer waives or declines information, or which any express _or
implied warranty renders superfluous. An agent effecting an in-
surance must, in addition to his principal's material knowledge,
disclose everything material known to himself, or that he should
know in the ordinary conduct of his business. Every representation
of material fact made to an underwriter before conclusion of a
contract by the insured or his agent must be true, or the underwriter
may avoid the contract. Every representation is material which
would influence the underwriter in his decision as to acceptance
of the risk or to fixing the rate of premium. A representation of
fact is regarded as true if it be substantially correct ; literal correct-
ness is not essential. A representation of expectation or belief is
true if it is made in good faith. A representation may be withdrawn
or corrected before the contract is concluded. The contract is deemed
to be concluded when the underwriter accepts the risk, whether the
policy be then issued or not.
It frequently happens that before a vessel has completed the
venture on which she is engaged arrangements have already been
made for her future employment. Where a vessel is
insured on time, this is of no moment as respects her
insurance. It has likewise been decided that where any
insurable object is covered by a voyage policy " from " or " at
and from " a named place, the policy is not rendered invalid by
her not being at that place when the insurance is concluded;
but, on the other hand, there is an implied condition that she will
begin the venture within a reasonable time, and that if she fails
in this the underwriter may avoid the contract. If the delay
springs from circumstances known to the underwriter at the time
of conclusion of the contract, or if the underwriter then ac-
quiesces in it, the implied condition is nullified. If the insured
abandons the venture insured, the contract expires; e.g. if,
before the risk commences, the vessel's destination is changed to
one not covered by the policy. Where the policy specifies a place
of departure, and the ship does not sail from that place, the risk
does not attach. If, however, the vessel actually starts from her
intended port of departure, and commences the venture, and
thereafter it is decided to change her destination, this decision
constitutes a change of voyage. In default of provision to the
contrary, the underwriter may elect to avoid his insurance
from the time of that decision, although the ship be still in
the course she would have followed hi her originally intended
venture.
Should a ship depart from the proper course of the voyage she
starts upon, and for which she is insured, such departure, when made
without lawful excuse or justification, is termed deviation. From
the moment it occurs, even though she subsequently return to her
proper course without loss or injury, the underwriter may avoid his
contract ; but the mere intention to deviate is immaterial. Deviation
occurs (i) when in a policy a course is definitely specified and the
vessel departs from it ; (2) when, in absence of such definite specifica-
tion in the policy, the vessel departs from the course usually and
customarily followed in the voyage insured. If a policy provides
for several named ports of discharge, the vessel may, without com-
mitting deviation, omit to proceed to one or more; but whether
she goes to all or to some she must (in absence of usage or sufficient
cause to the contrary) take them in the order in which they appear
in the policy, if not there is a deviation. If the policy provides for
" ports of discharge " in a given district, then (in absence of usage
or sufficient cause to the contrary) unless the vessel proceeds to them
Voyage
Insured.
in their geographical order she makes a deviation. Similarly, in the
case of a voyage policy, the want of reasonable despatch throughout,
unless lawful excuse or justification exists, entitles the underwriter
to avoid the contract from the time that the delay becomes un-
reasonable. As excuses for deviation or delay on the voyage con-
templated by the policy, the following; are regarded as valid :
authorization by licence or other provision in the policy, force majeure,
compliance with express or implied conditions of the policy (e.g.
warranties, see below), reasonable steps taken for the safety of the
ship or other objects insured, saving life, helping a ship in such
distress that life may be in danger, or obtaining medical or surgical
aid for some person on board. If barratry is insured against, delay
arising from barratrous conduct of master or crew does not avoid the
policy. A deviation ceases to be excusable unless the ship resumes
her proper course and proceeds on her voyage with reasonable
promptitude after the cause of the excusable deviation or delay
ceases to be effective.
In every contract of insurance there are certain conditions
precedent to the liability of the underwriter and incumbent on
the insured, which must be fully and literally complied
with, whether material to the risk or not. These
conditions are known in insurance as warranties. The
name is unfortunate, as in every other branch of the law of con-
tract it bears another meaning; still it is convenient, and its
insurance signification is now firmly established. Failure on the
part of the insured to fulfil a warranty literally entitles the under-
writer to avoid his contract as from the moment of breach,1 but
it does not limit his obligation up to that moment. Breach of
warranty is not nullified by subsequent remedy of the breach,
consequently loss occurring after breach of warranty is not at the
charge of the underwriter, even although before the loss the
insured has again complied with the warranty. But breach of
warranty may be waived by the insurer. Breach of warranty
is excused in two cases only: (a) when by change of circum-
stances the warranty ceases to be applicable to the contract,
(6) when by subsequent legislation the warranty becomes
unlawful.
Warranties are of two classes: (i) express (2) implied. Express
warranties must be written or printed on the policy, or contained in
some document explicitly referred to in the policy, and so regarded
as incorporated in the contract. No special form of words is essential
to the validity of a warranty if the intention to warrant can be
inferred. Express warranties may refer to anything which the
Carties to the contract choose, e.g. the nationality of the vessel,
er sailing on a named day, proceeding under convoy, being excluded
from certain voyages or trades or the carriage of certain cargoes,
being " well " or " in good safety " on a named day (in which case
the warranty is fulfilled if she be safe at any time of that day). As
regards nationality, if no express warranty be given there is no
undertaking on the part of the insured that the vessel is of any
particular nationality or that she will not change it while the risk
lasts. The warranty of neutrality in case of insurance of ship or goods
means that at the beginning of the risk the property concerned is
actually neutral, and that as far as the insured can control the matter
it shall so continue during the whole course of the risk. It is also an
implied condition of the ship being warranted neutral that to the
utmost of the insured's power she must carry the papers necessary
to establish her neutrality, must not falsify or suppress these papers,
or use simulated papers; if this condition is broken the insurer
can avoid the contract. The words of an express warranty are
always to be taken in their commercial sense; within that sense they
are to be strictly and literally taken. An " express " warranty does
not exclude an implied " warranty (see below) unless it be incon-
sistent therewith.
In addition to these expressed conditions, there are also certain
essential factors or conditions inherent in each and every contract
of marine insurance without exception; these are implied warranties,
which are presumed from the very fact of the making of the insurance.
They are (a) completion of the prescribed venture without deviation,
(b) legality of the venture (viz. that the adventure insured is a lawful
one, and that, so far as the insured can control it, it shall be carried
out in a lawful manner), (c) seaworthiness of the ship. In a voyage
policy it is an implied warranty that at the commencement of the
voyage the ship shall be seaworthy for the particular venture insured.
If the risk commences when the ship is in port, then she must in
addition be reasonably fit to stand the ordinary dangers of the port.
If the voyage insured is one in which different degrees of peril are
to be encountered, or for which the ship needs different kinds of
outfit at different stages, then she must be seaworthy for each stage at
JLord Mansfield expressed it: " The warranty in a contract of
insurance is a condition or a contingency, and unless that be per-
formed there is no contract " (Hibbert v. Pigou, apua Marshall, 3rd
ed., p. 375)-
678
INSURANCE
[MARINE INSURANCE
Multiple
Insurance.
its commencement, and the warranty will be fulfilled if she is at
the beginning of each stage seaworthy for that stage. The warranty
of seaworthiness is held to be fulfilled when the ship is reasonably
fit in every respect to meet the ordinary marine dangers of the venture
insured ; that is to say, the mere loss of a vessel by perils of the sea
is not a proof of unseaworthiness in the sense of this warranty.
The only ship policies not subject to the warranty of seaworthiness
are policies on time (the reason given being that there is nothing to
prevent a time policy lapsing and a new one commencing when the
vessel is at sea beyond her owner's control as to seaworthiness) ;
but where the insured knowingly sends a ship to sea in an unfit state
and a loss is attributable to that unseaworthiness, the underwriter
is not liable for such loss. It is not implied in a policy on goods or
movables that these goods, &c., are seaworthy, but it is implied that
at the beginning of the voyage the carrying vessel is not only sea-
worthy as a ship but reasonably fit to carry the goods to the destina-
tion named in the policy!
When the main points of the preceding particulars of the
contract of insurance are summarized it may be said that the
transaction is (i) a contract of indemnity reduced to written
or printed words, (2) made in good faith, (3) referring to a defined
proportion or amount, (4) of a genuine interest in a named obje'ct,
(5) being against contingencies definitely expressed, to which
that object is actually exposed, and (6) in return for a fixed and
determined consideration.
It may happen by accident or by design that an insurance
object has been covered twice or more times, and that in con-
sequence the sum of the insurance effected exceeds the
value in the policy or the insurable value, if an un-
valued policy has been employed. This occurrence
involves a new set of relations between the insured and his
various underwriters; the underwriters themselves are brought
into relation to one another. As regards the insured, he may,
in the absence of agreement to the contrary, claim payment
from whomsoever of the underwriters he may select, but he is
not entitled to receive in all more than his proper indemnity.
Each underwriter, whether his policy be valued or unvalued,
is entitled to receive credit for his proper proportion of the sum
obtained by the insured under any other policy. If the insured
does obtain any sum in excess of indemnity, he is regarded as
holding it in trust for his whole body of underwriters. It thus
appears that in case' of multiple insurance each underwriter
is bound, as between himself and the other underwriters, to
contribute to the loss rateably in proportion to the amount
of his liability under the policy; and if any one pays more than
his proper share, he is entitled to sue the rest for contribution.
Should the insured get any of his premium back? It would not
be equitable to enforce a return from any underwriter who has
at any time stood alone so as to be liable to the full extent of
his policy; but if overlapping policies were accidentally effected
all at the same time, the case is rather different. This leads to
the general question of return of premium. Such return may be
claimed under the terms of the policy, in which case the claim
for return is simply the carrying out of the agreement between
the parties; it may refer to the whole or to a part of the interest
insured. But there are other circumstances in which returns can
legally be claimed. For instance, it may turn out that interest
insured by a particular vessel and for a particular voyage is
never shipped in that vessel for that voyage; the underwriter
has in this case run no risk, and therefore the consideration for
which he received the premium totally fails, and the premium
is properly returnable to the intending insured, unless there has
been fraud or illegality on the part of the insured. Similarly,
in the case of part of the interest insured on a policy, if that part
is distinguishable in the policy or by custom of trade. But the
interest might have made the voyage in the vessel, and the
intending insured might yet remain without insurable interest.
In this case, in absence of fraud or illegality, and if the policy
is not merely a gaming or wagering contract, the insured is
entitled to return of his premium. Similarly, in the absence of
fraud or illegality, if the underwriter legally voids his policy from
the beginning of the risk; as he runs no risk, he receives no
premium. The only cases, except those of fraud and illegality,
in which the underwriter can retain his premium without running
risk, are those of risks underwritten " lost or not lost," and
arrived safely without the underwriter's knowledge, in which
the underwriter takes his chance as to the condition and situation
of the ship when he assumes the risk. But this is practically
a case of agreement that there shall be no return.
When the insured has overinsured on an unvalued policy,
a proportionate part of the premium is returnable. But where
double insurance has been knowingly effected by the insured
or any earlier policy has at any time borne the entire risk or a
claim has been paid on a policy in respect of its full value, no
premium is returnable.
The policy issued by the underwriter to the insured makes
mention of certain perils against which the insurance is granted,
and unless the policy otherwise provides, the underwriter is
liable for any loss proximately caused by any of these perils,
but is not liable for any loss not proximately caused by a peril
insured against. He is not responsible for any loss due to the
wilful misconduct of the insured but, unless the policy other-
wise provides, he is liable for any loss proximately caused by a
peril insured against even though it would not have happened
but for the misconduct or negligence of master or crew. Nor is
he responsible for any loss caused by delay, although the delay
be caused by a peril insured against; nor for ordinary wear and
tear, ordinary leakage or breakage, inherent vice or character of
objects insured, loss from rats or vermin, or injury to machinery
not proximately caused by sea-perils.
Losses are divided into " total " and " partial." A " total " loss
may be (i) actual, or (2) constructive; and an insurance against
total loss covers the insured against both, unless a different
intention appears from the terms of the policy. It is an 7"*
" actual " total loss when the object insured is destroyed s'
or damaged so as to cease to be of the denomination of goods to which
it belonged when insured, or when the insured is irretrievably de-
prived of the property insured. In the case of an actual total loss
no notice of abandonment need be given. In the case of a missing
ship after the lapse of a reasonable time without news, an " actual "
total loss may be presumed. There is a " constructive " total loss
when the interest insured has been abandoned on account of what
appears inevitable actual total loss, or because the cost of preventing
such loss would exceed the value after such expenditure. E.g. if
ship or merchandise is in such a position that recovery is unlikely or
the cost of recovery would exceed the value recovered, there is con-
structive total loss; likewise in the case of a damaged ship, if the
cost of repair would exceed the repaired value of the ship. (In
making the estimate of cost of repairs no deduction is to be made for
the share of them payable in general average by other interests,
but account is to be taken of the cost of later salvage operations
and of the ship's proportion of any later general averages.) Similarly
for damaged goods, there is constructive total loss if the cost of
repair and of forwarding to destination exceeds the arrived value.
The insured may either treat constructive total loss as a partial loss
or as an actual total loss, in which latter case he abandons
his insured interest to the underwriter. If he decides to
abandon he must give notice of abandonment, else he will
recover only for a partial loss. This notice may be wholly or partly
written or oral, and in any terms if only they indicate the intention
to transfer unconditionally all interest to the underwriter. The
refusal of abandonment by the underwriter does not prejudice the
assured's rights. Abandonment may either be expressly accepted
by the underwriter or may be implied from his conduct, but his
mere silence does not imply acceptance. When notice is accepted,
abandonment is irrevocable. Notice may be waived by the under-
writer. Notice is unnecessary where, when the news reaches the
insured, there would be no benefit to the underwriter if notice were
given to him. On valid abandonment the underwriter adopts the
interest of the insured in the subject insured, or what remains of it,
and all incidental proprietary rights, e.g. in the case of a ship he is
entitled to any freight in the course of being earned and which is
earned by her subsequent to the accident causing the loss, less the
expenses incurred after the accident ; and if the cargo is on owner's
account, the underwriter is entitled to reasonable freight from the
place of casualty to destination.
Any loss other than a total loss, as defined and described above,
is a partial " loss. As such are classed general average, salvage
charges, particular average, particular charges. " General
average is really an outlying branch of the law of Partial
affreightment (see AVERAGE and AFFREIGHTMENT): its lo*s-
connexion with insurance is merely secondary, arising out of the
underwriter's contract to pay losses generally and this special
liability in accordance with definite provisions of the policy. Any
extraordinary sacrifice or expenditure voluntarily and
reasonably made in a moment of peril in order to preserve
all the property in the venture, is a general average act
and the loss arising therefrom is a general average loss. The party
Ah.-indon-
ment.
MARINE INSURANCE]
INSURANCE
679
on whom it falls is entitled to a rateable contribution from the others.
These rateable contributions are repayable by the respective under-
writers subject to the special provisions of their policies, unless the
sacrifice or expenditure was made to avert a peril not covered by the
policies, when there is no liability. The party originally incurring
a general average sacrifice may recover from his underwriter the
whole loss without having enforced his right of contribution from the
others concerned in the venture. When ship, freight and cargo, or
any two of them, belong to one person, the underwriter's liability
is determined as if these interests were each owned by separate
persons. " Salvage charges " are the charges recoverable
of indent
ally.
under maritime law by a salvor independently of contract :
if incurred in averting perils insured against, and if not
otherwise provided in the policy, they are recovered as a loss from
these perils. The cost of similar services of the insured or his agents
or hired employees are recovered as a general average loss when the
cost fulfils the character of general average expenditure, or in all
other cases as " particular charges." Thus all expenses
by or on behalf of the insured to save or preserve the
average. interest insured are either general average, salvage charges
or particular charges. Particular charges are not included in " par-
ticular average," which may now be defined as a partial loss
of the subject insured, caused by a peril insured against, and not
being a general average loss.
The nature of the liability for loss of the underwriter having been
determined, it remains to fix its extent, or in other words the
"measure of indemnity"; each underwriter bears that
Measure proportion of the loss which his subscription bears in the
case of a valued policy to the insured value, and in the case
of an unvalued policy to the insurable value. In the case
of a total loss, the measure of indemnity is the sum fixed by the
policy if valued, or the insurable value of the object insured if the
policy be unvalued. When the insured fails in an action for total
loss, he is not precluded from recovering a partial loss if the policy
insures him against partial loss. In the case of damage to a ship not
amounting to a total loss the insured is, subject to the terms of his
policy, entitled to recover the reasonable cost of repairs less customary
deductions, but not exceeding for any one casualty the sum insured.
If the repairs are only partial he is in addition entitled to an allowance
for unrepaired damage, but the aggregate must not exceed the cost of
complete repairs, less customary deductions. If the damaged ship
has neither been repaired nor sold during the risk, the insured is
entitled to reasonable depreciation but not exceeding the reasonable
cost of repairs, less customary deductions. As regards freight, the
underwriter's liability for partial loss is, subject to the terms of the
policy, the proportion of the policy value, or (in case of an unvalued
policy) of the insurable value, which the freight lost bears to the
whole freight at risk of the insured under the policy. When there is
liability under a policy for total loss of part of the goods insured its
amount is determined as follows: on an unvalued policy, it is the
insurable value of the portion lost, ascertained as in case of total loss;
on a valued policy, it is the proportion of the sum insured which the
insurable value of the portion lost bears to that of the whole. Subject
to any express provision of the policy, when goods are delivered at
destination damaged throughout or in part, the liability is for the
same proportion of the sum insured (or, in an unvalued policy, of
the insurable value) that the difference between gross sound and gross
damaged values at destination bears to the gross sound value there.
Gross sound value means the wholesale price including freight,
landing charges and duty; gross damaged value means the actual
price obtained at a sale when all charges on sale are paid by the sellers.
In case of goods customarily sold in bond, the bonded price is taken
to be the gross value. When different kinds of property are insured
under a single valuation, that valuation is apportioned over them
in proportion to the respective insurable values they would have on an
unvalued policy, but when the prime cost cannot be ascertained the
division is made over the net arrived sound values of the different
kinds of property. The liability for general average contribution and
salvage charges is, for anything insured for its full contributing value,
the full amount of the contribution; but in case of insurance not
attaining the full contributing value there is a reduction in proportion
to the under insurance; and where a particular average is payable
on the contributing goods, its amount must be deducted from the
insured value when the underwriter's liability is being ascertained.
On policies covering liabilities to third parties, the measure of
indemnity, subject to the condition of the policy, is the amount paid
or payable to the third party. When property is insured " free of
particular average " (f.p.a.), then unless the policy is apportionable,
as above, there is no liability for loss of part with exception of loss of
part occasioned by a general average sacrifice, but there is liability
for total loss of an apportionable part. The underwriter on f.p.a.
terms is liable for salvage charges, particular charges and
F.P.A. charges incurred under the " sue and labour " clause of
the policy to avert a loss insured against. Unless otherwise
provided in the policy when goods are insured f.p.a. under
a certain named percentage, a general averago loss cannot be added
to a particular average loss to make up the specified percentage;
nor may particular charges nor the expenses of ascertaining and
proving the loss; in fact only the actual loss suffered by the object
insured may be taken into account The engagement evidenced by
the " sue and labour " clause of a policy is regarded as supplementary
to the contract of insurance, and the expenses incurred under it are
recoyerable from the underwriter, even if he has paid a total loss or
has insured the goods f.p.a. with or without any franchise being
specified. General average losses and contributions are not " sue
and labour " expenses, nor are salvage charges, as defined above.
The expenses of averting a loss not covered by the policy cannot
be recovered under the " sue and labour " clause. The Marine
Insurance Act specially declares that " It is the duty of the
insured and his agents, in all cases, to take such measures as
may be reasonable for the purpose of averting or minimizing a
loss."
Unless otherwise provided, and subject to the provisions of the
law, the underwriter is liable for successive losses, even though
their aggregate amount exceeds the sum insured. But where, under
one policy, an unrepaired or uncompensated partial loss is followed
by a total loss, the insured can only recover the total loss. These
provisions do not affect the underwriter's liability under the " sue
and labour " clause, for, as explained above, the " sue and labour "
clause is a contract supplementary to the insurance contract con-
tained in the policy.
The payment of a total loss of the whole or of an apportionable
portion of the object insured entitles the underwriter to take
over the insured's interest in all that remains of the
same, the underwriter becoming subrogated to all the
rights and remedies of the insured in and regarding
the interest insured as from the time of the accident oc-
casioning the loss. The payment of a partial loss gives the under-
writer a similar subrogation but only in so far as the insured has
been indemnified in accordance with law by such payment for the
loss.
In case of double (or multiple) insurance each underwriter is
bound to contribute, as between himself and the other underwriters,
rateably to loss in proportion to the amount for which _ .
his policy makes him liable; for any excess of this
amount he may maintain action against the coinsurers
and may obtain the same remedy as a surety who has paid more than
his proportion of a debt.
Where the object is insured for less than the insurable value, as
defined above, the insured is deemed to be his own underwriter for
the balance.
Recent extensions of marine insurance in England have mostly
been in the direction of giving to shipowners protection against
liabilities to third parties. The first addition was the
running down clause (r.d.c.) by which underwriters take
burden of a proportion, usually three-quarters, of the
damage inflicted on other vessels by collision for which the insured
vessel is held to blame. The rapid increase in the use and size of
steamships was accompanied by an equally rapid increase in the
frequency of collisions at sea, tending to make the shipowner desirous
of insuring himself against the balance of his collision liability, and
against whatever other liabilities to third parties might be imposed
upon him. There was a hesitation on the part of underwriters to
meet these wants, and the result is that in Great Britain most
liability insurances are effected in mutual insurance societies. The
insurance of such liabilities is perhaps simpler in Great Britain
than in other countries, as the amount for which a shipowner can
be liable is limited by law, although, of course) none but English
tribunals are bound by that law. A new and extensive set of
liabilities has been thrown on shipowners by the Workmen's Com-
pensation Act of 1906; the liabilities in this case vary with the
wages of the workmen concerned. Another interesting class of
insurances has received much attention, namely, those against the
risks of capture, seizure and detention by a hostile power,
generally described briefly as war ris^ks. But the difficulties con-
nected with such risks probably lie more in determining the
legal position of the owners of the property, and the obligations
under which they lie, than in settling those of their underwriters.
Such questions concern blockade, contraband, domicile, nationality,
neutrality, &c.
The usual procedure in the offer and acceptance of a risk is as
follows: The intending insured (principal or broker) offers the
risk by showing to the underwriter a brief description of
the venture in question, called in Great Britain a slip, in
America an application. The underwriter signifies his
acceptance of the whole or of a part of the value exposed to perils
by signing or initialling the slip, putting down the amount for which
he accepts liability. Or he may sign and issue to the insured
(principal or broker) a similar document made out in his own office,
called a covering note or insurance note. These documents are
simply first sketches of the contract, memoires pour servir, so im-
perfect that they can be explained only in conjunction with the
contract in its completed form (the policy). In America it is not
at all rare for insurances to be effected through applications alone
without any policy existing. In Great Britain the existence of a
policy is essential, slips and covering notes being merely provisional
agreements, binding in honour only, to issue policies on certain terms
and conditions on receipt of the necessary information. One reason
for insisting on a policy being issued for every risk is that a means
of raising revenue by stamp taxes is thus created. In Great
Liabili-
ties.
68o
INTAGLIO— INTELLIGENCE IN ANIMALS
Britain the stamp duties under the Stamp Act 1891 are as
follows : —
Where the premium does not exceed J% of the
amount insured . . . , id.
Where the premium exceeds J% of amount insured: —
(a) On any voyage, per £100 or per any fractional
part of £100 . . _ . . . . id.
(6) For any time not exceeding six months, per
£100, &c., as above 3d.
(c) For any time exceeding six months, and not
exceeding twelve months, per £100, &c., as
above . . " 6d.
In consequence of this regulation, no time policy can be issued for
a period exceeding twelve months. Policies or certificates of in-
surance coming from abroad are subject to the same duties, which
should be paid within ten days after receipt in the United Kingdom.
The shortness of the time allowed for stamping often prevents
payment of the tax. These stamp regulations are very troublesome,
and produce only a comparatively insignificant revenue. On small
premium insurances the tax is so excessive that it drives business
out of the country. A uniform tax per policy has been several times
suggested, but these proposals have not yet been accepted by the
Treasury.
The documents required to establish a claim for total loss are:
(i) Protest of master. (2) Set of bills of lading (endorsed if neces-
sary, so as to be available to the underwriter). (3) Policy or certifi-
cate of insurance (endorsed if necessary). (4) In the United States:
Statement of loss in detail. In the United States certified copies of
Nos. (i), (2), and (3) are taken ; but as none of these copy-documents
can transfer possession to the underwriter, there is necessary for
that purpose another document, viz. (5) Bill of sale and abandon-
ment with subrogation to underwriter — that is, an assignment of
all interest to the underwriter. In the absence of the full
set of bills of lading, a similar document should be taken in Great
Britain, especially in all cases in which salvage operations are likely
to be undertaken. Such a document handed to a salvage association
or a manager of salvage (whether acting for shipowner or for under-
writer) settles the ownership of salved goods, and ensures that any
claim for salvage expenses will be sent directly to the underwriter.
This is from the insured's point of view desirable, and it greatly
simplifies the management of salvage cases. As a claim for total
joss cannot extend beyond the full amount insured in the policy,
it follows that the documents required to substantiate such a claim
must be supplied to the underwriter free of charge.
For the substantiation of a claim for particular average the
following documents are required: (i) Protest of master or log-
book. (2) Set of bills of lading (cargo claims). (3) Policy or
certificate of insurance (endorsed if necessary). (4) Certified state-
ments in detail of actual cash value at destination of goods in
damaged state, all charges paid. Certified statements in detail of
sound value at destination of goods on same day, all charges paid.
Or original vouchers of costs of repair of ship, all discounts, rebates,
allowances and returns deducted. (5) In the United States,
subrogation to underwriters of damaged goods.
AUTHORITIES. — E. K. Allen, Stamp Duties on Sea Insurances
(2nd ed., London, 1903); Th. Andresen, Seeversicherung (Hamburg,
1888) ; Joseph Arnould, Treatise on the Law of Marine Insurance and
Average (2 vols., 2nd edition, London, 1857); eighth edition by de
Hart and Simey (London, 1909); Laurence R. Baily, Perils of the
Seas (London, 1860); William Barber, Principles of the Law of
Insurance (San Francisco, 1887); W. G. Black, Digest of Decisions
in Scottish Shipping Cases, 1865-1890 (Edinburgh, 1891); Sir M. D.
Chalmers and Douglas Owen, Marine Insurance Act 1906 (London,
1906) ; Alfred de Courcy, Commentaire des polices franfaises d'as-
surances maritime? (2nd edition, Paris, 1888); E. L. de Hart and
R. I. Simey, The Marine Insurance Act 1906 (London, 1907); R. R.
Douglas, Index to Maritime Law Decisions (London, 1888); John
Duer, Law and Practice of Marine Insurance (2 vols., New York,
1845, 1846); William Gow, Marine Insurance (yd corrected
edition, London, 1909); Victor Jacobs, Etude sur les assurances
maritimes et les avaries (Brussels, 1885); Richard Lowndes, Practical
Treatise on the Law of Marine Insurance (2nd edition, London, 1 885) ;
Law of General Average, English and Foreign (4th edition, London,
1888) ; Charles M'Arthur, Contract of Marine Insurance (2nd edition,
London, 1890); D. Maclachlan, Arnould on the Law of Marine
Insurance (2 vols., 6th edition, London, 1887) ; Reginald G. Marsden,
Admiralty Cases, 1648 to 1860 (London, 1885); Law of Collisions
at Sea (sth edition, London, 1904) , Douglas Owen, Marine Insur-
ance Notes and Clauses (3rd edition, 1890); Theophilus Parsons,
Law of Marine Insurance and General Average (2 vols., Boston, 1868) ;
G. G. Phillimore, " Marine Insurance " in Encyclopaedia of the Laws
of England, vol. viii. (London, 1907) ; Willard Phillips, Treatise on
the Law of Insurance (2 vols., 5th edition, New York, 1867); C. R.
Tyser, Law relating to Losses under a Policy of Marine Insurance
(London, 1894); Rudolph Ulrich, Grosse Haverei (2nd ed., 3 vols.,
Berlin, 1903, 1905, 1906) ; G. Denis Weil, Des assurances maritimes
et des avaries (Paris, 1879). (W Go )
INTAGLIO (an Ital. word, from intagliare, to incise, cut into),
a form of engraving or carving, in which the pattern or design is
sunk below the surface of the material thus treated, opposed
to " cameo " or " relievo " — carving or engraving where the
design is raised. Intaglio is thus applied to incised gems, as
cameo (q.v.) to gems cut in relief (see GEMS).
INTELLECT (Lat. intellectus, from intelligere, to understand),
the general term for the mind in reference to its capacity for
knowing or understanding. It is very vaguely used in common
language. A man is described as " intellectual " generally
because he is occupied with theory and principles rather than
with practice, often with the further implication that his theories
are concerned mainly with abstract matters: he is aloof from
the world, and especially is a man of training and culture who
cares little for the ordinary pleasures of sense. " Intellect " is
thus distinguished from " intelligence " by the field of its opera-
tions, " intelligence " being used in the practical sphere for
readiness to grasp a situation. (The employment of the word as
a synonym for " news " is mere journalese; such phrases as
" Intelligence Department " in connexion with newspapers and
public offices are more justifiable.) In philosophy the " intellect "
is contrasted with the senses and the will; it sifts and combines
sense-given data, which otherwise would be only momentary,
lasting practically only as long as the stimuli continued to operate.
It thus includes the cognitive processes, and is the source of all
real knowledge. Various attempts have been made to narrow
the use of the term, e.g. to the higher regions of knowledge en-
tirely above the region of sense (so Kant), or to conceptual
processes; but no agreement has been reached. " Intellection "
(i.e. the process as opposed to the capacity) has similarly been
narrowed (e.g. by Professor James Ward) to the sphere of con-
cepts; other writers, however, give it a much wider meaning.
" Intellectualism " is a term given to any system which empha-
sizes the cognitive function; thus aesthetic intellectualism is
that view of aesthetics 'which subordinates the sensual gratifica-
tion or the delight in purely formal beauty to what may be
called the ideal content.
INTELLIGENCE IN ANIMALS.1 Professor G. J. Romanes,
in his work on Animal Intelligence (1881), used the term " in-
telligence " as synonymous with " reason," and defined it as
follows: " Reason or intelligence is the faculty which is con-
cerned in the intentional adaptation of means to ends. It
therefore implies the conscious knowledge of the relation between
means employed and ends attained, and may be exercised in
adaptation to circumstances novel alike to the experience of the
individual and that of the species." There is here some ambiguity
as to the exact psychological significance of the words " inten-
tional adaptation " and of the phrase " conscious knowledge
of the relation between the means employed and the ends
attained." A chick a day or two old learns to leave untouched
nauseous caterpillars, and Romanes would certainly have
regarded this as a case of intelligent profiting by experience;
but how far there is intentional adaptation and whether the
chick has conscious knowledge of the relation of means to ends,
is doubtful, and, to say the least of it, open to discussion. St
George Mivart, the acute dialectical opponent of Romanes,
denied that animals are capable of the exercise of reason or
intelligence. He urged that according to traditional views
reason should denote and include all intellectual perception,
whether it be direct and intuitive or indirect and inferential
(sensustricto), and contended that under neither head are to be
included the sensuous perceptions and merely practical inferences
of animals. Wasmann, who argues on similar grounds, regards
such behaviour as that of the chicken as instinctive in the wider
sense (see INSTINCT) and not intelligent; man alone, he contends,
is intelligent, that is to say has the power of perceiving the
relations of concepts to each other, and of drawing conclusions
therefrom. It is clear that the discussion largely turns on the
definition of terms; but more than this lies behind it. Both
Mivart and Wasmann are emphatic in their assertions that
instinctive modes of behaviour in the wider sense or the sensuous
1 For a discussion of human intelligence, see PSYCHOLOGY.
INTELLIGENCE IN ANIMALS
681
perceptions and practical inferences of animals differ funda-
mentally in kind from the rational or intelligent conduct of
human folk, and that by no conceivable process of evolution
could the one pass upwards into the other.
Wasmann regards the inclusion of those activities which
result from sense-experience under the term " intelligence "
as pseudo-psychological. To modern psychologists
/ojrfca/0" °f standing we must therefore turn. Under the head-
defiaition. ing " Intellect or Intelligence," in the Dictionary of
Philosophy and Psychology, G. F. Stout and J. Mark
Baldwin say: " There is a tendency to apply the term intellect
more especially to the capacity for conceptual thinking. This
does not hold in the same degree of the connected word intelli-
gence. We speak freely of ' animal intelligence,' but the phrase
' animal intellect ' is unusual. However, the restriction of the
term to conceptual process is by no means so fixed and definite
as to justify us in including it in the definition." With respect
to the word intellection again: " There is a tendency to restrict
the term to conceptual thinking. Ward does so definitely and
consistently. Groom-Robertson, on the other hand, gives the
word the widest possible application, making it cover all forms
of cognitive process. On the whole, if the term is to be employed
at all, Robertson's usage appears preferable, as corresponding
better to the generality of the words intellect and intelligence."
It does not seem to be pseudo-psychological, therefore, to apply
the term intelligence to the capacity, unquestionably possessed
by animals, of profiting by sensory experience. The present
writer has suggested that the term may be conveniently restricted
to the capacity of guiding behaviour through perceptual process,
reserving the terms intellect and reason for the so-called faculties
which involve conceptual process. There are, however, advan-
tages, as Stout 'and Baldwin contend, in employing the word
in a somewhat wide and general sense. It is probably best
for strictly psychological purposes to define somewhat strictly
perceptual and conceptual (or ideational) process and to leave
to intelligence the comparative freedom of a word to be used in
general literature and therein defined by its context. It may be
helpful, however, to place in tabular form the different uses
above indicated: —
Perceptual Process.
1. Instinct (wider sense).
2. Sense-perception
4. Intelligence.
Intelligence
Conceptual Process.
Intelligence (e.g. Wasmann).
Intelligence (e.g. Mivart).
(e.g. Stout and Baldwin).
Intellect and Reason
(e.g. Lloyd Morgan).
From this table it may be seen at a glance that, with such
divergence of usage, the application of the word " intelligent "
to any given case of animal behaviour has in itself little psycho-
logical significance. If the psychological status of the animal
is to be seriously discussed, the question to be answered is this:
Are the observed activities explainable in terms of perceptual
process only, or do they demand also a supplementary exercise
of conceptual process ? Granting that they are intelligent in
the broad acceptation of the word, are they only perceptually
intelligent or also conceptually intelligent ?
It would require more space than is at our command to make
the distinction which is drawn by those who use these terms clear
and distinct; but enough may perhaps be said to
enable the general reader to grasp the salient points.
It will be convenient to take a concrete case. A chick
in the performance of its truly instinctive activities pecks at
all sorts of small objects. In doing so it gains a certain
amount of initial experience. Very soon it may be observed
that some grubs and caterpillars are seized with avidity whenever
occasion offers; while others are after a few trials let alone.
Broadly speaking, we have here intelligent selection and rejection.
Psychologically interpreted what is believed to take place is
somewhat as follows. Each grub or caterpillar affords a visual
impression or sensation. This as such is just a presentation to
sight and nothing more. But in virtue of previous experience
it suggests what was formerly presented to consciousness in
that experience. It has meaning. An impression which carries
meaning begotten of previous experience is raised to the level
of a percept; and behaviour which is influenced and guided
by such percepts, that is to say by impressions and the meaning
for behaviour they suggest, is the outcome of perceptual process.
If a dog learns to open a gate by lifting the latch, this may be
due to perceptual . process. Through previous experience the
sight of the latch may suggest meaning for practical behaviour.
His action may be simply due to the fact that the visual presenta-
tion has been directly associated with the appropriate bodily
activities, and now by suggestion reinstates like activities; he
may not, though on the other hand he may, exercise
conceptual thought. Let us suppose that the chick ^pfua/
which selects certain caterpillars and rejects others process.
does form concepts. What does this imply from the
standpoint of psychology ? Stout and Baldwin define concep-
tion as the " cognition of a universal as distinguished from the
particulars which it unifies. The universal apprehended in
this way is called a concept." If then the chick apprehends
the universal " good-for-eating " as exemplified in the particular
maggot, and the maggot as a concrete case of the abstract and
universal " good-for-eating," it has a capacity for conceptual
thought. " There is one point in our definition," say Stout and
Baldwin, " which requires to be specially emphasized. Concep-
tion is the cognition of a universal as distinguished from the
particulars which it unifies. The words " as distinguished from "
are of essential importance. The mere presence of a universal
element in cognition does not constitute a concept. Otherwise
all cognition would be conceptual. The simplest perception
includes a universal. . . . The universal must be apprehended
in antithesis to the particulars which it unifies. " The general,
or in technical phraseology, the universal characteristic " good-
for-eating " is present in all that the chick practically finds to
be edible; but the chick may just eat the nice caterpillars without
thinking for a moment of edibility.
Few would dream of contending that the chick a few days
old is capable of conceptual thought. Naive perceptual process
pretty obviously suffices for an explanation of the
behaviour of the little bird. But so too, it may be value.
said, does it suffice for the explanation of much of the
practical behaviour of men. If a great number of the actions
of animals are only perceptually intelligent, so too are a great
number of the actions of men and women. This is unquestionably
the case; and it serves to bring out the distinction in value
which may be assigned to the percept and the concept respect-
ively. The value of the percept is for simple direct practical
behaviour; the value of the concept is for the elaboration of
systematic knowledge. Any given impression may have meaning
for behaviour in a given situation which is like that which has
previously developed in a certain manner; but it may also have
significance for the interpretation of such situations in a con-
ceptual scheme of thought. The sight of the sage-blossom
may have meaning for the bee which has sucked the sweets
contained in such flowers; the sight of the bee in this situation
may have significance for scientific interpretation as an example
of the fertilization of flowers by insects. The bee may be only
perceptually intelligent; the man who observes its action may
or may not be conceptually intelligent.
A good' deal of human behaviour may be interpreted in
terms of perceptual intelligence, and a far larger proportion
of animal behaviour may be so interpreted. But some human
conduct cannot be explained save as the outcome of conceptual
intelligence. The question is, whether any carefully observed
and well-authenticated cases of animal procedure are inexplicable
in the absence of conceptual thought, and if so what concepts
are necessarily involved ? It is now conceded that the mere
collection of anecdotes which result from casual as opposed to
systematic observation can afford no satisfactory basis for an
answer to this question. A solution can only be obtained by
well-planned observations conducted by those who have an
adequate psychological training. Even under these conditions
a criterion of the presence or absence of conceptual factors is
682
INTENDANT
needed; and such a criterion is not easy to formulate or to
apply.
If we institute inquiries with a view to ascertaining how the
conceptual factor originates, it appears to be the result of
analysis and abstraction, and to be reached by a
Develop- process of comparison which becomes intentional
'concept. an<i deliberate. If, for example, hi educational
procedure, we seek to assist children in forming
concepts of colour, shape and material, we place before them a
number of objects, some round, some square, some triangular;
some red, some yellow, some blue; some made of paper, some
of wood, some of flannel. Any given object is both red and
square and made of flannel, blue and round and made of wood,
and so on. We teach the child to group the objects, to put all
the blues, yellows and reds together irrespective of shape or
material; then all the rounds, squares and triangles together;
then all which are made of like material. We thus help the
children to grasp that though shape, colour and material are
combined in each object, yet for the immediate purpose in hand
one matters and the others do not matter. That which does
matter is abstracted from the rest. The child has to analyse
his experience and fix his attention on some given factor therein.
He has to compare the objects intentionally, that is, for a definite
end. He reaches, for example, the concept " blue" and realizes
that the word may be applied to a number of particular objects
differing in other respects, and that each is an example of what
he understands by the word blue. Whether he could reach
the concept without words is a question on which opinions
differ.
Locke held that animals are incapable of the abstraction
which is implied in such procedure. Dr Stout considers that
An observation of their behaviour shows little if any
animals evidence of intentional comparison. And it is open
cooceptu- to discussion whether they are able to analyse the
ally la- situations opened up by their perceptual behaviour.
The matter cannot be fully considered here. It must
suffice if enough has been said to show the nature of the
distinction between perceptual and conceptual process.
An example may, however, be given of the kind of observation
which, since it was carefully planned and carried out, is of
evidential value. Dr Alexander Hill's fox terrier was " taught "
to open the side door of a large box by lifting a projecting latch.
When the door swung open he was never allowed to find anything
in the box, but was given a piece of biscuit from the hand. Then
a warm chop-bone was put inside the box, which was placed in
a courtyard so that the dog would pass it when no one was near,
though he could be watched from the window. Details of the
terrier's behaviour are given by Dr Hill in Nature (Ixvii.
558, April 1903). The net result was that the dog failed to
apply at once his quite familiar experience of lifting the latch
in the usual way. Here two situations were presented; first
the box with people around and a piece of biscuit to be obtained
from one of them by lifting the latch; secondly the box with
no one near and a redolent chop-bone inside. To us it is obvious
enough that the lifted latch is the key to the development of
both situations; we analyse them so as to get the essential
factor which matters. The dog apparently did not do so. He
seemingly was incapable of this modest amount of analysis and
abstraction.
We can now see more clearly what was meant by saying that
Romanes' phrase (that intelligence " implies a conscious know-
Ambi it kdse of the relation between means employed and
of phrase ends attained ") is ambiguous. The dog which lifts
" con- the latch of a gate and goes out when the gate swings
*c'ous open undoubtedly employs means to reach an end;
o/'means*" ne nee<^ not analytically think the means as conducive
to the end and the end as reached by the means;
he need not conceive this relationship as exemplified in a number
of particular cases; he need not cognize the universal as distin-
guished from the particulars. Perceptual experience, therefore,
does not imply what Romanes states if his words are interpreted
in terms of conception; it does, however, imply that the relation-
ship is contained within the unanalysed whole of experience
and is a factor contributing to an acquired mode of behaviour.
Opinions differ as to how far, if at all, animals show what we
are bound to interpret as the rudiments of conceptual thinking.
It is perhaps best to regard the question as still sub judice. The
evolutionist school, but not without exception, incline to the
view that we find in animals the beginnings of conceptual
experience; some are, however, of opinion that, in the absence
of language, conceptual analysis is well-nigh impossible, and in
any case cannot be carried far. To an evolutionist the assertion
that conceptual intelligence could not conceivably have had a
natural genesis from perceptual experience, appears to be made
on grounds other than scientific. Few if any psychologists
contend, on strictly psychological grounds, for a distinction of
kind such as Mivart and Wasmann postulate. Conscious
experience is indeed sui generis and is distinct in kind from the
energy with which the physicist or the physiologist has to deal;
but within conscious experience from its earliest manifestation
to its latest development scientific psychology only recognizes
differences of mode.
In individual development the earliest manifestation of
experience is the conscious accompaniment or concomitant of
that type of organic behaviour which includes all
reflex and instinctive acts. This affords the primordial
tissue of experience, including a conscious awareness meat.
of the stimulating presentations which initiate organic
behaviour and the kinaesthetic presentations which accompany
it. Thus arises an awareness of the development of the instinctive
situation. Perceptual intelligence depends upon associative
re-presentation — the earlier phases of a presented situation
calling up a revival of the whole previous experience before its
later phases are again actually presented. Through the process
of inhibition, to the clearer understanding of which physiology
is daily contributing fresh data, the actual development through
behaviour of the later phases of the situation is checked, and
an acquired modification of the behaviour results. The whole
range of perceptual intelligence in animals illustrates the manner
in which accommodation to varied circumstances is reached.
On these foundations in varied experience conceptual intelligence
is developed. The early stages of its development, whether in
the child, in whom it unquestionably occurs, or in the higher
animals, in which it is not improbably incipient, are difficult
to determine on the basis of observation of its expression in
behaviour or conduct. But the distinguishing features of con-
ceptual as contrasted with perceptual intelligence are the
comparison of situations with a view to their analysis, the
disentangling of factors which are of importance for some
purpose of interpretation or of conduct, and the attitude of
mind which is expressed by saying that the particular case is an
example of what experience has shown to be, in technical phrase,
universal, and is realized as such. Under the comprehensive
phrase, intelligence in animals, this may or may not be included.
For literature, see under INSTINCT. (C. LL. M.)
INTENDANT (from Lat. intendens, pres. part, of intendere,
to apply the mind to, to watch over; cf. " superintendent "),
the name used in early times in France to designate a functionary
invested by the king with an important and durable commission.1
As early as the I4th century the title of intendentes or super-
intendents financiarum was given to the commissaries appointed
by the king to levy the aides, or temporary subsidies. In the
1 6th century Francis I. created the intendants des finances,
permanent functionaries who formed the central and superior
rln Germany the title Intendant is applied to the head of public
institutions, more particularly to the high officials in charge of court
theatres, royal gardens, palaces and the like. The director of certain
civic theatres is now also sometimes styled Intendant. The title
Generalintendant implies the same official duties, but higher rank.
In the German army the Intendantur corresponds to the British
quartermaster-general's and financial departments of the War
Office, the French intendance militaire. Subordinate to these are
the intendances (Intendanturen) under general officers commanding,
the heads of which are in Germany called Korpsintendanten, and in
France intendants-generaux, intendants militaires, &c. (see ARMY,
§58).
INTENT— INTERCOLUMNIATION
683
administration in financial matters. They took the place of the
generaux des finances and the " treasurers of France," who became
provincial functionaries in the various generalites. The intendants
des finances existed until the end of the ancien regime; they were
at first under the authority of the surintendant, and subsequently
under that of the contr&leur general des finances. The intendants
des provinces date from the last thirty years of the i6th century.
They were commissaries sent by the king with wide powers to
restore order in the provinces after the civil wars. Their functions
were at first extraordinary and temporary, but a few were
retained as permanent state officials, and in course of time they
came to be fairly generally distributed over the whole kingdom.
The existing territorial divisions were not disturbed, each
intendant being placed over a generalite, save in some cases where
slight modifications were necessary for administrative purposes.
In their functions, however, there is another element worthy of
notice. In the I3th and I4th centuries the monarchy had
organized a species of inspection (chevauchee) over the provincial
functionaries, which was performed by the maltres des requetes,
and this the reform ordinances of the i6th century sought to
revive. This inspectorate passed to the intendant, who became
the resident local inspector and supervisor of all the other
functionaries in his district ; its connexion with the old chevauchee
is plainly shown by the fact that the intendants were almost
invariably selected from the maitres des requites. The early
intendants had naturally been largely concerned with the troops;
eventually special military intendants (the only ones that exist
in modern French law) were created, but the intendants des
provinces retained certain military duties, notably those relating
to the housing of the troops.
The early intendants were called indifferently intendants de
justice or intendants de finances, their full official title being
intendants de justice, police et finances, el commissaires, departis
dans les gentralites du royaume pour I 'execution des ordres de Sa
Majeste. This title shows the wide range of their duties, the
word " police " in this connexion connoting general administra-
tion. Not being officers of the king, but merely commissaries,
they could always be recalled, and their powers were fixed by
the commission they received from the king. As their functions
became pre-eminently administrative the laws of the I7th and
1 8th centuries referred many questions to their decision, and,
in this respect, their powers were determined by law. They
became the direct general representatives of the king in each
generalite, with authority over the other officials, whom they
were empowered to censure, suspend or sometimes even replace.
They were in constant touch with the king's council, with which
they were connected by their original rights as mattres des requetes.
In the first half of the iyth century they encountered some
opposition from the governors of provinces, who had formerly
been the direct political representatives of the crown, and also
from the parliaments, which traditionally intervened in the
administration, especially by means of arrets de reglement
(decisions, from which there was no appeal, regulating questions
of procedure, civil law or custom). The intendants, however,
were energetically supported, and so complete was their triumph
that in the i8th century governors of provinces could not enter
upon their duties without formal lettres de residence.
The intendants had wide powers in the drawing by lot of the
militia and in the royal corvees for the making and repair of the
high roads, and were largely concerned with the administration
of the tattle, in which they effected useful reforms. They were the
sole administrators of the principal direct and indirect imposts
created in the second half of the tyth century and in the i8th
century, and had full powers to settle disputes arising out of
these taxes. Owing to the vast size of the districts allotted to the
intendants (there were no more than thirty-two intendants in
1788), they often felt the need of assistants. As commissaries
of the king, they could delegate their powers to sub-delegues,
who were, however, not royal officials, but merely mandatories
of the intendant. Decisions of the intendant could be carried
to the king's council, and those of the sub-delegue to the
intendant.
See Gabriel Hanotaux, Origines de Vinstitution des intendants des
provinces (1884) ; D'Arbois de Jubainville, L' Administration des
intendants d'apres les archives de I'Aube (1880); P. Ardascheff,
Provintzalnaya administratsiya vo Frantsii ve poshednoyo porou
starago poryadka: provintsialny Intendanty (St Petersburg, 1900-
1906). (J. P. E.)
INTENT (from Lat. intendere, to stretch out, extend, particularly
in the phrase intendere animum, to turn one's mind to, purpose),
in law, the purpose or object with which an act is done. The
question of intent is important with reference both to civil and
criminal responsibility. Briefly, it may be said that in criminal
law the constituent element of an offence is the mens rea or the
guilty intent. The commission of an act without the intent
is not, as a general rule, sufficient to constitute a crime, nor,
on the other hand, does the existence of a guilty intent without
commission of the act amount to the legal conception of a crime
(see CRIMINAL LAW). In the case of civil wrongs, in general,
the opposite holds good. A wrongful act done to the person or
property of another carries with it legal liability, irrespective
of the motive with which the act was done (see TORT). In refer-
ence to the construction of contracts, wills and other documents,
the question of intention is material as showing the sense and
meaning of the words used, and what they were intended to effect.
INTERAMNA LIRENAS, an ancient town of Italy in the
Volscian territory near the modern Pignataro Interamna, 5 m.
S.E. of Aquinum; the additional name distinguishes it from
Interamna Praetuttianorum (mod. Teramo) and Interamna
Nahartium (mod. Terni). It was founded by the Romans
as a Latin colony in 312 B.C. as a military base in the war against
Samnium, no fewer than 4000 colonists being sent thither.
It was among the Latin colonies which in 209 B.C. refused to
supply further contingents or money for the Hannibalic war.
It became a municipium with the other Latin colonies, but we
hear no more of it — mainly, no doubt, because it lay off the
Via Latina. Livy's description of it as on the Via Latina is not
strictly accurate, and cannot be used as an indication that the
former course of the Via Latina was through Interamna. The
city lay on a hill on the N. bank of the Liris, between two of its
tributaries, thus lacking natural defences on the N. side alone.
Many inscriptions have been found, and there are considerable
remains of antiquity. One inscription bears the date A.D. 408,
and the site was occupied in the middle ages by a castle called
Terame or Termine. (T. As.)
INTERCALARY (from Lat. intercalare, to proclaim, calare,
the insertion of a day in the calendar), a term applied to a month,
day or days inserted between other months or days in order to
adjust the reckoning of time, based on the revolution of the earth
round the sun, the day, and of the moon round the earth, the lunar
month, to the revolution of the earth round the sun, the solar
year (see CALENDAR). From the meaning of something inserted
or placed between, intercalary is used for something which
interrupts a series, or comes between two types. In botany, the
term is used of growth which is not apical but somewhere between
the apex and base of an organ, such as the growth in length of
an Iris leaf, or of the internode of a grass-haulm.
INTERCOLUMNIATION, in architecture, the distance between
the columns of a peristyle, generally referred to in terms of
the lower diameter of the column. They are thus set forth by
Vitruvius (iii. 2): (a) Pycnostyle, equal to ij diameters;
(6) Systyle, 2 diameters; (c) Eustyle, 2j diameters (which was
the proportion preferred by him); (d) Diastyle, 3 diameters;
and (e) Araeostyle or wide spaced, 4 diameters, a span only
possible when the architrave was in wood. Vitruvius's definition
would seem to apply only to examples with which he was
acquainted in Rome, or to Greek temples described by authors
he had studied. In the earlier Doric temples the intercolumnia-
tion is sometimes less than one diameter, and it increases gradu-
ally as the style developed; thus in the Parthenon it is ij, in the
Temple of Diana Propylaea at Eleusis, ij; and in the portico
at Delos, 2%. The intercolumniations of the columns of the
Ionic Order are greater, averaging 2 diameters, but then the
relative proportion of height to diameter in the column has to
be taken into account, as also the width of the peristyle. Thus
INTERDICT— INTEREST
in the temple of Apollo Branchidae, where the columns are
slender and over 10 diameters in height, the intercolumniation
is if, notwithstanding its late date, and in the Temple of Apollo
Smintheus in Asia Minor, in which the peristyle is pseudo-
dipteral, or double width, the intercolumniation is just over 15.
Temples of the Corinthian Order follow the proportions of those
of the Ionic Order.
INTERDICT (Lat. inlerdictum, from interdicere, to forbid by
decree, lit., interpose by speech), in its full technical sense as
an ecclesiastical term, a sentence by a competent ecclesiastical
authority forbidding all celebration of public worship, the
administration of some sacraments (baptism, confirmation and
penance are permitted) and ecclesiastical burial. From general
interdicts, however, are excepted the feast days of Christmas,
Easter, Whitsunday, the Assumption and Corpus Christi. An
interdict may be either local, personal or mixed, according as
it applies to a locality, to a particular person or class of persons,
or to a particular locality as long as it shall be the residence of
a particular person or class of persons. Local interdicts again
may be either general or particular; in the latter instance they
refer only to particular buildings set apart for religious services.
An interdict is a measure which seeks to punish a population
or a religious body (e.g. a chapter) for the fault of some only of
its members, who cannot be reached separately. It is a penalty
directed against society rather than against individuals. In
869 Hincmar of Laon laid his entire diocese under an interdict,
a proceeding for which he was severely censured by Hincmar of
Reims. In the Chronicle of Ademar of Limoges (ad ann. 994)
it is stated that Bishop Alduin introduced there " a new plan for
punishing the wickedness of his people; he ordered the churches
and monasteries to cease from divine worship and the people to
abstain from divine praise, and this he called excommunication "
(see Gieseler, Kirchengesch. iii. 342, where also the text is given
of a proposal to a similar effect made by Odolric, abbot of St
Martial, at the council of Limoges in 1031). It was not until
the nth century that the use of the interdict obtained a recog-
nized place among the means of discipline at the disposal of the
Roman hierarchy, which used it, without great success, to bring
back the secular authorities to obedience. Important historical
instances of the use of the interdict occur in the cases of Scotland
under Pope Alexander III. in 1181, of France under Innocent III.
in 1200, and of England under the same pope in 1209. So
far as the interdict is " personal," that is to say, applied to a
particular individual, it may be regarded as a kind of partial
excommunication; for instance, a bishop may, for certain
faults, be interdicted from entering the church (ab ingressu
ecclesiae), that is, without being excommunicated, he must not
celebrate or assist at the celebration of divine offices. Interdicts
cease at the expiration of the term, or by removal (relaxatio).
General and local interdicts are no longer in use.
See the canonists in tit. 39 lib. v., De sententia excommun., &c. ;
L. Ferraris, Prompta. bibliotheca canonica, &c., s.v. " Interdictum."
Interdict, in Scots law, is an order of court pronounced on
cause shown for stopping any proceedings complained of as
illegal or wrongful. It may be resorted to as a remedy against
all encroachments either on property or possession. For the
analogous English practice see INJUNCTION.
INTERDICTION, in Scots law, a process of restraint applied
to prodigals and others who, " from weakness, facility or
profusion, are liable to imposition." It is either voluntary or
judicial. Voluntary interdiction is effected by the prodigal
himself, who executes a bond obliging himself to do no deed
which may affect his estate without the assent of certain persons
called the " interdictors." This may be removed by the court
of session, by the joint act of the interdictors and the interdicted,
and by the number of interdictors being reduced below the
number constituting a quorum. Judicial interdiction is imposed
by order of the court, either moved by an interested party or
acting in the exercise of its nobile officium, and can only be
removed by a similar order. Deeds done by the interdicted
person, so far as they affect or purport to affect his heritable
estate, are reducible, unless they have been done with the
consent of the interdictors. Interdiction has no effect, however,
on movable property.
INTERESSE TERMINI (Lat. for " interest in a term "), in
law, an executory interest, being the right of entry which the
grant of a lease confers upon a lessee. Actual entry on the
lands by the lessor converts the right into an estate. If the
lease, however, has been created by a bargain and sale or by
any other conveyance under the Statute of Uses, which does
not require an entry, the term vests in the lessee at once. An
interesse termini gives a cause of action against any person
through whose action entry by the lessee or delivery of possession
to him may have been prevented. An interesse termini is a right
in rem, alienable at common law, and transmissible to the
executors of the lessee.
INTEREST, etymologically a state or condition of being
concerned in or having a share in anything, hence a legal or other
claim to or share in property, benefits or advantages. Further
developments of meaning are found in the application of the
word to the benefits, advantages, matters of importance, &c.,
in which " interest " or concern can be felt, and to the feeling
of concern so excited; hence also the word is used of the persons
who have a concern in some common " interest," e.g. the trading
or commercial interest, and of the personal or other influence
due to a connexion with specific " interests." The word is
derived from the Latin interesse (literally " to be between "),
to make a difference, to concern, be of importance. The form
which the word takes in English is a substantival use of the 3rd
person singular of the present indicative of the Latin verb,
and is due to a similar use in French of the older interest, modern
interet. The earlier English word was interess, which survived
till the end of the xyth century; the earliest example of " interest "
in the New English Dictionary is from the Rolls of Parliament
of 1450.
These meanings of " interest " are plainly derived from the
ordinary uses of the Latin inleresse. The origin of the application
of the word to the compensation paid for the use of money or
for the forbearance of a debt, with which, as far as present
English law is concerned, this article deals, forms part of the
history of USURY and MONEY-LENDING (q.v.). By Roman law,
where one party to a contract made default, the other could
enforce, over and above the fulfilment of the agreement, com-
pensation based on the difference (id quod interest) to the creditor's
positipn caused by the default of the debtor, which was techni-
cally known as mora, delay. This difference could be reckoned
according as actual loss had accrued, and also on a calculation
of the profit that might have been made had performance been
carried out. Now this developed the canonist doctrine of damnum
emergens and lucrum cessans respectively, which played a con-
siderable part in the breaking down of the ecclesiastical pro-
hibition of the taking of usury. The medieval lawyers used the
phrase damna et interesse (in French dommages el interets) for such
compensation by way of damages for the non-fulfilment of a
contract, and for damages and indemnity generally. Thus
interesse and interet came to be particularly applied to the charge
for the use of money disguised by a legal fiction under the form
of an indemnity for the failure to perform a contract.
At English common law an agreement to pay interest is not
implied unless in the case of negotiable instruments, when it is
supported by mercantile usage. As a general rule therefore debts
certain, payable at a specified time, do not carry interest from
that time unless there has been an express agreement that they
should do so. But when it has been the constant practice of
a trade or business to charge interest, or where as between the
parties interest has been always charged and paid, a contract
to pay interest is implied. It is now provided by the Civil
Procedure Act 1833 that, " upon all debts or sums certain
payable at a certain time or otherwise, the jury on the trial of
any issue or in any inquisition of damages may if they shall think
fit allow interest to the creditor at a rate not exceeding the
current rate of interest, from the time when such debts or sums
certain were payable, if such debts or sums be payable by virtue
of some written instrument at a certain time; or if payable
INTERFERENCE OF LIGHT
685
otherwise, then from the time when demand of payment shall
have been made in writing, so as such demand shall give notice
to the debtor that interest will be claimed from the date of such
demand until the term of payment: provided that interest shall
be payable in all cases in which it is now payable by law."
Compound interest requires to be supported by positive proof
that it was agreed to by the parties; an established practice to
account in this manner will be evidence of such an agreement.
When interest is awarded by a court it is generally at the rate of
4%; under special circumstances 5% has been allowed.
INTERFERENCE OF LIGHT. § i. This term1 and the ideas
underlying it were introduced into optics by Thomas Young.
His Bakerian lecture on " The Theory of Light and Colours "
(Phil. Trans., 1801) formulated the following hypotheses and
propositions, and thereby laid the foundations of the wave
theory: —
Hypotheses.
(i.) A luminiferous aether pervades the universe, rare and elastic
in a high degree.
(ii.) Undulations are excited in* this aether whenever a body
becomes luminous.
(iii.) The sensation of different colours depends on the different
frequency of vibrations excited by the light in the retina.
(iv.) All material bodies have an attraction for the aethereal
medium, by means of which it is accumulated in their substance,
and for a small distance around them, in a state of greater density
but not of greater elasticity.
Propositions.
(i.) All impulses are propagated in a homogeneous elastic medium
with an equable velocity.
(ii.) An undulation conceived to originate from the vibration of a
single particle must expand through a homogeneous medium in
a spherical form, but with different quantities of motion in different
parts.
(iii.) A portion of a spherical undulation, admitted through an
aperture into a quiescent medium, will proceed to be further pro-
pagated rectilinearly in concentric superfices, terminated laterally
by weak and irregular portions of newly diverging undulations.
(iv.) When an undulation arrives at a surface which is the limit
of mediums of different densities, a partial reflection takes place,
proportionate in force to the difference of the densities.
(v.) When an undulation is transmitted through a surface ter-
minating different mediums, it proceeds in such a direction that
the sines of the angles of incidence and refraction are in the constant
ratio of the velocity of propagation in the two mediums.
(vi.) When an undulation falls on the surface of a rarer medium,
so obliquely that it cannot be regularly refracted, it is totally re-
flected at an angle equal to that of its incidence.
(vii.) If equidistant undulations be supposed to pass through a
medium, of which the parts are susceptible of permanent vibrations
somewhat slower than the undulations, their velocity will be some-
what lessened by this vibratory tendency; and, in the same medium,
the more, as the undulations are more frequent.
(viii.) When two undulations, from different origins, coincide either
perfectly or very nearly in direction, their joint effect is a com-
bination of the motions belonging to each.
(ix.) Radiant light consists in undulations of the luminiferous
aether.
In the Philosophical Transactions for 1802, Young refers to his
discovery of " a simple and general law." The law is that
" wherever two portions of the same light arrive at the eye by
different routes, either exactly or very nearly in the same direc-
tion, the light becomes most intense where the difference of the
routes is a multiple of a certain length, and least intense in the
intermediate state of the interfering portions; and this length
is different for light of different colours."
This appears to be the first use of the word interfering or
interference as applied to light. When two portions of light
by their co-operation cause darkness, there is certainly " interfer-
ence " in the popular sense; but from a mechanical or mathe-
matical point of view, the superposition contemplated in pro-
position viii. would more naturally be regarded as taking place
without interference. Young applied his principle to the explana-
tion of colours of striated surfaces (gratings), to the colours of
thin plates, and to an experiment which we shall discuss later
1 The word " interference " as formed, on the false analogy of
such words as " difference," from " to interfere," which originally
was applied to a horse striking (Lat. ferire) one foot or leg against
the other.
in the improved form given to it by Fresnel, where a screen
is illuminated simultaneously by light proceeding from two
similar sources. As a preliminary to these explanations we
require an analytical expression for waves of simple type, and
an examination of the effects of compounding them.
§ 2. Plane Waves of Simple Type. — Whatever may be the cha-
racter of the medium and of its vibration, the analytical expression
for an infinite train of plane waves is
Acosjy(V<-*)+a|
(I),
in which X represents the wave-length, and V the corresponding
velocity of propagation. The coefficient A is called the amplitude,
and its nature depends upon the medium and may here be left an
open question. The phase of the wave at a given time and place is
represented by a. The expression retains the same value whatever
integral number of wave-lengths be added to or subtracted from x.
It is also periodic with respect to /, and the period is
r = X/V (2).
In experimenting upon sound we are able to determine independently
T, X, and V; but on account of its smallness the periodic time ol
luminous vibrations eludes altogether our means of observation,
and is only known indirectly from X and V by means of (2).
There is nothing arbitrary in the use of a circular function to
represent the waves. As a general rule this is the only kind of wave
which can be propagated without a change of form; and, even in
the exceptional cases where the velocity is independent of wave-
length, no generality is really lost by this procedure, because in
accordance with Fourier's theorem any kind of periodic wave may
be regarded as compounded of a series of such as (i), with wave-
lengths in harmonica! progression.
A well-known characteristic of waves of type (i) is that any
number of trains of various ampjitudes and phases, but of the same
wave-length, are equivalent to a single train of the same type. Thus
I -£(V*-*)+o | = SAcosa.cosy(V*-*)-ZAsina.siny'(V<-*)
= P cos j -£(Vt— x)+<t> | (3),
P2 = (2 A cos a)» +2 (A sin a)2 (4) ,
2(Asino) i-*
tan<t> = ~.,* — ( (5).
An important particular case is that of two component trains only.
2*
SAcos
where
A cos
+A'cos (Vt-
where
2 = A2+A'2+2AA'cos (o-a')
(6).
The composition of vibrations of the same period is precisely
analogous, as was pointed out by Fresnel, to the composition of
forces, or indeed of any other two-dimensional vector quantities.
The magnitude of the force corresponds to the amplitude of the
vibration, and the inclination of the force corresponds to the phase.
A group of forces, of equal intensity, represented by lines drawn
from the centre to the angular points of a regular polygon, con-
stitute a system in equilibrium. Consequently, a system of vibra-
tions of equal amplitude and of phases symmetrically distributed
round the period has a zero resultant.
According to the phase-relation, determined by (a — a'), the
amplitude of the resultant may vary from (A— A') to (A+A'). If
A' and A are equal, the minimum resultant is zero, showing that
two equal trains of waves may neutralize one another. This happens
when the phases are opposite, or differ by half a (complete) period,
and the effect is that described by Young as " interference."
§ 3. Intensity. — The intensity of light of given wave-length must
depend upon the amplitude, but the precise nature of the relation is
not at once apparent. We are not able to appreciate by simple
inspection the relative intensities of two unequal lights; and, when
we say, for example, that one candle is twice as bright as another,
we mean that two of the latter burning independently would give
us the same light as one of the former. This may be regarded as
the definition; and then experiment may be appealed to to prove
that the intensity of light from a given source varies inversely as
the square of the distance. But our conviction of the truth of the
law is perhaps founded quite as much upon the idea that something
not liable to loss is radiated outwards, and is distributed in suc-
cession over the surfaces of spheres concentric with the source,
whose areas are as the squares of the radii. The something can only
be energy; and thus we are led to regard the rate at which energy
is propagated across a given area parallel to the waves as the measure
of intensity; and this is proportional, not to the first power, but to
the square of the amplitude.
§ 4. Resultant of a Large Number of Vibrations of Arbitrary Phase. —
We have seen that the resultant of two vibrations of equal amplitude
686
INTERFERENCE OF LIGHT
is wholly dependent upon their phase-relation, and it is of interest
to inquire what we are to expect from the composition of a large
number (n) of equal vibrations of amplitude unity, and of arbitrary
phases. The intensity of the resultant will of course depend upon
the precise manner in which the phases are distributed, and may
vary from ri* to zero. But is there a definite intensity which becomes
more and more probable as n is increased without limit ?
The nature of the question here raised is well illustrated by the
special case in which the possible phases are restricted to two opposite
phases. We may then conveniently discard the idea of phase, and
regard the amplitudes as at random positive or negative. If all the
signs are the same, the intensity is n2; if, on the other hand, there
are as many positive as negative, the result is zero. But, although
the intensity may range from o to n2, the smaller values are much
more probable than the greater.
The simplest part of the problem relates to what is called in the
theory of probabilities the " expectation " of intensity, that is, the
mean intensity to be expected after a great number of trials, in each
of which the phases are taken at random. The chance that all the
vibrations are positive is 3~", and thus the expectation of intensity
corresponding to this contingency is 2~".w2. In like manner the
expectation corresponding to the number of positive vibrations
being (n-i) is
2-".n.(n-2)2,
and so on. The whole expectation of intensity is thus
(i).
1.2.3
Now the sum of the (n + l) terms of this series is simply n, as may
be proved by comparison of coefficients of x2 in the equivalent
forms
The expectation of intensity is therefore n, and this whether n be
great or small.
The same conclusion holds good when the phases are unrestricted.
From (4), § 2, if A=i,
P1 = n+2Scos (oj — ai) (2),
where under the sign of summation are to be included the cosines
of the Jn(n-i) differences of phase. When the phases are arbitrary,
this sum is as likely to be positive as negative, and thus the mean
value of P* is n.
The reader must be on his guard here against a fallacy which
has misled some high authorities. We have not proved that when
n is large there is any tendencj for a single combination to give
the intensity equal to n, but the quite different proposition that in a
large number of trials, in each of which the phases are rearranged
arbitrarily, the mean intensity will tend more and more to the
value n. It is true that even in a single combination there is no
reason why any of the cosines in (2) should be positive rather than
negative, and from this we may infer that when n is increased
the sum of the terms tends to vanish in comparison with the number
of terms. But, the number of terms being of the order n1, we can
infer nothing as to the value of the sum of the series in comparison
with n.
Indeed it is not true that the intensity in a single combination
approximates to n, when n is large. It can be proved (Phil. Mag.,
1880, 10, p. 73; 1899, 47, p. 246) that the probability of a resultant
intermediate in amplitude between r and r+dr is
-^e-r*i*rdr (3)1
The probability of an amplitude less than r is thus
(4),
or, which is the same thing, the probability of an amplitude greater
than r is
«""" (5).
The accompanying table gives the probabilities of intensities
less than the fractions of n named in the first column. For example,
the probability of intensity less than n is -6321.
•05
•0488
•80
•5506
•IO
•0952
I-OO
•6321
•20
•1813
1-50
•7768
•40
•3296
2-OO
•8647
•6O
•4512
3-oo
•9502
It will be seen that, however great n may be, there is a fair chance
of considerable relative fluctuations of intensity in consecutive
combinations.
The mean intensity, expressed by
is, as we have already seen, equal to n.
It is with this mean intensity only that we are concerned in
ordinary photometry. A source of light, such as a candle or even
a soda flame, may be regarded as composed of a very large number
of luminous centres disposed throughout a very sensible space;
and, even though it be true that the intensity at a particular point
of a screen illuminated by it and at a particular moment of time
is a matter of chance, further processes of averaging must be gone
through before anything is arrived at of which our senses could
ordinarily take cognizance. In the smallest interval of time during
which the eye could be impressed, there would be opportunity for
any number of rearrangements of phase, due either to motions of
the particles or to irregularities in their modes of vibration. And
even if we supposed that each luminous centre was fixed, and
emitted perfectly regular vibrations, the manner of composition
and consequent intensity would vary rapidly from point to point
of the screen, and in ordinary cases the mean illumination over the
smallest appreciable area would correspond to a thorough averaging
of the phase-relationships. In this way the idea of the intensity
of a luminous source, independently of any questions of phase, is
seen to be justified, and we may properly say that two candles are
twice as bright as one.
§ 5. Interference Fringes. — In Fresnel's fundamental experi-
ment light from a point O (fig. i) falls upon an isosceles prism
of glass BCD, with the angle at C very little less than two right
angles. The source of light may be a pin-hole through which
sunlight enters a dark room, or, more conveniently, the image
of the sun formed by a lens of short focus (i or 2 in.). For actual
experiment when, as usually happens, it is desirable to economize
light, the point may be replaced by a line of light perpendicular
to the plane of the diagram, obtained either from a linear source,
such as the filament of an incandescent electric lamp, or by
admitting light through a narrow vertical slit.
If homogeneous light be used, the light which passes through
the prism will consist of two parts, diverging as if from points d and
Oj symmetrically situated on opposite sides of the line CO. Suppose
a sheet of paper to be placed at A with its plane perpendicular to
the line OCA, and let us consider what illumination will be produced
at different parts of this paper. As Oi and Ot are images of O, crests
of waves must be supposed to start from them simultaneously.
Hence they will arrive simultaneously at A, which is equidistant
from them, and there they will reinforce one another. Thus there
will be a bright band on the paper parallel to the edges of the prism.
If Pi be chosen so that the difference between PiO2 and PiOi is
half a wave-length (i.e. half the distance between two successive
crests),Jthe two streams of light will constantly meet in such relative
conditions as to destroy one another. Hence there will be a line
of darkness on the paper, through Pi, parallel to the edges of the
prism. At P2, where OsPa exceeds OiP2 by a whole wave-length,
we have another bright band; and at P8, where O2P8 exceeds OiPj
by a wave-length and a half, another dark band ; and so on. Hence,
as everything is symmetrical about the bright band through A, the
screen will be illuminated by a series of bright and dark bands,
gradually shading into one another. If the paper screen be moved
parallel to itself to or from the prism, the locus of all the successive
positions of any one band will (by the nature of the curve) obviously
be an hyperbola whose foci are O: and Oj. Thus the interval between
any two bands will increase in a more rapid ratio than does the
distance of the screen from the source of light. But the intensity of
the bright bands diminishes rapidly as the screen moves farther off;
so that, in order to measure their distance from A, it is better to
substitute the eye (furnished with a convex lens) for the screen.
If we thus measure the distance APi between A and the nearest
bright band, measure also AO, and calculate (from the known
material and form of the prism, and the distance CO) the distance
OiOj, it is obvious that we can deduce from them the lengths of
OiP2 and p2P2. Their difference is the length of a wave of the homo-
geneous light experimented with. Though this is not the method
actually employed for the purpose (as it admits of little precision),
it has been thus fully explained here because it shows in a very
simple way the possibility of measuring a wave-length.
The difference between OiPi and OsPi becomes greater as APi
is greater. Thus it is clear that the bands are more widely separated
the longer the -wave-length of the homogeneous light employed. Hence
INTERFERENCE OF LIGHT
687
when we use white light, and thus have systems of bands of every
visible wave-length superposed, the band A will be red at its edges,
the next bright bands will be blue at their inner edges and red at
their outer edges. But, after a few bands are passed, the bright
bands due to one kind of light will gradually fill up the dark bands
due to another; so that, while we may count hundreds of successive
bright and dark bars when homogeneous light is used, with white
light the bars become gradually less and less defined as they are
farther from A, and finally merge into an almost uniform white
illumination of the screen.
If D be the distance from O to A, and P be a point on the screen
in the neighbourhood of A, then approximately
0,P-02P=V[D2+(«+W!-V{D'!-K«-i&)2! =«ft/D,
where 0^2 = ft, AP = u.
Thus, if X be the wave-length, the places where the phases are
accordant are given by
u = n\D/b (i),
n being an integer.
If the light were really homogeneous, the successive fringes
would be similar to one another and unlimited in number; more-
over there would be no place that could be picked out by inspection
as the centre of the system. In practice X varies, and (as we have
seen) the only place of complete accordance for all kinds of light
is at A, where u = o. Theoretically, there is no place of complete
discordance for all kinds of light, and consequently no complete
blackness. In consequence, however, of the fact that the range of
sensitiveness of the eye is limited to less than an " octave," the
centre of the first dark band (on either side) is sensibly black, even
when white light is employed ; but it should be carefully remarked
that the existence of even one band is due to selection, and that the
formation of several visible bands is favoured by the capability of
the retina to make chromatic distinctions within the visible range.
The number of perceptible bands increases fari passu with the
approach of the light to homogeneity. For this purpose there are
two methods that may be used.
We may employ light, such as that from the soda flame, which
possesses aft initio a. rather high degree of homogeneity. If the
range of wave-length included be ^ 4™, a corresponding number
of interference fringes may be made visible. The above was the
number obtained by A. H. L. Fizeau. Using vacuum tubes contain-
ing, for example, mercury or cadmium vapour, A. A. Michelson has
been able to go much farther. The narrowness of the bright line
of light seen in the spectroscope, and the possibility of a large
number of Fresnel's bands, depend upon precisely the same con-
ditions; the one is in truth as much an interference phenomenon as
the other.
In the second method the original light may be highly composite,
and homogeneity is brought about with the aid of a spectroscope.
The analogy with the first method is closest if we use the spectro-
scope to give us a line of homogeneous light in simple substitution
for the artificial flame. Or, following J. B. L. Foucault and Fizeau,
we may allow the white light to pass, and subsequently analyse the
mixture transmitted by a narrow slit in the screen upon which the
interference bands are thrown. In the latter case we observe a
channelled spectrum, with maxima of brightness corresponding to
the wave-lengths buj(nO). In either case the number of bands
observable is limited solely by the resolving power of the spectro-
scope, and proves nothing with respect to the regularity, or other-
wise, of the vibrations of the original light.
In lieu of the biprism, reflectors may be invoked to double
the original source of light. In one arrangement two reflected
images are employed, obtained from two reflecting surfaces nearly
parallel and in the same plane. Glass, preferably blackened
behind, may be used, provided the incidence be made sufficiently
oblique. In another arrangement, due to H. Lloyd, interference
takes place between light proceeding directly from the original
source, and from one reflected image. Lloyd's experiment deserves
to be better known, as it may be performed with great facility
and without special apparatus. Sunlight is admitted horizon-
tally into a darkened room through a slit situated in a window-
shutter, and, at a distance of 15 to 20 ft., is received at nearly
grazing incidence upon a vertical slab of plate glass. The length
of the slab in the direction of the light should not be less than
2 or 3 in., and for some special observations may advantageously
be much increased. The bands are observed on a plane through
the hinder vertical edge of the slab by means of a hand-magnify-
ing glass of from i to 2 in. focus. The obliquity of the reflector
is, of course, to be adjusted according to the fineness of the bands
required.
From the manner of their formation it might appear that under
no circumstances could more than half the system be visible.
But according to Sir G. B. Airy's principle (see below) the bands
may be displaced if examined through a prism. In practice
all that is necessary is to hold the magnifier somewhat excentric-
ally. The bands may then be observed gradually to detach
themselves from the mirror, until at last the complete system
is seen, as in Fresnel's form of the experiment.
The fringes now under discussion are those which arise from the
superposition of two simple and equal trains of waves whose direc-
tions are not quite parallel. If the two directions of propagation
are inclined on opposite sides of the axis of x at small angles a, the
expressions for two components of equal amplitude are
and
cos -=-(V/-« cos a-y sin a),
cos 2£|V/-* cos a+ y sin a),
so that the resultant is expressed by
2 cos '
v' sin a 2ir,,T.
-^ cos -T- [Vt-x cos a),
A A
from which it appears that the vibrations advance parallel to the
axis of x, unchanged in type, and with a uniform velocity V/cos a.
Considered as depending on y, the vibration is a maximum when y
sin a is equal to O, X, 2\, 3X, &c., corresponding to the centres of the
bright bands, while for intermediate values ^X, fX, &c., there is no
vibration.
From (i) we see that the linear width A of the bands, reckoned
from bright to bright or dark to dark, is
XD/6
(2).
The degree of homogeneity necessary for the approximate per-
fection of the n'h Fresnel's band may be found at once from (i) and
(2). For if du be the change in u corresponding to the change d\,
then
d«/A=ndX/X (3).
Now clearly du must be a small fraction of A, so that <fX/X must be
many times smaller than l/n, if the darkest places are to be sensibly
black. But the phenomenon will be tolerably well marked if the
proportional range of wave-length do not exceed i/2n, provided, that
is, that the distribution of illumination over this range be not con-
centrated towards the extreme parts.
So far we have supposed the sources at Oi, O« to be mathematic-
ally small. In practice, the source is an elongated slit, whose
direction requires to be carefully adjusted to parallelism with the
reflecting surface or surfaces. By this means an important ad-
vantage is gained in respect of brightness without loss of definition,
as the various parts of the aperture give rise to coincident systems
of bands.
The question of the admissible width of the slit requires considera-
tion. We will suppose that the light issuing from various parts of
the aperture is without permanent phase-relations, as when the
slit is backed immediately by a flame, or by an incandescent fila-
ment. Regular interference can then only take place between light
coming from corresponding parts of the two images, and a distinction
must be drawn between the two ways in which the images may be
situated relatively to one another. In Fresnel's experiment, whether
carried out with the mirrors or with the biprism, the correspond-
ing parts of the images are on the same side; that is, the right of
one corresponds to the right of the other, and the left of the one to
the left of the other. On the other hand, in Lloyd's arrangement
the reflected image is reversed relatively to the original source; the
two outer edges corresponding, as also the two inner. Thus in the
first arrangement the bands due to various parts of the slit differ
merely by a lateral shift, and the condition of distinctness is simply
that the projection of the width of the slit be a small fraction of
the width of the bands. From this it follows as a corollary that the
limiting width is independent of the order of the bands under
examination. It is otherwise in Lloyd's method. In this case the
centres of the systems of bands are the same, whatever part of
the slit is supposed to be operative, and it is the distance apart of the
images (6) that varies. The bands corresponding to the various
parts of the slit are thus upon different scales, and the resulting
confusion must increase with the order of the bands. From (i) the
corresponding changes in u and b are given by
du= -n\Ddb/b*;
so that
-ndb/b (4).
If db represents twice the width of the slit, (4) gives a measure of
the resulting confusion in the bands. The important point is that
the slit must be made narrower as n increases if the bands are to
retain the same degree of distinctness.
§ 6. Achromatic Interference Bands. — We have already seen
that in the ordinary arrangement, where the source is of white
light entering through a narrow slit, the heterogeneity of the
light forbids the visibility of more than a few bands. The scale
688
INTERFERENCE OF LIGHT
of the various band-systems is proportional to X. But this
condition of things, as we recognize from (2) (see § 5), depends
upon the constancy of b, i.e. upon the supposition that the
various kinds of light all come from the same place. Now there
is no reason why such a limitation need be imposed. If we
regard b as variable, we see that we have only to take b pro-
portional to X, in order to render the band-interval A independent
of colour. In such a case the system of bands is achromatic,
and the heterogeneity of the light is no obstacle to the formation
of visible bands of high order.
These requirements are very easily met by the use of Lloyd's
mirrors, and of a diffraction grating (see DIFFRACTION) with which
to form a spectrum. White light enters the dark room through a
slit in the window-shutter, and falls in succession upon a grating
and an achromatic lens, so as to form a real diffraction spectrum,
or rather a series of such, in the focal plane. The central image and
all the lateral coloured images except one are intercepted by a
screen. The spectrum which is allowed to pass is the proximate
source of light in the interference experiment, and since the deviation
of any colour from the central white image is proportional to X, it
is only necessary to arrange the mirror so that its plane passes
through the white image in order to realize the conditions for the
formation of achromatic bands.
When a suitable grating is at hand, the experiment in this form
succeeds very well. If we are satisfied with a less perfect fulfilment
of the achromatic conditions, the diffraction spectrum may be
replaced by a prismatic one, so arranged that d(\/b)=o for the
most luminous rays. The bands are then achromatic in the sense
that the ordinary telescope is so. In this case there is no objection
to a merely virtual spectrum, and the experiment may be very
simply executed with Lloyd's mirror and a prism of (say) 20° held
just in front of it.
The number of black and white bands shown by the prism is not
so great as might be expected. The lack of contrast that soon
supervenes can only be due to imperfect superposition of the various
component systems. That the fact is so is at once proved by ob-
serving according to the method of Fizeau; for the spectrum from
a slit at a very moderate distance out is seen to be traversed by
bands. If the adjustment has been properly made, a certain region
in the yellow-green is uninterrupted, while the closeness of the
bands increases towards the other end of the spectrum. So far as
regards the red and blue rays, the original bands may be considered
to be already obliterated, but so far as regards the central rays, to
be still fairly defined. Under these circumstances it is remarkable
that so little colour should be apparent on direct inspection of the
bands. It would seem that the eye is but little sensitive to colours
thus presented, perhaps on account of its own want of achromatism.
§ 7. Airy's Theory of the White Centre. — If a system of Fresnel's
bands be examined through a prism, the central white band
undergoes an abnormal displacement, which has been supposed
to be inconsistent with theory. The explanation has been shown
by Airy (Phil. Mag., 1833, 2, p. 161) to depend upon the peculiar
manner in which the white band is in general formed.
" Any one of the kinds of homogeneous light composing the
incident heterogeneous light will produce a series of bright and dark
bars, unlimited in number as far as the mixture of light from the
two pencils extends, and undistinguishable in quality. The con-
sideration, therefore, of homogeneous light will never enable us to
determine which is the point that the eye immediately turns to as
the centre of the fringes. What then is the physical circumstance
that determines the centre of the fringes?
" The answer is very easy. For different colours the bars have
different breadths. If then the bars of all colours coincide at one
part of the mixture of light, they will not coincide at any other
part ; but at equal distances on both sides from that place of coin-
cidence they will be equally far from a state of coincidence. If then
we can find where the bars of all colours coincide, that point is the
centre of the fringes.
" It appears then that the centre of the fringes is not necessarily
the point where the two pencils of light have described equal paths,
but is determined by considerations of a perfectly different kind. . . .
The distinction is important in this and in other experiments."
The effect in question depends upon the dispersive power of the
prism. If v be the linear shifting due to the prism of the originally
central band, v must be regarded as a function of X. Measured from
the original centre, the position of the nth bar is now
t/+«XD/6.
The coincidence of the various bright bands occurs when this quantity
is as independent as possible of X, that is, when n is the nearest
integer to
b dv
n DdX
(i);
or, as Airy expresses it in terms of the width of a band (A) , n = - dv/dA.
The apparent displacement of the white band is thus not i; simply,
but
The signs of dv and d\ being opposite, the abnormal displacement
is in addition to the normal effect of the prism. But, since dv/dA,
or dv/d\, is not constant, the achromatism of the white band is less
perfect than when no prism is used.
If a grating were substituted for the prism, v would vary as A,
and (2) would vanish, so that in all orders of spectra the white band
would be seen undisplaced.
In optical experiments two trains of waves can interfere only
when they have their origin in the same source. Otherwise, as it is
usually put, there can be no permanent phase-relation, and therefore
no regular interference. It should be understood, however, that
this is only because trains of optical waves are never absolutely
homogeneous. A really homogeneous train could maintain a
permanent phase-relation with another such train, and, it may
be added, would of necessity be polarized in its character. The
peculiarities of polarized light with respect to interference are treated
under POLARIZATION OF LIGHT.
In a classical experiment interference-bands were employed to
examine whether light moved faster or slower in glass than in air.
For this purpose a very thin piece of glass may be interposed in the
path of one of the interfering rays, and the resulting displacement
of the bands is such as to indicate that the light passing through
the glass is retarded. In a better form of the experiment two pieces
of parallel glass cut from the same plate are interposed between the
prism and the screen, so that the rays from Oi (fig. i) pass through
one part and those from Oj through the other. So long as these
pieces are parallel, no shifting takes place, but if one be slightly
turned, the bands are at once displaced. In the absence of dispersion
the retardation R due to the plate would be independent of X,
and therefore completely compensated at the point determined by
tt = DR/6; but when there is dispersion it is accompanied by a
fictitious displacement of the fringes on the principle explained by
Airy, as was shown by Stokes.
Before quitting this subject it is proper to remark that Fresnel's
bands are more influenced by diffraction than their discoverer
supposed. On this account the fringes are often unequally broad
and undergo fluctuations of brightness. A more precise calculation
has been given by H. F. Weber and by H. Struve, but the matter
is too complicated to be further considered here. The observations
of Struve appear to agree well with the corrected theory.
§ 8. Colours of Thin Plates. — These colours, familiarly known
as those of the soap-bubble, are seen under a variety of conditions
and were studied with some success by Robert Hooke under
the name of " fantastical colours " (Micrographia, 1664). The
inquiry was resumed by Sir Isaac Newton with his accustomed
power (" Discourse on Light and Colours," 1675, Opticks,
book ii.), and by him most of the laws regulating these pheno-
mena were discovered. Newton experimented especially with
thin plates of air enclosed by slightly curved glasses, and
the coloured rings so exhibited are usually called after him
" Newton's rings."
The colours are manifested in the greatest purity when the re-
flecting surfaces are limited to those which bound the thin film.
This is .the case of the soap-bubble. When, as is in other respects
more convenient, two glass plates enclosing a film of air are sub-
stituted, the light under examination is liable to be contaminated
by that reflected from the outer surfaces. A remedy may be found
in the use of wedge-shaped glasses so applied that the outer surfaces,
though parallel to one another, are inclined to the inner operating
surfaces. By suitable optical arrangements the two portions of
light, desired and undesired, may then be separated.
In his first essay upon this subject Thomas Young was able to
trace the formation of these colours as due to the interference of
light reflected from the two surfaces of the plate; or, as it would be
preferable to say, to the superposition of the two reflected vibrations
giving resultants of variable magnitude according to the phase-
relation. A difficulty here presents itself which might have proved
insurmountable to a less acute inquirer. The luminous vibration
reflected at the second surface travels a distance increased by
twice the thickness of the plate, and it might naturally be supposed
that the relative retardation would be measured by this quantity.
If this were so, the two vibrations reflected from the surfaces of an
infinitely thin plate would be in accordance, and the intensity of the
resultant a maximum. The facts were notoriously the reverse.
At the place of contact of Newton's glasses, or at the thinnest part
of a soap-film just before it bursts, the colour is black and not white
as the explanation seems to require. Young saw that the reconcilia-
tion lies in the circumstance that the two reflections occur under
different conditions, one, for example, as the light passes from air to
water, and the second as it passes from water to air. According to
mechanical principles the second reflection involves a change of
sign, equivalent to a gain or loss of half an undulation. When a
INTERFERENCE OF LIGHT
689
series of waves constituting any particular coloured light is reflected
from an infinitely thin plate, the two partial reflections are in
absolute discordance and, if of equal intensity, must give on super-
position complete darkness. With the aid of this principle the
sequence of colours in Newton's rings is explained in much the
same way as that of interference fringes (above, § 5).
The complete theory of the colours of thin plates requires us to
take account not merely of the two reflections already mentioned
but of an infinite series of
such reflections. This was
first effected by S. D. Poisson
for the case of retardations
which are exact multiples of
the half wave-length, and
afterwards more generally by
Sir G. B. Airy (Camb. Phil.
Trans., 1832, 4, p. 409).
In fig. 2, ABF is the ray, perpendicular to the wave-front, re-
flected at the upper surface, ABCDE the ray transmitted at B,
reflected at C and transmitted at D; and these are accompanied
by other rays reflected internally 3, 5, &c., times. The first step is
to calculate the retardation S between the first and second waves, so
far as it depends on the distances travelled in the plate (of index ;i)
and in air.
If the angle ABF =20, angle BCD=2a' and the thickness of
plate =t, we have
D\/t
o
FIG. 2.
— sin2a')
= 2jd cos a'
(i).
In (i) o' is the angle of refraction, and we see that, contrary to
what might at first have been expected, the retardation is least
when the obliquity is greatest, and reaches a maximum when the
obliquity is zero or the incidence normal. If we represent all the
vibrations by complex quantities, from which finally the imaginary
parts are rejected, the retardation S may be expressed by the intro-
duction of the factor e~~«{, where i = V (-1), and x = 2T/X.
At each reflection or refraction the amplitude of the incident wave
must be supposed to be altered by a certain factor which allows
room for the reversal postulated by Young. When the light proceeds
from the surrounding medium to the plate, the factor for reflection
will be supposed to be b, and for refraction c; the corresponding
quantities when the progress is from the plate to the surrounding
medium will be denoted by e, f. Denoting the incident vibration
by unity, we have then for the first component of the reflected
wave 6, for the second cefe~**s, for the third re3/*"2'*5, and so on.
Adding these together, and summing the geometric series, we find
(2).
In like manner for the wave transmitted through the plate we get
The quantities 6, c, e, f are not independent. The simplest way
to find the relations between them is to trace the consequences of
supposing 5=o in (2) and (3). This may be regarded as a develop-
ment from Young's point of view. A plate of vanishing thickness
is ultimately no obstacle at all. In the nature of things a surface
cannot reflect. Hence with a plate of vanishing thickness there
must be a vanishing reflection and a total transmission, and accord-
ingly
b+e = Q, cf=l-e* (4),
the first of which embodies Arago's law of the equality of reflections,
as well as the famous " loss of half an undulation. -Using these
we find for the reflected vibration,
(5),
and for the transmitted vibration
(6).
The intensities of the reflected and transmitted lights are the
squares of the moduli of these expressions. Thus
Intensity of reflected light^e2^
/c5 )
4e2sin2(j*5)
Intensity of transmitted light =
the sum of the two expressions being unity.
According to (7) not only does the reflected light vanish com-
pletely when « = o, but also whenever %k& = nir, n being an integer,
that is, whenever « = nX. When the first and third mediums are
the same, as we have here supposed, the central spot in the system
of Newton's ring is black, even though the original light contain
a mixture of all wave-lengths. If the light reflected from a plate
of any thickness be examined with a spectroscope of sufficient
resolving power, the spectrum will be traversed by dark bands, of
which the centre corresponds to those wave-lengths which the plate
is incompetent to reflect. It is obvious that there is no limit to the
fineness of the bands which may be thus impressed upon a spectrum,
whatever may be the character of the original mixed light.
The relations between the factors b, c, e, f have been proved,
independently of the theory of thin plates, in a general manner by
Stokes, who called to his aid the general mechanical principle
of reversibility. If the motions constituting the reflected and
refracted rays to which an incident ray gives rise be supposed to
be reversed, they will reconstitute a reversed incident ray. This
gives one relation; and another is obtained from the consideration
that there is no ray in the second medium, such as would be generated
by the operation alone of either the reversed reflected
or refracted rays. Space does not allow of the re-
production of the argument at length, but a few
words may perhaps give the reader an idea of how
the conclusions are arrived at. The incident ray A
(IA) (fig. 3) being i, the reflected (AR) and refracted / \
(AF) rays are denoted by 6 and c. When b is reversed , F o
it gives rise to a reflected ray 62 along AI, and a re-
fracted ray be along AG (say). When c is reversed, it FIG. 3-
gives rise to cf along AI, and ce along AG. Hence bc+ce = o,
V+cf=i, which agree with (4). It is here assumed that there is
no change of phase in the act of reflection or refraction, except such
as can be represented by a change of sign.
When the third medium differs from the first, the theory of thin
plates is more complicated, and need not here be discussed. One
particular case, however, may be mentioned. When a thin trans-
parent film is backed by a perfect reflector, no colours should be
visible, all the light being ultimately reflected, whatever the wave-
length may be. The experiment may be tried with a thin layer
of gelatin on a polished silver plate. In other cases where a different
result is observed, the inference is that either the metal does not
reflect perfectly, or else that the material of which the film is com-
posed is not sufficiently transparent. Some apparent exceptions to
the above rule, exhibited by thin films of collodion resting upon
silver surfaces, have been described by R. W. Wood (Physical
Optics, p. 143), who attributes the very curious effects observed to
frilling of the collodion film.
For study of the colours of thin plates there are no more interesting
subjects than the soap-film. For projection the films may be
stretched across vertical rings of iron wire coated with paraffin.
In their undisturbed condition they thin from the top, and the
colours are disposed in horizontal bands. If, as suggested by
Brewster, a jet of wind issuing from a small nozzle and supplied
from a well-regulated bellows be allowed to impinge obliquely,
parts of the film are set in rotation, and displays of colours may be
exhibited to a large audience, astonishing by their brilliance and
by the rapidity with which they change. Permanent films, analogous
to soap-films, are best obtained by Glew's method. A few drops of
celluloid varnish are poured upon the surface of water contained in
a large dish. After evaporation of the solvent, the films may be
picked up upon rings of iron wire.
As a variant upon Newton's rings, interesting effects may be
obtained by the partial etching of the surfaces of picked pieces of
plate-glass. A surface is coated in parallel stripes with paraffin
wax and treated with dilute hydrofluoric acid for such a time (found
by preliminary trials) as is required to eat away the exposed portions
to a depth of one quarter of the mean wave-length of light. Two
such prepared surfaces pressed in the crossed position into suitable
contact exhibit a chess-board pattern. Where two uncorroded, or
where two corroded, parts overlap, the colours are nearly the same;
but where a corroded and an uncorroded surface meet, a strongly
contrasted colour is developed. The combination lends itself to
projection and the pattern seen upon the screen is very beautiful
if proper precautions are taken to eliminate the white light reflected
from the first and fourth surfaces of the plates (see Nature, 1901,
64, 385)-
Theory and observation alike show that the transmitted colours
of a thin plate, e.g. a soap film or a layer of air, are very inferior
to those reflected. Specimens of ancient glass, which have undergone
superficial decomposition, on the other hand, sometimes show
transmitted colours of remarkable brilliancy. The probable ex-
planation, suggested by Brewster, is that we have here to deal not
merely with one, but with a series of thin plates of not very different
thicknesses. It is evident that with such a series the transmitted
colours would be much purer, and th^ reflected much brighter,
than usual. If the thicknesses are strictly equal, certain wave-
lengths must still be absolutely missing in the reflected light; while
on the other hand a constancy of the interval between the plates will
in general lead to a special preponderance of light of some other wave-
length for which all the component parts as they ultimately emerge
are in agreement as to phase.
On the same principle are doubtless to be explained the colours
of fiery opals, and, more remarkable still, the iridescence of certain
690
INTERFERENCE OF LIGHT
crystals of potassium chlorate. Stokes showed that the reflected
light is often in a high degree monochromatic, and that it is con-
nected with the existence of twin planes. A closer discussion
appears to show that the twin planes must be repeated in a periodic
manner (Phil. Mag., 1888, 26, 241, 256; also see R. W. Wood,
Phil. Mag., 1906).
A beautiful example of a similar effect is presented by G. Lipp-
mann's coloured photographs. In this case the periodic structure is
actually the product of the action of light. The plate is exposed to
stationary waves, resulting from the incidence of light upon a
reflecting surface (see PHOTOGRAPHY).
All that can be expected from a physical theory is the determina-
tion of the composition of the light reflected from or transmitted
by a thin plate in terms of the composition of the incident light.
The further question of the chromatic character of the mixtures
thus obtained belongs rather to physiological optics, and cannot
be answered without a complete knowledge of the chromatic re-
lations of the spectral cplours themselves. Experiments upon this
subject have been made by various observers, and especially by
J. Clerk Maxwell (Phil. Trans., 1860), who has exhibited his results
on a colour diagram as used by Newton. A calculation of the colours
of thin plates, based upon Maxwell's data, and accompanied by a
drawing showing the curve representative of the entire series up
to the fifth order, has been given by Rayleigh (Edin. Trans., 1887).
The colours of Newton's scale are met with also in the light trans-
mitted by a somewhat thin plate of doubly-refracting material,
such as mica, the plane of analysis being perpendicular to that of
primitive polarization.
The same series of colours occur also in other optical experiments,
e.g. at the centre of the illuminated area when light issuing from a
point passes through a small round aperture in an otherwise opaque
screen.
The colours of which we have been speaking are those formed at
nearly perpendicular incidence, so that the retardation (reckoned as
a distance), viz. 2int cos a', as sensibly independent of X. This state
of things may be greatly departed from when the thin plate is rarer
than its surroundings, and the incidence is such that a' is nearly
equal to 90°, for then, in consequence of the powerful dispersion,
cos o' may vary greatly as we pass from one colour to another.
Under these circumstances the serie» of colours entirely alters its
character, and the bands (corresponding to a graduated thickness)
may even lose their coloration, becoming sensibly black and white
through many alternations (Newton's Opticks, bk. ii. ; Fox-
Talbot, Phil. Mag., 1836, 9, p. 401). The general explanation of this
remarkable phenomenon was suggested by Newton.
Let us suppose that plane waves of white light travelling in glass
are incident at angle a upon a plate of air, which is bounded again
on the other side by glass. If n be the index of the glass, a.' the angle
of refraction, then sin o' = ^sin a; and the retardation, expressed by
the equivalent distance in air, is
2/sec a'— M. 2J tan a' sin a = 2/cosa' ;
and the retardation in phase is 2t cos o'/X, X being as usual the wave-
length in air.
The first thing to be noticed is that, when o approaches the
critical angle, cos a' becomes as small as we please, and that conse-
quently the retardation corresponding to a given thickness is very
much less than at perpendicular incidence. Hence the glass surfaces
need not be so close as usual.
A second feature is the increased brilliancy of the light. Ac-
cording to (7) the intensity of the reflected light when at a maximum
(sin J(ti = i) is 4«2/(l+«2) • At perpendicular incidence e is about
j, and the intensity is somewhat small; but, as cos a' approaches
zero, e approaches unity, and the brilliancy is much increased.
But the peculiarity which most demands attention is the lessened
influence of a variation in X upon the phase-retardation. A diminu-
tion of X of itself increases the retardation of phase, but, since waves
of shorter wave-length are more refrangible, this effect may be more
or less perfectly compensated by the greater obliquity, and conse-
quent diminution in the value of cos o'. We will investigate the
conditions under which the retardation of phase is stationary in
spite of a variation of X.
In order that X~'coso' may be stationary, we must have
X sin a'da'+cos a' d\ = o,
where (a being constant)
cos a 'do' = sin a dp.
Thus
(9),
giving o' when the relation between M and X is known.
According to A. L. Cauchy's formula, which represents the facts
very well throughout most of the visible spectrum,
so that
, , 2B
cot V = 73— =
XV
.
If we take, as for Chance's "extra-dense flint,"
and as for the soda lines, /» = 1-65, X = 5'89Xio~6, we get
o' = 79°3°'.
(10),
(ID-
-984Xio-JO,
At this angle of refraction, and with this kind of glass, the retardation
of phase is accordingly nearly independent of wave-length, and
therefore the bands formed, as the thickness varies, are approxi-
mately achromatic. Perfect achromatism would be possible only
under a law of dispersion
If the source of light be distant and very small, the black bands
are wonderfully fine and numerous. The experiment is best made
(after Newton) with a right-angled prism, whose hypothenusal
surface may be brought into approximate contact with a plate of
black glass. The bands should be observed with a convex lens, of
about 8 in. focus. If the eye be at twice this distance from the
prism, and the lens be held midway between, the advantages are
combined of a large field and of maximum distinctness.
If Newton's rings are examined through a prism, some very
remarkable phenomena are exhibited, described in his twenty-fourth
observation (Opticks ; see also Place, Fogg. Ann., 1861, 114, 504).
" When the two object-glasses are laid upon one another, so as to
make the rings of the colours appear, though with my naked eye
I could not discern above eight or nine of those rings, yet by viewing
them through a prism I could see a far greater multitude, insomuch
that I could number more than forty .... And I believe that the
experiment may be improved to the discovery of far greater numbers.
. . . But it was on but one side of these rings, namely, that towards
which the refraction was made, which by the refraction was rendered
distinct, and the other side became more confused than when
viewed with the naked eye. . . .
" I have sometimes so laid one object-glass upon the other that
to the naked eye they have all over seemed uniformly white, without
the least appearance of any of the coloured rings; and yet by
viewing them through a prism great multitudes of those rings have
discovered themselves."
Newton was evidently much struck with these " so odd circum-
stances"; and he explains the occurrence of the rings at unusual
thicknesses as due to the dispersing power of the prism. The blue
system being more refracted than the red, it is possible under certain
conditions that the nth blue ring may be so much displaced relatively
to the corresponding red ring as at one part of the circumference to
compensate for the different diameters. A white stripe may thus
be formed in a situation where without the prism the mixture of
colours would be complete, so far as could be judged by the eye.
The simplest case that can be considered is when the " thin plate "
is bounded by plane surfaces inclined to one another at a small
angle. By drawing back the prism (whose edge is parallel to the
intersection of the above-mentioned planes) it will always be possible
so to adjust the effective dispersing power as to bring the nth bars
to coincidence for any two assigned colours, and therefore approxi-
mately for the entire spectrum. The formation of the achromatic
band, or rather central black band, depends indeed upon the same
principles as the fictitious shifting of the centre of a system of
Fresnel's bands when viewed through a prism.
But neither Newton nor, as would appear, any of his successors
has explained why the bands should be more numerous than usual,
and under certain conditions sensibly achromatic for a large number
of alternations. It is evident that, in the particular case of the
wedge-shaped plate above specified, such a result would not occur.
The width of the bands for any colour would be proportional to X,
as well after the displacement by the prism as before; and the
succession of colours formed in white light and the number of
perceptible bands would be much as usual.
The peculiarity to be explained appears to depend upon the
curvature of the surfaces bounding the plate. For simplicity suppose
that the lower surface is plane (y = o), and that the approximate
equation of the upper surface is y = a-\-bxt, a being thus the least
distance between the plates. The black of the nth order for wave-
length X occurs when
lnX = a+W (12);
and thus the width (5x) at this place of the band is given by
\\ = 2bxtx (13);
or **=
If the glasses be in contact, as is usually supposed in the theory
of Newton's rings, a = o, and &x*x xl, or the width of the band of
the nth order varies as the square root of the wave-length, instead
of as the first power. Even in this case the overlapping and subse-
quent obliteration of the bands is greatly retarded by the use of the
prism, but the full development of the phenomenon requires that
a should be finite. Let us inquire what is the condition in order
that the width of the band of the nth order may be stationary, as
X varies. By (14) it is necessary that the variation of X2/(JnX— o)
should vanish. Hence o = }nX, so that the interval between the
surfaces at the place where the n"> band is formed should be half
due to curvature and half to imperfect contact at the place of
closest approach. If this condition be satisfied, the achromatism of
the nthband, effected by the prism, carries with it the achromatism
of a large number of neighbouring bands, and thus gives rise to the
remarkable effects described by Newton. Further developments
INTERFERENCE OF LIGHT
691
are given by Lord Rayleigh in a paper " On Achromatic Interference
Bands" (Phil. Mag., 1889, 28, pp. 77, 189); see also E. Mascart,
Traite d'optique.
In Newton's rings the variable element is the thickness of the
plate, to which the retardation is directly proportional, and in the
ideal case the angle of incidence is constant. To observe them the
eye is focused upon the thin plate itself, and if the plate is very thin
no particular precautions are necessary. As the plate thickens and
the order of interference increases, there is more and more demand
for homogeneity in the light, and we may have recourse to a sodium-
flame or a helium vacuum tube. At the same time the disturbing
influence of obliquity increases. Unless the aperture of the eye is
reduced, the rays reaching it from even the same point of the plate
are differently affected, and complications ensue tending to impair
the distinctness of the bands. To obviate this disturbance it is
best to work at incidences as nearly as possible perpendicular.
The bands seen when light from a soda flame falls upon nearly
parallel surfaces are often employed as a test of flatness. Two flat
surfaces can be made
to fit, and then the
bands are few and
' broad, if not entirely
absent; and, how-
ever the surfaces
may be presented to one another, the
bands should be straight, parallel and
equidistant. If this condition be violated,
one or other of the surfaces deviates from
flatness. In fig. 4, A and B represent the
glasses to be tested, and C is a lens of 2 or
3 ft. focal length. Rays diverging from a
soda flame at E are rendered parallel by
the lens, and after reflection from the
surfaces are recombined by the lens at E.
To make an observation, the coincidence
pIG . of the radiant point and its image must
be somewhat disturbed, the one being
displaced to a position a little beyond, and the other to a position
a little in front of the diagram. The eye, protected from the
flame by a suitable screen, is placed at the image, and being
focused upon AB, sees the field traversed by bands. The reflector
D is introduced as a matter of convenience to make the line of vision
horizontal.
These bands may be photographed. The lens of the camera
takes the place of the eye, and should be as close to the flame as
possible. With suitable plates, sensitized by cyanin, the exposure
required may vary from ten minutes to an hour. To get the best
results, trie hinder surface of A should be blackened, and the front
surface of B should be thrown out of action by the superposition of
a wedge-shaped plate of glass, the intervening space being filled with
oil of turpentine or other fluid having nearly the same refraction as
glass. Moreover, the light should be purified from blue rays by a
trough containing solution of bichromate of potash. With these
precautions the dark parts of the bands are very black, and the
exposure may be prolonged much beyond what would otherwise be
admissible.
By this method it is easy to compare one flat with another, and
thus, if the first be known to be free from error, to determine the
errors of the second. But how are we to obtain and verify a
standard? The plan usually followed is to bring three surfaces into
comparison. The fact that two surfaces can be made to fit another
in all azimuths proves that they are spherical and of equal curvatures,
but one convex and the other concave, the case of perfect flatness
not being excluded. If A and B fit one another, and also A and C,
it follows that B and C must be similar. Hence, if B and C also fit
one another, all three surfaces must be flat. By an extension of
this process the errors of three surfaces which are not flat can be
found from a consideration of the interference bands which they
present when combined in three pairs.
The free surface of undisturbed water is almost ideally flat, and,
as Lord Rayleigh (Nature, 1893, 48, 212) has shown, there is no
great difficulty in using it as a standard of comparison. Following
the same idea we may construct a parallel plate by superposing a
layer of water upon mercury. If desired, the superior reflecting
power of the mercury may be compensated by the addition of
colouring matter to the water.
Haidinger's Rings dependent on Obliquity. — It is remarkable
that the well-known theoretical investigation, undertaken with
the view of explaining Newton's rings, applies more directly to
a different system of rings discovered at a later date.
The results embodied in equations (i) to (8) have application in
the first instance to plates whose surfaces are absolutely parallel,
though doubtless they may be employed with fair accuracy when
the thickness varies but slowly.
We have now to consider t constant and a' variable in (i).
a' be small,
and since the differences of 8 are proportional to o2, the law of
formation is the same as for Newton's rings, where a' is constant and
/ proportional to the square of the distance from the point of contact.
In order to see these rings distinctly the eye must be focused, not
upon the plate, but for infinitely distant objects.
The earliest observation of rings dependent upon obliquity
appears to have been made by W. von Haidinger (Fogg. Ann.,
1849, 77, p. 219; 1855, 96, p. 453), who employed sodium light
reflected from a plate of mica (e.g. o- 2 mm. thick) . The transmitted
rays are the easier to see in their completeness, though they are
necessarily somewhat faint. For this purpose it is sufficient to
look through the mica, held close to the eye and perpendicular
to the line of vision, at a sheet of white paper or card illuminated
by a sodium flame. Although Haidinger omitted to consider
the double refraction of the mica and gave formulae not quite
correct for even singly refracting plates, he fully appreciated
the distinctive character of the rings, contrasting Beriihrungsriitge
und Plaltenringe. The latter may appropriately be named after
him. Their tardy discovery may be attributed to the technical
difficulty of obtaining sufficiently parallel plates, unless it be by
the use of mica or by the device of pouring water upon mercury.
Haidinger's rings were rediscovered by O. R. Lummer (Wied.
Ann., 1884, 23, p. 49), who pointed out the advantages
they offer in the examination of plates intended to be
parallel.
The illumination depends upon the intensity of the monochro-
matic source of light, and upon the reflecting power of the surfaces.
If R be the intensity of the reflected light we have from (7)
I-,, -.
R T4e»sin2( J*«) '
from which we see that if e = \ absolutely, i/R = R = i for all values
of 6. If e = I very nearly, R = I nearly for all values of 8 for which
sin2(|/(5) is not very small. In the light reflected from an extended
source, the ground will be of full brightness corresponding to the
source, but it will be traversed by narrow dark lines. By transmitted
light the ground, corresponding to general values of the obliquity,
will be dark, but will be interrupted by narrow bright rings, whose
position is determined by sin J(x5)=p. In permitting for certain
directions a complete transmission in spite of a high reflecting
power (e) of the surfaces, the plate acts the part of a resonator.
There is no transparent material for which, unless at high obliquity,
e approaches unity. In C. Fabry and A. PeVot's apparatus the
reflections at nearly perpendicular incidence are enhanced by lightly
silvering the surfaces. In this way the advantage of narrowing the
bright rings is attained in great measure without too heavy a sacri-
fice of light. The plate in the optical sense is one of air, and is
bounded by plates of glass whose inner silvered surfaces are ac-
curately flat and parallel. The outer surfaces need only ordinary
flatness, and it is best that they be not quite parallel to the inner
ones. The arrangement constitutes a spectroscope, inasmuch as it
allows the structure of a complex spectrum line to be directly
observed. If, for example, we look at a sodium flame, we see in
general two distinct systems of narrow bright circles corresponding
to the two D-lines. With particular values of the thickness of the
plate of air the two systems may coincide so as to be seen as a
single system, but a slight alteration of thickness will cause a
separation.
It will be seen that in this apparatus the optical parts are them-
selves of extreme simplicity; but they require accuracy of con-
struction and adjustment, and the demand in these respects is the
more severe the further the ideal is pursued of narrowing the rings
by increase of reflecting power. Two forms of mounting are em-
ployed. In one instrument, called the interferometer, the distance
between the surfaces — the thickness of the plate— is adjustable
over a wide range. In its complete development this instrument is
elaborate and costly. The actual measurements of wave-lengths
by Fabry and PeVot were for the most part effected by another
form of instrument called an etalon or interference-gauge. The
thickness of the optical plate is here fixed ; the glasses are held up
to metal knobs, acting as distance-pieces, by adjustable springs,
and the final adjustment to parallelism is effected by regulating
the pressure exerted by these springs. The distance between the
surfaces may be 5 or 10 mm.
The theory of the comparison of wave-lengths by means of this
apparatus is very simple, and it may be well to give it, following
closely the statement of Fabry and P6rot (Ann. chim. phys., 1902,
25, p. no). Consider first the cadmium radiation X treated as a
standard. It gives a system of rings. Let P be the ordinal number
of one of these rings, for example the first counting from the centre.
This integer is supposed known. The order of interference at the
centre will be p = P+e. We have to determine this number «,
lying ordinarily between o and I. The diameter of the ring under
692
INTERFERENCE OF LIGHT
consideration increases with «; so that a measure of the diameter
allows us to determine the latter. Let t be the thickness of the
plate of air. The order of interference at the centre is p = 2t/\.
This corresponds to normal passage. At an obliquity i the order of
interference is p cos »'. Thus if x be the angular diameter of the
ring P, p cos §x = P; or since x is small,
f-Pd-r-b-}.
In like manner, from observations upon another radiation \' to be
compared with A, we have
whence if / be treated as an absolute constant,
X' P,
*» *"\
-8— §7
(16).
The ratio X/X' is thus detei mined as a function of the angular
diameters *, *' and of th'e integers P, P'. If P, say for the cadmium
red line, is known, an approximate value of X/A' will usually suffice
to determine what integral value must be assigned to P', and thence
by (16) to allow of the calculation of the corrected ratio X'/X.
In order to find P we may employ a modified form of (16), viz.,
P' X
using spectrum lines, such as the cadmium red and the cadmium
green, for which the relative wave-lengths are already known with
accuracy from A. A. Michelson's work. To test a proposed integral
value of P (cadmium red), we calculate P' (cadmium green) from
(17), using the observed values of x, x'. If the result deviates from
an integer by more than a small amount (depending upon the
accuracy of the observations), the proposed value of P is to be
rejected. In this way by a process of exclusion the true value is
ultimately arrived at (Rayleigh, Phil. Mag., 1906, 685). It appears
that by Fabry and Perot's method comparisons of wave-lengths
may be made accurate to about one-millionth part ; but it is neces-
sary to take account of the circumstance that the effective thickness
t of the plate is not exactly the same for various wave-lengths as
assumed in (16).
§ 9. Newton's Diffusion Rings. — In the fourth part of the
second book of his Opticks Newton investigates another series of
rings, usually (though not very appropriately) known as the
•colours of thick plates. The fundamental experiment is as
follows. At the centre of curvature of a concave looking-glass,
quicksilvered behind, is placed an opaque card, perforated by a
small hole through which sunlight is admitted. The main body
of the light returns through the aperture; but a series of con-
centric rings are seen upon the card, the formation of which
was proved by Newton to require the co-operation of the two
surfaces of the mirror. Thus the diameters of the rings depend
upon the thickness of the glass, and none are formed when the
glass is replaced by a metallic speculum. The brilliancy of the
rings depends upon imperfect polish of the anterior surface of
the glass, and may be augmented by a coat of diluted milk, a
device used by Michel Ferdinand, due de Chaulnes. The rings
may also be well observed without a screen in the manner
recommended by Stokes. For this purpose all that is required
is to place a small flame at the centre of curvature of the prepared
glass, so as to coincide with its image. The rings are then seen
surrounding the flame and occupying a definite position in
space.
The explanation of the rings, suggested by Young, and developed
by Herschel, refers them to interference between one portion of
light scattered or diffracted by a particle of dust, and then regularly
refracted and reflected, and another portion first regularly refracted
and reflected and then diffracted at emergence by the same particle.
It has been shown by Stokes (Camb. Trans., 1851, 9, p. 147) that no
regular interference is to be expected between portions of light
diffracted by different particles of dust.
In the memoir of Stokes will be found a very complete discussion
of the whole subject, and to this the reader must be referred who
•desires a fuller knowledge. Our limits will not allow us to do more
than touch upon one or two points. The condition of fixity of the
rings when observed in air, and of distinctness when a screen is
used, is that the systems due to all parts of the diffusing surface
should coincide; and it is fulfilled only when, as in Newton's ex-
periments, the source and screen are in the plane passing through
the centre of curvature of the glass.
As the simplest for actual calculation, we will consider a little
further the case where the glass is plane and parallel, of thickness
i and index M, and is supplemented by a lens at whose focus the
source of light is placed. This lens acts both as collimator and as
object-glass, so that the combination of lens and plane mirror
replaces the concave mirror of Newton's experiment. The retarda-
tion is calculated in the same way as for
thin plates. In fig. 5 the diffracting particle
is situated at B, and we have to find the
relative retardation of the two rays which
emerge finally at inclination 8, the one
diffracted at emergence following the path
ABDBIE, and the other diffracted at
entrance and following the path ABFGH.
The retardation of the former from B to I
is 2/j.t + Bl, and of the latter from B to the
FIG. 5.
equivalent place G is 2juBF. NpwFB=isec0',
6' being the angle of refraction; BI=2< ian 6' sin 0; so that the
relative retardation F is given by
R = 2i*t[ I + it"1 tan 6' sine— sec 8'} = 2itt(l—cos8').
If 8, 8' be small, we may take
R = 2/02/M (i).
as sufficiently approximate.
The condition of distinctness is here satisfied, since R is the same
for every ray emergent parallel to a given one. The rays of one
parallel system are collected by the lens to a focus at a definite
point in the neighbourhood of the original source.
The formula (i) was discussed by Herschel, and shown to agree
with Newton's measures. The law of formation of the rings follows
immediately frcm the expression for the retardation, the radius of
the ring of nth order being proportional to n and to the square root
of the wave-length.
§ 10. Interferometer. — In many cases it is necessary that the
two rays ultimately brought to interference should be sufficiently
separated over a part of their course to undergo a different
treatment; for example, it may be desired to pass them through
different gases.
A simple modification of Young's original experiment suffices to
solve this problem. Light proceeding from a slit at A (fig. 6) per-
pendicular to the plane of
the paper, falls upon a colli- n |c
mating lens B whose aper- «=
ture is limited by two parallel A
and rather narrow slits of
equal width. The parallel rays FIG. 6.
CE, DF (shown broken in the
figure) transmitted by these slits are brought to a focus at G by the
lens EF where they form an image of the original slit A. This
image is examined with an eye-piece of high magnifying power.
The interference bands at G undergo displacement if the rays CE,
DF are subjected to a relative retardation. Consider what happens
at the point G, which is the geometrical image of A. If all is sym-
metrical so that the paths CE, DF are equal, there is brightness.
But if, for example, CE be subjected to a relative retardation of
half a wave-length, the brightness is replaced by darkness, and the
bands are shifted through half a band-interval.
An apparatus of this kind has been found suitable for deter-
mining the refractivity of gases, especially of gases available only in
small quantities (Proc. Roy. Soc., 1896,. 59, p. 198; 1898, 64^.95).
There is great advantage in replacing the ordinary eye-piece by a
simple cylindrical magnifier formed ^
of a glass rod 4 mm. in diameter.
Under these conditions a paraffin
lamp sufficed to illuminate the slit
at A, and allowed the refractivities
of gases to be compared to about
one-thousandth part.
If the object be to merely see
the bands in full development the
lenses of the above apparatus may
be dispensed with. A metal or
pasteboard tube 10 in. long carries
at one end a single slit (analogous
to A) and at the other a double
slit (analogous to C, D). This
double slit, which requires to be
very fine, may be made by scraping p.G _
two parallel lines with a knife " '"
on a piece of silvered glass. The tube is pointed to a bright light,
and the eye, held close behind the double slit, is focused upon the
far slit.
§ n. Other Refractometers. — In another form of refractometer,
employed by J. C. Jamin, the separations are effected by reflections
at the surfaces of thick plates. Two thick glass minors, exactly
the same in all respects, are arranged as in fig. 7. The first of the
two interfering rays is that which is reflected at the first surface of
the first reflector and at the second surface of the second reflector.
The second ray undergoes reflection at the second surface of the
first reflector and at the first surface of the second reflector. Uoon
INTERIM— INTERNATIONAL, THE
693
the supposition that the plates are parallel and equally thick, the
paths pursued by these two rays are equal. P represents a thin
plate of glass interposed in the path.of one ray, by which the bands
are shifted.
In Jamin's apparatus the two rays which produce interference
are separated by a distance proportional to the thickness of the
mirrors, and since there is a practical limit to this thickness, it is
not possible to separate the two rays very far. In A. A. Michelson's
interferometer there is no such restriction. " The light starts from
source S (fig. 8) and separates at the rear of plate A, part of it being
reflected to the plane mirror C,
returning exactly, on its path
through A, to O, where it may be
observed by a telescope or received
upon a screen. The other part of
the ray goes through the glass plate
A, passes through B, and is re-
flected by the plane mirror D,
returns on its path to the start-
ing point A, where it is reflected
so as nearly to coincide with
the first ray. The plane parallel
glass B is introduced to com-
FIG. 8.
pensate for the extra thickness of glass which the first ray
has traversed in passing twice through the plate A. Without
it the two paths would not be optically identical, because the first
would contain more glass than the second. Some light is reflected
from the front surface of the plate A, but its effect may be rendered
insignificant by covering the rear surface of A with a coating of
silver of such thickness that about equal portions of the incident
light are reflected and transmitted. The plane parallel plates A
and B are worked originally in one piece, which is afterwards cut
in two. The two pieces are placed parallel to one another, thus
ensuring exact equality in the two optical paths AC and AD" (see
Michelson, Light-Waves and their Uses, Chicago, 1903).
The adjustments of this apparatus are very delicate. Of the fully
silvered mirrors C, D, the latter must be accurately parallel to the
image of the former. For many purposes one of the mirrors, C,
must be capable of movement parallel to itself, usually requiring
the use of very truly constructed ways. An escape from this difficulty
may be found in the employment of a layer of mercury, standing on
copper, the surface of which automatically assumes the horizontal
position.
Michelson's apparatus, employed to view an extended field of
homogeneous light, exhibits Haidinger's rings, and if all is in good
order the dark parts are sensibly black. As the order of interference
increases, greater and greater demand is made upon the homogeneity
of the light. Thus, if the illumination be from a sodium flame, the
rings are at first distinct, but as the difference of path increases the
duplicity of the bright sodium line begins to produce complications.
After 500 rings, the bright parts of one system coincide with the
dark parts of the other (Fizeau), and if the two systems were equally
bright all trace of rings would disappear. A little later the rings
would again manifest themselves and, after 1000 had gone by,
would be nearly or quite as distinct as at first. And these alterna-
tions of distinctness and indistinctness would persist until the point
was reached at which even a single sodium line was insufficiently
homogeneous. Conversely, the changes of visibility of the rings as
the difference of path increases give evidence as to the duplicity of
the line. In this way Michelson obtained important information
as to the constitution of the approximately homogeneous lines
obtained from electrical discharge through attenuated metallic
vapours. Especially valuable is the vacuum tube containing
cadmium. The red line proved itself to be single and narrow in
a high degree, and the green line was not far behind.
But although in Michelson's hands the apparatus has done ex-
cellent spectroscopic work, it is not without its weak points. A
good deal of labour is required to interpret the visibility curves,
and in some cases the indications are actually ambiguous. For
instance, it is usually impossible to tell on which side of the principal
component a feebler companion lies. It would seem that for spectro-
scopic purposes this apparatus must yield to that of Fabry and
PeVot, in which multiple reflections are utilized; this is a spectro-
scope in the literal sense, inasmuch as the constitution of a spectrum
line is seen by simple inspection. (R.)
INTERIM, originally a Latin word for " in the meantime."
The word was hence applied to certain edicts and decrees passed
by the emperor and the diets during the reformation in Germany
with the object of temporarily settling a controversy. These
" interims " regulated points of religious and ecclesiastical
difference until they could be decided by a general council.
The best example of such a modus mvendi is the Augsburg
Interim of 1548, drawn up by Michael Helding, Julius von
Pflug and John Agricola (a medievalist, an Erasmian, and a
conservative Lutheran) at the bidding of Charles V., and accepted
by the diet. It was an ambiguous document, teaching from the
Roman Catholic side transubstantiation, the seven sacraments,
adoration of the Virgin and saints, and papal headship, and from
the Protestant, justification by faith, marriage of priests, the
use of the cup by the laity. Maurice of Saxony was permitted
to vary the interim for his dominions, and his edition was called
the Leipzig Interim. An earlier interim was that of Regensburg,
INTERLACED ARCHES, the term for a scheme of decoration
employed in Romanesque and Gothic architecture, where arches
are thrown from alternate piers, interlacing or intersecting
one another. In the former case, the first arch mould is carried
alternately over and under the second, in the latter the mouldings
actually intersect and stop one another. An example of the
former exists in St Peter's in the East, Oxford, and of the latter in
St Joseph's chapel, Glastonbury, and in the cathedral of Bristol.
INTERLAKEN, a Swiss town (1864 ft.) in the canton of
Berne, situated on the flat plain (Bodeli) between the lakes of
Brienz (E.) and of Thun (W.), and connected by steamer, as
well as by railway (17^ m.) with the town of Thun. It is built
on the left bank of the Aar, and grew up around the religious
house of Austin Canons, founded about 1130 and suppressed
in 1528. In the surviving buildings of the convent religious
services (Anglican, Scottish Presbyterian and French Protestant)
are now held, while the more modern castle is occupied by
offices of the Cantonal Government. The fine and well-shaded
avenue called the Hoheweg runs through the main portion of the
town, and is lined on the north side by a succession of huge
hotels and the large Kursaal. Interlaken is much frequented
in summer, partly because of the glorious view of the Jungfrau
(13,669 ft.) which it commands to the south, and partly because
it is the best starting-point for many excursions, as to Schynige
Platte, Lauterbrunnen and Grindelwald. The lines serving
these places all start from the eastern railway station (that from
Thun reaches the western or main railway station), whence
steamers depart for the Giessbach Falls, Brienz and Meiringen, on
the way to Lucerne or to the Grimsel Pass. In 1900 the popula-
tion of Interlaken was 2962 (mainly Protestant and German-
speaking). Opposite Interlaken, and on the right bank of the
Aar is Unterseen (in 1900, 2607 inhabitants), which was built
in 1280 by Berthold von Eschenbach.
See Fontes rerutn Bernensium (original documents up to 1366)
(8 vols., Berne, 1883-1903); Die Regesten des Kloslers zu Interlaken
(Coire, 1849) ; E. Tatarinoff , Die Entwickelung der Probstei Interlaken
im XIII. Jahrhunderl (Schaffhausen, 1892). (W. A. B. C.)
INTERLOPER, one who interferes in affairs in which he
has no concern. This word, with the verbal form " to interlope,"
first appears at the end of the i6th and beginning of the iyth
century in connexion with the interference of unauthorized
persons in the trading monopoly of the Russia Company and
later of the East India Company. The New English Dictionary
quotes from H. Lane (1590), Hakluyt's Voyages, " From those
parts the Muscovites were furnished out of Dutchland by
enterlopers with all arts and artificers and had few or none
by us," and also from the Minutes of the Court of the East India
Company, 22nd of February 1615, "to examine all suspected
personnes that intend interlopinge into the East Indies or
Muscovy." Edward Phillips (New World of Words, 1658) defines
interlopers at common law as those " that without legal authority
intercept the trade of a company, as it were Interleapers."
The word appears to be of English origin, for the Dutch enter-
looper, smuggler, often given as the source, was taken from
English, as was the French interlope. The word is a compound
of inter, between, and lope, a dialectal variant of " leap." A
common word for a vagrant, or " straggler," as it is defined,
was till 1580 " landloper," and the combination of " straggler "
and " interloper " is found in Horsey 's Travels (Hakluyt Soc.),
1603-1627, " all interlopers and straglyng Englishmene lyving
in that country."
INTERNATIONAL, THE. The International Working Men's
Association, commonly called " The International," was
formed at London in 1864. It was a society of working men
of all nations, somewhat like a cosmopolitan trades union, but
694
INTERNATIONAL LAW
bearing a still closer resemblance to an international social
science association for discussing and furthering the rights of
labour. The occasion of its formation was the visit of some
French workmen to the London Exhibition of 1862. In the
course of their visit the labour question was discussed, and a
desire for the further interchange of ideas expressed. Nothing
decisive was done till 1864, when a great public meeting of
working men of all nations was held at St Martin's Hall, London,
and a provisional committee was appointed to draft the con-
stitution of the new association.
The first four congresses of the International, held at Geneva
(September 1866), Lausanne (1867), Brussels (1868), and Basel
(1869), marked the rapid development of the association. It
gained its first triumph in the effectual support of the bronze-
workers at Paris during their lock-out in 1867; and it repeatedly
aided the English unionists by preventing the importation of
cheap labour from the continent. It soon spread as far east
as Poland and Hungary, and it had affiliated societies with
journals devoted to its cause in every country of western
Europe.
It was supposed to be concerned in all the revolutionary
movements and agitations of Europe, gaining notoriety as the
rallying point of social overthrow and ruin. Its prestige,
however, was always based more on the vast possibilities of the
cause it represented than on its actual power. Its organization
was loose, its financial resources insignificant; the continental
unionists joined it more in the hope of borrowing than of con-
tributing support. At the successive congresses its socialistic
tendencies became more and more pronounced; it declared
its opposition to private property not only in railways but in
mines and the soil, holding that these should revert to the
community. Even the principle of inheritance was saved only
by a narrow majority. In 1869 M. Bakunin, the Russian socialist
or nihilist, with his party joined the association, and at once
asserted his character as the " apostle of universal destruction."
The relation of the association to the communal rising at
Paris in the spring of 1871 has been the subject of much dispute.
It is now agreed that the International as such had no part either
in originating or conducting it; some of its French members
joined it, but only on their individual responsibility. Its
complicity after the event is equally clear. After the fall of the
commune the general council of London, Karl Marx included,
issued a long and trenchant manifesto, approving its action and
extolling the " glorious vanquished." From this point the
decline and fall of the association is to be dated. The English
unionists, intent on more practical concerns at home, never
took a deep interest in its proceedings; the German socialists
were hindered by law from corporate action; America was too
remote. But it found its worst enemies amongst its own friends;
the views of Marx and his school were too moderate for the
universally subversive principles of M. Bakunin and the radical
Swiss federation of the Jura. It came to a rupture at the
congress of 1872, held at the Hague, when Bakunin, being
outvoted and " excommunicated " by the Marx party, formed
a rival International, which found its chief support in Spain and
Italy. Wearied of its European contentions and desirous
to form a basis of operation in America, the Marx International
now transferred the seat of its general council to New York;
but it survived just long enough to hold another congress at
Geneva in 1874, and then quietly expired.
The party of destruction styling themselves " autonomists "
had a bloodier history. The programme of this party was
to overturn all existing institutions, with the view to reconstruct-
ing them on some vague communal basis such as had been tried
at Paris in 1871. It endeavoured to realize this in the great
communal risings in southern Spain in 1873, when its adherents
set up their peculiar form of government at Barcelona, Seville,
Cadiz and Cartagena — at the last-mentioned place also seizing
part of the ironclad fleet of Spain. As at Paris, they failed
in leadership and organization, and were suppressed, though not
without difficulty, by the national troops. The " autonomists "
lingered on till 1879. The collapse was complete of an association
which once extended from Hungary to San Francisco, and
alarmed the minds of mem with visions of universal ruin.
See Villetard, Histpire de I' Internationale (Paris, 1871); Testut,
L' Internationale (Paris, 1871); Onslow Yorke, Secret History of the
International (London, 1871); J. Rae, Contemporary Socialism;
also the articles MARX and SOCIALISM.
INTERNATIONAL LAW, the general term for the law govern-
ing the relations and intercourse of states with one another.
The parties in its application are states (see STATE) and not
nations, so that the word " international " does not accurately
limit the scope of the subject. Nor do authors always confine
themselves to its proper limitation. Thus the rules relating
to nationality and naturalization, extradition, patents, trade
marks, &c., which affect states on the one side and foreign
persons on the other, are generally included among the subject-
matter of International Law. There is a special branch of
International Law known as Private International Law (see
INTERNATIONAL LAW, PRIVATE) which deals exclusively with
the relations of persons belonging to different states, in which
states as such are not parties.
The term " international " was first used by Bentham. His
explanation of the new term was as follows: —
" The word international, it must be acknowledged, is a new one;
though, it is hoped, sufficiently analogous and intelligible. It is
calculated to express, in a more significant way, the branch of law
which goes commonly under the name of " law of nations," an
appellation so uncharacteristic that, were it not for the force of
custom, it would seem rather to refer to internal jurisprudence.
The chancellor d'Aguesseau has already made, I find, a similar
remark; he says that what is commonly called droit des gens ought
rather to be termed droit entre les gens. There remain then the
mutual transactions between sovereigns as such, for the subject of
that branch of jurisprudence which may be properly and exclusively
termed international." '
There has been much controversy as to the aptness of the use
of the word " law " in this connexion. " International law,"
said the 3rd marquess of Salisbury in a speech on the establish-
ment of a Court of International Arbitration, " has no existence
in the sense in which the term ' law ' is usually understood.
It depends generally upon the prejudices of writers of text-books.
It can be enforced by no tribunal, and therefore to apply to it
the phrase ' law ' is to some extent misleading." 2 This has been
more or less the view not only of most British statesmen but
also of many practical English jurists. It found one of its most
emphatic exponents in Lord Chief-Justice Coleridge. " Strictly
speaking," he observed in his judgment on the Franconia case,3
" international law is an inexact expression, and it is apt to
mislead, if its inexactness is not kept in mind. Law implies a
lawgiver and a tribunal capable of enforcing it and coercing its
transgressors, but there is no common lawgiver to sovereign states,
and no tribunal has the power to bind them by decrees or coerce
them if they transgress. The law of nations is that collection
of usages which civilized states have agreed to observe in their
dealings with one another. What these usages are, whether a
particular one has or has not been agreed to, must be matter of
evidence. Treaties and acts of states are but evidence of the
agreement of nations, and do not, in England at least, per se
bind the tribunals. Neither certainly does a consensus of jurists,
but it is evidence of the agreement of nations on international
points, and on such points, when they arise, the English courts
give effect as part of English law to such agreement."
In opposition to this view may be cited the more recent one
expressed by Lord Russell of Killowen, who challenged Lord
Coleridge's view as " based on too narrow a definition of law,
a definition which relies too much on force as the governing idea."
" If," he added, " the development of law is historically con-
sidered it will be found to exclude that body of customary
law which in early stages of society precedes law. As govern-
ment becomes more frankly democratic, laws bear less and less
the character of commands imposed by a coercive authority, and
acquire more and more the character of customary law founded
1 Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation
(Clarendon Press edition of 1879).
« The Times, July 26, 1887. ' ' R. v. Keyn, 2, Ex.D. 63.
INTERNATIONAL LAW
695
on consent. ... I claim that the aggregate of the rules to which
nations have agreed to conform in their conduct towards one
another are properly to be designated International Law."1
This recalls Blackstone's definition: " The law of nations is a
system of rules, deducible by natural reason, and established by
universal consent among the civilized inhabitants of the world,
in order to decide all disputes, to regulate all ceremonies and
civilities, and to ensure the observance of justice and good faith
in that intercourse which must frequently occur between two or
more independent states, and the individuals belonging to each."2
The current English narrower view owes its origin chiefly to the
influence of John Austin, and the current broader one to that of
Sir Henry Maine.3 The increasing popularity of references to
.international arbitration (see ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL),
the adoption of a large number of special treaties making such
references compulsory in certain cases, the establishment of and
increasing recourse to the court for the decision of difficulties
between states created by The Hague " Convention for the
pacific settlement of disputes between States " of 1899 (see
PEACE), the adoption of fixed rules of law in the international
conventions in 1899, 1907 and 1909 dealing with many of the
most controversial questions of international usage, have so
transformed the subject that if, as Lord Coleridge said, law
implies a lawgiver and a tribunal capable of enforcing it, these
conditions are now at any rate partly fulfilled. We shall see below
to what extent it may be necessary to regard power of enforce-
ment against transgressors as requisite to give international law
the character of law properly so-called.
Sanctions. — The subject of the enforcement of International
Law, or its " sanctions," has given rise to much controversy.
The word " sanction " is derived from the Lat. sanctio, which in
turn is derived from sancire, to consecrate. In its original sense
sanctio means consecration. From this followed the sense of
religious obligation. Thus sancire legem is used by Roman
writers as meaning that observance was made obligatory, but
without reference to the idea of there being a remedy or penalty
for non-observance. With the development of an organized
judicial system the religious or moral obligation was displaced
by the growth of remedial procedure. Cicero observes of some
legal restrictions, hoc non sancitur lege civili (this is not con-
secrated by the civil law, i.e. with penalties). A collateral
sense of the word grew up which meant ratification, as where
Cicero speaks of sancire acta Caesaris or of sancire foedus.
Bentham, who worked out the theory of legal sanctions as
applied to modern law, describes them as equivalent to pleasures
and pains derived from four different sources. These are physical,
political, moral and religious. The first three belong to experi-
ence in the present life, the fourth to that in the present life or
hereafter.4
Austin's analysis of this vague subdivision led him to a more
precise determination of the relationship of sanctions to law,
viz. that a law properly so-called is a command and its sanction
is the power to enforce obedience to it. Stated briefly, any other
kind of law according to Austin is not positive law but merely
called so by analogy. Applying this test to International Law
he concludes that the law obtaining between nations is not posi-
tive law; for every positive law is set by a given sovereign to
a person or persons in a state of subjection to its author. The
law obtaining between nations is only law set by general opinion,
1 Address at Saratoga Springs, N.Y., 1896 (Law Quarterly Review,
October 1896).
2 Commentaries on the Law of England, 4th ed., iv. 66.
* Austin's view, as set out in the Province of Jurisprudence Deter-
mined, is that laws proper, or properly so-called, are commands;
laws which are not commands are laws improper or improperly
so-called. A command implies a definite superior in a position to
enforce the command. Where there is no superior to impose
obedience there is no law. Rules which " are imposed among
nations or sovereigns by opinions current among nations are
usually styled the law of nations or international law. Now, a
law set or imposed by public opinion is a law improperly so-called "
(p. 147). For Sir H. Maine's views see below.
1 Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation (Oxford,
1879), pp. 24 et seq.
with duties which are only enforced by moral sanction; by fear
on the part of nations, or by fear on the part of a sovereign,
of provoking general hostility, and incurring its probable evils,
in case they should violate maxims generally respected.5
Sir H. Maine's somewhat indirect answer to Austin may now
be taken as the view held at least by British theoretical writers,
" Austin, "he said, " has shown, though not without some straining
of language, that the sanction is found everywhere, in positive
law, civil and criminal. This is, in fact, the great feat which he
performed, but some of h's disciples seem to me to draw the
inference from his language that men always obey rules from
fear of punishment. As a matter of fact this is quite untrue,
for the largest number of rules which men obey are obeyed
unconsciously, from a mere habit of mind. Men do sometimes
obey rules for fear of the punishment which will be inflicted if
they are violated, but, compared with the mass of men in each
community, this class is but small; probably it is substantially
confined to what are called the criminal classes, and for one man
who refrains from stealing or murdering because he fears the
penalty there must be hundreds of thousands who refrain
without a thought on the subject." 6
The view, however, that a law is not devoid of binding
character because there is no authority to enforce its observance
hardly requires justification at the present day. The fact that
any well-established international usage is observed, and that
states invariably endeavour to answer any reproach of departing
from such usage by explanations showing that the incriminated
act is justified by recognized rules of International Law, is
evidence of its binding character. As the late Professor Rivier,
one of the leading authorities on Roman Law, as well as an
international jurist of eminence, has expressed it: " The law of
nations is positive law because states wish it to be so. They
recognize its compulsory character and proclaim it. As they
are their own legislators and make their common laws by express
or tacit consent, they attest explicitly and implicitly their
conviction that its principles are binding upon them, as judicial
principles, as law. Innumerable public acts, affirmations, de-
clarations and conventions are there to prove it. On the other
hand, never in any published official act of the present age,
verbal or written, has a state dared to declare that it did not
consider itself bound by the law of nations and its principles."7
States, as Professor Rivier says, have again and again solemnly
declared their determination to abide by the principles of
International Law. Witness the Declaration of Aix-la-Chapelle
of November 15, 1818, in which the representatives of five
powers, Austria, France, Great Britain, Russia and Prussia,
solemnly stated that " the sovereigns in forming this august
union have regarded as its fundamental basis their unchangeable
resolution never to depart, either amongst themselves or in their
relations with other states, from the strictest observance of the
principles of the law of nations, principles which, in their applica-
tion to a permanent state of peace, can alone effectively guarantee
the independence of each government and the stability of the
general association." In the negotiations for the Treaty of
London concerning the Black Sea (March 13, 1871), at which
seven powers were represented, Austria-Hungary, France,
Germany, Great Britain, Italy, Russia and Turkey, a resolution
on the sanctity of treaties was annexed to the first protocol,
stating that the plenipotentiaries recognize that it is an essential
principle of the law of nations that " no power can liberate itself
5 Province of Jurisprudence Determined (1861), p. 177; Austin
explains his view more fully at p. 127.
6 International Law, p. 50.
7 Droit des gens (1896), i. 22. Compare Savigny: "A com-
munity of judicial conscience can be formed among nations
like that which positive law creates in the bosom of one people.
The foundations of that intellectual community are constituted
partly by a community of race, partly and especially by a com-
munity of religious convictions. Such is the basis of the law of
nations which exists principally among European Christian states,
but which was not known to the peoples of antiquity. We are
entitled to look upon this law as a positive law, although it is an
incomplete judicial formation " (eine unvollendete Rechtsbildung),
System des heutigen romischen Rechts (1840), i. § n.
696
INTERNATIONAL LAW
from the engagements of a treaty, nor modify the stipulations
thereof, unless with the consent of the contracting powers by
means of an amicable arrangement." Even in 1908, when
Austria-Hungary proceeded to the annexation of Bosnia-
Herzegovina without obtaining the prior assent of the high
contracting powers, who under the treaty of Berlin of 1878
had granted her temporary occupation of the annexed
provinces, the protests of the powers concerned were answered
by Austria-Hungary declaring that she had done nothing
contrary to the law of nations or affecting the sanctity of
treaties, because the powers had given their tacit consent to the
practical transformation of her temporary into a permanent
occupation.
The public opinion of the civilized world, in fact, plays in
an ever-increasing degree the part of a sanctioning authority.
With the growth of international intercourse and international
interdependence the danger of isolation or of discredit or even
of " boycotting " becomes a matter of increasing importance in
the conduct of states. The national press and periodical litera-
ture, with exceptions no doubt, are among the chief factors in
the development of this public opinion, but it is by no means
dependent upon them. Personal intercourse among citizens of
the same country, and between statesmen, politicians and
citizens of different countries has a still greater effect in the
creation of the mental attitude of nations towards each other.
This exposes any departure from recognized usage or any dis-
regard for international obligations to such reprobation through-
out the whole world, that, far from taking advantage of the
absence of any coercive method of enforcing obedience to the
principles of international law, states compete with each other
in asserting their strict fidelity to such principles. And now
successive diplomatic conferences have codified many of the chief
branches of international usage, thus diminishing the possible
cases in which states can take advantage of the uncertainty
of the law and, by quibbling over its interpretation, escape from
its obligations.
Sources and Foundations. — It is usual, following Wheaton's
classification,1 to enumerate the sources of International Law
in the following groups: text- writers of authority as witnesses
of usage; treaties of peace, alliance and commerce; ordinances
of particular states, prescribing rules for the conduct of their
commissioned cruisers and prize tribunals; adjudications of
international tribunals; written opinions of official jurists given
confidentially to their own government; history of wars,
negotiations, treaties and other transactions relating to the
public intercourse of nations. It is in these different classes of
opinions and precedents that writers have been in the habit of
searching for those arguments and analogies on which have
been built up the system and principles called International
Law.
Wheaton, it is seen, regarded text-writers as witnesses of the
usage of nations. He explains his meaning as follows: " With-
out wishing to exaggerate the importance of these writers, or
to substitute in any case their authority for the principles of
reason, it may be affirmed that they are generally impartial in
their judgment. They are witnesses of the sentiments and usages
of civilized nations, and the weight of their testimony increases
every time that their authority is invoked by statesmen, and
every year that passes without the rules laid down in their works
being impugned by the avowal of contrary principles." This
distinguished writer's quasi-explanation of the sources of Inter-
national Law is extremely vague. He masses together cause and
effect, private and public opinions, usage and exceptions.
Professor Oppenheim has endeavoured to give a more scientific
explanation of the growth and development of International Law,
and objects to calling sources of International Law what are
mere factors influencing its growth: —
"... Custom and treaties," he observes, " are the two exclusive
sources of the Law of Nations. When writers on International Law
frequently enumerate other sources besides custom and treaties
1 Elements (London, 1885), pp. 22 et seq.
Prece-
dents.
they confound the term ' source ' with that of ' cause ' 2 by calling
sources of International Law such factors as influence the gradual
growth of new rules of International Law without, however, being
the historical facts out of which these rules receive their legal force.
Important factors of this kind are: Opinions of famous writers on
International Law, decisions of prize courts, arbitral awards, instruc-
tions issued by the different states for the guidance of their diplomatic
and other organs, state papers concerning foreign politics, certain
municipal laws, decisions of municipal courts. All these and other
factors may influence the growth of International Law either by
creating usages which gradually turn into custom, or by inducing
the members of the Family of Nations to conclude such treaties as
stipulate legal rules for future international conduct.
" A factor of the special kind which also influences the growth of
International Law is the so-called comity (Comitas gentium, Con-
venance et courtoisie Internationale, Staatengunat). In their inter-
course with one another states do observe not only legally binding
rules and such rules as have the character of usages, but also rules
of politeness, convenience and goodwill. Such rules of international
conduct are no rules of law, but of comity. The Comity of Nations
is certainly not a source of International Law, as it is distinctly the
contrast to the Law of Nations. But there can be no doubt that
many a rule which formerly was a rule of International Comity only
is nowadays a rule of International Law. And it is certainly to be
expected that this development will go on in future also, and that
thereby many a rule of present International Comity will in future
become one of International Law." '
We prefer to regard International Law as deriving the rules
composing it from practically the same sources as domestic law,
and to attribute to text-writers more or less the same
value in its development as in that of the private
law of nations. The same primary rules of conduct are
appealed to between states as between individuals, and precedents
play exactly the same part wherever human actions are concerned.
In both cases what has been done before commends itself when
the responsibility of taking steps pledging the future is concerned.
Statesmen on whom great responsibility impends, on whom the
conduct of momentous negotiations has devolved, and who will
have to render an account of their work to the sovereign or
nation they represent, preserve an argument in their own favour
in departing as little as possible from any course taken in previous
similar circumstances. Precedents, moreover, are arguments
for acceptance by their adversaries or counter-negotiators. In
fact, in diplomacy even more than in matters of domestic
government precedents play a dominant part in the growth
of usage. These precedents are often in themselves originally
local usages, such as grew up in the intercourse of the Italian
communities. Italy, in fact, served as a laboratory ltallaa
for early diplomatists and writers. It was in the influence.
intercourse of these active and ambitious states that
grew up the very notion of a foreign diplomacy and the
necessity of rules of conduct in this miniature Europe, with its
perpetual antagonisms and jealousies, its balance of power, its
idea of a state distinct from a nation and of a community of
1 " It seems to me," says Professor L. Oppenheim, " that most
writers confound the conception of ' source ' with that of ' cause,'
and through this mistake come to a standpoint from which certain
factors which influence the growth of International Law appear as
sources of rules of the Law of Nations. This mistake can be avoided
by going back to the meaning of the term ' source ' in general.
Source means a spring or well, and has to be denned as the rising
from the ground of a stream of water; and, wanting to know whence
it comes, we follow the stream upwards until we come to the spot
where it rises naturally from the ground. On that spot, we say,
is the source of the stream of water. We know very well that this
source is not the cause of the existence of the stream of water.
' Source ' signifies only the natural rising of water from a certain
spot of the ground, whatever natural causes there may be for that
rising. If we apply the conception of source in this meaning to the
term ' source of law ' the confusion of source with cause cannot arise.
Just as we see streams of water running over the surface of the earth,
so we see, as it were, streams of rules running over the area of law.
And if we want to know whence these rules come, we have to follow
these streams upwards until we come to their beginning. Where
we find that such rules rise into existence there is the source of them.
Of course, rules of law do not rise from a spot on the ground as water
does; they rise from facts in the historical development of a com-
munity. Thus a good many rules of law rise every year from the
Acts of Parliament. Source of Law is therefore the name for an
historical fact out of which rules of conduct rise into existence and
legal force " (International Law, London, 1905, sec. 15.).
* International Law (London, 1905) sec. 19.
INTERNATIONAL LAW
697
Grotlus.
states elbowing each other in their daily contact. It was there
that grew up the institution of passports, the distinction between
armed forces and civilians, international comity, and in fact
the very notion that states have an interest in the observance
of law and order among them. In the same way the active
commercial intercourse in the Mediterranean led, in the common
interest, to the development of rules of the sea in time of peace,
and later to others in time of war.
In the north of Europe, again, out of the active commercial
intercourse among the Baltic and North Sea communities grew
rules of the sea in the same common interest. It was
tne Tnirty Years' War, with its revolting cruelty,
War. which brought out the contrast between the more
humane practice of war as an art in Italy and the mere
bludgeonry which prevailed in the brutal struggle which disgraced
the first half of the lyth century. The brutality of the struggle
turned thinkers' attention to the need of formulating rules for
the protection in time of war of non-combatants and the innocent
subjects of absolute sovereigns, the treatment of the sick and
wounded, the prohibition of wanton pillage and the other horrors
which shocked the awakening conscience of northern Europe.
It was the starting-point of the age of text-books.
The first effective work, the one which was the first to influence
sovereigns and statesmen, was Grotius's De jure belli ac pads
(Paris, 1625), which practically exhausted the theoreti-
cal arguments in favour of the new subject. Nobody
has in fact since brought to light any new conception of the
foundations of international law. An exhaustive and masterly
treatise having been published, no further subsequent treatise
was necessary to show what all men were beginning to feel.
He sublimated the feelings of his age, and having arrived at the
pure substance, the work of proving the need of his subject was
disposed of for all time. Pufendorf (1632-1697), who, in the
sequence of effective text-writers, succeeded Grotius,
dorf endeavoured to base international law on an ethical
basis accepted by all peoples without necessity for a
common creed or standard of morals, but it is doubtful, whatever
may have been the extent to which he stimulated the study of
jurisprudence, whether he did much in advancing the practical
development of the law of nations. His book De jure naturae
et gentium (1672), as its name indicates, based international law
on what he called the law of nature, a subject which has much
exercised the minds of jurists searching for an ethical basis for
existing law.
The scientific mind of Leibnitz (1646-1716) revolted against
this theoretical and doctrinaire tendency of Pufendorf and other
writers, who were following with feeble tread in the
giant footsteps of Grotius. He saw that the practice
of nations was taking a course dictated by the current moral
standards of civilized society, and that the philosophizing of the
text-book writers was leading them away from that actual
practice which they should use as data for their conclusions.
Natural science, moreover, had taught him the risk of theorizing
on imperfect data, and while writing a history of Brunswick
it occurred to him that treaties and diplomatic documents
generally were the substances and tests of the publicist's
laboratory. His codex juris gentium diplomaticus (1693-1700)
gave a more precise direction to speculations on the subject.
The next great writer of authority united all the qualities of
a practical lawyer and jurist. This was Bynkershoek (1673-
1743). He was the first writer on international law
shoek^ wno dealt with public maritime law as a matter
demanding special treatment and involving a set of
principles not called into action in territorial warfare. A
magistrate administering the law in a great commercial country,
whose interests were on or across the high seas rather than
within the narrow European limits of Holland, Bynkershoek, like
Leibnitz, searched for his data in the actual practice of nations
in their- intercourse with one another. He applied his clear
legally trained mind to deriving principles from practice instead
of endeavouring to build up a practice on abstract principles.
It was he who first generalized the different isolated usages
l.cihnitz.
which had grown up at different spots in northern Europe in
the interest of maritime defence, and evolved from practice the
principle that dominion seawards was limited to the extent to
which it was possible to enforce it (cannon-shot range), a principle
which not only created the legal institution of territorial waters,
but has since been imported into other branches of International
Law, and has indirectly influenced the suppression of fictitious
blockades and more recently of fictitious occupations of territory.
A contemporary of Bynkershoek was Christian de Wolff
(1670-1754), a philosopher, mathematician, theologian, lawyer
and disciple of Leibnitz. Wolff's great work on the
Institutions of the Law of Nature and Nations is a learned
and accurate treatise drawn from all the well-known
sources of knowledge, and, just as Grotius based his demonstra-
tions on the then imperfect knowledge of public events of his
time, Wolff based his on the more accurate sources of information
which had grown up under the influence of Leibnitz, and created
a connected system out of the scattered fragments available.
But his book was written in Latin at a period when scholarship
had declined, and its influence was only felt after Vattel (1714-
1767) wrote his Droit des gem, ou principes de la loi naturelle
appliquees A la conduite et aux a/aires des nations et des souverains
(1758). His book had all the charm, although Vattel was a
Neufchatelois, of the French writers of his time, and y „.
he it was who popularized the study of International
Law. His book was based chiefly on the work of Wolff, but
in it he gave what was best amongst his predecessors without
attempting to add anything original of his own. It became the
handbook of statesmen and jurists, and has never ceased to be
quoted by them down to the present day.
But the opinions of jurists in International Law can have
little more than the value of criticism and co-ordination. They
have seldom served to make law, though they have the weight
of all statements made by those who have made a special study
of any branch of law, as to what they had gathered to be
the existing practice at the time when they wrote, or as to the
trend which they showed that practice might be taking. Great
lawyers and writers like those we have mentioned, and such as
Lord Mansfield, Sir William Scott, Chief-Justice Marshall and
others, have done the work of classifying facts, deducing con-
clusions from them and connecting rules with psychological and
ethical motives, and have thus sent a current of higher intelligence
through the subject which has raised it to its present methodical
form. Still International Law remained a wide field for con-
troversy. Authors were agreed on general principles, but when
these general principles were applied in practice, the shortcomings
of unwritten usage often caused as much difficulty as that which
the appeal to principles was intended to overcome.
What may be called the first enactment of rules of Inter-
national Law was the Declaration of Paris of 1856, but the great
work of codification, or rather of reducing into writing Hagueand
the rules which had been floating as an unwritten law London
in the conscience of Europe, was undertaken by the Confer-
Hague Conferences, which may be said to be and to *
have created an entirely new factor in the domain of International
Law. Two of the conventions adopted in 1899 completed work
which had already been commenced long before, viz. those on
the usages of war and on the adaptation of the Geneva Con-
vention to naval war. The third established methods for the
pacific settlement of international difficulties, including the
formation of the Hague Court of Arbitration. Recourse to the
latter was purely optional, but the other two conventions have
been absorbed into the national law of the ratifying countries,
and thus have also the domestic sanction states give to their
own laws. The work of the Conference of 1907 was of a much
wider and more exhaustive character than that of 1899. It
comprised, besides revised conventions on the matters dealt
with in 1899, new Conventions on the following subjects:
Opening of hostilities; Position in naval war of enemy's merchant
ships at beginning of hostilities; Conversion of merchant vessels
into warships; Rights and duties of neutral states in naval
war; The laying of automatic submarine contact mines; The
698
INTERNATIONAL LAW
bombardment of undefended places by naval forces; Treatment
of fishing vessels, postal correspondence and capture generally
in maritime war; and Recovery by force of contract debts.
It also adopted a convention for the creation of an International
Prize Court of Appeal, which led to the calling of a fresh Con-
ference on Prize Law. This conference sat in London from
December 4, 1908, to February 26, 1909, and was confined to
representatives of the following countries: Great Britain,
France, Germany, United States of America, Italy, Austria-
Hungary, Russia, Japan, Holland and Spain. It adopted a series
of rules on naval warfare relating to Blockade in time of war;
Contraband of war; Unneutral service; Destruction of neutral
prizes; Transfer to neutral flag; Enemy character; Convoy;
and Resistance to search and Compensation.
The revolution effected in the relations of states by the Hague
and London Conferences, however, is not confined to the reduc-
tion into writing of more or less vague usages nor to the elabora-
tion of details which no usage can possibly determine. Until
a machinery was provided for the reform of the law it was futile
to speculate on the advantages or disadvantages of any rule
admitted by the majority of civilized nations. The territorial
waters 3 m. limit, for instance, had its origin in the distance
seawards of cannon-range in a past period. Its almost universal
recognition only came long after the range of coast-guns had far
exceeded this distance. This superannuated rule has now no
legal basis at all except the so-called " common consent of
nations," a boon no doubt which outweighs any consideration
of absolute fitness still unrecognized, but of which the learned
Barbeyrac truly said,1 " Ce commun consentement des peuples
que Ton suppose avoir force de loi est une chose qu'on ne
prouvera jamais." The institution of the Hague Conferences has
now provided a method of obtaining the consent of nations, not
only to existing rules, but to their reform and to the introduc-
tion of new rules. It is now an understanding among the states
of the world, that these conferences shall be held periodically.
It is, of course, possible for one great state to hold aloof and thus
wreck the chances of universal agreement, but even then we
have the power of the majority as against that of the minority.
A case actually arose in a recent war between non-signatories of
the declaration of Paris of 1856. Neither the United States nor
Spain was a party to that declaration, yet neither ventured to
disregard it.
The chief source of International Law will, therefore, in all
probability for the future be that " Parliament of mankind,"
the Hague Conferences. The Hague Court and its adjunct in
time of war, the proposed International Prize Court of Appeal,
will form the Judicature applying and construing the enactments
of the Conferences acting as a sort of international Legislature.
Fundamental Principles. — Underlying the details of both
the new International Legislature and the new International
Judicature are certain principles which may some day
have to be officially defined. These principles have
conduct, necessarily fluctuated with the standard of morals
of each period. With the contemporary development
of the public conscience, they are undergoing changes and a
betterment which it is not desirable to check by yet nailing them
up as immutable articles of faith. Till quite recently it was usual
to speak of the common standard of right conduct prevailing
throughout the Christian world, a standard to which responsible
statesmen tried to adjust their direction of the affairs of state.
The admission of Japan into the councils of the great powers has
introduced a non-Christian element whose standard of conduct
was not identical with nor based upon Christian morals. Turkey,
though admitted in 1856 to European Councils, remained rather
the occasion of their deliberations than a deliberating party.
Her new position as a constitutional state, with a code of morals
at any rate in some essentials distinct from that of Christian
peoples, will add a further new non-Christian element into the
moral foundations of international conduct. The influence of
western Europe, however, in both Japan and Turkey, has
hitherto in all external development been paramount. Japan,
1 Note 8 to Grotius, L., ii. c. iii. § 3.
after examining all the existing systems, has even adopted the
best she found in Western morals, and in her schools inculcates
Christian ethics as a subject per se without reference to divine
revelation or authority. Turkey too has the advantage of possess-
ing a code of morals which produces so high a standard of right
conduct in private life that very little in the way of moral lessons
will have to be learned by the Ottomans from Western civiliza-
tion. As regards practice, it is unreasonable to expect that the
high estimate of the moral standard of west European civiliza-
tion, which is cherished by those who profess its principles,
should be accepted by other peoples with unqualified assent.
Are not the nations of western Europe still vaguely influenced
by the instincts of their conquering ancestors, and by the tradi-
tions of —
"... the good old rule,
. . . The simple plan,
That they should take who have the power
And they should keep who can " ?
There is nothing essentially different between many recent
wars and military enterprises undertaken by Western nations
against heathen peoples, and wars and conquering enterprises
undertaken by the Northmen of a thousand years ago. In his
Northern Antiquities Mallet2 describes the primitive feeling of
the Northmen in the following passages : —
11 The rules of justice, far from checking their prejudices, had been
themselves warped and adapted to their bias. It is no exaggeration
to say that all the Teutonic nations entertained opinions on this
subject quite opposite to the theory of our times. They looked upon
war as a real act of justice, and esteemed it an incontestable title
over the weak, a visible mark that God had intended to subject them
to the strong. They had no doubt but the intentions of this divinity
had been to establish the same dependence among men which there
is among animals, and setting out from the principle of the inequality
of men, as our modern civilians do, from that of their equality, they
inferred thence that the weak had no right to what they co.uld not
defend. This maxim which formed the basis of the law of Nations
among the ancient inhabitants of Europe being dictated by their
most darling passion, we cannot wonder that they should so steadily
act up to it in practice. And, which after all is worst, to act and
think as they did, or, like the moderns, with better principles, to
act as ill? As to the ancient nations, we attribute nothing to them
here but what is justified to them by a thousand facts. They
adopted the above maxim in all its rigour and gave the name of
Divine Judgment not only to the Judiciary Combat, but to conflicts
and battles of all sorts: victory being in their opinion the only
certain mark by which Providence enables us to distinguish those
which it has appointed to command others."
The very notion of the " right of conquest," and that the
victorious are entitled to an indemnity without reference to any
question of right and wrong or of justice and injustice,
shows that there are principles in actual practice which JJ^£e'J "
lie outside and have no analogy in the principles of state?
private law. In the partition of Africa native states
have been treated as non-existent except as local bodies. They
have been annexed to European states without reference to
their will or consent. Treaties have indeed been made with them,
but they have rather been regarded as evidence of prior occupa-
tion than as involving any question of native right. The test
in the distinction between civilized and uncivilized states which
is regarded as warranting exclusion from enjoyment of the
right to consideration as independent states, and admission to
the community of the civilized world, is in practice the possession
of a regular government sufficient to ensure to Europeans who
settle among them safety of life and property. Every country,
in principle, possessing such a government has prima facie the
rank of a state and is entitled to treatment as a civilized com-
munity. Treaties made with it for the purpose of extra-territorial
jurisdiction are intended merely to take into account a difference
of judicial institutions but are not supposed to detract otherwise
from the possession of such equality and independence. This
principle has no analogy in private morals, and has been, slight
as it is, more honoured in the breach than the observance. If
indifference to native right has provoked reaction, it has been'
on the part rather of philanthropists than of statesmen. Their
movement for the protection of African aborigines has, however,
1 Bishop Percy's translation (1847), p. 138.
INTERNATIONAL LAW
699
resulted in at least one great international charter for the pre-
vention of the further degradation of African aborigines, viz. the
General Act of Brussels of 1885. A vigorous outcry has also
been raised against the methods of the government of the Congo
State. But the agitation ought not to be confined to this part
of Central Africa. Other governments are also in fault. In fact,
the contact of the European with Central Africa has, throughout,
with few exceptions, been one of barbarous practice quite incon-
sistent with the principles which Christian missionaries have been
sent to teach the African native.
In the case of European enterprise in Asia, the " good old
rule " has had still less justification. The action taken for the
repression of the Boxer movement in China, like previous Euro-
pean incursions, had no essential characteristic distinguishing
it from the expeditions of the Northmen described by Mallet
in the above -quoted passage. The Japanese took part in the
" Boxer " expedition, and the example of respect for native
right and of orderly self-restraint they set has been universally
acknowledged. But the lesson is one of greater significance than
one of comparative ethics. The rise of the power of Japan and
her obvious determination to constitute herself the champion of
the races of eastern Asia has widened the scope of International
Law, and we may now regard China as henceforth under the
protection of the same principles as European states.
The three chief principles of inter-state intercourse, those, in
fact, on which International Law is based are: —
1. Recognition of each other's existence and integrity as
states.
2. Recognition of each other's independence.
3. Recognition of equality, one with another, of all
independent states.
As regards the first of these principles see STATE. From the
principle of independence it follows that every state has a right
to change its form of government and to enjoy the
Chief free exercise of its internal energies. This is subject
only to the limitation that in the exercise of this
right other states or their subjects shall not be
molested or otherwise suffer. The equality of all independent
states entitles them to respect by other states of all the forms
of ceremonial and to the same treatment by others, where their
interests are identical, whether they are strong or weak. This
principle has often been violated, but it is, nevertheless,
acknowledged wherever possible, as in diplomatic conferences
relating to all matters of an economic, hygienic, industrial
or social character. Even at the Conference of Algeciras,
though the powers immediately concerned from a political
point of view were only Great Britain, France, Germany and
Spain, the following were also represented as having economic
interests in Morocco, Austria-Hungary, Italy, Russia, Belgium,
Holland, Portugal and Sweden.
Ships on the high sea being regarded as detached portions of
the national territory, there is also the derived principle of the
freedom of the high sea, of the independence and equality
upon it of the ships of all nations, subject only to due
respect being paid to the independence and equality of
all others and to such conventional restrictions as states may
impose upon themselves (see TERRITORIAL WATERS). This
principle is re-enunciated in the preamble to the Convention of
1907 on the laying of automatic submarine contact mines (see
PEACE CONFERENCES).
The Hague Conventions are based on these principles, to
which there is a tendency to add another, viz. the right to
arbitration in certain cases. This principle is set out
The right more or iess tentatively, it is true, but it is being
'ton!*"™" completed by separate treaties of compulsory arbitra-
tion in connexion with the cases referred to. It is
enunciated in the following article of the Convention of 1907 for
the pacific settlement of International disputes: —
" In questions of a legal nature, and especially in the interpretation
or application of International Conventions, arbitration is recognized
by the contracting powers as the most effective, and, at the same
time, the most equitable means of arranging disputes which
prin-
ciples
High
sea.
Restric-
tion of
effect of
fictions.
diplomacy has failed to settle. Consequently, it is desirable that,
in disputes regarding the above-mentioned questions, the contracting
powers should, if need be, have recourse to arbitration, in so far as
circumstances permit " (Art. 28).
The principle of arbitration has also been adopted in reference
to the recovery of contract debts under the following article of
the " Convention respecting the limitation of the employment
of force for the recovery of contract debts": —
" The contracting powers agree not to have recourse to armed
force for the recovery of contract debts claimed from the government
of one country by the government of another country as being due
to its subjects or citizens. This undertaking is, however, not applic-
able when the debtor state refuses or neglects to reply to an offer
of arbitration, or, after accepting the offer, renders the settlement
of the Compromis impossible, or, after the arbitration, fails to comply
with the a ward " (Art. l).
The codification of International Law itself, begun at the
Hague and London Conferences, is an admission of the binding
character of the primary principles set out above.
One of the chief tendencies of contemporary reform is also to
restrict the effect of fictions and reduce rights to the limits of
their practical application. Between two alternatives,
the one to assert rights which cannot possibly be
maintained by force such as claims to dominion over
portions of the high sea (see HIGH SEA, TERRITORIAL
WATERS), " paper blockades " (see BLOCKADE) and fictitious
occupations of territory (see OCCUPATION), and the other to
require actual physical assertion, a medium course is growing up,
viz. that of recognizing potential assertion, that is assertion
limited to physical possibilities.1 With the aid of the Institute
of International Law, the International Law Association and
other reforming agencies (see PEACE), expert opinion in these
matters is becoming homogeneous throughout the civilized
world, and the ground is being prepared for a clearer understand-
ing of these fundamental principles by the statesmen ,and state
officials who have to apply them in practice.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The following are works on international law,
diplomacy and treaty relations, from the beginning of the igth
century until 1910. Many of the older aifchors have been omitted
to permit the inclusion of more recent writers.
Alcorta, Tratodo de derecho international (Buenos Aires, 1878);
D. Anzilotti, Teoria generate della responsabiliid, dello Stato net diritto
internazionale (Florence, 1902) ; Arendt, Le Droit public et la neutralite
de la Belgique (Brussels, 1845); Nagao Ariga, La Guerre russp-
japonaise, au point de -sue continental et le droit international (Paris,
1908), La Guerre sino-japonaise au point de vue du droit international
(Paris, 1896); Sir Sherston Baker, First Steps in International Law
(London, 1899); Barboux, Jurisprudence du conseil des prises
pendant la guerre franco-allemande (1872); Sir T. Barclay, Problems
of International Practice and Diplomacy (London, 1907) ; T. Baty, In-
ternational Law (London, 1909) ; Bello, Principios de derecho
international, 2nd ed. by Silva (Madrid, 1884); Norman Bentwich,
The Law of Private Property in War with a Chapter on Conquest
(London, 1907); Bergbohm, Staats-Vertrdge und-Gesetze als Quellen
des Volkerrtchts (Leipzig, 1877); T. M. Bernard, Four Lectures on
Subjects connected with Diplomacy (London, 1868); Bluntschli,
Das moderne Volkerrecht der civilisirten Staaten als Rechtsbuch
dargestellt (Nordlingen, 1868), trans, into French by Lardy (Le Droit
international codifie) (Paris, 2nd ed.,'l874), Die Bedeutung und die
Fortschritte des modernen Volkerrechts (2nd ed., Berlin, 1873); De
Boeck, Le Droit de la propriete ennemie privee sous pavilion ennemi
(Paris, 1882); Henri Bonfils, Manuel de droit international public
(1894, 4th ed., by Fauchille, 1904); Percy Bordwell, The Law of
War between Belligerents — a History and Commentary (Chicago,
1908); Bornemann, Forelaesninger over den positive folkeret (Copen-
hagen, 1866); Brusa, Del modierno diritto internazionale pubblico
(Florence, 1876); De Burgh, Elements of Maritime International
Law (London, 1868); Aug. von Bulmerincq, Praxis, Theorie und
Codification des Volkerrechts (Leipzig, 1874), Das Volkerrecht (1887);
Montagu Burrows, History of the Foreign Policy of Great Britain
(London, 1897); Charles Henry Butler, The Treaty-making Power
of the United States (2 vols., New York, 1902) ; Carlos Calvo, Le
Droit international (sth ed., 6 vols., Paris, 1896); Cauchy, Le Droit
maritime international considere dans ses origines et ses rapports avec
les progres de la civilisation (2 vols., Paris, 1862), Du respect de la
proprieti privee dans la guerre maritime (Paris, 1866); Carnazza-
Amari, Trattato di diritto internazionale de pace (2 vols., 1867-1875);
Pitt Cobbett, Cases and Opinions on International Law and various
points of English Law connected therewith (London, 1st ed. 1885,
1 We have seen this in the progress made in the three instances
given above at the Congress of Paris (1856), the Conference of Berlin
(1878) and the Hague Conference of 1907.
yoo
INTERNATIONAL LAW
2nd ed. 1892, 3rd ed. 1909) (part I, " Peace "); Miguel Cruchaga,
Nociones de derecho international (1899, 2nd ed. 1902); Cogordan,
La Nationalite au point de vue des rapports internationaux (Paris,
1879); de Courcy, Reforme Internationale du droit maritime (Paris,
1863) ; R. T. Crane, State in Constitutional and International Law
(1907) ; Creasy, First Platform of International Law (London, 1876) ;
G. B. Davis, Outlines of International Law, with an Account of its
origin and sources, and of its historical development (New York, 1887) ;
Elements of International Law, with an account of its origin, sources
and historical development (new and revised edition, New York
and London, 1900); de Clercq, Recueil des traites, conventions
et actes diplomatiques conclus par la France avec les puissances
etrangeres, publics sous les auspices du min. des aff. etrangeres
(Paris, 21 vols.); Descamps, L' Evolution de la neutrality en droit
international (Brussels, 1898); F. Despagnet, Cours de droit inter-
national public (2nd ed., Paris, 1899), La Diplomatie de la Troisieme
Republique et le droit des gens (Paris, 1904) ; Professor Giulio plena,
Principi di diritto internazionale (Naples, 1908) ; Dufraisse, Histoire
du droit de guerre el de paix (Paris, 1867); Jacques Dumas, Les
Sanctions de I 'arbitrage international (Paris, 1905) ; E. Duplessix,
La Lot des nations, projet de code de droit international public (Paris,
1906) ; L' Organisation international^ (Paris, 1909) ; Charles Dupuis,
Les Tarifs douaniers et les traites de commerce (Paris, 1895); Le
Principe d'equilibre et le concert europeen de la paix de Westphalie a
I'acte d'Algesiras (Paris, 1909) ; Eden, Law of Nature and of Nations,
Policy of Europe (London, 1823); Ed. Engelhardt, Du regime con-
ventionnel des fleuves internationaux (Paris, 1879); Paul Errera, Das
Staatsrecht des Konigsreichs Belgien (Tubingen, 1909); T. H. S.
Escott, The Story of British Diplomacy; Its Makers and Movements
(London, 1908) ; Fauchille, La Diplomatie fran^aise et la ligue des
neutres de 1780 (1776-1783) (Paris, 1893) ; Du blocus maritime (Paris,
1882); Ferguson, A Manual of International Law (2 vols., London,
1884); David Dudley Field, Outlines of an International Code (New
York and London, 2nd ed., 1876); Fiore, Trattado di diritto inter-
nazionale pubblico (3rd ed., Turin, 1888), Npuveau Droit international
public (3 vols., Paris, 1885); Le Droit international codifie et sa
sanction juridique — traduit de I'italien par A. Chretien (Paris, 1889);
Funck-Brentano et Sorel, Precis du droit des gens (Paris, 1877,
new ed. 1894); Fusinato, // Principio della scuola italiana nel
diritto internazional pubblico (Macerata, 1884); Francois Gairal,
Le Protectorat international (Paris, 1896); E. M. Gallaudet, Inter-
national Law (New York, 1886); Guillaume de Garden, Histoire
generale des traites de paix, et autres transactions principales, entre
toutes les puissances de I' Europe depuis la paix de Westphalie (14 vols.,
Paris, 1848-1859); Gareis, Institutionen des Volkerrechts (1888,
2nd ed., 1901); L. Gessner, Zur Reform des Kriegseerechts (Berlin,
1875), Le Droit des neutres sur mer (2nd ed., Berlin, 1876), Guelle,
Droit international. La guerre continentale et les personnes (Paris,
1879); GueVonniere, Le Droit public de I' Europe moderne (Paris,
1876); Guesalaga, Derecho diplomatico y consular (Buenos Aires,
1900) ; Hagerup, " La Neutrality permanente" (Revue generale du droit
international public) (Paris, 1905) ; W. E. Hall, A Treatise on Inter-
national Law (6th ed., edited by j. B. Atlay, Oxford, 1909) ; Foreign
Powers and Jurisdiction of the British Crown (London, 1894); H. W.
Halleck, International Law (Philadelphia, 1866, edit, by Sir Sherston
Baker, 4th ed., 2 vols., London 1908); A. B. Hart, Foundations of
American Foreign Policy (New York, 1901) ; Hartmann, Institutionen
des praktischen Volkerrechts in Friedenszeiten (1887); L. B. Haute-
feuille, Quelques questions de droit international maritime a propos de
la guerre d'Amerique (Leipzig and Paris, 1861); Droits et devoirs des
nations neutres (3 vols., ^rd ed., Paris, 1868); Questions de droit
maritime international (Pans, 1868) ; Histoire des origines, des progres
et des variations du droit maritime international (Pans, 1858. 2nd ed.
1869); Heffter, Das europdische Volkerrecht der Gegenwart (Berlin,
1855, trans, into French by Bergson, Le Droit international de
I'Europe, 4th ed., enlarged and annotated by Geffcken, Berlin and
Paris, 1883); Amos E. Hershey, The International Law and Diplo-
macy of the Russo-Japanese War (New York, 1906}; Hertslet's
Commercial Treaties (24 vols., London, 1840-1907); Sir Edward
Hcrtslet, Map of Europe by Treaty, showing the territorial changes
since the general Peace of 1814-1891 (4 vols., London, 1875-1891);
Map of Africa by Treaty (1778-1895) (3 vols., London, 1896), Index
to British and Foreign State Papers, vols. I to 63 (1879); A.
Pearce Higgins, The Hague Peace Conferences and other International
Conferences concerning the Laws and Usages of War (Cambridge, 1909) ;
Historicus (Sir William Harcourt), Letters on some Questions of
International Law (1863); Albert E. Hogan, Pacific Blockade ; T. E.
Holland, The Elements of Jurisprudence (London, 1880, loth ed.,
Oxford, 1906), Studies in International Law (Oxford, 1898), The
Laws of War on Land (Oxford, 1908), Letters to The Times upon
War and Neutrality (1881-1909) with some commentary (London,
1909), British Admiralty Manual of the Law of Prize (1888) ; G.F.W.
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INTERNATIONAL LAW (PRIVATE)
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701
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INTERNATIONAL LAW (PRIVATE). There is in every
territory the law of the land, or territorial law, by which the
courts decide all cases that include no circumstances connected
with any foreign territory. Often, however, such a circumstance
suggests the question whether justice does not require that the
law of some other territory shall be applied. Thus the Gretna
Green marriages, by which English minors escaped the necessity
of banns or the consent of parents or guardians, suggested the
question, which was answered in the affirmative, whether even
in England their validity ought not to be tried by the law of
Scotland, where they were celebrated. Often, again, the question
is suggested whether justice does not require that the courts
of law should allow some effect to foreign legal proceedings,
such as a judgment obtained or litigation pending abroad.
Such questions as these are answered by private international
law, which, since both laws and legal proceedings are emanations
of public authority, may be defined as the department of legai
science which is concerned with the effect to be given in the
courts of law of any territory to the public authority of another
territory. The extradition of criminals is also an effect given
to foreign public authority, but rather by the government which
surrenders the criminal (see EXTRADITION) than by the courts
of law, whose only function is to check the surrender so far as
the domestic legislation allows them to do so. If private inter-
national law were defined as the effect to be given by any mode
in one territory to the public authority of another, extradition
would be included in it, as is often done; but since the principles
governing extradition have little to do with those applicable
to the other cases, it seems best to treat it as a separate depart-
ment of law, as is generally done in England.
Comity of Nations. — In the i7th century the Dutch jurists
Paul and John Voet and Huber brought forward a view which
has since been largely adopted in England and the United
States, namely, that the effect given by courts of law to foreign
public authority is only due to the comity of nations, but for
which every possible question before them would have to be
decided by the law of the land. Comity, in that phrase, may
only be intended to express the truth that foreign public authority
has no inherent effect, without denying that the effect which
domestic public authority allows to it is dictated by justice.
But the limitations implied in the popular meaning of comity have
sometimes been made the ground for deciding questions of
private international law in the manner supposed to be most
for the interest of litigants belonging to the territory; the
phrase is consequently reprobated by most European continental
writers, and had better be dropped. The justice on which
private international law is founded acknowledges no interest
but the general one of intercourse between persons sharing a
common civilization in different countries. This interest, as
manifesting itself in the domain of law, it seeks to satisfy, and
it is therefore a true legal justice, rightly classed under law, droit,
rechl, diritto, derecho and other corresponding terms.
Of the two words which, together with law, make up the title
of our subject, private is justified by the fact that its application
is between litigants in courts of law, and not between governments
except so far as they may be such litigants. International
(although interterritorial would be better) is justified by the
INTERNATIONAL LAW (PRIVATE)
702
facts that public authority, which may be internationally foreign,
has to be considered, and that governments display a great
interest in the question by concluding treaties about it, and
occasionally even by suspending diplomatic relations when a
court of one country has applied to the subjects of another a
rule which the government of the latter deems unjust. But
those who think that the primary division of law should be into
public and private, and not into international (or interterritorial)
and territorial, object to the order in which the three words of
the name are usually placed, and call the subject " international
private law."
Conflict of Laws. — This is another name for our subject,
and indeed an older one than " private international law,"
besides being still much used. But although laws may differ,
they cannot properly be said to conflict, unless each can
lay a just claim to application in the same circumstances.
Now this does not happen. The justice which points out that in
certain cases effect ought to be given in one territory to the
laws or legal proceedings of another really traces the limits
of laws and legal proceedings in space; and the tracing of limits
is rather the prevention of conflict than its solution. Savigny
has well pointed out that our subject is analogous to the deter-
mination of the limits of laws in time, which has to be made
when the just application of a new enactment is to be distin-
guished from the ex post facto application which cannot justly be
allowed it. The truth which is aimed at in the phrase " conflict
of laws " is that the main problem of our subject is the selection
of a law for each given case; but different laws are candidates
for selection, not from anything in them as laws, but from
differing opinions about the justice of the case. From this
selection, again, will be seen the contrast between private inter-
national law and attempts at the assimilation of the laws of
different countries. To a great extent such assimilation is desir-
able, especially in mercantile law, but it must always be limited by
different views of social order and differences in national habits
of thought and action. So far as it is realized, private inter-
national law comes to an end with the occasion for selection.
Territory. — This word, as entering into the definition of
private international law, does not imply a separate state,
whether sovereign or semi-sovereign; it includes every geo-
graphical area having a separate legal system, England and Scot-
land , as well as France or Germany. The case of the Gretna Green
marriages illustrates the necessity of rules of private international
law between all such, as well as between areas internationally
foreign to one another; and indeed the rules are so applied,
and in the language of our subject, the area of every separate
legal system is foreign to every other such area. Only where a
rule contemplates a person as attached more or less permanently
to a particular territory, the tie which so attaches him to it may
be either nationality or domicile if the territory is a separate
state, as France; but it can only be domicile if the territory is
combined with others in one state. Nothing but domicile can
distinguish British subjects as belonging to England, Scotland
or Jamaica, or citizens of the United States as belonging to
New York or Pennsylvania.
Legal rules must have relation to the physical and mental
characters, and the consequent habits of action, of the populations
for which they are intended; they would not satisfy legal justice
if they endangered social order as understood and desired by
those populations, or if they failed to give due effect to the
expectations of parties. This must be true for the rules of
private international law as well as for those of any territorial
law, and it leads us to ask whether the differences which preclude
the universal identity of the latter must not also preclude the
existence of the former. The answer is: (i) That where circum-
stances connected with different territories are concerned, wise
rules for the selection of a law will generally give better effect
to the expectations of the parties than an exclusive adherence
to the territorial law of the court; (2) That the circumstances
in which a foreign law is held to apply are exceptional as compared
with those in which the domestic law applies, and naturally
occur of tenest among the persons and in the affairs having most
of a cosmopolitan character, so that the moral shock of applying
to them a law founded on a foreign social order is greatly attenu-
ated; (3) That throughout Christendom (to which Japan has
now been added for legal purposes) there does exist, though
not an identity, yet a considerable similarity in views of social
order and prevalent habits of thought and action. Within the
same geographical limits there also exists another requisite for
the working of a system of private international law, namely, a
mutual confidence between countries in the enlightenment and
purity of their respective judicatures, to whose proceedings the
respect enjoined by the rules of our subject is to be mutually
given.
Even within the geographical limits just mentioned there are
certain differences on points of social order, especially on marriage
or divorce, which have hitherto prevented a complete agreement
being attained in the rules of private international law. But no
attempt has ever been made to establish any system of the kind
as between Christian communities and Mahommedan or other
polygamous ones, or between countries enjoying a Christian
standard of civilization and those, of which China may be taken
as an example, which, whether polygamous or not, do not inspire
the necessary confidence in their judicatures. In Turkey and
other Eastern countries (in which designation Japan is no longer
included for purposes of law) Christians are placed by treaty
under the jurisdiction in civil matters of their respective consuls.
When in the courts of Christian countries Eastern persons
or circumstances connected with Eastern laws have to be dealt
with, the peculiar institutions of those countries are not enforced;
and while in other respects the judges may be assisted by some
of the rules of private international law, especially such as have
for their object to carry into effect the reasonable intentions of
parties, yet those rules are not applied as parts of an authoritative
system.
Rules for the selection of the territorial law to be applied in
the different classes of cases, or for the recognition of foreign
legal proceedings, have sometimes been made the subject of
international treaties, and have often been enacted by territorial
legislatures. England possesses a few such enactments, as in the
Bills of Exchange Act 1882, and many other countries possess
them to a much larger extent in their codes. Where such enact-
ments exist, or where treaty stipulations have been entered into,
and the territorial law makes such stipulations binding on the
judges, the courts of law must obey and apply them as they
must obey and apply any other part of the law of the land. If,
as in England, judicial precedents are held to be binding,
so that the law of the land consists in part of judge-made law,
a similar result is produced; an English court must follow
English precedents on the application of foreign law or the
refusal to apply it, to the same extent to which it would be bound
to follow them on any other point. So far as our matter remains
open for a judge, he has, to assist him towards a just decision,
the treaties, written laws and judicial precedents of other
countries as examples, and a vast literature which has grown
up in all Christian countries. That this apparatus is far from
having furnished concordant results is due, not only to the
divergences on points of social order referred to, but also to the
different bases of the legal systems with which the respective
governments and writers have been familiar. The legal systems
of different countries have been founded on Roman law, feudal
law, English common law and still other bases. The arguments
of lawyers are affected by the prepossessions thence arising, and
they have consequently failed to arrive by their unaided efforts
at so much agreement on the rules of private international law
as would have been compatible with the conditions and modes
of life and action surrounding them. But the general accept-
ance of a complete body of rules on private international
law is a goal which for other countries than England is well
within sight by the road of international treaties concluded
under the joint direction of professional and non-professional
minds.
The most remarkable steps taken in or towards the conclusion
of such treaties are those initiated, to its high credit, by the
INTERNATIONAL LAW (PRIVATE)
703
government of the Netherlands. That government first moved
in the matter in 1874, and has succeeded in assembling at the
Hague the official representatives of nearly all European powers
in conferences held in 1893, 1894, 1900 and 1904. At these
conferences rules on many branches of private internat'onal law
were agreed on for submission to the respective governments,
which has led to conventions, one of the I4th of November 1896,
three of the i2th of June 1902, and four of the i9th of July 1905,
regulating the selection of the laws for determining the validity
of marriage and of contracts made on the occasion of marriage,
their effects on property and on the status of the wife and
children, divorce and judicial separation, the guardianship of
minors and of interdicted persons, the validity of testamentary
dispositions and the rules of intestate succession, and many points
of judicial procedure. These conventions may be found at length
in the Revue de droit international et de legislation comparee,
t. 28, pp. 574-579; 2e serie, t. 4, pp. 485-5°°; and 2e serie, t. 7,
pp. 646-678. A draft relating to bankruptcy was also prepared
at the conference of 1904, but was intended to serve, not as a
general convention, but as the base of separate conventions to
be concluded between particular states. The extent to which
the continent has become united with regard to private inter-
national law appears from the fact that France, Germany, Italy,
the Netherlands, Portugal, Rumania and Sweden are parties
to all the conventions — that Luxemburg, Russia and Spain are
parties to those relating to judicial procedure — and that all the
ten except Russia, but with the addition of Austria, Belgium
and Switzerland, are parties to those on the validity of marriage,
divorce and judicial separation, and the guardianship of minors;
while all remain open to adhesion by other powers. It is much
to be regretted that the British government has declined all
invitations to take part in this great international work. The
fact must in part be ascribed to the hindrance which the differ-
ence between the English common law and the Roman law
places, even for lawyers, in the way of joint action with the con-
tinent, and in part to the necessity that the rules laid down in
any convention should be enacted for the United Kingdom by
parliament, the leaders of which belonging to either party take
no interest in any such matters.
Next in importance among combined official efforts should be
mentioned the congress of seven South American states at Monte-
video in 1888-1889, which on many branches of private inter-
national law drew up rules intended for adoption by treaty on
that continent.
Nationality: Domicile. — Coming now to the particular rules
of private international law which are received in England, or
have been most widely received elsewhere, the most obvious
cases which present themselves for admitting foreign circum-
stances to influence the decision of a judge are those in which
rights are so connected with the person of an individual that the
justice of deciding on them by a law having relation to his person
speaks almost for itself. Hence arises the notion of a personal
law, which must be that either of the person's political nation-
ality or of his domicile, these being the only circumstances that
for the time being are fixed for the individual, irrespectively of
the spot where he may happen to be, and of the transaction in
which he may happen to engage. We have seen in the article
on DOMICILE what is the legal meaning of that term, how its
existence is ascertained, that in and long after the middle ages
it was the usual criterion of the personal law, and that in modern
times political nationality has largely replaced it as such criterion
on the continent of Europe. Thus as well by the conventions
mentioned as by the codes of many states — France, Italy and
Germany among the number — the capacity and status of persons
is now governed by the law of their political nationality. In
Latin America the criterion of the personal law is still generally
held to be domicile, which is among the reasons why the South
American states prefer to pursue the codification of private
international law independently of European conferences and
conventions.
The English courts were slow to recognize a personal law at
all and as late as Lord Eldon's time they held that the com-
petency of a person to contract depended on the law of the place
where the contract was made. Their decisions have since come
into line with the continental decisions so far as to make capacity
and status depend on a personal law, but not so far as to make
nationality its criterion. Hence in England, and in a minority
of European continental countries, of which Denmark is an
example, the capacity of a party to enter into a contract, whether
it be disputed on the ground of his age, or, in the case of the
contract of marriage, on the ground of his consanguinity or
affinity with the other party, will be decided by the law of his
domicile. Guardians,_ curators and committees of foreign minors
or lunatics, deriving their authority from the law or jurisdiction
of the latter's domicile or nationality, can sue and give receipts
for their personal property. A court will not decree the divorce
of persons not domiciled within its jurisdiction, and it will
recognize foreign divorces if, and only if, they have been decreed
by a jurisdiction to which the parties were subject by domicile
or nationality. And the legitimation of a child by the subsequent
marriage of its parents will be held to depend on the law of its
father's domicile or nationality. But the reference to the place
of contract, carried to North America with the rest of the English
jurisprudence of that date, still maintains in the courts of the
United States a struggle with the doctrine of personal law as
governing capacity and status.
Here must be noticed a difficulty which arises about the
application of any foreign law to the capacity for contracting.
It will be understood by the German provision intended to meet
it, namely, that " if a foreigner enters in Germany into a trans-
action for which he is incapable or has only a restricted capacity,
he is to be treated for that transaction as being so far capable
as he would be by the German legislation. This, however,
does not apply to transactions with regard to rights of family
or of succession, or to those disposing of foreign immovable
property " (Art. 7 of the statute enacting the code). In a spirit
similar to that which dictated the German enactment, the French
courts have not generally allowed a Frenchman to suffer from
the incapacity, by his personal law, of a foreigner who contracts
in France, when the foreigner would have been capable by French
law, and the Frenchman was in good faith and without gr§at
imprudence ignorant of his incapacity. Lately a disposition
has been shown to limit this protection of nationals to the case
in which the foreigner has been guilty of fraud. English courts
usually hold themselves to be more stringently bound by rules,
whether those enacted by parliament or those adopted for
themselves; and if they should continue to profess the doctrine
that capacity depends on the law of the domicile, it is not prob-
able that they will deem themselves entitled to make exceptions
for the protection of persons contracting in England with
foreigners not enjoying such capacity. The point furnishes an
illustration of the fact that to deal satisfactorily with so complex
a subject as private international law requires the assistance of
the legislature, which again cannot be given with full utility
unless uniform provisions, to be enacted in different countries,
are settled by international convention.
Another ground for the application of a personal law is
furnished by the cases in which masses of property and rights
have to be dealt with collectively, by reason of their being
grouped around persons. The principal instances of that kind
are when it is necessary to determine the validity and operation
of a marriage settlement or contract, or the effect of marriage
on the property of the husband and wife in the absence of any
express settlement or contract, and when property passes on
death, either by a will or by intestate succession.
"These matters, at least when the property concerned is movable,
are generally referred to the personal law of the husband at the
time of the marriage, or to that of the deceased respectively; but
about them, besides the question between domicile and nationality,
there arises the question whether immovable property is to be
included in the mass governed by the personal law, or is to follow
the territorial law of its own situation (Lex situs). Here we touch
the distinction between real and personal statutes which arose in the
middle ages, when the local legislation of the free cities was con-
trasted, under the name of statutes, with the general Roman law.
That distinction did not bear the same character at all times, but
INTERNATIONAL LAW (PRIVATE)
704.
in the i6th century, under d'Argentr6, it acquired its most developed
form, absorbing all laws into one or other of the two classes, and
giving a vast extension to the real class, for which was claimed
exclusive application to immovables situate in the territory of the
law. In accordance with this system, the highly feudal character
of which was very sympathetic to English jurisprudence, English
practice has refused to include English immovables in the mass to
be dealt with as a unit on marriage or death. But it refers the
validity and operation of a marriage settlement, at least as to
movables, and the effect of marriage, in the absence of express
contract, on the movable property of the husband and wife, to the
law of the husband's domicile at the time of the marriage, called the
matrimonial domicile. And with regard to the succession to mov-
ables on death, it adopts the principle of massing them irrespectively
of their situation, so far as is permitted by the peculiar system under
which the property in movables situate in England does not pass
directly to the legatees or next of kin, but to the executors or
administrators, who are charged with the duty of paying the debts
of the deceased and distributing the beneficial surplus. The validity
of a will of movables, otherwise than in respect of form (about which
more hereafter), and the rights, whether under a will or under an
intestacy, in the beneficial surplus arising from them, are determined
in England by the law of the testator's last domicile. On the points
glanced at in this paragraph the decisions in the United States
generally agree with those in England, only allowing the pecuniary
relations of a married couple, in the absence of express contract, to
be varied by a change of domicile, notwithstanding that such change
is in the husband's exclusive power, instead of maintaining them as
fixed by the matrimonial domicile. On the continent of Europe
partisans of a variation after the marriage are scarcely to be found ;
but as between the nationality and the domicile of the husband or
of the deceased, and on the question whether the mass to be governed
either by nationality or domicile, on marriage or on death, includes
immovables situate under a different law, the division of opinion,
legislation and practice is considerable and intricate.
Lex situs, lex loci aclus, lex loci contractus, lex fori. — The law
of the territory in which they are situate (lex situs) is generally
applied to the property in particular things, whether movable
or immovable, so far as they are not included in any mass grouped
round a person; in England, therefore, always to immovables.
In drawing up documents and conducting ceremonies public
functionaries must necessarily follow the law from which they
derive their authority, wherefore the law of the place where any
public document is entered into, or any public ceremony per-
formed (lex loci actus), is the only one that can be followed in its
e*ernal form. This maxim applies to the forms of notarial
acts, and to that of marriage celebrated with the official con-
currence of clergymen, registrars and so forth. And since
documents and ceremonies entered into without official con-
currence are rarer on the continent of Europe than in England,
the inevitableness of the form of the lex actus, when such con-
currence is had, has generally led to that form being also held
sufficient whenever the affair comes to be inquired into later.
Nor in England has the sufficiency of the form of the lex loci actus
for the celebration of marriage ever been doubted, but a will
made by a notarial act in accordance with that law was not
admitted. Disregarding the distinction between external form
and internal validity and operation, a will of English land could
not take effect unless made in English form (that is, since the
Wills Act of 1837, with two witnesses), and a will of personal
estate could not be admitted in England to probate unless made
in the form of the law of the testator's last domicile. But now,
by Lord Kingsdown's Act, passed in 1861, there are given for
wills of personal property made by British subjects, besides the
form of their last domicile, three alternative forms, namely, the
form of the place of making the will, that of the testator's domicile
at the time when it was made, and that of the part of the British
dominions where he had his domicile of origin — only the first
of the three, however, being offered when the will is made in
the United Kingdom ; and no will is to be revoked or invalidated
by a change of the testator's domicile after making it.
The law of the place o'f contract lex loci contractus, is distinguished
into that of the place where the contract is entered into, lex loci
contractus celebrati, and that of the place where it is to be per-
formed, which, from the particular case in which the performance
consists only in a payment, is called lex loci solutionis. To the first
of these is generally referred the formal validity of a contract, so far
as entered into without the intervention of a functionary, and
therefore not covered by the principle of the lex loci actus, and so far
also as the performance is not tied to any particular place. For
example, the form for contracting marriage, whether with official
intervention as in England, or by private and even oral contract as
in Scotland, depends, both as to necessity and as to sufficiency, on
the law of the place of contracting it. But as to the internal validity,
interpretation and operation of a contract, there has been and still
remains much difference of opinion between the laws of the place of
contracting and of that of stipulated performance; the former being
supported, among other grounds, on some texts of Roman law which
Savigny has shown to have been misunderstood, while the latter
agrees much oftener with the intention of the parties. The English
decisions do not adhere closely to either of those laws, but while
repeating much of the traditional language about the lex loci con-
tractus, they aim at doing substantial justice by referring a contract
to that place with which its matter has the closest connexion, or
which the intention of the parties points out.
In matters of legal procedure every court follows its own practice
exclusively (lex fori), as, for instance, whether the remedy on a
contract shall be damages or specific performance, and whether a
judgment may be executed against the person or only against the
property of a party. A point much disputed under this head is
whether the time of limitation of actions shall, as held in the United
Kingdom, be decided by the lex fori, as an incident to the procedure,
or by the lex loci contractus in one of its varieties, as an essential
modality of the obligation.
Renvoi. — We will now suppose that the rules of private
international law, as practised in any country (A), refer a case
arising in its courts to the law of another country (B), as being
that of the domicile or nationality of a person, and that those
rules as practised in (B) in turn refer (renwient) the same case
to the law of (A), as being that of the nationality or domicile
or perhaps of the locus actus: what are the courts of (A) to
decide? This question, which involves nothing less than that of
the meaning in which the reference to a law is to be understood
in our subject, has during recent years excited great discussion
both among the jurists and in the courts of all nations. It is
answered by the English courts to the effect that (B) by its
reference back (renvoi) has disclaimed the control of the case,
which must therefore be decided without regard to (B)'s par-
ticular laws. See In re Trufort, 36 Ch. D. 600, and In re Johnson,
1903, i Ch. 821. This principle practically gives efficacy to the
renvoi, and coincides with the express provisions both of the
above-mentioned convention of the izth of June 1902, Art. i,
as to the right of contracting marriage, and of the statute enacting
the German code, Art. 27, as to capacity generally. The English
law agrees in opinion, and is supported by a numerical pre-
ponderance of the judicial precedents in France and Belgium;
but it must be admitted that a numerical preponderance of the
jurists who have declared themselves hold that the courts of (A)
ought to apply the particular laws of (B).
Public Order. — It must not be supposed that the law of the
land, the proper territorial law of the court which has to deal
with a case in which foreign circumstances arise, always gives
way to the foreign law pointed out by the general maxims which
even that particular court accepts. All rules for the application
of foreign laws are subject to an exception commonly called that
of public order, i.e. where such application would interfere with
essential principles of morality or policy received in the territory.
This reservation is usually made in general terms where legisla-
tion on private international law is attempted, as in Article 6
of the Code Napoleon, and preliminary Article 1 2 of the Italian
code; but the courts have to administer it, as they have also
in England and other countries where it rests only on judicial
practice, and the greater or less extent given to it is one of the
causes of the uncertainty and want of uniformity in our subject.
One example often quoted is the refusal of the courts in all
Christian countries to give effect to polygamous marriage, but
this case goes deeper still, for none of the countries in which
polygamous marriage exists is allowed to enter at all into the
communion of private international law. All, so far as Great
Britain has settled legal relations with them, are among those
in which British subjects live under consular protection and
jurisdiction, or (in Egypt) under that of the Mixed Courts. A
better instance is afforded by the refusal of courts, normally
within the pale of European legal communion, to recognize
divorce as dissolving a marriage, notwithstanding that it has
been decreed under the personal law. As another instance,
INTERPELLATION— INTERPLEADER
705
there can be little doubt that an incapacity to marry imposed
by the personal law in virtue of religious vows or orders would
be disregarded by the English courts in the case of a person
marrying in England. Again, it is established in England that
damages cannot be recovered for a tort unless the act complained
of was a wrong both by the law of the country where it was done
and by the law of England; and Article 12 of the statute
enacting the German code is in accordance with that doctrine.
Now the law of the country where the act is done would naturally
give the standard for measuring its legal consequences, and it
seems to be due to the connexion which laws qualifying acts as
wrongs have with public order that respect for that law is
tempered by respect for the law of the countries in which it is
invoked; but Article 8 of the Belgian code refers the liability
for torts to the former law without any restriction.
Foreign Judgments. — In the rules which have passed before
us in the foregoing general review it is easy to perceive a leading
motive — that of securing, so far as public order allows, the cer-
tainty and stability both of personal and of business relations in
the international or interterritorial intercourse which has always
accompanied civilization, but is now especially frequent and
extensive. It has been attempted to erect this motive into a
guiding principle of law, laying down that rights once accrued
in any territory, or sometimes, it is said, by virtue of any terri-
torial law, are to be recognized and enforced, subject to the
requirements of public order, in any other territory in which
they may be invoked before a court of justice. From this,
which may be called the principle of the acceptance of foreign
rights, it is claimed that the rules of private international law
are to be deduced, and that by their consonance with it any
such rules are to be tested when proposed. The difficulties of
the subject, however, do not admit of being unlocked by so
simple a key. They meet us again when we inquire in what
territory, or by virtue of what territorial law, a particular
alleged right has accrued. Persons belonging by domicile
or nationality to A enter in B into a contract to be performed in
C; where and by virtue of what law does either acquire a right
against the other? Is it to be in or by the law of their homes,
where they are normally, though not always necessarily, to be
sued? Or of the country where they contract, which for various
purposes, as those of police, but not for all purposes, has the
control of them when they contract? Or of the country where
their contract is to be performed, under a similar control by
which, perhaps extending to the very acts of performance, they or
their agents may be brought by the operation of their contract?
Evidently we cannot apply the principle to guide us in our choice
of a law till the very problem which that choice presents has first
been solved. There is, however, one case in which the principle
of the acceptance of foreign rights leads to a conclusion, namely,
where the right has been declared by the judgment of a competent
court, which may have been given in an ordinary case, presenting
no question of private international law, but in which, if such a
question arose, it has been solved by choosing the law and basing
the judgment on it. The rule in England and in many other
countries as to foreign judgments is that the judgments of com-
petent courts in other territories (foreign in the sense of civil law,
whether politically foreign or not) are to be enforced without
reopening the merits of the questions disposed of by them. In
some countries, however, a foreign judgment is examinable
on its merits before being enforced. This was formerly the
unquestioned rule in France, though the practice there seems
to be now turning the other way. In the system adopted in
England everything turns on the competence. For judgments
in rent, declaring or disposing of the property in a thing, the test
of competence is that the thing, whether movable or immovable,
was within the territory of the court. Judgments which declare
the status of a person, as with regard to marriage or majority,
are competent if the person was subject to the jurisdiction by
nationality or domicile. The property or the status is treated
as being what has been so declared or decreed. For judgments
in personam, decreeing the payment of a certain sum, the test
of competence for the present purpose is again that the person
against whom it was pronounced was subject to the jurisdiction
by nationality or domicile; the judgment may then be sued on
as giving of itself a good title to the sum decreed by it to be
paid. For domestic purposes the competence may exist on
quite other grounds. By its own territorial law a court may be
authorized to entertain a suit in personam because the plaintiff
possesses its nationality, as by Article 14 of the code Napoleon,
or because the contract sued on was made or was to be performed
in the territory, and so forth. But judgments based on these
grounds will not be enforceable outside the territory. Here we
touch the root principles of our subject. The distinction between
domestic and international grounds of competence can only be
explained by the history of law, and we come in sight of the fact
that the rules of private international law rest finally on con-
ventions which could not have existed if the civilization of
different countries had not so much that was common in its
origin and in the course which it has followed, but which suit the
life of those countries just because that life is itself another
outcome of those common antecedents.
"AUTHORITIES. — The best authority on the history of private
international law to the end of the 1 8th century is Lain6, Intro-
duction au droit international prim (2 vols., Paris, 1888). For modern
progress the most copious materials are to be found in the Revue
de droit international et de legislation compare (Brussels, from 1869) ;
the Journal du droit international prive et de la jurisprudence com-
paree (Paris, from 1874); and the Annuaire de I'institut de droit
international (Paris, from 1877). The most comprehensive general
treatise is that of von Bar, of which the 2nd edition appeared at
Gottingen in 1889, and has been translated : The Theory and Practice
of Private International Law, by L. v. Bar, 2nd ed., translated,
by Gillespie (Edinburgh, 1892). Other works, many of great merit,
are numerous in all languages; but in this, as in every department
of law, the first place for England and the United States must be
given to the different Law Reports, since in those countries it is
not in the study but on the bench that the highest legal intellect
is usually displayed, and the judgments delivered are often essays
on the points involved. The following works, however, among
others, treat the subject from the English or United States point of
view: Story, Commentaries on the Conflict of Laws, Foreign and
Domestic, 8th ed., by Bigelow (Boston, 1883); Wharton, A
Treatise on the Conflict of Laws or Private International Law (2nd
ed., Philadelphia, 1881); J. Westlake, A Treatise on Private
International Law, with Principal Reference to its Practice in England
(4th ed., London, 1905) ; Foote, A Concise Treatise on Private
International Jurisprudence, based on the Decisions in the English
Courts (3rd ed., London, 1904); A. V. Dicey, A Digest of the Law of
England with Reference to the Conflict of Laws (2nd ed., London, 1908);
Beale, A Selection of Cases on the Conflict of Laws, with Notes and
Summary (Cambridge, Mass., 1900-1903) ; Bate, Notes on the Doctrine
of Renvoi (1904). QNO. W.)
INTERPELLATION (from Lat. interpellare, to interrupt),
a term meaning, in general, an interruption, more particularly
used of a method of procedure adopted in some of the legislative
chambers of continental Europe, especially those of France and
Italy, and somewhat similar to that of a motion to adjourn the
House in the British parliament. It was originally confined to the
asking of a question, after due notice, on some affair of state.
It is now, however, the chief means by which the policy or action
of the ministry of the day is challenged. An interpellation can
be brought on without the consent of the minister to be attacked;
it is usually made the subject of a general debate, and generally
ends with a vote of confidence or want of confidence in the
ministry. The right of permitting or vetoing an interpellation
rests with the chamber. In France a tendency has been growing
among deputies to use the interpellation as a method of attack
on or accusation against individual colleagues.
INTERPLEADER, in English law, the form of action by which
a person who is sued at law by two or more parties claiming
adversely to each other for the recovery of money or goods
wherein he has no interest, obtains relief by procuring the rival
claimants to try their rights between or among themselves only.
Originally the only relief available to the possessor against such
adverse claims was by means of a bill of interpleader in equity.
The Interpleader Act 1831 enabled the defendant in such cases,
on application to the court, to have the original action stayed and
converted into a trial between the two claimants. The Common
Law Procedure Act of 1860 further extended the power of the
xiv. 23
706
INTERPOLATION
common law courts in interpleader; and the Judicature Act 1875
enacted that the practice and procedure under these two statutes
should apply to all divisions of the High Court of Justice. The
Judicature Act also extended the remedy of interpleader to a
debtor or other person liable in respect of a debt alleged to be
assigned, when the assignment was disputed. In 1883 the acts of
1831 and 1860 were embodied in the form of rules by the Rules
of the Supreme Courts (1883), O. Ivii. by reference to which all
questions of interpleader in the High Court of Justice are now
determined. The acts themselves were repealed by the Statute
Law Revision Act of the same year. Interpleader is the equivalent
of multiplepoinding in Scots law.
INTERPOLATION (from Lat. interpolare, to alter, or insert
something fresh, connected with polire, a pojish), in mathe-
matics, the process of obtaining intermediate terms of a series
of which particular terms only are given. The cubes, for instance,
shown in the second column of the accompanying table, may
Number.
Cube of Number.
o
O
I
I
2
8
3
27
4
64
5
125
6
216
be regarded as terms of a series, and the cube of a fractional
number, not exceeding the last number in the first column,
may be found by interpolation. The process of obtaining the
cube of a number exceeding the last number in the first column
would be extrapolation; the formulae which apply to inter-
polation apply in theory to extrapolation, but in practice
special precautions as to accuracy are necessary. The present
article deals only with interpolation.
The term is usually limited to those cases in which there
are two quantities, x and u, which are so related that when x
has any arbitrary value, lying perhaps between certain limits,
the value of u is determinate. There is a given series of associated
values of u and of x, and interpolation consists in determining
the value of « for any arbitrary value of x, or the value of x for
any arbitrary value of «, lying between two of the values in the
series. Either of the two quantities may be regarded as a function
of the other; it is convenient to treat one, x, as the " independent
variable," the other, u, being treated as the "dependent variable,"
i.e. as a function of x. If, as is usually the case, the successive
values of one of the quantities proceed by a constant increment,
this quantity is to be regarded as the independent variable.
The two series of values may be tabulated, those of x being
placed in a column (or row), and those of u in a parallel column
(or row) ; u is then said to be tabulated in terms of x. The inde-
pendent variable x is called the argument, and the dependent
variable u is called the entry. Interpolation, in the ordinary
sense, consists in determining the value of u for a value of x
intermediate between two values appearing in the table. This
may be described as direct interpolation, to distinguish it from
inverse interpolation, which consists in determining the value of
x for a value of u intermediate between two in the table. The
methods employed can be extended to cases in which the value
of u depends on the values of two or more independent quantities
x, y, . . .
In the ordinary case we may regard the values of x as measured
along a straight line OX from a fixed point O, so that to any value
of x there corresponds a point on the line. If we represent the
corresponding value of u by an ordinate drawn from the line, the
extremities of all such ordinates will lie on a curve which will be the
graph of u with regard to x. Interpolation therefore consists in
determining the length of the ordinate of a curve occupying a
particular position, when the lengths of ordinates occupying certain
specified positions are known. If « is a function of two variables.,
x and y, we may similarly represent it by the ordinate of a surface,
the position of the ordinate being determined by the values of *
and of y jointly.
The series or tables to which interpolation has to be applied may
for convenience be regarded as falling into two main groups. The
first group comprises mathematical tables, i.e. tables of mathematical
functions; in the case of such a table the value of the function u
for each tabulated value of * is calculated to a known degree of
accuracy, and the degree of accuracy of an interpolated value of u
can be estimated. The second group comprises tables of values
which are found experimentally, e.g. values of a physical quantity
or of a statistical ratio; these values are usually subject to certain
" errors " of observation or of random selection (see PROBABILITY).
The methods of interpolation are usually the same in the two groups
of cases, but special considerations have to be taken into account
in the second group. The line of demarcation of the two groups is
not absolutely fixed; the tables used by actuaries, for instance,
which are of great importance in practical life, are based on statisti-
cal observations, but the tables formed directly from the observations
have been " smoothed " so as to obtain series which correspond in
form to the series of values of mathematical functions.
It must be assumed, at any rate in the case of a mathematical
function, that the " entry " u varies continuously with the " argu-
ment " x, i.e. that there are no sudden breaks, changes of direction,
&c., in the curve which is the graph of u.
Various methods of interpolation are described below. The
simplest is that which uses the principle of proportional parts;
and mathematical tables are usually arranged so as to enable this
method to be employed. Where this is not possible, the methods are
based either on the use of Taylor's Theorem, which gives a formula
involving differential coefficients (see INFINITESIMAL CALCULUS),
or on the properties of finite differences (see DIFFERENCES, CALCULUS
OF). Taylor's Theorem can only be applied directly to a known
mathematical function; but it can be applied indirectly, by means
of finite differences, in various cases where the form of the function
expressing « in terms of x is unknown; and even where the form
of this function is known it is sometimes more convenient to deter-
mine the differential coefficients by means of the differences than
to calculate them directly from their mathematical expressions.
Finally, there are cases where we cannot even employ finite-differ-
ence formulae directly. In these cases we must adopt some special
method; e.g. we may instead of u tabulate some function of u,
such as its logarithm, which is found to be amenable to ordinary
processes, then determine the value of this function corresponding
to the particular value of x, and thence determine the corresponding
value of u itself.
In considering methods of interpolation, it will be assumed,
unless the contrary is stated, that the values of x proceed by a
constant increment, which will be denoted by h.
In order to see what method is to be employed, it is usually
necessary to arrange the given series of values of u in the form of a
table, as explained above, and then to take the successive differences
of u. The differences of the successive values of u are called its
first differences; these form a new series, the first differences of
which are the second differences of u; and so on. The systems of
notation of the differences are explained briefly below. For the
fuller discussion, reference should be made to DIFFERENCES, CAL-
CULUS OF.
I. INTERPOLATION FROM MATHEMATICAL TABLES
A. Direct Interpolation.
i. Interpolation by First Differences. — The simplest cases are
those in which the first difference in u is constant, or nearly so.
For example : —
Example I. — (a = log 10*). Example 2. — (u =log io#).
x.
u.
1st Diff.
4-341
•6375898
+
IOOO
4-342
•6376898
IOOO
4-343
•6377898
IOOO
4-344
•6378898
IOOO
4-345
•6379898
X.
u.
1st Diff.
7-40
•86923
+
59
7-4i
•86982
58
7-42
•87040
59
7-43
•87099
58
7-44
•87157
In Example I the first difference of u corresponding to a difference
of h = -ooi in x is -oooiooo; but, since we are working throughout
to seven places of decimals, it is more convenient to write it 1000.
This system of ignoring the decimal point in dealing with differences
will be adopted throughout this article. To final u for an inter-
mediate value of x we assume the principle of proportional parts,
i.e. we assume that the difference in u is proportional to the difference
in x. Thus for # = 4-342945 the difference in u is -945 of 1000 = 945,
so that u is -6376898 + -0000945 = -6377843. For # = 4-34294482
the difference in u would be 944-82, so that the value of u would
apparently be -6376898 + -000094482 = -637784282. This, however,
would be incorrect. It must be remembered that the values of
u are only given " correct to seven places of decimals," i.e. each
INTERPOLATION
707
tabulated value differs from the corresponding true value by a tabular
error which may have any value up 10="=$ of -oooopoi ; and we
cannot therefore by interpolation obtain a result which is correct
to nine places. If the interpolated value of M has to be used in
calculations for which it is important that this value should be as
accurate as possible, it may be convenient to retain it temporarily
in the form -6376898+944 82 = -6377842 82 or -6376898 +94482 =
•6377842s2; but we must ultimately return to the seven-place
arrangement and write it as -6377843. The result of interpolation
by first difference is thus usually subject to two inaccuracies, the
first being the tabular error of M itself, and the second being due to
the necessity of adjusting the final figure of the added (proportional)
difference. If the tabulated values are correct to seven places of
decimals, the interpolated value, with the final figure adjusted, will
be within -ooooooi of its true value.
In Example 2 the differences do not at first sight appear to run
regularly, but this is only due to the fact that the final figure in
each value of u represents, as explained in the last paragraph, an
approximation to the true value. The general principle on which
we proceed is the same; but we use the actual difference correspond-
ing to the interval in which the value of x lies. Thus for # = 7-41373
we should have it = -86982 + (-373 of 58) = -87004; this result
being correct within -ooooi.
2. Interpolation by Second Differences. — If the consecutive first
differences of M are not approximately equal, we must take account
of the next order of differences. For example: —
Example 3. — (j( = log io#).
x.
M.
ist Diff.
2nd Diff.
6-0
•77815
+718
6-1
•78533
— 12
+ 706
6-2
.79239
— II
+695
6-3
•79934
— II
+684
6-4
•80618
— II
+673
6-5
•81291
In such a case the advancing-difference formula is generally used.
The notation is as follows. The series of values of x and of M are
respectively #o, *i, #2, • • • and MO, tti, Ut, . . . ; and the suc-
cessive differences of M are denoted by AM, A2M, . . . Thus AMO
denotes MI — MO, and A2Mo denotes AMI— A»o = M2 — 2«i+Mo. The
value of * for which M is sought is supposed to lie between XQ and x\.
If we write it equal to #o+9(#i — Xt>)=Xo+9h, so that 9 lies between
o and I, we may denote it by Xg, and the corresponding value of
« by ug. We have then
(i-9) , 9(l-9)(2-9)
2! "°+ 3!
M0=«o+9AMo — -
<&•*-... (I).
Tables of the values of the coefficients of A2«0 and A'MO to three
places of decimals for various values of 0 from o to I are given in
the ordinary collections of mathematical tables; but the formula
is not really convenient if we have to go beyond A2Mo, or if A2M0
itself contains more than two significant figures.
To apply the formula to Example 3 for # = 6-277, we have
0 = 77, so that M0 = -79239 + (-77 of 695) — (-089 of — n) = -79239+
535 i5+o 98 = -79775-
Here, as elsewhere, we use two extra figures in the intermediate
calculations, for the purpose of adjusting the final figure in the
ultimate result.
3. Taylor's Theorem. — Where differences beyond the second
are involved, Taylor's Theorem is useful. This theorem (see IN-
FINITESIMAL CALCULUS) gives the formula
e2
„.+ '•• <2)'
where, c\, c-i, c3, . . . are the values for #=*o of the first, second,
third, . . . differential coefficients of M with regard to #. The values
of ci, Ci, . . . can occasionally be calculated from the analytical
expressions for the differential coefficients of M; but more generally
they have to be calculated from the tabulated differences. For this
purpose central-difference formulae are the best. If we write
(3),
&c.
so that, if (as in §§ I and 2) each difference is placed opposite the
space between the two quantities of which it is the difference, the
expressions 52Mo, 54Mo, . . . denote the differences of even order in
a horizontal line with MO, and P&UO, ju53M0, . . . denote the means
of the differences of odd order immediately below and above this
line, then (see DIFFERENCES, CALCULUS OF) the values of ci, cs,
are given by
t =5<M0- js6"o+jf Jo-ax- • . .
(4).
If a calculating machine is used, the formula (2) is most conveniently
written
(5).
Using 9 as the multiplicand in each case, the successive expressions
. . . PS, Pt, PI, ug are easily calculated.
As an example, take u= tan # to five places of decimals, the
values of # proceeding by a difference of 1°. It will be found that
the following is part of the table : —
Example 4. — (M = tan x).
X.
M.
ist Diff.
2nd Diff.
3rd Diff.
4th Diff.
65°
2-14451
+
732
+
16
66°
2-24604
10153
828
96
19
10981
H5
67°
2-35585
943
18
To find M for # = 66 "23', we have 9 = 23/60 = -3833333. The following
shows the full working: in actual practice it would be abbreviated.
The operations commence on the right-hand side. It will be noticed
that two extra figures are retained throughout.
3.34604
P19-+4I056
+105670
+82800
+ios*>
+19°°
Ug=3. 28710 Pl = + I07I044 Pi
The value 2-2870967, obtained by retaining the extra figures, is
correct within -7 of -ooooi (§ 8), so that 2-28710 is correct within
•ooooi I.
In applying this method to mathematical tables, it is desirable,
on account of the tabular error, that the differences taken into
account in (4) should end with a difference of even order. If, e.g.
we use M83«o in calculating ci, and C3, we ought also to use «'MO for
calculating c2 and c\, even though the term due to 54Mo would be
negligible if 54Mo were known exactly.
4. Geometrical and Algebraical Interpretation. — In applying the
principle of proportional parts, in such a case as that of Example I,
we in effect treat the graph of M as a straight line. We see that the
extremities of a number of consecutive ordinates lie approximately
in a straight line: i.e. that, if the values are correct within =£p,
a straight line passes through points which are within a corresponding
distance of the actual extremities of the ordinates; and we assume
that this is true for intermediate ordinates. Algebraically we treat
M as being of the form A+B#, where A and B are constants deter-
mined by the values of M at the extremities of the interval through
which we interpolate. In using first and second differences we treat
u as being of the form A+B#+C#2; i.e. we pass a parabola (with
axis vertical) through the extremities of three consecutive ordinates,
and consider that this is the graph of M, to the degree of accuracy
given by the data. Similarly in using differences of a higher order
we replace the graph by a curve whose equation is of the form
M = A + B#+C#2+D*3+ . . . The various forms that interpolation-
formulae take are due to the various principles on which ordinates
are selected for determining the values of A, B, C ...
B. Inverse Interpolation.
5. To find the value of # when M is given, i.e. to find the value of
0 when ug is given, we use the same formula as for direct inter-
polation, but proceed (if differences beyond the first are involved)
by successive approximation. Taylor's Theorem, for instance,
gives
(6),
708
INTERPOLATION
We first find an approximate value for 0: then calculate Pi, and
find by (6) a more accurate value of 8; then, if necessary, recal-
culate Pi, and thence 6, and so on.
II. CONSTRUCTION OF TABLES BY SUBDIVISION OF INTERVALS
6. When the values of u have been tabulated for values of x
proceeding by a difference h, it is often desirable to deduce a table
m which the differences of * are h/n, where n is an integer.
If n is even it may be advisable to form an intermediate table in
which the intervals are %h. For this purpose we have
«} = KUo+Ui) (7),
where
= -S2««4«-«6«+. • -
...)!] (8).
The following is an example; the data are the values of tan x to
five places of decimals, the interval in x being 1°. The differences
of odd order are omitted for convenience of printing.
Example 5.
X.
*Htan*-.
M.
5*
*,
U.
u = mean of
values of U.
x.
73°
3-27085
2339
100
5
3-26794 95
3-37594
73i°
74°
3-48741
2808
132
23
3-48392 98
3-60588
74*°
75°
3-73205
3409
187
18
3-72783 17
3-86671
754°
76°
4-01078
4197
260
51
4-00559 22
4-16530
76 j°
77"
4-33I48
5245
384
64
4-32501 07
If a new table is formed from these values, the intervals being £°,
it will be found that differences beyond the fourth are negligible.
To subdivide h into smaller intervals than JA, various methods
may be used. One is to calculate the sets of quantities which in
the new table will be the successive differences, corresponding to «o,
«i,... and to find the intermediate terms by successive additions.
A better method is to use a formula_due to J. D. Everett. If we
write (j>=i —8, Everett's formula is, in its most symmetrical form,
-(9).
,
+(j>Uo-\
,
o-
For actual calculations a less symmetrical form may be used.
Denoting
j
0*
by »Vi, we have, for interpolation between «o and Ui,
K$ = «o-r-0Atto+»Vi+i_0V0 (ii),
the successive values of 0 being i/n, 2/n, .... (n — i)/n. For
interpolation between «i and M» we have, with the same succession
of values of 8,
«1^ = tt,+»Vi, V.+^Vi (12).
The values of i_$Vi in (12) are exactly the same as those of »Vi
in (ii), but in the reverse order. The process is therefore that (i.)
we find the successive values of «o+0Aw«, &c., i.e. we construct a
table, with the required intervals of x, as if we had only to take
first differences into account; (ii.) we construct, in a parallel column,
a table giving the values of »Vi, &c. ; (iii.) we repeat these latter
values, placing the set belonging to each interval « in the interval
next following it, and writing the values in the reverse order; and
(iv.) by padding horizontally we get the final values for the new table.
As an example, take the values of tan x by intervals of J° in x,
as found above (Ex. 5). The first diagram below is a portion of this
table, with the differences, and the second shows the calculation of
the terms of (ii) so as to get a table in which the intervals are o-i
of i°. The last column but one in the second diagram is introduced
for convenience of calculation.
Example 6.
X.
u = tan*.
5u.
fit.
S'u.
«4«.
l"47
+
62
+
74°-o
3-48741
700
8
11847
70
74°'5
3-60588
770
9
12617
79
X.
Wo-l-0Atto.
,Vi.
i_0Vo.
eVi+i_$V<>.
w.
73°-6
-22 35
73°'7
.
-39 ii
.
.
73°-8
-4471
.
.
73°'9
-3354
•
74°-o
3-48741 oo
3-48741
74°. i
3-5111040
-2458
-3354
-58 12
3-51052
74"-2
3-53479 80
-43 02
-4471
-8773
3-53392
74°'3
3-55849 20
-49 18
-39 ii
-88 29
3-5576I
74°'4
3-58218 60
-3689
-2235
-59 24
3-58I59
74°-5
3-60588 oo
3-60588
The following are the values of the coefficients of u\, 8*ut, S4Ui,
and 86«i in (9) for certain values of n. For calculating the four
terms due to 62«i in the case of n = 5 it should be noticed that the
third term is twice the first, the fourth is the mean of the first and
the third, and the second is the mean of the third and the fourth.
In table 3, and in the last column of table 2, the coefficients are
corrected in the last figure.
TABLE i. — w = 5.
CO. U.
co. S*u.
CO. J4».
co. 86«.
+
•2
3
•8
•032
•056
•064
•048
+
•006336
•010752
•011648
•008064
•00135168 = 1/740 approx.
•00226304 = 1/442 „
•00239616 = 1/417 ,,
•00160512 = 1/623
TABLE 2. — » = io.
CO. U.
CO. S2M.
co. S4u.
co. SPu.
•I
•0165
•00329175
•000704591
•2
•0320
•00633600
•001351680
•3
•0455
•00889525
•001887064
•4
•0560
•01075200
•002263040
•5
•0625
•01171875
•002441406
•6
•0640
•01164800
•002396160
•7
•0595
•01044225
•002115799
•8
•0480
•00806400
•001605120
•9
•0285
•00454575
•000886421
TABLE 3.— n = i2.
CO. U.
co. 6-u.
CO. «4tt.
CO. &U.
1/12
•013792438
•002753699
•000589623
2/12
•027006173
•005363726
•001145822
3/12
•039062500
•007690430
•001636505
4/12
•049382716
•009602195
•002032211
5/12
•057388117
•010979463
•002307357
6/12
•062500000
•011718750
•002441406
7/12
•064139660
•011736667
•002419911
8/12
•061728395
•010973937
•002235432
9/12
•054687500
•009399414
•001888275
IO/I2
•042438272
•007014103
•001387048
11/12
•024402006
•003855178
•000748981
III. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS
7. Derivation of Formulae. — The advancing-difference formula
(i) may be written, in the symbolical notation of finite differences,
and it is an extension of the theorem that if n is a positive integer
n(n— i
~2T
(H),
the series being continued until the terms vanish. The formula
(14) is identically true: the formula (13) or (i) is only formally true,
but its applicability to concrete cases is due to the fact that the
series in (i), when taken for a definite number of terms, differs
from the true value of «« by a " remainder" which in most cases is
very small when this definite number of terms is properly chosen.
Everett's formula (9), and the central-difference formula obtained
by substituting from (4) in (2), are modifications of a standard
formula
INTERPOLATION
where
which may similarly be regarded as an extension of the theorem
that, if n is a positive integer,
. . (16).
There are other central-difference formulae besides those mentioned
above ; the general symbolical expression is
«9 = (cosh0H)+sinh0;zD)wo (17),
coshJ/zD=/*, sinh£M5 = iS (18).
8. Comparative Accuracy. — Central-difference formulae are usually
more accurate than advancing-difference formulae, whether we
consider the inaccuracy due to omission of the " remainder "
mentioned in the last paragraph or the error due to the approxi-
mative character of the tabulated values. The latter is the more
important. If each tabulated value of « is within ±fp of the
corresponding true value, and if the differences used in the formulae
are the tabular differences, i.e. the actual successive differences of
the tabulated values of «, then the ratio of the limit of error of ue,
as calculated from the first r terms of the series in (l), to i/> is the
sum of the first r terms of the series
1+0+8(1 _0)+0(i-0)(2-0)-r-Jz0(l-0)(2-0)(3-0) +
i-0) . . .(5-0)+ - - .,
while the corresponding ratio for the use of differences up to S2puo
inclusive in (4) or up to &lpu\ and 02p#o in (9) (i.e. in effect, up to
is the sum of the first p+i terms of the series
. ,0(1-0) , (l+0)9(l-0)(2-0) ,
""" I.I " (2!)2
(3D2
it 'being supposed in each case that 0 lies between o and i. The
following table gives a comparison of the respective limits of error;
the lines I. and II. give the errors due to the advancing-difference
and the central-difference formulae, and the coefficient p is omitted
throughout.
TABLE 4.
Error due to use of Differences up to and
including
ISt.
2nd.
3rd.
4th.
5th.
6th.
7th.
•5)1!: : :
•500
•500
-625
•625
-813
•625
1-086
-696
1-497
•696
2-132
•745
3-147
•745
•Hn1: : :
•500
•500
•580
•580
•724
•580
•960
•624
1-343
•624
1-976
•653
3-042
•653
•*ii : :
•500
•500
•620
•620
•812
•620
1-104
•688
1-553
•688
2-265
•734
3-422
•734
•fi in1: : :
•500
•500
•620
•620
•788
•620
1-024
•688
1-366
•688
1-886
•734
2-700
•734
«ii!: : :
•500
•500
•580
•580
•676
•580
•800
•624
•969
-624
1-213
•653
1-582
•653
In some cases the differences tabulated are not the tabular differ-
ences, but the corrected differences; i.e. each difference, like each
value of M, is correct within =*=$p. It does not follow that these
differences should be used for interpolation. Whatever formula
is employed, the first difference should always be the tabular first
difference, not the corrected first difference ; and, further, if a central-
difference formula is used, each difference of odd order should be the
tabular difference of the corrected differences of the next lower
order. (This last result is indirectly achieved if Everett's formula is
used.) With these precautions (i.) the central-difference formula is
slightly improved by using corrected instead of tabular differences,
and (ii.) the advancing-difference formula is greatly improved, being
better than the central-difference formula with tabular differences,
but still not so good as the latter with corrected differences. For
6 = -5, for instance, supposing we have to go to fifth differences, the
limits ± i -497 and =fc -696, as given above, become ± -627 and
± -575 respectively.
9. Completion of Table of Differences. — If no values of « outside
the range within which we have to interpolate are given, the series
of differences will be incomplete at both ends. It may be con-
tinued in each direction by treating as constant the extreme
difference of the highest order involved; and central-difference
formulae can then be employed uniformly throughout the whole
range.
Suppose, for instance, that the values of tan x in § 6 extended
only from * = 6o° to oc = 8o°, we could then complete the
differences by making the entries shown in italics below.
Example 7.
709
table of
X.
« = tanx.
tot.
Fu.
i'u.
8*.
«•«.
S'u.
6775
+
34
+
+
+
60°
I-73205
425
9
7200
43
61°
I -80405
468
9
7668
52
62°
1-88073
520
9
8188
61
63°
1-96261
58l
10
8769
71
64°
2-05030
652
9
75°
3-73205
3409
•
187
18
27873
788
73
76°
4-01078
4197
260
51
32070
1048
124
77°
4-33148
5245
384
64
37315
1432
188
78°
4-70463
6677
572
64
43992
2004
252
79°
5-14455
8681
824
64
52673
2828
316
80°
5-67128
H509
1140
64
64182
3968
380
For interpolating between x = 6o" and x = 6l" we should obtain the
same result by applying Everett's formula to this table as by using
the advancing-difference formula; and similarly at the other end
for the receding differences.
Interpolation by Substituted Tabulation.
10. The relation of u to x may be such that the successive differ-
ences of u increase rapidly, so that interpolation-formulae cannot
be employed directly. Other methods have then to be used. The
best method is to replace u by some expression v which is a function
of u such that (i.) the value of v or of u can be determined for any
given value of u or of v, and (ii.) when v is tabulated in terms of x
the differences decrease rapidly. We can then calculate v, and
thence u, for any intermediate value of x.
If, for instance, we require tan x for a value of x which is nearly
90°, it will be found that the table of tangents is not suitable for
interpolation. We can, however, convert it into a table of cotangents
to about the same number of significant figures; from this we can
easily calculate cot x, and thence tan x.
11. This method is specially suitable for statistical data, where
the successive values of u represent the area of a figure of frequency
up to successive ordinates. We have first to determine, by in-
spection, a curve which bears a general similarity to the unknown
curve of frequency, and whose area and abscissa are so related that
either can be readily calculated with the other is known. This
may be called the auxiliary curve. Denoting [by £ the abscissa
of this curve which corresponds to area u, we find the value of £
corresponding to each of the given values of u. Then, tabulating
£ in terms or x, we have a table in which, if the auxiliary curve
has been well chosen, differences of £ after the first or second are
negligible. We can therefore find £, and thence «, for any inter-
mediate value of x.
Extensions.
12. Construction of Formulae. — Any difference of u of the rth
order involves r+l consecutive values of u, and it might be ex-
pressed by the suffixes which indicate these values. Thus we might
write the table of differences
X.
u.
1st Diff.
2nd Diff.
3rd Diff.
4th Diff.
(-1,0)
(-2.-I.O, I)
•
XQ
«o
(-1,0,1)
(-2, -I, 0, I, 2)
(0, I)
(-1, 0, I, 2)
Xl
«i
(0, I, 2)
(-1,0, I, 2, 3)
(1,2)
(o, i, 2, 3)
Xl
%
(1,2,3)
(o, i, 2, 3, 4)
(2,3)
(1,2,3,4)
yio
INTERPRETATION— INTERREGNUM
The formulae (l) and (15) might then be written
x— *
X— Jo X—Xi X — Xi, , .
- • ir • is-*0- '• 2- 3)+ .
, .
.. (19).
X — XQ X —
-
The general principle on which these formulae are constructed,
and which may be used to construct other formulae, is that (i.)
we start with any tabulated value of u, (ii.) we pass to the successive
differences by steps, each of which may be either downwards or
upwards, and (iii.) the new suffix which is introduced at each step
determines the new factor (involving x) for use in the next term.
For any particular value of x, however, all formulae which end with
the same difference of the rth order give the same result, provided
tabular differences are used. If, for instance, we go only to first
differences, we have
i X — Xn, \ . X — X\ t \
«<H — j— (o, i)=«H — j— (o, i)
identically.
13. Ordinates not Equidistant. — When the successive ordinates in
the graph of u are not equidistant, i.e. when the differences of
successive values of x are not equal, the above principle still applies,
provided the differences are adjusted in a particular way. Let the
values of x for which « is tabulated be a = xo+ah, b = xo+/3h, c=xa+
fh, . . . Then the table becomes
X.
u.
Adjusted Differences.
ist Diff.
2nd Diff.
&c.
«a
b—Xp
u
"'
(», 0, 7)
(0,7)
«„
•
Y
In this table, however, (a, 0) does not mean u^ — «a, but (u^ — wa) -f-
(0 — a); (o, ft, y) means ((/S, y) — (a, /S))-j- $(7— a) ; and, generally
any quantity (77, ... <t>) in the column headed " rth diff." 'is
obtained by dividing the difference of the adjoining quantities in
the preceding column by (<^->;)/r. If the table is formed in this
way, we may apply the principle of § 12 so as to obtain formulae
such as
. (a,
. . . (22).
The following example illustrates the method, h being taken
to be i0:—
Example 8.
x.
u = sin x.
1st Diff.
(adjusted).
2nd Diff.
(adjusted).
3rd Diff.
(adjusted).
20°
•3420201
+
-
-
162932 50
22°
•3746066
1125 oo
161245 oo
48 75
23°
•39073II
1222 50
158800 oo
48 30
26°
•4383711
1303 oo
156194 oo
47 49
27°
•4539905
1445 47
151857 60
46 oo
32°
•5299193
1583 48
145523 67
35°
•5735764
To find « for * = 3i°, we use the values for 26°, 27°, 32° and 35°,
and obtain
« = -438371100+2(156194 oo)+5 . |(_
•f .
which is only wrong in the last figure.
_ (x-b) (x-c). . .(x-l)
(0-6) (a-c). . .(a-l)
If the values of u occurring in (21) or (22) areua, u^, u , . . . UK,
corresponding to values a, b, c, ... I of x, the formula may be
more symmetrically written
(x-a) (x-c). . .(x-l)
(b-a) (b-c). . .(b-l)uf+- • '
I («-») (*-V) («-e). . . , ,,
T(/-a) (l—b) (l-c). . . "* W«
This is known as Lagrange's formula, but it is said to be due to
Euler. It is not convenient for practical use, since it does not show
how many terms have to be taken in any particular case.
14. Interpolation from Tables of Double Entry. — When u is a
function of x and y, and is tabulated in terms of x and of y jointly,
its calculation for a pair of values not given in the table may be
effected either directly or by first forming a table of values of u
in terms of y for the particular value of x and then determining u
from this table for the particular value of y. For direct interpolation,
consider that A represents differencing by changing x into x+l,
and A' differencing by changing y into y+l. Then the formula is
and the right-hand side can be developed in whatever form is most
convenient for the particular case.
REFERENCES. — For general formulae, with particular applications,
see the Text-book of the Institute of Actuaries, part ii. (ist ed. 1887,
2nd ed. 1902), p. 434; H. L. Rice, Theory and Practice of Inter-
polation (1899). Some historical references are given by C. W.
Merrifield, " On Quadratures and Interpolation," Brit. Assoc.
Report (1880), p. 321 ; see also Encycl. der math. Wiss. vol. i. pt. 2,
pp. 800-819. For J. D. Everett's formula, see Quar. Jour. Pure
and Applied Maths., No. 128 (1901), and Jour. Inst. Actuaries,
vol. xxxv. (1901), p. 452. As to relative accuracy of different
formulae, see Proc. Lon. Math. Soc. (2) vol. iv. p. 320. Examples
of interpolation by means of auxiliary curves will be found in
Jour. Royal Stat. Soc. vol. Ixiii. pp. 433, 637. See also DIFFERENCES,
CALCULUS OF. (W. F. SH.)
INTERPRETATION (from Lat. interpretari, to expound,
explain, interpres, an agent, go-between, interpreter; inter,
between, and the root pret-, possibly connected with that seen
either in Greek <j>pa£(iv, to speak, or irparrtiv, to do), in general,
the action of explaining, or rendering the sense of an obscure
form of words or an unknown tongue into a language compre-
hended by the person addressed. In legal use the word " inter-
pretation " is employed in the sense of ascertaining the meaning
of the language of a document, as well as its relation to facts.
It is also applied to acts of parliament, as pointing out the sense
in which particular words used therein are to be understood.
The interpretation of documents and statutes is subject to
definite legal rules, the more important of which will be found in
the articles CONTRACT, STATUTE, WILL, &c.
INTERREGNUM (Lat. inter, between, and regnum, reign),
strictly a period during which the normal constituted authority
is in abeyance, and government is carried on by a temporary
authority specially appointed. Though originally and specific-
ally confined to the sphere of sovereign authority, the term is
commonly used by analogy in other connexions for any suspension
of authority, during which affairs are carried on by specially
appointed persons. The term originated in Rome during the
regal period when an interrex was appointed (traditionally
by the senate) to carry on the government between the death
of one king and the election of his successor (see ROME: History,
ad init.). It was subsequently used in Republican times of
an officer appointed to hold the comitia for the election of the
consuls when for some reason the retiring consuls had not done so.
In the regal period when the senate, instead of appointing a king,
decided to appoint interreges, it divided itself into ten decuries
from each of which one senator was selected. Each of these ten
acted as king for five days, and if, at the end of fifty days, no
king had been elected, the rotation was renewed. It was their
duty to nominate a king, whose appointment was then ratified
or refused by the curiae. Under the Republic similarly interreges
acted for five days each. When the first consuls were elected
(according to Dionysius iv. 84 and Livy i. 60), Spurius Lucretius
held the comitia as interrex, and from that time down to the
Second Punic War such officers were from time to time appointed.
Thenceforward there is no record of the office till 82 B.C., when the
senate appointed an interrex to hold the comitia, which made
INTERSTATE COMMERCE
711
Sulla dictator (Appian, Bell. civ. i. 98). In 55, 53 and 52
interreges are again found, the last-mentioned being on the
• occasion when Pompey was elected sole consul.
The most noteworthy use of the term " Interregnum "
in post-classical times is that of the Great Interregnum in
German history between the death of Conrad IV. (1254) and
the election of Rudolf of Habsburg (1273). See GERMANY:
History.
INTERSTATE COMMERCE. The phrase " interstate com-
merce," as used in the United States, denotes commerce between
the citizens of different states of the Union. The words " inter-
state " and "intrastate" are not found in the constitution nor,
until comparatively recently, in decisions of the courts or in
legislative acts (probably being first used officially in 1887 in the
Interstate Commerce Act). The constitution of 1789 uses the
phrase " commerce among the states," and the first official
decision interpreting the phrase says that " it may very properly
be restricted to that commerce which concerns more states than
one " (Chief Justice Marshall in Gibbons v.Ogden, g Wheaton 194).
Commerce among the states is there distinguished from
" commerce which is completely internal, which is carried on
between man and man in a state, or between parts of the same
state, and which does not extend to or affect other states." It
was declared (Lehigh case, 145 U.S. 192) that commerce between
two persons in the same state is not interstate even when there
is a temporary deviation to the soil of another state; but later
(Hanley case, 187 U.S. 617, distinguishing the Lehigh case) it
was declared that as to transportation, such commerce is inter-
state. The courts have interpreted commerce to denote not
merely a mutual selling or traffic, but as " a term of the largest
import," including intercourse for the purposes of trade in any
and all its forms (Gibbons v. Ogden, 9 Wheaton 194, and Welton v.
Missouri, 91 U.S. 280). Thus have been included not only
the actions of trading, navigation, transportation, and communi-
cation, but also the instruments and agents employed, including
even telegraph messages and, in the extremest cases, lottery
tickets.1
The decision of the question where federal control of interstate
traffic ends and state control begins has been one of great practical
difficulty. In general it has been held that whenever a com-
modity begins to move as an article of trade from one state to
another, commerce in that commodity between the states has
begun. Mere intention to ship goods does not make them
subjects of interstate commerce, but they must actually be
put in motion or committed to the carrier for that purpose
(Coe v. Errol, 116 U.S. 517). As a practical guide in deciding
when state control should be resumed, the court as early as 1827
(Brown v. Maryland) laid down the " original package rule,"
that the taxing power of the state should begin when the original
package in which the goods had been imported into the state
had been broken up or sold. The injustice of allowing goods
to be held thus, for long periods escaping local taxation, led
to a modification of the rule in 1868 (Woodruff v. Parkham, 8
Wall. 123), and such goods after reaching their destination
1 The lottery tickets were included only by a divided court
(Lottery Cases, 188 U.S. 321) four judges emphatically dissenting.
The moral issue doubtless influenced a decision so difficult to reconcile
with other opinions of the court, which otherwise had held regularly
that commerce involves the physical movement of persons or things
and does not include the contractual relations between citizens
incident to commercial intercourse. Not all things incidental to
commerce are included in it, and it has been held that the following
are not included: bills of exchange (in 1850, Nathan v. Louisiana, 8
How. 73), trade marks (in 1879, trade mark cases, 100 U.S. 82),
insurance (in 1869, Paulv. Virginia, 8 Wall. i68),and manufacturing
(in 1895, U.S. v. Knight Co., 156 U.S. l). In the last-named case,
which concerned a combination of sugar refineries controlling a large
proportion of the product of the country, it was said that commerce
succeeds manufacture and is not a part of it. The relation of the
manufacturer to interstate and foreign commerce being thus only
incidental and indirect, the business is subject to state control.
By a series of decisions the transportation of persons has been
decided to be commerce. (In 1848, passenger cases, 7 How. 283.
In 1867, Crandallv. Nevada 6,]Wall. 35. In 1875, Henderson v. the
Mayor of New York, 92 U.S. 259, &c.).
may be taxed as property in common with other property in
the state.2
Reason for Federal Control of Interstate Commerce. — Immedi-
ately after the close of the War of American Independence
in 1783 appeared the separatist tendencies and local jealousies
usual in a confederation. The Congress of the Confederation
had no power to levy tariff duties or to regulate commerce
between the states, and the separate states freely and recklessly
exercised their rights in this matter. Though commerce at that
time was comparatively unimportant, the results of this restric-
tive policy were most unfortunate. The Annapolis Convention
of 1786 was called by the Virginia legislature to take into
consideration the trade of the United States and to consider
how far a uniform system in their commercial relations might be
necessary to the common interests and their permanent harmony.
This conference resulted in the call of the Philadelphia Conven-
tion of 1787, which framed the present Constitution. Chief
Justice Marshall, in one of the early cases on this subject (Brown
v. Maryland, 12 Wheaton 419, in 1827), said in words often since
quoted: " It may be doubted whether any of the evils proceeding
from the feebleness of the federal government contributed more
to that great revolution which introduced the present system
than the deep and general conviction that commerce ought to
be regulated by Congress."
Every year has increased the importance of the congressional
power of regulating commerce. At the time of the adoption
of the Constitution, each neighbourhood supplied nearly all its
needs by its own industry, but improving means of transportation
and communication have multiplied the commercial ties between
the citizens of the various states. This change went on slowly
untO 1830, more rapidly between 1830 and 1860, and at an
ever-hastening pace after the Civil War. Until 1824 no case
involving directly the consideration of this power reached the
United States Supreme Court. From 1824 to 1840 the Supreme
Court decided an average of one-third of a case a year; from
1841 to 1860, an average of three-fourths of a case; from 1861
to 1870, an average of one case; from 1871 to 1880, an average
of nearly six cases; from 1881 to 1890, an average of more than
seven cases; and from 1891 to 1900, an average of more than
ten cases. The decisions have not been entirely uniform, and
there were some decisions too contradictory to be explained by
any ingenuity. The Supreme Court itself has said (Fargo v.
Michigan, 121 U.S. 230) that " it may be admitted that the
court has not always employed the same language, and that
all of the judges of the court who have written opinions for it
may not have meant precisely the same thing." Though in the
period just preceding the Civil War the doctrine of states' rights
tended to weaken somewhat the federal power, the broad
outlines of the interpretation by Chief Justice Marshall laid down
in 1824 in Gibbons v. Ogden remain to-day almost undimmed.
Interstate Commerce in the Federal Constitution. — Freedom
of trade, without discrimination, between the citizens of all the
states was in the main ensured by one brief sentence, usually
called the " commerce clause " of the federal constitution: —
" The Congress shall have power • • • to regulate commerce
with foreign nations, and among the several states,. and with
the Indian tribes " (Art.i, sec.8, clause 3). Hardly less important
is the power " to make all laws which shall be necessary and
proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all
other powers vested by this Constitution in the government
of the United States, or in any department or officer thereof "
(Art. i, sec. 8, clause 18). To the same end of freedom of
commerce, Congress is limited in that " no tax or duty shall be
laid on articles exported from any state, " and " no preference
shall be given by any regulation of commerce or revenue to the
2 The question arose with reference to the police power of the state
in those states prohibiting the liquor traffic, and in 1889 it was held
(Leisy v. Hardin) that, in the absence of legislation by Congress, the
right to sell goods taken into a state was unrestricted. This made
it impossible for a state to exclude the importation of liquors to
be sold within its territory, but this difficulty was remedied by the
Wilson Original Package Bill of 1890, which made liquor subject to
the police powers of the state to which it was carried.
712
INTERSTATE COMMERCE
ports of one state over those of another; nor shall vessels bound
to or from one state be obliged to enter, clear, or pay duties in
another " (Art. i, sec. 9, clauses 5 and 6). Directly and by
implication, Congress was granted a number of other powers
over commerce, in that it may coin money, establish uniform
laws of bankruptcy, establish post-offices and post roads,
regulate weights and measures, exercise admiralty jurisdiction
(now interpreted to extend to all public waterways accessible
to the traffic of more than one state), grant patents and copy-
rights, and use the power of taxation to protect, repress or even
destroy the agencies of commerce (e.g. state bank notes). But
these powers can be exercised only in ways which favour and
make free the intercourse among all parts of the nation.
Even if the commerce clause had been omitted from the
Constitution, a large part of its object would have been attained
by certain prohibitions upon the states as follows: " The
citizens of each state shall be entitled to all privileges and
immunities of citizens in the several states " (Art. 4, sec. 2).
" No state shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any
impost or duties on imports or exports, except what may be
absolutely necessary for executing its inspection laws; and the
net produce of all duties and impost, laid by any state on imports
or exports, shall be for the use of the treasury of the United
States, and all such laws shall be subject to the revision and
control of the Congress " (Art. i, sec. 10, clause 2). " No state
shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any duty of tonnage "
(Art. i, sec. 10, clause 3). Thus by threefold measures of
precaution was ensured domestic freedom of trade from every
point in the land to its farthest frontiers.
Negative Working of the Commerce Provisions. — For nearly a
hundred years these provisions were important only in their
negative effects of preventing the states from granting special
privileges to their citizens or taxing unequally the citizens of
other states. The decision in 1824 of Gibbons v. Ogden stopped
the attempt of the state of New York to grant the monopoly of
steamboat traffic on the waters of that state. Had the clear
and unequivocal opinion in that case been different, local
ingenuity doubtless would have devised a multitude of discrimina-
tions. " The power to tax involves the power to destroy," and
ever since the decision of McCulloch v. Maryland in 1819 it
has been held that no agencies created by the federal government,
such as banks or legal tender notes, are subject to state taxation,
and the rule has also been laid down repeatedly by the Supreme
Court (for the first time in 18*86) that no burden can be laid upon
the act of taking goods into or out of the state, of soliciting sales,
or of delivering goods even though the tax is without discrimina-
tion as between the state's own citizens and others; that is,
interstate commerce " cannot be taxed at all " (Robbins v.
Shelby County Taxing District, 120 U.S. 489).*
1 However, a very important distinction is drawn between taxing
the commerce and taxing property employed in commerce. With
the increase of interstate commerce, the states have been hard
pushed to find sources of revenue adequate to their increasing needs.
The courts, therefore, have sought to draw a line between taxes on
the privilege of carrying on interstate commerce and taxes on the
property employed in carrying on such commerce as a part of the
general body of property in the state. Thus it has been held in the
case of Stale Freight Tax (1872, 15 Wall. 232) that a state could not
lay a tax on freight transported from one state to another, and yet
the same year the court held in State Tax on Cross Receipts (15 Wall.
284) that a tax was valid when laid upon the receipts of railways
organized under the laws of the state, as upon a fund which had
become incorporated with the general mass of property. This latter
decision was by a divided court (three of the nine judges dissenting),
but it has since been frequently confirmed. The tax on gross receipts
of all railway companies doing business in the state has been supported
when levied in proportion to the mileage within as compared with
the total within and without the state (Erie Ry. v. Pa., 21 Wall. 492).
This so-called " unit rule," as applied either to gross receipts or to
the entire value of an interstate raijway, has been upheld in a number
of decisions. The method of taxation by gross receipts, however, has
not tended to increase of late, but the unit rule, as applied to ad
valorem taxes on property, is more and more being applied. Every
case involving the distinction between a tax on commerce and a tax
on property employed in commerce presents its own difficulties, yet a
practical way is thus found to prevent discriminating action by the
eeveral states, while leaving to them adequate sources of revenue.
Federal control of interstate commerce has been interpreted
by the courts to be exclusive of any control by the states. This
is not self-evident in the clause, " Congress shall have power
to regulate commerce among the several states." Over some
other subjects the power of the federal and state governments
is concurrent, the state being able to act until Congress enacts
some conflicting legislation. Although the early decisions
suggested that the power of Congress was exclusive, yet for
nearly a century no positive decision was rendered and no
positive action was taken by Congress. Between 1870 and 1886
the states made great progress in the regulation of railways on
the assumption that until Congress had acted the states were
free to act. The question was put beyond doubt in a series
of decisions establishing the principle that the non-action of
Congress indicates its will that commerce shall be free and
untrammelled and that the states cannot interfere either through
their police power or their taxing power.2
Positive Federal Regulation. — Though the regulation of inter-
state commerce up to the Civil War was mainly negative, some
positive actions of the federal government had indirect effects
on commerce, as, for example, the coinage of money, the estab-
lishment of post-offices, the charter of the first and second United
States banks, and the charter of the Pacific Railroad. The
power to do these things was conferred by the Constitution in
some cases directly, in other cases by implication in that any
means appropriate to lawful ends might be employed (as in case
of charter of the United States Bank, McCulloch v. Maryland).
From 1850 to 1862 the federal government had made numerous
land grants in aid of railways, but always to the states, not
directly to the corporations, and it had never until 1862 granted
a charter to a railway, canal, turnpike or transportation
company. In 1866 Congress passed an act authorizing railway
companies whose roads were operated by steam to carry
passengers, freight, &c., " on their way from any state to another
state and to receive compensation therefor and to connect with
roads of other states so as to form continuous lines for the
transportation of the same to the place of destination."3 This
act, so vague and general in its terms, had very little effect,
though it has been the occasion of considerable litigation to
determine its influence upon existing police laws of the states.
In 1884 Congress established the Bureau of Animal Industry
for preventing the exportation of diseased cattle and for the
extirpation of disease among domestic animals. This had little
significance at the time for interstate commerce, its purpose
being to meet the objections of foreign countries to the importa-
tion of American meat. In 1887 was passed the Interstate
Commerce Act, providing a national commission to supervise
interstate railways. In 1888 was passed an Arbitration Act,
replaced in 1898 by an act which provides that in case of disputes
between common carriers subject to the Interstate Commerce
Act and their employees, conciliation shall be tried, and, in case
this should fail, indicates the methods that may be used for the
voluntary submission of the dispute to a board of arbitration.
2 1873, State Freight Tax, 15 Wall. 232; 1887, Robbins v. Shelby
County Taxing District, 120 U.S. 489; Wabash R. R. Company v.
Illinois, 1 1 8 U.S. 557. The last-named case arose out of the attempts
of the state of Illinois to prevent discrimination between two shippers,
both being its own citizens and within its own borders, one of whom
was being charged more than the other for a shorter shipment on the
same line and in the same direction, from a point outside the state.
The court, applying the established definition »f interstate commerce
with verbal formality of logic, decided that the state could do
nothing, for even in such a case all regulation of interstate commerce,
from the beginning to the end of a shipment, was confided to Congress
exclusively. Thus a clause whose clear purpose was to prevent one
state from burdening unequally the citizens of other states was
successfully invoked by a private corporation to forbid the state
securing equality of treatment for its own citizens as regards such
parts of shipments as lay within its own borders. Most railway
traffic was by this decision declared to be subject to legislation by
Congress but Congress had not acted. The impossibility of this
situation was so evident that the Interstate Commerce Act, long
under discussion, became a law a few months later.
3 This was probably aimed at the discriminating between New
York and Philadelphia (see speech of Charles Sumner on the railroad
usurpation of New Jersey in U.S. Senate, February 14, 1865).
INTERSTATE COMMERCE
7*3
In 1890 was passed the Sherman Anti-Trust Act, making illegal
every contract and combination in restraint of trade or com-
merce among the several states or with foreign nations. In 1893
a Safety Appliance Act, the administration of which was put
into the hands of the Interstate Commerce Commission, pro-
moted the safety of employees and travellers, and required the
roads engaged in interstate commerce to equip their cars and
locomotives with automatic couplers and brakes. In 1895 was
prohibited the interstate carriage of condemned carcasses of
animals, and of lottery tickets (see above reference to the inter-
pretation of the Lottery Act), in 1897 of obscene literature, and
in 1900 of game killed in violation of state laws. In 1901 carriers
engaged in interstate commerce were required to make full
reports of all accidents to the Interstate Commerce Commission.
In 1902 was prohibited the interstate carriage of dairy products
falsely labelled or branded as to the state or territory in which
produced, and in 1903 the Secretary of Agriculture was em-
powered to establish rules concerning importation and trans-
portation of live stock. In 1903 the Bureau of Corporations was
established with power to investigate the conduct of corporations
engaged in interstate and foreign commerce, excepting common
carriers subject to the Interstate Commerce Act. In 1903 the
Interstate Commerce Act was amended by the Elkins Act,
making" much more difficult the granting of rebates. In 1905
the President was authorized to grant medals of honour to
persons who by their daring save life or prevent accident on
railways. In 1906 the Interstate Commerce Act was amended in
important particulars (specified below). In 1906 were passed
pure food laws, greatly enlarging the duties of the Department
of Agriculture in reference to inspection of foods prepared for
Interstate commerce.
The Interstate Commerce Act. — The period of positive action
by Congress in the regulating of interstate commerce practically
begins, therefore, with the enactment of the Interstate Commerce
Act of February 1887, the outcome of fully seventeen years of
agitation and discussion. The law was modelled in large part
upon English acts. It applied to common carriers wholly by
railway, and partly by railway and partly by water when both
are used under a common arrangement for continuous shipment;
forbade unjust discrimination and undue and unreasonable pre-
ference; made it unlawful to charge more for a shorter than for
a longer distance over the same line in the same direction, the
shorter being included within the longer distance (though a
carrier might be freed by the Commission from the working of
this provision); and forbade pooling and division of earnings.
The administration of the law was entrusted to a Commission
of five members, appointed by the President. From this act
much was expected, but eighteen years of its operation gave as
net results little more than a greater uniformity of railway
accounting and much better understanding by the public of the
nature of the railway problem. Discrimination and secret
rebates continued. The anti-pooling clause (pretty generally
recognized by the well-informed to be a mistake) prevented
open but not secret agreements between carriers, and probably
hastened the movement toward consolidation. The long and
short haul clause was made meaningless by the judicial inter-
pretation that any competition, even that of other carriers
subject to the act, justified the railway in charging more for a
shorter than for a longer haul. The effectiveness of the Com-
mission was destroyed by the judicial decision that it had no
power to fix rates for the future. Until 1897, the Commission,
when it adjudged a rate unreasonable, usually declared what
rate was reasonable, and directed the carrier to reduce the rate
by a given date to the designated maximum. Of 135 orders
made in decisions rendered in the first ten years of the Com-
mission, 68 prescribed a maximum rate for the future. In 1897
it was finally decided in the Cincinnati Freight Bureau Case
(167 U.S. 479) that Congress had not conferred upon the Com-
mission the power to prescribe any rate for the future. The
court said that Congress might fix the rate itself or authorize
a sub-tribunal to do so, but that Congress had not yet given that
authority.
The need of further legislation had been felt from the beginning
by many, and after 1903 the agitation became very active. The
position taken by President Roosevelt in his message to Congress
in 1904 made the amendment of the Interstate Commerce Act
the principal political issue before Congress in the sessions of
1905 and of 1906. After the most remarkable senatorial debates
heard at Washington in years, followed with close interest by
the country, a number of amendments became law on the 29th
of June 1906. The act was strengthened to a degree hardly
expected by the most earnest advocates of revision. A number
of minor changes made in the light of experience were: increasing
the number of commissioners to seven and their pay to $10,000;
facilitating procedure and the taking of evidence; requiring
thirty days notice of a change of rates; requiring appeal from the
Commission's decision to be taken within thirty days; empower-
ing the Commission to establish joint rates and to order switches
to be built. The following are generally thought to be still more
important changes: (i) Including within the application of
the act pipe lines (particularly for oil), express and sleeping car
companies, and all the facilities and services in connexion with
goods transported; (2) giving publicity to railway business
by empowering the Commission to prescribe all forms of accounts
and to examine the books at all times, and by forbidding any
other accounts or memoranda to be kept by the companies; and
(3) empowering the Commission to prescribe reasonable maxi-
mum rates to take effect within not less than thirty days and to
continue not over two years unless set aside by the courts.
The Anti-Trust Act of 1890. — The growth of large corporations
with some degree of monopoly power, the so-called trusts, had
called forth in a number of the states anti-trust laws before 1890.
When it became evident that the states were not succeeding in
dealing with the problem, public sentiment found expression in
the Sherman Anti-Trust Act, approved on the 2nd of July 1890.
This act declared illegal and criminal, punishable by fine or
imprisonment or both, every contract in restraint of trade or
commerce among the several states or with foreign nations.
The statute thus changed the common law wherein such con-
tracts were merely unenforceable but not criminal. This act was
at first construed by the Supreme Court as applying to any con-
tract in restraint of interstate commerce, whether reasonable
or unreasonable (Trans-Missouri Freight Association, 166 U.S.
331), but later, in 1905 (Stock Yards case, 25 Supreme Court
Reporter 276) it was held that the act did not apply to agreements
for the better conduct of business which incidentally affected
interstate commerce.1 The act has been interpreted to apply to
transportation (Freight Association case, 166 U.S. 290, and
Northern Securities case), with results felt even by some of the
advocates of railway regulation to be unfortunate. It applies
to unlawful combinations of manufacturers to divide the territory
and regulate the prices (Addyston Pipe Trust Case, 175 U.S. 211).
In the Sugar Trust case (1895 U.S. v. Knight Co. 156 U.S.) it
was declared that the statute did not apply to a manufacturing
company which had acquired nearly complete control of the
manufacture of refined sugar by means of the purchase of stock
of other refining companies.
The Attorney-General submitted to the Senate, in June 1906,
a statement of the results of all suits instituted by the Depart-
ment of Justice under the anti-trust law, the Interstate Commerce
Act and the Elkins Act, in the period from 1887 to June 1906
inclusive. Thirty-six suits were still pending; of the 250 which
had been disposed of in some manner 186 ended in dismissal,
non-prosecution or acquittal, and 64 were successful in securing
in whole or in large part the object of the suit (in 30 cases con-
viction, in 34 cases the granting of a petition or an injunction,
&c.). In addition to these results of federal efforts to regulate
industry must be counted the cases in which carriers complied
1 In the Northern Securities case, Justice Brewer, who had con-
curred in the opinion in the Trans-Missouri Freight Association case,
took occasion to say that while he still believed the former case had
been correctly decided, he thought that the reasons given for tl.e
judgment were in some respects faulty, and that the ruling should
have been that the contracts there considered were unreasonable
restraints and as such were forbidden by the act.
xiv. 23 a
7M-
INTERVAL— INTESTACY
with the orders of the Interstate Commerce Commission
without suit; but even then the total by 1906 was somewhat
meagre.
The establishment of the Bureau of Corporations in 1903, and
the considerable extension of the powers of inspection of the
Department of Agriculture are recent changes of which the
results cannot yet be fairly judged. The aim of the Bureau of
Corporations is to ensure publicity in the management of corpora-
tions engaged in interstate and foreign commerce. The first
commissioner, Mr James R. Garfield, showed much activity
in pursuing the purposes of the act, and published informing
reports upon the beef trust (1905) and upon the Standard Oil
Company (1906). Bill the effect and possible extension of federal
interference became from this time burning political questions
of far-reaching importance of too recent a date to be dealt with
historically in this article.
See also the A nnual Reports of the Interstate Commerce Commission
since 1887, and decisions; Prentice and Egan, The Commerce Clause
of the Federal Constitution (Chicago, 1898); Reports of the Com-
missioner of Corporations on the Beef Industry (1905), on the
Transportation of Petroleum (1906) ; W. Z. Ripley (ed.), Trusts,
Pools and Corporations (1905), containing leading cases and analyses
of the voluminous "trust literature; F. N. Judson, The Law of
Interstate Commerce and its Federal Regulation (Chicago, 1905);
Beale and Wyman, Railroad Rate Regulation (Boston, 1906); Frank
Hendrick, The Power to Regulate Corporations and Commerce (New
York, 1906), favouring less of new legislation. (F. A. F.)
INTERVAL, a space left between the component parts of a
continuous series, a pause in continuous action, a period of time
intervening between two other points of time or chronological
sequence of events. The Lat. intervallum, from which the
English word has come through the French, originally meant a
space between the palisades on a rampart (vallum), or between
the rampart and the tents of the legionaries. In medical language
" interval " is used of the intervening periods between attacks
or paroxysms of a disease, particularly of the periods of a rational
or normal condition of mind sometimes experienced by an insane
person, a " lucid interval "; this phrase frequently occurs in
legal documents from the I3th to the isth centuries, non compos
•mentis sed gaudet lucidis intervallis. In music " interval " ex-
presses the distance in pitch between two or more musical sounds
(see Music). Interval, or more commonly " intervale," is used,
particularly in North America, as a geographical term for a
low-lying tract of land along the banks of rivers, frequently
overflowed by freshets, or inore loosely for any low level land
shut in by hills. This particular application, as also the form
" intervale," is due to a confusion of the termination of the word
with " vale," valley.
INTESTACY (Lat. intestatus, one who has not made a will,
from lestari, to bear witness), the condition of the property of a
person who dies without making a will. Here the law of England
distinguishes sharply between his real and his personal property.
The devolution of the former is regulated by the rules of inherit-
ance (<?.».). The destination of the latter is marked out by the
Statute of Distributions. The proper conditions of a testa-
mentary disposition of property will be found under the heading
Will.
The distribution of an intestate's personal property is carried
out under the authority of administrators, whose duties are
generally the same as those of executors under a will. Admini-
stration was until 1857 a matter cognizable by the ecclesiastical
courts, and the ordinary was in fact the administrator until the
passing of an act of Edward III. for administration upon in-
testacy (1357). An earlier statute (Westminster 2, 1275),
directed against the abuses of the system, required the ordinary,
instead of applying the residue of the estate to " pious uses,"
to pay the debts of the intestate. The act of Edward III. went
further in providing that " in case where a man dieth intestate,
the ordinaries shall depute of the next and most lawful friends
of the dead person intestate to administer his goods," with
power to sue for debts due to the deceased, and under obligation
to pay debts due by him, and to answer to the ordinary like
executors in the case of testament. Administrators remained
on this footing of deputies appointed by the ordinary until the
Probate Act 1857 transferred the jurisdiction in administration
of the ecclesiastical courts to the new court of probate.
The courts of law having held that by the grant of administra-
tion the authority of the ecclesiastical courts was exhausted,
the administrator became entitled to the privilege, similar
to that formerly enjoyed by the ordinary, of dealing as he
pleased with residue of the property. The next of kin of the
same degree of relationship to the deceased were thus aggrieved
by the preference of the administrator, and it was to remedy
this grievance that the Statute of Distributions 1670/1 was
passed. It empowered the ordinary to take a bond from the
administrator binding him to make a fair and complete distribu-
tion of the property among the next of kin. Such distribution
is to be in the following manner: one-third to the wife of the
intestate, and all the residue by equal portions to and amongst
the children, and their representatives if any of such children be
dead, exclusive of children who shall have any estate by the
settlement of the intestate, or shall be advanced by the intestate
in his lifetime by portions equal to the shares allotted to the
other children under the distribution. If such advancement
should be less than the share of the other children in distribution,
then it shall be made equal thereto. But the " heir-at-law,
notwithstanding any land that he shall have by descent or
otherwise from the intestate, is to have an equal part in distribu-
tion with the rest of the children " (§ 5). By § 6, if there be no
children nor any legal representatives of children, one moiety
of the property is to be allotted to the wife of the intestate, the
residue " to be distributed equally to any of the next of kindred
of the intestate who are equal in degree and those who legally
represent them." By § 7 there shall " be no representation
admitted among collaterals after brothers' and sisters' children ;
and in case there be no wife, then all the said estate to be
distributed equally to and among the children; and in case
there be no child, then to the next of kindred in equal degree
of or unto the intestate and their legal representatives as
aforesaid, and in no other manner whatsoever." For the
protection of creditors it is enacted that there shall be no
distribution till a full year after the intestate's death, and if
any debts should be discovered after distribution, the persons
sharing the estate shall refund the amount of the same ratably.
With reference to the above rules the following points may
be observed: (i) The husband's absolute right to administer
his wife's estate is not affected by the act. This was made clear
by a later act of the same reign (The Statute of Frauds 1677).
Administration is now granted to the representatives of the
husband where he has died without taking out administration
to his wife, unless it can be shown that the wife's next of kin
are beneficially interested. (2) The widow, in the event of there
being no children or next of kin, takes only her half. The other
half goes to the crown. The widow's rights, however, have been
enlarged by the Intestate Estates Act 1890. By this act where
a man dies wholly intestate and without issue, his property, both
real and personal, shall, if it does not exceed £ 500 in net value,
belong to his widow absolutely. If the estate exceeds £500 net,
the widow is entitled to £500 out of the estate and has a charge
for that amount upon the real and personal property of the
deceased. (3) The child or children take equally, two-thirds if
the widow be alive, and the whole if she be dead. If some of the
children be alive and some dead having issue, then such issue
will take their parents' share equally among themselves. There
has been some difference of opinion as to whether if all the
children have predeceased their parent but have left issue,!
such grandchildren take as between themselves per stirpes as^
representatives of their parent or per capita as next of kin.
Thus if A and B predecease their father but A leaves three children
and B one, should the property be divided into fourths, or
first into moieties and then one moiety subdivided into thirds
among A's children and the other moiety be given undivided
to B's child ? It is now settled that the latter method of distribu-
tion is the correct one, and it is thought that this will also apply
when only great-grandchildren are alive. (4) The next of kin
must be ascertained according to the rules of consanguinity,
INTESTINAL OBSTRUCTION
which are the same in English as in the civil law. Degree is
calculated from the intestate, through the common ancestor
if any, to the kindred. Thus from son to father is one degree,
to grandfather two degress, to brother two degrees, to uncle
three degrees, and so on. The statute ordains distribution
to be made " to the next of kindred in equal degrees pro suo
cuique jure, according to the laws in such cases and the rules
and limitations hereafter set down." Equality in degree is
therefore not in all cases accompanied by equality in rights of
succession. Neglecting the cases of wife and children already
noticed, the father excludes all other next of kin. So would a
mother, in default of a father surviving, but an act of 1685
enacted that in such a case the brothers and sisters, and children
of brothers and sisters, of the intestate should share equally
with the mother. In the absence of brothers or sisters and their
representatives, the mother in the case supposed would take the
whole. Mothers-in-law and stepmothers are not within the
rules of consanguinity. As between a brother and a grandfather
who are both in the second degree, preference is given to the
brother; but a grandfather, being in the second degree, will
exclude an uncle, who is in the third. An uncle and a nephew,
both being in the third degree, take together. Brothers or
sisters of the half blood take equally with brothers and sisters
of the whole blood. The rule which prohibits representation
after brothers' and sisters' children would, in a case where the
next of kin were uncles or nephews, wholly exclude the children
of a deceased uncle or nephew. Also, as between the son of a
brother and the grandson of a brother, the latter would not be
admitted by representation. Where a brother and the children
of a deceased brother are the next of kin, they will take per
stirpes, i.e. the brother will take one half, and the children of the
other brother will take the other half between them. When the
next of kin are all children of the deceased brothers or sisters,
they will take equally per capita. Subject to these modifications,
the personal property will be divided equally among the next
of kin of equal degree, e.g. great-grandfathers would share with
uncles or aunts, as being in the third degree. Failing next of
kin, under these rules, the estate goes to the crown as ultimus
haeres, a result which is more likely to happen in the case of
illegitimate persons than in any other.
Personal or movable property takes its legal character from
the domicile of the owner, and the distribution of an intestate's
goods is therefore regulated by the law of the country in which
the intestate was domiciled. A domiciled Scotsman, for example,
dies intestate in England, leaving personal property in England;
the administrator appointed by the court of probate will be
bound to distribute the property according to the Scots rules of
succession.
In the law of Scotland the free movable estate of the intestate
is divided amongst the nearest of kin, the full blood excluding the
half blood, and neither mother nor maternal relations being originally
admitted. The heir of the heritable (i.e. real) property ifone of the
next of kin must collate with the next of kin if he wishes to share in
the movables. Proximity of kin is reckoned in the same order as in
the case of inheritance. The Intestate Movable Succession Act
1855 among other changes allows the issue of a predeceasing next
of kin to come in the place of their parent in succession to an in-
testate, gives the father of an intestate dying without issue one-half
of the movable property in preference to brothers and sisters, and
to the mother if the father be dead a similar preference to the extent
of one-third, and admits brothers and sisters uterine in the absence
of brothers and sisters german or consanguinean.
In the United States the English Statute of Distribution has
been taken as the basis of the law for the distribution of personal
property in intestacy, and its principles have been applied to
real property also. " In a majority of the states the descent
of real and personal property is to the same persons and in the
same proportions, and the regulation is the same in substance
as the English Statute of Distribution. In Georgia the real and
personal property of the intestate is considered as altogether
of the same nature and upon the same footing." There are
many states, however, in which the distribution differs materially
from the English statute. In Illinois the distribution is the
same as descent of real property. In Alabama the whole goes
to the widow if there are no children (Phillips v. Lawing, 1907,
43 Southern Rep. 494). In many states the husband's share
is in all cases like the widow's, as in Texas, New York and
Washington. In Pennsylvania he takes an equal share with
the children.
The statutes of each state of the American union must be con-
sulted, as no general rules can be laid down. As to the right to the
intestate's interest in community property in the states where the
law of " community " — of " acquets and gains " — prevails, see
INHERITANCE.
INTESTINAL OBSTRUCTION (Ilius), in surgery, a condition
in which the onward passage of the faeces is prevented. It
is often associated with phenomena due to strangulation of
the gut, leading to gangrene, and with systemic poisoning due
to the absorption of toxins, resulting from the decomposition
of the retained faeces. Intestinal obstruction may be conveni-
ently divided into acute and chronic.
Acute Intestinal Obstruction forms one of the most urgent of
surgical emergencies. The following are its chief causes: (i)
strangulation by bands or adhesions or through apertures;
(2) volvulus; (3) the impaction of foreign bodies; (4) acute
intussusception; (5) strangulation over a band or acute kinking
of the gut; (6) the termination supervening on chronic obstruc-
tion; (7) congenital malformations of the intestines.
Strangulation by Bands or Adhesions or through Apertures. — These
terms are applied to obstruction by constricting bands within the
abdomen. These may be the result of the stretching of old inflam-
matory adhesions, the result of former peritonitis. These bands are
commonly situated between different parts
of the mesentery or between the mesentery
and another organ such as the appendix.
Two methods of producing strangulation
exist; in the first the bowel passes under
an arch or loop formed by some short con-
stricting band and cannot return, or if the
band is long it may form a noose in which
the bowel is strangled (fig. l); in the second
the remains of a foetal structure (Meckel's
diverticulum) becoming adherent to some FIG. I. — Diagram to
other organ may ensnare the intestine in show how Strangula-
the loop. A coil of intestine may also slip tion by a Band may
into a hole in the mesentery or omentum take place,
or find its way into a pouch of peritoneum,
forming what is known as an internal hernia. The onset of
symptoms is sudden and abrupt. The patient is seized with
acute abdominal pain associated with collapse. The pain is
usually referred to the region of the umbilicus; this localization,
however, is no guide to the situation of the lesion. Vomiting is early
and persistent, generally assuming a faecal character between the
second and the ninth day. There is no obvious tumour; constipa-
tion is present, the abdominal walls are flaccid at first, but if no relief
is obtained become tender when peritonitis ensues. This form of
obstruction is most frequent in young people, and there is usually a
history of previous peritonitis. In cases not treated by operation the
average duration is five to seven days, and death takes place from
exhaustion or from toxaemia following peritonitis.
Volvulus means a torsion or twisting of the gut. There are two
chief varieties: (i) in which the bowel is twisted upon its mesenteric
axis (fig. 2); (2) in which it is wound round another coil of intestine.
The sigmoid flexure is the situation in
which volvulus most commonly takes
place, but it may occur in the caecum
and small intestine. When once
present, plastic peritonitis fixes the
coil in position and the blood supply
becomes obstructed. Volvulus is
generally preceded by a history of
chronic constipation. The acute symp-
toms start abruptly and are similar
to those of internal strangulation, but
the pain at first is more intermittent
in type. There is usually early tender- how Volvulus" may take
ness over the spot and constipation is place,
absolute. Much distress is occasioned
by abdominal distension from flatus, which develops with remark-
able rapidity. The swelling is localized at first. Spontaneous
natural cure is unknown, and without surgical interference death
is inevitable.
Impacted Foreign Bodies. — Gall-stones may cause obstruction when
they are of large size. These gall-stones when lodged in the intestine
may there be enlarged by subsequent accretion. Leichenstern de-
scribes such a stone with a circumference of 5 in., and Sir F. Treves
removed from the intestine of an old lady a calculus, the large size
of which was due to layers of magnesia, the patient having takeru
FIG. 2. — Diagram to show
yi6
INTESTINE
carbonate of magnesia daily for many years. Gall-stones may give
rise to intermittent sub-acute attacks of incomplete obstruction and
finally give rise to an acute attack accompanied by severe pain and
vomiting, which is constant and early becomes faecal. The abdomen
is soft and flaccid and the affected coil is rarely to be felt. The
symptoms vary with the situation of the obstruction and are gener-
ally more urgent the nearer to the duodenum. Foreign bodies that
have been swallowed by accident or otherwise may give rise to
obstruction, though extraordinary objects, as knives, coins, pipes,
flints, &c. swallowed by jugglers, are known to have passed by
rectum without injury. In cases where the foreign body lodges in
the intestine the caecum and duodenum are favourite situations for
obstruction. In the museum of the Royal College of Surgeons is a
specimen in which the duodenum is blocked by a mass of pins weigh-
ing nearly a pound. Foreign bodies may remain weeks or months in
situ before giving rise to serious symptoms, the progress of the
larger substances being, marked by temporary obstruction. In a
case quoted by Duchaussoy the obstructing mass consisted of over
700 cherry stones. The diagnosis of obstruction by foreign bodies
has been much simplified since the introduction of the X-rays.
Enteroliths may themselves cause obstruction. They may consist
of masses of indigestible vegetable material matted together with
faeces and mucous. In Scotland they are frequently found to
consist of husks of coarse oatmeal (aenoliths). In thin persons large
enteroliths and foreign bodies may be palpable. The symptoms are
those similar to obstruction by a large gall-stone.
Acute Intussusception forms about 30% of all cases of intestinal
obstruction, and is the most common variety found in children.
More than 50 % of the cases are found during the first ten years of
life, and half that amount in babies under one year; the large pre-
ponderance is in males. By intussusception is meant an invagination
or protrusion of a part of the intestine in the lumen of the intestine
immediately below it; the lower part of the intestine may be said
to have swallowed that immediately above it. The mesentery
attached to the upper portion is necessarily dragged in with it.
The condition may be seen by referring to the diagram (fig. 3).
The invaginated portion is termed the
intussusceptum, and the lower portion which
it enters is known as the intussuscipiens. It
is to the constriction of the vessels in the
entering mesentery and later to their possible
complete obstruction that are due the late
serious phenomena of intussusception, e.g.
gangrene or rupture of the gut. Peritonitis
also ensues, and by the formation of adhesions
between the serous coats of the entering
_ and returning parts leads to irreducibility
lagram of the jntussusception. A cure occasionally
l*~ ensues from spontaneous reduction of the
i tates pagination, or again permanent stenosis of
P'ace- the intestine may result from the adhesion
of the opposed surfaces, or the occurrence of gangrene may
lead to perforation of the intestine with acute septic peritonitis.
Occasionally when there is no perforation adherence takes place
between the segments, and the gangrenous portion sloughs off
and is discharged by the rectum. The cause of intussusception
is said to be violent peristaltic action, however prpduced._ Poly-
poid tumours or masses of worms, or masses of irritating ingesta,
are said to lead to its occurrence. X. Dolore and R. Leriche contend
that the primary factor is congenital mobility of the_ caecum. They
state that in 48 % of foeti the caecum is mobile in half, fixation
gradually going on; while in 8-5% of adults it retains its mobility.
They thus endeavour to account for the fact that in 300 collected
cases 204 occurred in children less than one year old. Intussuscep-
tion is met with in four chief situations: (a) the ileo-caecal, which is
said to be the most frequent, constituting 44 % of all cases (Treves) ;
(6) the enteric variety, involving the small intestine; (c) the colic
form; (d) the ileo-colic, the ileum being invaginated through the ileo-
caecal valve. Intussusception may be acute or chronic, sometimes
lasting intermittently for years. The acute form is the most common.
In young children an attack occurs with severe pain, at first par-
oxysmal but later continuous; vomiting is less early and less con-
tinuous than in strangulation by bands, and diarrhoea tenesmus,
much straining and the passage of blood mucus from the anus are
common. Collapse soon supervenes. Early in the case the abdomen
is but little distended, and in about half the cases a distinct tumour
can be felt. In some cases the invaginated gut may be felt protrud-
ing through the sphincter. Chronic intussusception occurs more
frequently in adults than in children; the symptoms may resemble
chronic enteritis and be so masked that the nature of the illness
remains undiagnosed until an acute attack supervenes, or the patient
succumbs to the diarrhoea, vomiting and haemorrhage.
Congenital Malformations of the Intestines. — Cases have been re-
corded in which the small intestine ended in a blind pouch. Im-
perforate anus is a fairly frequent occurrence in young infants, but
attention is usually called to the condition. Partial strictures of the
intestine, if the stricture be not too narrow, may pass unnoticed for
years, and final complete obstruction may result from a blockage of
the stricture by some foreign substance such as a plug of hard
faecal matter or a fruit stone.
Treatment of Acute Intestinal Obstruction. — Early diagnosis and
early laparotomy are essential, and it is important to operate before
the patient is poisoned by the absorption of toxins from the bowel.
To administer purgatives is worse than useless. Of massage and
abdominal taxis Sir F. Treves says: " These are to be condemned,
as they may rupture the already moribund bowel and make effective
a threatened perforation. These measures are for the most part
feeble excuses for avoiding or delaying the operation." The opera-
tion may be undertaken in one or two stages, and includes the opening
and evacuation of the distended intestines and the search for and
reduction or removal of the obstruction.
Chronic Intestinal Obstruction. — The causes of chronic obstruc-
tion are very numerous, and may be divided into the following
groups: (i) intra-intestinal conditions, i.e. the impaction of
foreign bodies and impaction of faeces; (2) affections of the
intestinal wall such as stricture, new growths in the intestine,
particularly those of a malignant type, adhesions or matting
together of the intestines from peritonitis or kinking of the gut
from disease of the mesenteric glands; (3) chronic intussuscep-
tion; (4) compression of the bowel by a tumour or bands
developing outside the intestine. Of these the commonest are
malignant growths and faecal impaction.
The general symptoms of chronic obstruction are more or
less alike. The patient is attacked with gradually increasing
constipation, which may alternate with diarrhoea which is
generally set up by the irritation of the retained faeces. In
obstruction due to malignant growths the character of the-
motions is changed, they become scybalous, pipe-like or flattened.
The abdomen becomes distended, and at intervals severe
symptoms may supervene, consisting of pain and vomiting
with complete constipation owing to some temporary complete
obstruction. The attacks usually pass off, and relief may
be obtained naturally or by the administration of a purgative,
but they have a tendency to recur and in malignant disease to
increase to complete obstruction. Finally a seizure may persist
and take on all the characters of an acute attack, and death may
supervene from exhaustion, perforation or peritonitis, unless
immediately treated. When it arises from simple stricture no
tumour is to be felt, but in malignant disease the tumour may
be frequently palpated, unless during an acute attack when the
abdomen is much distended with gas.
Faecal Impaction is not uncommon in adult females who have
suffered from chronic constipation. The common seat of the block-
age is in the colon, chiefly in the sigmoid flexure and in the rectum,
but it may occur in the caecum. The accumulation may form a
doughy tumour which in parts may be nodular and intensely hard.
The causes are due to the state of the contents of the bowel itself, to
congenital or acquired weakness and diminished expulsive power of
the bowel, or to painful affections of the anus, fissures, piles and
painful bladder affections. The acute symptoms are always pre-
ceded by a prolonged period of malaise; the breath is offensive and
the tongue foul, and the temperature may be raised from the ab-
sorption of toxins. Faecal impaction requires the regular and
repeated administration of large enemata, given through a long tube,
together with the administration of calomel and belladonna. Large
impacted masses in the rectum may be broken up and removed by
a scoop.
Strictures of the Intestinal Wall. — Simple strictures are infrequent,
and are dealt with by the operation of lateral anastomosis. They
follow dysenteric or tuberculous ulceration or the passage of gall-
stones. Stricture due to carcinoma of the intestinal wall occurs
usually in the old or middle-aged, and the symptoms come on insidi-
ously. As soon as the condition is diagnosed an attempt should be
made to remove the tumour if freely movable, or if this is not possible
to afford relief by short-circuiting the intestine or by colotomy.
Chronic Intussusception has oeen frequently mistaken in the
diagnosis for rectal polypus, cancer, tuberculous peritonitis, &c.
(Treves). If diagnosed it may be reduced by inflation with air, but
frequently too many adhesions are present for this to be possible,
and laparotomy with excision of the mass should be undertaken ;
the results are said to be very encouraging.
Compression of the bowel due to a tumour or bands external to the
bowel may occasionally give rise to obstruction. An exploratory
operation should be undertaken for the excision of the tumour, or
the separation of adhesions and release of the bowel, or if the
intestines are much matted together by peritonitis an intestinal
anastomosis may give relief. Obstruction due_ to paralysis of the
muscular coat of the intestine has been described (adynamic ob-
struction), but its existence is a subject of dispute. (H. L. H.)
INTESTINE (Lat. intestinus, internal, usually in neuter plural
intestina, from intus, within), in anatomy, the lower part of the
INTOXICATION— INVENTORY
717
alimentary canal; in man and mammals divided into the
smaller intestine, from the pylorus to the iliocaecal valve, and
the larger, reaching from the caecum and colon to the end of the
rectum. The word is frequently applied to the whole of the
alimentary canal in invertebrates. (See ALIMENTARY CANAL.)
INTOXICATION (Lat. loxicare, inloxicare, to smear with poison,
toxlcum, an adaptation of Gr. TO&KOV, sc. <t>apfi.a.Kov, a poison
smeared on arrows ; TO^OV, bow) , poisoning, or the action of poisons,
whether of drugs, bacterial products, or other toxic substances,
and hence the condition resulting from such poisoning, particu-
larly the disorder of the nervous system produced by excessive
drinking of alcohol (see INEBRIETY and DRUNKENNESS).
INTRA, a town of Piedmont, Italy, in the province of Novara,
on the W. shore of Lake Maggiore, 685 ft. above sea-level, 12 m.
N. of Arona by steamer. Pop. (1901) 6924. It is situated
between two torrents, which afford water-power for cotton and
silk mills, hat factories, foundries, &c.; these chiefly belong to
Swiss proprietors, who have fine villas with beautiful gardens.
The church is a large edifice of 1708-1751.
INTRADOS (a French term, Lat. intra, within, Fr. dos, back),
in architecture, the under-curved surface or soffit of an arch
(q.v.).
INTRANSIGENT (adopted from the Fr. intransigeant, taken,
through the Spanish intransigente, from the Lat. in, not, and
transigere, to come to an understanding), one whose attitude is
that of an irreconcilable. The term is used chiefly of politicians
of an advanced type; those in complete antagonism to the
existing form of government; but is especially applied on the
continent of Europe to members of legislatures holding extreme
Radical views. In this sense the word was first used in the
political troubles which arose in Spain in the years 1873-
1874. Intransigentism implies an attitude of uncompromising
disagreement with political opponents. The word is also used
non-politically, in the sense of intractability and intolerance.
INTRINSIC (through Fr. intrinsique, from Lat. intrinsecus,
inwardly; inter, within, secus, following, from root of sequi,
to follow), an adjective originally applied to something internal
or inside another, but now ordinarily used to express a quality
inherent in or inseparable from a person, thing or abstract
conception. In anatomy the term is, however, still used of a
muscle which has both its origin and insertion in the organ in
which it is found.
INTROSPECTION (from Lat. introspicere, to look within), in
psychology, the process of examining the operations of one's
own mind with a view to discovering the laws which govern
psychic processes. The introspective method has been adopted
by psychologists from the earliest times, more especially by
Hobbes, Locke, Berkeley, Hume, and English psychologists of
the earlier school. It possesses the advantage that the individual
has fuller knowledge of his own mind than that of any other
person, and is able therefore to observe its action more accurately
under systematic tests. On the other hand it has the obvious
weakness that in the total content of the psychic state under
examination there must be taken into account the conscious-
ness that the test is in progress. This consciousness necessarily
arouses the attention, and may divert it to such an extent that
the test as such has little value. Such psychological problems
as those connected with the emotions and their physical con-
comitants are especially defective in the introspective method;
the fact that one is looking forward to a shock prepared in
advance constitutes at once an abnormal psychic state, just as a
nervous person's heart will beat faster when awaiting a doctor's
diagnosis. The purely introspective method has of course always
been supplemented by the comparison of similar psychic states
in other persons, and in modern psycho-physiology it is of com-
paratively minor importance.
See PSYCHOLOGY, ATTENTION, &c. ; a clear statement will be
found in G. F. Stout's Manual of Psychology (1898), i. 14.
INTUITION (from Lat. intueri, to look at), in philosophy, a
term applied to immediate or direct apprehension. The truth
of a theorem in geometry is demonstrated by a more or less
elaborate series of arguments. This is not the case, according
to the intuitionalist school of philosophy, with the apprehension
of universal principles, which present themselves as necessarily
true in their own right, without any sort of proof. The fact
that things which are equal to the same things are equal to
one another is apprehended directly or immediately without
demonstration. Similarly in ethics the intuitional school holds
that the principles of right and wrong are immediately appre-
hended without reference to any other criterion and without any
appeal to experience. Ethical intuitionalism sometimes goes even
farther, and holds that the conscience when faced with any
particular action at once assigns to it a definite moral value.
Such a view presupposes that the moral quality of an action
has, as it were, concrete reality which the special faculty of
conscience immediately recognizes, much in the same way as
a barometer records atmospheric pressure. The intuitionalist
view is attacked mainly on the ground that it is false to the
facts of experience, and it is maintained that many of the so-
called immediate a priori judgments are in point of fact the result
of forgotten processes of reasoning, and therefore a posteriori.
Minor grounds of attack are found in the difficulty of discovering
in certain primitive peoples any intuitive conception of right
and wrong, and in the great differences which exist between
moral systems in different countries and ages.
INULIN (CeHaoOs)*! in chemistry, a starch-like carbohydrate,
known also as alantin, menyanthin, dahlin, synanthrin and
sinistrin. It occurs in many plants of the large genus Composilae,
to which the elicampane (Lat. inula) belongs; and forms a white
tasteless powder, sparingly soluble in cold water, very soluble
in hot water and insoluble in alcohol. It is not coloured blue by
iodine; and it reduces ammoniacal silver and gold solutions,
but not Fehling's solution. Heated with water or dilute acids,
it is converted into laevulose.
INVAR, an alloy of nickel and steel, characterized by an
extremely small coefficient of thermal expansion; it is specially
useful in the construction of pendulums and of geodetic measuring
apparatus, in fact, in all mechanical devices where it is an
advantage to avoid temperature compensation. The name
was chosen as expressing the invariability of its dimensions with
heat. See CLOCK; GEODESY.)
INVARIABLE PLANE, in celestial mechanics (see ASTRONOMY),
that plane on which the sum of the moments of momentum of all
the bodies which make up a system is a maximum. It derives its
celebrity from the demonstration by Laplace that to whatever
mutual actions all the bodies of a system may be subjected, the
position of this plane remains invariable.
A conception of it may be reached in the following way. Suppose
that from the centre of gravity of the solar system (instead of which
we may, if we choose, take the centre of the sun), lines or radii
vectores be drawn to every body of the solar system. As the planet
revolves around the centre, each radius vector describes a surface
of which the area swept over in a unit of time measures the areal
velocity of the planet. The constancy of this velocity in the case of
the sun and a single planet is formulated in Kepler's second law.
Next pass any plane through the centre of motion and project the
area just denned upon that plane. We shall thus have a projected
areal velocity, the product of which by the mass of the planet is the
moment of momentum of the latter. Form this product for every
body or mass of matter in the system, and the sum of the moments is
then invariable whatever be the direction of the plane of projection.
In the case of a single body revolving around the sun this plane is
that of its orbit. When all the bodies of the system are taken into
account, the invariable plane is a certain mean among the planes of
all the orbits.
In the case of the solar system the moment of Jupiter is so pre-
ponderant that the position of the invariable plane does not deviate
much from that of the orbit of Jupiter. The influence of Saturn
comes next in determining it, that of all the other planets is much
smaller. The latest computation of the position of this plane is by
T. J. J. See, whose result for the position of the invariable plane is
inclination to ecliptic i° 35' 7"-74, longitude of node on ecliptic
106° 8', 46"-7 (Eq. 1850).
INVENTORY (post-class. Lat. invenlarium, a list or repertory,
from imienire to find), a detailed list, schedule or enumeration
in writing, of goods and chattels, credits and debts, and some-
times also of lands and tenements.
(i) In law, perhaps its earliest, and certainly its most important
718
INVERARAY— INVERNESS
use has been in connexion with the doctrine of " benefit of
inventory," derived by many legal systems from the beneficium
inventarii of Roman law, according to which an heir might enter
on his ancestor's inheritance without being liable for the debts
attaching to it or to the claims of legatees beyond the value —
previously ascertained by " inventory " — of the estate. The
benefit of inventory exists in Scots law, in France (benefice
d'inventaire), in Italy, Mauritius (Civil Code, Art. 774), Quebec
(Civil Code, Art. 660), St Lucia (Civil Code, Art. 585), Louisiana
(Civil Code, Arts. 1025 et seq.), and under the Roman Dutch
law in Ceylon. In South Africa benefit of inventory is super-
seded by local legislation.
(ii.) In many systems of law, the duty is imposed on executors
and administrators of making an " inventory " of the estate of
the testator or intestate, in order to secure the property to the
persons entitled to it. In England this duty was created by
statute in 1529. In modern practice an inventory is not made
unless called for, but the court may order it ex officio, and will
do so on the application of any really interested party. Similar
provisions for an inventory of the estate of deceased persons are
made in Scots law (Probate and Legacy Duties Act 1808 (s. 38),
and Executors (Scotland) Act 1900 (s. 5), and in most of the
British colonies. In Scotland, prior to the Finance Act 1894
(which imposed a tax, called " estate duty," on the principal
value of all property, heritable or movable, passing on death), the
stamp duty on movable property was termed " inventory duty."
In the United States, the duty of preparing an inventory is gener-
ally imposed on executors and administrators; see Kent, Com-
mentaries on American Law (new ed., 1896), ii. 414, 415; and cf.
Gen. Stats, of Connecticut, 1888, s. 578; New York Stats, s. 2714;
New Jersey (Orphans Court, s. 58).
(iii.) An analogous duty of preparing an " inventory " is
imposed in many countries on guardians and curators. In
Scotland judicial factors are charged with a similar statutory duty
(Act of Sederunt, Nov. 25th, 1857, under the Bankruptcy
(Scotland) Act 1856) as regards the estate of insolvent debtors.
(iv.) In Scots law, the term " inventory " is also applied to a
list of documents made up for any purpose, e.g. the inventory
of process or the inventory of documents, in an action, and the
inventory of title-deeds produced on a judicial sale of lands.
(v.) In England an " inventory " of the personal chattels
comprised in the security is required to be annexed to a bill of
sale (Bills of Sale Act 1882, s. 5). See also EXECUTORS AND
ADMINISTRATORS.
INVERARAY, a royal and municipal burgh, the county town
of Argyllshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 1369. It lies on the
southern shore of a bay, where the river Aray enters Loch Fyne,
40 m. directly N.W. of Glasgow, and 85 m. by water. The town
consists of one street running east and west, and a row of houses
facing the bay. Near the church stands an obelisk in memory
of the Campbells who were hanged, untried, for their share in the
Argyll expedition of 1685 in connexion with the duke of Mon-
mouth's rebellion. The ancient market-cross, 8 ft. high, sup-
posed to have been brought from lona in 1472, is a beautiful
specimen of the Scottish sculptured stones. The chief industry
is the herring fishery, the herring of Loch Fyne being celebrated.
The town originally stood on the north side of the bay, clustering
round the ancient baronial hold, attributed to Sir Colin Campbell
of Lochow, " the Singular," who flourished at the end of the
1 4th century, but it was removed to its present site in the
middle of the i8th century. Inveraray was erected into a burgh
of barony in 1472; and Charles I., while a prisoner in Carisbrooke
Castle, raised it to a royal burgh in 1648. Much has been done
for it by the ducal house of Argyll, whose seat, Inveraray Castle,
is about i m. from the town. This handsome square structure,
built between 1744 and 1761 from designs by Robert Adam,
consists of two storeys, with a round overtopping tower at each
corner. Some fine tapestry and valuable relics were destroyed
by fire in 1877, but the damage to the castle was repaired in
1880. The earls and dukes of Argyll were great planters of
trees — mainly larch, spruce, silver fir and New England pines —
and their estates around Inveraray are consequently among
the most luxuriantly wooded in the Highlands. Duniquoich,.
a finely timbered conical hill about 900 ft. high, adjoins the
castle on the north and is a picturesque landmark.
INVERCARGILL, the chief town of Southland county, South
Island, New Zealand, 139 m. by rail S.W. by W. from Dunedin.
Pop. (1906) 7299. It lies on a deep estuary of the south coast
named New River Harbour, which receives several streams
famous for trout-fishing. It is the centre of the large grazing
and farming district of Southland; and has a number of factories,
including breweries, foundries, woollen mills and timber-works.
The plan of the town is rectangular, with wide streets; and there
is a fine open reserve. The harbour is deep and well sheltered,
but the greater part of the trade passes through the neighbouring
Bluff Harbour, on which is Campbelltown, 17 m. S. of Invercargilt
by rail. Bluff Harbour is the port of call and departure for
steamers for Melbourne and Hobart. Exports are wool, preserved
meat and timber. The district of Southland was surveyed in
1841, but was reported unfavourable, and settlement was
delayed till 1857. Southland was a separate province between
1860 and 1870, but, failing financially as such, rejoined the
parent province of Otago. Invercargill became a municipality
in 1871, and there are five suburban municipalities. The town
is the regular starting-point of a journey to the famous lakes
Wakatipu and Te Anau, which are approached by rail.
INVERELL, a town of Gough county, New South Wales,
Australia, on the Macintyre river, 341 m. N. of Sydney, with
which it is connected by rail. Pop. (1901) 3293. It is the centre
of a prosperous agricultural district producing, chiefly, wheat
and maize; the vine is also largely grown and excellent wine is
made. Silver, tin and diamond mines are worked near the town.
Inverell became a municipality in 1872.
INVERKEITHING, a royal and police burgh of Fifeshire,
Scotland. Pop. (1901) 1676. It is situated on an inner bay of
the shore of the Firth of Forth, 35 m. S.E. of Dunfermline and
13! m. N.W. of Edinburgh by the North British railway, via
the Forth Bridge. The chief industries are tanning, shipbuilding,
milling, paper-making, rope-making and brick-making. With
Stirling, Dunfermline, Culross and Queensferry, Inverkeithing
returns one member to parliament (the Stirling district burghs).
It received its charter from David I. St Peter's, the parish
church, dates from the i2th century, but having been nearly
destroyed by fire was rebuilt in 1826 in the Gothic style, the
ancient tower, however, being preserved. Sir Samuel Greig, the
father of the Russian navy and designer of the fortifications at
Cronstadt, was born at Inverkeithing in 1735. About half-way
towards Dunfermline the battle of Inverkeithing or Pitreavie
took place on the 2oth of July 1650, when Cromwell's forces
defeated the Royalists. A mile and a half to the south lies
NORTH QUEENSFERRY (pop. 594), the first railway station on the
north side of the Forth Bridge. A little to the west lies the bay
of ST MARGARET'S HOPE, which in 1903 was acquired by the
government as the site for the naval base of Rosyth, so named
from the neighbouring ruined castle of ROSYTH, once the residence
of Queen Margaret, wife of Malcolm Canmore. On the west
side of the Forth Bridge, in the fairway, lies the rocky islet of
BIMAR with a lighthouse, and immediately to the east is the
island of INCHGARVIE (Gaelic, " the rough island "), which
once contained a castle used as a State prison, the ruins of which
were removed to make way for one of the piers of the Forth
Bridge.
INVERNESS, a royal, municipal and police burgh, seaport
and county town of Inverness - shire, Scotland. Pop. (1891)
19,303; (1901) 21,238. It lies on both banks, though principally
on the right, of the Ness; and is 118 m. N of Perth by the
Highland railway. Owing to its situation at the north-eastern
extremity of Glen More, the beauty of its environment and
its fine buildings, it is held to be the capital of the Highlands;
and throughout the summer it is the headquarters of an immense
tourist traffic. The present castle, designed by William Burn
(1789-1870), dates from 1835, and is a picturesque structure
effectively placed on a hill by the river's side; it contains the
court and county offices. Of the churches, the High or Parish
INVERNESS-SHIRE
719
church has a square tower surmounted with a steeple, containing
one of the bells which Cromwell removed from Fortrose cathedral.
On the left bank of the river stands St Andrew's Episcopal
Cathedral, in the Decorated Gothic, erected in 1866 from designs
by Dr Alexander Ross. Among the schools are the High School,
the collegiate school, the school of science and art, and the Royal
Academy, incorporated by royal charter in 1792. Other public
buildings are the museum, public library, observatory, the
northern infirmary, the district asylum, an imposing structure
at the base of Dunain Hill (940 ft.), the Northern Counties
Blind Institute, the Highland Orphanage and the Town Hall,
opened in 1882. In front of the last stands the Forbes Memorial
Fountain, and near it is the old town cross of 1685, at the foot
of which, protected since the great fire of 1411, is the lozenge-
shaped stone called Clach-na-Cudain (Stone of the Tubs), from
its having served as a resting-place for women carrying water
from the river. The old gaol spire, slightly twisted by the
earthquake of 1816, serves as a belfry for the town clock. Half
a mile to the west of the Ness is the hill of Tomnahurich (Gaelic,
" The Hill of the Fairies "), upon which is one of the most
beautifully-situated cemeteries in Great Britain. The open
spaces in the town include Victoria park, Maggot Green and the
ground where the Northern Meeting— the most important
athletic gathering in Scotland — is held at the end of September.
Inverness is the great distributing centre for the Highlands.
Its industries, however, are not extensive, and consist mainly
of tweed (tartan) manufactures, brewing, distilling, tanning,
soap and candle-making; there are also nurseries, iron-foundries,
saw-mills, granite works, and the shops of the Highland Railway
Company. There is some shipbuilding and a considerable
trade with Aberdeen, Leith, London and the east coast generally,
and by means of the Caledonian Canal with Glasgow, Liverpool
and Ireland. The Caledonian Canal passes within i m. of the
town on its western side. In Muirtown Basin are wharves for
the loading and unloading of vessels, and at Clachnaharry the
Canal enters Beauly Firth. There is little anchorage in the Ness,
but at Kessock on the left bank of the river-mouth, where there
are piers, a breakwater and a coastguard station, there are
several acres of deep water. The river at Inverness is crossed by
four bridges, two of them for pedestrians only, and a railway
viaduct. The town, which is governed by a provost, bailies
and council, unites with Forres, Fortrose and Nairn (Inverness
Burghs) in sending one member to parliament.
Inverness was one of the chief strongholds of the Picts, and in
565 was visited by Columba with the intention of converting
the Pictish king Brude, who is supposed to have resided in the
vitrified fort on Craig Phadrick (550 ft.), i£ m. W. of the town.
The castle is said to have been built by Malcolm Canmore, after
he had razed to the ground the castle in which Macbeth according
to tradition murdered Duncan, and which stood on a hill 3 m.
to the north-east. William the Lion (d. 1214) granted the town
four charters, by one of which it was created a royal burgh.
Of the Dominican abbey founded by Alexander III. in 1233
hardly a trace remains. On his way to the battle of Harlaw in
1411 Donald of the Isles burned the town, and sixteen years
later James I. held a parliament in the castle to which the
northern chieftains were summoned, of whom three were executed
for asserting an independent sovereignty. In 1562, during the
progress undertaken to suppress Huntly's insurrection, Queen
Mary was denied admittance into the castle by the governor,
who belonged to the earl's faction, and whom she afterwards
therefor caused to be hanged. The house in which she lived
meanwhile stands in Bridge Street. Beyond the northern limits
of the town Cromwell built a fort capable of accommodating
1000 men, but with the exception of a portion of the ramparts
it was demolished at the Restoration. In 1715 the Jacobites
occupied the royal fortress as barracks, and in 1746 they blew
it up.
INVERNESS-SHIRE, a highland county of Scotland, bounded
N. by Ross and Cromarty, and the Beauly and Moray Firths,
N.E. by the shires of Nairn and Elgin, E. by Banff and Aberdeen
shires, S.E. by Perthshire, S. by Argyllshire and W. by the
Atlantic. It includes the Outer Hebrides south of the northern
boundary of Harris, and several of the Inner Hebrides (see
HEBRIDES) and is the largest shire in Scotland. It occupies
an area of 2,695,037 acres, or 4211 sq. m., of which more than
one-third belongs to the islands. The county comprises the
districts of Moidart, Arisaig and Morar in the S.W., Knoydart
in the W., Lochaber in the S., Badenoch in the S.E. and the
Aird in the N. Excepting comparatively small and fertile
tracts in the N. on both sides of the river Ness, in several of the
glens and on the shores of some of the sea lochs, the county is
wild and mountainous in the extreme and characterized by
beautiful and in certain respects sublime scenery. There are
more than fifty mountains exceeding 3000 ft. in height, among
them Ben Nevis (4406), the highest mountain in the British
Isles, the extraordinary assemblage of peaks forming the Monadh-
liadh mountains in the S.E., Ben Alder (3757) in the S., and the
grand group of the Cairngorms on the confines of the shires of
Aberdeen and Banff.
In the north-west the Beauly river (16 m. long) is'formed by
the confluence of the Farrar and the Glass. The Enrick (18 m.),
rising in Loch-nan-Eun, takes a north-easterly direction for
several miles, and then flowing due east falls into Loch Ness,
just beyond Drumnadrochit, close to the ruined keep of Castle
Urquhart. The Ness (7 m.), a fine stream for its length, emerges
from Loch Dochfour and enters the sea to the north of Inverness.
The Moriston (19 m.), flows out of Loch Clunie, and pursuing a
course E. by N.E. falls into Loch Ness 4 m. south of Mealfour-
vounie (2284 ft.) on the western shore opposite Foyers. The
Lochy (9 m.), issuing from the loch of that name, runs parallel
with the Caledonian Canal and enters Loch Linnhe at Fort
William. The Spean (18 m.), flowing westwards from Loch
Laggan, joins the Lochy as it leaves Loch Lochy. The Nevis
(12 m.), rising at the back of Ben Nevis, flows round the southern
base of the mountain and then running north-westwards enters
Loch Linnhe at Fort William. The Leven (12 m.), draining a
series of small lochs to the north-west of Rannoch, flows westward
to Loch Leven, forming during its course the boundary between
the shires of Inverness and Argyll. The Dulnain (28 m.), rising
in the Monadhliath Mountains, flows north-eastwards and enters
the Spey near Grantown, falling in its course nearly 2000 ft.
The Truim (153 m.), rising close to the Perthshire frontier,
flows N.N.E. into the Spey. Three great rivers spring in Inver-
ness-shire, but finish their course in other counties. These are
the Spey, which for the first 60 m. of its course belongs to the
shire; the Findhorn (70 m.), rising in the Monadhliath Moun-
tains a few miles N.W. of the source of the Dulnain; and the
Nairn (38 m.), rising within a few miles of Loch Farraline.
The two falls of Foyers — the upper of 40 ft., the lower of 165 ft. —
are celebrated for their beauty, but their volume is affected,
especially in drought, by the withdrawal of water for the works of
the British Aluminium Company, which are driven by electric
power derived from the river Foyers, the intake being situated
above the falls. Other noted falls are Moral on the Enrick and
Kilmorack on the Beauly.
The number of hill tarns and little lakes is very great, con-
siderably more than 200 being named. Loch Ness, the most
beautiful and best known of the larger lakes, is 223 m. long,
if m. broad at its widest point (Urquhart Bay), has a drainage
area of 696 m., and, owing to its vast depth (751 ft.), uniformity
of temperature, and continual movement of its waters, never
freezes. It is the largest body of fresh water in Great Britain,
and forms part of the scheme of the Caledonian Canal. A few
miles S.W. is Loch Oich (4 m. long), also utilized for the purposes
of the Canal, which reaches its summit level (105 ft.) in this lake.
To the S.W. of it is Loch Lochy (93 m.), which is also a portion of
the Canal. Loch Arkaig (12 m.) lies in the country of the
Camerons, Achnacarry House, the seat of Lochiel, the chief of J
the clan, being situated on the river Arkaig near the point where
it issues from the lake. The old castle was burnt down by the
duke of Cumberland, but a few ruins remain. After Culloden
Prince Charles Edward found shelter in a cave in the " Black
Mile," as the road between Lochs Arkaig and Lochy is called.
720
INVERNESS-SHIRE
Loch Quoich (6 m.) lies N. by W. of Loch Arkaig, and Loch
Garry (45 m.) a few miles to the N. E.; Loch Morar (iij m. long
by ij broad) is only about 600 yds. from the sea, to which it
drains by the river Morar, which falls over a rocky barrier, at the
foot of which is a famous salmon pool. The loch is 1017 ft.
deep and is thus the deepest lake in the United Kingdom.
It contains several islands, on one of which Lord Lovat was
captured in 1746. Loch Laggan (7 m.) and Loch Treig (55 m.) in
the south of the county are both finely situated in the midst
of natural forests. The principal salt-water lochs on the Atlantic
seaboard are Loch Hourn (" Hell's Lake," so named from the
wild precipices rising sheer from the water), running inland for
14 m. from the Sound of Sleat and separating Glenelg from
Knoydart; and Loch Nevis (14 m.), a few miles farther south.
The parallel roads of Glen Roy, a glen with a north-easterly
to south-westerly trend, a few miles east of Loch Lochy, presented
a problem that long exercised the minds of geologists. At
heights of 1 148 ft., 1067 ft. and 835 ft., there run uninterruptedly
along each side of the glen terraces of a width varying from
3 to 30 ft. Local tradition ascribes them to the Ossianic heroes,
and John Playfair (1748-1819) argued that they were aqueducts.
The fact that they occur also in the neighbouring Glen Gloy and
Glen Spean, however, disposes of an artificial origin. John
MacCulloch (1773-1835) propounded the theory that they were
lacustrine and not marine, and Agassiz followed him with the
suggestion that the water had been held up by a barrier of
glacier ice. This view is now generally accepted, and the roads
may therefore be regarded as the gently sloping banks of lakes
dammed up by glacier ice. Glen More-nan-Albin, or the Great
Cilen, is a vast " fault," or dislocation, 62 m. in length, through
which Thomas Telford constructed (1804-1822) the Caledonian
Canal connecting Loch Linnhe and the Moray Firth. Glen
More is said to be liable to shocks of earthquake, and Loch
Ness was violently agitated at the time of the great Lisbon
earthquake (1755)-
Among the glens renowned for beauty are Glen Urquhart
and Glen Moriston to the west of Loch Ness, Glen Feshie in the
east, and Glen Nevis at the southern base of Ben Nevis. Glen
Garry, to the west of Loch Oich, gave its name to the well-known
cap or " bonnet " worn both in the Highlands and Lowlands.
In Glen Finnan, at the head of Loch Shiel, Prince Charles
Edward raised his standard in 1745, an incident commemorated
by a monument erected in 1815 by Alexander Macdonald of
Glenaladale. The great straths or valleys are in the north and
east, the chief among them being Strathfarrar, Strathglass
and Strathnairn, and the heads of Strathearn and Strathspey.
Geology. — Almost the entire area of this county is occupied by the
younger Highland schists and metamorphic rocks. East of Loch
Ericht and the rivers Traim and Spey as far as Airemore and between
there and Duthel there are quart zites and quartzose schists; on the
remaining area the various kinds of schistose and gneissose rock have
hardly been worked out in detail. Granite masses occur in numerous
isolated patches; the largest is on the eastern boundary and includes
the flanks of Cairn Gorm, Cairn Toul, Braeriach, Cam Ban and
Meall Tisnail. Other smaller ones are found at Ben Nevis, where the
lower part of the mountain is granite, the upper part porphyritic
felsite; between Moy and Ben Buidhe Mhor; E. of Foyers, includ-
ing Whitebridge, Aberchalder and Loch Farraline; at Ben Alder,
W. of Loch Ericht and another between that loch and the river
Pattack; at Banavie on the W. of the river Lochy; around the
upper end of Loch Clunie and at several other places. The dioritic
mass of Rannoch Moor just enters this county between Loch Ericht
and Loch Ossian.
The Old Red Sandstone extends into this county from Nairn
through Culloden Moor past Inverness and down Loch Ness to a
point south of Foyers; it occurs also on the south-east side of Loch
Oich, and around Beauly, where it forms the falls of Kilmorach.
These rocks consist at the base of coarse breccias and conglomerates
passing upwards into chocolate-coloured sandstone and flags, with
the shaly series containing limestone nodules known as the fish bed
from the abundance and importance of its fossil contents; it is well
exposed in the Big Burn ana near Loch Ashie. At a higher horizon
come more purple flags and grits. The Great Glen which traverses
the county is an old line of earth fracture along which displace-
ments have been produced during more than one geological period.
Roches moutonndes, glacial stnations and moraines and other
evidences of the great Ice age are abundant, besides the parallel
roads of Glen Roy to which allusion has already been made. The
lowest of these terraces is prolonged into Glen Spean. At numerous
places on the coasts the remains of old marine terraces occur at 100
ft. and 25 ft. above the sea.
Of the small isles belonging to Inverness-shire those of Rum and
Eigg are of the greatest interest. The northern part of Rum is made
of Torridonian rocks, shales below and red sandstones above;
altogether over 10,000 ft. are visible. These rocks have suffered
thrusting and the shales are thus made in places to overlie the sand-
stones. A few patches of Torridonian occur in the south. Tertiary
peridotites in laccolitic masses cover a large area in the south of the
island and form the highest ground. These are penetrated by
eucrites and gabbros, followed later by granites ; and the whole has
been subsequently crushed into a complex gneissose mass. Still
later, dolerite sills and sheets and dikes of granophyre and quartz
felsite followed in the same region. Eigg is mainly built of great
basaltic lava flows with intrusions of doleritic rocks; these were
succeeded by more acid intrusions, and again by a more basic series
of dikes. Pitchstones occur among the later rocks. The Sgurr is
capped by a thick intrusion of pitchstone. Jurassic rocks, including
the Estuarine Lower Oolite sandstones, shales and limestones and
Middle Oolite Oxfordian rocks are found in the north of this island;
there is also a small trace of Upper Cretaceous sandstone. Canna,
Sanday and Muck are almost wholly basaltic; a small patch of
Jurassic occurs on the south of the last-named island. (See also
SKYE.)
Forests and Fauna, — Deer forests occupy an enormous area,
particularly in the west, in the centre, in the south and south-east
and in Skye. From the number of trees found in peat bogs,
the county must once have been thickly covered with wood.
Strathspey is still celebrated for its forests, and the natural
woods on Loch Arkaig, in Glen Garry, Glen Moriston, Strathglass
and Strathfarrar, and at the head of Loch Sheil, are extensive.
The forests consist chiefly of oak, Scotch fir, birch, ash, mountain-
ash (rowan), holly, elm, hazel and Scots poplar, but there are
also great plantations of larch, spruce, silver fir, beech and plane.
Partjof the ancient Caledonian forest extends for several miles
near the Perthshire boundary. Red and roe deer, the Alpine
and common hare, black game and ptarmigan, grouse and
pheasant abound on the moors and woodlands. Foxes and
wild cats occur, and otters are met with in the lakes and streams.
There are also eagles, hawks and owls, while great flocks of
waterfowl, particularly swans, resort to Loch Inch and other
lakes in Badenoch. Many of the rivers and several of the lochs
abound with salmon and trout, the salmon fisheries of the
Beauly, Ness and Lochy yielding a substantial return.
Climate and Agriculture. — Rain is heavy and frequent in the
mountains, but slighter towards the northern coast; the fall
for the year varying from 73-17 in. at Fort William to 43-17 in.
at Fort Augustus, and 26-53 in. at Inverness. The mean
temperature for the year is 47-2°F., for January 38-5° and for
August 58°. Although since 1852 the cultivated area has
increased greatly, actually the percentage of land under crops
is still small. The Aird and Beauly districts, some of the straths
and several of the glens are fertile. Oats are the predominant
crop, barley is grown (mostly for the distilleries), but the wheat
acreage is trifling. Of green crops turnips do well in certain
districts, artificial manures being extensively used. In those
quarters where the soil is dry, potatoes are successfully raised.
An immense number of the holdings are crofts averaging 5 acres
or under. About 50% are between 5 acres and 50; but few are
above 50. The operations of the Crofters' Commission (1886)
have been beneficial in a variety of ways. Not only have rentals
been reduced considerably and arrears cancelled, but the
increased sense of security resulting from the granting of fair
rentals, fixity of tenure and compensation for disturbance has
induced tenants to reclaim waste land, to enlarge their holdings
and to apply themselves more thriftily and with greater enterprise
and intelligence to the development of their farms. On the
large holdings the most modern methods of husbandry are
followed, the farm buildings are excellent and the implements
up-to-date. The hills furnish good pastures. The flocks of
sheep are exceptionally heavy, the chief varieties on the uplands
being Cheviots and black-faced and in some of the lower districts
Leicestcrs and half-breeds. Of the cattle the principal breed is
the Highland, the largest and best herds of which are in the
Western Isles. Polled and shorthorns are also reared, and
INVERSION
721
Ayrshires are kept for dairy purposes. Great numbers of the
hardy Highland ponies are raised on the hill farms, and the
breed of agricultural horses was improved by the introduction
of Clydesdale stallions. Where pigs are reared they appear to be
kept, especially amongst the crofters, for domestic consumption.
Industries. — Manufactures are few. Indeed, excepting the
industries carried on in Inverness, they are almost entirely
confined to distilling — at Fort William, Kingussie, Carbost, Muir
of Ord and some other places — brewing, woollens (especially
tartans, plaids and rough tweeds), milling and (at Kirk town
near Inverness) artificial manures. The catering for the wants
of thousands of sportsmen and tourists, however, provides
employment for a large number of persons, and has led to the
opening of hotels even in the remotest regions. The fisheries,
on the other hand, are of great value, especially to the Hebrideans.
The kelp industry has died out.
Communications. — Owing to its physical character communica-
tion by rail is somewhat restricted, but the Highland railway
enters the shire from the south near Dalwhinnie and runs to
Inverness via Aviemore and Daviot. Another portion of the
same system also reaches the county town from Nairnshire.
The Dingwall and Skye railway passes along the southern shore
of Beauly Firth. In the south-west the West Highland railway
(North British) enters the county 2 m. N.W. of Rannoch station
and terminates at Mallaig, via Fort William and Banavie,
sending off at Spean Bridge a branch to Fort Augustus. There
is also communication by steamer with the piers of the Caledonian
Canal and with the Western Isles, and a considerable amount
of shipping reaches Beauly and Inverness by way of Moray
Firth. Coaches supplement rail and steamer at various points.
Population and Government. — The population was 90,121
in 1891, and 90,104 in 1901, when 43,281 persons spoke Gaelic
and English, and 11,722 Gaelic only. The only considerable
towns are Inverness (pop. in 1901, 23,066) and Fort William
(2087). The county returns one member to parliament, but the
county town, along with Forres, Fortrose and Nairn, belongs
to the Inverness district group of parliamentary burghs. Inver-
ness forms a sheriffdom with Elgin and Nairn, and there are
resident sheriffs-substitute at Inverness, Fort William, Portree
and Lochmaddy. The county is under school-board jurisdiction,
and there are voluntary schdols (mostly Roman Catholic) in
several places. The secondary schools in Inverness and some
in the county earn grants for higher education. The town council
of Inverness subsidizes the burgh technical and art school. At
Fort Augustus is a well-known collegiate institution for the
education of the sons of well-to-do Roman Catholics.
History. — To the north of the boundary hills of the present
counties of Argyll and Perth (beyond which the Romans
attempted no occupation) the country was occupied by the
Picts, the true Caledonians. The territory was afterwards
called the province of Moray, and extended from the Spey and
Loch Lochy to Caithness. These limits it retained until the
I7th century, when Caithness (in 1617), Sutherland (in 1633)
and Ross-shire (in 1661) were successively detached. Towards
the end of the 6th century Columba undertook the conversion
of the Picts, himself baptizing their king, Brude, at Inverness;
but paganism died hard and tribal wars prevented progress.
In the nth century, after the death of Duncan, Scotland was
divided between Macbeth and the Norwegian leader Thorfinn,
who took for his share the land peopled by the northern Picts.
Malcolm Canmore, avenging his father, defeated and slew
Macbeth (1057), and at a later date reduced the country and
annexed it to the kingdom of Scotland. In 1107, when the
bishopric of Moray was founded, the influence of the Church was
beginning to effect some improvement in manners. Neverthe-
less, a condition of insurrection supervened until the reign of
David I., when colonists of noble birth were settled in various
parts of the shire. After the battle of Largs (1263) the Norse
yoke was thrown off. In 1303 Edward I.'s expedition to
Scotland passed through the northern districts, his army laying
siege to Urquhart and Beaufort castles. After the plantation
the clan system gradually developed and attained in the shire
its fullest power and splendour. The Frasers occupied the Aird
and the district around Beauly; the Chisholms the Urquhart
country; the Grants the Spey; the Camerons the land to the
west and south of Loch Lochy (Locheil) ; the Chattan — compris-
ing several septs such as the Macphersons, Mackintoshes,
Farquharsons and Davidsons — Badenoch; the Macdonalds of
the Isles Lochaber; the Clanranald Macdonalds Moidart,
Knoydart, Morar, Arisaig and Glengarry; and the Macleods
Skye. Unfortunately the proud and fiery chieftains were
seldom quiet. The clans were constantly fighting each other,
occasionally varying their warfare by rebellion against the
sovereign. In many quarters the Protestant movement made
no headway, the clansmen remaining steadfast to the older
creed. At the era of the Covenant, Montrose conducted a
vigorous campaign in the interests of the Royalists, gaining
a brilliant victory at Inverlochy (1645), but the effects of his
crusade were speedily neutralized by the equally masterly
strategy of Cromwell. Next Episcopacy appeared to be securing
a foothold, until Viscount Dundee fell at Killiecrankie, that
battle being followed by a defeat of the Highlanders at Cromdale
in 1690. The futile rising headed by Mar ini7is led toacom-
bined effort to hold the clans in* check. Forts were constructed
at Inverness, Kilchumin (Fort Augustus) and Kilmallie (Fort
William); Wade's famous roads — exhibiting at many points
notable examples of engineering — enabled the king's soldiers
rapidly to scour the country, and general disarming was
required. Prince Charles Edward's attempt in 1745 had the
effect of bringing most of the clans together for a while; but the
clan system was broken up after his failure and escape. Heritable
jurisdictions were abolished. Even the wearing of the Highland
dress was proscribed. The effects of this policy were soon
evident. Many of the chieftains became embarrassed, their
estates were sold, and the glensfolk, impoverished but high-
spirited, sought homes in Canada and the United States. As
time passed and passion abated, the proposal was made to
raise several Highland regiments for the British army. It was
entertained with surprising favour, and among the regiments
then enrolled were the 7gth Cameron Highlanders. With the
closing of the chapter of the Jacobite romance the shire gradually
settled down to peaceful pursuits.
The county in parts is rich in antiquarian remains. Stone
axes and other weapons or tools have been dug up in the peat,
and prehistoric jewelry has also been found. Lake dwellings
occur in Loch Lundy in Glengarry and on Loch Beauly, and
stone circles are numerous, as at Inches, Clava, and in the valley
of the Ness. Pictish towers or brochs are met with in Glenbeg
(Glenelg), and duns (forts) in the Aird and to the west and
south-west of Beauly and elsewhere. Among vitrified forts
the principal are those on Craig Phadrick, Dundbhairdghall
in Glen Nevis, Dun Fionn or Fingal's fort on the Beauly, near
Kilmorack, Achterawe in Glengarry and in Arisaig.
See J. Cameron Lees, History of the County of Inverness (Edinburgh,
1897); C. Fraser-Mackintosh, Letters of Two Centuries (Inverness,
1890); Alexander Mackenzie, Histories of the Mackenzie*, Camerons,
&c. (Inverness, 1874-1896) ; A. Stewart, Nether Lochaber (Edinburgh,
1 883) ^Alexander Carmichael, "Grazing and Agrestic Customs of
the Outer Hebrides " (Crofters' Commission Report, 1884).
INVERSION (Lat. invertere, to turn about), in chemistry, the
name given to the hydrolysis of cane sugar into a mixture of
glucose and fructose (invert sugar); it was chosen because
the operation was attended by a change from dextro-rotation
of polarized light to a laevo-rotation. In mathematics, inversion
is a geometrical method, discovered jointly by Stubbs and
Ingram of Dublin, and employed subsequently with conspicuous
success by Lord Kelvin in his electrical researches. The notion
may be explained thus: If R be a circle of centre O and radius
r, and P, Q be two points on a radius such that OP.OQ = r2,
then P, Q are said to be inverse points for a circle of radius
r, and O is the centre of inversion. If one point, say P, traces
a curve, the corresponding locus of Q is said to be the inverse
of the path of P. The fundamental propositions are: (i) the
inverse of a circle is a line or a circle according as the centre
of inversion is on or off the circumference; (2) the angle at the
722
INVERURIE— INVESTITURE
intersection of two circles or of a line and a circle is unaltered
by inversion. The method obviously affords a ready means
for converting theorems involving lines and circles into other
propositions involving the same, but differently placed, figures;
in mathematical physics it is of special value in solving geo-
metrically electrostatical and optical problems.
INVERURIE, a royal, municipal and police burgh of Aberdeen-
shire, Scotland, situated at the confluence of the rivers Don and
Ury, i6j m. N.W. of Aberdeen by rail, on the Great North of
Scotland railway. Pop. (1901) 3624. Paper-making, milling,
and the making of mineral waters are the chief manufactures,
but the town is an important centre of the cattle trade with
London, markets being held at frequent intervals. It also con-
tains the workshops of the Great North of Scotland railway.
Inverurie belongs to the Elgin district group of parliamentary
burghs. At Harlaw, about 3 m. to the N.W., was fought in 1411
the great battle between Donald, lord of the Isles, and the royal
forces under the earl of Mar. Not far from the scene of this
conflict stands Balquhain Castle, a seat of the Leslies, now a
mere shell, which was occupied by Queen Mary in September
1562 before the fight at Corrichie between her forces, led by
the earl of Moray, and those of the earl of Huntly. The granite
block from which she is said to have viewed the combat is still
called the Queen's Chair or the Maiden Stone. Near Bennachie
(1619 ft.) are stone circles and monoliths supposed to be of
Druidical origin. There is a branch line from Inverurie to
Old Meldrum, 5! m. to the N.E. by rail, a market town with
a charter dating from 1672, where brewing and distilling are
carried on.
INVESTITURE (Late Lat. investitura), the formal installation
into an office or estate, which constituted in the middle ages
one of the acts that betokened the feudal relation between
suzerain and vassal. The suzerain, after receiving the vassal's
homage and oath of fealty, invested him with his land or office
by presenting some symbol, such as a clod, a banner, a branch,
or some other object according to the custom of the fief. Otto
of Freising says: " It is customary when a kingdom is delivered
over to any one that a sword be given to represent it, and when
a province is transferred a standard is given." As feudal
customs grew more stereotyped, the sword and sceptre, emblem-
atic respectively of service and military command and of judicial
prerogatives, became the usual emblems of investiture of laymen.
The word investiture (from vestire, to put in possession) is later
than the gth century; the thing itself was an outcome of feudal
society.
It is in connexion with the Church that investiture has its
greatest historical interest. The Church quite naturally shared
in feudal land-holding; in addition to the tithes she possessed
immense estates which had been given her by the faithful from
early times, and for the defence of which she resorted to secular
means. The bishops and abbots, by confiding their domains
to laymen on condition of assistance with the sword in case
•of need, became temporal lords and suzerains with vassals to
fight for them, with courts of justice, and in short with all the
rights and privileges exercised by lay lords. On the other
hand there were bishop-dukes, bishop-counts, &c., themselves
vassals of other lords, and especially of the king, from whom
they received the investiture of their temporalities. Many of
the faithful founded abbeys and churches on condition that the
right of patronage, that is the choice of beneficiaries, should be
reserved to them and their heirs. Thus in various ways ecclesi-
astical benefices were gradually transformed into fiefs, and lay
suzerains claimed the same rights over ecclesiastics as over
other vassals from whom they received homage, and whom
they invested with lands. This ecclesiastical investiture by
lay princes dates at least from the time of Charlemagne. It
did not seem fitting at first to confer ecclesiastical investiture
by such military and worldly emblems as the sword and sceptre,
nor to exact an oath of fealty. The emperor Henry I. invested
bishops with a glove; Otto II. presented the pastoral staff;
Conrad II., according to Wipo, went farther and required from
the archbishop of Milan an oath of fealty. By the time of
Henry III. investiture with ring and crozier had become the
general practice: it probably had been customary in some places
since Otto II.
Investiture of ecclesiastics by laymen had certain serious
effects which were bound to bring on a conflict between the
temporal and spiritual authorities. In the first place the lay
authorities often rendered elections uncanonical by interfering
in behalf of some favourite, thereby impairing the freedom of
the electors. Again, benefices were kept vacant for long periods
in order to ensure to the lord as long as possible the exercise
of his regalian rights. And, finally, control by temporal princes
of investiture, and indirectly of election, greatly increased
simony. Otto II. is charged with having practised simony in
this connexion, and under Conrad II. the abuse grew prevalent.
At a synod at Reims in 1049, the bishops of Nevers and Coutances
affirmed that they had bought their bishoprics, and the bishop
of Nantes stated that his father had been a bishop and that
on his decease he himself had purchased the see. At a synod
at Toulouse in 1056, Berengar of Narbonne accused the bishop
of having purchased his see for 100,000 solidi, and of having
plundered his church and sold relics and crucifixes to Spanish
Jews in order to secure another 100,000 solidi with which to
buy for his brother the bishopric of Urgel. Innumerable similar
cases appear in acts of synods and in chronicles during the
nth century. Ecclesiastical investiture was further complicated
by the considerable practice of concubinage. There was always
the tendency for clerics in such cases to invest their sons with
the temporalities of the Church; and the synod convened by
Benedict VIII. at Pavia in 1018 (or 1022 according to some
authorities) was mainly concerned with the issue of decrees
against clerics who lived with wives or concubines and bestowed
Church goods on their children. In time the Church came to
perceive how closely lay investiture was bound up with simony.
The sixth decree of the Lateran synod of 1059 forbade any
cleric to accept Church office from a layman. In the following
year this decree was reaffirmed by synods held at Vicnne and
Toulouse under the presidency of a legate of Nicholas II. The
main investiture struggle with the empire did not take place,
however, until Hildebrand became Pope Gregory VII. To
Gregory it was intolerable that a layman, whether emperor,
king or baron, should invest a churchman with the emblems of
spiritual office; ecclesiastical investiture should come only
from ecclesiastics. To the emperor Henry IV. it was highly
undesirable that the advantages and revenues accruing from
lay investiture should be surrendered; it was reasonable that
ecclesiastics should receive investiture of temporalities from
their temporal protectors and suzerains.
Although the full text of the decrees of the famous Lenten
synod of 1075 has not been preserved, it is known that Gregory
on that occasion denounced the marriage of the clergy, ex-
communicated five of Henry IV.'s councillors on the ground
that they had gained church offices through simony, and forbade
the emperor and all laymen to grant investiture of bishopric
or inferior dignity. The pope immediately summoned Henry
to appear at Rome in order to justify his private misconduct,
and Henry replied by causing the partisan synod of Worms
(1076) to pronounce Gregory's deposition. The pope excom-
municated the emperor and stirred up civil war against him
in Saxony with such success that he brought about Henry's
bitter humiliation at Canossa in the following year. The papal
prohibition of lay investiture was renewed at synods in 1078
and 1080, and although Gregory's death in exile (1085) prevented
him from realizing his aim in the matter, his policy was stead-
fastly maintained by his successors. Victor III. condemned
lay investiture at the synod of Benevento in 1087, and Urban II.
at that of Melfi in 1089. At the celebrated council of Cler-
mont (1095), at which the first crusade was preached, Urban
strengthened the former prohibitions by declaring that no one
might accept any spiritual 'office from a layman, or take an
oath of fealty to any layman. Urban's immediate successor,
Paschal II., stirred up the rebellion of the emperor's son, but
soon found Henry V. even more persistent in the claim of
INVOICE— IO
723
investiture than Henry IV. had been. Several attempts at
settlement failed. In February mi legates of Paschal II. met
Henry V. at Sutri and declared that the pope was ready to
surrender all the temporalities that had been bestowed on
the clergy since the days of Charlemagne in return for freedom
of election and the abolition of lay investiture. Henry, having
agreed to the proposal, entered Rome to receive his crown. The
bishops and clergy who were present at the coronation protested
against this surrender, and a tumult arising, the ceremony had
to be abandoned. The king then seized pope and curia and
left the city. After two months of close confinement Paschal
consented to an unqualified renunciation on his part of the right
of investiture. In the following year, however, a Lateran council
repudiated this compact as due to violence, and a synod held
at Vienne with papal approval declared lay investiture to be
heresy and placed Henry under the ban. The struggle was
complicated throughout its course by political and other con-
siderations; there were repeated rebellions of German nobles,
constant strife between rival imperial and papal factions in the
Lombard cities and at Rome, and creation of several anti-popes,
of whom Guibert of Ravenna (Clement III.) and Gregory VIII.
were the most important. Final settlement of the struggle
was retarded, moreover, by the question of the succession
to the lands of the great Countess Matilda, who had bequeathed
all her property to the Holy See, Henry claiming the estates
as suzerain of the fiefs and as heir of the allodial lands. The
efforts of Gelasius II. to settle the strife by a general council
were rendered fruitless by his death (1119).
At length in 1122 the struggle was brought to an end by the
concordat of Worms, the provisions of which were incorporated
in the eighth and ninth canons of the general Lateran council
of 1123. The settlement was a compromise. The emperor,
on the one hand, preserved feudal suzerainty over ecclesiastical
benefices; but, on the other, he ceased to confer ring and
crozier, and thereby not only lost the right of refusing the elect
on the grounds of unworthiness, but also was deprived of an
efficacious means of maintaining vacancies in ecclesiastical
offices. Few efforts were made to undo the compromise. King
Lothair the Saxon demanded of Innocent II. the renewal of lay
investiture as reward for driving the antipope Anacletus from
Rome, but the opposition of St Bernard and the German pre-
lates was so potent that the king dropped his demand, and
Innocent in 1133 confirmed the concordat. In fact, the imperial
control over the election of bishops in Germany came later to
be much curtailed in practice, partly by the tacitly changed
relations between the empire and its feudatories, partly by
explicit concessions wrung at various times from individual
emperors, such as Otto IV. in 1209 and Frederick II. in 1213;
but the principles of the concordat of Worms continued theoreti-
cally to regulate the tenure of bishoprics and abbacies until
the dissolution of the empire on 1806.
In France the course of the struggle was somewhat different.
As in the empire, the king and the nobles, each within his own
sphere of influence, claimed the right of investing with ring
and crozier and of exacting homage and oaths of fealty. The
struggle, however, was less bitter chiefly because France was
not a united country, and it was eventually terminated without
formal treaty. The king voluntarily abandoned lay investiture
and the claim to homage during the pontificate of Paschal II.,
but continued to interfere with elections, to appropriate the
revenues of vacant benefices, and to exact an oath of fealty
before admitting the elect to the enjoyment of his tempor-
alities. Most of the great feudal lords followed the king's example,
but their concessions varied considerably, and in the south of
France some of the bishops were still doing homage for their
sees until the closing years of the i3th century; but long before
then the right of investing with ring and crozier had disappeared
from every part of France.
England was the scene of an investiture contest in which
the chief actors were Henry I. and Anselm. The archbishop,
in obedience to the decrees of Gregory VII. and Urban II.,
not only refused to perform homage to the king (noo), but also
refused to consecrate newly-chosen bishops who had received
investiture from Henry. The dispute was bitter, but was
carried on without any of the violence which characterized
the conflict between papacy and empire; and it ended in a
compromise which closely foreshadowed the provisions of the
concordat of Worms and received the confirmation of Paschal II.
in 1106. Freedom of election, somewhat similar in form to that
which still exists, was formally conceded under Stephen, and
confirmed by John in Magna Carta.
Many documents relating to the investiture struggle have been
edited by E. Diimmler in Monumenta Germaniae historica, Libelli de
lite imperatorum et pontificum saeculis xi. et xii. (3 vols., 1891-1897).
See Ducange, Glossarium, s.v. " Investitura."
On investiture in the empire consult C. Mirbt, Die Publizistik im
Zeitalter Gregors VII. (Leipzig, 1894); E. Bernheim, Das Warmer
Konkordat (Breslau, 1906); R. Boerger, Die Belehnungen der
deutschen geistlichen Fursten (Leipzig, 1901); K. E. Benz, Die
Stellung der Bischofe von Meissen, Merseburg und Naumburg im
Investiturstreite unter Heinrich IV. und Heinrich V. (Dresden, 1899);
W. Martens, Gregor VII., sein Leben und Wirken (2 vols., Leipzig,
1894); H. Fisher, The Medieval Empire, c. 10 (London, 1898).
For France, see P. Imbart de la Tour, Les Elections episcopates
dans I'eglise de France du XI' au XII' siecle (Paris, 1891); A.
Luchaire, Histoire des institutions monarchiques de la France sous les
premiers Capetiens 987-1180 (2nd ed., Paris, 1891); P. Viollet,
Histoire des institutions politiques et administrates de la France
(Paris, 1898); lba.ch,Der Kampfzwischen Papsttum und Konigtum
von Gregor VII. bis Calixto II. (Frankfort, 1884). For England, see
J. F. Bohmer, Kirche und Staat in England und in der Normandie in
XI. und XII. Jahrhundert (Leipzig, 1899); E. A. Freeman, The
Reign of William II. Rufus and the Accession of Henry I. (London,
1882); H. W. C. Davis, England under the Normans and Angevins
(London, 1905).
INVOICE (originally a plural, Invoyes or Invoys, of Imoy,
a variant of " envoy," from the French envoyer, to send), a state-
ment giving full particulars of goods sent or shipped by a trader
to a customer, with the quantity, quality and prices, and the
charges upon them. Consular invoices, i.e. invoices signed at
the port of shipment by a consul of the country to which the
goods are being consigned, are generally demanded by those
countries which impose ad valorem duties.
INVOLUTION (Lat. involvere, to roll up), a rolling up or
complication. In arithmetic, involution is the operation of
raising a quantity to any power; it is the converse of evolution,
which is the operation of extracting any root of a quantity
(see ARITHMETIC; ALGEBRA). In geometry, an involution
is a one-to-one correspondence between two ranges of points
or between two pencils (see GEOMETRY: Protective). The
" involute " of a curve may be regarded as the locus of the
extremity of a string when it is unwrapped from the curve
(see INFINITESIMAL CALCULUS).
10, in Greek mythology, daughter of Inachus, the river-god of
Argos and its first king. As associated with the oldest worship
of Hera she is called the daughter of Peiren, who made the first
image of that goddess out of a pear-tree at Tiryns; and under
the name of Callithyia lo was regarded as the first priestess
of Hera. Zeus fell in love with her, and, to protect her from the
wrath of Hera, changed her into a white heifer (Apollodorus
ii. i; Hyginus, Fab. 145; Ovid, Metam. i. 568-733); according
to Aeschylus (Supplices, 299) the metamorphosis was the work
of Hera herself. Hera, having persuaded Zeus to give her the
heifer, set Argus Panoptes to watch her. Zeus thereupon sent
Hermes, who lulled Argus to sleep and cut off his head with the
sword with which Perseus afterwards slew the Gorgon. In
another account Argus is killed by a stone thrown by Hermes.
But the wrath of Hera still pursued lo. Maddened by a gadfly
sent by the goddess she wandered all over the earth, swam the
strait known on this account as the Bosporus (Ox-ford), and
crossed the Ionian sea (traditionally called after her) until at
last she reached Egypt, where she was restored to her original
form and became the mother of Epaphus. Accounts of her
wanderings (differing considerably in detail) are given in the
Supplices and Prometheus Vinctus of Aeschylus. Various
interpretations are given of the latter part of her story, which
dates from the 7th century B.C., when intercourse was frequent
between Greece and Egypt, and when much influence was
724
IODINE
exerted on Greek thought by Egyptian religion. According
to the rationalistic explanation of Herodotus (i. i) lo was an
Argive princess who was carried off to Egypt by the Phoenicians.
Epaphus, the son of lo, the supposed founder of Memphis, was
identified with Apis. He was said to have been carried off by
order of Hera to Byblus in Syria, where he was found again
by lo. On returning to Egypt, lo, afterwards identified with
Isis, married Telegonus and founded the royal families of
Egypt, Phoenicia, Argos and Thebes. The journey to Syria
in search of Epaphus was invented to explain the fact that the
Phoenician goddess Astarte, who was sometimes represented
as horned, was confounded with lo.
lo herself is variously interpreted. She is usually understood
to be the moon in the midst of the mighty heaven, studded with
stars, represented by Argus. According to others, she is the
annual rising of the Nile; the personification of the Ionian
race; the mist; the earth. It seems probable that she was a
duplicate of Hera (lo fioiiKepus is Hera /Sociirw), or a deity in
primitive times worshipped under the symbol of a cow, whose
worship was superseded by that of Hera; the recollection of
this early identity would account for lo being regarded as the
priestess of the goddess in later times. Amongst the Romans she
was sometimes identified with Anna Perenna. The legend of
lo spread beyond Argos, especially in Byzantium and Euboea,
where it was associated with the town of Argura. It was a
favourite subject among Greek painters, and many representa-
tions of it are preserved on vases and wall paintings; lo herself
appears as a horned maiden or as the heifer watched by Argus.
See R. Engelmann, De lone (1868), with notes containing refer-
ences to authorities, and his article in Roscher's Lexikon der Mytho-
logie; J. Overbeck, De lone, telluris, non lunae, Deo, (1872); P. W.
Forchhammer, Die Wanderungen der Inachostochter lo (1881), with
map and special reference to Aeschylus's account of lo's wander-
ings; F. Durrbach in Daremberg and Saglio's Dictionnaire des
antiq-uites; G. MelI6n, De lus fabula (1901); Wernicke s.v.
"Argos" in Pauly-Wissowa's Realencyclopadie, ii. pt. i. (1896);
J. E. Harrison in Classical Review (1893, p. 76); Bacchylides xviii.
(xix.), with Jebb's notes.
IODINE (symbol I, atomic weight 126-92), a chemical element,
belonging to the halogen group. Its name is derived from Gr.
iotiOTjs (violet-coloured), in allusion to the colour of its vapour.
It was discovered in 1812 by B. Courtois when investigating
the products obtained from the mother-liquors prepared by
lixiviating kelp or burnt seaweed, and in 1815 L. J. Gay-Lussac
showed that it was an element. Iodine does not occur in nature
in the uncombined condition, but is found very widely but
sparingly distributed in the form of iodides and iodates, chiefly
of sodium and potassium. It is also found in small quantities
in sea-water, in some seaweeds, and in various mineral and
medicinal springs. Deep-sea weeds as a rule contain more iodine
than those which are found in the shallow waters.
Iodine is obtained either from kelp (the ashes of burnt sea-
weed) or from the mother-liquors obtained in the purification
of Chile saltpetre. In the former case the seaweed is burnt in
large heaps, care being taken that too high a temperature is
not reached, for if the ash be allowed to fuse much iodine is
lost by volatilization. The product obtained after burning
is known either as kelp or varec. Another method of obtaining
kelp is to heat the seaweed in large retorts, whereby tarry and
ammoniacal liquors pass over and a very porous residue of kelp
remains. A later method consists in boiling the weed with sodium
carbonate; the liquid is filtered and hydrochloric acid added
to the filtrate, when alginic acid is precipitated; this is also
filtered off, the filtrate neutralized by caustic soda, and the whole
evaporated to dryness and carbonized, the residue obtained
being known as kelp substitute. The kelp obtained by any of
these methods is then lixiviated with water, which extracts
the soluble salts, and the liquid is concentrated, when the less
soluble salts, which are chiefly alkaline chlorides, sulphates
and carbonates, crystallize out and are removed. Sulphuric
acid is now added to the liquid, and any alkaline sulphides and
sulphites present are decomposed, while iodides and bromides
are converted into sulphates, and hydriodic and hydrobromic
acids are liberated and remain dissolved in the solution. The
liquid is run into the iodine still and gently warmed, manganese
dioxide in small quantities being added' from time to time,
when the iodine distils over and is collected. In the second
method it is found that the mother-liquors obtained from
Chile saltpetre contain small quantities of sodium iodate
NaIO3; this liquor is mixed with the calculated quantity of
sodium bisulphite in large vats, and iodine is precipitated: —
3NaHSO<-|-2Na2SO4+H2O-l-I2.
The precipitate is washed and then distilled from iron retorts.
Iodine may also be prepared by the decomposition of an iodide
with chlorine, or by heating a mixture of an iodide and manganese
dioxide with concentrated sulphuric acid. Commercial iodine
may be purified by mixing it with a little potassium iodide and
then subliming the mixture; in this way any traces of bromine
or chlorine are removed. J. S. Stas recommends solution of
the iodine in potassium iodide and subsequent precipitation
by the addition of a large excess of water, the precipitate being
washed, distilled in steam, and dried in vacua over solid calcium
nitrate, and then over solid caustic baryta.
Iodine is a greyish-black shining solid, possessing a metallic
lustre and having somewhat the appearance of graphite. Its
specific gravity is 4-948 (i7°/4°). It melts at 114-2° C. and boils
at 184-35° C. under atmospheric pressure (W. Ramsay and S.
Young). The specific heat of solid iodine is 0-0541 (H. Kopp).
Its latent heat of fusion is 11-7 calories, and its latent heat of
vaporization is 23-95 calories (P. A. Favre and J. T. Silbermann).
The specific heat of iodine vapour at constant pressure is
0-03489, and at constant volume 0-02697. It volatilizes slowly
at ordinary temperatures, but rapidly on heating. Iodine
vapour on heating passes from a violet colour to a deep indigo
blue; this behaviour was investigated by V. Meyer (Ber., 1880,
13, p. 394), who found that the change of colour was accompanied
by a change of vapour density. Thus, the density of air being
taken as unity, Victor Meyer found the following values for the
density of iodine vapour at different temperatures: —
T° C. . . 253 450 506 842 1027 1570
Density . . 8-89 8-84 8-73 6-08 5-75 5-67
This shows that the iodine molecule becomes less complex
in structure at higher temperatures.
Iodine possesses a characteristic penetrating smell, not so
pungent, however, as that of chlorine or bromine. It is only
very sparingly soluble in water, but dissolves readily in solutions
of the alkaline iodides and in alcohol, ether, carbon bisulphide,
chloroform, and many liquid hydrocarbons. Its solutions in
the alkaline iodides and in alcohol and ether are brown in colour,
whilst in chloroform and carbon bisulphide the solution is violet.
It appears to combine with the solvent (P. Waentig, Zeit. phys.
Chem., 1909, p. 513). Its chemical properties closely resemble
those of chlorine and bromine; its affinity for other elements,
however, is as a rule less than that of either. It will only combine
with hydrogen in the presence of a catalyst, but combines with
many other elements directly; for example, phosphorus melts
and then inflames, antimony burns in the vapour, and mercury
when heated with iodine combines with it rapidly. It is com-
pletely oxidized to iodic acid when boiled with fuming nitric
acid. It is soluble in a solution of caustic potash, a dilute solu-
tion most probably containing the hypoiodite, which, however,
changes slowly into iodate, the change taking place rapidly
on warming. When alkali is added to aqueous iodine, followed
immediately by either soda water or sodium bicarbonate, most
of the original iodine is precipitated (R. L. Taylor, Jour. Chem.
Soc., 1897, 71, p. 725, and K. J. P. Orton, ibid. p. 830). Iodine
can be readily detected by the characteristic blue coloration
that it immediately gives with starch paste; the colour is
destroyed on heating, but returns on cooling provided the heating
has not been too prolonged. Iodine in the presence of water
frequently acts as an oxidizing agent; thus arsenious acid
and the arsenites, on the addition of iodine solution, are con-
verted into arsenic acid and arsenates. A dilute solution of
iodine prevents the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide by
IODINE
725
colloidal platinum (G. Bredig, Zeit. phys. Chem., 1899, 31,
p. 258; 1901, 37, p. 323.
Iodine finds application in organic chemistry, forming addition
products with unsaturated compounds, the combination, how-
ever, being more slow than in the case of chlorine or bromine.
It rarely substitutes directly, because the hydriodic acid produced
reverses the reaction; this can be avoided by the presence of
precipitated mercuric oxide or iodic acid, which react with
the hydriodic acid as fast as it is formed, and consequently
remove it from the reacting system. As a rule it is preferable
to use iodine in the presence of a carrier, such as amorphous
phosphorus or ferrous iodide or to use it with a solvent. It is
found that most organic compounds containing the grouping
CHs-CO-C- or CH3-CH(OH)-C- in the presence of iodine and
alkali give iodoform CHIj.
Hydriodic acid, HI, is formed by the direct union of its components
in the presence of a catalytic agent; for this purpose platinum
black is used, and the hydrogen and iodine vapour are passed over the
heated substance. On shaking up iodine with a solution of sulphur-
etted hydrogen in water, a solution of hydriodic acid is obtained,
sulphur being at the same time precipitated. The acid cannot be
prepared by the action of concentrated sulphuric acid on an iodide on
account of secondary reactions taking place, which result in the
formation of free iodine and sulphur dioxide. The usual method is
to make a mixture of amorphous phosphorus and a large excess of
iodine and then to allow water to drop slowly upon it ; the reaction
starts readily, and the gas obtained can be freed from any admixed
iodine vapour by passing it through a tube containing some
amorphous phosphorus. It is a colourless sharp-smelling gas which
fumes strongly on exposure to air. It readily liquefies at o° C.
under a pressure of four atmospheres, the liquefied acid boiling at
— 34-14° C. (730-4 mm.); it can also be obtained as a solid melting
at —50-8° C. It is readily soluble in water, one volume of water at
10° C. dissolving 425 volumes of the acid. The saturated aqueous
solution is colourless and fumes strongly on exposure to air; after
a time it darkens in colour owing to liberation of iodine. The gas is
readily decomposed by heat into its constituent elements. It is a
powerful reducing agent, and is frequently employed for this purpose
in organic chemistry; thus hydroxy acids are readily reduced on
heating with the concentrated acid, and nitro compounds are reduced
to amino compounds, &c. It is preferable to use the acid in the
presence of amorphous phosphorus, for the iodine liberated during
the reduction is then utilized in forming more hydriodic acid, and
consequently the original amount of acid goes much further. It
forms addition compounds with unsaturated compounds.
It has all the characteristics of an acid, dissolving many metals
with evolution of hydrogen and formation of salts, called iodides.
The iodides can be prepared either by direct union of iodine with
a metal, from hydriodic acid and a metal, oxide, hydroxide or
carbonate, or by action of iodine on some metallic hydroxides or
carbonates (such as those of potassium, sodium, barium, &c. ; other
products, however, are formed at the same time). The iodides as a
class resemble the chlorides and bromides, but are less fusible and
volatile. Silver iodide, mercurous iodide, and mercuric iodide are
insoluble in water; lead iodide is sparingly soluble, whilst most of
the other metallic iodides are soluble. Strong heating decomposes the
majority of the iodides. Nitrous acid and chlorine readily decompose
them with liberation of iodine; the same effect being produced
when they are heated with concentrated sulphuric acid and
manganese dioxide. The soluble iodides, on the addition of silver
nitrate to their nitric acid solution, give a yellow precipitate of silver
iodide, which is insoluble in ammonia solution. Hydriodic acid and
the iodides may be estimated by conversion into silver iodide.
Iodine combines with chlorine to form iodine monochloride, IC1,
which may be obtained by passing dry chlorine over dry iodine until
the iodine is completely liquefied, or according to R. Bunsen by
boiling iodine with aqua regia and extracting with ether. It exists in
two different crystalline forms, the more stable or o form melting
at 27-2° C., and the less stable or 0 form melting at 13-9° C. It is
readily decomposed by water. The trichloride, lC\ 3, results from the
action of excess of chlorine on iodine, or from iodic acid and hydro-
chloric acid, or by heating iodine pentoxide with phosphorus penta-
chloride. It crystallizes in long yellow needles and decomposes
readily on heating into the monochloride and chlorine. It is readily
soluble in water, but excess of water decomposes it. (See W.
Stortenbeker, Zeit. phys. Chem., 1889, 3, p. II.) Iodine mono-
chloride in glacial acetic acid solution was used by A. Michael and
T. H. Norton (Ber., 1876, 9, p. 1752) for the preparation of paraiodo-
acetanilide.
Iodine Pentoxide, IzOs, the best-known oxide, is obtained as a white
crystalline solid by heating iodic acid to 170° C. ; it is easily soluble
in water, combining with the water to regenerate iodic acid; anc
when heated to 300° C. it breaks up into its constituent elements
(see M. Guichard, Compt. rend., 1909, 148, p. 925.) Iodine dioxide
I2O4, obtained by Milfon, and reinvestigated by M. M. P. Muir
[Jour. Chem. Soc., 1909, 95, p. 656), is a lemon-yellow solid obtained
}y acting on iodic acid with sulphuric acid, oxygen being evolved.
3y acting with ozone on a chloroform solution of iodine, F. Fichter
and F. Rohner (Ber., 1909, 42, p. 4093) obtained a yellowish white
oxide, of the formula I4O>, which they regard as an iodate of tervalent
odine, Millon's oxide being considered a basic iodate.
Although hypoiodous acid is not known, it is extremely probable
that on adding iodine or iodine monochloride to a dilute solution of a
caustic alkali, hypoiodites are formed, the solution obtained having a
characteristic smell of iodoform, and being of a pale yellow colour.
It oxidizes arsenites, sulphites and thiosulphates immediately.
The solution is readily decomposed on the addition of sodium or
potassium bicarbonates, with liberation of iodine. The hypoiodite
disappears gradually on standing, and rapidly on warming, being
converted into iodate (see R. L. Taylor, Jour. Chem. Soc., 1897, 71,
p. 725, and K. J. P. Orton, ibid. p. 830). The peculiar nature of the
action between iodine and chlorine in aqueous solution has led to the
suggestion that the product is a base, i.e. iodine hydroxide. Tri-
iodine hydroxide, Is-OH, is obtained by oxidizing potassium iodide
with sulphuric acid and potassium permanganate (A. Skrabal and
F. Buchter, Chem. Zeit., 1909, 33, pp. 118^, 1193).
Iodic Acid, HIOs, can be prepared by dissolving iodine pentoxide
in water; by boiling iodine with fuming nitric acid, 6I + 10HNO3 =
GHIOs+lONO+ZHjO; by decomposing barium iodate with the
calculated quantity of sulphuric acid, previously diluted with water,
or by suspending iodine in water and passing in chlorine, I2+5C12 +
6H2O = 2HIO3 + 10HC1. It is a white crystalline solid, easily soluble
in water, the solution showing a strongly acid reaction with litmus;
the colour, however, is ultimately discharged by the bleaching power
of the compound. It is a most powerful oxidizing agent, phosphorus
being readily oxidized to phosphoric acid, arsenic to arsenic acid,
silicon at 250° C. to silica, and hydrochloric acid to chlorine and
water. It is readily reduced, with separation of iodine, by sulphur
dioxide, hydriodic acid or sulphuretted hydrogen, thus: —
HIO3+5HI=3H2O+3I2;2HI03-t-5S02-t-4H20=5H2SO4+I2;
2H1O3+5H2S = I2+5S+6H2O.
The salts, known as the iodates, can be prepared by the action of the
acid on a base, or sometimes by the oxidation of iodine in the presence
of a base. They are mostly insoluble or only very slightly soluble in
water. The iodates of the alkali metals are, however, readily soluble
in water (except potassium iodate). They are more easily reduced
than the corresponding chlorates; an aqueous solution of hydriodic
acid giving free iodine and a metallic oxide, whilst aqueous hydro-
chloric acid gives iodine trichloride, chlorine, water and a chloride.
They'are decomposed on heating, with liberation of oxygen, in some
cases leaving a residue of iodide and in others a residue of oxide of the
metal, with liberation of iodine as well as of oxygen.
Periodic Acid, HIO4-2H2O, is only known in the hydrated form.
It can be prepared by the action of iodine on perchloric acid, or
by boiling normal silver periodate with water: 2AgIO4+4H2O =
Ag2H3IO6-|-HIO4-2H2O. It is a colourless, crystalline, deliquescent
solid ^vhich melts at 135° C., and at 140° C. is completely decom-
posed into iodine pentoxide, water and oxygen. The periodates are
a very complex class of salts, and may be divided into four classes,
namely, meta-periodates derived from the acid HIO4; meso-
periodates from HIO4-H2O, para-periodates from HIO4-2H2O and
the diperiodates from 2HIO4-H2O (see C. Kimmins, Jour. Chem.
Soc., 1887, 51, p. 356).
Iodine has extensive applications in volumetric analysis, being
used more especially for the determination of copper.
The atomic weight of iodine was determined by J. S. Stas, from
the analysis of pure silver iodate, and by C. Marignac from the
determinations of the ratios of silver to iodine, and of silver iodide
to iodine; the mean value obtained for the atomic weight being
126-53. G. P. Baxter (Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc., 1904, 26, p. 1577;
1905, 27, p. 876; 1909, 31, p. 201), using the method of Marignac,
obtained the value 126-985 (O = 16). P. Kothner and E. Aeuer
(Ber., 1904, 37, p. 2536; Ann., 1904, 337, p. 362), who converted
pure ethyl iodide into hydriodic acid and subsequently into silver
iodide, which they then analysed, obtained the value 126-026
(H = i) ; a discussion of this and other values gave as a mean 126-97
(0 = i6).
In medicine iodine is frequently applied externally as a counter-
irritant, having powerful antiseptic properties. In the form of
certain salts iodine is very widely used, for internal administration
in medicine and in the treatment of many conditions usually
classed as surgical, such as the bone manifestations of tertiary
syphilis. The most commonly used salt is the iodide of potassium ;
the iodides of sodium and ammonium are almost as frequently
employed, and those of calcium and strontium are in occasional
use. The usual doses of these salts are from five to thirty grains
or more. Their pharmacological action is as obscure as their
effects in certain diseased conditions are consistently brilliant
and unexampled. Our ignorance of their mode of action is
cloaked by the term deobstruent, which implies that they possess
726
IODOFORM— IONA
the power of driving out impurities from the blood and tissues.
Most notably is this the case with the poisonous products of
syphilis. In its tertiary stages — and also earlier — this disease
yields in the most rapid and unmistakable fashion to iodides;
so much so that the administration of these salts is at present
the best means of determining whether, for instance, a cranial
tumour be syphilitic or not. No surgeon would think of operating,
on such a case until iodides had been freely administered and,
by failing to cure, had proved the disease to be non-syphilitic.
Another instance of this deobstruent power — " alterative,"
it was formerly termed — is seen in the case of chronic lead
poisoning. The essential part of the medicinal treatment of
this' condition is the administration of iodides, which are able
to decompose the insoluble albuminates of lead which have
become locked up in the tissues, rapidly causing their degenera-
tion, and to cause the excretion of the poisonous metal by
means of the intestine and the kidneys. The following is a
list of the principal conditions in which iodides are recognized
to be of definite value: metallic poisonings, as by lead and
mercury, asthma, aneurism, arteriosclerosis, angina pectoris,
gout, goitre, syphilis, haemophilia, Bright's disease (nephritis)
and bronchitis.
Small quantities of the iodate (KIOs) are a frequent impurity in
iodide of potassium, and cause the congeries of symptoms known as
iodism. These comprise dyspepsia, skin eruption and the mani-
festations which are usually identified with a " cold in the head."
In many cases, as in syphilis, aneurism, lead poisoning, &c., the life
of the patient depends on the free and continued use of the iodide,
and this is best to be accomplished by securing an absolutely pure
supply of the salt. Another often successful method of preventing
the onset of symptoms of poisoning is to administer small doses of
ammonium carbonate with the drug, thereby neutralizing theiodic
acid which is liberated in the stomach.
IODOFORM, CHI3, a valuable antiseptic discovered by
G. S. Serullas in 1822; in 1834 J. B. Dumas showed that it
contained hydrogen. It is formed by the action of iodine and
aqueous potash on ethyl alcohol, acetone, acetaldehyde and
from most compounds containing the grouping CHa-CO-C — .
Its formation from alcohol may be represented thus: C2H6OH+
4l2-r-6KHO = CHl3-r-KHC02+5KI+5H2O. It crystallizes in
yellow hexagonal plates, melting at 119-120° C., and is readily
soluble in alcohol and ether, but is insoluble in water. It has a
characteristic odour and is volatile in steam. On reduction with
hydriodic acid, it yields methylene iodide, CHjIj.
More recently, iodoform has been prepared by the electrolysis of
a solution of potassium iodide in the presence of alcohol or acetone,
the electrolytic cell being fitted with a diaphragm, in order to prevent
the hydrogen which is formed at the same time from reducing the
iodoform, or from combining with the iodine to form hydriodic acid.
K. Elbs uses a solution of potassium iodide and sodium carbonate in
water, which with the necessary alcohol is contained in a porous cell
fitted with a lead anode, whilst the cathode compartment contains a
solution of caustic soda and a nickel electrode. The electrolysis is
carried out at a temperature of 70° C., and a current density of one
ampere per square decimetre is used. At the end of three hours a
yield of 70 % of the theoretical quantity is obtained.
IOLA, a city and the county-seat of Allen county, Kansas,
U.S.A., on the Neosho river, about 100 m. S. by W. of Kansas City.
Pop. (1890) 1706; (1900) 5791, of whom 237 were foreign-
born and 207 were negroes; (1905, state census) 10,287. It
is served by the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe, the Missouri
Pacific and the Missouri, Kansas & Texas railways. It is
pleasantly situated in a level valley where there is a great
abundance of natural gas and some fine building stone. The
city has large zinc smelters and zinc rolling-mills, a foundry,
machine shops, and manufactories of cement, sulphuric acid
and brick. The municipality owns and operates its waterworks,
gas plant and electric-lighting plant. lola was founded in
1859 by a company whose members were dissatisfied with the
location of the county-seat at Humboldt. It became the county-
seat in 1865, was chartered as a city of the third class in 1870
and became a city of the second class in 1898. The rapid growth
of the city dates from the discovery of natural gas here, on
Christmas Day 1893.
IOLITE, a mineral occasionally cut as a gem-stone, and
named from the violet colour which it sometimes presents
(lov, "violet"; Xiflos, "stone"). It is generally called by
petrographers cordierite, a name given by R. J. Haiiy in honour
of the French mineralogist, P. L. Cordier, who discovered its
remarkable dichroism, and suggested for it the name dichroite,
still sometimes used. The difference of colour which it shows
in different directions is so marked as to be well seen without the
dichroscope. The typical colours are deep blue, pale blue and
yellowish grey. While the crystal as a whole shows these three
colours, each face is dichroic.
lolite is a hydrous magnesium and aluminium silicate, with
ferrous iron partially replacing magnesium. It crystallizes in
the orthorhombic system. In hardness and specific gravity
it much resembles quartz. The transparent blue or violet
variety used as a gem occurs as pebbles in the gravels of Ceylon,
and bears in many cases a resemblance to sapphire. The paler
kinds are often called water-sapphire (saphir d'eau of French
jewellers) and the darker kinds lynx-sapphire; the shade of
colour varying with the direction in which the stone is cut.
From sapphire the iolite is readily distinguished by its stronger
pleochroism, its lower density (about 2-6) and its inferior
hardness (about 7).
lolite occurs in granite and in true eruptive rocks, but is
most characteristically developed as a product of contact meta-
morphism in gneiss and altered slates. A variety occurring
at the contact of clay-slate and granite on the border of the
provinces of Shimotsuke and Kodzuke in Japan has been called
cerasite. It readily suffers chemical change, and gives rise to
a number of alteration-products, of which pinite is a character-
istic example.
Although iolite, or cordierite, is rather widely distributed as a
constituent of certain rocks, fine crystals of the mineral are of
very limited occurrence. One of the best-known localities is
Bodenmais, in Bavaria, where it occurs with pyrrhotite in a
granite matrix. It is found also in Norway, Sweden and
Finland, in Saxony and in Switzerland. Large crystals are
developed in veins of granite running through gneiss at Haddam,
Connecticut; and it is known at many other localities in the
United States. (F. W. R.*)
ION, of Chios, Greek poet, lived in the age of Pericles. At an
early age he went to Athens, where he made the acquaintance
of Aeschylus. He was a great admirer of Cimon and an opponent
of Pericles. He subsequently met Sophocles in his native island
at the time of the Samian war. From Aristophanes (Peace,
830 ff.) it is concluded that he died before the production of
that play (421). His first tragedy was produced between 452-449
B.C.; and he was third to Euripides and lophon in the tragic
contest of 429. In a subsequent year he gained both the tragic
and dithyrambic prizes, and in honour of his victory gave a jar
of Chian wine to every Athenian citizen (Athenaeus p. 3). He
is further credited by the scholiast on Aristophanes (loc. cit.)
with having composed comedies, dithyrambs, epigrams, paeans,
hymns, scolia, encomia and elegies; and he is the reputed
author of a philosophical treatise on the mystic number three.
His historical or biographical works were five in number, and
included an account of the antiquities of Chios and of iiridrnj.i<u,
recollections of visitors to the island.
See C. Nieberding, De Ion-is Chii vita (1836, containing the frag-
ments); F. Allcgre, De lone Chio (1890), an exhaustive monograph;
and Bentley, Epistola ad Millium.
IONA, or ICOLMKILL, an island of the Inner Hebrides, Argyll-
shire, Scotland, 6j m. S. of Staffa and ij m. W. of the Ross of
Mull, from which it is separated by the shallow Sound of lona.
Pop. (1901) 213. It is about 3^ m. long and ij m. broad; its
area being some 2200 acres, of which about one-third is under
cultivation, oats, potatoes and barley being grown. In the rest
of the island grassy hollows, yielding pasturage for a few hundred
cattle and sheep and some horses, alternate with rocky elevations,
which culminate on the northern coast in Duni (332 ft.), from
the base of which a dazzling stretch of white shell sand, partly
covered with grass, stretches to the sea. To the south-west the
island is fringed with precipitous cliffs. lona is composed
entirely of ancient gneisses and schists of Lewisian age; these
IONIA
727
include bands of quartzite, slate, marble and serpentine. The
strike of the rocks is S.W.-N.E. and they are tilted to very high
angles. Fronting the Sound is the village of lona, or Buile Mor,
which has two churches and a school. The inhabitants depend
partly on agriculture and partly on fishing.
The original form of the name lona was Hy, Hii or I, the
Irish for Island. By Adamnan in his Life of St Columba it
is called loua insula, and the present name lona is said to have
originated in some transcriber mistaking the « in loua for n. It
also received the name of Hii-colum-kill (Icolmkill), that is,
" the island of Columba of the Cell," while by the Highlanders
it has been known as Innis nan Druidhneah (" the island of the
Druids "). This last name seems to imply that lona was a sacred
spot before St Columba landed there in 563 and laid the founda-
tions of his monastery. After this date it quickly developed
into the most famous centre of Celtic Christianity, the mother
community of numerous monastic houses, whence missionaries
were despatched for the conversion of Scotland and northern
England, and to which for centuries students flocked from all
parts of the north. After St Columba's death the soil of the
island was esteemed peculiarly sanctified by the presence of his
relics, which rested here until they were removed to Ireland
early in the gth century. Pilgrims came from far and near to
die in the island, in order that they might lie in its holy ground;
and from all parts of northern Europe the bodies of the illustrious
dead were brought here for burial. The fame and wealth of the
monastery, however, sometimes attracted less welcome visitors.
Several times it was 'iplundered and burnt and the monks
massacred by the heathen Norse sea-rovers. Late in the nth
century the desecrated monastery was restored by the saintly
Queen Margaret, wife of Malcolm Canmore, king of Scotland;
and in 1203 a new monastery and a nunnery were founded by
Benedictine monks who either expelled or absorbed the Celtic
community. In 838 the Western Isles, then under the rule of
the kings of Man, were erected into a bishopric of which lona
was the seat. When in 1098 Magnus III., " Barefoot," king of
Norway, ousted the jarls of Orkney from the isles, he united
the see of the Isles (Sudreyar, " the southern islands," Lat.
Sodorenses insulae) with that of Man, and placed both under the
jurisdiction of the archbishopric of Trondhjem. About 1507
the island again became the seat of the bishopric of the Isles;
but with the victory of the Protestant party in Scotland its
ancient religious glory was finally eclipsed, and in 1561 the
monastic buildings were dismantled by order of the Convention
of Estates. (For the political fortunes of lona see HEBRIDES.)
The existing ancient remains include part of the cathedral
church of St Mary, of the nunnery of St Mary, St Oran's chapel,
and a number of tombs and crosses. The cathedral dates from
the i3th century; a great portion of the walls with the tower,
about 75 ft. high, are still standing. The choir and nave have
been roofed, and the cathedral has in other respects been re-
stored, the ruins having been conveyed in 1899 to a body of
trustees by the eighth duke of Argyll. The remains of the
conventual buildings still extant, to judge by the portion of a
Norman arcade, are of earlier date than the cathedral. The
small chapel of St Oran, or Odhrain, was built by Queen Margaret
on the supposed site of Columba's cell, and its ruins are the
oldest in lona. Its round-arched western doorway has the
characteristic Norman beak-head ornamentation. Of the nunnery
only the chancel and nave of the Norman chapel remain, the
last prioress, Anna (d. 1543), being buried within its walls. The
cemetery, called in Gaelic Reilig Oiran (" the burial-place of
kings "), is said to contain the remains of forty-eight Scottish,
four Irish and eight Danish and Norwegian monarchs, and
possesses a large number of monumental stones. At the time of
the Reformation it is said to have had 360 crosses, of which
most were thrown into the sea by order of the synod of Argyll.
Many, however, still remain, the finest being Maclean's cross
and St Martin's. Both are still almost perfect, and are richly
carved with Runic inscriptions, emblematic devices and fanciful
scroll work. Of Columba's monastery, which was built of wood
about j m. from the present ruins, nothing remains.
IONIA, in ancient geography, the name given to a portion of
the W. coast of Asia Minor, adjoining the Aegean Sea and
bounded on the E. by Lydia. It consisted of a narrow strip
of land near the coast, which together with the adjacent islands
was occupied by immigrant Greeks of the Ionic race, and thus
distinguished from the interior district, inhabited by the Lydians.
According to the universal Greek tradition, the cities of Ionia
were founded by emigrants from the other side of the Aegean
(see IONIANS), and their settlement was connected with the
legendary history of the Ionic race in Attica, by the statement
that the colonists were led by Neleus and Androclus, sons of
Codrus, the last king of Athens. In accordance with this view
the " Ionic migration," as it was called by later chronologers,
was dated by them one hundred and forty years after the Trojan
war, or sixty years after the return of the Heraclidae into the
Peloponnese. Without assigning any definite date, we may say
that recent, research has tended to support the popular Greek
idea that Ionia received its main Greek element rather late —
after the descent of the Dorians, and, therefore, after any part of
the Aegean period. The only Aegean objects yet found (1910)
in or near Ionia are some sherds of the very latest Minoan age at
Miletus. It is not probable that all the Greek colonists were
of the not numerous Ionian race. Herodotus tells us (i. 146)
that they comprised settlers from many different tribes and
cities of Greece (a fact indicated also by the local traditions of
the cities), and that they intermarried with the native races.
A striking proof of this was the fact that so late as the time of
the historian distinct dialects were spoken by the inhabitants
of different cities within the limits of so restricted an area.
E. Curtius supposed that the population of this part of Asia
was aboriginally of Ionic race and that the settlers from Greece
found the country in the possession of a kindred people. The
last contention is probably true; but the kinship was certainly
more distant than that between two branches of one Ionian
stock.
The cities called Ionian in historical times were twelve in
number, — an arrangement copied as it was supposed from the
constitution of the Ionian cities in Greece which had originally
occupied the territory in the north of the Peloponnese subse-
quently held by the Achaeans. These were (from south to north)
— Miletus, Myus, Priene, Ephesus, Colophon, Lebedus, Teos,
Erythrae, Clazomenae and Phocaea, together with Samos and
Chios. Smyrna (q.v.), originally an Aeolic colony, was afterwards
occupied by lonians from Colophon, and became an Ionian city, —
an event which had taken place before the time of Herodotus.
But at what period it was admitted as a member of the league we
have no information. The cities above enumerated unquestion-
ably formed a kind of league, of which participation in the
Pan-Ionic festival was the distinguishing characteristic. This
festival took place on the north slope of Mt. Mycale in a shrine
called the Panionium. But like the Amphictyonic league in
Greece, the Ionic was rather of a sacred than a political character;
every city enjoyed absolute autonomy, and, though common
interests often united them for a common political object,
they never formed a real confederacy like that of the Achaeans
or Boeotians. The advice of Thales of Miletus to combine in
a political union was rejected.
Ionia was of small extent, not exceeding 90 geographical
miles in length from N. to S., with a breadth varying from
20 to 30 m., but to this must be added the peninsula of Mimas,
together with the two large islands. So intricate is the coast-
line that the voyage along its shores was estimated at nearly
four times the direct distance. A great part of this area was,
moreover, occupied by mountains. Of these the most lofty and
striking were Mimas and Corycus, in the peninsula which stands
out to the west, facing the island of Chios; Sipylus, to the
north of Smyrna; Corax, extending to the south-west from
the Gulf of Smyrna, and descending to the sea between Lebedus
and Teos; and the strongly marked range of Mycale, a con-
tinuation of Messogis in the interior, which forms the bold head-
land of Trogilium or Mycale, opposite Samos. None of these
mountains attains a height of more than 4000 ft. The district
728
IONIA— IONIAN ISLANDS
comprised three extremely fertile valleys formed by the outflow
of three rivers, among the most considerable in Asia Minor:
the Hermus in the north, flowing into the Gulf of Smyrna, though
at some distance from the city of that name; the Cayster,
which flowed under the walls of Ephesus; and the Maeander,
which in ancient times discharged its waters into the deep gulf
that once bathed the walls of Miletus, but which has been
gradually filled up by this river's deposits. With the advantage
of a peculiarly fine climate, for which this part of Asia Minor
has been famous in all ages, Ionia enjoyed the reputation in
ancient times of being the most fertile of all the rich provinces
of Asia Minor; and even in modern times, though very imper-
fectly cultivated, it produces abundance of fruit of all kinds,
and the raisins and figs of Smyrna supply almost all the markets
of Europe.
The colonies naturally became prosperous. Miletus especially
was at an early period one of the most important commercial
cities of Greece; and in its turn became the parent of numerous
other colonies, which extended all around the shores of the
Euxine and the Propontis from Abydus and Cyzicus to Trapezus
and Panticapaeum. Phocaea was one of the first Greek cities
whose mariners explored the shores of the western Mediterranean.
Ephesus, though it did not send out any colonies of importance,
from an early period became a flourishing city and attained to
a position corresponding in some measure to that of Smyrna
at the present day.
History. — The first event in the history of Ionia of which we have
any trustworthy account is the inroad of theCimmerii (see SCYTHIA),
who ravaged a great part of Asia Minor, including Lydia, and sacked
Magnesia on the Maeander, but were foiled in their attack upon
Ephesus. This event may be referred to the middle of the 7th
century B.C. About 700 B.C. Gyges, first Mermnad king of Lydia,
invaded the territories of Smyrna and Miletus, and is said to have
taken Colophon as his son Ardys did Priene. But it was not till the
reign of Croesus (560-545 B.C.) that the cities of Ionia successively
fell under Lydian rule. The defeat of Croesus by Cyrus was followed
by the conquest of all the Ionian cities. These became subject to the
Persian monarchy with the other Greek cities of Asia. In this
position they enjoyed a considerable amount of autonomy, but were
for the most part subject to local despots, most of whom were
creatures of the Persian king. It was at the instigation of one of
these despots, Histiaeus (q.v.) of Miletus, that in about 500 B.C. the
principal cities broke out into insurrection against Persia. They
were at first assisted by the Athenians, with whose aid they pene-
trated into the interior and burnt Sardis, an event which ultimately
led to the Persian invasion of Greece. But the fleet of the lonians was
defeated off the island of Lade, and the destruction of Miletus after
a protracted siege was followed by the reconquest of all the Asiatic
Greeks, insular as well as continental.
The victories of the Greeks during the great Persian war had the
effect of enfranchizing their kinsmen on the other side of the Aegean ;
and the battle of Mycale (479 B.C.), in which the defeat of the Persians
was in great measure owing to the lonians, secured their emancipa-
tion. They henceforth became the dependent allies of Athens (see
DELIAN LEAGUE), though still retaining their autonomy, which they
preserved until the peace of Antalcidas in 387 B.C. once more placed
them as well as the other Greek cities in Asia under the nominal
dominion of Persia. They appear, however, to have retained a
considerable amount of freedom until the invasion of Asia Minor by
Alepnder the Great. After the battle of the Granicus most of the
Ionian cities submitted to the conqueror. Miletus, which alone
held out, was reduced after a long siege (334 B.C.). From this time
they passed under the dominion of the successive Macedonian rulers
of Asia, but continued, with the exception of Miletus (q.v.), to enjoy
great prosperity both under these Greek dynasties and after they
became part of the Roman province of Asia.
Ionia has laid the world under its debt not only by giving
birth to a long roll of distinguished men of letters and science
(see IONIAN SCHOOL OF PHILOSOPHY), but by originating the
distinct school of art which prepared the way for the brilliant
artistic development of Athens in the sth century. This school
flourished in the Sth, 7th and 6th centuries, and is distinguished
by the fineness of workmanship and minuteness of detail with
which it treated subjects, inspired always to some extent by
non-Greek models. Naturalism is progressively obvious in its
treatment, e.g. of the human figure, but to the end it is still
subservient to convention. It has been thought that the Ionian
migration from Greece carried with it some part of a population
which retained the artistic traditions of the " Mycenaean "
civilization, and so caused the birth of the Ionic school; but
whether this was so or not, it is certain that from the Sth century
onwards we find the true spirit of Hellenic art, stimulated by
commercial intercourse with eastern civilizations, working
out its development chiefly in Ionia and its neighbouring isles.
The great names of this school are Theodorus and Rhoecus
of Samos; Bathycles of Magnesia on the Maeander; Glaucus,
Melas, Micciades, Archermus, Bupalus and Athenis of Chios.
Notable works of the school still extant are the famous archaic
female statues found on the Athenian Acropolis in 1885-1887,
the seated statues of Branchidae, the Nike of Archermus found
at Delos, and the objects in ivory and electrum found by D. G.
Hogarth in the lower strata of the Artemision at Ephesus in
1904-1905 (see GREEK ART).
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Beside general authorities under ASIA MINOR
see especially F. Beaufort, Ionian Antiquities (1811); R. Chandler,
&c., Ionian Antiquities (1769 ff.); Histories of Greek Sculpture by
A. S. Murray, M. Collignon and E. A. Gardner, and special works cited
under particular cities; E. Curtius, Die lonier vor der ionischen
Wanderung (1855); D. G. Hogarth, Ionia and the East (1909), with
map. (E. H. B.; D. G. H.)
IONIA, a city and the county-seat of Ionia county, Michigan,
U.S.A., on the Grand river, about 34 m. E. of Grand Rapids.
Pop. (1904, state census) 5222. It is served by the Grand Trunk
and the Pere Marquette railways. The greater part of the city
is built on the bottom-lands of the valley within an area 2 m. in
length and i m. in width, but some of the finest residences stand
on the hills, which form an irregular semicircle behind the city,
and command extensive views of the valley. Much of the build-
ing material is a brown sandstone obtained from quarries only
3 m. distant; white clay, also, is found in the vicinity. The
city is a trade centre for a rich farming district, has car-shops
(of the Pere Marquette railway) and iron foundries, and manu-
factures wagons, pottery, furniture and clothing. The water-
works are owned and operated by the municipality. Ionia
was settled in 1833 by immigrants from German Flats, near
Herkimer, New York. It was incorporated as a village in 1857,
but the charter was allowed to lapse; it was again incorporated
as a village in 1865, and was chartered as a city in 1873.
IONIAN ISLANDS, the collective name for the Greek islands
of Corfu, Cephalonia, Zante, Santa Maura, Ithaca, Cythera
(Cerigo) and Paxo, with their minor dependencies. These seven
islands (for details of which see their separate headings) are
often described also as the Hcptanesus (" Seven Islands "), but
they have no real geographical unity. The history of the name
" Ionian " in this connexion is obscure, but it is probably due
to ancient settlements of Ionian colonists on the coasts and
islands. The political unity of the seven islands is of compara-
tively modern date; their independence as a separate state
lasted only seven years (1800-1807). To a certain extent
they have passed under the same succession of influences;
they have been subjected to the same invasions, and have re-
ceived accessions to their populations from the same currents
of migration or conquest. But even what may be considered
as common experiences have affected the individual islands in
different ways; in the matter of population, for instance,
Corfu has undergone much more important modifications than
Ithaca.
The Ionian islands consist almost entirely of Cretaceous and
Tertiary beds, but in Corfu Jurassic deposits belonging to various
horizons have also been found. The oldest beds which have yet been
recognized are shales and hornstones with Liassic fossils. These are
overlaid conformably by a thick series of platy limestones, known
as the Viglas limestone, which appears to represent the rest of the
Jurassic system and also the lower part of the Cretaceous. Then
follows a mass of dolomite and unbedded limestones containing
Ilippurites and evidently of Upper Cretaceous age. The Eocene beds
are folded with the Cretaceous, and in many places the two formations
have not yet been separately distinguished. Both occasionally
assume the form of Flysch. Miocene beds are found in Corfu and
Zante, and Pliocene deposits cover much of the low-lying grpund.
History. — The beginning of Heptanesian history may be said
to date from the 9th century. Leo the Philosopher (about A.D.
890) formed all or most of the islands into a distinct province
under the title of the Thema of Cephallenia, and in this condition
IONIAN ISLANDS
729
they belonged to the Eastern empire after Italy had been divided
into various states, but this political or administrative unity could
not last long in the case of islands exposed by their situation
to opposite currents of conquest. Robert Guiscard, having
captured Corfu (1081) and Cephalonia, might have become the
founder of a Norman dynasty in the islands but for his early
death at Cassopo. Amid the struggles between Greek emperors
and Western crusaders during the I2th century, Corfu, Cepha-
lonia, Zante, &c., emerge from time to time; but it was not till
the Latin empire was established at Constantinople in 1204
that the Venetians, who were destined to give the Ionian Islands
their place in history, obtained possession of Corfu. They were
afterwards robbed of the island by Leon Vetrano, a famous
Genoese corsair; but he was soon defeated and put to death,
and the senate, to secure their position, granted fiefs in Corfu to
ten noble families in order that they might colonize it (1206).
The conquest of Cephalonia and Zante followed, and we find five
counts of the family of Tocco holding Cephalonia, and probably
Zante as well as Santa Maura, as tributary to the republic. But
the footing thus gained by the Venetians was not maintained,
and through the closing part of the i3th and most of the I4th
century the islands were a prey by turns to corsairs and to Greek
and Neapolitan claimants. In 1386, however, the people of
Corfu made voluntary submission to the Venetian republic
which had now risen to be the first maritime • power in the
Mediterranean. In 1485 Zante was purchased from the Turks
in a very depopulated condition; and in 1499 Cephalonia
was captured from the same masters; but Santa Maura, though
frequently occupied for a time, was not finally attached to
Venice till 1684, and Cerigo was not taken till 1717.
The Venetians, who exacted heavy contributions from the
islands, won the adherence of the principal native families
Venetian by the bestowal of titles and appointments; the
and Roman Catholic Church was established, and the
French Italian and Greek races were largely assimilated by
rule' intermarriage; Greek ceased to be spoken except by
the lower classes, which remained faithful to the Orthodox
communion. On the fall of the Venetian republic in 1797
the treaty of Campo Formio, which gave Venice to Austria,
annexed the Ionian Islands to France; but a Russo-Turkish
force drove out the French at the close of 1798; and in the spring
of 1799 Corfu capitulated. By treaty with the Porte in 1800, the
emperor Paul erected the " Septinsular Republic," but anarchy
and confusion followed till a secret article in the treaty of Tilsit,
in 1807, declared the Islands an integral part of the French
empire. They were incorporated with the province of Illyria,
and in this condition they remained till the decline of the French
power. The British forces, under General Oswald, took Zante,
Cephalonia and Cerigo in 1809, and Santa Maura in 1810;
Colonel (afterwards Sir Richard) Church (q.v.), reduced Paxo
in 1814; and after the abdication of Napoleon, Corfu, which
had been well defended by General Donzelot, was, by order
of Louis XVIII., surrendered to Sir James Campbell. By the
treaty of Paris (gth November 1815) the contracting powers —
Great Britain, Russia, Austria and Prussia — agreed to place the
" United States of the Ionian Islands " under the exclusive
protection of Great Britain, and to give Austria the right of
equal commercial advantage with the protecting country, a
plan strongly approved by Count Capo d'Istria, the famous
Corfiot noble who afterwards became president of the new
republic of Greece.
The terms of the treaty of Paris were not only of indefinite
import but were susceptible of contradictory interpretations.
And instead of interpreting the other articles in harmony
™ih the first> which declared the islands one " sole
free and independent state," the protecting Power
availed itself of every ambiguity to extend its authority.
The first lord high commissioner, Sir Thomas Maitland, who as
governor of Malta had acquired the sobriquet of " King Tom,"
was not the man to foster the constitutional liberty of an infant
state. The treaty required, with questionable wisdom, that a
constitution should be established, and this was accordingly
torate.
done; but its practical value was trifling. The constitution,
voted by a constituent assembly in 1817 and applied in the
following year, placed the administration in the hands of a
senate of six members and a legislative assembly of forty
members; but the real authority was vested in the high com-
missioner, who was able directly to prevent anything, and
indirectly to effect almost anything. Sir Thomas Maitland was
not slow to exercise the control thus permitted him, though on
the whole he did so for the benefit of the islands. The construc-
tion of roads, the abolition of direct taxes and of the system of
farming the church lands, the securing of impartial administra-
tion of justice, and the establishment of educational institutions
are among the services ascribed to his efforts. These, however,
made less impression on the Heptanesians than his despotic
character and the measures which he took to prevent them
giving assistance in the Greek war of independence in 1821.
He was succeeded in 1823 by General Sir Frederick Adam, who
in the main carried out the same policy. Under his government
the new fortifications of Corfu and some of the most important
public works which still do honour to the English protectorate
were undertaken. Lord Nugent, who became high commissioner
in 1832, was followed by Sir Howard Douglas (1835-1841),
who ruled with a firm, too often with a high hand; and he was
met by continual intrigues, the principal exponent of the opposi-
tion being the famous Andreas Mustoxidi (d. 1861). A complete
change of policy was inaugurated by Mr Mackenzie (1841-1843),
and his successor Lord Seaton (1843-1849) was induced by the
European disturbances of 1848 to initiate a number of important
reforms. But the party which wished for union with Greece
was rapidly growing in vigour and voice. Serious insurrections
of the peasantry, especially in Cephalonia, had to be put down
by military force, and the parliament passed a resolution in
favour of immediate union with Greece. The hopes of the
unionists were roused by the appointment of W. E. Gladstone
as high commissioner extraordinary to investigate the condition
of the islands. From his known sympathy with Greek inde-
pendence, it was their expectation that he would support their
pretensions. But after a tour through the principal islands
Gladstone came to the conclusion that the abolition of the
protectorate was not the wish of the mass of the people. For
a few days in 1859 he held office as lord high commissioner,
and in that capacity he proposed for the consideration of the
assembly a series of reforms. These reforms were, however,
declared inadmissible by the assembly; and Sir Henry Storks,
who succeeded Gladstone in February 1859, began his rule by
a prorogation. The contest continued between the assembly
and the protectorate. The British government was slow to
realize the true position of affairs: as late as May 1861 Gladstone
spoke of the cession of the islands as " a crime against the safety
of Europe," and Sir Henry Storks continued to report of tran-
quillity and contentment. The assembly of 1862 accused the
high commissioner of violation of the constitution and of the
treaty of Paris, and complained that England remained in
ignorance of what took place in the islands.
On the abdication of King Otho of Greece in 1862 the Greek
people by universal suffrage voted Prince Alfred of England
to the throne, and when he declined to accept the
crown England was asked to name a successor. The Oreecef
candidate proposed was Prince William George of
Gliicksburg, brother of the princess of Wales; and the British
government declared to the provisional government of Greece
that his selection would be followed by the long-refused cession
of the Ionian Islands. After the prince's election by the national
assembly in 1863 the high commissioner laid before the Ionian
parliament the conditions on which the cession would be carried
out. The rejection of one of those conditions — the demolition of
the fortifications of Corfu — led to a new prorogation; but none
the less (on March 29, 1864) the plenipotentiaries of the five
great powers signed the treaty by which the protectorate was
brought to a close. The neutrality which they attributed to the
whole of the islands was (January 1864) confined to Corfu and
Paxo. On May 3 ist of that year Sir Henry Storks left Corfu with
730
IONIANS
the English troops and men-of-war. King George made his entry
into Corfu on the 6th of June.
Since their annexation to Greece the history of the Ionian
islands has been uneventful; owing to various causes their
prosperity has somewhat declined. Corfu (Corcyra) with Paxo;
Cephalonia; Santa Maura (Levkas) with Thiaki (Ithaca) and
Zante (Zacynthos) each form separate nomarchies or depart-
ments; Cerigo (Cythera) forms part of the nomarchy of Laconia.
The islands retain the exemption from direct taxation which
they enjoyed under the British protectorate; in lieu of this
there is an ad valorem tax of 205 % on exported oil and a tax of
6% on wine exported to Greek ports; these commodities are
further liable to an export duty of 15% which is levied on all
agricultural produce and articles of local manufacture for the main-
tenance and construction of roads. The excellent roads, which
date from the British administration, are kept in fair repair.
See Mustoxidi, Dette cose Corciresi (Corfu, 1848); Lunzi, riepi rijs
ToXiTurijs KaTcurTcurtus TTJS 'EirTawjtroD irl 'KvtrSiv (Athens, 1856);
Ansted, The I. I. (London. 1863); Viscount Kirkwall, Four Years in
the I. I. (London, 1864). vol. i. containing a chronological history of
the British protectorate ; F. Lenormant, La Grece et les ties ioniennes
(Paris, 1865) ; P. Chiotis, Hist, des ties ioniennes (Zante, 1815-1864) ;
Mardo, Saggio di una descrizione geografico-storica delle I sole (Corfu,
1865) (mainly geographical); De Bosset, Description des monnaies
d'lthaque et de Cephalonie (London, 1815); Postolakas, KaraXo-yos
rCjv aoxaluiv po/iur/zdraH' TWV vyawv Kepgupas, Aewcdfto?, &c. (Athens,
1868); Wiebel, Die Insel Kephalonia und die Meermiihlen von
Argostoli (Hamburg, 1873); Tsitselis, T\uaaaplov Ke^aXX^vias,
(Athens, 1876); 'Ov6^ara Btawv iv K«t>a\\ij>>ia in the " Parnassus "
i. 9-12 (Athens, 1877); Riemann, " Recherches archeologiques sur
les lies ioniennes " in Bibliotheque des Ecoles franfaises d'Athenes et
de Rome (Paris, 1879-1880); Gregorovius, Corfu; eine ionische
Idytte (Leipzig, 1882); J. Partsch, Die Insel Corfu: eine geographische
Monographic (Gotha, 1887); Die Insel Levkas (Gotha, 1889);
Kephallenia und Ithaka (Gotha, 1890); Die Insel Zante (Gotha,
1890. a- D- B.)
IONIANS, the name given by the Greeks to one of the principal
divisions of the Hellenic peoples. In historic times it was
applied to the inhabitants of (i) Attica, where some believed
the lonians to have originated; (2) parts of Euboea; (3) the
Cycladic islands, except Melos and Thera; (4) a section of the
west coast of Asia Minor, from the gulf of Smyrna to that of
lasus (see IONIA); (5) colonies from any of the foregoing,
notably in Thrace, Propontis and Pontus in the west, and in
Egypt (Naucratis, Daphnae); some authorities have found
traces of an ancient Ionian population in (6) north-eastern
Peloponnese. The meaning and derivation of the name are
not known. It occurs in two forms, 'l&Fovts and] "Iavts (compare
Xdovej and X&ves in Epirus) — not counting the name 'I6vios
applied to the open sea west of Greece. In the traditional
genealogy of the Hellenes, Ion, the ancestor of the lonians, is
brother of Achaeus and son of Xuthus (who held Peloponnese
after the dispersal of the children of Hellen). But this genealogy,
though it is attributed to Hesiod, is apparently post-Homeric;
and it is clear that the Ionian name had independent and varied
uses and meanings in very early times. In Homer the word
'IdFofes occurs as a name of inhabitants of Attica, with the
epithet «X«xircom (//. xiii. 685 = " trail-vest "), describing some
point of costume, and kter regarded as imputing effeminacy.
The Homeric Hymn to Apollo of Delos (7th century) describes
an Ionian population in the Cyclades with a loose religious
league about the Delian sanctuary.
The same word 'laFuv (Javan) appears in Hebrew literature
of the 8th and 7th centuries, to denote one group of the
" Japhetic " peoples of Asia Minor, Cyprus and perhaps Rhodes:
" by these were the isles of the nations divided, in their
lands, every one after his tongue, after their families, in their
nations," a comprehensive expression for the island-strewn
regions farther west (Gen. x. 10). In Ezek. xxvii. 13, 19, Javan
trades with Tyre in slaves, bronze-work, iron and drugs. Later
allusions show that on Semitic lips Javan meant western traders
in general. In Persian Yauna was the generic term for Greeks.1
1 Yunan is still a popular synonym for Oroum, a Greek, among the
Arabs; in India Yaiiana was long the generic name for all foreigners
from the north and west, a use dating probably from Alexander's day
and the Graeco-Bactrian monarchs.
The earliest explicit Greek account of the lonians is given in the
5th century by Herodotus (i. 45, 56, 143-145, v. 66, vii. 94,
viii. 44-46). The " children of Ion " originated in north-eastern
Peloponnese; and traces of them remained in Troezen and
Cynuria. Expelled by the Achaeans (who seem to have entered
Peloponnese about four generations before the Dorian Invasion)
they invaded and dominated Attica; and about the time of the
Dorian Invasion took the lead under the Attic branch of the
Neleids of Pylus (Hdt. i. 147, v. 65) in the colonization of the
Cyclades and of Asiatic Ionia, which in Homer is still " Carian."
Many of the colonists, however, were not lonians, but refugees
from other parts of Greece, between Euboea and Argolis (Hdt.
i. 146); others looked on Attica as their first home, though the
true lonians were intruders there. The Pan-Ionian sanctuary
of Poseidon on the Asiatic promontory of Mycale was regarded as
perpetuating a cult from Peloponnesian Achaea, and the league
of twelve cities which maintained it, as imitated from an Achaean
dodecapolis, and as claiming (absurdly, according to Herodotus
i. 143) purer descent than other lonians.
In Herodotus's account of the first Greek intercourse with
Egypt (about 664 B.C.) he describes " Ionian and Carian "
adventurers and mercenaries in the Delta. Later the commoner
antithesis is between Ionian and Dorian, first (probably) in the
colonial regions of Asia Minor, and later more universally.
In the 5th century the name " Ionian " was already falling
into discredit. Causes of this were (i) the peace-loving luxury
(born of commercial wealth and contact with Oriental life) of
the great Ionian cities of Asia; (2) the tameness with which
they submitted first to Lydia and to Persia, then to Athenian
pretensions, then to Sparta, and finally to Persia again; (3)
the decadence and downfall of Athens, which still counted as
Ionian and had claimed (since Solon's time) seniority among
" Ionian " states. In the later 4th century the name survives
only (a) as a geographical expression for part of the coast of
Asia Minor, (b) in European Greece as the name of that section
of the Northern Amphictyony in which Athens and its colonies
were reckoned.
The traditional history of Asiatic Ionia is generally accepted,
and in its broad outlines is probably well founded. Common to
all groups of lonians in the Aegean is a dialect of Greek which
has 77 for a (in Attic only partially) and (in Asiatic Ionian especi-
ally) K for IT in certain words. Herodotus states that there were
four distinct dialects in Asiatic Ionia itself (i. 142) and the
dialect of Attica differed widely from all other forms of Ionic.
Earlier phases of Ionic forrns are dominant in the language of
Homer. Most Ionian states exhibit also traces of the fourfold
tribal divisions named after the " children of Ion "; but addi-
tional tribes occur locally. (Hdt. v. 66, 69.) All reputed colonies
from Attica (except Ephesus and Colophon) kept also the feast of
Apaturia; and many worshipped Apollo Patrous as the reputed
father of Ion. The few observations hitherto made on the sites
of Ionian cities indicate continuity of settlement and culture as
far back as the latest phases of the Mycenaean (Late Minoan III.)
Age and not farther, supporting thus far the traditional founda-
tion dates.
The theory of E. Curtius (1856-1890) that the lonians origin-
ated in Asia Minor and spread thence through the Cyclades to
Euboea and Attica deserts ancient tradition on linguistic and
ethnological grounds of doubtful value. Ad. Holm supports it
(Gesch. Gr., Berlin, 1886, i. 86), but A. von Gutschmid (Beitr. z.
Gesch. d. alien Orients, Leipzig, 1856, 124 ff.) and E. Meyer
(Philologus NF. 2, 1889, p. 268 ff.; NF. 3, 1890, p. 479 ff.) follow
Herodotus with qualifications. J. B. Bury (Eng. Hist. Rev. xv.
228), though he regards the Ionian peoples as of European origin,
thinks that they may have got their name from some part of the
Asiatic coast. Ionian culture and art, though little known in
their earlier phases, derive their inspiration on the one side
from those of the old Aegean (Minoan) civilization, on the other
from the Oriental (mainly Assyrian) models which penetrated
to the coast through the Hittite civilization of Asia Minor.
Egyptian influence is almost absent until the time of Psammeti-
chus, but then becomes predominant for a while. Local and
IONIAN SCHOOL OF PHILOSOPHY
regional peculiarities, however, disappear almost wholly in the
5th and 4th centuries, under the overpowering influence of
Athens.
AUTHORITIES. — Besides the sections on lonians in the general
histories of Greece and the references given in G. Busolt, Griechische
Geschichte, i. (2nd ed., Gotha, 1893), pp. 262, 277 ff., see E. Curtius,
Die lonier vor der ionischen Wanderung (Berlin, 1855), and papers in
Gott. Gel. Anz. (1856), p. 1152 f. and (1859), p. 2021 f. ; Jahrb.j. kl.
Philol. 83 (1860), p. 449 f . ; Hermes 25 (1890), p. 141 f. ; A. von
Gutschraid, Beitrage z. Gesch. d. alien Orients (Leipzig, 1856), p. 124
ff.; E. Meyer, Philologus 47 (NF. 2, 1889), p. 268 ff. and 49 (NF. 3,
1890), p. 479 ff. ; V. Boehlau, Aus ionischen und aolischen Necro-
polen (Cassel, 1897); H. W. Smyth, The Ionic Dialect (1889). P.
Cauer, " De dialecto attica vetustiore quaestiones epigraphicae," in
G. Curtius, Studien z. gr. u. lat. Gramm. 8 (1875), p. 223, 399;
Karsten, De titulorum lonicorum dialecto (Halle, 1882); F. Bechtel,
Die Inschriften des ion. Dialekts (Gottingen, 1877). For the political
history of the Ionian Greeks see GREECE: History, and IONIA; for
the special history and characteristics of individual Ionian cities, the
respective names. (J- L. M.)
IONIAN SCHOOL OF PHILOSOPHY. Under this name are
included a number of philosophers of the 6th and 5th centuries
B.C. Mainly lonians by birth, they are united by a local tie
and represent all that was best in the early Ionian intellect.
It is a most interesting fact in the history of Greek thought that
its birth took place not in Greece but in the colonies on the
Eastern shores of the Aegean Sea. But not only geographically
do these philosophers form a school; they are one in method and
aim. They all sought to explain the material universe as given
in sensible perception; their explanation was in terms of matter,
movement, force. In this they differed from the Eleatics and the
Pythagoreans who thought in the abstract, and explained
knowledge and existence in metaphysical terminology. In
tracing the development of their ideas, two periods may be dis-
tinguished. The earliest thinkers down to Heraclitus en-
deavoured to find a material substance of which all things con-
sist; Heraclitus, by his principle of universal flux, took a new
line and explained everything in terms of force, movement,
dynamic energy. The former asked the question, " What is the
substratum of the things we see?"; the latter, " How did the
sensible world become what it is; of what nature was the
motive force?"
The first name in the list of the Ionian philosophers — and, indeed,
in the history of European thought — is that of Thales (q.v.). He
first, so far as we know, sought to go behind the infinite multiplicity
of phenomena in the hope of finding an infinite unity from which all
difference has been evolved. This unity he decided is Water (TCO.VTO.
vdup ijTiv). It is impossible to discover precisely what he conceived
to be the relation of this unity to the plurality of phenomena. Later
writers from whom we derive our knowledge of Thales attributed to
him ideas which seem to have been conceived by subsequent thinkers.
Thus the suggestion preserved by Stobaeus that he conceived water
to be endowed with mind is discredited by the specific statement of
Aristotle that the earlier physicists (physiologi) did not distinguish
the material from the moving cause, and that before Anaxagoras no
one postulated creative intelligence. Again in the De anima (i. 5)
Aristotle quotes the statement that Thales attributed to water
a divine intelligence, and criticizes it as an inference from later
speculations. It is probably safest to credit Thales with the bare
mechanical conception of a universal material cause, leaving pan-
theistic ideas to a later period of thought.
The successors of Thales were Anaximander and Anaximenes,
who also sought for a primal substance of things. Anaximander
postulated a corporeal substance intermediate between air and fire
on the one hand, and between earth and water on the other hand.
This substance he called " the Infinite " (T& faeipov). Unlike Thales,
he was struck by the infinite variety in things; he felt that all
differences are finite, that they have emerged from primal unity
(first called Spxr) by him) into which they must ultimately return,
that the Infinite One has been, is, and always will be, the same,
indeterminate but immutable. Change, growth and decay he ex-
plained on the principle of mechanical compensation (SiSovai yap
aiiTa. Tirn.VK.ai SIKTJC T^S dSiidas).
Anaximenes, pupil of Anaximander, seems to have rebelled against
the extreme materialism of his master. Perceiving that air is
necessary to life, that the universe is surrounded by air, he was
convinced that out of air all things have resulted. The process by
which things grow is twofold, condensation (jruKvuffts) and rarefaction
dpaioxris) , or, in other words, heal and cold,. From the former
process result cloud, water and stone ; from the latter, fire and aether.
This theory is closely allied to that of Thales, but it is superior in
that it specifies the processes of change. Further, it is difficult not to
accept Cicero's statement that Anaximenes made air a conscious
deity; we are, at all events, justified in regarding Anaximenes as a
link (perhaps an unconscious link) between crude Hylozoism (q.v.)
and definitely metaphysical theories of existence.
We have seen that Thales recognized change, but attempted no
explanation; that Anaximander spoke of change in two directions;
that Anaximenes called these two directions by specific names.
From this last, the transition to the doctrine of Heraclitus is easy.
He felt that change is the essential fact of experience and pointed
out that any merely physical explanation of plurality is inherently
impossible. The Many is of Sense; Unity is of Thought. Being is
intelligible only in terms of Becoming. That which is, is what it is
in virtue of its perpetually changing relations (-a-acra pel /tai oii&ii>
litvti). By this recognition of the necessary correlation of Being
and Not-being, Heraclitus is in a very real sense the father of meta-
physical and scientific speculation, and in him the Ionian school of
philosophy reached, its highest point. Yet there is reason to doubt
the view of Hegel and Lassalle that Heraclitus recognized the funda-
mental distinction of subject and object and the relations of mind
and matter. Like the early lonians he postulated a primary sub-
stance, fire, out of which all things have emerged and into which
all must return. This elemental fire is in itself a divine rational
process, the harmony of which constitutes the law of the universe.
Human knowledge consists in the comprehension of this all-pervading
harmony as embodied in the manifold of perception; the senses are
" bad witnesses " in that they report multiplicity as fixed and
existent in itself rather than in its relation to the One. This theory
gives birth to a sort of ethical by-product whose dominant note is
Harmony, the subordination of the individual to the universal reason;
moral failure is proportionate to the degree in which the individual
declines to recognize his personal transience in relation to the eternal
Unity. From the same principle there follows the doctrine of
Immortality. The individual, like the phenomena of sense, comes
out of the infinite and again is merged ; hence on the one hand he is
never a separate entity at all, while on the other hand he exists in
the infinite and must continue to exist. Moreover, the soul ap-
proaches most nearly to perfection when it is least differentiated from
elemental fire; it follows that " while we live our souls are dead
within us, but when we die our souls are restored to life." This
doctrine is at once the assertion and the denial of the self, and
furnishes a striking parallel between European thought in its earliest
stages and the fundamental principles of Buddhism. Knowledge of
the self is one with knowledge of the Universal Logos (Reason) ;
such knowledge is the basis not only of conduct but of existence itself
in its only real sense.
Thus far the Ionian philosophers had held the field of thought.
Each succeeding thinker had more or less assumed the methods of
Thales, and had approached the problem of existence from the
empirical side. About the time of Heraclitus, however, there sprang
up a totally new philosophical spirit. Parmenides and Zeno (see
Eleatic School) enunciated the principle that " Nothing is born of
nothing." Hence the problem becomes a dialectical a priori specula-
tion wherein the laws of thought transcend the sense-given data
of experience. It was therefore left for the later lonians to frame
an eclectic system, a synthesis of Being and Not-being, a correlation
of universal mobility and absolute permanence. This examination
of diametrically opposed tendencies resulted in several different
theories. It will be sufficient here to deal with Anaxagoras,. Diogenes
of Apollonia, Archelaus and Hippo, leaving Empedocles, Leucippus
and Democritus to special articles (q.v.). The latter three do not
belong strictly to the Ionian School.
Anaxagoras (q.v.) elaborated a quasi-dualistic theory according to
which all things have existed from the beginning. Originally they
existed in infinitesimal fragments, infinite in number and devoid of
arrangement. Amongst these fragments were the seeds of all things
which have sintfe emerged by the process of aggregation and segrega-
tion, wherein homogeneous fragments came together. These pro-
cesses are the work of Nous (rous) which governs and arranges.
But this Nous, or Mind, is not incorporeal; it is the thinnest of all
things; its action on the particle is conceived materially. It
originated a rotatory movement, which arising in one point gradually
extended till the whole was in motion, which motion continues and will
continue infinitely. By this motion things are gradually constructed
not entirely of homogeneous particles (the homoeomere, oMotojuepij) but
in each thing with a majority of a certain kind of particle. It is this
aggregation which we describe variously as birth, death, maturity,
decay, and of which the senses give inaccurate reports. His vague
dualism works a very distinct advance upon the crude hylozoism
of the early lonians (see ATOM), and the criticisms of Plato and
Aristotle show how highly his work was esteemed. The great danger
is that we should credit him with more than he actually thought.
His Nous was not a spiritual force; it was no omnipotent deity; it
is not a pantheistic world-soul. But by isolating Reason from all
other growths, by representing it as the motor-energy of the Cosmos,
in popularizing a term which suggested personality and will,
Anaxagoras gave an impetus to ideas which were the basis of Aris-
totelian philosophy in Greece and in Europe at large.
In Diogenes of Apollonia we find a return to Anaximenes. Diogenes
(q.v.) began by insisting on the necessity of there being only one
principle of things, herein contradicting the pluralism of Heraclitus.
This principle is that of the universal homogeneity of nature; all
732
IOPHON— IOWA
things are at bottom the same, or interaction would be impossible
(Travra TO. Zovra. bird TOV airrov irepoioDffflai icat r6 abr6 cleat. This
universal substance is Air. But Diogenes went much farther than
Anaximenes by attributing to air not only infinity and eternity but
also intelligence. This Intelligence alone would have produced the
orderly arrangement which we observe in Nature, and is the basis
of human thought by the physical process of inhalation.
Another pupil of Anaxagoras was Archelaus of Miletus (?.».).
His work was mainly the combination of previous views, except that
he is said to have introduced an ethical side into the Ionian philo-
sophy. " Justice and injustice," he said, " are not natural but
legal." He endeavoured to overcome the dualism of Anaxagoras, and
in so doing approached more nearly to the older lonians.
The last of the lonians whom we need mention is Hippo (q.v.),
who, like Archelaus, is intellectually amongst the earlier members of
the school. He thought that the source of all things was moisture
(ri> Irypof), and is by Aristotle coupled with Thales (Metaphysics,
A3).
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Ritter and Preller, ch. i.; Zeller's History of
Greek Philosophy; J. Burnet, Early Greek Philosophy (1892); Fair-
banks, The First Philosophers of Greece (1898); Grote, History of
Greece, ch. viii. ; Windelband, History of Ancient Philosophy (1899);
Benn, The Greek Philosophers (1883) and The Philosophy of Greece
(1898); Th. Gomperz, Greek Thinkers (Eng. trans, vol. i., L.
Magnus, 1901).
IOPHON, Greek tragic poet, son of Sophocles. He gained the
second prize in 428 B.C., Euripides being first, and Ion third.
He must have been living in 405, the date of the production of
the Frogs of Aristophanes, in which he is spoken of as the only
good Athenian tragic poet, although it is hinted that he owed
much to his father's assistance. He wrote 50 plays, of which only
a few fragments remain. It is said that lophon accused his
father before the court of the phratores of being incapable of
managing his affairs, to which Sophocles replied by reading the
famous chorus of the Oedipus at Colonus (688 ff.), with the result
that he was triumphantly acquitted.
See Aristophanes, Frogs, 73, 78, with scholia; Cicero, De senec-
tute, vii. 22; Plutarch, Moralia, 785 B; A. Nauck, Tragicorum
Graecorum fragmenta (1889); O. Wolff, De lophonte poeta (Leipzig,
1884).
I.O.U. (" I owe you "), a written acknowledgment of a debt.
It usually runs thus:
To . I.O.U. pounds.
(Signed) . Date .
An I.O.U., if worded as above, or even if the words " for value
received " are added, does not acquire a stamp, as it contains
no terms of agreement. If any such words as " to be paid on
such a day " are added, it requires a stamp. An I.O.U. should
be addressed to the creditor by name, though its validity is not
impaired by such omission. Being a distinct admission of a sum
due, it is prima facie evidence of an account stated, but where
it is the only item of evidence of account it may be rebutted by
showing there was no debt and no demand which could be
enforced by virtue of it. An I.O.U. is not negotiable.
IOVILAE, or JOVILAE, a latinized form of iuvilas, the name
given by the Oscan-speaking Campanians in the 5th, 4th and
3rd centuries B.C. to an interesting class of monuments, not
yet fully understood. They all bear crests or heraldic emblems
proper to some family or group of families, and inscriptions
directing the annual performance of certain ceremonies on fixed
days. While some of them are dedicated to Jupiter (in a
special capacity, which our present knowledge of Oscan is
insufficient to determine), others were certainly found attached
to graves.
See the articles OSCA LINGUA, CAPUA, CUMAE and MESSAPII.
The text of all those yet discovered (at Capua and Cumae), with
particulars of similar usages elsewhere in Italy and other historical
and archaeological detail, is given by R. S. Conway in The Italic
Dialects (Cambridge, 1897, pp. 101 ff.). A briefer but valuable
discussion of the chiet characteristics of the group will be found
in R. von Planta's Oskisch-umbrische Grammatik, ii. 631 ff.,
and a summary description in C. D. Buck's Osco- Umbrian Grammar,
247- (R. S. C.)
IOWA, a north central state of the United States, situated
between latitudes 40° 36' and 43° 30' N. and between longitudes
89° 5' and 96° 31' W. It is bounded N. by Minnesota, E. by the
Mississippi river, which separates it from Wisconsin and Illinois,
S. by Missouri, and W. by the Missouri and Big Sioux rivers,
which separate it from Nebraska and South Dakota. Its total
area is 56,147 sq. m., of which 561 sq. m. are water surface.
Physical Features. — Topographically, Iowa lies wholly in the Prairie
Plains Region, part of it having been overrun by the Great Ice
Sheet of the Glacial epoch. For the most part the surface is that of a
prairie tableland, moderately rolling, and with a general but
scarcely perceptible slope, which in the eastern two-thirds is from
N.W. to S.E., and in the western third from N.E. to S.W. Elevations
above the sea range from between 1200 to 1675 ft. in the N.W. to
500 ft. and less in the S.E., the highest point being in the vicinity of
Spirit lake in Dickinson county, the lowest at Keokuk. In the
southern half of the state the height of the crests of the divides
is very uniform. The northern half is more broken and irregular;
elevations, usually rounded, mingle with depressions some of which
are occupied by small shallow lakes or ponds, the characteristic
physical features of this region being due to glaciation. But the most
marked departures from the prairie surface are in the N.E. and S.W.
In the N.E. the whole of Allamakee and parts of Winneshiek,
Fayette, Clayton, Delaware, Dubuque and Jackson counties form the
only driftless area of the state; in that section cliffs frequently rise
almost vertically from the banks of a river to a height of from 300
to 400 ft., and from the summit of the cliff to the crest of the divide,
a few miles distant, there is another ascent of 300 ft. or more ter-
minating occasionally in knob-topped hills crowned in many instances
with small cedar. Moreover, the largest streams have numerous
tributaries, and nearly all alike flow circuitously between steep if not
vertical cliffs or in deep craggy ravines overlooked by distant hills,
among which the wagon road has wound its way with difficulty.
In the W., S. from the mouth of the Big Sioux river, extends a line
of mound-like bluffs usually free from rocks, but rising abruptly
from the flood plain of the Missouri to a height varying from 100 to
300 ft, A broad water-parting extending from Spirit lake, on the
northern border, nearly S. to within 60 m. of the southern border,
and thence S.E. to Wayne county in the south central part of Iowa,
divides the state into two drainage systems. That to the E., com-
prising about two-thirds of the whole area, is drained by tributaries
of the Mississippi, of which the Des Moines, the Skunk, the Iowa
with its tributary the Cedar, and the Wapsipinicon are the largest,
streams of long courses and easy fall over beds frequently pebbly in
the N. but muddy in the S., and through valleys broad at their
sources, well drained, and gently sloping in the middle of their
courses, but becoming narrower and deeper towards their mouths;
that to the W. is drained by tributaries of the Missouri, mostly short
streams taking their rise from numerous rivulets, flowing quite
rapidly over muddy beds through much of their courses, and in the
bluff belt along the Missouri having steep but grassy banks 200 ft.
in height or more. (For geological details, see UNITED STATES,
section Geology, ad fin.)
Flora and Fauna. — The predominant feature of the flora is the
grasses of the prairie. The former forests of the state were of two
general classes: on the bottom lands along the rivers grew cotton-
wood, willow, honey-locust, coffee trees, black ash, and elm ; on the
less heavily wooded uplands were oaks (white, red, yellow and bur),
hickory (bitternut and pignut), white and green ash, butternut,
ironwood and hackberry. The growth was heavier, however, in the
E. than in the W., but, it has been estimated, covered in all about
one-fifth of the area of the state at the time of its first settlement
by the whites. In the N.E., also, small cedar and pine are found.
But everywhere now most of the merchantable timber has been
cut; in 1900 it was estimated that there were altogether about 7000
sq. m. of woodland in the state. The bison and elk long ago dis-
appeared, but black bear and deer are found in the unsettled part
of the state. Ducks, geese and other water birds are common,
especially during their migrations.
Climate. — The climate is one of great extremes of heat and cold,
with a dry winter and a usually wet summer, the prevailing wind of
winter being N.W. while in summer it not infrequently blows from
the S.W. Both the midwinter isotherm of Montreal and the mid-
summer one of Washington, D.C., pass through the state. The mean
annual temperature is 47-5° F. ; the average range of extremes per
year during the decade ending with 1900 was 136° F., while the
greatest extremes recorded are from-43°F. in 1888 to 1 13° F. in 1901,
a difference of 156° F. From 1893 to 1898 the average mean annual
temperature at Cresco in Howard county, near the N.E. corner of the
state, was 44-3° F., while at Keokuk in the S.E. corner it was 52-2° F.,
and as the isotherms cross the state, especially in the N., their
tendency is to move S.W. The rainfall is also very unequal in distri-
bution throughout the year, as also between the same periods of
different years, and as between the different parts of the state.
For while the mean annual precipitation is 31-42 in., 22-48 in., or
71 % of this, fall during the six months from the 1st of April to the
1st of October, or 10% in winter, 23% in autumn, 28% in spring
and 39% in summer, June and July being the two wettest months.
At the same time extremes during the four most critical crop months,
from the 1st of May to the 1st of September, have ranged from 6-75
in. in 1894 to 27-8 in. in 1902. Within any one year the precipitation
is in general usually less in the western part of the state than in the
eastern, the mean difference for all the years of record up to the close
of 1903 being 2-5 in.; the western part also is marked by having a
IOWA
733
still larger per cent of its rain in spring and summer than has the
eastern. The unequal distribution throughout the state is in much
larger measure due to local showers. Injury to crops from drought
and hot winds has occurred about two or three times in a decade, but
Jiability to injury of the crops from excessive rainfall and hailstorms
is greater than that from a deficiency of moisture. Three notable
tornadoes have swept portions of the state: the Comanche in June
1860, the Grinnell in June 1882 and the Fomeroy in July 1893; but
the greatest area traversed by any of these was less than one-twentieth
of I % of the total area of the state, and this kind of storm has
been less destructive to human life, animals and buildings than the
lightning which accompanies summer showers.
Soil; Agriculture. — Its depth, together with its porous nature,
makes the fertile soil of Iowa capable of withstanding the extremes
of wet and dry remarkably well, and it is perhaps true that, taken as a
whole, no other state in the Union has a superior soil for agriculture.
Certainly no other has so many acres of improved land, or so large a
proportion — from 85 to 90% — of its land subject to cultivation.
The soil is of four kinds : till or drift, alluvial, loess or bluff and geest.
The dark drift, composed chiefly of clay, sand, gravel, boulders and
lime, is both the soil and subsoil of the greater part (about 66%)
of the state, being especially predominant in the N. and N.W. The
alluvial soil, composed of what has been washed from other soils,
together with decayed vegetable matter, covers about 6% of the
surface of the state and is found in the river bottoms, of greatest
extent in that of the Missouri ; it varies much in fertility. The loess
soil, chiefly a mixture of porous clay and carbonate of lime, forms the
bluffs bordering the bottom lands of the Missouri and is common in
the N.E. Its fertility is not inferior to that of the better drift.
Geest is found particularly in the north-eastern part of the state;
it covers less than i % of the area of the state.
The superior qualities of the soil, together with the usually warm
and moist months of spring and summer, make Iowa one of the fore-
most states of the Union in agriculture and stock-raising, especially
in the production of Indian corn, oats, hay and eggs, andin the rais-
ing of nogs, horses, dairy cows and poultry. In comparison with its
other industries it stands also pre-eminently as an agricultural state ;
for of its 789,404 labourers in 1900, 371,604, or 47%, were engaged in
agriculture, 129,006 being engaged in trade and transportation, and
124,803 in manufactures and mechanical pursuits. In 1899 the
total value of the agricultural products, $365,411,528, was greater
than that of any other state. Of the farms 65-1 % were cultivated
by owners in 1900, a decrease from 76-2 % in 1880; and 19-5 % were
cultivated by cash tenants, an increase from 4-5% in 1880. After
1880 the percentage of farms operated by share tenants slowly but
steadily decreased, falling from 19-4% in 1880 to 15-4% in 1900.
Between 1880 and 1900 the average number of acres to a farm slightly
increased — from 133-5 acres in 1880 to 151 -2 acres in 1900 — instead of
decreasing as in the older states of the Union; though the increase
was not nearly so marked as in such states as Nevada, Montana,
Wyoming and Texas. Iowa about equals Illinois in the production
of both Indian corn and oats, nearly 10,000,000 acres or about one-
third of its improved area usually being planted with Indian corn,
with a yield varying from 227,908,850 bushels in 1901 (according to
state reports) to 373,275,000 (the largest in the United States, with
a crop value second only to that of Illinois) in 1906. According to
the Department of Agriculture in 1907 the acreage was 9,160,000 and
the yield 270,220,000 bushels (considerably less than the Illinois
crop); the yield of oats was 168,364,170 bushels (Twelfth U.S.
Census) in 1899, 124,738,337 bushels (U.S. Department of Agri-
culture) in 1902, and in 1907 the acreage and crop (greater than those
of any other state) were 4,500,000 acres and 108,900,000 bushels,
valued at $41,382,000 — a valuation second only to that of Illinois.
In total acreage of cereals (16,920,095 in 1899) it ranked first (Twelfth
Census of the United States), and in product of cereals was exceeded
by Illinois only; in acreage of hay and forage (4,649,378 in 1899) as
well as in the annual supply of milk (535,872,240 gallons in 1899) it
was exceeded by New York only. In 1905, according to railway re-
ports, 9 1 ,05 1 ,55 1 ft of butter were carried to points outside the state.
It ranked far ahead of any other state in 1908 in the number of its
hogs (8,413,000, being 15 % of the whole number in the United States),
Illinois, the second in rank, having only about half as many. It ranked
first in 1900 in the number of horses (1,392,573); in the number of
poultry (about 20,000,000); in the annual egg product (99,621,290
dozen in 1899); in the total acreage of all crops (22,170,000); in the
total value of agricultural products; and in the total value of live
stock ($271,844,034'!. In 1899 it ranked fourth in the production of
barley (18,059,050 bushels) and in 1907 sixth (14,178,000 bushels).
The wheat crop has varied from 12,531,304 bushels in 1903, 13,683,003
bushels in 1905, 7,653,000 bushels in 1907 (according to the U.S.
Department of Agriculture), to 22,769,440 bushels (Twelfth Census)
in 1899. Potatoes, apples and small fruits are grown successfully.
For the most part the several crops are quite evenly distributed
throughout the state; but nearly all the winter wheat is grown in
the S. and N.W., spring wheat most largely in the N.W., barley
mostly in the N., flax-seed and prairie hay in the N.E.
Minerals. — The first mines to be worked in Iowa were those for lead
and zinc at Dubuque and to the northward. These are little mined
at present, only no tons of lead ore and 516 tons of zinc ore being
taken from the mines in 1908. Of more promise is the gypsum deposit
extending over an area of about 50 sq. m. in the vicinity of Fort Dodge
(Webster county), from which was taken in 1908 a product valued
at $565,645, having increased to that figure from $45,819 in 1898.
Limestones and sandstone are also profitably quarried, the value of
the product in 1908 being $530,945 for limestone and $2337 for
sandstone. The principal mineral of Iowa, however, is bituminous
coal; it ranked in 1908 eighth among the coal-producing states
of the Union, its product being valued at $11,706,402. The beds lie
in the southern half of the state, extending under about two-fifths of
its surface.
Trade and Commerce. — The manufactures of Iowa are chiefly such
as have to do with the products of the farm. Meat packing is the
most important, the product of this industry amounting in 1900 to
$25,695,044, and in 1905 to $30,074,070, an increase of 17% in this
period; in 1900 the state was seventh, in 1905 sixth, among the states
in the value of this industry, producing in each year 3-3 % of the
total. Next in importance is the manufacture of dairy products,
the value of which in 1900 was $15,846,077 (an increase of 50-3% in
ten years) and in 1905 was $15,028,326; at both censuses the state
ranked third in the value of cheese, butter, and condensed milk and
of food preparations, which were valued at $6,934,724 in 1905.
Flour and grist-mill products ranked third both in 1900 and 1905,
the value of the product for the later year being $12,099,493, an
increase of 9-9% over the value for the earlier. Among the lesser
manufactures are lumber and timber products (value in 1905,
$5,610,772), most of the raw material being floated down on rafts
from Wisconsin and Minnesota. The largest centres of industry are
Sioux City, Davenport, Dubuque.Des Moines,Burlington and Council
Bluffs. In 1905 the gross value of the manufactured product (of
establishments on the factory system) was $160,572,313, as against
$132,870,865 in 1900, an increase of 20-8%; whereas, even includ-
ing the products of smaller establishments not technically factories,
the value of the product in 1850 was only $3,551,783, and in 1880
was only $71,045,926.
The means of transportation is afforded chiefly by the steam rail-
ways, of which the state had 9,907-44 m. in January 1909. Scarcely
a farm is more than 6 or 8 m. from a railway station ; and only three
other states have a greater railway mileage. The great period of
railway building in Iowa was during the twenty-five years immedi-
ately following the close of the Civil War, the railway mileage being
only 655 m. in 1860. The several roads are under the management
of twenty-seven companies, but about 75 % of the business is done by
the Chicago Burlington & Quincy, the Chicago & North- Western, the
Chicago Milwaukee & St Paul and the Chicago Rock Island &
Pacific. Electric interurban railways are increasing in importance
for freight and passenger service. In 1908 about 225 m. of such
railways were in operation. Transportation facilities by water are
afforded by the Mississippi river. The former difficulties with the
Des Moines Rapids of the Mississippi (which are passable for rafts
and light boats at high water) have been overcome by a canal from
Keokuk to Montrose constructed by the National Government.
Other federal improvements undertaken are a harbour at Muscatine,
a harbour of refuge below Davenport and channel improvements at
Clinton.
Population. — The population of Iowa in 1850 was 192,214;
in 1860, 674,913; in 1880, 1,624,615; in 1890, 1,911,896; in 1900,
2,231,853. The state census of 1905 showed a total population
of 2,210,050, and the Federal census of 1910, of 2,224,771.
Of the population in 1905, 1,264,443 (S7'2%) were native
whites of native parentage, 648,532 (29-3%) were native whites
of foreign parentage, 289,296 (12-8%) were foreign-born and
14,832 (0-7%) were coloured, including 346 Indians. The
Indians, a remnant of the Sauk and Foxes, are most unprogressive,
and are settled on a reservation in Tama county in the east-
central section of the state.
In 1906 it was estimated that there were 788,667 communicants
of all religious denominations; of these 207,607 were Roman
Catholics; 164,329 Methodists; 117,668 Lutherans; 60,081
Presbyterians; 55,948 Disciples of Christ; 44,096 Baptists;
37,061 Congregationalists; 11,681 members of the German
Evangelical Synod; and 8990 Protestant Episcopalians.
The rural element of the population is large, though it is not in-
creasing as rapidly as the urban; and no other state in the Union
is so uniformly settled. There were in 1905 seven cities with a
population of 25,00x3 or more; twenty with 8000 or more;
and thirty-seven with 4000 or more. Between 1890 and 1900
the urban population increased 38-3%, while the rural increased
14-6%. The chief cities are Des Moines (pop. in 1905, 75,626),
Dubuque (41,941), Davenport (39,797), Sioux City (40,952),
Cedar Rapids (28,759), Council Bluffs (25,231) and Burlington
(25,318)-
Government. — There is comparatively little in the political
institutions of Iowa dissimilar to those of other states of the
734
IOWA
Union; they show in recent years a tendency toward greater
centralization — in boards, however, rather than in individual
officers. The constitution now in force was adopted in 1857,
the constitution of 1846 having been superseded chiefly on
account of its prohibition of banking corporations. The present
one admits of amendment by a vote of a majority of the members
of both houses of the legislature, followed by a majority vote'
of the electors in the state voting on the amendment; and by
this process it was amended in 1868, 1880, 1884 and 1904. The
present constitution also provides that the question, " Shall
there be a convention to revise the constitution and amend
the same? " shall be submitted to the people once every ten
years (beginning with 1870), but the affirmative vote taken in
accordance with this provision has hitherto been small. The
suffrage now belongs to all male citizens of the United States
at least twenty-one years of age who shall have resided in the
state for six months, and in some one county sixty days preced-
ing an election, except idiots and persons insane or convicted
of some infamous crime. The franchise was conferred on
negroes by an amendment adopted in 1868. Prior to 1904
elections were annual, but by an amendment of that year they
became biennial.
The central executive and administrative authority is vested
in a governor, a lieutenant-governor, an executive council,
several boards and a few other officers.' The governor and the
lieutenant-governor was elected for a term of two years, and the
qualifications for both offices require that the incumbents shall
be at least thirty years of age and shall have been for two years
immediately before their election residents of the state. Under
the Territorial government when first organized the governor
was given an extensive appointing power, as well as the right
of an absolute veto on all legislation, but this speedily
resulted in such friction between him and the legislature that
Congress was petitioned for his removal, with the outcome that
the office has since been much restricted in its appointing power,
and the veto has been subjected to the ordinary United States
limit, i.e. it may be overridden by a two-thirds vote of both
houses of the legislature. Members of boards of regents or
trustees of state institutions are for the most part elected by
the General Assembly; railway commissioners are elected by the
state electors; while in the case of the few appointments left
for the governor, the recommendation or approval of the
executive council, a branch of the legislature, or of some board,
is usually required. He, however, is himself a member of the
executive council as well as of some important boards or com-
missions, and it is in such capacity that he often has the greatest
opportunity to exert power and influence. His salary is $5000
per annum (with $600 for house rent and $800 as a member
of the executive council). The executive council, composed of
the governor, secretary of state, auditor of state and treasurer
of state, all elected by the people for a term of two years, has
extensive powers. It supervises and audits the accounts of
state departments, directs the taking of the census, transfers
cities from one class to another in accordance with census returns,
constitutes the board for canvassing election returns, classifies
railways, assesses railway and other companies, constitutes the
state board of equalization for adjusting property valuations
between the several counties for taxing purposes, supervises the
incorporation of building and loan associations, appoints the
board of examiners of mine inspectors and has many other
powers. Among other state boards the more important are the
board of railroad commissioners, the board of control of state
institutions, the board of health, and the board of educational
examiners.
The state legislature, or General Assembly, composed of a
senate and a house of representatives, sits biennially at Des
Moines. Senators are elected for a term of four years, one from
each of fifty senatorial districts, the term of one-half expiring
every two years. Senators must be at least twenty-five years of
age and residents of the state for one year at the time of election.
Representatives are elected for a term of two years, one from each
•of the ninety-nine counties, with an additional one from each
of the counties (not exceeding nine) having the largest popula-
tion; the ratio of representation and the apportionment of the
additional representatives from the larger counties is fixed by the
General Assembly. The qualifications for representatives differ
from those for electors only in that they must have been residents
of the state for one year at the time of election, the disqualifica-
tion of negroes for sitting in both senate and house having been
removed by an amendment adopted in 1880. No bill can pass
either house without the assent of a majority of all the members
elected to that house; the governor is allowed three days (Sunday
excepted) in which to veto a bill.
The state judiciary consists of a supreme court of six judges
and a district court of fifty-three judges, from one to four in each
of twenty districts. The supreme court has three sessions a year,
while each district-court judge is directed to hold at least one
session a year in each county of his district, and no two district-
court judges may sit together on the same case. The supreme
court has appellate jurisdiction in chancery cases only, but may
correct errors at law in other cases. The district court has
general, original and exclusive jurisdiction in all matters civil,
criminal and probate not expressly conferred on an inferior court,
and may hear appeals from inferior courts, boards or officers.
For purposes of administration and local government the state is
divided into ninety-nine counties, each of which is itself divided into
townships that are usually 6 m. square. The township may be
divided into school districts and highway districts, but in these
matters option has resulted in irregularity. Each county has its own
administrative boards and officers; and there are two justices
of the peace and two constables for every township. The board of
supervisors, consisting of not more than seven members, elected for a
term of three years, has the care of county property and the manage-
ment of county business, including highways and bridges; it fixes the
rate of county taxes within prescribed limits, and levies the taxes for
state and county purposes. The officers of the township are three
trustees, a clerk and an assessor. The trustees are elected for a term
of three years, the clerk and assessor for two years. All taxable
property of the state, that of corporations for the most part excepted,
is assessed by the township assessor.
The municipal corporations are civil divisions quite independent of
the county and township system. They are divided into cities of the
first class, cities of the second class and towns, besides a few cities
with special charters. Cities of the first class are those having a
population of 15,000 or over; cities of the second class are those
having a population of 2000 but less than 15,000; all other municipal
corporations, except cities with special charters, are known as in-
corporated towns. In all these cities and towns a mayor, council
and various officers are elected, and also a police judge in cities of the
first class where there is no superior court. By a law of 1907 cities
with a population of 25,000 or more may adopt a commission form
of government, with a mayor and four councilmen elected at large on
a non-partisan ticket.
Under the laws of Iowa a wife enjoys property rights equal to those
of her husband. The expenses of the family, including the education
of the children, are chargeable alike upon the property of either or
both. Otherwise, the wife may control her property as if single, and
neither is liable for what are clearly the debts of the other. In case of
the death of either, one-third of the property of the deceased becomes
that of the survivor. A homestead cannot be conveyed or en-
cumbered without the consent of both husband and wife, if held
by a married man; and a homestead, to the value of $500, is
exempt from liability for debts postdating the purchase, unless
for improvements on the property. A petition for a divorce
may be presented after a residence within the state of one year
immediately preceding, and a decree may be granted against the
defendant if judged guilty of adultery, desertion for two years
without reasonable cause, habitual drunkenness, such inhuman
treatment as to endanger the life of the plaintiff, or if convicted of
felony after marriage. In 1882 an amendment to the constitution
was passed prohibiting the manufacture and the sale of intoxicating
liquors within the state. In April 1883 the Supreme Court pro-
nounced this amendment invalid on the ground of irregularity in
recording it, whereupon the legislature provided for a like pro-
hibition in an ordinary statute. But attempts to execute this were
so unsuccessful that it has been succeeded by a law imposing what
is known as the " mulct tax," which requires the payment of $600 in
quarterly instalments for a licence to sell such liquors and places a
hen for the whole amount on the real property in use for the business.
One-half the proceeds goes to the county and one-half to the munici-
pality or township in which the liquor is sold. The exceptional
dependence of Iowa on eastern markets has given more than ordinary
prominence to railway legislation, and the conflict of interests between
the railways and the shippers has agitated the state for forty years,
various attempts being made to regulate freight rates by legal
enactment. In 1888 an elective commission was established with
IOWA
735
power to fix maximum rates, which has met with general commenda-
tion throughout the country.
The charitable, penal and reformatory institutions of the state
are all under a " Board of Control of State Institutions," composed
of three electors appointed by the governor and approved by two-
thirds of the senators, careful provision being made also to prevent
the board from becoming subject to either political party. The
institutions under its charge include a Soldiers' Orphans' Home at
Davenport ; a Soldiers' Home at Marshalltown ; a College for the Blind
at Vinton; a School for the Deaf at Council Bluffs; an Institution for
Feeble-minded Children at Glenwood; an Industrial School for Boys
at Eldora; an Industrial School for Girls at Mitchell ville; and, at
Oakdale, a Sanatorium for the Treatment of Tuberculosis. The Board
of Control of State Institutions has supervisory and inquisitorial
powers over all county and private institutions in the state in which
insane are kept, and over homes for friendless children maintained by
societies or institutions. In 1907 the General Assembly passed a law
under which the indeterminate sentence was established in the state,
and the governor appoints a Board of Parole of three members, of
whom one must be an attorney and not more than two are to belong
to the same political party.
Education. — The percentage of illiterates (i.e. both those unable to
read and write and those unable to write) ten years of age and over,
according to the census returns of 1900, was only 2-3 ; of all the other
states of the Union, Nebraska alone made such a good return. But
teachers were poorly paid, and fourteen schools have been closed at a
time within a single county from want of teachers. However, there
are laws requiring that each school be taught at least six months in
a year, and that children between the ages of seven and fourteen
attend for at least twelve consecutive weeks, and for a total of
sixteen weeks in every year. In 1905-1906 male teachers received
on an average $63-97 P61" month, women teachers, $43-41. Although
the electors of each school district have ample powers reserved to
them, in actual practice matters are attended to chiefly by an elected
board of directors. The county administration is in the hands of a
board of education and a superintendent. The school tax was de-
rived in 1905-1906 from interest on the state's permanent school
fund — amounting to 2-3% of the total tax, and distributed in
proportion to the population of school age ; from a I to 3 mill county
tax, amounting to 5-2% of the whole; and from local or district
taxation, 92-5% of the entire tax. A law of the state provides for
the establishment of a county high school whenever a majority of the
electors of a county desire it, but in 1902 only one county (Guthrie
county) had such a school. The number of public high schools in
towns and cities, however, increased from 256 in 1893 to 345 in 1903.
The state established a university at Iowa City in 1847, a State
Agricultural College and Model Farm in 1858 (opened at Ames in
1869 as the Iowa State College of Agriculture and the Mechanic
Arts), an Agricultural Experiment Station in 1887, an Engineering
Experiment Station in 1904, and a normal school at Cedar Falls in
1876.
At the head of the whole system is the state superintendent of
public instruction, assisted by a board of educational examiners.
In 1901 the total receipts for school purposes were $6,001,187; and
the total disbursements $5,813,541; in 1906 the receipts were
$7,126,162-12 and the disbursements $6,950,580-27. The pupils
enumerated in 1906 were 707,843. Educational institutions not
supported by the state include: Iowa Wesleyan University
(Methodist, opened in 1842) at Mt. Pleasant; Iowa College (Congre-
gational, 1848) at Grinnell; Central University of Iowa (Baptist,
1853) at Pclla; Cornell College (Methodist, 1857) at Mt. Vernon;
Western College (United Brethren, 1856) at Toledo; Upper Iowa
University (Methodist Episcopal, 1857) at Fayette; Leander Clark
College (United Brethren, 1857) at Toledo; Lenox College (Presby-
terian, 1859) at Hopkinton; Luther College (Norwegian Evangelical
Lutheran, 1861) at Decorah; Des Moines College (Baptist, 1865) at
Des Moines; Tabor College (Congregational, 1866) at Tabor;
Simpson College (Methodist, 1867) at Indianola; Wartburg Kollege
(Lutheran, 1868) at Clinton; Amity College (Non -sectarian, 1872)
at College Springs; German College (Methodist Episcopal, 1873) at
Mt. Pleasant; Penn College (Friends, 1873) at Oskaloosa; St
Joseph's College (Roman Catholic, 1873) at Dubuque; Parsons
College (Presbyterian, 1875) at Fairfield; Coe College (Presbyterian,
1 88 1) at Cedar Rapids; Drake University (Disciples of Christ, 1881)
at Des Moines; Palmer College (Disciples of Christ, 1889) at
Legrand; Buena Vista College (Presbyterian, 1891) at Storm Lake;
Charles City College (Methodist Episcopal, 1891) at Charles City;
Morningside College (Methodist Episcopal, 1894) at Sioux City;
Graceland College (Reorganized Church of Latter Day Saints, 1895)
at Lamoni.
Finance. — The taxing system of Iowa embraces a general property
tax, corporation taxes (imposed on the franchises or on either the
capital stock or the stock in the hands of shareholders), taxes on
certain businesses and a collateral inheritance tax. Several im-
portant attempts have been made to effect a segregation as between
state and local taxes, but for the most part without success, ror
the year ending June 3Oth, 1908, the receipts of the state from
all sources were $3,663,154-67, and the total expenditure was
$3,891,842-81. The full value of all property, according to assess-
ment of 1904, is $2,567,330,328. The state has no bonded debt, and
the constitution forbids it to incur debts exceeding in the aggregat6
a quarter of a million dollars, except for warlike purposes or for some
single work to which the people give their consent by vote; the
constitution also forbids any county or municipal corporation from
incurring an indebtedness exceeding 5 % of the value of its taxable
property. When first admitted into the Union, Iowa had a strongly
pronounced antipathy to banks. This was largely overcome by the
year 1857, and yet the constitution of that date prohibits any
legislation of primary importance relating to banks without referring
the matter to a direct vote of the people. The number of banks and
the amount of banking business has, nevertheless, rapidly increased.
History. — Iowa, as a part of the whole Mississippi Valley, was
taken into the formal possession of France in 1682; in 1762 as a
part of the western half of that valley it was ceded to Spain;
in 1800 it was retroceded to France; in 1803 was ceded to the
United States; from 1804 to 1805, as a part of the District of
Louisiana, it was under the government of Indiana Territory;
from 1805 to 1812 it was a part of Louisiana Territory; from
1812 to 1821 a part of Missouri Territory; from 1821 to 1834 a
part of the unorganized territory of the United States; from
1834 to 1836 a part of Michigan Territory; from 1836 to 1838
a part of. Wisconsin Territory. In 1838 Wisconsin Territory
was divided, the western portion being named Iowa, and out of
this the state with its present bounds was carved in 1846.
The name Iowa (meaning " sleepy ones ") was taken from
a tribe of Siouan Indians (probably of Winnebago stock), which
for some time had dwelt in that part of the country and were
still there when the first white men came — the Frenchmen,
Marquette and Joliet, in 1673 and Hennepin in 1680. Early in
the next century the Sauk and Foxes, vanquished by the French
in Michigan, retreated westward, and in their turn largely
supplanted the lowas. Thither also came Julien Dubuque, a,
French Canadian, to trade with the new occupants. He dis-
covered lead mines on and near 'the site of the city which now
bears his name, in 1788 obtained an Indian grant or lease of
about 21 sq. m., established there a settlement of miners and
continued his mining operations, together with a trade in furs,
until his death in 1810. The Indians refused permission to others
to work the mines, and when intruders attempted to do so without
it United States troops protected the red man's rights, especially
from 1830 to 1832. But Black Hawk's war policy soon resulted
in letting the white man in; for the war which he instigated
was concluded in 1832 by a cession to the United States of nearly
9000 sq. m., embracing much of what is now the district of the
Iowa lead and zinc mines. Without further waiting, though
still in the face of the Act of Congress of 1807 prohibiting such
settlements, the frontiersmen rushed in .to mine and to farm,
and government was established through voluntary associations.
Such proceedings of these associations as related to claims to-
land were later recognized by the United States authorities,
while such as related to the establishment of schools were tolerated
for a time by the state government. Iowa, having separated
from Wisconsin in 1838 on account of lack of courts for judicial
relief, the question of applying for admission into the Union as
a state was voted on as early as 1840, the Territory in that year
having a population of 43,112; but the measure was defeated
then, as it was again in 1842, by those who most wished to avoid
an increase of taxes. In 1844, however, the vote was otherwise,
a convention was called, a constitution framed and application
for admission made. The question of boundaries, to which the
question of slavery gave rise, then became the cause of delay,
but the Territory became a state in 1846.
During the period in which the question of admission was under
consideration, the Whigs opposed the measure, while the Demo-
crats carried it through and remained in power until 1854; but
ever since 1857 the state has been preponderantly Republican in
all national campaigns; and with but two exceptions, in 1889
and 1891, when liquor and railroad legislation were the leading
issues, has elected a Republican state administration. Neverthe-
less there has always been a strong sentiment in the state urging
that corporations be held more in check, and its industries are
not such as to receive a large benefit directly from tariff legislation.
As a consequence there has been a tendency towards the forma-
tion of two opposing elements within the dominant party; the
736
IOWA CITY— IPECACUANHA
more radical seeking the promotion of what since 1902 has been
known as the " Iowa Idea," which in substance is to further
the expansion of the trade of the United States with the rest of
the world through the more extended application of tariff
reciprocity, and at the same time to revise the tariff so as to
prevent it from " affording a shelter to monopoly."
GOVERNORS OF IOWA
Territorial.
Robert Lucas . . .
John Chambers .
James Clark .
Ansel Briggs .
Stephen Hempstead .
James Wilson Grimes.
Democrat
Whig
Democrat
State.
Democrat
Ralph P. Lowe
Samuel Jordan Kirkwood
William Milo Stone .
Samuel Merrill
Cyrus Clay Carpenter
Samuel Jordan Kirkwood
Joshua Giddings Newbold1
John Henry Gear
Buren Robinson Sherman
William Larrabee
Horace Boies
Whig and Fr^e-Soil
Democrat
Republican
Frank Darr Jackson .
Francis Marion Drake
Leslie Mortier Shaw .
Albert Baird Cummins
B.F.Carroll .
Democrat
Repub ican
1838-1841
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BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Publications of the Iowa Geological Survey (Des
Moines, 1868); Iowa Weather and Crop Service (Des Moines, 1889);
U.S. Census; F. H. Dixon, State Railroad Control, with a History of its
Development in Iowa (New York, 1896), a detailed history of the
control of Iowa railways through the commission system; B. F.
Shambaugh, History of the Constitution of Iowa (Des Moines, 1002) ;
Jesse Macy, Institutional Beginnings in a Western State in Johns
Hopkins University Studies in Historical and Political Science (Balti-
more, 1894); H. M. Bowman, The Administration of Iowa, a Study
in Centralization (New York, 1905) , an able presentation of the present
administrative system in the light of its historical development ;
William Salter, Iowa, the first Free State in the Louisiana Purchase
(Chicago, 1905); B. F. Shambaugh, Documentary Material relating
to the History of Iowa (Iowa City, 1897), and The Messages and Pro-
clamations of the Governors of low a (Iowa City, 1903—1904); Annals
of Iowa, 3 series: Series I, The Annals of the State Historical Society
of Iowa (Iowa City and Davenport, 1863-1874); Series 2, vol. i.,
The Annals of Iowa; vol. ii., Howe's Annals of Iowa (Iowa City,
1882-1884) ; Series 3, The Annals of Iowa, published by the Historical
Department of Iowa (Des Moines, 1893- ) ; Iowa Historical
Record (Iowa City, 1885-1902) ; Iowa Journal of History and Politics
(Iowa City, 1903 seq.) ; and G. T. Flom, Chapters on Scandinavian
Immigration to Iowa (Iowa City, 1907).
IOWA CITY, a city and the county-seat of Johnson county,
Iowa, U.S.A., on Iowa river, about 120 m. E. of Des Moines.
Pop. (1890) 7016; (1900) 7987, of whom 1355 were foreign
born; (1905, state census) 8497. It is served by two branches
of the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific railroad, and by _the Iowa
City & Cedar Rapids Interurban railway (electric), of which it
is a terminus. The ground on which the city is built forms an
amphitheatre surrounded for the most part by hills and bluffs.
Iowa City is the seat of the state university of Iowa, of Iowa
City Academy, of the library of the State Historical Society and
of the state Sanatorium for the Treatment of Tuberculosis.
The university, organized in 1847, and occupying the old State
Capitol grounds, is an integral part of the public school system
of the state, and is under the control of a board of regents,
consisting of the governor, the superintendent of public instruc-
tion and eleven members, elected — one from each congressional
district — by the General Assembly. The university's preparatory
department was opened in 1855 and continued until 1879; the
first collegiate session was in 1856-1857, but during 1858-1860
the collegiate department was closed. The institution embraces
a college of liberal arts (1860), with a school of political and
1 As lieutenant-governor, Newbold serves for the uncxpired
portion of the term to which Kirkwood was elected ; Kirkwood
resigned on the 1st of February 1877, having been chosen United
States senator.
social science (1900) — which offers courses in commerce, adminis-
tration, modern history and practical philanthropy — and a school
of education, first opened in 1907, to train secondary and college
teachers and school principals and superintendents; a college
of law (1868); a college of medicine (1870), including a training
school for nurses (1897); a college of homoeopathic medicine
(1877), including a nurses' training school (1894); a college
of dentistry (1882); a college of pharmacy (1885); a graduate
college; a college of applied science (1903), with courses in civil,
electrical, mechanical, mining, municipal and sanitary engineer-
ing and courses in chemistry; a summer school for teachers and
librarians and a university extension department. Affiliated
with the university is a school of music. The university's
income is derived from the proceeds of invested funds and lands
originally given by the United States, from permanent appro-
priations by the state and from the proceeds of a one-fifth mill
tax to be used for buildings alone. In 1907-1908 the institution
had 28 buildings (including the old State Capitol, built in 1840),
a teaching and administrative force of nearly 200 members
and 2315 students, of whom 1082 were in the college of liberal
arts; the university library had about 65,000 volumes (25,000
were destroyed by fire in 1897), and the university law library,
14,000 volumes; and the total income of the university was
about $611,000. In 1908 the library of the State Historical
Society of Iowa, housed in the Hall of the Liberal Arts of the
university, numbered about 40,000 volumes. Iowa City has a
considerable variety of small manufacturing establishments.
In 1839 Iowa City was selected as the site for the seat of govern-
ment of the newly created Territory of Iowa. The legislature
met for the first time in 1841 and continued to hold its sessions
here until 1857, when Des Moines, on account of its more central
position, was made the capital.
IPECACUANHA.2 The root used in medicine under this name
is obtained from Psycholria (or Uragoga) Ipecacuanha, a small
shrubby plant of the natural order Rubiaceae. It is a native of
Brazil, growing in clumps or patches in moist shady forests
from 8° to 22° S., and is also found in New Granada and probably
in Bolivia. The drug of commerce is procured chiefly from the
region lying between the towns of Cuyaba, v^illa Bella, Villa
Maria and Diamantina in the province of Matto Grosso, and
near the German colony of Philadelphia, north of Rio Janeiro.
Ipecacuanha, although in common use in Brazil, was not em-
ployed in Europe previous to 1672. In France within a few
years after that date it formed the chief ingredient in a remedy
for dysentery, the secret of the composition of which was purchased
by the French Government for 1000 louis d'or, and made public
in 1688. The botanical source of ipecacuanha was not accurately
known until 1800. The root appears to be possessed of very
great vitality, for in 1869 M'Nab, of the Botanical Gardens of
Edinburgh, discovered that so small a portion as^Vof an inch of
the annulated root, placed in suitable soil, would throw out a
leaf-bud and develop into a fresh plant, while Lindsay, a gardener
in the same establishment, proved that even the leaf-stalk is
capable of producing roots and buds; hence there is but little
probability of the plant being destroyed in its native habitat.
The great value of the drug in dysentery, and its rapid increase
in price from an average of 25. 9$d. per Ib in 1850 to about 8s. gd.
per Ib in 1870, led to attempts to acclimatize the plant in India,
which, however, have not hitherto proved to be a commercial
success, owing to the difficulty of finding suitable spots for its
cultivation, and to its slowness of growth. Like other dimorphic
plants, ipecacuanha ripens seeds best when cross-fertilized, and
presents various forms. Two of these were described by the late
Professor F. M. Balfour of Edinburgh, one distinguished by
having a woody stem, firm elliptic or oval leaves, with wavy
margins and few hairs, and the other by an herbaceous stem,
and leaves less coriaceous in texture, more hairy and not wavy
at the margins. This diversity of form is most apparent in
young plants, and tends to disappear with age.
2 The name is the Portuguese form of the native word i-pe-kaa-
t'lii'iic, which is said to mean " road-side sick-making plant " (Skeat,
Etym. Diet. 1898).
IPEK— IPHICRATES
737
Ipecacuanha root occurs in pieces about 2 or 3 lines in thickness,
of a greyish-brown or reddish-brown tint externally, having a
ringed or annulated surface (see r in fig.), and exhibiting a
white or greyish interior and a hard wiry centre. It has a faint
rather musty odour, and a bitterish taste. It is usually mixed
with more or less of the slender subterranean stem, which has a
very thin bark, and is thus easily distinguished from the root.
The activity of the drug resides chiefly in the cortical portion,
and hence the presence of the stem diminishes its value. The
variety imported from Colombia and known as Cartagena
ipecacuanha differs only in its larger size and in being less
conspicuously annulated. Ipecacuanha owes its properties to
the presence of rather more than i% of the alkaloid emetine,
which, with the exception of traces, occurs only in the cortical
Ipecacuanha Plant (about \ nat. size). I, 2, Flowers cut open,
showing short-styled (l) and long-styled (2) forms; 3, Flower after
removal of corolla, showing the inferior ovary (o), the small toothed
calyx (c), and the style (s) with its forked stigma; 4, Ovary cut
lengthwise showing the two chambers with the basally attached
ovules; r, annulated root.
portion of the root. It is a white amorphous substance, with the
formula C2oH3oNO5. It has a bitter taste, no odour, and turns
yellow when exposed to air and light. There are also present
a volatile oil, starch, gum, and a glucoside, which is a modifica-
tion of tannin and is known as ipecacuanhic acid. The dose
of the powdered root is J to 2 grains when an expectorant
action is desired, and from 15 to 30 grains when it is given as
an emetic, which is one of its most valuable functions. The
Pharmacopoeias contain a very large number of preparations of
tnis substance, most of which are standardized. A preparation
from which the emetine has been removed, and known as
" de-emetized ipecacuanha " is also in use for cases of dysentery.
When applied to the skin, ipecacuanha powder acts as a
powerful irritant, even to the extent of causing pustulation.
When inhaled it causes violent sneezing and a mild inflammation
of the nasal mucous membrane, resembling a common cold in
the head. It has feeble antiseptic properties. Small doses of
ipecacuanha act as a stimulant to the secretions of the mouth,
stomach, intestine and liver. The drug, therefore, increases
appetite and aids digestion. Toxic doses cause gastro-enteritis,
cardiac failure, dilatation of the blood-vessels, severe bronchitis
and pulmonary inflammation closely resembling that seen in
ordinary lobar pneumonia. In this respect and in its action on
the skin, the drug resembles tartar emetic. Ipecacuanha is very
frequently used as an expectorant in cases in which the bronchial
secretion is deficient. Its diaphoretic properties are employed
in the pulvis ipecacuanhae compositus or Dover's powder, which
contains one part of ipecacuanha powder and one part of opium
in ten.
Other plants to which the name of ipecacuanha has been popularly
applied are American ipecacuanha (Gillenia stipulacea) , wild ipeca-
cuanha (Euphorbia Ipecacuanha), bastard ipecacuanha (Ascfepias
curassavica), Guiana ipecacuanha (Boerhavia decumbens), Venezuela
ipecacuanha (Sarcostemma glaucum) , and ipecacuanha des Allcmands
(Vincetoxicum officinale). All these possess emetic properties
to a greater or less degree.
The term poaya is applied in Brazil to emetic roots of several
genera belonging to the natural orders Rubiaceae, Violaceae and
Polygalaceae, and hence several different roots have from time to
time been sent over to England as ipecacuanha; but none of them
possesses the ringed or annulated appearance of the true drug. Of
these the roots of lonidium Ipecacuanha, Richardsonia scabra and
Psychotria emetica are those which have most frequently been
exported from Brazil or Colombia.
IPEK (Slav. Fetch, Lat. Pescium), a town of Albania,
European Turkey, in the vilayet of Kossovo and sanjak of
Novibazar, 73 m. E.N.E. of Scutari, near the eastern base of
the Mokra Planina, the Montenegrin frontier, and the head-
waters of the Ibar and White Drin. Pop. (1905), about 15,000,
principally Albanians and Serbs. A small stream bearing, like
several others in the Balkan peninsula, the name of Bistritza
(the bright or clear), flows through the town. On one of the
neighbouring heights is situated the monastery of Ipek, founded
by Archbishop Arsenius in the i3th century, and famous as the
seat until 1690 of the patriarchs of the Servian church. The
buildings are surrounded by thick walls, and comprise a large
central church (Our Lady's), and two side chapels (the Martyrs'
and St Demetrius'), each surmounted by a leaden cupola. The
church dates from the i6th and zyth centuries. Among its
numerous objects of interest are the white marble tombs of
Arsenius and other chiefs of the Servian church, and the white
marble throne on which the patriarchs were crowned. Ipek has
been incorrectly identified by some writers with Doclea or
Dioclea (Dukle in Montenegro), the birthplace of Diocletian,
and the capital of a small principality which was overthrown
by the Bulgarians in the nth century.
See Barth, Reise durch das Innere der europdischen Turkei (Berlin,
1864); A. P. Irby and G. M. M. Mackenzie, Travels in the Slavonic
Provinces of Turkey (1877) ; M. E. Durham, Through the Lands of the
Serb (London, 1904).
IPHICRATES, Athenian general, son of a shoemaker, flourished
in the earlier half of the 4th century B.C. He owes his fame as
much to the improvements which he made in the accoutrements
of the peltasts or light-armed mercenaries (so called from their
small round shield, TT^XTTJ) as to his military successes. Increas-
ing the length of their javelins and swords, substituting linen
corselets for their heavy coats-of-mail, and introducing the use
of a kind of light leggings, called after him " iphicratides," he
increased greatly the rapidity of their movements (Diod. Sic.
xv. 44). He also paid special attention to discipline, drill and
manoeuvres. With his peltasts Iphicrates seriously injured the
allies of the Lacedaemonians in the Corinthian War, and in 392
(or 390) dealt the Spartans a heavy blow by almost annihilating
a mora (battalion of about 600 men) of their famous hoplites
(Diod. Sic. xiv. 91; Plutarch, Agesilaus, 22). Following up
his success, he took city after city for the Athenians; but in
consequence of a quarrel with the Argives he was transferred
from Corinth to the Hellespont, where he was equally successful.
After the peace of Antalcidas (387) he assisted Seuthes, king of
the Thracian Odrysae, to recover his kingdom, and fought
xiv. 24
IPHIGENEIA— IPSWICH
against Cotys, with whom, however, he subsequently concluded
an alliance. About 378 he was sent with a force of mercenaries to
assist the Persians to reconquer Egypt; but a dispute with
Pharnabazus led to the failure of the expedition (Diod. Sic. xv.
29-43). On his return to Athens he commanded an expedition
in 373 for the relief of Corcyra, which was besieged by the
Lacedaemonians (Xenophon, Hellenica, vi. 2). On the peace of
371, Iphicrates returned to Thrace, and somewhat tarnished
his fame by siding with his father-in-law Cotys in a war
against Athens for the possession of the entire Chersonese. The
Athenians, however, soon pardoned him and gave him a joint
command in the Social War. He and two of his colleagues were
impeached by Chares, the fourth commander, because they had
refused to give battle during a violent storm. Iphicrates was
acquitted but sentenced to pay a heavy fine. He afterwards
remained at Athens (according to some he retired to Thrace) till
his death (about 353).
There is a short sketch of his life by Cornelius Nepos; see also
C. Rehdantz, Vitae Iphicratis, Chabriae el Timothei (1854) ; Bauer,
Griech. Kriegsaltert. in Muller's Handbuch, 4, § 49 ; and histories of
Greece, e.g. Holm, Eng. trans., vol. iii.
IPHIGENEIA, or IPHIANASSA, in Greek legend, daughter of
Agamemnon and Clytaem(n)estra. Agamemnon had offended
Artemis, who prevented the Greek fleet from sailing for Troy,
and, according to the soothsayer Calchas, could be appeased
only by the sacrifice of Agamemnon's daughter. According to
some accounts the sacrifice was completed, according to others
Artemis carried away the maiden to be her priestess in the Tauric
Chersonese [Crimea} and substituted for her a hind. In this
new country it was her duty to sacrifice to the goddess all
strangers; and as her brother Orestes came to search for her
and to carry off to Attica the image of the goddess, she was about
to sacrifice him, when a happy recognition took place. These
legends show how closely the heroine is associated with the cult
of Artemis, and with the human sacrifices which accompanied
it in older times before the Hellenic spirit had modified the
barbarism of this borrowed religion. Orestes and Iphigeneia
fled, taking' with them the image; at Delphi they met Electra,
the sister of Orestes, who having heard that her brother had been
sacrificed by the Tauric priestess, was about to tear out the eyes
of Iphigeneia. The brother and sister returned to Mycenae;
Iphigeneia deposited the image in the deme of Brauron in Attica,
where she remained as priestess of Artemis Brauronia. Attica
being one of the chief seats of the worship of Artemis, this
explains why Iphigeneia is sometimes called a daughter of
Theseus and Helen, and thereby connected with the national
hero. The grave of Iphigeneia was shown at Brauron and
Megara. According to other versions of the legend, when saved
from sacrifice Iphigeneia was transported to the island of Leuke,
where she was wedded to Achilles under the name of Orsilochia
(Antoninus Liberalis 27); or she was transformed by Artemis
into the goddess Hecate (Pausanias- i. 43. i). According to the
Spartans, the image of Artemis was transported by Orestes and
Iphigeneia to Laconia, where the goddess was worshipped as
Artemis Orthia, the human sacrifices originally offered to her
being abolished by Lycurgus and replaced by the flogging of
youths (diamastigosis, Pausan. iii. 16). At Hermione, Artemis
was worshipped under the name of Iphigeneia, thus showing the
heroine in the last resort to be a form of that goddess (Pausanias
ii. 35. i). Originally, Iphigeneia, the " mighty born," is prob-
ably merely an epithet of Artemis, in which the notion of a
priestess of the goddess had its origin. Iphigeneia is a favourite
subject in Greek literature. She is the heroine of two plays oi
Euripides, and of many other tragedies which have been lost
(see also Pindar, Pythia xi. 23; Ovid, Metam. xii. 27). In
ancient vase paintings she is frequently met with; and the
picture by Timanthes representing Agamemnon hiding his face
at her sacrifice was one of the famous works of antiquity (Pliny,
Nat. Hist. xxxv. 10).
See M. Jacobson, De fabulis ad Iphigeniam pertinentibus (1888)
R. Forster, Iphigenie (1898); H. W. Stoll in Roscher's Lexikon der
Mythologie; and P. Decharme in Daremberg and Saglio's Dictionnaire
des antiquMs.
IPSWICH, a town of Stanley county, Queensland, Australia,
on the river Bremer, 23^ m. by rail W. by S. of Brisbane. Pop.
'1901), 8637. It is the centre of a rich and populous agricultural
mining and manufacturing district. Coal is worked on the banks
of the river with but little labour, as it crops out on the surface.
There are a woollen factory, several saw-mills, and foundries
and large railway workshops at North Ipswich. The first
settlement was made here in 1829; the town was incorporated
in 1860.
IPSWICH, a municipal, county and parliamentary borough
and county town of Suffolk, England, 69 m. N.E. by E. from
London by the Great Eastern railway. Pop. (1901), 66,630.
It stands on a gentle ascent above the left bank of the river
Gipping, which here widens into the tidal estuary of the Orwell.
This land-locked inlet extends n m. S.E. to Harwich and Felix-
stowe at opposite sides of its mouth, near which the wider Stour
estuary unites with it. Its banks are gently undulating, well
wooded and picturesque. In the lower and older portion of
Ipswich, with its irregular streets, are some few antiquarian
remains. Sparrowe's house (1567), named from a family which
occupied it for some two centuries, is well preserved and has ornate
gabled fronts to two streets. Archdeacon's Place (1471) isanother
still earlier example. Wolsey's Gateway (1528), a Tudor brick
building, is the only remnant of the Cardinal's foundation to
supply scholars to his great college (Cardinal's College, now
Christ Church) at Oxford. The older churches are all towered
flint-work structures, wholly or mainly Perpendicular in style,
with the exception of St Peter's, which is principally Decorated,
with a Norman font of marble. They include St Margaret's
with a beautiful oak Tudor roof, elaborately painted temp.
William and Mary; St Mary-at-Key (or Quay), with a similar
roof; St Lawrence; and St Clement's. The most noteworthy
modern churches are St Michael's (1880), All Saints' (1892),
St John the Baptist's (1899) and St Bartholomew's (1901).
The Roman Catholic church of St Pancras (1863), a late First
Pointed edifice, has a richly carved reredos and a lofty fleche.
Among public buildings, the town hall (1868) is an imposing
structure in Venetian style, with clock tower; forming part of
a fine group including the corn exchange (1881) and post office
(1880). The museum, including an art gallery, contains archaeo-
logical and ornithological collections, and a noteworthy series
or Red Crag fossils. It was founded in 1847, and moved to new
buildings in 1881. The East Suffolk hospital was founded in
1836. In the theatre David Garrick made his first important
and regular appearance in 1741. The grammar school, dating
at latest from 1477, was refounded by Queen Elizabeth in 1565,
and is housed in buildings in Tudor style (1851). There are
borough science, art and technical schools, with a picture gallery
in the fine Tudor mansion (1549) in Christchurch Park. There
are also a middle school for boys, a high school and an endowed
school for girls, a scientific society, corporation library and
small medical library. Of two beautiful arboretums the upper
is public; part of Christchurch Park adjacent to this is owned
by the corporation; there are also recreation grounds and a
race-course. Industries include large engineering and agricultural
implement works, railway plant works, the making of artificial
manures, boots and shoes, clothing, bricks and tobacco and
malting. The port has a dock of nearly 30 acres, accommodating
vessels drawing 19 ft. and a large extent of quayage. Imports
are principally grain, timber and coal; exports agricultural
machinery, railway plant, artificial manures, oil cake, &c.
Ipswich is a suffragan bishopric in the diocese of Norwich.
The1 parliamentary borough returns two members. The cor-
poration consists of a mayor, 10 aldermen and 30 councillors.
Area, 8112 acres.
A Roman villa has been discovered here. But the Saxon
settlement at the head of the Orwell was doubtless the first of
any importance. In 991 the town (Gipeswic, Gipeswich) was
sacked by vikings. It owes its subsequent prosperity to its
situation on a harbour admirably suited for trade with the
Continent. The townsmen had acquired the privileges of
burgesses by 1086 when Roger Bigot kept the borough in the
IPSWICH— IQUITOS
739
king's hands. In 1200 King John granted the burgesses their
first charter, confirming their town to.them to be held at fee-farm,
exempting them from tolls and similar customs, and granting
them a gild-merchant. These liberties were extended in 1256;
Edward I. and Edward III. both resumed the borough for short
periods, but the charter of 1200 was confirmed by almost every
subsequent sovereign. The burgesses were definitely incor-
porated in 1464 and re-incorporated in 1665 under a charter which
remained in force previous to its modification by the Municipal
Act of 1835, except during a short period in the reign of Charles
II. From 1295 onwards the town has sent two representatives
to parliament. The cattle market, held on Tuesdays, and the
provision market on Saturdays are the prescriptive right of the
corporation. A September fair, still held in 1792, was in the hands
of the corporation in the i7th century. Large ironworks were
established late in the i8th century. The wool and cloth trade
which flourished here in the I4th and i5th centuries was super-
seded by the manufacture of sailcloth, now represented by the
sacking industry.
See Victoria County History: Suffolk; J. Wodderspoon, Memorials
of the Ancient Town of Ipswich (ed. 1850).
IPSWICH, a township of Essex county, Massachusetts, U.S.A.,
on both sides of the Ipswich river, about 27 m. N.N.E. of Boston.
Pop. 1910 (Federal census), 5777. It is served by the Boston &
Maine railroad. The surface is diversified by drumlins, vales,
meadows, sand-dunes and tidal marshes. Ipswich has several
manufacturing industries, including hosiery. The public library
was the gift of Augustine Heard. Among the residences are
several built in the i7th and i8th centuries. The oldest of these,
the John Whipple House, is the home of the Ipswich Historical
Society (1890), which has gathered here a collection of antiques
and issues publications of antiquarian interest. In the Ipswich
Female Seminary, which no longer exists, Mary Lyon taught
from 1828 to 1834 and here planned Mount Holyoke Seminary;
Professor J. P. Cowles and his wife conducted a famous school
for girls in the building for many years. Facing the South
Common were the homes of Rev. Nathaniel Ward (1578-1652),
princigal author of the Massachusetts " Body of Liberties "
(1641)* the first code of laws in New England, and author of
The Simple Cobler of Aggawam in America, Willing to help mend
his Native Country, lamentably tattered, both in the upper-Leather
and the Sole (1647), published under the pseudonym, " Theodore
de la Guard," one of the most curious and interesting books
of the colonial period; of Richard Saltonstall (1610-1694),
who wrote against the life tenure of magistrates, and although
himself an Assistant espoused the more liberal principles of the
Deputies; and of Ezekiel Cheever (1614-1708), a famous school-
master, who had charge of the grammar school in 1650-1660. In
the vicinity was the house of the Rev. William Hubbard (1621-
1704), author of a Narrative of the Troubles with the Indians in
New England (Boston, 1677) and a general History of New
England, published by the Massachusetts Historical Society in
1815.
The town was founded under the name of Aggawam in 1633
by John Winthrop, jun., and twelve others, with a view to
preventing the French from occupying the N. part of Massa-
chusetts, and in the next year it was incorporated under its
present name. In wealth and influence during the early colonial
period it was little inferior to Boston, whose policies it not
infrequently opposed. When Governor Andros and his Council
in 1687 issued an order for levying a tax, a special town meeting
of Ipswich promptly voted " that the s'd act doth infringe their
Liberty as Free borne English subjects of His Majestie by
interfearing with ye statutory Laws of the Land, By which it
is enacted that no taxes shall be levied on ye Subjects without
consent of an assembly chosen by ye Freeholders for assessing
the same," and refused to assess the tax. For this offence six
leaders, headed by the Rev. John Wise, minister of the Chebacco
Parish (now Essex), were prosecuted, found guilty, imprisoned
for three weeks to await sentence and then disqualified for office;
they were also fined from £15 to £50 each, and were required to
give security for their good behaviour. In Ipswich were originally
included the present townships of Hamilton (1793) and Essex
See T. F. Waters, Ipswich in the Massachusetts Bay Colony 1633-
1700 (Ipswich, 1905), and the publications of the Ipswich Historical
Society.
IQUIQUE, a city and port of Chile, capital of the province of
Tarapaca, 820 m. N. of Valparaiso, in 20° 12' 15" S., 70° n' 15" W.
Pop. (1895), 33,031; (1900, est.), 42,440. The coast here runs
due N. and S. and the city is built on a narrow level plain between
the sea and bluffs, the latter rising steeply 2000 ft. to the level
of the great desert plain of Tarapaca, celebrated for its rich
deposits of nitrate of soda. Facing the city is the low barren
island of Serrano, or Iquique, which is connected with the
mainland by a stone causeway 1500 ft. long, and shelters the
anchorage from southerly storms. A mole extending from the
N.E. end of the island affords some further protection. The
city is laid out in the rectangular plan, with broad streets and
large squares. Water is brought by pipes from Pica, 50 m.
distant. Iquique is a city of much commercial importance and is
provided with banks, substantial business houses, newspapers,
clubs, schools, railways, tramways, electric lights, telephone
lines, and steamship and cable communication with the outside
world. It exports iodine and immense quantities of nitrate of
soda obtained from the desert region of the province. A large
number of vessels are engaged in the nitrate trade, and Iquique
ranks as one of the two leading ports of Chile in the aggregate
value of its foreign commerce. It is connected by rail with the
inland town of Tarapaca and various mining centres, and through
them with the ports of Pisagua on the N., and Patillos on the S.
Iquique was an insignificant Peruvian fishing settlement until
1830 when the export of nitrate began. In 1868 the town was
nearly destroyed by an earthquake, in 1875 by fire, and again
in 1877 by earthquakes, a fire and a tidal wave. It was occupied
by the Chileans in 1879 in the war between Chile and Peru, and
was ceded to Chile by the treaty of the 2oth of October 1883.
IQUITOS, a tribe of South American Indians. It is divided
into many branches, some on the river Tigre, others on the Nanay.
Missionary efforts have failed and they remain savages, worship-
ping figures carved in the shape of birds and beasts. They brew
the Indian fermented liquor chicha better than any of the
neighbouring tribes, flavouring it with the shoots of some plant
which has the effect of an opiate.
IQUITOS, a city and river port of Peru, and capital of the
great inland department of Loreto, on the left bank of the upper
Amazon near the mouth of the Rio Nanay, 87 m. below the
mouth of the Ucayali and 930 m. from Puerto Bermudez. The
geographical position of Iquitos is 3° 44' S., 73° W. Pop. of
the city (1906, est.), 6000; of the district (1906, est.), 12,000.
Iquitos stands about 348 ft. above sea-level, on the low wooded
banks of the river opposite some islands of the same name, and
has a warm but healthful climate (mean annual temperature,
about 75° F.). The city consists of two pueblos, the larger of
which is occupied by Indians and half-breeds, the descendants
of the Iquitos tribe from whom the city takes its name. The
opening of the Amazon to navigation, and the subsequent arrival
of foreign ocean-going vessels at Iquitos, added immensely to the
importance of the city, and made it the commercial entrep6t
of eastern Peru. In 1908 three lines of ocean-going steamers
were making regular voyages up the Amazon to Iquitos (about
2500 m.). The city has a large import and export trade for an
immense region watered by the Maranon, Huallaga, Ucayali
and other large Amazonian rivers navigated from Iquitos by
lines of small boats. Iquitos was put in wireless telegraphic
communication with Puerto Bermudez on the 8th of July 1908,
whence a land line runs across the Andes to Lima. Besides
machine shops and shipbuilding facilities, the important in-
dustries are the weaving of hats and hammocks, and the pre-
paration of salt fish; and there is a considerable export of
rubber and straw hats. Tobacco is produced in the vicinity
and sent to other parts of the Montana region. Iquitos dates
officially from 1863, when it had a population of 431, though there
had been a white settlement there for more than half a century.
740
IRAK— IRAK-ARABI
IRAK, a province of Persia, situated W. of Kum and Kashan
and E. of Burujird, and paying a yearly revenue of about £16,000.
The province has many flourishing villages which produce much
grain, but its greatest income is derived from the carpets made
in many of its villages and mostly exported to Europe, the
value of which is estimated at about £100,000 per annum. An
important British firm is established at Sultanabad, the capital
of the province, solely for this trade. Sultanabad is situated
77 m. S.W. of Kum in 34° 6' N. and 49° 42' E. at an elevation
of 5925 ft. It has a population of about 8000 and post and
telegraph offices. It was founded in 1808 and made a recruiting
centre for some battalions of infantry which were to form part
of the reorganized Persian army as recommended by the chief
of the French mission, General Gardane. In consequence of its
recent foundation it is still occasionally spoken of as Shahr-i-no,
the " new city."
IRAK-ARABI ('Iraq-Arabi, " Arab Irak "), the name
employed since the Arab conquest to designate that portion of
the valley of the Tigris and Euphrates known in older literature
as Babylonia. Irak is approximately the region below the
Median Wall, from Opis on the Tigris, at the mouth of Shatt-el-
Adhem, to the neighbourhood of Ramadieh (Ramadiya) on the
Euphrates; that is, from nearly latitude 34° to the Persian Gulf,
and from the Syrian desert to the Persian mountains. It
consists of two unequal portions, an extensive dry steppe with
a healthy desert climate, and an unhealthy region of swamps.
There is a good deal more agriculture along the Euphrates than
along the Tigris, but swamps are at the same time much more
extensive along the former. The borders of both streams
wherever there is habitation are lined with date-palms. This is
especially true of the lower part of Irak in the Basra vilayet,
where the date-palm forms dense groves bordering the banks for
a distance of many days' journey. A luxuriant vegetation of
water plants is to be found in the swamps, which are the haunt
of numerous wild beasts — pigs, lions, different kinds of aquatic
animals and birds. These swamps are inhabited by a wild race
of men, dark of hue, with many negroes among them, who
cultivate rice and weave straw mats. Their chiefs, with their
wives and a very few retainers or members of their immediate
families, live in mud castles; the tribesmen live in rude huts of
reeds and mats about these castles. In the main these swamp-
dwellers, who designate themselves Ma -dan, keep pretty free
both of the Turkish government and of the semi-Bedouins of
Irak. Some of them are very lawless, especially the inhabitants
of the region below the Shatt-el-Hal, between the two rivers.
Here the Turkish government exercises no authority, and the
tribesmen of the swamps play pirate on the merchandise passing
up and down the Euphrates above Korna, where for some 80 m.
the river has been allowed to form an immense swamp. Some
of the Bedouin tribes also engage in marauding expeditions and
terrorize certain portions of the country. Especially trouble-
some are the edh-Dhafir, westward of the Euphrates, opposite
the mouth of the Shatt-el-Hai, and the Beni Lam (7500 tents
strong) who occupy the country east of the Tigris to the south
of Bagdad. Still more difficult of control is the great tribe of
Shammar, who descend every year from the north, pitching
their tents in the Jezireh (i.e. the region between the two rivers)
southward of Bagdad, and terrifying the whole country during
their stay. The Turkish government is, however, gradually
extending its authority over all Irak partly by force, partly by
treachery. The Affech nation, Ma'-dan Arabs, occupying the
swamps behind Diwanieh between the Tigris and Euphrates,
and the great Montefich tribes, Bedouins who claimed the whole
country southward of the Affech to the Shatt-el-Hal and beyond,
have since 1880 been deprived gradually of their power and a
considerable part of their independence. In 1903 the Turkish
government transferred the capital of the sanjak of Ilillah to
Diwanieh opposite the Affech swamps, and there is now a line
of towns, centres of Turkish power and Turkish force, extending
southward from Ana to Nasrieh, at the mouth of the Shatt-el-
Hal canal, while similar stations are being established .or
strengthened along the Tigris. Some important steps have also
been taken by the Turkish government to control the Euphrates
floods, and to drain the swamps in some sections of the country,
especially westward of the Euphrates. A dam was built at the
mouth of the Hindieh canal to prevent the waters of the
Euphrates from losing themselves as heretofore in the swamps
westward, and to assure a continual supply of water in the main
bed of the Euphrates. It is, however, frequently carried away.
The ancient Assyrium Stagnum, or Bahr Nejef near the town of
that name, with other swamps formed by the overflow of the
Hindieh, have been drained and turned into rice plantations.
At the same time large sections of Irak have been converted
into imperial domain, to the diminution of the revenues of the
country but to the increase of the prosperity of the population
which inhabits that domain. Something, though not very much,
has thus been done to restore the land to its ancient fertility.
Ethnographically Irak is subject to a double influence. On
the one hand the connexion with Nejd, the centre plateau of
Arabia, continues uninterrupted, even the "Agel Bedouins
from central Arabia having a quarter of their own in Bagdad.
Many of these Arabs come to Irak merely for a temporary
residence, returning later to their homes with the earnings
acquired in that comparatively rich country; but a considerable
number remain permanently. Even stronger than the influence
of Arabia is that of Persia. In general the inhabitants of Irak
are Shi'ites not Sunnites, and their religious connexion and
allegiance is therefore toward Persia, not Turkey. Persian
customs are in fashion, Persian coinage is used equally with the
Turkish, and in some parts, more especially in Bagdad, there
is an important Persian quarter, while Kerbela and Meshed 'Ali
to the west of the Euphrates are really Persian enclaves in
Turkish territory. No traces remain of that rich intellectual
development which was produced in the time of the caliphs
through the reciprocal action of Persian and Arabic elements.
Still, the quick-wittedness of the inhabitants of Irak makes
a decided impression on the traveller passing through Asiatic
Turkey. Throughout Irak also Indian influence is visible in
not a few particulars. In the hot summer months, for instance,
when the natives live in those underground apartments called
serdab, the Indian punkah is used in the houses of the rich.
There are also small Indian colonies at most of the large towns
and a considerable trade with India is carried on, especially in
horses.
The trade of Irak is even now not unimportant. The principal
exports from Basra are dates, various grains, millet seed, rice
and wool, while the imports consist chiefly of Manchester goods,
lumber, petroleum, coal and household necessities. Besides
this there is a considerable land commerce by caravan, of which
Bagdad is the centre. The total value of the exports of Irak
according to the official figures of the Turkish government
amounts to nearly £2,000,000, while the imports of every kind
reach the value of about £1,800,000. If the ancient system of
irrigation were restored and the land restored to cultivation,
the country could support five hundred times as many in-
habitants as it usually contains. Steamboats navigate the
Tigris only as far as Bagdad, and that with great difficulty.
In general, communication by water is carried on by means of
the most primitive craft. Goods are transported in the so-called
iurradas, moderately big high-built vessels, which also venture
out into the Persian Gulf as far as Kuwet. Passengers are con-
veyed, especially on the Euphrates, in the mesh/mf, a very long
narrow boat, mostly pushed along the river bank with poles
or towed by ropes. The Mesopotamian kelleks, rafts laid on
goat-skin bladders, come down the Tigris as far as Bagdad.
At Bagdad round boats made of plaited reeds pitched with
asphalt, the so-called kufas (qufas), are used. At Basra the
bellems are in use, boats of large size, having the appearance
of being hollowed out of tree trunks and partly in fact so con-
structed. There are no roads, and the extensive swamps and
periodic inundations which lay large sections under water
render land traffic by caravan somewhat uncertain.
~ Irak in general is an alluvial plain, formed by the deposits of the
rivers Tigris and Euphrates, with a few scattered reaches of sand
IRAK-I-AJAMI
appearing hare and there. The mass of solid matter which the rivers
deposit is very considerable. The maximum proportion for the
Euphrates in the month of January island at other times jfo, ; for
the Tigris the maximum is Tij. In general, the northern plains of
the interior have a slight but well-defined southerly inclination, with
local depressions. The territory undulates in the central districts,
and then sinks away into mere marshes and lakes. The clay, of a
deep blue colour, abounds with marine shells, and shows a strong
efflorescence of natron and sea-salt. When the soil is parched the
appearance of the mirage (serab) is very common. As extensive
inundations in spring are caused by both the rivers, especially the
Tigris, great changes must have taken place in this part of the
country in the course of thousands of years. It has been asserted
that in former times the alluvial area at the mouth of the river in-
creased I m. in the space of thirty years; and from this it has been
assumed that about the 6th century B.C. the Persian Gulf must have
stretched from 45 to 55 m. farther inland than at present. The
actual rate of increase at the present time is about 72 ft. per annum.
While we may be unable to determine accurately the former physical
configuration of southern Babylonia, it is at least certain that in
Babylonian times the Euphrates and Tigris reached the sea as inde-
pendent rivers, and Ritter estimates that in the time of Alexander
the Great the embouchures were still separated by a good day's
journey. Although they cannot now be traced, great alterations
have probably taken place also in the upper portions of the rivers as
well as in the country near their mouths. The names of a large
number of canals occur in the old Babylonian inscriptions, as in the
works of the Arabian geographers, but while some of these have been
traced it has not been possible hitherto to identify the greater number
of them with actually existing canals or remains of canals. To
the west of the Euphrates, on the edge of the Syrian desert from Hit
downward to the neighbourhood of Basra and beyond, ran the
Sa'adc, now for the most part dry, a very ancient canal, extended or
enlarged at different periods. Lower down near Mussaib, the
Hindieh canal, at least equal in volume to the present main stream,
branches off and after traversing and irrigating an extensive territory
rejoins the river at Samawa. Between the Euphrates and the Tigris,
there was a large number of great canals, especially in the region
northward of Babylon between that city and the northern edge of
the alluvial plain, of which the most famous were the 'Isa, the Sarsar,
the Malk (" Royal "), the canal of Kutha, the Sura and the Arakhat
(Shatt-cn-Nil). Of these only one at present carries water, namely,
the Nahr 'Isa, which, leaving the Euphrates at Sakhlawieh (Sakh
lawiya), terminates in extensive marshes near Bagdad; but this is
now no longer navigable. Southward of Babylon the Daghara canal,
which leaves the Euphrates a little below Hillah and empties into the
Affech marshes, and the Shatt-el-Kehr, which, leaving that stream
a little above Diwanieh, makes a great curve through the interior
of the Jezireh, finally losing itself in the Hosainieh (Hosainiya)
marshes near the mouth of the Shatt-el-Ha'i, are the only navigable
or partly navigable canals of the Euphrates in the Jezireh. The
Tigris canals are not so numerous as those of the Euphrates and were
not so famous in history, but eastward of that river the great
Nahrawan channel still exists in part, while the Tigris is connected
with the Euphrates by a navigable stream, the Shatt-el-Hai, which
leaves the former river at Kut-el-'Amara and enters the Euphrates
at Nasrieh. Everywhere the country is intersected with ancient
canals, some still deep dry beds, other so silted up that their course is
represented only by parallel lines of hillocks. Some of these, of great
antiquity, like the Shatt-en-Nil, which can be traced through its
whole course from Babylon, through or past Nippur, Udnun (Bismya)
Gishban (Gis-ukh), Erech and Larsa, to the Hosainieh marshes, were
equally as important as the Euphrates itself; and indeed it may
be said that in ancient times that stream after reaching the alluvial
plain was divided into a large number of channels, partly
natural partly artificial, no single one of which, but all together,
constituted the Euphrates. By the restoration of these old canals,
traces of which are met with at every step, the country might be
again raised to that condition of high civilization which it enjoyed not
only in antiquity but even as late as the time of the caliphs. The
classical writers are unanimous in their admiration of Babylonia, and
it is certain that nowhere else in the ancient world was the applica-
tion of canals to the exigencies of agriculture worked out so success-
fully as here. The most luxuriant vegetation was diffused over the
whole country and three crops werex obtainable in the year. In the
matter of civilization indeed no country of the ancient world sur-
passed Babylonia. How densely peopled this country once was
may be gathered from the fact that about 794 B.C., 89 fortified towns
and 820 smaller places in the Chaldaean region were captured during
one military expedition. And even in the times of the caliphs there
stood on the royal canal and its branches, north of Babylon, 360
villages, contributing in gold 225,000 dirhems to the state treasury
besides the tax in kind. To-day the whole region from the swamps
about Basra northward is dotted with ruin mounds, and at places
the plain itself is strewn for miles with fragments of glass and
pottery, evidence of earlier occupation, while, as stated, lines of
canals of all possible sizes, from the great triple canals with four rows
of parallel hillocks, down to the smalT canals for purposes of irrigation,
intersect the country in every direction.
There seem to have been almost from the outset two centres
which strove with one another for political supremacy in this
region, the south and the north. In the north in the Babylonian
time lay Kish, Akkad, Kutha (Tell-Ibrahim) , Sippara (Abu
Habba), Babylon and Borsippa (Birs-Nimrud). In the south
were Eridu and Ur (Mughair) — originally on the shores of the
Persian Gulf, now 125 m. inland — Erech (Warka), Larsa
(Senkereh), Lagash (Tello) and Gishban (Yokha). Nearly in
the centre lay [Nippur and Udnun (Bismya). Besides these
there were numerous other cities, some of considerable import-
ance, which are known to us at present only by name; and there
are in Irak hundreds of ruin mounds, some of them of considerable
size, covering ancient Babylonian cities, the greater part of
which are still unexplored and unidentified. During the period
of Greek domination a Greek city, Seleucia (q.v.), which after-
wards attained great prosperity, was founded by Seleucus I.
in an extremely favourable situation on the right bank of the
Tigris. Greek cities were founded also in the south, at the head
of the Persian Gulf, and some of the ancient Babylonian cities
of the interior like Lagash, Erech and Nippur, were rebuilt on
the old sites. After the conquest of Babylonia by the Parthians
(130 B.C.) Ctesiphon (q.v.) was built on the east bank of the
Tigris opposite Seleucia, and became the winter residence of the
Persian kings. Later this double city became the imperial
capital of the Sassanids, and under the name Madain still con-
tinued to flourish after the Arabic conquest, to be finally super-
seded by the neighbouring Bagdad. That region was called
in the time of the Sassanids, Suristan, a translation of the
Aramaean designation Beth-Aramaya, " country of the Syrians,"
for the land was mainly occupied by Aramaeans. By a notable
substitution the Arabs afterwards gave the name Nabat, i.e.
Nabataeans, to these Aramaean tenantry, who it may be added
were already found in these parts at the time of the Babylonian
empire. Indeed, some small portion of this old Syrian population
of Irak still remains distinguished by a special religion (see
MANDAEANS), chiefly on the shores of the lower Euphrates in
the neighbourhood of Suk-esh-Sheiukh. Another important
city of the Sassanian period was Perisabora, known in the
Arabian period as Anbar, the centre also of Babylonian Judaism
after the destruction of Pombeditha in A.D. 588, situated on
the east bank of the Euphrates in about the same latitude as
Bagdad. During the Sassanian period flourished in the south-
east the Arabic kingdom of Hira (q.v.).. There was also for a
time a Jewish kingdom in Babylonia, and Nehardea and Pombe-
ditha are mentioned as centres of Jewish religions and national
life during this period.
After the Arabian conquest in the 7th century A.D., Irak
entered for a time on a new period of prosperity. Several
important new cities were founded, among them Kufa, Basra,
Wasit on the Shatt-el-Hai, and Bagdad on the site of an old
Babylonian city of the same name, which later became under
the Abbasid caliphs not only the capital of Irak but for a time
the metropolis of the world (see CALIPHATE). With the decay
of the Abbasid power the system of irrigation began to fall into
disrepair, the ancient sites were gradually deserted, and the
country finally returned to a condition of semi-barbarism
alternating between inundation and drought, which is its present
state.
See Ritter, Die Erdkunde von Asien, 2nd ed., vol. vii., loth and
nth parts (Berlin, 1843, 1844); W. F. Ainsworth, Researches in
Assyria (London, 1838); F. R. Chesney, Expedition for the Survey
of the Rivers Euphrates and Tigris (2 vols., London, 1850); W. K.
Loftus, Chaldaea and Susiana (1857); F. Delitzsch, Wo lag das
Paradies? (Leipzig, 1881); W. F. Ainsworth, The Euphrates Expedi-
tion (1888); J. P. Peters, Nippur (1897); E. Sachau, Am Euphrat
und Tigris (1900) ; F. Delitzsch, Im Lande des einstigen Paradieses
(1903). Maps: Chesney (1850); Selby, Bewsher and Collingwood
(1871); Kiepert, Ruinenfelder (1883). (A. So.; J. P. PE.)
IRAK-I-AJAMI (i.e. Persian Irak), the name (now obsolete)
of the important Persian province which the Arab geographers
called Jebel (the mountainous region). It used to be the country
bounded N. by Azerbaijan and Gilan, E. by Samnan and the
central Persian desert, S. by Kerman, Pars and Arabistan,
742
IRAN— IRELAND
W. by Kermanshah and Kurdistan. Its length, N.W.-S.E., was
about 600 m. from the Kaftan Kuh on the Kizil Uzain, the
frontier of Azerbaijan, to the frontier of Kerman beyond Yezd,
and its width, N.E.-S.W., about 300 m.
IRAN, the great plateau between the plain of the Tigris in the
west and the valley of the Indus in the east, the Caspian Sea
and the Turanian desert in the north, and the Persian Gulf and
the Indian Ocean in the south, surrounded on all sides by high
mountain ranges with a great salt desert in the centre. The
modern name Iran, in middle-Persian Eran (a form preferred
by many German authors) is derived from the ancient Aryana,
" the country of the Aryans," i.e. that part of the Aryans which
we call Iranians. Eratosthenes limited the name of Ariana to
the south-eastern part of Iran, and excluded Persia, Media and
Bactria, and therein he is followed by Strabo (ii. 78, 130,
xv. 720 ff.; Pomp. Mela i. 3; Pliny, Nat. Hist. vi. 113, 116, xii.
33); Pliny (Nat. Hist. vi. 93) confounds it with Aria, Areia,
Pers. Haraiva, i.e. the district of Herat; but Strabo himself says
(xv. 724) that some extended the name to the Persians, Medes,
Bactrians and Sogdians, as they all spoke the same language
with small dialectic variations (cf. 727 and i. 66, xi. 523).
For the ethnography and history of Iran see PERSIA. (Eo. M.)
IRBIT, a town of Russia, in the government of Perm, no m.
N.E. of Ekaterinburg, and on the Irbit river. Pop. (1860)
3408, (1897) 20,064. It is famous for a great fair, held since
1643, which lasts from the ist of February to the ist of March
(O.S.), and at which are sold (to an average annual value of over
£4,000,000) cottons, woollens, flax and hemp, silks, leather,
metals, metallic and other manufactured goods, furs, hides,
felt, raw wool and tea.
IRELAND, JOHN (1761-1842), English divine and dean of
Westminster, was born at Ashburton, Devonshire, on the 8th of
September 1761, his father being a butcher in that town. For
a short time he worked in a shoemaker's shop. Subsequently
he proceeded to Oxford, and in due course took holy orders.
Through the interest of the earl of Liverpool he was in 1802
appointed a prebendary of Westminster Abbey, in 1815 he was
promoted to the deanery of Westminster, and from 1816 to 1835
he was also rector of Islip, Oxfordshire. In 1825 he gave £4000
for the foundation at Oxford of four " Ireland " scholarships
of the value of £30 a year each, " for the promotion of classical
learning and taste." He also gave £500 to Westminster school
for the establishment of prizes for Latin hexameters. He died
at Westminster on the and of September 1842, and was buried
in the abbey.
IRELAND, JOHN (1838- ), American Roman Catholic
prelate, was born at Burnchurch, County Kilkenny, Ireland, on
the i ith of September 1838. In 1849 he was taken to the United
States by his parents, who settled at St Paul, Minnesota Territory.
After being educated in France for the priesthood, he returned
to the United States in 1861; he was ordained at St Paul and in
the following year he accompanied the sth Minnesota Volunteer
Infantry south as chaplain. Subsequently he became rector of
the cathedral at St Paul, and in 1870-1871 represented Bishop
Thomas Langdon Grace (1814-1897) at the Vatican council at
Rome. In 1875 he was appointed bishop of Nebraska, but at
the urgent request of Bishop Grace the appointment was changed
so that he might remain at St Paul as bishop-coadjutor with the
right of succession ; at the same time he was made titular bishop
of Maronea. In 1884 he succeeded to the bishopric, and in 1888
he became the first archbishop of the see. His liberal views
gave him a wide influence and reputation both within and
without the church, and he came to be looked upon as a leader
of the " American " as distinguished from the " Roman " party
in the clergy. His views were, however, opposed by several
leading Catholics; and several of his administrative acts,
notably his plan for the partial taking over of control of the
parochial schools by the local authorities (known from the town
in which it was first attempted, " the Faribault plan "), were
strenuously attacked. He was prominently identified with the
planting of Catholic communities or colonies in the North- West,
with the establishment of the Catholic University at Washington,
and with the Catholic total abstinence movement. The degree
of LL.D. was] conferred on him by Yale University in 1901. He
published The Church and Modern Society (1896).
IRELAND, WILLIAM HENRY (1777-1835), forger of Shake-
spearian manuscripts, was born in London in 1777. His father,
Samuel Ireland, was an engraver and author, and dealer in rare
books and curios. In 1794 young Ireland, with his father,
visited Stratford, where he met John Jordan, a local poet who
had published a deal of gossipy matter about Shakespeare and
had even forged the will of the poet's father. Seeing his own
father's credulous interest, Ireland conceived the idea of doing
a little forgery on his own account. He copied, in ink which
had all the signs of age, Shakespeare's style and handwriting,
and produced leases, contracts with actors, notes, receipts, a
profession of faith, and even a love letter to Anne Hathaway
with an enclosed lock of hair, to the delight of his unsuspecting
father, and the deception of many scholars who attested their
belief in the genuineness of his finds. These he accounted for by
inventing an ancestor " William Henrye Irelaunde," to whom
they had been bequeathed by Shakespeare in gratitude forjescue
from drowning. At last the discovery of a whole new play
named Vortigern was announced. Sheridan purchased it for
Drury Lane Theatre, and an overflowing house assembled on
the 2nd of April 1796 to sit in judgment upon it. But away from
the glamour of crabbed handwriting and yellow paper, the feeble
dialogue and crude conceptions of the tragedy could not stand
the test, and its one representation was greeted with shouts of
laughter. Its fate prevented the composition of a series of
historical plays, of which Henry II. had already been produced
by this audacious forger. Samuel Ireland the elder had pub-
lished in 1795 the Miscellaneous Papers and Legal Instruments
under the Hand and Seal of William Shakespeare; including
the Tragedy of King Lear and a small fragment of Hamlet (dated
1796). He had the fullest belief in their authenticity, but the
hostile criticism of Malone and others, and the unsatisfactory
account of the source of the papers, made him demand a full
disclosure from his son. Harassed by the success of his own
deceit, which had carried him far beyond his first intention,
Ireland at last confessed his fraud, and published (1796) an
Authentic Account of the Shakespearian MSS., and in 1805, a
more elaborate Confession, entirely exculpating his father and
making a full admission. The elder Ireland felt the disgrace
very bitterly, and it probably hastened his death, which occurred
in July 1800. After the exposure Ireland was forced to abandon
both his home and his profession. He wrote several novels of no
value, gradually sank into penury, and died on the I7th of
April 1835.
The more interesting publications on the Ireland forgeries are:
Inquiry into the authenticity of certain Papers, &c., attributed to
Shakespeare, by Edmond Malone (1796); the elder Ireland's Vindi-
cation of his Conduct (1796); An Apology for the Believers in the
Shakespeare Papers (1797), and a Supplemental Apology (1799),
both by George Chalmers; and pamphlets by Boaden, Waldron,
Wyatt, Webb and Oulton. Vortigern was republished in 1832.
The elder Ireland's correspondence with regard to the forgeries is
preserved in the British Museum, with numerous specimens of his
son's talent. Ireland's career supplied the subject-matter of James
Payn's novel The Talk of the Town (1885).
IRELAND, an island lying west of Great Britain, and forming
with it the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. It
extends from 51° 26' to 55° 21' N., and from 5° 25' to 10° 30' W.
It is encircled by the Atlantic Ocean, and on the east is separated
from Great Britain by narrow shallow seas, towards the north
by the North Channel, the width of which at the narrowest part
between the Mull of Cantire (Scotland) and Torr Head is only
13 J m.; in the centre by the Irish Sea, 130 m. in width, and in
the south by St George's Channel, which has a width of 69 m.
between Dublin and Holyhead (Wales) and of 47 m. at its
southern extremity. The island has the form of an irregular
rhomboid, the largest diagonal of which, from Torr Head in the
north-east to Mizen Head in the south-west, measures 302 m.
The greatest breadth due east and west is 1 74m., from Dundrum
Bay to Annagh Head, county Mayo; and the average breadth
is about no m. The total area is 32,531 sq. m.
PHYSICAL FEATURES]
IRELAND
743
Ireland is divided territorially into four provinces and thirty-
two counties: — (a) Ulster (northern division): Counties Antrim,
Armagh, Cavan, Donegal, Down, Fermanagh, Londonderry,
Monaghan, Tyrone, (b) Leinsler (eastern midlands and south-
east): Counties Carlow, Dublin, Kildare, Kilkenny, King's
County, Longford, Louth, Meath, Queen's County, Westmeath,
Wexford, Wicklow. (c) Connaught (western midlands) : Counties
Galway, Leitrim, Mayo, Roscommon, Sligo. (d) Munster (south-
western division): Counties Clare, Cork, Kerry, Limerick,
Tipperary, Waterford.
Physical Geography. — Ireland stands on the edge of the
European " continental shelf." Off the peninsula of Mullet
(county Mayo) there are 100 fathoms of water within 25 m. of
the coast which overlooks the Atlantic; eastward, northward and
southward, in the narrow seas, this depth is never reached.
The average height of the island is about 400 ft., but the distribu-
tion of height is by no means equal. The island has no spinal
range or dominating mountain mass. Instead, a series of small,
isolated clusters of mountains, reaching from the coast to an
extreme distance of some 70 m. inland, almost surrounds a great
central plain which seldom exceeds 250 ft. in elevation. A
physical description of Ireland, therefore, falls naturally under
three heads — the coasts, the mountain rim and the central plain.
The capital city and port of Dublin lies a little south of the central
point of the eastern coast, at the head of a bay which marks a
_ . sudden change in the coastal formation. Southward from
its northern horn, the rocky headland of Howth, the coast
is generally steep, occasionally sheer, and the mountains of county
Wicklow approach it closely. Northward (the direction first to be
followed) it is low, sandy and fringed with shoals, for here is one
point at which the central plain extends to the coast. This con-
dition obtains from 53° 25' N. until at 54° N. the mountains close
down again, and the narrow inlet or fjord of Carlingford Lough
separates the abrupt heights of the Carlingford and Mourne Moun-
tains. Then the low and sandy character is resumed ; the fine east-
ward sweep of Dundrum Bay is passed, the coast turns north again,
and a narrow channel gives entry to the island-studded lagoon of
Strangford Lough. Reaching county Antrim, green wooded hills
plunge directly into the sea; the deep Belfast Lough strikes some
to m. inland, and these conditions obtain nearly to Fair Head, the
north-eastern extremity of the island. Here the coast turns west-
ward, changing suddenly to sheer cliffs, where the basaltic formation
intrudes its strange regular columns, most finely developed in the
famous Giant's Causeway.
The low land surrounding the plain-track of the Bann intervenes
between this and the beginning of a coastal formation which is
common to the north-western and western coasts. From the oval
indentation of Lough Foyle a bluff coast trends north-westward to
Malin Head, the northernmost promontory of the island. Thence
over the whole southward stretch to Mizen Head in county Cork
is found that physical appearance of a cliff-bound coast fretted with
deep fjord-like inlets and fringed with/many islands, which through-
out the world is almost wholly confined to western seaboards.
Mountains impinge upon the sea almost over the whole length,
sometimes, as in Slieve League (county Donegal), immediately
facing it with huge cliffs. Eight dominant inlets appear. Lough
Foyle is divided from Lough Swilly by the diamond-shaped peninsula
of Inishowen. Following the coast southward, Donegal Bay is
divided from Galway Bay by the hammer-like projection of county
Mayo and Connemara, the square inlet of Clew Bay intervening.
At Galway Bay the mountain barrier is broken, where the great
central plain strikes down to the sea as it does on the east coast north
of Dublin. After the stern coast of county Clare there follow the
estuary of the great river Shannon, and then three large inlets
striking deep into the mountains of Kerry and Cork — Dingle Bay,
Kenmare river and Bantry Bay, separating the prongs of the fork-
like south-western projection of the island. The whole of this coast
is wild and beautiful, and may be compared with the west coast of
Scotland and even that of Norway, though it has a strong indi-
viduality distinct from either; and though for long little known to
travellers, it now possesses a number of small watering-places, and
is in many parts accessible by railway. The islands though numerous
are not as in Scotland and Norway a dominant feature of the coast,
being generally small and often mere clusters of reefs. Exceptions,
however, are Tory Island and North Aran off the Donegal coast,
Achill and Clare off Mayo, the South Arans guarding Galway Bay,
the Blasquets and Valencia off the Kerry coast. On many of these
desolate rocks, which could have afforded only the barest sustenance,
there are remains of the dwellings and churches of early religious
settlers who sought solitude here. The settlements on Inishmurray
(Sligo), Aranmore in the South Arans, and Scattery in the Shannon
estuary, had a fame as retreats of piety and learning far outside
Ireland itself, and the significance of a.pilgrimage to their sites is not
yet wholly forgotten among the peasantry, while the preservation
of their remains has come to be a national trust.
The south coast strikes a mean between the east and the west.
It is lower than the west though still bold in many places; the
inlets are narrower and less deep, but more easily accessible, as
appears from the commercial importance of the harbours of Cork
and Waterford. Turning northward to the east of Waterford round
Carnsore Point, the lagoon-like harbour of Wexford is passed, and
then a sweeping, almost unbroken, line continues to Dublin Bay.
But this coast, though differing completely from the western, is not
lacking in beauty, for, like the Mournes in county Down, the moun-
tains of Wicklow rise close to the sea, and sometimes directly from it.
Every mountain group in Ireland forms an individual mass,
isolated by complex systems of valleys in all directions. They
seldom exceed 3000 ft. in height, yet generally possess a. M
certain dignity, whether from their commanding position
or their bold outline. Every variety of form is seen, from steep
flat-topped table-mountains as near Loughs Neagh and Erne, to
peaks such as those of the Twelve Pins or Bens of Connemara.
Unlike the Scottish Highlands no part of them was capable of
sheltering a whole native race in opposition to the advance of
civilization, though early customs, tradition and the common use of
the Erse language yet survive in some strength in the wilder parts
of the west. From the coasts there is almost everywhere easy access
to the interior through the mountains by valley roads; and though
the plain exists unbroken only in the midlands, its ramifications
among the hills are always easy to follow. Plain and lowland of an
elevation below 500 ft. occupy nearly four-fifths of the total area;
and if the sea were to submerge these, four distinct archipelagos
would appear, a northern, eastern, western and south-western.
The principal groups, with their highest points, are the Mournes
(Slieve Donard, 2796 ft.) and the Wicklow mountains (Lugnaquilla,
3039) on the east; the Sperrins (Sawel, 2240) in the north; the
Derryveagh group in the north-west (Errigal, 2466) ; the many
groups or short ranges of Sligo, Mayo and Galway (reaching 1695 ft.
in the Twelve Pins of Connemara) ; in the south-west those of
Kerry and Cork, where in Carrantuohill or Carntual (3414) the
famous Macgillicuddy Reeks which beautify the environs of Killarney
include the highest point in the island; and north-east from these,
the Galtees of Tipperary (3018) and Slieve Bloom, the farthest
inland of the important groups. Nearer the south coast are the
Knockmealdown (2609) and Commeragh Mountains (2470) of county
Waterford.
It will be realized from the foregoing description that it is im-
possible to draw accurate boundary lines to the great Irish plain,
yet it rightly carries the epithet central because it dis- ,. ..
tinctly divides the northern mountain groups from the
southern. The plain is closely correlated with the bogs p
which are the best known physical characteristic of Ireland, but the
centre of Ireland is not wholly bog-land. Rather the bogs of the
plain are intersected by strips of low-lying firm ground, and the
central plain consists of these bright green expanses alternating
with the brown of the bogs, of which the best known and (with its
offshoots) one of the most extensive is the Bog of (Allen in the
eastern midlands. But the bogs are not confined to the plain.
They may be divided into black and red according to the degree of
moisture and the vegetable matter which formed them. The black
bogs are those of the plain and the deeper valleys, while the red,
firmer and less damp, occur on the mountains. The former supply
most of the peat, and some of the tree-trunks dug out of them
have been found so flexible from immersion that they might be
twisted into ropes. Owing to the quantity of tannin they contain,
no harmful miasma exhales from the Irish bogs.
The central plain and its offshoots are drained by rivers to all
the coasts, but chiefly eastward and westward, and the water-
partings in its midst are sometimes impossible to define. „,
The main rivers, however, have generally a mountain
source, and according as they are fed from bogs or springs may be
differentiated as black and bright streams. In this connexion the
frequent use of the name Blackwater is noticeable. The principal
rivers are — from the Wicklow Mountains, the Slaney, flowing S. to
Wexford harbour, and the Liffey, flowing with a tortuous course
N. and E. to Dublin Bay; the Boyne, fed from the central plain
and discharging into Drogheda Bay; from the mountains of county
Down, the Lagan, to Belfast Lough, and the Bann, draining the
great Lough Neagh to the northern sea; the Foyle, a collection of
streams from the mountains of Tyrone and Donegal, flowing north
to Lough Foyle. On the west the rivers are generally short and
torrential, excepting the Erne, which drains the two beautiful
loughs of that name in county Fermanagh, and the Shannon, the
chief river of Ireland, which, rising in a mountain spring in county
Cavan, follows a bow-shaped course to the south and south-west,
and draws off the major part of the waters of the plain by tributaries
from the east. In the south, the Lee and the Blackwater intersect
the mountains of Kerry and Cork flowing east, and turn abruptly
into estuaries opening south. Lastly, rising in the Slieve Bloom
or neighbouring mountains, the Suir, Nore and Barrow follow
widely divergent courses to the south to unite in Waterford
harbour.
744
IRELAND
[CLIMATE: GEOLOGY
The lakes (called loughs — pronounced lochs) of Ireland are in-
numerable, and (apart from their formation) are almost all contained
in two great regions, (i) The central plain by its nature
Lakes. abounds in loughs — dark, peat-stained pools with low
shores. The principal of these lie in county Westmeath, such as
Loughs Ennel, Owel and Derravaragh, famed for their trout-fishing
in the May-fly season. (2) The Shannon, itself forming several
large loughs, as Allen, Ree and Derg; and the Erne, whose course
lies almost wholly through loughs — Gowna, Oughter and the
Loughs Erne, irregular of outline and studded with islands — separate
this region from the principal lake-region of Ireland, coincident
with the province of Connaught. In the north lie Loughs Melvin,
close above Donegal Bay, and Gill near Sligp, Lough Gara, draining
to the Shannon, and Lough Conn near Ballina (county Mayo), and
in the south, the great expanses of Loughs Mask and Corrib, joined
by a subterranean channel. To the west of these last, the mountains
of Connemara and,. to a more marked degree, the narrow plain of
bog-land between them and Galway Bay, are sown with small lakes,
nearly every hollow of this wild district being filled with water.
Apart from these two regions the loughs of Ireland are few but
noteworthy. In the south-west the lakes of Killarney are widely
famed for their exquisite scenic setting; in the north-east Lough
Neagh has no such claim, but is the largest lake in the British Isles,
while in the south-east there are small loughs in some of the
picturesque glens of county Wicklow.
Climate. — The climate of Ireland is more equable than that
of Great Britain as regards both temperature and rainfall.
No district in Ireland has a rainfall so heavy as that of large
portions of the Highlands of Scotland, or so light as that of several
large districts in the east of Great Britain. In January the mean
temperature scarcely falls below 40° F. in any part of Ireland,
whereas over the larger part of the eastern slope of Great Britain
it is some 3° lower; and in July the extremes in Ireland are
59° in the north and 62° in Kilkenny. The range from north
to south of Great Britain in the same month is some 10°, but
the greater extent of latitude accounts only for a part of this
difference, which is mainly occasioned by the physical configura-
tion of the surface of Ireland in its relations to the prevailing
moist W.S.W. winds. Ireland presents to these winds no
unbroken mountain ridge running north and south, which would
result in two climates as distinct as those of the east and west
of Ross-shire; but it presents instead only a series of isolated
groups, with the result that it is only a few limited districts which
enjoy climates approaching in dryness the climates of the whole
of the eastern side of Great Britain. (O. J. R. H.)
Geology. — Ireland, rising from shallow seas on the margin of the
submarine plateau of western Europe, records in its structure the
successive changes that the continent itself has undergone. The
first broad view of the country shows us a basin-shaped island
consisting of a central limestone plain surrounded by mountains;
but the diverse modes of origin of these mountains, and the differ-
ences in their trend, suggest at once that they represent successive
epochs of disturbance. The north-west highlands of Donegal and
the Ox Mountains, with their axes of folding running north-east and
south-west, invite comparison with the great chain of Leinster,
but also with the Grampians and the backbone of Scandinavia.
The ranges from Kerry to Waterford, on the other hand, truncated
by the sea at either end, are clearly parts of an east and west system,
the continuation of which may be looked for in South Wales and
Belgium. The hills of the north-east are mainly the crests of lava-
plateaux, which carry the mind towards Skye and the volcanic
province of the Faeroe Islands. The two most important points of
contrast between the geology of Ireland and that of England are,
firstly, the great exposure of Carboniferous rocks in Ireland,
Mesozoic strata being almost absent; and, secondly, the presence
of volcanic rocks in place of the marine Eocene of England.
The fact that no Cambrian strata have been established by
palaeontological evidence in the west of Ireland has made it equally
difficult to establish any pre-Cambrian system. The great difference
in character, however, between the Silurian strata at Pomeroy in
county Tyrone and the adjacent metamorphic series makes it highly
probable that the latter masses are truly Archean. They form an
interesting and bleak moorland between Cookstown and Omagh,
extending north-eastward into Slieve Gallion in county London-
derry, and consist fundamentally of mica-schist and gneiss, affected
by earth-pressures, and invaded by granite near Lough Fee. The
axis along which they have been elevated runs north-east and
south-west, and on either flank a series of " green rocks " appears,
consisting of altered amygdaloidal andesitic lavas, intrusive dolerites,
coarse gabbros and diorites, and at Beagh-bcg and Creggan in
central Tyrone ancient rhyolitic tuffs. Red and grey cherts, which
have not so far yielded undoubted organic remains, occur in this
series, and it has in consequence been compared with the Arenig
rocks of southern Scotland. The granite invades this " green-
rock " series at Slieve Gallion and elsewhere, but is itself pre-
Devonian. Even if the volcanic and intrusive basic rocks prove
to be Ordovician (Lower Silurian), which is very doubtful, the
metamorphic series of the core is clearly distinct, and appears to be
" fundamental " so far as Ireland is concerned.
The other metamorphic areas of the north present even greater
difficulties, owing to the absence of any overlying strata older than
the Old Red Sandstone. Their rocks have been variously held to
be Archean, Cambrian and Silurian, and their general trend has
undoubtedly been determined by post-Silurian earth-movements.
Hence it is useful to speak of them merely as " Dalradian," a con-
venient term invented by Sir A. Geikie for the metamorphic series
of the old kingdom of Dalriada. They come out as mica-schists
under the Carboniferous sandstones of northern Antrim, and dis-
appear southward under the basaltic plateaux. The red gneisses
near Torr Head probably represent intrusive granite; and this
small north-eastern exposure is representative of the Dalradian series
which covers so wide a field from central Londonderry to the coast
of Donegal. The oldest rocks in this large area are a stratified series
of mica-schists, limestones and quartzites, with numerous intrusive
sheets of diorite, the whole having been metamorphosed by pressure,
with frequent overfolding. Extensive subsequent metamorphism
has been produced by the invasion of great masses of granite.
Similar rocks come up along the Ox Mountain axis, and occupy the
wild west of Mayo and Connemara. The quartzites here form bare
white cones and ridges, notably in Errigal and Aghla Mt. in county
Donegal, and in the group of the Twelve Bens in county Galway.
Following on these rocks of unknown but obviously high an-
tiquity, we find fossiliferous Ordovician (Lower Silurian) strata near
Killary harbour .on the west, graduating upwards into a complete
Gotlandian (Upper Silurian) system. Massive conglomerates occur
in these series, which are unconformable on the Dalradian rocks of
Connemara. In the Wenlock beds of the west of the Dingle pro-
montory there are contemporaneous tuffs and lavas. Here the
Ludlow strata are followed by a thick series of barren beds (the
Dingle Beds), which have been variously claimed as Upper Silurian
and Lower Devonian. No certain representative of the Dingle
Beds has been traced elsewhere throughout the south of Ireland,
where the Old Red Sandstone succeeds the uptilted Silurian strata
with striking unconformity. The Silurian rocks were indeed greatly
folded before the Old Red Sandstone was laid down, the general
trend of the folds being from south-west to north-east. The best
example of these folds is the axis of Leinster, its core being occupied
by granite which is now exposed continuously for 70 m., forming
a moorland from Dublin to New Ross. On either flank the Silurian
shales, slates and sandstones, which are very rarely fossiliferous,
rise with steep dips. They are often contorted, and near the contact
with the granite pass into mica-schists and quartzites. The foothills
and lowlands throughout southern Wicklow and almost the whole
of Wexford, and the corresponding country of western Wicklow
and eastern Kildare, are thus formed of Silurian beds, in which
numerous contemporaneous and also intrusive igneous rocks are
intercalated, striking like the chain N.E. and S.W. In south-
eastern Wexford, in northern Wicklow (from Ashford to Bray),
and in the promontory of Howth on Dublin Bay, an apparently
earlier series of green and red slates and quartzites forms an im-
portant feature. The quartzites, like those of the Dalradian series,
weather out in cones, such as the two Sugarloaves south of Bray,
or in knob-set ridges, such as the crest of Howth or Carrick Mt.
in county Wicklow. The radial or fan-shaped markings known as
Oldhamia were first detected in this series, but are now known
from Cambrian beds in other countries; in default of other satis-
factory fossils, the series of Bray and Howth has long been held
to be Cambrian.
All across Ireland, from the Ballyhoura Hills on the Cork border
to the southern shore of Belfast Lough, slaty and sandy Silurian
beds appear in the axes of the anticlinal folds, surrounded by Old
Red Sandstone scarp's or Carboniferous Limestone lowlands. These
Silurian areas give rise to hummocky regions, where small hills
abound, without much relation to the trend of the axis of elevation.
The most important area appears north of the town of Longford, and
extends thence to the coast of Down. In Slieve Glah it reaches a
height of 1057 ft. above the sea. Granite is exposed along its axis
from near Newry to Slieve Croob, and again appears at Crossdoney
in county Cavan. These occurrences of granite, with that of
Leinster, in connexion with the folding of the Silurian strata, make
it highly probable that many of the granites of the Dalradian areas,
which have a similar trend and which have invaded the schists so
intimately as to form with them a composite gneiss, date also from
a post-Silurian epoch of earth-movement. Certain western and
northern granites are however older, since granite boulders occur
in Silurian conglomerates derived from the Dalradian complex.
This group of N.E. and S.W. ridges and hollows, so conspicuous
in the present conformation of Donegal, Sligo and Mayo, in the
axis of Newry, and in the yet bolder Leinster Chain, was impressed
upon the Irish region at the close of Silurian times, and is clearly
a part of the " Caledonian " system of folds, which gave to Europe
the guiding lines of the Scottish Highlands and of Scandinavia.
On the land-surface thus formed the Devonian lakes gathered,
while the rivers poured into them enormous deposits of sand and
conglomerate. A large exposure of this Old Red Sandstone stretches
W/ilL
•
GEOLOGY]
IRELAND
from Enniskillen to the Silurian beds at Pomeroy, and some con-
temporaneous andesites are included, reminding us of the volcanic
activity at the same epoch in Scotland. The numerous " felstone "
dikes, often lamprophyric, occurring in the north and west of
Ireland, are probably also of Devonian age. The conglomerates
appear at intervals through the limestone covering of central Ireland,
and usually weather out as conspicuous scarps or " hog's-backs."
The Slieve Bloom Mountains are thus formed of a dome of Old
Red Sandstone folded on a core of unconformable Silurian strata;
while in several cases the domes are worn through, leaving rings of
Old Red Sandstone hills, scarping inwards towards broad exposures
of Silurian shales. The Old Red Sandstone is most fully manifest
in the rocky or heather-clad ridges that run from the west of Kerry
to central Waterford, rising to 3414 ft. in Carrantuohill in Macgilli-
cuddy's Reeks, and 3015 ft. in Galtymore. In the Dingle Pro-
745
1 Loagt] tteagh Tertiary Clays
J Eocene Basalt and Dolerite
] Cretaceous
J Trias, sometimes surmounted
i by Lower Jurassic
1 Upper Carboniferous
\ Carboniferous Limestone
mm Lower Carboniferous Sandstone
iil and Slate (latter in South)
•••••••'' Devonian (Old Red Sandstone)
1 Silurian (and Cambrian ?>
'Dalradian" Metamorphic Series
Diorite and allied Basic Kockt
Granite and aided Acid Racks
montory the conglomerates of this period rest with striking uncon-
formity on the Dingle Beds and Upper Silurian series. Here there
may be a local break between Lower and Upper Devonian strata.
The highest beds of Old Red Sandstone type pass up conformably
in the south of Ireland into the Lower Carboniferous, through the
" Yellow Sandstone Series " and the " Coomhola Grits " above it.
The Yellow Sandstone contains Archanodon, the oldest known
fresh-water mollusc, and plant-remains; the Coomhola Grits are
marine, and are sometimes regarded as Carboniferous, sometimes as
uppermost Devonian.
In the south, the Carboniferous deposits open with the Carboni-
ferous Slate, in the base of which the Coomhola Grits occur. Its
lower part represents the Lower Carboniferous Shales and Sand-
stones of the central and northern areas, while its upper part corre-
sponds with a portion of the Carboniferous Limestone. The Carboni-
ferous Limestone, laid down in a sea which covered nearly the whole
Irish area, appears in the synclinal folds at Cork city and Kenmare,
and is the prevalent rock from the north side of the Knockmealdown
Mountains to Enniskillen and Donegal Bay. On the east it spreads to
Drogheda and Dublin, and on the west to the heart of Mayo and of
Clare. Loughs Mask and Corrib are thus bounded on the west by
rugged Silurian and Dalradian highlands, and on the east appear as
mere water-filled hollows in the great limestone plain.
The Lower Carboniferous Sandstones are conspicuous in the
region from Milltown near Inver Bay in southern Donegal to Bally-
castle in county Antrim. In the latter place they contain workable
coal-seams. The Carboniferous Limestone often contains black
flint (chert), and at some horizons conglomerates occur, the pebbles
being derived from the unconformable ridges of the " Caledonian "
land. A black and often shaly type called " calp " contains much
clay derived from the same land-surface. While the limestone has
been mainly worn down to a lowland, it forms fine scarps and table-
lands in county Sligo and other western regions. Subterranean
rivers and water-worn caves provide a special type of scenery
below the surface. Contemporaneous volcanic action is recorded
by tuffs and lavas south-east of Limerick and north of Philipstown.
The beds above the limestone are shales and sandstones, sometimes
reaching the true Coal-Measures, but rarely younger than the English
Millstone Grit. They are well seen in the high ground about Lough
Allen, where the Shannon rises on them, round the Castlecomer and
Killenaule coalfields, and in a broad area from the north of Clare
to Killarney. Some coals occur in the Millstone Grit horizons. The
Upper Coal-Measures, as a rule, have been lost by denudation, much
of which occurred before Triassic times. South of the line between
Galway and Dublin the coal is anthracitic, while north of this line it
is bituminous. The northern coalfields are the L. Carboniferous one
at Ballycastle, the high outliers of Millstone Grit and Coal-Measures
round Lough Allen, and the Dungannon and Coalisland field in
county Tyrone. The last named is in part concealed by Triassic
strata. The only important occurrences of coal in the south are in
eastern Tipperary, near Killenaule, and in the Leinster coalfield
(counties Kilkenny and Carlow and Queen's County), where there
is a high synclinal field, including Lower and Middle Coal-Measures,
and resembling in structure the Forest of Dean area in England.
The " Hercynian " earth-movements, which so profoundly
affected north-west and north-central Europe at the close of Carboni-
ferous times, gave rise to a series of east and west folds in the Irish
region. The Upper Carboniferous beds were thus lifted within easy
reach of denuding forces, while the Old Red Sandstone, and the under-
lying " Caledonian " land-surface, were brought up from below in the
cores of domes and anticlines. In the south, even the Carboniferous
Limestone has been so far removed that it is found only in the floors
of the synclinals. The effect of the structure of these folds on the
courses of rivers in the south of Ireland is discussed in the paragraphs
dealing with the geology of county Cork. The present central
plain itself may be regarded as a vast shallow synclinal, including a
multitude of smaller folds. The earth-wrinkles of this epoch were
turned into a north-easterly direction by the pre-existing Leinster
Chain, and the trend of the anticlinal from Limerick to the Slieve
Bloom Mountains, and that of the synclinal of Millstone Grit and Coal-
Measures from Cashel through the Leinster coalfield, bear witness
to the resistance of this granite mass. The Triassic beds rest on the
various Carboniferous series in turn, indicating, as in England, the
amount of denudation that followed on the uplift of the Hercynian
land. Little encouragement can therefore be given in Ireland to the
popular belief in vast hidden coalfields.
The Permian sea has left traces at Holywood on Belfast Lough and
near Stewartstown in county Tyrone. Certain conglomeratic beds
on which Armagh is built are also believed to be of Permian age.
The Triassic sandstones and marls, with marine Rhaetic beds above,
are preserved mainly round the basaltic plateaus of the north-east,
and extend for some distance into county Down. An elongated
outlier south of Carrickmacross indicates their former presence over
a much wider area._Rock-salt occurs in these beds north of Carrick-
fergus. _ __^_
The Jurassic system is represented in Ireland by the Lower Lias
alone, and it is probable that no marine beds higher than the Upper
Lias were deposited during this period. From Permian times on-
ward, in fact, the Irish area lay on the western margin of the seas
that played so large a part in determining the geology of Europe.
The Lower Lias appears at intervals under the scarp of the basaltic
plateaus, and contributes, as in Dorsetshire and Devonshire, to the
formation of landslips along the coast. The alteration of the fossil-
iferous Lias by dolerite at Portrush into a flinty rock that looked
like basalt served at one time as a prop for the " Neptunist " theory
of the origin of igneous rocks. Denudation, consequent on the
renewed uplift of the country, affected the Jurassic beds until the
middle of Cretaceous times. The sea then returned, in the north-east
at any rate, and the first Cretaceous deposits indicate the nearness of
a shore-line. Dark " green-sands," very rich in glauconite, are
followed by yellow sandstones with some flint. These two stages
represent the Upper Greensand, or the sandy type of the English
Gault. Further sands represent the Cenomanian. The Turonian
is also sandy, but in most areas was not deposited, or has been denuded
away during a local uplift that preceded Senonian times. The
Senonian limestone itself, which rests in the extreme north on Trias
or even on the schists, is often conglomeratic and glauconitic at the
base, the pebbles being worn from the old metamorphic series.
The term " Hibernian Greensand " was used by Tate for all the beds
below_ the Senonian; the quarrymen know the conglomeratic
Senonian as " Mulatto-stone." The Senonian chalk, or " White
Limestone," is hard, with numerous bands of flint, and suffered from
denudation in early Eocene times. Probably its original thickness
xiv. 24 a
746
IRELAND
[POPULATION
was not more than 150 ft., while now only from 40 to 100 ft.
remain. This chalk appears to underlie nearly the whole basaltic
plateaus, appearing as a fringe round them, and also in an inlier at
Templepatrick. The western limit was probably found in the edge
of the old continental land in Donegal. Chalk flints occur frequently
in the surface-deposits of the south of Ireland, associated with rocks
brought from the north during the glacial epoch, and probably also of
northern origin. It is just possible, however, that here and there the
Cretaceous sea that spread over Devonshire may have penetrated
the Irish area.
After the Irish chalk had been worn into rolling downs, on which
flint-gravels gathered, the great epoch of volcanic activity opened,
which was destined to change the character of the whole north-west
European area. The critical time had arrived when the sea was to
be driven away eastward, while the immense ridges due to the
" Alpine " movements were about to emerge as the backbones of
new continental lands. Fissure after fissure, running with remark-
able constancy N.W. and S.E., broke through the region now occupied
by the British Isles, and basalt was pressed up along these cracks,
forming thousands of dikes, from the coast of Down to the Dalradian
ridges of Donegal. One of these on the north side of Lough Erne
is 15 m. long. The more deep-seated type of these rocks is seen in
the olivine-gabbro mass of Carlingford Mountain; but most of the
igneous region became covered with sheets of basaltic lava, which
filled up the hollows of the downs, baked the gravels into a layer of
red flints, and built up, pile upon pile, the great plateaus of the north.
There was little explosive action, and few of the volcanic vents can
now be traced. After a time, a quiet interval allowed of the forma-
tion of lakes, in which red iron-ores were laid down. The plant-
remains associated with these beds form the only clue to the post-
Cretaceous period in which the volcanic epoch opened, and they have
been placed by Mr Starkie Gardner in recent years as early Eocene.
During this time of comparative rest, rhyolites were extruded locally
in county Antrim ; and there is very strong evidence that the granite
of the Mourne Mountains, and that which cuts the Carlingford gabbro,
were added at the same time to the crust. The basalt again broke
out, through dikes that cut even the Mourne granite, and some of the
best-known columnar masses of lava overlie
the red deposits of iron-ore and mark this
second basaltic epoch. The volcanic plateaus
clearly at one time extended far west and
south of their present limits, and the denu-
dation of the lava-flows has allowed a large
area of Mesozoic strata also to disappear.
Volcanic activity may have extended into
Miocene times; but the only fossiliferous
relics of Cainozoic periods later than the
Eocene are the pale clays and silicified
lignites on the south shore of Lough Neagh,
and the shelly gravels of pre-glacial age in county Wexford.
Both these deposits may be Pliocene. Probably before this period
the movements of subsidence had set in which faulted the basalt
plateaus, lowered them to form the basin of Lough Neagh, and
broke up the continuity of the volcanic land of the North Atlantic
area. As the Atlantic spread into the valleys on the west of Ireland,
forming the well-known marine inlets, Europe grew, under the
influence of the "Alpine " movements, upon the east; and Ireland
was caught in, as it were, on the western edge of the new continent.
It seems likely that it was separated from the British region shortly
before the glacial epoch, and that some of the ice which then abutted
on the country travelled across shallow seas. The glacial deposits
profoundly modified the surface of the country, whether they
resulted from the melting of the ice-sheets of the time of maximum
glaciation, or from the movements of local glaciers. Boulder-clays
and sands, and gravels rearranged by water, occur throughout the
lowlands; while the eskers or " green hills," characteristic grass-
covered ridges of gravel, rise from the great plain, or run athwart
valleys and over hill-sides, marking the courses of sub-glacial
streams. When the superficial deposits are removed, the underlying
rocks are found to be scored and smoothed by ice-action, and whole
mountain-sides in the south and west have been similarly moulded
during the Glacial epoch. In numerous cases, lakelets have gathered
under rocky cirques behind the terminal moraines of the last surviving
glaciers.
There is no doubt that at this epoch various movements of eleva-
tion and subsidence affected the north-west of Europe, and modern
Ireland may have had extensions into warmer regions on the west
and south, while the area now left to us was almost buried under ice.
In post-Glacial times, a subsidence admitted the sea into the Lagan
valley and across the eastern shore in several places; but elevation,
in the days of early human occupation, brought these last marine
deposits to light, and raised the beaches and shore-terraces some
10 to 20 ft. along the coast. At Larne, Greenore and in the neck
between Howth and Dublin, these raised beaches remain conspicuous.
To sum up, then, while the main structural features of Ireland were
impressed upon her before the opening of the Mesozoic era, her
present outline and superficial contours date from an epoch' of
climatic and geographical change which falls within the human
period.
See maps and explanatory memoirs of the Geological Survey of
Ireland (Dublin); G. Wilkinson, Practical Geology and Ancient
Architecture of Ireland (London, 1845) ; R. Kane, Industrial Resources
of Ireland (2nd ed., Dublin, 1845) ; G. H. Kinahan, Manual of the
Geology of Ireland (London, 1878); E. Hull, Physical Geology and
Geography of Ireland (2nd ed., London, 1891); G. H. Kinahan,
Economic Geology of Ireland (Dublin, 1889) ; A. McHenry and W. W.
Watts, Guide to the Collection of Rocks and Fossils, Geol. Survey of
Ireland (2nd ed., Dublin, 1898). (G. A. J. C.)
ECONOMICS AND ADMINISTRATION
Population. — Various computations are in existence of the
population of Ireland prior to 1821, in which year the first govern-
ment census was taken. According to Sir William Petty the
number of inhabitants in 1672 was 1,320,000. About a century
later the tax-collectors estimated the population at a little over
2,500,000, and hi 1791 the same officials calculated that the
number had risen to over 4,200,000. The census commissioners
returned the population in 1821 as6,8oi,827, in 1831 as 7,767,401,
and in 1841 as 8,196,597. It is undoubted that a great increase
of population set in towards the close of the i8th century and
continued during the first 40 years or so of the igth. This
increase was due to a variety of causes — the improvement in the
political condition of the country, the creation of leaseholds
after the abolition of the 405. franchise, the productiveness and
easy cultivation of the potato, the high prices during the war
with France, and probably not least to the naf ural prolificness of
the Irish people. But the census returns of 1851 showed a
remarkable alteration — a decrease during the previous decade
of over 1,500,000 — and since that date, as the following table
shows, the continuous decrease in the number of its inhabitants
has been the striking feature in the vital statistics of Ireland.
Decrease per cent, of Population 1841-1901.
1841-1851.
1851-1861.
1861-1871.
1871-1881.
1881-1891.
1891-1901.
Leinster
Munster .
Ulster . .
Connaught
I5-25
22-47
15-69
28-81
12-86
18-53
4-85
9-59
8-n
7-93
4-23
7-33
4-49
4-98
5-u
3-43
6-8
n-8
7-07
12-4
3-5
8-4
2-4
9-7
Ireland
19-85
11-50
6-67
4-69
9-08
5-3
The cause of the continuous though varying decrease which
these figures reveal has been emigration. This movement of
population took its first great impulse from the famine of 1846
and has continued ever since. When that disaster fell upon the
country it found a teeming population fiercely competing for a
very narrow margin of subsistence; and so widespread and
devastating were its effects that between 1847 and 1852 over
1,200,000 of the Irish people emigrated to other lands. More
than 1,000,000 of these went to the United States of America,
and to that country the main stream has ever since been directed.
Between 1851 and 1905 4,028,589 emigrants left Ireland —
2,092,154 males and 1,936,435 females, the proportion of females
to males being extraordinarily high as compared with the
emigration statistics of other countries. Between these years the
numbers fluctuated widely — 1852 showing the highest total,
190,322 souls, and 1905 the lowest, 30,676 souls. Since 1892,
however, the emigrants in any one year have never exceeded
50,000, probably because the process of exhaustion has been so
long in operation. As Ireland is mainly an agricultural country
the loss of population has been most marked in the rural districts.
The urban population, indeed, has for some years shown a
tendency to increase. Thus in 1841 the rural population was
returned as 7,052,923 and the urban as 1,143,674, while the
corresponding figures in 1901 were respectively 3,073,846 and
1,384,929. This is further borne out by the percentages
given in the above table, from which it will be seen that
the greatest proportional decrease of population has occurred
in the two provinces of Munster and Connaught, which may
be regarded as almost purely agricultural. That the United
States remained the great centre of attraction for Irish emi-
grants is proved by the returns for 1905, which show that
nearly 80% of the whole number for the year sailed for
that country. Ireland does little to swell the rising tide of
RAILWAYS: AGRICULTURE]
IRELAND
747
emigration that now flows from England and Scotland to
British North America.
Turning now to the census figures of 1901, we find that the
population had diminished as compared with 1891 by 245,975.
During the decade only three counties, Dublin, Down and
Antrim, showed any increase, the increase being due to the
growth of certain urban areas. Of the total population of
4,458,775, 2,200,040 were males and 2,258,735 were females.
The inhabitants of trie rural districts (3,073,846) decreased
during the decade by over 380,000; that of the urban districts,
i.e. of all towns of not less than 2000 inhabitants (1,384,929)
increased by over 140,000. This increase was mainly due to
the growth of a few of the larger towns, notably of Belfast, the
chief industrial centre of Ireland. Between 1891 and 1901
Belfast increased from 273,079 to 349,180; Dublin from 268,587
to 289,108; and Londonderry, another industrial centre in
Ulster, from 33,200 to 39,873. On the other hand, towns like
Cork (75,978), Waterford (26,743) and Limerick (38,085),
remained almost stationary during the ten years, but the urban
districts of Pembroke and of Rathmines and Rathgar, which
are practically suburbs of Dublin, showed considerable
increases.
From the returns of occupation in 1901, it appears that the
indefinite or non-productive class accounted for about 55 % of the
entire population. The next largest class was the agricultural,
which numbered 876,062, a decrease of about 40,000 as compared
with 1891. The industrial class fell from 656,410 to 639,413, but
this represented a slight increase in the percentage of the population.
The professional class was 131,035, the domestic 219,418, and the
commercial had risen from 83,173 in 1891 to 97,889 in 1901. The
following table shows the number of births and deaths registered
in Ireland during the five years 1901-1905.
Births.
Deaths.
1901
1902
1903
1904
1905
100,976
101,863
101,831
103,811
102,832
79,H9
77-676
77,358
79,513
75,o/i
The number of illegitimate births is always very small in proportion
to the legitimate. In 1905 illegitimate births numbered 2710 or 2-6 of
the whole, a percentage which has been very constant for a number
of years.
Railways. — The first act of parliament authorizing a railway
in Ireland was passed in 1831. The railway was to run from
Dublin to Kingstown, a distance of about 6 m., and was opened
in 1834. In 1836 the Ulster railway to connect Belfast and
Armagh, and the Dublin and Drogheda railway uniting these
two towns were sanctioned. In the same year commissioners
were nominated by the crown to inquire (inter alia) as to a
general system for railways in Ireland, and as to the best mode
of directing the development of the means of intercourse to the
channels whereby the greatest advantage might be obtained by
the smallest outlay. The commissioners presented a very
valuable report in 1838, but its specific recommendations were
never adopted by the government, though they ultimately
proved of service to the directors of private enterprises. Railway
development in Ireland progressed at first very slowly and by
1845 only some 65 m. of railway were open. During the next
ten years, however, there was a considerable advance, and in
1855 the Irish railways extended to almost 1000 m. The total
authorized capital of all Irish railways, exclusive of light railways,
at the end of 1905 was £42,881,201, and the paid-up capital,
including loans and debenture stock, amounted to £37,238,888.
The total gross receipts from all sources of traffic in 1905 were
£4,043,368, of which £2,104,108 was derived from passenger
traffic and £1,798,520 from goods traffic. The total number of
passengers carried (exclusive of season and periodical ticket-
holders) was 27,950,150. Under the various acts passed to
facilitate the construction of light railways in backward districts
some 15 lines have been built, principally in the western part
of the island from Donegal to Kerry. These railways are worked
by existing companies.
The following table shows the principal Irish railways, their
mileage and the districts which they serve.
Name of Railway.
Mileage.
Districts Served.
Great Southern &
1083
The southern half of Lein-
Western
ster, the whole of Munster,
and part of Connaught,
the principal towns served
being Dublin, Cork,
Waterford, Limerick and
Midland Great Western
538
Sligo.
The central districts of Ire-
land and a great part of
Connaught, the principal
towns served being Dublin,
Athlone, Galway and
Great Northern .
533
Sligo.
The northern half of Leinster
and a great part of Ulster,
the principal towns served
being Dublin, Belfast,
Londonderry, Dundalk,
Drogheda, Armagh and
Lisburn.
Northern Counties1 (now
249
The counties of Antrim,
owned by the Midland
Railway of England)
Tyrone and Londonderry.
Dublin & South
161
The counties of Dublin,
Eastern2
Wicklow, Wexford and
Waterford.
Donegal
1 06
The counties of Tyrone and
Donegal.
Londonderry & Lough
99
The counties of Londonderry
Swilly
and Donegal.
Cork, Bandon & South
95
The counties of Cork and
Coast
Kerry.
Belfast & County
76
The county of Down.
Down
1 Formerly Belfast and Northern Counties.
2 Formerly Dublin, Wicklow and Wexford.
There is no lack of cross-channel services between Ireland and
Great Britain. Belfast is connected by daily sailings with Glasgow,
Ardrossan, Liverpool, Feetwood, Barrow and Heysham Harbour,
Dublin with Holyhead and Liverpool, Greenore (Co. Down) with
Holyhead, Larne (Co. Antrim) with Stranraer, Rosslare(Co.Wexford)
with Fishguard and Kingstown (Co. Dublin) with Holyhead.
Navigable Waterways. — Ireland is intersected by a network of
canals and waterways, which if efficiently managed and developed
would prove of immense service to the country by affording a cheap
means for the carriage of goods, especially agricultural produce.
Two canals — the Grand and the Royal — connect Dublin with the
Shannon ; the former leading from the south of Dublin to Shannon
Harbour and thence on the other side of that river to Ballinasloe,
with numerous branches; the latter from the north side of Dublin
to Cloondera on the Shannon, with a branch to Longford. The
Barrow Navigation connects a branch of the Grand canal with the
tidal part of the river Barrow. In Ulster the Bann navigation
connects Coleraine, by means of Lough Neagh, with the Lagan
navigation which serves Belfast; and the Ulster canal connects
Lough Neagh with Lough Erne. The river Shannon is navigable for
a distance of 143 m. in a direct course and occupies almost a central
position between the east and west coasts.
Agriculture. — Ireland possesses as a whole a soil which is
naturally fertile and easily cultivated. Strong heavy clay soils,
sandy and gravelly soils, are almost entirely absent; and the
mixture of soil arising from the various stratifications and from
the detritus carried down to the plains has created many districts
of remarkable richness. The " Golden Vein " in Munster, which
stretches from Cashel in Tipperary to near Limerick, probably
forms the most fertile part of the country. The banks of the
rivers Shannon, Suir, Nore, Barrow and Bann are lined with long
stretches of flat lands capable of producing fine crops. In the
districts of the Old and New Red Sandstone, which include the
greater part of Cork and portions of Kerry, Waterford, Tyrone,
Fermanagh, Monaghan, Mayo and Tipperary, the soil in the
hollows is generally remarkably fertile. Even in the mountainous
districts which are unsuitable for tillage there is often sufficient
soil to yield, with the aid of the moist atmosphere, abundant
pasturage of good quality. The excessive moisture in wet
seasons in however hostile to cereal crops, especially in the
southern and western districts, though improved drainage has
IRELAND
[AGRICULTURE
done something to mitigate this evil, and might do a great deal
more.
Irish political history has largely affected the condition of
agriculture. Confiscations and settlements, prohibitive laws
(such as those which ruined the woollen industry), penal enact-
ments against the Roman Catholics, absenteeism, the creation
for political purposes of 403. freeholders, and other factors have
combined to form a story which makes painful reading from
whatever point of view, social or political, it be regarded.
Happily, however, at the beginning of the 2oth century Irish
agriculture presented two new features which can be described
without necessarily arousing any party question — the work of
the Department of Agriculture and the spread of the principle
of co-operation. Another outstanding feature has been the effect
of the Land Purchase Acts in transferring the ownership of the
land from the landlords to the tenants. Before dealing with
these three features, some general statistics may be given
.bearing upon the condition of Irish agriculture.
Number of Holdings. — Before 1846 the number of small holdings
was inordinately large. In 1841, for example, there were no less than
310,436 of between I and 5 acres in extent, and 252,799 of between
5 and 15 acres. This condition of affairs was due mainly to two
causes — to the 405. franchise which prevailed between 1793 and
1829, and after that date to the fierce competition for land by a
rapidly increasing population which had no other source of livelihood
than agriculture. But the potato famine and the repeal
of the Corn Laws, occurring almost simultaneously,
caused an immediate and startling diminution in thd
number of smaller holdings. In 1851 the number
between I and 5 acres in extent had fallen to 88,033
and the number between 5 and 15 acres had fallen
to 191,854. Simultaneously the number between 15
and 30 acres had increased from 79,342 to 141,311,
and the number above 30 acres from 48,625 to 149,090.
Since 1851 these tendencies have not been so
marked. Thus in 1905 the number of holdings be-
tween i and 5 acres was 62,126, the number between 5 and 15
acres 154,560, the number between 15 and 30 acres 134,370 and
the number above 30 acres 164,747. Generally speaking, however,
it will be seen from the figures that since the
middle of the igth century holdings between
I and 30 acres have decreased and holdings
over 30 acres have increased. Of the total
holdings under 30 acres considerably more
than one-third are in Ulster, and of the hold-
ings over 30 acres more than one-third are in
Munster. The number of holdings of over 500
acres is only 1 526, of which 475 are in Connaught.
A considerable proportion, however, of these
larger holdings, especially in Connaught, consist of more or less
waste land, which at the best can only be used for raising a few
sheep.
Tillage and Pasturage. — The fact that probably about 1,000,000
acres formerly under potatoes went out of cultivation owing to the
potato disease in 1847 makes a comparison between the figures for
crops in that year with present figures somewhat fallacious. Starting,
however, with that year as the most important in Irish economic
history in modern times, we find that between 1847 and 1905 the
total area under crops — cereals, green crops, flax, meadow and clover
— decreased by 582,348 acres. Up to 1861, as the area formerly
under potatoes came back gradually into cultivation, the acreage
under crops increased; but since that year, when the total crop area
was 5,890,536 acres, there has been a steady and gradual decline,
the area in 1905 having fallen to 4,656,227 acres. An analysis of the
returns shows that thejdecline has been most marked in the acreage
under cereal crops, especially wheat. In 1847 the number of acres
under wheat was 743,871 ana there has been a steady and practically
continuous decrease ever since, the wheat acreage in 1905 being only
37,860 acres. In that year the wheat area, excluding less than 5000
acres in Connaught, was pretty equally divided between the other
three provinces. Oats has always been the staple cereal crop in
Ireland, but since 1847 its cultivation has declined by over 50 %.
In that year 2,200,870 acres were under oats and in 1905 only
1 ,066,806 acres. Nearly one-half of the area under oats is to be found
in Ulster; Leinster and Munster are fairly equal; and Connaught has
something over 100,000 acres under this crop. The area under
barley and rye has also declined during the period under review by
about one-half — from 345,070 acres in 1847 to 164,800 in 1905.
The growing of these crops is confined almost entirely to Leinster
and Munster. Taking all the cereal crops together, their cultivation
during the last 60 years has gradually declined (from 3,313,579
acres in 1847 to 1,271,190 in 1905) by over 50%. The area, however,
under green crops — potatoes, turnips, mangel-wurzel, beet, cabbage,
&c., shows during the same period a much less marked decline — only
some 300,000 acres. There has been a very considerable decrease
since about 1861 in the acreage under potatoes. This is probably
due to two causes — the emigration of the poorer classes who subsisted
on that form of food, and the gradual introduction of a more varied
dietary. The total area under potatoes in 1905 was 616,755 acres as
compared with 1,133,504 acres in 1861. Since about 1885 the
acreage under turnips has remained fairly stationary in the neigh-
bourhood of 300,000 acres, while the cultivation of mangel-wurzel
has considerably increased. Outside the recognized cereal and
green crops, two others may be considered, flax and meadow and
clover. The cultivation of the former is practically confined to
Ulster and as compared with 20 or 30 years ago has fallen off by
considerably more than 50%, despite the proximity of the linen
industry. The number of acres under flax in 1905 was only 46,158.
The Department of Agriculture has made efforts to improve and
foster its cultivation, but without any marked results as regards
increasing the area sown. During the period under review the area
under meadow and clover has increased by more than 50%, rising
from 1,138,946 acres in 1847 to 2,294,506 in 1905. It would thus
appear that a large proportion of the land which has ceased to bear
cereal or green crops is now laid down in meadow and clover. The
balance has become pasturage, and the total area under grass in
Ireland has so largely increased that it now embraces more than
one-half of the entire country. This increase of the pastoral lands,
with the corresponding decrease of the cropped lands, has been the
marked feature of Irish agricultural returns since 1847. It is attribut-
able to three chief reasons, the dearth of labour owing to emigration,
the greater fall in prices of produce as compared with live stock, and
the natural richness of the Irish pastures. The following table shows
the growth of pasturage and the shrinkage of the crop areas since
1860.
Year.
Total Area.
Cultivated
Area (Crops
and Grass).
Crops (other
than Meadow
and Clover).
Meadow
and
Clover.
Grass.
1860
1880
1900
1905
20,284,893
20,327,764
20,333.344
20,350,725
15,453.773
15.340,192
15,222,104
15,232,699
4-375,621 '
3.171,259
2,493,017
2,410,813
1,594.518
1,909,825
2,165,715
2,224,165
9,483,634
10,259,108
10,563,372
10,597,721
One more table may be given showing the proportional areas
under the various kinds of crops, grass, woods and plantations,
fallow, bog, waste, &c., over a series of years.
Year.
Cereal
Crops.
Green
Crops.
Meadow
and
Clover.
Grass.
Total
Agricultural
Land.
Woods.
Fallow.
Waste.
1851
1880
1905
15-2
6-3
6-7
5-5
5-3
6-1
8-1
1 1 -3
43-o
,50-5
[53- >
71-0
72-2
75-o
i-5
1-7
1-5
I-O
o-o
o-o
25-7
22-8
23-5
Produce and Live Stock. — With the decrease of the area under
cereal and green crops and the increase of pasturage there has
naturally been a serious fall in the amount of agricultural produce
and a considerable rise in the number of live stock since the middle
of the I9th century. Thus in 1851 the number of cattle was returned
as 2,967,461 and in 1905 as 4,645,215, the increase during the inter-
vening period having been pretty gradual and general. Sheep in
1851 numbered 2,122,128 and in 1905 3,749,352, but the increase
in this case has not been so continuous, several of the intervening
years showing a considerably higher total than 1905, and for a good
many years past the number of sheep has tended to decline. The
number of pigs has also varied considerably from year to year,
1905 showing an increase of about 150,000 as compared with 1851.
The Department of Agriculture. — By an act of 1899 a Depart-
ment of Agriculture and other industries and technical instruction
was established in Ireland. To this department were transferred
numerous powers and duties previously exercised by other
authorities, including the Department of Science and Art. To
assist the department the act also provided for the establishment
of a council of agriculture, an agricultural board and a board
of technical instruction, specifying the constitution of each
of the three bodies. Certain moneys (exceeding £180,000 per
annum) were placed by the act at the disposal of the department,
provisions were made for their application, and it was enacted
that local authorities might contribute funds. The powers
and duties of the department are very wide, but under the present
section its chief importance lies in its administrative work with
regard to agriculture. In the annual reports of the department
this work is usually treated under three heads: (i) agricultural
instruction, (2) improvement of live stock, and (3) special
investigations.
LAND LAWS]
IRELAND
749
1. The ultimate aim of the department's policy in the matter
of agricultural instruction is, as defined by itself, to place within the
reach of a large number of young men and young women the means
of obtaining in their own country a good technical knowledge of all
subjects relating to agriculture, an object which prior to the estab-
lishment of the department was for all practical purposes unattain-
able. Before such a scheme could be put into operation two things
had to be done. In the first place, the department had to train
teachers of agricultural subjects; and secondly, it had to demonstrate
to farmers all over Ireland by a system of itinerant instruction some
of the advantages of such technical instruction, in order to induce
them to make some sacrifice to obtain a suitable education for their
sons and daughters. In order to accomplish the first of these two
preliminaries, the department established a Faculty of Agriculture
at the Royal College of Science in Dublin, and offered a considerable
number of scholarships the competition for which becomes in-
creasingly keen. They also reorganized the Albert Agricultural
College at Glasnevin for young men who have neither the time nor
the means to attend the highly specialized courses at the Royal
College of Science; and the Munster Institute at Cork is now devoted
solely to the instruction of girls in such subjects as butter-making,
poultry-keeping, calf-rearing, cooking, laundry-work, sewing and
gardening. In addition to these three permanent institutions, local
schools and classes have been established in different parts of the
country where systematic instruction in technical agriculture is given
to young men. In this and in other branches of its work the depart-
ment is assisted by agricultural committees appointed by the county
councils. The number of itinerant instructors is governed entirely
by the available supply of qualified men. The services of every
available student on completing his course at the Royal College of
Science are secured by some county council committee. The work
of the itinerant instructors is very varied. They hold classes and
carry out field demonstrations and experiments, the results of which
are duly published in the department's journal. The department has
also endeavoured to encourage the fruit-growing industry in Ireland
by the establishment of a horticultural school at Glasnevin, by efforts
to secure uniformity in the packing and grading of fruit, by the
establishment of experimental fruit-preserving factories, by the
planting of orchards on a large scale in a few districts, and by pioneer
lectures. As the result of all these efforts there has been an enormous
increase in the demand for fruit trees of all kinds.
2. The marked tendency which has been visible for so many years
in Ireland for pasturage to increase at the expense of tillage makes
the improvement of live-stock a matter of vital importance to all
concerned in agriculture. Elaborate schemes applicable to horse-
breeding, cattle-breeding and swine-breeding, have been drawn up
by the department on the advice of experts, but the working of the
schemes is for the most part left to the various county council
committees. The benefits arising from these schemes are being more
and more realized by farmers, and the department is able to
report an increase in the number of pure bred cattle and horses in
Ireland.
3. The special investigations carried out by the department
naturally vary from year to year, but one of the duties of each
instructor in agriculture is to conduct a number of field experiments,
mainly on the influence of manures and seeds in the yield of crops.
The results of these experiments are issued in the form of leaflets
and distributed widely among farmers. One of the most interesting
experiments, which may have far-
reaching economic effects, has been
in the cultivation of tobacco. So
far it. has been proved (l) that
the tobacco plant can be grown
successfully in Ireland, and (2)
that the crop when blended with
American leaf can be manufac-
tured into a mixture suitable for
smoking. But whether Irish to-
bacco can be made a profitable
crop depends upon a good many
other considerations.
beyond all question one of the most hopeful features in Irish
agriculture.
Perhaps the chief success of the society was seen in the establish-
ment of creameries, which at the end of 1905 numbered 275 — 123 in
Ulster, 102 in Munster, 20 in Leinster and 30 in Connaught. The
members numbered over 42,000 and the trade turnover for the year
was £1,245,000. Agricultural societies have been established for
the purchase of seed, implements, &c., on co-operative lines and of
these there are 150, with a membership of some 14,000. The society
was also successful in establishing a large number of credit societies,
from which farmers can borrow at a low rate of interest. There are
also societies for poultry-rearing, rural industries, bee-keeping,
bacon-curing, &c., in connexion with the central organization. The
system is rounded off by a number of trade federations for the sale
and purchase of various commodities. The Department of Agricul-
ture encourages the work of the Organization Society by an annual
grant.
Land Laws. — The relations of landlord and tenant in Ireland
have been a frequent subject of legislation (see History below).
Under the act of 1881, down to the 3ist of March 1906, the rents
of 360,135 holdings, representing nearly 11,000,000 acres, had
been fixed for the first statutory term of 15 years either by the
land commissioners or by agreements between landlords and
tenants, the aggregate reduction being over 20 % as compared
with the old rents. The rents of 120,515 holdings, representing
over 3,500,000 acres, had been further fixed for the second
statutory term, the aggregate reduction being over 19 % as
compared with the first term rents. Although the acts of 1870
and 1881 provided facilities for the purchase of holdings by the
tenants, it was only after the passing of the Ashbourne Act in
1885 that the transfer of ownership to the occupying tenants
began on an extended scale. Under this act between 1885 and
1902, when further proceedings were suspended, the number
of loans issued was 25,367 (4221 in Leinster; 5204 in Munster;
12,954 in Ulster, and 2988 in Connaught) and the amount was
£9,992,536. Between August 1891 and April 1906, the number
of loans issued under the acts of 1891 and 1896 was 40,395
(7838 in Leinster; 7512 in Munster; 14,955 in- Ulster, and
10,090 in Connaught) and the amount was £11,573,952.
Under the Wyndham Act of 1903 the process_was greatly
extended.
The following tables give summarized particulars, for the period
from the 1st of November 1903 to the 3lst of March 1906, of (i)
estates for which purchase agreements were lodged in cases of sale
direct from landlords to tenants; (2) estates for the purchase of
which the Land Commission entered into agreements under sects.
6 and 8 of the act; (3) estates in which the offers of the Land Com-
mission to purchase under sect. 7 were accepted by the land judge;
and (4) estates for the purchase of which, under sections 72 and 79,
originating requests were transmitted by the Congested Districts
Board to the Land Commission : —
Agricultural Co-operation. — In
1894 the efforts of a number of
Irishmen drawn from all political
parties were successfully directed
towards the formation of the
Irish Agricultural Organization
Society, which has for its object
the organizing of groups of
farmers on co-operative prin-
ciples and the provision of in-
struction in proper technical
methods. The society had at
first many difficulties to con-
front, but after the first two or three years of its existence
its progress became more rapid, and co-operation became
Classification.
No. of
Estates.
No. of
Purchasers.
Purchase Money.
Price.
Amount of
Advances
applied for.
Amount of
Proposed
Cash Payments.
Direct Sales .
Sections 6 and 8
Section 7 ...
Sections 72 and 79 .
3446
54
29
67
86,898
3,567 l
M741
5,606 i
£32,811,564
1,231,014
383,388
975,211
£32,692,066
1,226,832
381,722
975,2H
£ii9,498
4,182
1,666
Total ....
3596
97,245
£35,401,177
£35,275,831
£125,346
Classification.
No. of
Estates.
No. of
Purchasers.
Purchase Money.
Price.
Amount of
Advances
made.
Amount of
Cash Payments.
Direct Sales .
Sections 6 and 8
Section 7 ...
Sections 72 and 79 .
925
40
29
12
16,732
3,047
1,174
763
£8,317,063
1,048,459
383,388
i99,58i
£8,226,736
1,047,007
381,722
I99,58i
£90,327
1-452
1,666
Total ....
IOO6
21,716
£9,948,491
£9,855,046
£93,445
1 Estimated number of purchasers on resale.
It will be seen from these two tables that though the amount of
advances applied for during the period dealt with amounted to over
750
IRELAND
[MANUFACTURES
£35,000,000 the actual advances made were less than £10,000,000.
It will be seen further that the act operated almost entirely by means
of direct sales by landlords to tenants. Of the total amount
advanced up to March 31, 1906, almost one-half was in respect of
estates in the province of Leinster, the balance being divided pretty
equally between estates in the other three provinces.
Fisheries. — The deep-sea and coast fisheries of Ireland form
a valuable national asset, which still admits of much develop-
ment and improvement despite the fact that a considerable
number of acts of parliament have been passed to promote and
foster the fishing industry. In 1882 the Commissioners of Public
Works were given further powers to lend money to fishermen
on the recommendation of the inspectors of fisheries; and under
an act of 1883 the Land Commission was authorized to pay
from time to time such sums, not exceeding in all £250,000, as
the Commissioners of Public Works might require, for the
creation of a Sea Fishery Fund, such fund to be expended — a
sum of about £240,000 has been expended — on the construction
and improvement of piers and harbours. Specific acts have
also been passed for the estabbshment and development of
oyster, pollan and mussel fisheries. Under the Land Purchase
Act 1891, a portion of the Sea Fisheries Fund was reserved for
administration by the inspectors of fisheries in non-congested
districts. Under this head over £36,000 had been advanced on
loan up to December 31, 1905, the greater portion of which had
been repaid. In 1900 the powers and duties of the inspectors of
fisheries were vested in the Department of Agriculture and
Technical Instruction. Under the Marine Works Act 1902,
which was intended to benefit and develop industries where the
people were suffering from congestion, about £34,000 was
expended upon the construction and improvement of fishery
harbours in such districts.
For administrative purposes Ireland is divided into 31 deep-sea
and coast fisheries and during 1905, 6190 vessels were engaged in
these districts, giving employment to a total of 24,288 hands. Ex-
cluding salmon, nearly one million hundredweights of fish were
taken, and including shell-fish the total money received by the
fishermen exceeded £414,000. In the same year 13,436 hands were
engaged in the 25 salmon fishing districts into which the country is
divided. In addition to the organized industry which exists in these
salmon districts, there is a good deal of ordinary rod and line fishing
in the higher reaches of the larger rivers and good trout fishing is
obtainable in many districts. _,
Mining. — The mineral produce of Ireland is very limited,
and its mines and quarries in 1905 gave employment to only
about 6000 persons. Coal-fields are found in all the provinces,
but in 1905 the total output was less than 100,000 tons and its
value at the mines was given as £43,000. Iron ore is worked in
Co. Antrim, over 113,000 tons having been produced in 1905.
Alum clay or bauxite, from which aluminium is manufactured,
is found in the same county. Clays of various kinds, mainly fire
and brick clay, are obtained in several places and there are
quarries of marble (notably in Connemara), slate, granite,
limestone and sandstone, the output of which is considerable.
Silver is obtained in small quantities from lead ore in Co. Donegal,
and hopes have been entertained of the re-discovery of gold in
Co. Wicklow, where regular workings were established about
1796 but were destroyed during the Rebellion.
Woollen Manufacture. — At an early period the woollen manu-
factures of Ireland had won a high reputation and were exported
in considerable quantities to foreign countries. Bonifazio
Uberti (d. c. 1367) refers in a posthumous poem called Dita
mundi to the " noble serge " which Ireland sent to Italy, and
fine mantles of Irish frieze are mentioned in a list of goods
exported from England to Pope Urban VI. In later times, the
establishment of a colony from the German Palatinate at
Carrick-on-Suir in the reign of James I. served to stimulate the
manufacture, but in the succeeding reign the lord-deputy
Strafford adopted the policy of fostering the linen trade at the
expense of the woollen in order to prevent the latter from
competing with English products. An act of the reign of Charles
II. prohibited the export of raw wool to foreign countries from
Ireland as well as England, while at the same time Ireland was
practically excluded by heavy duties from the English markets,
and as the Navigation Act of 1663 did not apply to her the
colonial market was also closed against Irish exports. The
foreign market, however, was still open, and after the prohibition
of the export of Irish cattle to England the Irish farmers turned
their attention to the breeding of sheep, with such good effect
that the woollen manufacture increased with great rapidity.
Moreover the improved quality of the wool showed itself in the
improvement of the finished article, to the great alarm of the
English manufacturer. So much trade jealousy was aroused
that both Houses of Parliament petitioned William III. to
interfere. In accordance with his wishes the Irish parliament
in 1698 placed heavy additional duties on all woollen clothing
(except friezes) exported from Ireland, and in 1699 the English
Parliament passed an act prohibiting the export from Ireland
of all woollen goods to any country except England, to any port
of England except six, and from any town in Ireland except six.
The cumulative effect of these acts was practically to annihilate
the woollen manufacture in Ireland and to reduce whole districts
and towns, in which thousands of persons were directly or
indirectly supported by the industry, to the last verge of poverty.
According to Newenham's tables the annual average of new
drapery exported from Ireland for the three years ending March
1702 was only 20 pieces, while the export of woollen yarn,
worsted yarn and wool, which to England was free, amounted
to 349,410 stones. In his essay on the Trade of Ireland, pub-
lished in 1729, Arthur Dobbs estimated the medium exports oi
wool, worsted and woollen yarn at 227,049 stones, and he valued
the export of manufactured woollen goods at only £2353. On
the other hand, the imports steadily rose. Between 1779 and
1782 the various acts which had hampered the Irish woollen
trade were either repealed or modified, but after a brief period
of deceptive prosperity followed by failure and distress, the
expansion of the trade was limited to the partial supply of the
home market. According to evidence laid before the House of
Commons in 1822 one-third of the woollen cloth used in Ireland
was imported from England. A return presented to Parliament
in 1837 stated that the number of woollen or worsted factories
in Ireland was 46, employing 1321 hands. In 1879 the number
of factories was 76 and the number of hands 2022. Since then
the industry has shown some tendency to increase, though the
number of persons employed is still comparatively very small,
some 3500 hands.
Linen Manufacture. — Flax was cultivated at a very early
period in Ireland and was both spun into thread and manu-
factured into cloth. In the time of Henry VIII. the manufacture
constituted one of the principal branches of Irish trade, but it
did not prove a very serious rival to the woollen industry until
the policy of England was directed to the discouragement of the
latter. Strafford, lord-deputy in the reign of Charles I., did
much to foster the linen industry. He invested a large sum of
his own money in it, imported great quantities of flax seed from
Holland and induced skilled workmen from France and the
Netherlands to settle in Ireland. A similar policy was pursued
with even more energy by his successor in office, the duke of
Ormonde, at whose instigation an Irish act was passed in 1665
to encourage the growth of flax and the manufacture of linen.
He also established factories and brought over families from
Brabant and France to work in them. The English parliament
in their desire to encourage the linen industry at the expense
of the woollen, followed Ormonde's lead by passing an act inviting
foreign workmen to settle in Ireland, and admitting all articles
made of flax or hemp into England free of duty. In 1710, in
accordance with an arrangement made between the two king-
doms, a board of trustees was appointed to whom a considerable
sum was granted annually for the promotion of the linen manu-
facture; but the jealousy of English merchants interposed to
check the industry whenever it threatened to assume proportions
which might interfere with their own trade, and by an act of
George II. a tax was imposed on Irish sail-cloth imported into
England, which for the time practically ruined the hempen
manufacture. Between 1700 and 1777 the board of trustees
expended nearly £850,000 on the promotion of the linen trade,
COMMERCE AND SHIPPING]
IRELAND
and in addition parliamentary bounties were paid on a consider-
able scale. In 1727 Arthur Dobbs estimated the value of the
whole manufacture at £1,000,000. In 1830 the Linen Board
ceased to exist, the trade having been for some time in a very
depressed condition owing to the importation of machine-made
yarns from Scotland and England. A year or two later, however,
machinery was introduced on a large scale on the river Bann.
The experiment proved highly successful, and from this period
may be dated the rise of the linen trade of Ulster, the only great
industrial manufacture of which Ireland can boast. Belfast
is the centre and market of the trade, but mills and factories
are to be found dotted all over the eastern counties of Ulster.
In 1850 the number of spindles was 396,338 and of power looms
58; in 1905 the corresponding figures were 826,528 and 34,498.
In 1850 the number of persons employed in flax mills and factories
was 21, 121 ; in 1901 the number in flax, hemp and jute textile
factories was 64,802.
Cotton Manufacture. — This was introduced into Ireland in
1777 and under the protection of import duties and bounties
increased so rapidly that in 1800 it gave employment to several
thousand persons, chiefly in the neighbourhood of Belfast. The
trade continued to grow for several years despite the removal
of the duties; and the value of cotton goods exported from
Ireland to Great Britain rose from £708 in 1814 to £347,606 in
1823. In 1822 the number of hands employed in the industry
was stated to be over 17,000. The introduction of machinery,
however, which led to the rise of the great cotton industry of
Lancashire, had very prejudicial effects, and by 1839 the number
of persons employed had fallen to 4622. The trade has dwindled
ever since and is now quite insignificant.
Silk Manufacture. — About the end of the I7th century French
Huguenots settled in Dublin and started the manufacture of
Irish poplin, a mixture of silk and wool. In 1823 between 3000
and 4000 persons were employed. But with the abolition of the
protective duties in 1826 a decline set in; and though Irish
poplin is still celebrated, the industry now gives employment to a
mere handful of people in Dublin.
Distilling and Brewing. — Whisky has been extensively distilled
in Ireland for several centuries. An excise duty was first imposed
in 1661, the rate charged being 4d. a gallon. The imposition of
a duty gave rise to a large amount of illicit distillation, a practice
which still prevails to some extent, though efficient police
methods have largely reduced it. During recent years the amount
of whisky produced has shown a tendency to decrease. In
1900 the number of gallons charged with duty was 9,589,571, in
1903 8,215,355, and m 1906 7,337,928. There are breweries
in most of the larger Irish towns, and Dublin is celebrated for the
porter produced by the firm of Arthur Guinness & Son, the
largest establishment of the kind in the world. The number of
barrels of beer — the inclusive term used by the Inland Revenue
Department — charged with duty in 1906 was 3,275,309, showing
an increase of over 200,000 as compared with 1900.
The following table shows the net annual amount of excise duties
received in Ireland in a series of years: —
Articles.
1900.
1902.
1904.
1906.
Beer . . .
Licences .
Spirits
Other sources
£983,841
209,577
4,952,061
502
£1,200,711
213,092
4,292,286
436
£1,262,186
213,964
4,311,763
508
£1,227,528
214,247
3,952,509
798
Total . .
£6,145,981
£5-706,525
£5,788,421
£5,395,082
Other Industries. — Shipbuilding is practically confined to
Belfast, where the firm of Harland and Wolff, the builders of the
great " White Star " liners, have one of the largest yards in the
world, giving employment to several thousand hands. There are
extensive engineering works in the same city which supply the
machinery and other requirements of the linen industry. Paper
is manufactured on a considerable scale in various places, and
Balbriggan is celebrated for its hosiery.
Commerce and Shipping. — From allusions in ancient writers
it would appear that in early times Ireland had a considerable
commercial intercourse with various parts of Europe. When the
merchants of Dublin fled from their city at the time of the Anglo-
Norman invasion it was given by Henry II. to merchants from
Bristol, to whom free trade with other portions of the kingdom
was granted as well as other advantages. In the Staple Act of
Edward III., Dublin, Waterford, Cork and Drogheda are men-
tioned as among the towns where staple goods could be purchased
by foreign merchants. During the i$th century the trade of
these and other towns increased rapidly. With the I7th century
began the restrictions on Irish trade. In 1637 duties were im-
posed on the chief commodities to foreign nations not in league
with England. Ireland was left out of the Navigation Act of
1663 and in the same year was prohibited from exporting cattle
to England in any month previous to July. Sir William Petty
estimated the value of Irish exports in 1672 at £500,000 per
annum, and owing principally to the prosperity of the woollen
industry these had risen in value in 1698 to £996,000, the imports
in the same year amounting to £576,000. A rapid fall in exports
followed upon the prohibition of the export of woollen manu-
factures to foreign countries, but in about 20 years' time a
recovery took place, due in part to the increase of the linen trade.
Statistics of exports and imports were compiled for various years
by writers like Newenham, Arthur Young and Cesar Moreau,
but these are vitiated by being given in Irish currency which was
altered from time to time, and by the fact that the method of
rating at the custom-house also varied. Taking the figures,
however, for what they are worth, it appears that between 1701
and 1710 the average annual exports from Ireland to all parts of
the world were valued at £553,000 (to Great Britain, £242,000)
and the average annual imports at £513,000 (from Great Britain,
£242,000). Between 1751 and 1760 the annual values had risen
for exports to £2,002,000 (to Great Britain, £1,068,000) and for
imports to £1,594,000 (from Great Britain, £734,000). Between
1794 and 1803 the figures had further risen to £4,310,000 (to
Great Britain, £3,667,000) and £4,572,000 (from Great Britain
£3,404,000). It is clear, therefore, that during the i8th century
the increase of commerce was considerable.
In 1825 the shipping duties on the cross-Channel trade were
abolished and since that date no official figures are available as
to a large part of Irish trade with Great Britain. The export
of cattle and other animals, however, is the most important part
of this trade and details of this appear in the following table: —
Year.
Cattle.
Sheep.
Swine.
Total.
1891
1900
1905
630,802
745.519
749,131
893,175
862,263
700,626
505,584
715,202
363,973
2,029,561
2,322,984
1,813,730
The value of the animals exported in 1905 was estimated (at
certain standard rates) at about £14,000,000.
Since 1870 the Board of Trade has ceased to give returns of the
foreign and colonial trade for each of the separate kingdoms of
England, Scotland and Ireland. Returns are given, however, for
the principal ports of each kingdom. Between 1886 and 1905 these
imports at the Irish ports rose from £6,802,000 in value to £12,394,000
and the exports from £825,000 to £1,887,000.
The following table shows the value of the total imports and
exports of merchandise in the foreign and colonial trade at the
ports of Dublin, Belfast and Limerick in each of the years 1901-
1905:—
Ports.
1901.
1902.
1903.
1904.
1905-
Dublin-
£
£
£
£
£
Imports
2,666,000
2,856,000
3,138,000
2,771,000
2,664,000
Exports
54,000
63,000
122,000
79,000
78,000
Belfast-
Imports
6,626,000
6,999,000
7,773,000
7,033,000
6,671,000
Exports
1,442,000
1,344,000
1,122,000
1,332,000
1,780,000
Cork-
Imports
1,062,000
1,114,000
1,193,000
1,156,000
1,010,000
Exports
15,000
17,000
6,000
8,000
5,000
Limerick —
Imports
826,000
913,000
855,000
935,000
854,000
Exports
2,000
400
3,000
600
3,000
The Department of Agriculture published in 1906 a report on the
imports and exports at Irish ports for the year 1904. In this report,
752
IRELAND
[ADMINISTRATION
the compiling of which presented great difficulties m the absence
of official returns, are included (i) the direct trade between Ireland
and all countries outside of Great Britain, (2) the indirect trade of
Ireland with those same countries via Great Britain, and (3) the
local trade between Ireland and Great Britain. The value of im-
ports in 1904 is put at £55,148,206, and of exports at £46,606,432.
But it is pointed out in the report that while the returns as regards
farm produce, food stuffs, and raw materials may be considered
approximately complete, the information as to manufactured
goods — especially of the more valuable grades — is rough and in-
adequate. It was estimated that the aggregate value of the actual
import and export trade in 1904 probably exceeded a total of
£105,000,000. The following table gives some details: —
Imports.
Exports.
I. Farm Produce, Food and Drink
Stuffs—
(a) Live-stock, meat,' bacon, fish
and dairy produce .
(6) Crops, fruit, meal, flour, &c. .
(c) Spirits, porter, ale, &c.
(d) Tea, coffee, tobacco, spices, &c.
II. Raw Materials —
(a) Coal
£3,028,170
11,859,201
919,161
4,230,478
2,663,523
£23,445,122
1,721,753
4,222,194
1,121,267
(6) Wood . . .
1,880,095
235,479
(c) Mineral
(d) Animal and vegetable products
III. Goods, partly manufactured or
of simple manufacture .
IV. Manufactured goods.
1,012,822
4,529,002
7,996,143
17,059,611
282,081
3,067,398
2,576,993
9,934-145
From the figures given in the report it would appear that there was
in 1904 an excess of imports amounting to over £8,500,000. But
owing to the imperfect state of existing information, it is impossible
to say with any certainty what is the real state of the balance of
visible trade between Ireland and other countries.
Shipping returns also throw some light upon the commercial
condition of Ireland. Old figures are not of much value, but it may
be stated that Arthur Dobbs gives the number of ships engaged
in the Irish trade in 1721 as 3334 with a tonnage of 158,41^. Ac-
cording to the statistics of Cesar Moreau the number of ships be-
longing to Irish ports in 1788 was 1016 with a tonnage of over
60,000, and in 1826 they had increased, according to the trade and
navigation returns, to 1391 with a tonnage of over 90,000. In
1905 the vessels registered at Irish ports numbered 934 with a
tonnage of over 259,000. In the same year the vessels entering and
clearing in the colonial and foreign trade numbered 1199 with a
tonnage of over 1,086,000, and the vessels entering and clearing in
the trade between Great Britain and Ireland numbered 41,983
with a tonnage of over 9,776,000.
Government, &c. — The executive government of Ireland is
vested in a lord-lieutenant, assisted by a privy council and by a
chief secretary, who is always a member of the House of Commons
and generally of the cabinet. There are a large number of
administrative departments and boards, some, like the Board
of Trade, discharging the same duties as the similar department
in England; others, like the Congested Districts Board, dealing
with matters of purely Irish concern.
Parliamentary Representation. — The Redistribution of Seats
Act 1885 entirely altered the parliamentary representation
of Ireland. Twenty-two small boroughs were disfranchized.
The towns of Galway, Limerick and Waterford lost one member
each, while Dublin and Belfast were respectively divided into
four divisions, each returning one member. As a result of these
changes 85 members now represent the counties, 16 the boroughs,
and 2 Dublin University — a total of 103. The total number
of electors (exclusive of Dublin University) in 1906 was 686,661;
II3,S9S f°r the boroughs and 573,066 for the counties. Ireland
is represented in the House of Lords by 28 temporal peers
elected for life from among the Irish peers.
Local Government. — Irish local government was entirely re-
modelled by the Local Government (Ireland) Act 1898, which con-
ferred on Ireland the same system and measure of self-government
enjoyed by Great Britain. The administrative and fiscal duties
previously exercised by the grand jury in each county were
transferred to a county council, new administrative counties
being formed for the purposes of the act, in some cases by the
• alteration of existing boundaries. To the county councils were
also assigned the power of assessing and levying the poor rate
in rural districts, the management of lunatic asylums, and the
administration of certain acts such as the Explosives Act, the
Technical Education Act and the Diseases of Animals Act.
Subordinate district councils, urban and rural, were also estab-
lished as in England and Scotland to manage the various local
areas within «ach county. The provisions made for the admini-
stration of the Poor Law by the act under consideration are very
complicated, but roughly it may be said that it was handed over
to these new subordinate local bodies. Six towns — Dublin,
Belfast, Cork, Limerick, Londonderry and Waterford — were
constituted county boroughs governed by separate county
councils; and five boroughs — Kilkenny, Sligo, Clonmel, Drogheda
and Wexford — retained their former corporations. The act
provides facilities for the conversion into urban districts of (i)
towns having town commissioners who are not sanitary
authorities and (2) non-municipal towns with populations of
over 1 500 and entitled to petition for town commissioners.
Justice. — The Supreme Court of Judicature is constituted as
follows: the court of appeal, which consists of the lord chancellor,
the lord chief justice, and the master of the rolls and the chief
baron of the exchequer as ex-officio members, and two lords
justices of appeal; and the high court of justice which includes
(i) the chancery division, composed of the lord chancellor, the
master of the rolls and two justices, (2) the king's bench division
composed of the lord chief justice, the chief baron of the exchequer
and eight justices, and (3) the land commissions with two judicial
commissioners. At the first vacancy the title and rank of chief
baron of the exchequer will be abolished and the office reduced
to a puisne judgeship. By the County Officers and Courts
(Ireland) Act 1877, it was provided that the chairmen of quarter
sessions should be called " county court judges and chairmen
of quarter sessions " and that their number should be reduced
to twenty-one, which was to include the recorders of Dublin,
Belfast, Cork, Londonderry and Galway. At the same time
the jurisdiction of the county courts was largely extended.
There are 66 resident (stipendiary) magistrates, and four police
magistrates in Dublin.
Police. — The Royal Irish Constabulary were established
in 1822 and consisted at first of 5000 men under an inspector-
general for each of the four provinces. In 1836 the entire force
was amalgamated under one inspector-general. The force at
present consists of about 10,000 men of all ranks, and costs over
£1,300,000 a year. Dublin has a separate metropolitan police
force.
Crime. — The following table shows the number of persons
committed for trial, convicted and acquitted in Ireland in
1886, 1891, 1900 and 1905. —
Year.
Committed.
Convicted.
Acquitted.
1886
1891
1900
i'K>5
3,028
2,112
1,682
2,060
1,619
1,255
1,087
1,367
1286
669
331
417
Ofthe 1367 convicted in 1905, 375 were charged with offences
against the person, 205 with offences against property with violence,
545 with offences against property without violence, 52 with malici-
ous injury to property, 44 with forgery and offences against the
currency, and 146 with other offences. In 1904, 81,775 cases of
drunkenness were brought before Irish magistrates as compared
with 227,403 in England and 43,580 in Scotland.
Poor Law. — The following table gives the numbers in receipt
of indoor and outdoor relief (exclusive of persons in institutions
for the blind, deaf and dumb, and for idiots and imbeciles) in
the years 1902-1903, together with the total expenditure for
relief of the poor: —
Year.
Aggregate number relieved
during the year.
Total Annual
Expenditure.
Indoor.
Outdoor.
Total.
1902
1903
1904
1905
363,483
363,091
390,047
434,"7
105,501
99,150
98,607
124,697
468,984
452,241
488,654
558,814
£1,026,691
986,301
1,033,168
1,066,733
RELIGION]
IRELAND
753
The average daily number in receipt of relief of all kinds (except
outdoor relief) during the same years was as follows: 1902, 41,163;
1903- 43,6oo; 1904, 43,721; 1905, 43,911. The percentage of
indoor paupers to the estimated population in 1905 was l-oo.
Congested Districts Board. — This body was constituted by the
Purchase of Land Act 1891, and is composed of the chief
secretary, a member of the Land Commission and five other
members. A considerable sum of money was placed at its
disposal for carrying out the objects for which it was created.
It was provided that where more than 20% of the population
of a county lived in electoral divisions of which the total rateable
value, when divided by the number of the population, gave a
sum of less than £i, los. for each individual, these divisions
should, for the purposes of the act, form a separate county, called
a congested districts county, and should be subject to the opera-
tions of the board. In order to improve the condition of affairs
in congested districts, the board was empowered (i) to amal-
gamate small holdings either by directly aiding migration or
emigration of occupiers, or by recommending the Land Commis-
sion to facilitate amalgamation, and (2) generally to aid and
develop out of its resources agriculture, forestry, the breeding
of live-stock, weaving, spinning, fishing and any other suitable
industries. Further provisions regulating the operations of
funds of the board were enacted in 1893, 1896, 1899 and 1903;
and by its constituting act the Department of Agriculture was
empowered to exercise, at the request of the board, any of its
powers and duties in congested districts.
Religion. — The great majority of the Irish people belong
to the Roman 'Catholic Church. In 1891 the Roman Catholics
numbered 3,547,307 or 75% of the total population, and in
1901 they numbered 3,308,661 or 74%. The adherents of the
Church of Ireland come next in number (581,089 in 1901 or 13%
of the population), then the Presbyterians (443,276 in 1901 or
10% of the population), the only other denomination with a
considerable number of members being the Methodists (62,006
in 1901). As the result of emigration, which drains the Roman
Catholic portion of the population more than any other, the
Roman Catholics show a larger proportional decline in numbers
than the Protestants; for example, between 1891 and 1901 the
Roman Catholics decreased by over 6%, the Church of Ireland
by a little over 3%, the Presbyterians by less than i%, while
the Methodists actually increased by some 11%. The only
counties in which the Protestant religion predominates are
Antrim, Down, Armagh and Londonderry.
The Roman Catholic Church is governed in Ireland by 4 arch-
bishops, whose sees are in Armagh, Dublin, Cashel and Tuam,
and 23 bishops, all nominated by the pope. The episcopal emolu-
ments arise from the mensal parishes, the incumbency of which is
retained by the bishops, from licences and from an annual contri-
bution, varying in amount, paid by the clergy of the diocese. The
clergy are supported by fees and the voluntary contributions of
their flocks. At the census of 1901 there were 1084 parishes, and
the clergy numbered 3711. In addition to the secular clergy there
are several communities of regular priests scattered over the country,
ministering in their own churches but without parochial juris-
diction. There are also numerous monasteries and convents, a
large number of which are devoted to educational purposes. The
great majority of the secular clergy are educated at Maynooth
College (see below).
The Protestants of Ireland belong mainly to the Church of Ireland
(episcopalian) and the Presbyterian Church. (For the former see
IRELAND, CHURCH OF).
The Presbyterian Church, whose adherents are found principally
in Ulster and are the descendants of Scotch settlers, was originally
formed in the middle of the I7th century, and in 1840 a reunion
took place of the two divisions into which the Church had formerly
separated. The governing body is the General Assembly, consisting
of ministers and laymen. In 1906 there were 569 congregations,
arranged under 36 presbyteries, with 647 ministers. The ministers
are supported by a sustentation fund formed of voluntary con-
tributions, the rents of seats and pews, and the proceeds of the
commutation of the Regium Donum made by the commissioners
under the Irish Church Act 1869. Two colleges are connected with
the denomination, the General Assembly's College, Belfast, and the
Magee College, Londonderry. In 1 88 1 the faculty of the Belfast
College and the theological professors of the Magee College were
incorporated and constituted as a faculty with the power of granting
degrees in divinity.
The Methodist Church in Ireland was formed in 1878 by the
Union of the Wesleyan with the Primitive Wesleyan Methodists.
The number of ministers is over 250.
Education. — The following table shows that the proportion per
cent of the total population of five years old and upwards able to
read and write has been steadily rising since 1861 : —
Proportion per cent.
1861. 1871. 1881. 1891. 1901.
Read and write . . 41 49 59 71 79 .
Readonly .... 20 17 16 II 7
Neither read nor write 39 33 25 18 14
Further details on the same subject, according to provinces and
religious denominations in 1901, are subjoined: —
Leinster.
Munster.
Ulsler.
Connaught.
Roman Catholics —
Read and write .
80
80
70
72
Read only ....
7
5
II
7
Neither read nor write .
13
15
19
21
Protestant Episcopalians —
Read and write
95
95
81
93
Read only ....
i
2
9
3
Neither read nor write .
4
3
10
4
Presbyterians —
Read and write .
97
96
88
95
Read only ....
i
2
7
3
Neither read nor write .
2
2
5
2
Methodists —
Read and write .
Read only ....
97
i
97
i
90
5
96
2
Neither read nor write .
2
2
5
2
Others —
Read and write .
91
91
9°
94
Read only ....
2
2
6
I
Neither read nor write .
7
7
4
5
Total-
Read and write
83
81
79
72
Read only ....
6
5
9
7
Neither read nor write .
ii
H
12
21
Language. — The number of persons who speak Irish only continues
to decrease. In 1881 they numbered 64,167; in 1891, 38,192;
and in 1901, 20,953. If to those who spoke Irish only are added
the persons who could speak both Irish and English, the total
number who could speak Irish in 1901 was 641,142 or about
14% of the population. The purely Irish-speaking population is
to be found principally in the province of Connaught, where in
1901 they numbered over 12,000. The efforts of the Gaelic League,
founded to encourage the study of Gaelic literature and the Irish
language, produced results seen in the census returns for 1901,
which showed that the pupils learning Irish had very largely in-
creased as compared with 1891.
The university of Dublin (q.v.), which is for practical purposes
identical with Trinity College, Dublin, was incorporated in 1591.
The government is in the hands of a board consisting Ual.
of the provost and the senior fellows, assisted by versifies
a council in the election of professors and in the aad
regulation of studies. The council is composed of the collefes-
provost (and, in his absence, the vice-provost) and elected
members. There is also a senate, composed of the chancellor
or vice-chancellor and all doctors and masters who have kept
their names on the books of Trinity College. Religious tests were
abolished in 1873, and the university is now open to all; but /as
a matter of fact, the vast majority of the students, even since
the abolition of tests, have always belonged to the Church of
Ireland, and the divinity school is purely Protestant.
In pursuance of the University Education (Ireland) Act 1879,
the Queen's University in Ireland was superseded in 1882 by
the Royal University of Ireland, it being provided that the
graduates and students of the former should have similar rank
in the new university. The government of the Royal University
was vested in a senate consisting of a chancellor and senators,
with power to grant all such degrees as could be conferred by
any university in the United Kingdom, except in theology.
Female students had exactly the same rights as male students.
The university was simply an examining body, no residence in
any college nor attendance at lectures being obligatory. All
754
IRELAND
[RELIGION
appointments to the senate and to fellowships were made on the
principle that one half of those appointed should be Roman
Catholics and the other half Protestants; and in such subjects
as history and philosophy there were two courses of study pre-
scribed, one for Roman Catholics and the other for Protestants.
In 1905 the number who matriculated was 947, of whom 218
were females, and the number of students who passed the
academic examinations was 2190. The university buildings
are in Dublin and the fellows were mostly professors in the various
colleges whose students were undergraduates.
The three Queen's Colleges, at Belfast, Cork and Galway, were
founded in 1849 and until 1882 formed the Queen's University.
Their curriculum comprised all the usual courses of instruction,
except theology. They were open to all denominations, but,
as might be expected, the Belfast college (dissolved under the
Irish Universities Act 1908; see below) was almost entirely
Protestant. Its situation in a great industrial centre also made
it the most important and flourishing of the three, its students
numbering over 400. It possessed an excellent medical school,
which was largely increased owing to private benefactions.
The Irish Universities Act 1908 provided for the foundation
of two new universities, having their seats respectively at
Dublin and at Belfast. The Royal University of Ireland at
Dublin and the Queen's College, Belfast, were dissolved. Pro-
vision was made for a new college to be founded at Dublin.
This college and the existing Queen's Colleges at Cork and Galway
were made constituent colleges of the new university at Dublin.
Letters patent dated December 2, 1908, granted charters to
these foundations under the titles of the National University
of Ireland (Dublin), the Queen's University of Belfast and the
University Colleges of Dublin, Cork and Galway. It was pro-
vided by the act that no test of religious belief should be imposed
on any person as a condition of his holding any position in
any foundation under the act. A body of commissioners
was appointed for each of the new foundations to draw up
statutes for its government; and for the purpose of dealing
with any matter calling for joint action, a joint commission,
half from each of the above commissions, was established.
Regulations as to grants-in-aid were made by the act, with the
stipulation that no sum from them should be devoted to the
provision or maintenance of any building, or tutorial or other
office, for religious purposes, though private benefaction for
such purposes is not prohibited. Provisions were also made as
to the transfer of graduates and students, so that they might
occupy under the new regime positions equivalent to those
which they occupied previously, in respect both of degrees
and the keeping of terms. The commissioners were directed
to work out schemes for the employment of officers already
employed in the institutions affected by the new arrange-
ments, and for the compensation of those whose employment
could not be continued. A committee of the privy council
in Ireland was appointed, to be styled the Irish Universities
Committee.
The Roman Catholic University College in Dublin may be
described as a survival of the Roman Catholic University, a
voluntary institution founded in 1854. In 1882 the Roman
Catholic bishops placed the buildings belonging to the university
under the control and direction of the archbishop of Dublin,
who undertook to maintain a college in which education would
be given according to the regulations of the Royal University.
In 1883 the direction of the college was entrusted to the Jesuits.
Although the college receives no grant from public funds, it has
proved very successful and attracts a considerable number of
students, the great majority of whom belong to the Church of
Rome.
The Royal College of Science was established in Dublin in
1867 under the authority of the Science and Art Department,
London. Its object is to supply a complete course of instruction
in science as applicable to the industrial arts. In 1900 the college
was transferred from the Science and Art Department to the
Department of Agriculture and Technical Instruction.
Maynooth (q.v.) College was founded by an Irish act of
parliament in 1795 for the training of Roman Catholic students
for the Irish priesthood. By an act of 1844 it was permanently
endowed by a grant from the consolidated fund of over £26,000
a year. This grant was withdrawn by the Irish Church Act
1869, the college receiving as compensation a lump sum of over
£372,000. The average number of students entering each year
is about 100.
There are two Presbyterian colleges, the General Assembly's
College at Belfast, which is purely theological, and the Magee
College, Londonderry, which has literary, scientific and theo-
logical courses. In 1881 the Assembly's College and the theo-
logical professors of Magee College were constituted a faculty
with power to grant degrees in divinity.
In addition to the foregoing, seven Roman Catholic institutions
were ranked as colleges in the census of 1901 : — All Hallows (Drum-
condra), Holycross (Clonliffe), University College (Blackrock), St
Patrick's (Carlow), St Kieran's (Kilkenny), St Stanislaus's (Tulla-
more) and St Patrick's (Thurles). In 1901 the aggregate number
of students was 715, of whom 209 were returned as under the faculty
of divinity.
As regards secondary schools a broad distinction can be drawn
according to religion. The Roman Catholics have diocesan schools,
schools under religious orders, monastic and convent Schools.
schools, and Christian Brothers' schools, which were
attended, according to the census returns in 1901, by nearly 22,000
pupils, male and female. On the other hand are the endowed schools,
which are almost exclusively Protestant in their government. Under
this heading may be included royal and diocesan schools and schools
upon the foundation of Erasmus Smith, and others privately endowed.
In 1901 these schools numbered 55 and had an attendance of 2653
pupils. To these must be added various private establishments,
which in the same year had over 8000 pupils, mainly Protestants.
Dealing with these secondary schools as a whole the census of 1901
gives figures as to the number of pupils engaged upon what the
commissioners call the " higher studies," i.e. studies involving
In 1881 the number
and in 1901, 28,484,
instruction in at least one foreign language,
of such pupils was 18,657; "n 1891, 23,484;
of whom 17,103 were males and 11,381 females, divided as follows
among the different religions — Roman Catholics 18,248, Protestant
Episcopalians 5669, Presbyterians 3011, Methodists 760, and others
567. This increase in the number of pupils engaged in the higher
studies is probably due to a large extent to the scheme for the
encouragement of intermediate education which was established by
act of parliament in 1879. A sum of £1,000,000, part of the Irish
Church surplus, was assigned by that act for the promotion of the
intermediate secular education of boys and girls in Ireland. The
administration of this fund was entrusted to a board of com-
missioners, who were to apply its revenue for the purposes of the
act (i) by carrying on a system of public examinations, (2) by
awarding exhibitions, prizes and certificates to students, and (3)
by the payment of results fees to the manager of schools. An
amending act was passed in 1900 and the examinations are now held
under rules made in virtue of that act. The number of students who
presented themselves for examination in 1905 was 9677; the
amount expended in exhibitions and prizes was £8536; and the
grants to schools amounted to over £50,000. The examinations were
held at 259 centres in 99 different localities.
Primary education in Ireland is under the general control of the
commissioners of national education, who were first created in
1831 to take the place of the society for the education of the poor,
and incorporated in 1845. In the year of their incorporation the
schools under the control of the commissioners numbered 3426,
with 432,844 pupils, and the amount of the parliamentary grants
was £75,000; while in 1905 there were 8659 schools, with 737,752
pupils, and the grant was almost £i ,400,000. Of the pupils attending
in the latter year, 74% were Roman Catholics, 12% Protestant
Episcopalians and 1 1 % Presbyterians. The schools under the
commissioners include national schools proper, model and workhouse
schools and a number of monastic and convent schools. The Irish
Education Act of 1892 provided that the parents of children of not
less than 6 nor more than 14 years of age should cause them to
attend school in the absence of reasonable excuse on at least 150
days in the year in municipal boroughs and in towns or townships
under commissioners; and provisions were made for the partial or
total abolition of fees in specified circumstances, for a parliamentary
school grant in lieu of abolished school fees, and for the augmenta-
tion of the salaries of the national teachers.
There are 5 reformatory schools, 3 for boys and 2 for girls, and 68
industrial schools, 5 Protestant and 63 Roman Catholic.
By the constituting act of 1899 the control of technical education
in Ireland was handed over to the Department of Agriculture and
Technical Instruction and now forms an important part Technical
of its work. The annual sum of £55,000 was allocated instruc-
tor the purpose, and this is augmented in various ways. tlon.
The department has devoted itself to (i) promoting in-
struction in experimental science, drawing, manual instruction and
REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE]
IRELAND
755
domestic economy in day secondary schools, (2) supplying funds to
country and urban authorities for the organization of schemes for
technical instruction in non-agricultural subjects — these subjects
embracing not only preparation for the highly organized industries
but the teaching of such rural industries as basket- ma king, (3) the
training of teachers by classes held at various . centres, (4)
the provision of central institutions, and (5) the awarding of
scholarships.
Revenue and Expenditure. — The early statistics as to revenue
and expenditure in Ireland are very fragmentary and afford
little possibility of comparison. During the first 15 years
of Elizabeth's reign the expenses of Ireland, chiefly on account
of wars, amounted, according to Sir James Ware's estimate, to
over £490,000, while the revenue is put by some writers at
£8000 per annum and by others at less. In the reign of James I.
the customs increased from £50 to over £9000; but although
he obtained from various sources about £10,000 a year and a
considerable sum also accrued from the plantation of Ulster,
the revenue is supposed to have fallen short of the expenditure
by about £16,000 a year. During the reign of Charles I. the
customs increased fourfold in value, but it was found necessary
to raise £120,000 by yearly subsidies. According to the report
of the committee appointed by Cromwell to investigate the
financial condition of Ireland, the revenue in 1654 was £197,304
and the expenditure £630,814. At the Restoration the Irish
parliament granted an hereditary revenue to the king, an excise
for the maintenance of the army, a subsidy of tonnage and
poundage for the navy, and a tax on hearths in lieu of feudal
burdens. " Additional duties " were granted shortly after the
Revolution. "Appropriate duties " were imposed at different
periods; stamp duties were first granted in 1773, and the post
office first became a source of revenue in 1783. In 1706 the
hereditary revenue with additional duties produced over
£394,000.
Returns of the ordinary revenue were first presented to the
Irish parliament in 1730. From special returns to parliament the
following table shows net income and expenditure over a series of
years up to 1868: — •
Year.
Income.
Expenditure.
1731
£405,000
£407,000
1741
441,000
441,000
1761
571,000
773,000
1781
739,000
1,015,000
1800
3,017,757
6,615,000
1834
3,814,000
3,439,800
1850
4,332,000
4,120,000
i860
7,851,000
6,331,000
1868
6,176,000
6,621,000
The amount of imperial revenue collected and expended in Ireland
under various heads for the five years 1902-1906 appears in the
following tables: —
Subtracting in each year the total expenditure from the estimated
true revenue it would appear from the foregoing table that Ireland
contributed to imperial services in the years under consideration the
following sums: £2,570,000, £2,852,000, £2,200,500, £2,186,500
and £1,811,500.
The financial relations between Great Britain and Ireland
have long been a subject of controversy, and in 1894 a royal
commission was appointed to consider them, which presented
its report in 1896. The commissioners, though differing on
several points, were practically agreed on the following five
conclusions: (i) that Great Britain and Ireland must, for the
purposes of a financial inquiry, be considered as separate entities;
(2) that the Act of Union imposed upon Ireland a burden which,
as events showed, she was unable to bear; (3) that the increase
of taxation laid upon Ireland between 1853 and 1860 was not
justified by the then existing circumstances; (4) that identity
of rates of taxation did not necessarily involve equality of
burden; (5) that, while the actual tax revenue of Ireland was
about one-eleventh of that of Great Britain, the relative taxable
capacity of Ireland was very much smaller, and was not estimated
by any of the commissioners as exceeding one-twentieth. This
report furnished the material for much controversy, but little
practical outcome; it was avowedly based on the consideration
of Ireland as a separate country, and was therefore inconsistent
with the principles of Unionism.
The public debt of Ireland amounted to over £134,000,000 in
1817, in which year it was consolidated with the British national
debt.
Local Taxation. — The Local Government (Ireland) Act 1898
effected considerable changes in local finance. The fiscal duties
of the grand jury were abolished, and the county council which
took the place of the grand jury for both fiscal and administrative
purposes was given three sources of revenue: (l) the agricultural
grant, (2) the licence duties and other imperial grants, and (3)
the poor rate. These may be considered separately. (l) It was
provided that the Local Government Board should ascertain the
amount of county cess and poor rate levied off agricultural land in
Ireland during the year ending (as regards the poor rate) on the
29th of September, and (as regards the county cess) on the 2 1st of
June 1897; and that half this amount, to be called the agricultural
grant, should be paid annually without any variation from the
original sum out of the consolidated fund to a local taxation account.
The amount of the agricultural grant was ascertained to be over
£727,000. Elaborate provisions were also made in the act for fixing
the proportion of the grant to which each county should be entitled,
and the lord-lieutenant was empowered to pay half-yearly the
proportion so ascertained to the county council. (2) Before the
passing of the act grants were made from the imperial exchequer
to the grand juries in aid of the maintenance of lunatics and to
boards of guardians for medical and educational purposes and for
salaries under the Public Health (Ireland) Act. In 1897 these
grants amounted to over £236,000. Under the Local Government
Act they ceased, and in lieu thereof it was provided that there should
be annually paid out of the consolidated fund to the local taxation
account a sum equal to the duties collected in Ireland on certain
Revenue.
Year.
Customs.
Excise.
Estate, &c.
Duties and
Stamps.
Property
and Income
Tax.
Post Office.
Miscel-
laneous.
Total
Revenue.
Estimated
True
Revenue.
1902
1903
1904
1905
1906
£2,244,000
2,717,000
2,545,000
2,575,ooo
2,524,000
£5,822,000
6,011,000
5,904,000
5,584,000
5,506,000
£1,072,000
922,000
1,033,000
1,016,000
890,000
£1,143,000
1,244,000
1,038,000
1,013,000
983,000
£923,000
960,000
980,000
1,002,000
1,043,000
£149,000
148,500
146,500
150,500
150,000
£11,353,000
12,002,500
11,646,500
11,340,500
11,096,000
£9,784,000
10,205,000
9,748,500
9,753,500
9,447,000
Expenditure.
Year.
Consolidated
Fund.
Voted.
Local Taxation Accounts.
Total
Civil
Charges.
Collection
of Taxes.
Post Office.
Total
Expended.
Estimated
True
Revenue.
Local
Taxation
Revenue.
Exchequer
Revenue.
1902
1903
1904
1905
1966
£169,000
168,500
170,000
166,000
164,000
£4,271,000
4,357,500
4,569,000
4,547,000
4,582,500
£389,000
383,000
376,000
374,000
385,000
£1,055,000
1,058,000
1,059,000
1,059,000
1,059,000
£5,884,000
5,967,000
6,174,000
6,146,000
6,191,500
£243,000
246,000
248,000
249,000
245,000
£1,087,000
1,140,000
1,126,000
1,172,000
1,199,000
£7,214,000
7,353,000
7,548,000
7,567,000
7,635,500
£9,784,000
10,205,000
9,784,500
9,753-500
9,447,000
756
IRELAND
[EARLY HISTORY
specified local taxation licences. In addition, it was enacted that
a fixed sum of £79,000 should be forthcoming annually from the
consolidated fund. (3) The county cess was abolished, and the
county councils were empowered to levy a single rate for the rural
districts and unions, called by the name of poor rate, for all the
purposes of the act. This rate is made upon the occupier and not
upon the landlord, and the occupier is not entitled, save in a few
specified cases, to deduct any of the rate from his rent. For the year
ending the 3ist of March 1905, the total receipts of the Irish county
councils, exclusive of the county boroughs, were £2,964,298 and
their total expenditure was £2,959,961, the two chief items of
expenditure being " Union Charges " £1,002,620 and " Road
Expenditure " £779,174. During the same period the total receipts
from local taxation in Ireland amounted to £4.013,303, and the
amount granted from imperial sources in aid of local taxation was
£1,781,143.
Loans. — The total amount issued on loan, exclusive of closed
sources, by the Commissioners of Public Works, up to the 3 1st
of March 1906, was £26,946,393, of which £15,221,913 had been
repaid to the exchequer as principal and £9,011,506 as interest,
and £1,609,694 had been remitted. Of the sums advanced, about
£5,500,000 was under the Improvement of Lands Acts, nearly
£3,500,000 under the Public Health Acts, over £3,000,000 for lunatic
asylums, and over £3,000,000 under the various Labourers Acts.
Banking. — The Bank of Ireland was established in Dublin in
1783 with a capital of £600,000, which was afterwards enlarged at
various times, and on the renewal of its charter in 1821 it was
increased to £3,000,000. It holds in Ireland a position corresponding
to the Bank of England in England. There are eight other joint-
stock banks in Ireland. Including the Bank of Ireland, their sub-
scribed capital amounts to £26,349,230 and their paid-up capital to
£7,309,230. The authorized note circulation is £6,354,494 and
the actual note circulation in June 1906 was £6,310,243, two of
the banks not being banks of issue. The deposits in the joint-stock
banks amounted in 1880 to £29,350,000; in 1890 to £33,061,000;
in 1900 to £40,287,000; and in 1906 to £45,842,000. The deposits
in the Post Office Savings Banks rose from £1,481,000 in 1880 to
£10,459,000 in 1906, and the deposits in Trustee Savings Banks
from £2,100,165 in 1880 to £2,488,740 in 1905.
National Wealth. — -To arrive at any estimate of the national wealth
is exceptionally difficult in the case of Ireland, since the largest
part of its wealth is derived from agriculture, and many important
factors, such as the amount of capital invested in the linen and
other industries, cannot be included, owing to their uncertainty.
The following figures for 1905-1906 may, however, be given: valua-
tion of lands, houses, &c., £15,466,000; value of principal crops,
£35,362,000; value of cattle, &c., £81,508,000; paid-up capital and
reserve funds of joint-stock banks, £11,300,000; deposits in joint-
stock and savings banks, £58,791,000; investments in government
stock, transferable at Bank of Ireland, £36,952,000; paid-up capital
and debentures of railway companies, £38,405,000; paid-up capital
of tramway companies, £2,074,000.
In 1906 the net value of property assessed to estate duty, &c.,
in Ireland was £16,016,000 as compared with £306,673,000 in
England and £38,451,000 in Scotland; and in 1905 the net produce
of the income tax in Ireland was £983,000, as compared with
£27,423,000 in England and £2,888,000 in Scotland.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Agriculture: Accounts of the land systems of
Ireland will be found in James Godkin's Land War in Ireland
(1870); Sigerson's History of Land Tenure in Ireland (1871);
Joseph Fisher's History of Land Holding in Ireland (1877) ; R. B.
O'Brien's History of the Irish Land Question (1880); A. G. Richey's
Irish Land Laws (1880). General information will be found in T. P.
Kennedy's Digest of the evidence given before the Devon Com-
mission (Dublin, 1847-1848); the Report of the Bessborough
Commission, 1881, and of the commission on the agriculture of the
United Kingdom, 1881. The Department of Agriculture publishes
several official annual reports, dealing very fully with Irish agri-
culture.
Manufactures and Commerce: Discourse on the Woollen Manu-
facture of Ireland (1698) ; An Inquiry into the State and Progress of
the Linen Manufacture in Ireland (Dublin, 1757); G. E. Howard,
Treatise on the Revenue of Ireland (1776); John Hely Hutchinson,
Commercial Restraints of Ireland (1779); Lord Sheffield, Observations
on the Manufactures, Trade and Present State of Ireland (1785);
R. B. Clarendon, A Sketch of the Revenue and finances of Ireland
(1791); the annual reports of the Flax Supply Association and other
local bodies, published at Belfast; reports by the Department of
Agriculture on Irish imports and exports (these are a new feature
and contain much valuable information).
Miscellaneous: Sir William Petty, Political Anatomy of Ireland
(1691); Arthur Dobbs, Essay on the Trade of Ireland (1729); Ab-
stract of the Number of Protestant and Popish Families in Ireland
(1726); Arthur Young, Tour in Ireland (1780); T. Newenham,
View of the Circumstances of Ireland (1809), and Inquiry into the
Population of Ireland (1805); Cesar Moreau, Past and Present
Slate of Ireland (1827); J. M. Murphy, Ireland, Industrial, Political
and Social (1870); R. Dennis, Industrial Ireland (1887); Grimshaw,
Facts and Figures about Ireland (1893); Report of the Recess Com-
mittee (1896, published in Dublin); Report of the Financial Relations
Commission (1897); Sir H. Plunkett, Ireland in the New Century
(London, 1905) ; Filson Young, Ireland at the Cross-Roads (London,
1904) ; Thorn s Almanac, published annually in Dublin, gives a
very useful summary of statistics and other information.
(W. H. Po.)
EARLY HISTORY
On account of its isolated position we might expect to find
Ireland in possession of a highly developed system of legends
bearing on the origins of its inhabitants. Ireland
remained outside the pale of the ancient Roman
world, and a state of society which was peculiarly
favourable to the preservation of national folk-lore sur-
vived in the island until the i6th century. The jealousy
with which the hereditary antiquaries guarded the tribal
genealogies naturally leads us to hope that the records which
have come down to us may shed some light on the difficult
problems connected with the early inhabitants of these islands
and the west of Europe. Although innumerable histories of
Ireland have appeared in print since the publication of Roderick
O'Flaherty's Ogygia (London, 1677), the authors have in almost
every case been content to reproduce the legendary accounts
without bringing any serious criticism to bear on the sources.
This is partly to be explained by the fact that the serious study
of Irish philology only dates from 1853 and much of the most
important material has not yet appeared in print. In the
middle of the igth century O'Donovan and O'Curry collected
a vast amount of undigested information about the early history
of the island, but as yet J. B. Bury in his monograph on St
Patrick is the only trained historian who has ever adequately
dealt with any of the problems connected with ancient Ireland.
Hence it is evident that our knowledge of the subject must
remain extremely unsatisfactory until the chief sources have
been properly sifted by competent scholars. A beginning has been
made by Sir John Rhys in his " Studies in Early Irish History "
(Proceedings of the British Academy, vol. i.), and by John MacNeill
in a suggestive series of papers contributed to the New Ireland
Review (March ipoo-Feb. 1907). Much might reasonably be
expected from the sciences of archaeology and anthropology.
But although Ireland is as rich as, or even richer in monuments
of the past than, most countries in Europe, comparatively little
has been done owing in large measure to the lack of systematic
investigation.
It may be as well to specify some of the more important
sources at the outset. Of the classical writers who notice
Ireland Ptolemy is the only one who gives us any very definite
information. The legendary origins first appear in Nennius
and in a number of poems by such writers as Maelmura
(d. 884), Cinaed Uah Artacain (d. 975), Eochaid Ua Flainn
(d. 984), Flann Mainistrech (d. 1056) and Gilla Coemgin (d.
1072). They are also embodied in the Leabhar Gabhdla or Book
of Invasions, the earliest copy of which is contained in the
Book of Lcinster, a 12th-century MS., Geoffrey Keating's History,
Dugald MacFirbis's Genealogies and various collections of annals
such as those by the Four Masters. Of prime importance for
the earlier period are the stories known collectively as the Ulster
cycle, among which the lengthy epic the Tain Bo Cualnge takes
first place. Amongst the numerous chronicles the Annals of
Ulster, which commence with the year 441, are by far the most
trustworthy. The Book of Rights is another compilation which
gives valuable information with regard to the relations of the
various kingdoms to one another. Finally, there are the exten-
sive collections of genealogies preserved in Rawlinson B 502, the
Books of Leinster and Ballymote.
Earliest Inhabitants. — There is as yet no certain evidence to
show that Ireland was inhabited during the palaeolithic period.
But there are abundant traces of man in the neolithic state of
culture (see Sir W. R. W. Wilde's Catalogue of the antiquities
in the Museum of the Royal Irish Academy). The use of bronze
\yas perhaps introduced about 1450 B.C. The craniological
evidence is unfortunately at present insufficient to show whether
the introduction of metal coincided with any particular invasion
EARLY HISTORY]
IRELAND
757
either from Britain or the European continent. At any rate
it was not until well on in the Bronze Age, perhaps about 600
or 500 B.C., that the Goidels, the first invaders speaking a Celtic
language, set foot in Ireland. The newcomers probably overran
the whole island, subduing but not exterminating the older
race with which they doubtless intermarried freely, as pre-Celtic
types are frequent among the populations of Connaught and
Munster at the present day. What the language 'was that was
spoken by the neolithic aborigines is a question which will
probably never be settled. The division into provinces or
" fifths " (Ulster, Leinster, Connaught, E. Munster and W.
Munster) appears to be older than the historical period, and
may be due to the Goidels. Between 300 B.C. and 150 B.C.
various Belgic and other Brythonic tribes established themselves
in Britain bringing with them the knowledge of how to work
in iron. Probably much about the same time certain Belgic
tribes effected settlements in the S.E. of Ireland. Some time
must have elapsed before any Brythonic people undertook to
defy the powerful Goidelic states, as the supremacy of the
Brythonic kingdom of Tara does not seem to have been acknow-
ledged before the 4th century of our era. The early Belgic
settlers constituted perhaps in the main trading states which
acted as intermediaries of commerce between Ireland and Gaul.1
In addition to these Brythonic colonies a number of Pictish
tribes, who doubtless came over from Scotland, conquered for
themselves parts of Antrim and Down where they maintained
their independence till late in the historical period. Picts are
also represented as having settled in the county of Roscommon;
but we have at present no means of ascertaining when this
invasion took place.
Classical Writers. — Greek and Roman writers seem to have
possessed very little definite information about the island, though
much of what they relate corresponds to the state of society
disclosed in the older epics. Strabo held the inhabitants
to be mere savages, addicted to cannibalism and having no
marriage ties. Solinus speaks of the luxurious pastures, but the
natives he terms an inhospitable and warlike nation. The
conquerors among them having first drunk the blood of their
enemies, afterwards besmear their faces therewith; they regard
right and wrong alike. Whenever a woman brings forth a male
child, she puts his first food on the sword of her husband, and
lightly introduces the first auspicium of nourishment into his
little mouth with the point of the sword. Pomponius Mela
speaks of the climate as unfit for ripening grain, but he, too,
notices the luxuriance of the grass. However, it is not until we
reach Ptolemy that we feel we are treading on firm ground.
His description is of supreme importance for the study of early
Irish ethnography. Ptolemy gives the names of sixteen peoples
in Ireland, several of which can be identified. As we should
expect from our knowledge of later Irish history scarcely any
towns are mentioned. In the S.E., probably in Co. Wicklow,
we find the Manapii — evidently a colony from N.E. Gaul. North
of them, perhaps in Kildare, a similar people, the Cauci, are
located. In Waterford and Wexford are placed the Brigantes,
who also occur in Yorkshire. The territory to the west of the
Brigantes is occupied by a people called by Ptolemy the Iverni.
Their capital he gives as Ivernis, and in the extreme S.W.
of the island he marks the mouth of the river lernos, by which
the top of Dingle Bay called Castlemaine Harbour is perhaps
intended. The Iverni must have been a nation of considerable
importance, as they play a prominent part in the historical
period, where they are known as the Ernai or Eraind of Munster.
It would seem that the Iverni were the first native tribe with
whom foreign traders came in contact, as it is from them that
the Latin name for the whole island is derived. The earliest
form was probably Iveriyo or Iveriyu, genitive Iveryonos, from
which come Lat. Iverio, Hiverio (Antonine Itinerary), Hiberio
(Confession of St Patrick), Old Irish Eriu, Heriu, gen. Herenn
1 The importance of the commerce between Ireland and Gaul in
early times, and in particular the trade in wine, has been insisted
upon by H. Zimmer in papers in the Abh. d. Berl. Akad. d. Wissen-
schaften (1909).
with regular loss of intervocalic 11, Welsh Iwerddon (from the
oblique cases). West of the Iverni in Co. Kerry Ptolemy mentions
the Vellabori, and going in a northerly direction following the
coast we find the Gangani, Autini (Autiri), Nagnatae (Magnatae).
Erdini (cf . the name Lough Erne), Vennicnii, Rhobogdii, Darini
and Eblanii, none of whom can be identified with certainty.
In south Ulster Ptolemy locates a people called the Voluntii
who seem to correspond to the Ulidians of a later period (Ir.
Ulaid, in Irish Lat. Uloti). About Queen's county or Tipperary
are situated the Usdiae, whose name is compared with the later
Ossory (Ir. Os-raige). Lastly, in the north of Wexford we find
the Coriondi who occur in Irish texts near the Boyne (Mid. Ir.
Coraind). It would seem as if Ptolemy's description of Ireland
answered in some measure to the state of affairs which we find
obtaining in the older Ulster epic cycle.2 Both are probably
anterior to the foundation of a central state at Tara.
Legendary Origins. — We can unfortunately derive no further
assistance from external sources and must therefore examine
the native traditions. From the 9th century onwards we find
accounts of various races who had colonized the island. These
stories naturally become amplified as times goes on, and in what
we may regard as the classical or standard versions to be found
in Keating, the Four Masters, Dugald MacFirbis and elsewhere,
no fewer than five successive invasions are enumerated. The
first colony is represented as having arrived in Ireland in A.M.
2520, under the leadership of an individual named Partholan
who hailed from Middle Greece. His company landed in Ken-
mare Bay and settled in what is now Co. Dublin. After occupying
the island for 300 years they were all carried off by a plague
and were buried at Tallaght (Ir. Tamlacht, " plague-grave "),
at which place a number of"ancient remains (probably belonging,
however, to the Viking period) have come to light. In A.M. 2850
a warrior from Scythia called Nemed reached Ireland with 900
fighting men. Nemed's people are represented as having to
struggle for their existence with a race of sea-pirates known as
the Fomorians. The latter's stronghold was Tory Island, where
they had a mighty fortress. After undergoing great hardship the
Nemedians succeeded in destroying the fortress and in slaying
the enemies' leaders, but the Fomorians received reinforcements
from Africa. A second battle was fought in which both parties
were nearly exterminated. Of the Nemedians only thirty
warriors escaped, among them being three descendants of Nemed,
who made their way each to a different country (A.M. 3066).
One of them, Simon Brec, proceeded to Greece, where his posterity
multiplied to such an extent that the Greeks grew afraid and
reduced them to slavery. In time their position became so
intolerable that they resolved to escape, and they arrived in
Ireland A.M. 3266. This third body of invaders is known col-
lectively as Firbolgs, and is ethnologically and historically very
important. They are stated to have had five leaders, all brothers,
each of whom occupied one of the provinces or " fifths." We
find them landing in different places. One party, the Fir Galeoin,
landed at Inber Slangi, the mouth of the Slaney, and occupied
much of Leinster. Another, the Fir Domnand, settled in Mayo
where their name survives in Irrus Domnand, the ancient name
for the district of Erris. A third band, the Firbolg proper, took
possession of Munster. Many authorities such as Keating and
MacFirbis admit that descendants of the Firbolgs were still to be
found in parts of Ireland in their own day, though they are
characterized as " tattling, guileful, tale-bearing, noisy, con-
temptible, mean, wretched, unsteady, harsh and inhospitable."
The Firbolgs had scarcely established themselves in the island
when a fresh set of invaders appeared on the scene. These were
the Tuatha De Danann (" tribes of the god Danu "), who accord-
ing to the story were also descended from Nemed. They came
originally from Greece and were highly skilled in necromancy.
Having to flee from Greece on account of a Syrian invasion they
proceeded to Scandinavia. Under Nuadu Airgetlaim they
1 On the subject of Ptolemy's description of Ireland see articles
by G. H. Orpen in the Journal of the Royal Society of Antiquaries of
Ireland (June 1894), and John MacNeill in the New Ireland Review
(September 1906).
758
IRELAND
[EARLY HISTORY
moved to Scotland, and finally arrived in Ireland (A.M. 3303),
bringing with them in addition to the celebrated Lia Fail (" stone
of destiny ") which they set up at Tara, the cauldron of the
Dagda and the sword and spear of Lugaid Lamfada. Eochaid,
son of Ere, king of the Firbolgs, having declined to surrender the
sovereignty of Ireland, a great battle was fought on the plain
of Moytura near Cong (Co. Mayo), the site of a prehistoric
cemetery. In this contest the Firbolgs were overthrown with
great slaughter, and the remnants of the race according to
Keating and other writers took refuge in Arran, Islay, Rathlin
and the Hebrides, where they dwelt until driven out by Picts.
Twenty-seven years later the Tuatha De had to defend themselves
against the Fomorians, who were almost annihilated at the battle
of north Moytura near Sligo. The Tuatha De then enjoyed
undisturbed possession of Ireland until the arrival of the Milesians
in A.M. 3500.
All the early writers dwell with great fondness on the origin
and adventures of this race. The Milesians came primarily
from Scythia and after sojourning for some time in Egypt,
Crete and in Scythia again, they finally arrived in Spain. In
the line of mythical ancestors which extends without interruption
up to Noah, the names of Fenius Farsaid, Goedel Glas, Eber Scot
and Breogan constantly recur in Irish story. At length eight
sons of Miled (Lat. Milesius) set forth to conquer Ireland. The
spells of the Tuatha De accounted for most of their number.
However, after two battles the newcomers succeeded in over-
coming the older race; and two brothers, Eber Find and Eremon,
divided the island between them, Eber Find taking east and
west Munster, whilst Eremon received Leinster and Connaught.
Lugaid, son of the brother of Miled, took possession of south-west
Munster. At the same time Ulster was left to Eber son of Ir son
of Miled. The old historians agree that Ireland was ruled by
a succession of Milesian monarchs until the reign of Roderick
O'Connor, the last native king. The Tuatha De are represented
as retiring into the sld or fairy mounds. Eber Find and Eremon
did not remain long in agreement. The historians place the
beginnings of the antithesis between north and south at the
very commencement of the Milesian domination. A battle was
fought between the two brothers in which Eber Find lost his life.
In the reign of Eremon the Picts are stated to have arrived in
Ireland, coming from Scythia. It will have been observed that
Scythia had a peculiar attraction for medieval Irish chroniclers
on account of its resemblance to the name Scotti, Scots. The
Picts first settled in Leinster; but the main body were forced
to remove to Scotland, only a few remaining behind in Meath.
Among the numerous mythical kings placed by the annalists
between Eremon and the Christian era we may mention Tigern-
mas (A.M. 3581), Ollam Fodla (A.M. 3922) who established the
meeting of Tara, Cimbaeth (c. 305 B.C.) the reputed founder of
Emain Macha, Ugaine M6r, Labraid Loingsech, and Eochaid
Feidlech, who built Rath Cruachan for his celebrated daughter,
Medb queen of Connaught. During the ist century of our era
we hear of the rising of the aithech-luatha, i.e. subject or plebeian
tribes, or in other words the Firbolgs, who paid doer- or base rent
to the Milesians. From a resemblance in the name which is
probably fortuitous these tribes have been identified with the
Attecotti of Roman writers. Under Cairbre Cinnchait (" cat-
head ") the oppressed peoples succeeded in wresting the
sovereignty from the Milesians, whose princes and nobles were
almost exterminated (A.D. 90). The line of Eremon was, however,
restored on the accession of Tuathal Techtmar (" the legitimate ") ,
who reigned A.D. 13(5-160. This ruler took measures to consoli-
date the power of the ardri (supreme king). He constructed a
number of fortresses on the great central plain and carved out
the kingdom of Meath to serve as his mensal land. The new
kingdom was composed of the present counties of Meath, West-
meath and Longford together with portions of Monaghan, Cavan,
King's Co. and Kildare. He was also the first to levy the famous
Leinster tribute, the boroma, in consequence of an insult offered
to him by one of the kings of that province. This tribute, which
was only remitted in the 7th century at the instance of St Moling,
must have been the source of constant war and oppression. A
grandson of Tuathal's, the famous Conn Cetchathach (" the
hundred- fighter "), whose death is placed in the year 177 after a
reign of about twenty years, was constantly at war with the
Munster ruler Eogan Mor, also called Mog Nuadat, of the race of
Eber Find. Eogan had subdued the Ernai and the Corco Laigde
(descendants of Lugaid son of Ith) in Munster, and even the
supreme king was obliged to share the island with him. Hence
the well-known names Leth Cuinn or " Conn's half " (north
Ireland), and Leth Moga or " Mug's half " (south Ireland).
The boundary line ran from the Bay of Galway to Dublin along
the great ridge of gravel known as Eiscir Riada which stretches
across Ireland. Mog Nuadat had a son Ailill Aulom who plays
a prominent part in the Irish sagas and genealogies, and his sons
Eogan, Cian and Cormac Cas, all became the ancestors of well-
known families. Conn's grandson, Cormac son of Art, is repre-
sented as having reigned in great splendour (254-266) and as
having been a great patron of learning. It was during this reign
that the sept of the Desi were expelled from Meath. They
settled in Munster where their name still survives in the barony
of Decies (Co. Waterford). A curious passage in Cormac's
Glossary connects one of the leaders of this sept, Cairpre Muse,
with the settlements of the Irish in south Wales which may have
taken place as early as the 3rd century. Of greater consequence
was the invasion of Ulster by the three Collas, cousins of the
ardri Muredach. The stronghold of Emain Macha was destroyed
and the Ulstermen were driven across the Newry River into
Dalriada, which was inhabited by Picts.
The old inhabitants of Ulster are usually termed Ulidians to
distinguish them from the Milesian peoples who overran the
province. With the advent of Niall Noigiallach (" N. of the nine
hostages " reigned 370-405) son of Eochaid Muigmedoin (358-
366) we are treading safer ground. It was about this time that
the Milesian kingdom of Tara was firmly established. Nor
was Niall's activity confined to Ireland alone. Irish sources
represent him as constantly engaged in marauding expeditions
oversea, and it was doubtless on one of these that St Patrick
was taken captive. These movements coincide with the inroads
of the Picts and Scots recorded by Roman writers. It is probably
from this period that the Irish colonies in south Wales, Somerset,
Devon and Cornwall date. And the earliest migrations from
Ulster to Argyll may also have taken place about this time.
Literary evidence of the colonization of south Wales is preserved
both in Welsh and Irish sources, and some idea of the extent
of Irish oversea activity may be gathered from the distribution
of the Ogam inscriptions in Wales, south-west England and the
Isle of Man.
Criticism of the Legendary Origins. — It is only in recent years
that the Irish legendary origins have been subjected to serious
criticism. The fondly cherished theory which attributes Milesian
descent to the bulk of the native population has at length been
assailed. MacNeill asserts that in MacFirbis's genealogies the
majority of the tribes in early Ireland do not trace their descent
to Eremon and Eber Find; they are rather the descendants of
the subject races, one of which figures in the list of conquests
under the name of Firbolg. The stories of the Fomorians were
doubtless suggested in part by the Viking invasions, but the
origin of the Partholan legend has not been discovered. The
Tuatha De do not appear in any of the earliest quasi-historical
documents, nor in Nennius, and they scarcely correspond to
any particular race. It seems more probable that a special
invasion was assigned to them by later writers in order to explain
the presence of mythical personages going by their name in
the heroic cycles, as they were found inconvenient by the
monkish historians. In the early centuries of our era Ireland
would therefore have been occupied by the Firbolgs and kindred
races and the Milesians. According to MacNeill the Firbolg
tribal names are formed with the suffix -raige, e.g. Ciarraige,
Kerry, Osraige, Ossory, or with the obscure words Corcu a'nd
mocu (maccu), e.g. Corco Duibne, Corkaguiney, Corco Mruad,
Corcomroe, Macu Loegdae, Macu Teimne. In the case of corcu
and mocu the name which follows is frequently the name of an
eponymous ancestor. The Milesians on the other hand named
EARLY HISTORY]
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759
themselves after an historical ancestor employing terms such
as ui, " descendants," eland, " children," ddl, " division,"
cinel, " kindred," or stt, " seed." In this connexion it may be
noted that practically all the Milesian pedigrees converge on
three ancestors in the and century — Conn Cetchathach king of
Tara, Cathair Mor of Leinster, and Ailill Aulom of Munster, —
whilst in scarcely any of them are mythological personages
absent when we go farther back than A.D. 300. Special gene-
alogies were framed to link up other races, e.g. the Eraind and
Corcu Loegdi of Munster and the Ulidians with the Milesians
of Tara.
The peculiar characteristic of the Milesian conquest is the
establishment of a central monarchy at Tara. No trace of such
a state of affairs is to be found in the Ulster epic. In the T&in
Bo Clio-Inge we find Ireland divided into fifths, each ruled over
by its own king. These divisions were: Ulster with Emain
Macha as capital, Connaught with Cruachu as residence, north
Munster from Slieve Bloom to north Kerry, south Munster from
south Kerry to Waterford, and Leinster consisting of the two
kingdoms of Tara and Ailinn. Moreover, the kings of Tara
mentioned in the Ulster cycle do not figure in any list of Milesian
kings. It would appear then that the central kingdom of Tara
was an innovation subsequent to the state of society described
in the oldest sagas and the political position reflected in Ptolemy's
account. It was probably due to an invasion undertaken by
Brythons1 from Britain, but it is impossible to assign a precise
date for their arrival. Until the end of the 3rd century the
Milesian power must have been confined to the valley of the
Boyne and the district around Tara. At the beginning of the
4th century the three Collas founded the kingdom of Oriel
(comprising the present counties of Armagh, Monaghan, north
Louth, south Fermanagh) and drove the Ulidians into the
eastern part of the province. Brian and Fiachra, sons of
Eochaid Muigmedoin, conquered for themselves the country of
the Ui Briuin (Roscommon, Leitrim, Cavan) and Tir Fiachrach,
the territory of the Firbolg tribe the Fir Domnann in the valley
of the Moy (Co. Mayo). Somewhat later south Connaught
was similarly wrested from the older race and colonized by
descendants of Brian and Fiachra, later known as Ui Fiachrach
Aidni and Ui Briuin Seola. The north of Ulster is stated to have
been conquered and colonized by Conall and Eogan, sons of
Niall Noigiallach. The former gave his name to the western
portion, Tir Conaill (Co. Donegal), whilst Inishowen was called
Tir Eogain after Eogan. The name Tir Eogain later became
associated with south Ulster where it survives in the county
name Tyrone. The whole kingdom of the north is commonly
designated the kingdom of Ailech, from the ancient stronghold
near Derry which the sons of Niall probably took over from
the earlier inhabitants. At the end of the 5th century Maine, a
relative of the king of Tara, was apportioned a tract of Firbolg
territory to the west of the Suck in Connaught, which formed the
nucleus of a powerful state known as Hy Maine (in English
commonly called the " O'Kelly's country "). Thus practically
the whole of the north and west gradually came under the sway
of the Milesian rulers. Nevertheless one portion retained its
independence. This was Ulidia, consisting of Dalriada, Dal
Fiatach, Dal Araide, including the present counties of Antrim
and Down. The bulk of the population here was probably
Pictish; but the Dal Fiatach, representing the old Ulidians
or ancient population of Ulster, maintained themselves until
the 8th century when they were subdued by their Pictish
neighbours. The relationship of Munster and Leinster to the
Tara dynasty is not so easy to define. The small kingdom of
Ossory remained independent until a very late period. As for
Leinster none of the Brythonic peoples mentioned by Ptolemy
left traces of their name, although it is possible that the ruling
1 Scholars are only beginning to realize how close was the con-
nexion between Ireland and Wales from early times. Pedersen has
recently pointed out the large number of Brythonic and Welsh loan
words received into Irish from the time of the Roman occupation
of Britain to the beginning of the literary period. Welsh writers
now assume an Irish origin for much of the contents of the
Mabinogion.
family may have been derived from them. It would seem that
the Fir Galeoin who play such a prominent part in the T&in
had been crushed before authentic history begins. The king of
Leinster was for centuries the most determined opponent of the
ardri, an antithesis which is embodied in the story of the boroma
tribute. When we turn to Munster we find that Cashel was the
seat of power in historical times. Now Cashel (a loanword from
Lat. castellum) was not founded until the beginning of the sth
century by Core son of Lugaid. The legendary account attributes
the subjugation of the various peoples inhabiting Munster to
Mog Nuadat, and the pedigrees are invariably traced up to his
son Ailill Aulom. Rhys adopts the view that the race of Eber
Find was not Milesian but a branch of the Ernai, and this theory
has much in its favour. The allegiance of the rulers of Munster to
Niall and his descendants can at the best of times only have
been nominal.
In this way we get a number of over-kingdoms acknowledging
only the supremacy of the Tara dynasty. These were (i)
Munster with Cashel as centre, (2) Connaught, (3) Ailech, (4)
Oriel, (5) Ulidia, (6) Meath, (7) Leinster, (8) Ossory. Some of
these states might be split up into various parts at certain
periods, each part becoming for the time-being an over-kingdom.
For instance, Ailech might be resolved into Tir Conaill and
Tir Eogain according to political conditions. Hence the number
of over-kingdoms is given variously in different documents.
The supremacy was vested in the descendants of Niall Noigiallach
without interruption until 1002; but as Niall's descendants were
represented by four reigning families, the high-kingship passed
from one branch to another. Nevertheless after the middle
of the Sth century the title of ardri (high-king) was only held
by the Cinel Eogain (northern Hy Neill) and the rulers of Meath
(southern Hy Neill), as the kingdom of Oriel had dropped into
insignificance. The supremacy of the ardri was more often than
not purely nominal. This must have been particularly the case
in Leth Moga.
Religion in Early Ireland. — Our knowledge of the beliefs of the
pagan Irish is very slight. The oldest texts belonging to the
heroic cycle are not preserved in any MS. before noo, and
though the sagas were certainly committed to writing several
centuries before that date, it is evident that the monkish tran-
scribers have toned down or omitted features that savoured too
strongly of paganism. Supernatural beings play an important
part in the T&in B6 Cualgne, Cuchulinn's Sickbed, the Wooing
of Enter and similar stories, but the relations between ordinary
mortals and such divine or semi-divine personages is not easy
to establish. It seems unh'kely that the ancient Irish had a
highly developed pantheon. On the other hand there are
abundant traces of animistic worship, which have survived in
wells, often associated with a sacred tree (Ir. bile), bullans,
pillar stones, weapons. There are also traces of the worship of
the elements, prominent among which are sun and fire. The
belief in earth spirits or fairies (Ir. aes side, sid) forms perhaps
the most striking feature of Irish belief. The sagas teem with
references to the inhabitants of the fairy mounds, who play such
an important part in the mind of the peasantry of our own time.
These supernatural beings are sometimes represented as immortal,
but often they fall victims to the prowess of mortals. Numerous
cases of marriage between fairies and mortals are recorded. The
Tuatha De Danann is used as a collective name for the aes side.
The representatives of this race in the Tain B6 Cualgne play a
somewhat similar part to the gods of the ancient Greeks in the
Iliad, though they are of necessity of a much more shadowy
nature. Prominent among them were Manannan mac Lir, who
is connected with the sea and the Isle of Man, and the Dagda,
the father of a numerous progeny. One of them, Bodb Derg, re-
sided near Portumna on the shore of Lough Derg, whilst another,
Angus Mac-in-6g, dwelt at the Brug of the Boyne, the well-known
tumulus at New Grange. The Dagda's daughter Brigit trans-
mitted many of her attributes to the Christian saint of the same
name (d. 523). The ancient Brigit seems to have been the
patroness of the arts and was probably also the goddess of fertility.
At any rate it is with her that the sacred fire at Kildare which
760
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[EARLY HISTORY
burnt almost uninterruptedly until the time of the Reformation
was associated; and she was commonly invoked in the Hebrides,
and until quite recently in Donegal, to secure good crops. Well-
known fairy queens are Clidna (south Munster) and Aibell (north
Munster). We frequently hear of three goddesses of war — Ana,
Bodb and Macha, also generally called Morrigu and Badb.
They showed themselves in battles hovering over the heads of
the combatants in the form of a carrion crow. The name Bodb
appears on a Gaulish stone as (Cathu-)bodvae. The Geniti glinni
and demna aeir were other fierce spirits who delighted in carnage.
When we come to treat of religious rites and worship, our
sources leave us completely in the dark. We hear in several
documents of a great idol covered with gold and silver named
Cromm Cruach, or Cenn Cruaich, which was surrounded by
twelve lesser idols covered with brass or bronze, and stood on
Mag Slecht (the plain of prostrations) near Ballymagauran,
Co. Cavan. In one text the Cromm Cruach is styled the chief
idol of Ireland. According to the story St Patrick overthrew
the idol, and one of the lives of the saint states that the mark
of his crosier might still be seen on the stone. In the Dindsenchus
we are told that the worshippers sacrificed their children to the
idol in order to secure corn, honey and milk in plenty. On the
occasion of famine the druids advised that the son of a sinless
married couple should be brought to Ireland to be killed in front
of Tara and his blood mixed with the soil of Tara. We might
naturally expect to find the druids active in the capacity of
priests in Ireland. D'Arbois de Jubainville maintains that in
Gaul the three classes of druids, vates and gutuatri, corresponded
more or less to the pontifices, augurs and flamens of ancient
Rome. In ancient Irish literature the functions of the druids
correspond fairly closely to those of their Gaulish brethren
recorded by Caesar and other writers of antiquity. Had we
contemporary accounts of the position of the druid in Ireland
prior to the introduction of Christianity, it may be doubted if
any serious difference would be discovered. In early Irish
literature the druids chiefly appear as magicians and diviners,
but they are also the repositaries of the learning of the time
which they transmitted to the disciples accompanying them (see
DRUIDISM). The Druids were believed to have the power to
render a person insane by flinging a magic wisp of straw in his
face, and they were able to raise clouds of mist, or to bring down
showers of fire and blood. They claimed to be able to foretell
the future by watching the clouds, or by means of divining-rods
made of yew. They also resorted to sacrifice. They possessed
several means for rendering a person invisible, and various
peculiar and complicated methods of divination, such as Imbas
forosna, tein laegda, and dichetal do chennaib, are described in
early authorities. Whether or not the Irish druids taught that
the soul was immortal is a question which it is impossible to
decide. There is one passage which seems to support the view
that they agreed with the Gaulish druids in this respect, but it is
not safe to deny the possible influence of Christian teaching in
the document in question. The Irish, however, possessed some
more or less definite notions about an abode of everlasting
youth and peace inhabited by fairies. The latter either dwell
in the sld, and this is probably the earlier conception, or in
islands out in the ocean where they live a life of never-ending
delight. These happy abodes were known by various names,
as Tir Tairngiri (Land of Promise), Mag Mell (Plain of Pleasures).
Condla Caem son of Conn'Cetchathach was carried in a boat of
crystal by a fairy maiden to the land of youth, and among other
mortals who went thither Bran, son of Febal, and Ossian are the
most famous. The doctrine of metempsychosis seems to have
been familiar in early Ireland. Mongan king of Dalriada in the
yth century is stated to have passed after death into various
shapes— a wolf, a stag, a salmon, a seal, a swan. Fintan, nephew
of Partholan, is also reported to have survived the deluge and
to have lived in various shapes until he was reborn as Tuan mac
Cairill in the 6th century. This legend appears to have been
worked up, if not manufactured, by the historians of the pth
to nth centuries to support their fictions. It may, however, be
mentioned that Giraldus Cambrensis and the Speculum Regale
state in all seriousness that certain of the inhabitants of Ossory
were able at will to assume the form of wolves, and similar
stories are not infrequent in Irish romance.
Conversion to Christianity. — In the beginning of the 4th century
there was an organized Christian church in Britain; and in
view of the intimate relations existing between Wales and
Ireland during that century it is safe to conclude that there were
Christians in Ireland before the time of St Patrick. Returned
colonists from south Wales, traders and the raids of the Irish
in Britain with the consequent influx of British captives sold
into slavery must have introduced the knowledge of Christianity
into the island considerably before A.D. 400. In this connexion
it is interesting to find an Irishman named Fith (also called
Iserninus) associated with St Patrick at Auxerre. Further,
the earliest Latin words introduced into Irish show the influence
of British pronunciation (e.g. O. Ir. trinddit from trinitat-em
shows the Brythonic change of a to 6). Irish records preserve
the names of three shadowy pre-Patrician saints who were
connected with south-east Ireland, Declan, Ailbe and Ciaran.
In one source the great heresiarch Pelagius is stated to have
been a Scot. He may have been descended from an Irish family
settled in south Wales. We have also the statement of Prosper
of Aquitaine that Palladius was sent by Pope Celestine as first
bishop to the Scots that believe in Christ. But though we may
safely assume that a number of scattered communities existed
in Ireland, and probably not in the south alone, it is unlikely
that there was any organization before the time of St Patrick.
This mission arose out of the visit of St Germanus of Auxerre
to Britain. The British bishops had grown alarmed at the rapid
growth of Pelagianism in Britain and sought the aid of the Gaulish
church. A synod summoned for the occasion commissioned
Germanus and Lupus to go to Britain, which they accordingly
did in 429; Pope Celestine, we are told, had given his sanction
to the mission through the deacon Palladius. The heresy was
successfully stamped out in Britain, but distinct traces of it
are to be found some three centuries later in Ireland, and it is to
Irish monks on the European continent that we owe the preserva-
tion of the recently discovered copies of Pelagius's Commentary.
Palladius's activity in Britain probably marked him out as the
man to undertake the task of bringing Ireland into touch with
Western Christianity. In any case Prosper and the Irish Annals
represent him as arriving in Ireland in 431 with episcopal rank.
His missionary activity unfortunately is extremely obscure.
Tradition associates his name with Co. Wicklow, but Irish
sources state that after a brief sojourn there he proceeded to
the land of the Picts, among whom he was beginning to labour
when his career was cut short by death.
St Patrick. — At this juncture Germanus of Auxerre decided
to consecrate his pupil Patrick for the purpose of carrying on
the work begun by Palladius. Patrick would possess several
qualifications for the dignity of a missionary bishop to Ireland.
Born in Britain about 389, he had been carried into slavery in
Ireland when a youth of sixteen. He remained with his master
for seven years, and must have had ample opportunity for
observing the conditions, and learning the language, of the
people around him; and such knowledge would have been
indispensable to the Christian bishop in view of the peculiar
state of Irish society (see PATRICK, ST). The new bishop landed
in Wicklow in 432. Leinster was probably the province in which
Christianity was already most strongly represented, and Patrick
may have entrusted this part of his sphere to two fellow-workers
from Gaul, Auxilius and Iserninus. At any rate he seems rather
to have addressed himself more especially to the task of founding
churches in Meath, Ulster and Connaught. In Ireland the
land nominally belonged to the tribe, but in reality a kind of
feudal system existed. In order to succeed with the body of the
tribe it was necessary to secure the adherence of the chief. The
conversion in consequence was in large measure only apparent;
and such pagan superstitions and practices as did not run
directly counter to the new teaching were tolerated by the
saint. Thus, whilst the mass of the people practically still
continued in heathendom, the apostle was enabled to found
EARLY HISTORY]
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761
churches and schools and educate a priesthood which should
provide the most effective and certain means of conversion.
It would be a mistake to suppose that his success was as rapid
or as complete as is generally assumed. There can be no doubt
that he met with great opposition both from the high-king
Loigaire and from the druids. But though Loigaire refused
to desert the faith of his ancestors we are told that a number
of his nearest kinsmen accepted Christianity; and if there be
any truth in the story of the codification of the Brehon Laws
we gather that he realized that the future belonged to the new
religion. St Patrick's work seems to fall under two heads. In
the first place he planted the faith in parts of the north and west
which had probably not yet heard the gospel. He also organized
the already existing Christian communities, and with this in
view founded a church at Armagh as his metropolitan see (444) .
It is further due to him that Ireland became linked up with
Rome and the Christian countries of the Western church, and
that in consequence Latin was introduced as the language of the
church. It seems probable that St Patrick consecrated a
considerable number of bishops with small but definite dioceses
which doubtless coincided in the main with the territories of the
tuatha. In any case the ideal of the apostle from Britain was
almost certainly very different from the monastic system in vogue
in Ireland in the 6th and 7th centuries.
The Early Irish Church. — The church founded by St Patrick
was doubtless in the main identical in doctrine with the churches
of Britain and Gaul and other branches of the Western church;
but after the recall of the Roman legions from Britain the Irish
church was shut off from the Roman world, and it is only natural
that there should not have been any great amount of scruple
with regard to orthodox doctrine. This would explain the
survival of the writings of Pelagius in Ireland until the 8th
century. Even Columba himself, in his Latin hymn Altus
prosator, was suspected by Gregory the Great of favouring Arian
doctrines. After the death of St Patrick there was apparently
a relapse into paganism in many parts of the island. The church
itself gradually became grafted on to the feudal organization,
the result of which was the peculiar system which we find in the
6th and 7th centuries. Wherever Roman law and municipal
institutions had been in force the church was modelled on the
civil society. The bishops governed ecclesiastical districts
co-ordinate with the civil divisions. In Ireland there were no
cities and no municipal institutions; the nation consisted of
groups of tribes connected by kinship, and loosely held together
by a feudal system which we shall examine later. Although
St Patrick endeavoured to organize the Irish church on regular
diocesan lines, after his death an approximation to the lay
system was under the circumstances almost inevitable. When a
chief became a Christian and bestowed lands on the church, he
at the same time transferred all his rights as a chief; but these
rights still remained with his sept, albeit subordinate to the
uses of the church. At first all church offices were exclusively
confined to members of the sept. In this new sept there was
consequently a twofold succession. The religious sept or family
consisted in the first instance not only of the ecclesiastical
persons to whom the gift was made, but of all the cell or vassals,
tenants and slaves, connected with the land bestowed. The
head was the coarb (Ir. comarba, " co-heir "), i.e. the inheritor
both of the spiritual and temporal rights and privileges of the
founder; he in his temporal capacity exacted rent and tribute
like other chiefs, and made war not on temporal chiefs only, the
spectacle of two coarbs making war on each other not being
unusual. The ecclesiastical colonies that went forth from a
parent family generally remained in subordination to it, in the
same way that the spreading branches of a ruling family remained
in general subordinate to it. The heads of the secondary families
were also called the coarbs of the original founder. Thus there
were coarbs of Columba at lona, Kells, Derry, Durrow and
other places. The coarb of the chief spiritual foundation was
called the high coarb (ard-chomarba). The coarb might be a
bishop or only an abbot, but in either case all the ecclesiastics
in the family were subject to him; in this way it frequently
happened that bishops, though their superior functions were
recognized, were in subjection to abbots who were only priests,
as in the case of St Columba, or even to a woman, as in the case
of St Brigit. This singular association of lay and spiritual
powers was liable to the abuse of allowing the whole succession
to fall into lay hands, as happened to a large extent in later
times. The temporal chief had his steward who superintended
the collection of his rents and tributes; in like manner the coarb
of a religious sept had his airchinnech (Anglo-Irish erenach,
herenach), whose office was generally, but not necessarily,
hereditary. The office embodied in a certain sense the lay
succession in the family.
From the beginning the life of the converts must have been
in some measure coenobitic. Indeed it could hardly have been
otherwise in a pagan and half-savage land. St Patrick himself
in his Confession makes mention of monks in Ireland in connexion
with his mission, but the few glimpses we get of the monastic
life of the decades immediately following his death prove that
the earliest type of coenobium differed considerably from that
known at a later period. The coenobium of the end of the 5th
century consisted of an ordinary sept or family whose chief
had become Christian. After making a gift of his lands the chief
either retired, leaving it in the hands of a coarb, or remained as
the religious head himself. The family went on with their usual
avocations, but some of the men and women, and in some cases
all, practised celibacy, and all joined in fasting and prayer. It
may be inferred from native documents that grave disorders
were prevalent under this system. A severer and more exclusive
type of monasticism succeeded this primitive one, but apart
from the separation of the sexes the general character never
entirely changed.
Diocesan organization as understood in countries under Roman
Law being unknown, there was not that limitation of the number
of bishops which territorial jurisdiction renders necessary, and
consequently the number of bishops increased beyond all pro-
portions. Thus, St Mochta, abbot of Louth, and a reputed
disciple of St Patrick, is stated to have had no less than 100
bishops in his monastic family. All the bishops in a coenobium
were subject to the abbot; but besides the bishop in the monastic
families, every tuath or tribe had its own bishop. The church
in Ireland having been evolved out of the monastic nuclei
already described the tribe bishop was an episcopal development
of a somewhat later period. He was an important personage,
his status being fixed in the Brehon laws, from which we learn
that his honour price was seven cumals, and that he had the
right to be accompanied by the same number of followers as a
petty king. The power of the bishops was considerable, as they
were strong enough to resist the kings with regard to the right
of sanctuary, ever a fertile source of dissension. The tuath
bishop in later centuries corresponded to the diocesan bishop as
closely as it was possible in two systems so different as tribal
and municipal government. When diocesan jurisdiction was
introduced into Ireland in the i2th century the tuath became a
diocese. Many of the old dioceses represent ancient tuatha,
and even enlarged modern dioceses coincide with the territories
of ancient tribal states. Thus the diocese of Kilmacduagh was
the territory of the Hui Fiachrach Aidne; that of Kilfenora
was the tribe land of Corco-Mruad or Corcomroe. Many deaneries
also represent tribe territories. Thus the deanery of Musgrylin
(Co. Cork) was the ancient Muscraige Mitaine, and no doubt had
its tribe bishop in ancient times. Bishops without dioceses and
monastic bishops were not unknown outside Ireland in the Eastern
and Western churches in very early times, but they had dis-
appeared with rare exceptions in the 6th century when the Irish
reintroduced the monastic bishops and the monastic church
into Britain and the continent.
In the 8th and gth centuries, when the great emigration of
Irish scholars and ecclesiastics took place, the number of wander-
ing bishops without dioceses became a reproach to the Irish
church; and there can be no doubt that it led to much incon-
venience and abuse, and was subversive of the stricter discipline
that the popes had succeeded in establishing in the Western
762
IRELAND
[EARLY HISTORY
church. They were accused of ordaining serfs without the consent
of their lords, consecrating bishops per saltum, i.e. of making
men bishops who had not previously received the orders of
priests, and of permitting bishops to be consecrated by a single
bishop. This custom can hardly, however, be a reproach to the
Irish church, as the practice was never held to be invalid; and
besides, the Nicene canons of discipline were perhaps not known
in Ireland until comparatively late times'. The isolated position
of Ireland, and the existence of tribal organization in full vigour,
explain fully the anomalies of Irish discipline, many of which
were also survivals of the early Christian practices before the
complete organization of the church.
After the death of St Patrick the bond between the numerous
church families which his authority supplied was greatly relaxed ;
and the saint's most formidable opponents, the druids, probably
regained much of their old power. The transition period which
follows the loosening of a people's faith in its old religion and
before the authority of the new is universally accepted is always
a time of confusion and rekxation of morals. Such a period
appears to have followed the fervour of St Patrick's time.
To judge from the early literature the marriage-tie seems to
have been regarded very lightly, and there can be little doubt that
pagan marriage customs were practised long after the intro-
duction of Christianity. The Brehon Laws assume the existence
of married as well as unmarried clergy, and when St Patrick
was seeking a bishop for the men of Leinster he asked for " a
man of one wife." Marriage among the secular clergy went on
in Ireland until the isth century. Like the Gaulish druids
described by Caesar, the poet (fili) and the druid possessed a
huge stock of unwritten native lore, probably enshrined in
verse which was learnt by rote by their pupils. The exalted
position occupied by the learned class in ancient Ireland perhaps
affords the key to the wonderful outbursts of scholarly activity
in Irish monasteries from the 6th to the pth centuries. That
some of thefilid embraced Christianity from the outset is evident
from the story of Dubthach. As early as the second half of the
5th century Enda, a royal prince of Oriel (c. 450-540), after
spending some time at Whithorn betook himself to Aranmore,
off the coast of Galway, and founded a school there which
attracted scholars from all over Ireland. The connexion between
Ireland and Wales was strong in the 6th century, and it was from
south Wales that the great reform movement in the Irish mon-
asteries emanated. Findian of Clonard (c. 470-548) is usually
regarded as the institutor of the type of monastery for which
Ireland became so famous during the next few centuries. He
spent some time in Wales, where he came under the influence of
St David, Gildas and Cadoc; and on returning to Ireland he
founded his famous monastery at Clonard (Co. Meath) about
520. Here no less than 3000 students are said to have received
instruction at the same time. Such a monastery consisted of
countless tiny huts of wattles and clay (or, where stone was
plentiful, of beehive cells) built by the pupils and enclosed by
a fosse, or trench, like a permanent military encampment.
The pupils sowed their own corn, fished in the streams, and
milked their own cows. Instruction was probably given in the
open air. Twelve of Findian's disciples became known as the
twelve apostles of Ireland, the monastic schools they founded
becoming the greatest centres of learning and religious instruction
not only in Ireland, but in the whole of the west of Europe.
Among the most famous were Moville (Co. Down), founded by
another Findian, c. 540; Clonmacnoise, founded by Kieran,
541; Derry, founded by Columba, 546; Clonfert, founded by
Brendan, 552; Bangor, founded in 558 by Comgall; Durrow,
founded by Columba, c. 553. The chief reform due to the
influence of the British church1 seems to have been the intro-
duction of monastic life in the strict sense of the word, i.e.
communities entirely separated from the laity with complete
separation of the sexes.
One almost immediate outcome of the reformation effected
1 It seems probable that the celebrated monastery of Whithorn
in Galloway played some part in the reform movement, at any rate
in the north of Ireland. Findian of Moville spent some years there.
by Findian was that wonderful spirit of missionary enterprise
which made the name of Scot and of Ireland so well known
throughout Europe, while at the same time the Irish were
being driven out of their colonies in Wales and south-west Britain
owing to the advance of the Saxon power. In 563 Columba
founded the monastery of Hi (lona), which spread the knowledge
of the Gospel among the Picts of the Scottish mainland. From
this same solitary outpost went forth the illustrious Aidan to
plant another lona at Lindisfarne, which, " long after the poor
parent brotherhood had fallen to decay, expanded itself into the
bishopric of Durham." And Lightfoot claims for Aidan " the
first place in the evangelization of the English race. Augustine
was the apostle of Kent, but Aidan was the apostle of England."
In 590 Columbanus, a native of Leinster (b. 543), went forth
from Bangor, accompanied by twelve companions, to preach the
Gospel on the continent of Europe. Columbanus was the first
of the long stream of famous Irish monks who left their traces
in Italy, Switzerland, Germany and France; amongst them
being Gallus or St Gall, founder of St Gallen, Kilian of Wiirzburg,
Virgil of Salzburg, Cathald of Tarentum and numerous others.
At the beginning of the 8th century a long series of missionary
establishments extended from the mouths of the Meuse and
Rhine to the Rh6ne and the Alps, whilst many others founded by
Germans are the offspring of Irish monks. Willibrord, the
apostle of the Frisians, for instance, spent twelve years in
Ireland. Other Irishmen seeking remote places wherein to lead
the lives of anchorites, studded the numerous islands on the
west coast of Scotland with their little buildings. Cormac ua
Liathain, a disciple of St Columba, visited the Orkneys, and
when the Northmen first discovered Iceland they found there
books and other traces of the early Irish church. It may be
mentioned that the geographer Dicuil who lived at the court
of Charlemagne gives a description of Iceland which must have
been obtained from some one who had been there. The peculi-
arities which owing to Ireland's isolation had survived were
brought into prominence when the Irish missionaries came into
contact with Roman ecclesiastics. The chief points of difference
were the calculation of Easter and the form of the tonsure, in
addition to questions of discipline such as the consecration of
bishops per saltum and bishops without dioceses. With regard
to tonsure it would seem that the druids shaved the front part of
the head from ear to ear. St Patrick doubtless introduced
the ordinary coronal tonsure, but in the period following his
death the old druidical tonsure was again revived. In the
calculation of Easter the Irish employed the old Roman and
Jewish 84-years' cycle which they may have received from
St Patrick and which had once prevailed all over Europe. Shut
off from the world, they were probably ignorant of the new
cycle of 532 years which had been adopted by Rome in 463.
This question aroused a controversy which waxed hottest in
England, and as the Irish monks stubbornly adhered to their
traditions they were vehemently attacked by their opponents.
As early as 633 the church of the south of Ireland, which had
been more in contact with Gaul, had been won over to the
Roman method of computation. The north and lona on the
other hand refused to give in until Adamnan induced the north
of Ireland to yield in 697, while lona held out until 716, although
by this time the monastery had lost its influence in Pictland.
Owing to these controversies the real work of the early Irish
missionaries in converting the pagans of Britain and central
Europe, and sowing the seeds of culture there, is apt to be
overlooked. Thus, when the Anglo-Saxon, Winfrid, surnamed
Boniface, appeared in the kingdom of the Franks as papal
legate in 723, to romanize the existing church of the time, neither
the Franks, the Thuringians, the Alemanni nor the Bavarians
could be considered as pagans. What Irish missionaries and
their foreign pupils had implanted for more than a century
quite independently of Rome, Winfrid organized and established
under Roman authority partly by force of arms.
During the four centuries which elapsed between the arrival
of St Patrick and the establishment of a central state in Dublin
by the Norsemen the history of Ireland is almost a blank as
EARLY HISTORY]
IRELAND
763
regards outstanding events. From the time that the Milesians
of Tara had come to be recognized as suzerains of the whole
island all political development ceases. The annals contain
nothing save a record of intertribal warfare, which the high-king
was rarely powerful enough to stay. The wonderful achievements
of the Irish monks did not affect the body politic as a whole,
and it may be doubted if there was any distinct advance in
civilization in Ireland from the time of Niall Noigiallach to the
Anglo-Norman invasion. NialTs posterity held the position of
ardrl uninterruptedly until 1002. Four of his sons, Loigaire,
Conall Crimthand, Fiacc and Maine, settled in Meath and
adjoining territories, and their posterity were called the southern
Hy Neill. The other four, Eogan, Enna Find, Cairpre and
Conall Gulban, occupied the northern part of Ulster. Their
descendants were known as the northern Hy Neill.1 The
descendants of Eogan were the O'Neills and their numerous
kindred septs ; the posterity of Conall Gulban were the O'Donnells
and their kindred septs. Niall died in 406 in the English Channel
whilst engaged in a marauding expedition. He was succeeded
by his nephew Dathi, son of Fiachra, son of Eochaid Muigmedoin,
who is stated to have been struck by lightning at the foot of the
Alps in 428. Loigaire, son of Niall (428-463), is identified with
the story of St Patrick. According to tradition it was during
his reign that the codification of the Senchus M6r took place.
A well-known story represents him as constantly at war with
the men of Leinster. His successor, Ailill Molt (463-483), son
of Dathi, is remarkable as being the last high-king for 500 years
who was not a direct descendant of Niall.
In 503 a body of colonists under Fergus, son of Ere, moved
from Dalriada to Argyll and. effected settlements there. The
circumstances which enabled the Scots to succeed in occupying
Kintyre and Islay cannot now be ascertained. The little
kingdom had great difficulty to maintain itself, and its varying
fortunes are very obscure. Neither is it clear that bodies of
Scots had not already migrated to Argyll. Diarmait, son of
Fergus Cerbaill (544-565), of the southern Hy Neill, undoubtedly
professed Christianity though he still clung to many pagan
practices, such as polygamy and the use of druidical incantations
in battle. The annals represent him as getting into trouble
with the Church on account of his violation of the right of
sanctuary. At an assembly held at Tara in 5 54 Curnan , son of the
king of Connaught, slew a nobleman, a crime punishable with
death. The author of the deed fled for sanctuary to St Columba.
But Diarmait pursued him, and disregarding the opposition
of the saint seized Curnan and hanged him. St Columba's
kinsmen, the northern Hy Neill, took up the quarrel, and attacked
and defeated the king at Culdreimne in 561. In this battle
Diarmait is stated to have employed druids to form an airbe
druad (fence of protection?) round his host. A few years later
Diarmait seized by force the chief of Hy Maine, who had slain
his herald and had taken refuge with St Ruadan of Lothra.
According to the legend the saint, accompanied by St Brendan
of Birr, followed the king to Tara and solemnly cursed it, from
which time it was deserted. It has been suggested that Tara
was abandoned during the plague of 548-549. Others have
surmised that it was abandoned as a regular place of residence
long before this, soon after the northern and southern branches
of the Hy Neill had consolidated their power at Ailech and in
Westmeath. Whatever truth there may be in the legend, it
demonstrates conclusively the absence of a rallying point where
the idea of a central government might have taken root. Aed,
son of Ainmire (572-598) of the northern Hy Neill, figures
prominently in the story of St Columba. It was during his
reign that the famous assembly of Drumcet (near Newtown-
limavaddy in Co. Derry) was held. The story goes that the
filid had increased in number to such an extent that they included
one-third of the freemen. There was thus quite an army of
impudent swaggering idlers roaming about the country and
1 The O'Neills who played such an important part in later Irish
history do not take their name from Niall Noigiallach, though they
are descended from him. They take their name from Niall Glundub
(d. 919)-
quartering themselves on the chiefs and nobles during the winter
and spring, story-telling, and lampooning those who dared to
hesitate to comply with their demands.
Some idea of the style of living of the learned professions
in early Ireland may be gathered from the income enjoyed in
later times by the literati of Tir Conaill (Co. Donegal). It has
been computed that no less than £2000 was set aside yearly in
this small state for the maintenance of the class. No wonder,
then, that Aed determined to banish them from Ireland. At
the convention of Drumcet the number of filid was greatly
reduced, lands were assigned for their maintenance, the ollams
were required to open schools and to support the inferior bards
as teachers. This reform may have helped to foster the cultiva-
tion of the native literature, and it is possible that we owe to it
the preservation of the Ulster epic. But the Irish were un-
fortunately incapable of rising above the saga, consisting of a
mixture of prose and verse. Their greatest achievement in
literature dates back to the dawn of history, and we find no
more trace of development in the world of letters than in the
political sphere. The Irishman, in his own language at any rate,
seems incapable of a sustained literary effort, a consequence of
which is that he invents the most intricate measures. Sense
is thus too frequently sacrificed to sound. The influence of the
professional literary class kept the clan spirit alive with their
elaborate genealogies, and in their poems they only pandered
to the vanity and vices of their patrons. That no new ideas
came in may be gathered from the fact that the bulk of Irish
literature so far published dates from before 800, though the
MSS. which contain it are much later. Bearing in mind how
largely the Finn cycle is modelled on the older Ulster epic, works
of originality composed between 1000 and 1600 are with one or
two exceptions conspicuously absent.
At the convention of Drumcet the status of the Dalriadic
settlement in Argyll was also regulated. The ardri desired to
make the colony an Irish state tributary to the high-king; but
on the special pleading of St Columba it was allowed to remain
independent. Aed lost his life in endeavouring to exact the
boroma tribute from Brandub, king of Leinster, who defeated
him at Dunbolg in 598. After several short reigns the throne
was occupied by Aed's son Domnall (627-641). His predecessor,
Suibne Menn, had been slain by the king of Dalaraide, Congal
Claen. The latter was driven out of the country by Domnall,
whereupon Congal collected an army of foreign adventurers made
up of Saxons, Dalriadic Scots, Britons and Picts to regain his
lands and to avenge himself on the high-king. In a sanguinary
encounter at Mag Raith (Moira in Co. Down), which forms the
subject of a celebrated romance, Congal was slain and the power
of the settlement in Kintyre weakened for a considerable period.
A curious feature of Hy Neill rule about this time was joint
kingship. From 563 to 656 there were no less than five such
pairs. In 681 St Moling of Ferns prevailed upon the ardrl
Finnachta (674-690) to renounce for ever the boroma, tribute,
which had always been a source of friction between the supreme
king and the ruler of Leinster. This was, however, unfortunately
not the last of the boroma. Fergal (711-722), in trying to enforce
it again, was slain in a famous battle at Allen in Kildare. As
a sequel Fergal's son, Aed Allan (734-743), defeated the men
of Leinster with great slaughter at Ballyshannon (Co. Kildare)
in 737. If there was so little cohesion among the various pro-
vinces it is small wonder that Ireland fell such an easy prey to
the Vikings in the next century. In 697 an assembly was held
at Tara in which a law known as Cain Adamnain was passed,-
at the instance of Adamnan, prohibiting women from taking
part in battle; a decision that shows how far Ireland with its
tribal system lagged behind Teutonic and Latin countries in
civilization. A similar enactment exempting the clergy, known
as Cain Patraic, was agreed to in 803. The story goes that the
ardrt Aed Oirdnigthe (797-819) made a hostile incursion into
Leinster and forced the primate of Armagh and all his clergy to
attend him. When representations were made to the king as to
the impropriety of his conduct, he referred the matter to his
adviser, Fothud, who was also a cleric. Fothud pronounced that
764
IRELAND
[EARLY HISTORY
the clergy should be exempted, and three verses purporting to
be his decision are still extant.
Invasion of the N orthmen. — The first incursion of the Northmen
took place in A.D. 795, when they plundered and burnt the church
of Rechru, now Lambay, an island north of Dublin Bay. When
this event occurred, the power of the over-king was a mere
shadow. The provincial kingdoms had split up into more or
less independent principalities, almost constantly at war with
each other. The oscillation of the centre of power between
Meath and Tir Eogain, according as the ardri belonged to the
southern or northern Hy Neill, produced corresponding per-
turbations in the balance of parties among the minor kings.
The army consisted of a number of tribes, each commanded by
its own chief, and acting as so many independent units without
cohesion. The tribesmen owed fealty only to their chiefs, who
in turn owed a kind of conditional allegiance to the over-king,
depending a good deal upon the ability of the latter to enforce it.
A chief might through pique or other causes withdraw his tribe
even on the eve of a battle without such defection being deemed
dishonourable. What the tribe was to the nation or the province,
the fine or sept was to the tribe itself. The head of a sept had a
voice not only in the question of war or peace, for that was
determined by the whole tribe, but in all subsequent operations.
However brave the individual soldiers of such an army might be,
the army itself was unreliable against a well-organized and
disciplined enemy. Again, such tribal forces were only levies
gathered together for a few weeks at most, unprovided with
military stores or the means of transport, and consequently
generally unprepared to attack fortifications of any kind, and
liable to melt away as quickly as they were gathered together.
Admirably adapted for a sudden attack, such an army was
wholly unfit to carry on a regular campaign or take advantage
of a victory. These defects of the Irish military system were
abundantly shown throughout the Viking period and also in
Anglo-Norman times.
The first invaders were probably Norwegians l from Hordaland
in search of plunder and captives. Their attacks were not
confined to the sea-coasts; they were able to ascend the rivers
in their ships, and already in 801 they are found on the upper
Shannon. At the outset the invaders arrived in small bodies,
but as these met with considerable resistance large fleets com-
manded by powerful Vikings followed. With such forces it
was possible to put fleets of boats on the inland lakes. Rude
earthen or stockaded forts, serving as magazines and places of
retreat, were erected; or in some cases use was made of strong-
holds already existing, such as Dun Almain in Kildare, Dunlavin
in Wicklow and Fermoy in Cork. Some of these military posts
in course of time became trading stations or grew into towns.
During the first half of the gth century attacks were incessant
in most parts of the island. In 801 we find Norwegians on the
upper Shannon; in 820 the whole of Ireland was harried; and
five years later we hear of Vikings in Co. Dublin, Meath, Kildare,
Wicklow, Queen's Co., Kilkenny and Tipperary. However,
the invaders do not appear to have acted in concert until 830.
About this time a powerful leader, named Turgeis (Turgesius),
accompanied by two nobles, Saxolb and Domrair (Thorir),
arrived with a " royal fleet." Sailing up the Shannon they
built strongholds on Lough Ree and devastated Connaught and
Meath. Eventually Turgeis established himself in Armagh,
whilst his wife Ota settled at Clonmacnoise and profaned the
monastery church with pagan rites. Indeed, the numerous
ecclesiastical establishments appear to have been quite as much
the object of the invaders' fury as the civil authorities. The
monastery of Armagh was rebuilt ten times, and as often de-
stroyed. It was sacked three times in one month. Turgeis
himself is reported to have usurped the abbacy of Armagh.
To escape from the continuous attacks on the monasteries, Irish
monks and scholars fled in large numbers to the continent
carrying with them their precious books. Among them were
1 At this period it is extremely difficult to distinguish between
Norwegians and Danes on account of the close connexion between
the ruling families of both countries.
many of the greatest lights in the world of letters of the time,
such as Sedulius Scottus and Johannes Scottus Erigena. The
figure of Turgeis has given rise to considerable discussion, as
there is no mention of him in Scandinavian sources. It seems
probable that his Norwegian name was Thorgils and he was
possibly related to Godfred, father of Olaf the White, who figures
prominently in Irish history a little later. Turgeis appar-
ently united the Viking forces, as he is styled the first king of
the Norsemen in Ireland. A permanent sovereignty over the
whole of Ireland, such as Turgeis seems to have aimed at, was
then as in later times impossible because of the state of society.
During his lifetime various cities were founded — the first on
Irish soil. Dublin came into existence in 840, and Waterford
and Limerick appear in history about the same time. Although
the Norsemen were constantly engaged in conflict with the
Irish, these cities soon became important commercial centres
trading with England, France and Norway. Turgeis was
captured and drowned by the ardri Maelsechlainn in 844, and
two years later Domrair was slain. However cruel and rapacious
the Vikings may have been, the work of disorder and ruin was
not all theirs. The condition of the country afforded full scope
for the jealousy, hatred, cupidity and vanity which characterize
the tribal state of political society. For instance, Fedilmid,
king of Munster and archbishop of Cashel, took the opportunity
of the misfortunes of the country to revive the claims of the
Munster dynasty to be kings of Ireland. To enforce this claim
he ravaged and plundered a large part of the country, took
hostages from Niall Caille the over-king (833-845), drove out the
contarba of St Patrick, or archbishop of Armagh, and for a whole
year occupied his place as bishop. On his return he plundered
the termon lands of Clonmacnoise " up to the church door," an
exploit which was repeated the following year. There is no
mention of his having helped to drive out the foreigners.
For some years after the death of Turgeis the Norsemen-
appear to have lacked a leader and to have been hard pressed.
It was during this period that Dublin was chosen as the point
of concentration for their forces. In 848 a Danish fleet from
the south of England arrived in Dublin Bay. The Danes are
called in Irish Dubgaill, or black foreigners, as distinguished
from the Findgaill? or white foreigners, i.e. Norwegians. The
origin of these terms, as also of the Irish name for Norway
(Lochlanri) , is obscure. At first the Danes and Norwegians
appear to have made common cause, but two years later the
new city of Dublin was stormed by the Danes. In 851 the
Dublin Vikings succeeded in vanquishing the Danes after a
three days' battle at Snaim Aignech (Carlingford Lough),
whereupon the defeated party under their leader Horm took
service with Cerball, king of Ossory. Even in the first half of
the pth century there must have been a great deal of inter-
marriage between the invaders and the native population, due
in part at any rate to the number of captive women who were
carried off. A mixed race grew up, recruited by many Irish
of pure blood, whom a love of adventure and a lawless spirit
led away. This heterogeneous population was called Gallgoidel
or foreign Irish (whence the modern name Galloway), and like
their northern kinsmen they betook themselves to the sea and
practised piracy. The Christian element in this mixed society
soon lapsed to a large extent, if not entirely, into paganism.
The Scandinavian settlements were almost wholly confined to
the seaport towns, and except Dublin included none of the
surrounding territory. Owing to its position and the character
of the country about it, especially the coast-land to the north of
the Liffey which formed a kind of border-land between the
territories of the kings of Meath and Leinster, a considerable
tract passed into the possession of so powerful a city as Dublin.
The social and political condition of Ireland, and the pastoral
occupation of the inhabitants, were unfavourable to the develop-
ment of foreign commerce, and the absence of coined money
among them shows that it did not exist on an extensive scale.
1 This name survives in Fingall, the name of a district north of
Dublin city. Dubgall is contained in the proper names MacDougall,
MacDowell.
EARLY HISTORY]
IRELAND
765
The foreign articles of luxury (dress, ornaments, wine, &c.)
required by them were brought to the great oenachs or fairs held
periodically in various parts of the country. A nourishing
commerce, however, soon grew up in the Scandinavian towns;
mints were established, and many foreign traders — Flemings,
Italians and others — settled there. It was through these
Scandinavian trading communities that Ireland came into
contact with the rest of Europe in the nth and I2th centuries.
If evidence were needed it is only necessary to point to the names
of three of the Irish provinces, Ulster, Leinster, Munster, which
are formed from the native names (Ulaid, Laigin, Muma-n)
with the addition of Norse staftr; and the very name by which
the island is now generally known is Scandinavian in form
(Ira-land, the land of the Irish) . The settlers in the Scandinavian
towns early came to be looked upon by the native Irish as so
many septs of a tribe added to the system of petty states forming
the Irish political system. They soon mixed in the domestic
quarrels of neighbouring tribes, at first selling their protection,
but afterwards as vassals, sometimes as allies, like the septs and
tribes of the Goidel among themselves. The latter in turn acted
in similar capacities with the Irish-Norwegian chiefs, Irish
tribes often forming part of the Scandinavian armies in Britain.
This intercourse led to frequent intermarriage between the chiefs
and nobility of the two peoples. As an instance, the case of
Cerball, king of Ossory (d. 887), may be cited. Eyvindr, sur-
named AustmaSr, "the east-man,"1 son of Bjorn, agreed to
defend Cerball's territory on condition of receiving his daughter
Raforta in marriage. Among the children of this marriage
were Helgi Magri, one of the early settlers in Iceland, and
Thurida, wife of Thorstein the Red. Three other daughters
of Cerball married Scandinavians: Gormflaith (KormloS)
married Grimolf, who settled in Iceland, Fridgerda married
Thorir Hyrna, and Ethne (Edna) married HloSver, father of
Earl Sigurd Digri who fell at Clontarf. Cerball's son Domnall
(Dufnialr) was the founder of an Icelandic family, whilst the
names Raudi and Baugr occur in the same family. Hence the
occurrence of such essentially Irish names as Konall, Kjaran,
Njall, Kormakr, Brigit, KaSlin, &c., among Icelanders and Nor-
wegians cannot be a matter for surprise; nor that a number of
Norse words were introduced into Irish, notably terms connected
with trade and the sea.
The obscure contest between the Norwegians and Danes
for supremacy in Dublin appears to have made the former feel
the need of a powerful leader. At any rate, in 851-852 the king
of Lochlann (Norway) sent his son Amlaib (Olaf the White)
to assume sovereignty over the Norsemen in Ireland and to
receive tribute and vassals. From this time it is possible to
speak of a Scandinavian kingdom of Dublin, a kingdom which
lasted almost without interruption until the Norman Conquest.
The king of Dublin exercised overlordship over the other Viking
communities in the island, and thus became the most dangerous
opponent of the ardri, with whom he was constantly at variance.
Amlaib was accompanied by Ivar, who is stated in one source
to have been his brother. Some writers wish to identify this
prince with the famous Ivar Beinlaus, son of Ragnar Lodbrok.
Amlaib was opposed to the ardri Maelsechlainn I. (846-863)
who had overcome Turgeis. This brave ruler gained a number of
victories over the Norsemen, but in true Irish fashion they were
never followed up. Although his successor Aed Finnliath
(863-879) gave his daughter in marriage to Amlaib, no better
relations were established. The king of Dublin was certainly
the most commanding figure in Ireland in his day, and during
his lifetime the Viking power was greatly extended. In 870
he captured the strongholds of Dumbarton and Dunseverick
(Co. Antrim). He disappears from the scene in 873. One source
represents him as dying in Ireland, but the circumstances are
quite obscure. Ivar only survived Olaf two or three years, and
it is stated that he died a Christian. During the ensuing period
Dublin was the scene of constant family feuds, which weakened
1 In Anglo-Norman times the Scandinavians of Dublin and other
cities are always called Ostmen, i.e. Eastmen; hence the name
Ostmanstown, now Oxmanstown, a part of the city of Dublin.
its power to such an extent that in 901 Dublin and Waterford
were captured by the Irish and were obliged to acknowledge
the supremacy of the high-king. The Irish Annals state that
there were no fresh invasions of the Northmen for about forty
years dating from 877. During this period Ireland enjoyed
comparative rest notwithstanding the intertribal feuds in which
the Norse settlers shared, including the campaigns of Cormac,
son of Cuilennan, the scholarly king-bishop of Cashel.
Towards the end of this interval of repose a certain Sigtrygg,
who was probably a great-grandson of the Ivar mentioned above,
addressed himself to the task of winning back the kingdom of his
ancestor. Waterford was retaken in 914 by Ivar, grandson of
Ragnall and Earl Ottir, and Sigtrygg won a signal victory over
the king of Leinster at Cenn Fuait (Co. Kilkenny?) two years
later. Dublin was captured, and the high-king Niall Glundub
(910-919) prepared to oppose the invaders. A battle of prime
importance was gained by Sigtrygg over the ardri, who fell
fighting gallantly at Kilmashogue near Dublin in 919. Between
920 and 970 the Scandinavian power in Ireland reached its zenith.
The country was desolated and plundered by natives and
foreigners alike. The lower Shannon was more thoroughly
occupied by the Norsemen, with which fact the rise of Limerick
is associated. Carlow, Kilkenny and the territory round Lough
Neagh were settled, and after the capture of Lough Erne in 932
much of Longford was colonized. The most prominent figures
at this time were Muirchertach " of the leather cloaks," son of
Niall Glundub, Cellachan of Cashel and Amlaib (Olaf) Cuaran.
The first-named waged constant warfare against the foreigners
and was the most formidable opponent the Scandinavians had
yet met. In his famous circuit ot Ireland (941) he took all the
provincial kings, as well as the king of Dublin, as hostages, and
after keeping them for five months at Ailech he handed them
over to the feeble titular ardri, showing that his loyalty was
greater than his ambition. Unlike Muirchertach, Cellachan of
Cashel, the hero of a late romance, was not particular whether
he fought for or against the Norsemen. In 920 Sigtrygg (d. 927)
was driven out of Dublin by his brother Godfred (d. 934) and
retired to York, where he became king of Northumbria. His
sons Olaf and Godfred were expelled by ^Ethelstan. The former,
better known as Amlaib (Olaf) Cuaran, married the daughter of
Constantine, king of Scotland, and fought at Brunanburh (938).
Born about 920, he perhaps became king of York in 941.
Expelled in 944-945 he went to Dublin and drove out his cousin
Blakare, son of Godfred. At the same time he held sway over
the kingdom of Man and the Isles. We find this romantic
character constantly engaged on expeditions in England, Ireland
and Scotland. In 956 Congalach, the high-king, was defeated
and slain by the Norse of Dublin. In 973 his son Domnall,
in alliance with Amlaib, defeated the high-king Domnall O'Neill
at Cell Mona (Kilmoon in Co. Meath). This Domnall O'Neill,
son of Muirchertach, son of Niall Glundub, was the first to adopt
the name O'Neill (Ir. ua,6 = " grandson "). The tanists or heirs
of the northern and southern Hy Neill having died, the throne
fell to Maelsechlainn II., of the Cland Colmain, the last of the
Hy Neill who was undisputed king of Ireland. Maelsechlainn,
who succeeded in 980, had already distinguished himself as king
of Meath in war with the Norsemen. In the first year of his reign
as high-king he defeated them in a bloody battle at Tara, in
which Amlaib's son, Ragnall, fell. This victory, won over the
combined forces of the Scandinavians of Dublin, Man and the
Isles, compelled Amlaib to deliver up all his captives and
hostages, — among whom were Domnall Claen, king of Leinster,
and several notables — to forgo the tribute which he had imposed
upon the southern Hy Neill and to pay a large contribution of
cattle and money. Amlaib's spirit was so broken by this defeat
that he retired to the monastery of Hi, where he died the same
year.
The Dalcais Dynasty. — We have already seen that the dominant
race in Munster traced descent from Ailill Aulom. The Cashel
dynasty claimed to descend from his eldest son Eogan, whilst
the Dalcassians of Clare derived their origin from a younger son
Cormac Cas. Ailill Aulom is said to have ordained that the
7^6
IRELAND
[EARLY HISTORY
succession to the throne should alternate between the two lines,
as in the case of the Hy Neill. This, however, is perhaps a fiction
of later poets who wished to give lustre to the ancestry of Brian
Boruma, as very few of the Dalcais princes appear in the list
of the kings of Cashel. The Dalcassians play no prominent part
in history until, in the middle of the loth century, they were
ruled by Kennedy (Cennetig), son of Lorcan, king of Thomond
(d. 954), by whom their power was greatly extended. He left
two sons, Mathgamain (Mahon) and Brian, called Brian Boruma,
probably from a village near Killaloe.1 About the year 920 a
Viking named Tomrair, son of Elgi, had seized the lower Shannon
and established himself in Limerick, from which point constant
incursions were made into all parts of Munster. After a period
of guerrilla warfare in the woods of Thomond, Mathgamain
concluded a truce with the foreigners, in which Brian refused to
join. Thereupon Mathgamain crossed the Shannon and gained
possession of the kingdom of Cashel, as Dunchad, the repre-
sentative of the older line, had just died. Receiving the support
of several of the native tribes, he felt himself in a position to
attack the settlements of the foreigners in Munster. This aroused
the ruler of Limerick, Ivar, who determined to carry the war
into Thomond. He was supported by Maelmuad, king of
Desmond, and Donoban, king of Hy Fidgeinte, and Hy Cairpri.
Their army was met by Mathgamain at Sulchoit near Tipperary,
where the Norsemen were defeated with great slaughter (968).
This decisive victory gave the Dalcais Limerick, which they
sacked and burnt, and Mathgamain then took hostages of all
the chiefs of Munster. Ivar escaped to Britain, but returned
after a year and entrenched himself at Inis Cathaig (Scattery
Island in the lower Shannon) . A conspiracy was formed between
Ivar and his son Dubcenn and the two Munster chieftains
Donoban and Maelmuad. Donoban was married to the daughter
of a Scandinavian king of Waterford, and his own daughter was
married to Ivar of Waterford.2 In 976 Inis Cathaig was attacked
and plundered by the Dalcais and the garrison, including Ivar
and Dubcenn, slain. Shortly before this Mathgamain had been
murdered by Donoban, and Brian thus became king of Thomond,
whilst Maelmuad succeeded to Cashel. In 977 Brian made a
sudden and rapid inroad into Donoban's territory, captured his
fortress and slew the prince himself with a vast number of his
followers. Maelmuad, the other conspirator, met with a like
fate at Belach Lechta in Barnaderg (near Ballyorgan). After
this battle Brian was acknowledged king of all Munster (978).
After reducing the Desi, who were in alliance with the Northmen
of Waterford and Limerick, in 984 he subdued Ossory and took
hostages from the kings of East and West Leinster. In this
manner he became virtually king of Leth Moga.
This rapid rise of the Dalcassian leader was bound to bring
him into conflict with the ardri. Already in 982 Maelsechlainn
had invaded Thomond and uprooted the venerable tree under
which the Dalcais rulers were inaugurated. After the battle of
Tara he had placed his half-brother Gluniarind, son of Amlaib
Cuaran, in Dublin. This prince was murdered in 989 and was
succeeded by Sigtrygg Silkiskeggi, son of Amlaib and Gormflaith,
sister of Maelmorda, king of Leinster. In the same year Mael-
sechlainn took Dublin and imposed an annual tribute on the
city. During these years there were frequent trials of strength
between the ardri and the king of Munster. In 992 Brian invaded
Meath, and four years later Maelsechlainn defeated Brian in
Munster. In 998 Brian ascended the Shannon with a large force,
intending to attack Connaught, and Maelsechlainn, who received
no support from the northern Hy Neill, came to terms with him.
All hostages held by the over-king from the Northmen and Irish
of Leth Moga were to be given up to Brian, which was a virtual
surrender of all his rights over the southern half of Ireland;
while Brian on his part recognized Maelsechlainn as sole king of
Leth Cuinn. In 1000 Leinster revolted against Brian and
entered into an alliance with the king of Dublin. Brian advanced
towards the city, halting at a place called Glen Mama near
1 On the name see K. Meyer Erin, iv. pp. 71-73.
2 Donaban, the son of this Ivar of Waterford, is the ancestor of
the O'Donavans, Donoban that of the O'Donovans.
Dunlavin (Co. Wicklow). He was attacked by the allied forces,
who were repulsed with great slaughter. Maelmorda, king of
Leinster, was taken prisoner, and Sigtrygg fled for protection to
Ailech. The victor gave proof at once that he was not only a
clever general but also a skilful diplomatist. Maelmorda was
restored to his kingdom, Sigtrygg received Brian's daughter in
marriage, whilst Brian took to himself the Dublin king's
mother, the notorious Gormflaith, who had already been divorced
by Maelsechlainn. After thus establishing peace and consolidat-
ing his power, Brian returned to his residence Cenn Corad and
matured his plan of obtaining the high-kingship for himself.
When everything was ready he entered Mag Breg with an army
consisting of his own troops, those of Ossory, his South Connaught
vassals and the Norsemen of Munster. The king of Dublin
also sent a small force to his assistance. Maelsechlainn, taken
by surprise and feeling himself unequal to the contest,
endeavoured to gain time. An armistice was concluded, during
which he was to decide whether he would give Brian hostages
(i.e. abdicate) or not. He applied to the northern Hy Neill
to come to his assistance, and even offered to abdicate in favour
of the chief of the Cinel Eogain, but the latter refused unless
Maelsechlainn undertook to cede to them half the territory
of his own tribe, the Cland Colmain. The attempt to unite the
whole of the Eremonian against the Eberian race and preserve
a dynasty that had ruled Ireland for 600 years, having failed,
Maelsechlainn submitted to Brian, and without any formal
act of cession the latter became ardri. During a reign of twelve
years (1002-1014) he is said to have effected much improvement
in the country by the erection and repair of churches and schools,
and the construction of bridges, causeways, roads and fortresses.
We are also told that he administered rigid and impartial justice
and dispensed royal hospitality. As he was liberal to the bards,
they did not forget his merits.
Towards the end of Brian's reign a conspiracy was entered
into between Maelmorda, king of Leinster, and his nephew
Sigtrygg of Dublin. The ultimate cause of this movement
was an insult offered by Murchad, Brian's son, to the king of
Leinster, who was egged on by his sister Gormflaith. Sigtrygg
secured promises of assistance from Sigurd, earl of Orkney, and
Brodir of Man. In the spring of 1014 Maelmorda and Sigtrygg
had collected a considerable army in Dublin, consisting of
contingents from all the Scandinavian settlements in the west in
addition to Maelmorda's own Leinster forces, the whole being
commanded by Sigurd, earl of Orkney. This powerful prince,
whose mother was a daughter of Cerball of Ossory (d. 887),
appears to have aimed at the supreme command of all the
Scandinavian settlements of the west, and in the course of a
few years conquered the kingdom of the Isles, Sutherland, Ross,
Moray and Argyll. To meet such formidable opponents, Brian,
now an old man unable to lead in person, mustered all the forces
of Munster and Connaught, and was joined by Maelsechlainn
in command of the forces of Meath. The northern Hy Neill
and the Ulaid took no part in the struggle. Brian advanced
into the plain of Fingall, north of Dublin, where a council of war
was held. The longest account of the battle that followed
occurs in a source very partial to Brian and the deeds of Munster-
men, in which Maelsechlainn is accused of treachery, and of
holding his troops in reserve. The battle, generally known as
the battle of Clontarf, though the chief fighting took place
close to Dublin, about the small river Tolka, was fought on Good
Friday 1014. After a stout and protracted resistance the Norse
forces were routed. Maelsechlainn with his Meathmen came
down on the fugitives as they tried to cross the bridge leading
to Dublin or to reach their ships. On both sides the slaughter
was terrible, and most of the leaders lost their lives. Brian
himself perished along with his son Murchad and Maelmorda.
This great struggle finally disposed of the possibility of Scandi-
navian supremacy in Ireland, but in spite of this it can only be
regarded as a national misfortune. The power of the kingdom
of Dublin had been already broken by the defeat of Amlaib
Cuaran at Tara in 980, and the main result of the battle of
Clontarf was to weaken the central power and to throw the
EARLY HISTORY]
IRELAND
767
whole island into a state of anarchy. Although beaten on the
field of battle the Norsemen still retained possession of their
fortified cities, and gradually they assumed the position of
native tribes. The Dalcassian forces had been so much weakened
by the great struggle that Maelsechlainn was again recognized
as king of Ireland. However, the effects of Brian's revolution
were permanent; the prescriptive rights of the Hy Neill were
disputed, and from the battle of Clontarf until the coming of the
Normans the history of Ireland consisted of a struggle for
ascendancy between the O'Brians of Munster, the O'Neills of
Ulster and the O'Connors of Connaught.
From the Battle of Clontarf to the Anglo-Norman Invasion. —
The death of Maelsechlainn in 1022 afforded an opportunity
for an able and ambitious man to subdue Ireland, establish a
strong central government, break up the tribal system and
further the gradual fusion of factions into a homogeneous
nation. Such a man did not arise; those who afterwards
claimed to be ardri lacked the qualities of founders of strong
dynasties, and are termed by the annalists " kings with opposi-
tion." Brian was survived by two sons, Tadg and Donnchad,
the elder of whom was slain in 1023. Donnchad (d. 1064) was
certainly the most distinguished figure in Ireland in his day.
He subdued more than half of Ireland, and almost reached the
position once held by his father. His strongest opponent was
his son-in-law Diarmait Mael-na-mB6, king of Leinster, who was
also the foster-father of his brother Tadg's son, Tordelbach
(Turlough) O'Brian. On the death of Diarmait in 1072 Tordel-
bach (d. 1086) reigned supreme in Leth Moga; Meath and
Connaught also submitted to him, but he failed to secure the
allegiance of the northern Hy Neill. He. was succeeded by his
son Muirchertach (d. 1119), who spent most of his life contending
against his formidable opponent Domnall O'Lochlainn, king
of TirEogain (d. 1121). The struggle for the sovereignty between
these two rivals continued, with intervals of truce negotiated
by the clergy, without any decisive advantage on either side.
In 1 102 Magnus Barefoot made his third and last expedition
to the west with the express design of conquering Ireland.
Muirchertach opposed him with a large force, and a conference
was arranged at which a son of Magnus was betrothed to
Biadmuin, daughter of the Irish prince. He was also mixed
up in English affairs, and as a rule maintained cordial relations
with Henry I. After the death of Domnall O'Lochlainn there
was an interregnum of about fifteen years with no ardri, until
Tordelbach (Turlough) O'Connor, king of Connaught, resolved
to reduce the other provinces. Munster and Meath were re-
peatedly ravaged, and in 1151 he crushed Tordelbach (Turlough)
O'Brian, king of Thomond, at Moanmor. O'Connor's most
stubborn opponent was Muirchertach O'Lochlainn, with whom
he wrestled for supremacy until the day of his death (1156).
Tordelbach, who enjoyed a great reputation even after his death,
was remembered as having thrown bridges over the Shannon,
and as a patron of the arts. However, war was so constant in
Ireland at this time that under the year 1145 the Four Masters
describe the island as a " trembling sod." Tordelbach was
succeeded by his son Ruadri (Roderick, q.v.), who after some
resistance had to acknowledge Muirchertach O'Lochlainn's
supremacy. The latter, however, was slain in 1166 in con-
sequence of having wantonly blinded the king of Dal Araide.
Ruadri O'Connor, now without a serious rival, was inaugurated
with great pomp at Dublin.
Diarmait MacMurchada (Dermod MacMurrough), great-
grandson of Diarmait Mael-na-mB6, as king of Leinster was by
descent and position much mixed up with foreigners, and
generally in a state of latent if not open hostility to the high-kings
of the Hy Neill and Dalcais dynasties. He was a tyrant and
a bad character. In 1152 Tigernan O'Rourke, prince of Breifne,
had been dispossessed of his territory by Tordelbach O'Connor,
aided by Diarmait, and the latter is accused also of carrying off
Derbforgaill, wife of O'Rourke. On learning that O'Rourke
was leading an army against him with the support of Ruadri,
he burnt his castle of Ferns and went to Henry II. to seek
assistance. The momentous consequences of this step belong
to the next section, and it now remains for us to state the
condition of the church and society in the century preceding the
Anglo-Norman invasion.
*.; Although the Irish Church conformed to Roman usage in the
matter of Easter celebration and tonsure in the yth century, the
bond between Ireland and Rome was only slight until several
centuries later. Whatever co-ordination may have existed
in the church of the 8th century was doubtless destroyed during
the troubled period of the Viking invasions. It is probable that
St Patrick established Armagh as a metropolitan see, but
the history of the primacy, which during a long period can only
have been a shadow, is involved in obscurity. Its supremacy
was undoubtedly recognized by Brian Boruma in 1004, when
he laid 20 oz. of gold upon the high altar. In the nth century
a competitor arose in the see of Dublin. The Norse rulers were
bound to come under the influence of Christianity at an early
date. For instance, Amlaib Cuaran was formally converted in
England in 942 and was baptized by Wulfhelm of Canterbury.
The antithesis between the king of Dublin and the ardrt seems
to have had the effect of linking the Dublin Christian community
rather with Canterbury than Armagh. King Sigtrygg founded
the bishopric of Dublin in 1033, and the early bishops of Dublin,
Waterford and Limerick were all consecrated by the English
primate. As Lanfranc and Anselm were both anxious to extend
their jurisdiction over the whole of Ireland, the submission of
Dublin opened the way for Norman and Roman influences.
At the beginning of the i2th century Gilbert, bishop of Limerick
and papal legate, succeeded in winning over Celsus, bishop of
Armagh (d. 1129), to the reform movement. Celsus belonged
to a family which had held the see for 200 years; he was grandson
of a previous primate and is said to have been himself a married
man. Yet he became, in the skilful hands of Gilbert and Mael-
maedoc O'Morgair, the instrument of overthrowing the hereditary
succession to the primatial see. In 1118 the important synod
of Rathbressil was held, at which Ireland was divided into
dioceses, this being the first formal attempt at getting rid of
that anarchical state of church government which had hitherto
prevailed. The work begun under Celsus was completed by his
successor Maelmaedoc (Malachy). At a national synod held
about 1134 Maelmaedoc, in his capacity as bishop of Armagh,
was solemnly elected to the primacy; and armed with full
power of church and state he was able to overcome all opposition.
Under his successor Gelasius, Cardinal Paparo was despatched
as supreme papal legate. At the synod of Kells (1152) there
was established that diocesan system which has ever since con-
tinued without material alteration. Armagh was constituted
the seat of the primacy, and Cashel, Tuam and Dublin were
raised to the rank of archbishoprics. It was also ordained that
tithes should be levied for the support of the clergy.
Social Conditions. — In the middle ages there were considerable
forests in Ireland encompassing broad expanses of upland
pastures and marshy meadows. It is traditionally stated that
fences first came into general use in the 7th century. There were
no cities or large towns before the arrival of the Norsemen;
no stone bridges spanned the rivers; stepping stones or hurdle
bridges at the fords or shallows offered the only mode of crossing
the broadest streams, and connecting the unpaved roads or
bridle paths which crossed the country over hill and dale from
the principal dims. The forests abounded in game, the red deer
and wild boar were common, whilst wolves ravaged the flocks.
Scattered over the country were numerous small hamlets,
composed mainly of wicker cabins, among which were some
which might be called houses; other hamlets were composed
of huts of the rudest kind. Here and there were large villages
that had grown up about groups of houses surrounded by an
earthen mound or rampart; similar groups enclosed in this
manner were also to be found without any annexed hamlet.
Sometimes there were two or three circumvallations or even more,
and where water was plentiful the ditch between was flooded.
The simple rampart enclosed a space called Us 1 which contained
1 The terra rath was perhaps applied to the rampart, but both Us
and rath are used to denote the whole structure.
768
IRELAND
[EARLY HISTORY
the agricultural buildings and the groups of houses of the owners.
The enclosed houses belonged to the free men (aire, pi. airig).
The size of the houses and of the enclosing mound and ditch
marked the wealth and rank of the aire. If his wealth consisted
of chattels only, he was a bd-aire (cow-aire). When he possessed
ancestral land he was a fiaith or lord, and was entitled to let his
lands for grazing, to have a hamlet in which lived labourers and
to keep slaves. The larger fort with several ramparts was a. dun,
where the ri (chieftain) lived and kept his hostages if he had
subreguli. The houses of all classes were of wood, chiefly wattles
and wicker-work plastered with clay. In shape they were most
frequently cylindrical, having conical roofs thatched with rushes
or straw. The oratories were of the same form and material,
but the larger churches and kingly banqueting halls were rect-
angular and made of sawn boards. Bede, speaking of a church
built by Finan at Lindisfarne, says, " nevertheless, after the
manner of the Scots, he made it not of stone but of hewn oak
and covered it with reeds." When St Maelmaedoc in the first
half of the izth century thought of building a stone oratory
at Bangor it was deemed a novelty by the people, who exclaimed,
" we are Scotti not Galli." Long before this, however, stone
churches had been built in other parts of Ireland, and many
round towers. In some of the stone-forts of the south-west
(Ir. cathir) the houses within the rampart were made of stone
in the form of a bee-hive, and similar cloghans, as they are called,
are found in the western isles of Scotland.
Here and there in the neighbourhood of the hamlets were
patches of corn grown upon allotments which were gavelled,
or redistributed, every two or three years. Around the duns and
raths, where the corn land was the fixed property of the lord,
the cultivation was better. Oats was the chief corn crop, but
wheat, barley and rye were also grown. Much attention was
paid to bee-keeping and market-gardening, which had probably
been introduced by the church. The only industrial plants were
flax and the dye-plants, chief among which were woad and rud,
roid (a kind of bed-straw?). Portions of the pasture lands were
reserved as meadows; the tilled land was manured. There
are native names for the plough, so it may be assumed that some
form of that implement, worked by oxen, yoked together with a
simple straight yoke, was in use in early times. Wheeled carts
were also known; the wheels were often probably only solid
disks, though spoked wheels were used for chariots. Droves
of swine under the charge of swineherds wandered through the
forests; some belonged to the ri, others to lords (flailh) and
others again to village communities. The house-fed pig was
then as now an important object of domestic economy, and its
flesh was much prized. Indeed, fresh pork was one of the
inducements held out to visitors to the Irish Elysium. Horned
cattle constituted the chief wealth of the country, and were
the standard for estimating the worth of anything, for the Irish
had no coined money and carried on all commerce by barter.
The unit of value was called a stl, a word denoting a jewel or
precious object of any kind. The normal set was an average
milch-cow. Gold, silver, bronze, tin, clothes and all other kinds
of property were estimated in sits. Three sits were equal to a
cumal (female slave). Sheep were kept everywhere for their
flesh and their wool, and goats were numerous. Horses were
extensively employed for riding, working in the fields and
carrying loads. Irish horsemen rode without saddle or stirrups.
So important a place did bee-culture hold in the rural economy
of the ancient Irish that a lengthy section is devoted to the
subject in the Brehon Laws. The honey was used both in cooking
and for making mead, as well as for eating.
The ancient Irish were in the main a pastoral people. When
they had sown their corn, they drove their herds and flocks to
the mountains, where such existed, and spent the summer there,
returning in autumn to reap their corn and take up their abode
in their more sheltered winter residences. This custom of
" booleying " (Ir. buaile, " shieling ") is not originally Irish,
according to some writers, but was borrowed from the Scandi-
navians. Where the tribe had land on the sea-coast they also
appear to have migrated thither in summer. The chase in the
summer occupied the freemen, not only as a source of enjoyment
but also as a matter of necessity, for wolves were very numerous.
For this purpose they bred dogs of great swiftness, strength and
sagacity, which were much admired by the Romans.
The residences within enclosing ramparts did not consist of
one house with several apartments, but every room was a separate
house. Thus the buildings forming the residence of a well-to-do
farmer of the bd-aire class as described in the Laws, consisted of
a living-house in which he slept and took his meals, a cooking-
house, a kiln for drying corn, a barn, a byre for calves, a sheep-
fold and a pigsty. In the better classes the women had a separate
house known as griandn (sun-chamber). The round houses were
constructed in the following manner. The wall was formed of
long stout poles placed in a circle close to one another, with
their ends fixed firmly in the ground. The spaces between were
closed in with rods (usually hazel) firmly interwoven. The
poles were peeled and polished smooth. The whole surface of
the wicker-work was plastered on the outside and made brilliantly
white with lime, or occasionally striped in various colours,
leaving the white poles exposed to view. There was no chimney;
the fire was made in the centre of the house and the smoke
escaped through a hole in the roof, or through the door as in
Hebridean houses of the present day. Near the fire, fixed in a
kind of holder, was a candle of tallow or raw beeswax. Around
the wall in the houses of the wealthy were arranged the bedsteads,
or rather compartments, with testers and fronts, sometimes
made of carved yew. At the foot of each compartment, and
projecting into the main room, there was a low fixed seat, often
stuffed with some soft material, for use during the day. Besides
these there were on the floor of the main apartment a number
of detached movable couches or seats, all low, with one or more
low tables of some sort. In the halls of the kings the position
of each person's bed and seat, and the portion of meat which
he was entitled to receive from the distributor, were regulated
according to a rigid rule of precedence. Each person who had
a seat in the king's house had his shield suspended over him.
Every king had hostages for the fealty of his vassals; they sat
unarmed in the hall, and those who had become forfeited by a
breach of treaty or allegiance were placed along the wall in
fetters. There were places in the king's hall for the judge, the
poet, the harper, the various craftsmen, the juggler and the fool.
The king had his bodyguard of four men always around him;
these were commonly men whom he had saved from execution
or redeemed from slavery. Among the miscellaneous body of
attendants about the house of a king or noble were many Saxon
slaves, in whom there was a regular trade until it was abolished
by the action of the church in 1171. The slaves slept on the
ground in the kitchen or in cabins outside the fort.
The children of the upper classes in Ireland, both boys and
girls, were not reared at home but were sent elsewhere to be
fostered. It was usual for a chief to send his child to one of his
own sub-chiefs, but the parents often chose a chief of their own
rank. For instance, the ollam fili, or chief poet, who ranked in
some respects with a tribe-king, sent his sons to be fostered by the
king of his own territory. Fosterage might be undertaken out of
affection or for payment. In the latter case the fee varied
according to rank, and there are numerous laws extant fixing
the cost and regulating the food and dress of the child according
to his position. Sometimes a chief acted as foster-father to a
large number of children. The cost of the fosterage of boys
seems to have been borne by the mother's property, that of the
daughters by the father's. The ties created by fosterage were
nearly as close and as binding on children as those of blood.
There is ample evidence that great laxity prevailed with regard
to the marriage tie even after the introduction of Christianity,
as marrying within the forbidden degrees and repudiation
continued to be very frequent in spite of the efforts of the
church. Marriage by purchase was universal, and the wealth
of the contracting parties constituted the primary element of a
legitimate union. The bride and bridegroom should be provided
with a joint fortune proportionate to their rank. When they
were of equal rank, and the family of each contributed an equal
EARLY HISTORY]
IRELAND
769
share to the marriage portion, the marriage was legal in the full
sense and the wife was a wife of equal rank. The church en-
deavoured to make the wife of a first marriage the only true wife ;
but concubinage was known as an Irish institution until long
after the Anglo-Norman invasion, and it is recognized in the
Laws. If a concubine had sons her position did not differ
materially in some respects from that of a chief wife. As the tie
of the sept was blood, all the acknowledged children of a man,
whether legitimate or illegitimate, belonged equally to his sept.
Even adulterine bastardy was no bar to a man becoming chief
of his tribe, as in the case of Hugh O'Neill, earl of Tyrone. (See
O'NEILL.)
The food of the Irish was very simple, consisting in the main
of oaten cakes, cheese, curds, milk, butter, and the flesh of
domestic animals both fresh and salted. The better classes
were acquainted with wheaten bread also. The food of the
inhabitants of the Land of Promise consisted of fresh pork, new
milk and ale. Fish, especially salmon, and game should of course
be added to the list. The chief drinks were ale and mead.
The dress of the upper classes was similar to that of a Scottish
Highlander before it degenerated into the present conventional
garb of a highland regiment. Next the skin came a shirt (Uine)
of fine texture often richly embroidered. Over this was a tightly
fitting tunic (inar, lend) reaching below the hips with a girdle
at the waist. In the case of women the inar fell to the feet.
Over the left shoulder and fastened with a brooch hung the loose
cloak (brat), to which the Scottish plaid corresponds. The kilt
seems to have been commonly worn, especially by soldiers,
whose legs were usually bare, but we also hear of tight-fitting
trousers extending below the ankles. The feet were either
entirely naked or encased in shoes of raw hide fastened with
thongs. Sandals and shoes of bronze are mentioned in Irish
literature, and quite a number are to be seen in museums. A
loose flowing garment, intermediate between the brat and lend,
usually of linen dyed saffron, was commonly worn in outdoor
life, and was still used in the Hebrides about 17050. A modified
form of this over-tunic with loose sleeves and made of frieze
formed probably the general covering of the peasantry. Among
the upper classes the garments were very costly and variously
coloured. It would seem that the number of colours in the dress
indicated the rank of the wearer. The hair was generally worn
long by men as well as women, and ringlets were greatly admired.
Women braided their hair into tresses, which they confined with a
pin. The beard was also worn long. Like all ancient and semi-
barbarous people, the Irish were fond of ornaments. Indeed
the profusion of articles of gold which have been found is remark-
able; in the Dublin Museum may be seen bracelets, armlets,
finger-rings, torques, crescents, gorgets, necklets, fibulae and
diadems, all of solid gold and most exquisite workmanship.
The principal weapons of the Irish soldiers were a lance, a
sword and a shield; though prior to the Anglo-Norman invasion
they had adopted the battle-axe from the Scandinavians. The
shields were of two kinds. One was the sciath, oval or oblong in
shape, made of wicker-work covered with hide, and often large
enough to cover the whole body. This was doubtless the form
introduced by the Brythonic invaders. But round shields,
smaller in size, were also commonly employed. These were
made of bronze backed with wood, or of yew covered with hide.
This latter type scarcely goes back to the round shield of the
Bronze age. Armour and helmets were not generally employed
at the time of the Anglo-Norman invasion.
In the Brehon Laws the land belongs in theory to the tribe,
but this did not by any means correspond to the state of affairs.
We find that the power of the petty king has made a very con-
siderable advance, and that all the elements of feudalism are
present, save that there was no central authority strong enough
to organize the whole of Irish society on a feudal basis. The
tuath or territory of a ri (represented roughly by a modern
barony) was divided among the septs. The lands of a sept
consisted of the estates in severally of the lords (flathi), and of
the ferand duthaig, or common lands of the sept. The dwellers
on each of these kinds of land differed materially from each other.
On the former lived a motley population of slaves, horse-boys,
and mercenaries composed of broken men of other clans, many
of whom were fugitives from justice, possessing no rights either
in the sept or tribe and entirely dependent on the bounty of the
lord, and consequently living about his fortified residence. The
poorer servile classes or cottiers, wood-cutters, swine-herds, &c.,
who had a right of domicile (acquired after three generations),
lived here and there in small hamlets on the mountains and
poorer lands of the estate. The good lands were let to a class of
tenants called fuidirs, of whom there were several kinds, some
grazing the land with their own cattle, others receiving both
land and cattle from the lord. Fuidirs had no rights in the sept;
some were true serfs, others tenants-at-will; they lived in
scattered homesteads like the farmers of the present time. The
lord was responsible before the law for the acts of all the servile
classes on his estates, both new-comers and senchleithe, i.e.
descendants of fuidirs, slaves, &c., whose families had lived on
the estate during the time of three lords. He paid their blood-
fines and received compensation for their slaughter, maiming
or plunder. The fuidirs were the chief source of a lord's v/ealth,
and he was. consequently always anxious to increase them.
The freemen were divided into freemen pure and simple,
freemen possessing a quantity of stock, and nobles (flathi)
having vassals. Wealth consisted in cattle. Those possessed
of large herds of kine lent out stock under various conditions.
In the case of a chief such an offer could not be refused. In
return, a certain customary tribute was paid. Such a transaction
might be of two kinds. By the one the freemen took saer-stock
and retained his status. But if he accepted daer-stock he at once
descended to the rank of a vassal. In this way it was possible
for the chief to extend his power enormously. Rent was com-
monly paid in kind. As a consequence of this, in place of receiv-
ing the farm produce at his own home the chief or noble reserved
to himself the right of quartering himself and a certain number
of followers in the house of his vassal, a practice which must have
been ruinous to the small farmers. Freemen who possessed
twenty-one cows and upwards were called airig (sing, aire),
or, as we should say, had the franchise, and might fulfil the
functions of bail, witness, &c. As the chief sought to extend his
power in the tuath, he also endeavoured to aggrandize his position
at the expense of other tuatha by compelling them to pay tribute
to him. Such an aggregate of tuatha acknowledging one ri was
termed a mdrthuath. The ruler of a mdrthuath paid tribute to
the provincial king, who in his turn acknowledged at any rate
in theory the overlordship of the ardri.
The privileges and tributes of the provincial kings are preserved
in a remarkable loth century document, the Book of Rights.
The rules of succession were extraordinarily complicated.
Theoretically the members of a sept claimed common descent
from the same ancestor, and the land belonged to the freemen.
The chief and nobles, however, from various causes had come
to occupy much of the territory as private property; the re-
mainder consisted of tribe-land and commons-land. The
portions of the tribe-land were not occupied for a fixed term,
as the land of the sept was liable to gavelkind or redistribution
from time to time. In some cases, however, land which belonged
originally to a,flaith was owned by a family; and after a number
of generations such property presented a great similarity to the
gavelled land. A remarkable development of family ownership
was the geilfine system, under which four groups of persons, all
nearly related to each other, held four adjacent tracts of land
as a sort of common property, subject to regulations now very
difficult to understand.1 The king's mensal land, as also that
of the tanist or successor to the royal office appointed during
the king's lifetime, was not divided up but passed on in its
entirety to the next individual elected to the position. When
the family of an aire remained in possession of his estate in a
corporate capacity, they formed a " joint and undivided family,"
the head of which was an aire, and thus kept up the rank of the
family. Three or four poor members of a sept might combine
their property and agree to form a " joint family," one of whom
1 See D'Arbois de Jubainville, Revue celtique, xxv. i ff., 181 ff.
XTV. 25
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IRELAND
[FROM ANGLO-NORMAN INVASION
as the head would be an aire. In consequence of this organiza-
tion the homesteads of airig commonly included several families,
those of his brothers, sons, &c. (see BREHON LAWS).
The ancient Irish never got beyond very primitive notions
of justice. Retaliation for murder and other injuries was a
common method of redress, although the church had endeavoured
to introduce various reforms. Hence we find in the Brehon Laws
a highly complicated system of compensatory payment; but
there was no authority except public opinion to enforce the
payment of the fines determined by the brehon in cases submitted
to him.
There were many kinds of popular assemblies in ancient
Ireland. The sept had its special meeting summoned by its
chief for purposes such as the assessment of blood-fines due from
the sept, and the distribution of those due to it. At larger
gatherings the question of peace and war would be deliberated.
But the most important of all such assemblies was the fair
(oenach), which was summoned by a king, those summoned by
the kings of provinces having the character of national assemblies.
The most famous places of meeting were Tara, Telltown and
Carman. The oenach had many objects. The laws were publicly
promulgated or rehearsed; there were councils to deal with
disputes and matters of local interest; popular sports such as
horse-racing, running and wrestling were held; poems and tales
were recited, and prizes were awarded to the best performers of
every dan or art; while at the same time foreign traders came
with their wares, which they exchanged for native produce,
chiefly skins, wool and frieze. At some of these assemblies
match-making played a prominent part. Tradition connects
the better known of these fairs with pagan rites performed round
the tombs of the heroes of the race; thus the assembly of Tell-
town was stated to have been instituted by Lugaid Lamfada.
Crimes committed at an oenach could not be commuted by
payment of fines. Women and men assembled for deliberation
in separate airechta or gatherings, and no man durst enter the
women's airecht under pain of death.
The noble professions almost invariably ran in families, so
that members of the same household devoted themselves for
generations to one particular science or art, such as poetry,
history, medicine, law. The heads of the various professions in
the luath received the title of ollam. It was the rule for them
to have paying apprentices living with them. The literary
ollam orfili was a person of great distinction. He was provided
with mensal land for the support of himself and his scholars,
and he was further entitled to free quarters for himself and- his
retinue. The harper, the metal-worker (cerd), and the smith
were also provided with mensal land, in return for which they
gave to the chief their skill and the product of their labour as
customary tribute (bfstigi).
AUTHORITIES. — The Annals of the Four Masters, ed. J. O'Donovan
(7 vols., Dublin, 1856); Annals of Ulster (4 vols., London, 1887-
1892); Keating's Forus Feasa ar Eirinn (3 vols., ed. D. Comyn and
P. Dinneen, London, 1902-1908); E. Windisch, Tdin B6 Ciialnge
(Leipzig, 1905), with a valuable introduction; P. W. Joyce, A
Social History of Ancient Ireland (2 vols., London, 1903), also A
Short History of Ireland from the Earliest Times to 1608 (London,
1895) ; A. G. Richey, A Short History of the Irish People (Dublin,
1887); W. F. Skene, Celtic Scotland (3 vols., Edinburgh, 1876-
1880) ; J. Rhys, " Studies in Early Irish History," in Proceedings
of the British Academy, vol. i.; John MacNeill, papers in New
Ireland Review (March I9o6-February 1907); Leabhar na gCeart,
ed. O'Donovan (Dublin, 1847); E. O'Curry, The Manners and
Customs of the Ancient Irish, ed. W. K. Sullivan (3 vols., London,
J873); G. T. Stokes, Ireland and the Celtic Church, revised by
H. J. Lawlor (London*, 1907); J. Healy, Ireland's Ancient Schools
and Scholars (Dublin', 1897); H. Zimmer, article '' Keltische
Kirche" in Hauck's Realencyklopadie fur protestantische Theologie
und Kirche (trans. A. Meyer, London, 1902), cf. H. Williams, " H.
Zimmer on the History of the Celtic Church," Zeitschr. f. celt. Phil.
iv. 527-574; H. Zimmer, " Die Bedeutung des irischen Elements
in der mittelalterlichen Kultur," Preussische Jahrbucher, vol. lix.,
trans. J. L. Edmands, The Irish Element in Medieval Culture (New
York, 1891) ; T. H. Todd, St Patrick, the Apostle of Ireland (Dublin,
1864); J. B. Bury, Life of St Patrick (London, 1905); W. Reeves,
Adamnan's Life of Columba (Dublin, 1857; also ed. with introd.
by J. T. Fowler, Oxford, 1894); M. Roger, L ' Enseignement des
letlres classiques d'Ausone a Alcuin (Paris, 1905); J. H. Todd, The
War of the Gcedhil with the Gall (London, 1867); L. J. Vogt, Dublin
som Norsk By (Christiania, 1897); J. Steenstrup, Normannerne,
vols. ii., iii. (Copenhagen, 1878-1882); W. G. Collmgwood, Scandi-
navian Britain (London, 1908). (E. C. Q.)
History from the Anglo-Norman Invasion.
According to the Metalogus of John of Salisbury, who in 1155
went on a mission from King Henry II. to Pope Adrian IV.,
the only Englishman who has ever occupied the „_..„
papal chair, the pope in response to the envoy's Adrian"V-
prayers granted to the king of the English the
hereditary lordship of Ireland, sending a letter, with a ring as
the symbol of investiture. Giraldus Cambrensis, in his Ex-
pugnatio Hibernica, gives what purports to be tht! lext of this
letter, known as " the Bull Laudabiliter," and adds further a
Priirilegium of Pope Alexander III. confirming Adrian's grant.
The Priwlegium is undoubtedly spurious, a fact which lends
weight to the arguments of those who from the igth century
onwards have attacked the genuineness of the " Bull." This
latter, indeed, appears to have been concocted by Gerald, an
ardent champion of the English cause in Ireland, from genuine
letters of Pope Alexander III., still preserved in the Black Book
of the Exchequer, which do no more than commend King Henry
for reducing the Irish to order and extirpating tantae abomina-
tionis spurcitiam, and exhort the Irish bishops and chiefs to be
faithful to the king to whom they had sworn allegiance.1
Henry was, indeed, at the outset in a position to dispense with
the moral aid of a papal concession, of which even if it existed
he certainly made no use. In 1156 Dermod MacMurrough
(Diarmait MacMurchada), deposed for his tyranny from the
kingdom of Leinster, repaired to Henry in Aquitaine (see Early
History above). The king was busy with the French, but gladly
seized the opportunity, and gave Dermod a letter authorizing
him to raise forces in England. Thus armed, and provided with
gold extorted from his former subjects in Leinster, Dermod
went to Bristol and sought the acquaintance of Richard de Clare,
earl of Pembroke, a Norman noble of great ability but broken
fortunes. Earl Richard, whom later usage has named Strongbow,
agreed to reconquer Dermod's kingdom for him. The stipulated
consideration was the hand of Eva his only child, and according
to feudal law his sole heiress, to whose issue lands and kingdoms
would naturally pass. But Irish customs admitted no estates
of inheritance, and Eva had no more right to the reversion of
Leinster than she had to that of Japan. It is likely that Strong-
bow had no conception of this, and that his first collision with
the tribal system was an unpleasant surprise. Passing through
Wales, Dermod agreed with Robert Fitzstephen and Maurice
Fitzgerald to invade Ireland in the ensuing spring.
About the ist of May 1169 Fitzstephen landed on the Wexford
shore with a small force, and next day Maurice de Prendergast
brought another band nearly to the same spot. The lav**
Dermod joined them, and the Danes of Wexford soon slonof
submitted. According to agreement Dermod granted strong-
the territory of Wexford, which had never belonged to bow'
him, to Robert and Maurice and their heirs for ever; and here
begins the conflict between feudal and tribal law which was
destined to deluge Ireland in blood. Maurice Fitzgerald soon
followed with a fresh detachment. About a year after the first
landing Raymond Le Gros was sent over by Earl Richard with
his advanced guard, and Strongbow himself landed near Water-
ford on. the 23rd of August 1170 with 200 knights and about
1000 other troops.
The natives did not understand that this invasion was quite
different from those of the Danes. They made alliances with
the strangers to aid them in their intestine wars, and the annalist
writing in later years (Annals of Lough Ct) describes with pathetic
brevity the change wrought in Ireland: — "Earl Strongbow
came into Erin with Dermod MacMurrough to avenge his expul-
sion by Roderick, son of Turlough O'Connor; and Dermod gave
1 The whole question is discussed by Mr J. H. Round in his article
on " The Pope and the Conquest of Ireland " (Commune of London,
1899, pp. 171-200), where further references will be found.
FROM ANGLO-NORMAN INVASION]
IRELAND
771
him his own daughter and a part of his patrimony, and Saxon
foreigners have been in Erin since then."
Most of the Norman leaders were near relations, many being
descended from Nesta, daughter of Rhys Ap Tudor, prince of
South Wales, the most beautiful woman of her time, and mistress
of Henry I. Her children by that king were called Fitzhenry.
She afterwards married Gerald de Windsor, by whom she had
three sons — Maurice, ancestor of all the Geraldines; William,
from whom sprang the families of Fitzmaurice, Carew, Grace
and Gerard; and David, who became bishop of St David's.
Nesta's daughter, Angareth, married to William de Barri, bore
the chronicler Giraldus Cambrensis, and was ancestress of the
Irish Barries. Raymond le Gros, Hervey de Montmorency, and
the Cogans were also descendants of Nesta, who, by her second
husband, Stephen the Castellan, was mother of Robert Fitz-
stephen.
While waiting for Strongbow's arrival, Raymond and Hervey
were attacked by the Danes of Waterford, whom they overthrew.
Strongbow himself took Waterford and Dublin, and the Danish
inhabitants of both readily combined with their French-speaking
kinsfolk, and became firm supporters of_the Anglo-Normans
against the native Irish.
Alarmed at the principality forming near him, Henry invaded
Ireland in person, landing near Waterford on the i8th of October
1172. Giraldus says he had 500 knights and many other soldiers;
Regan, the metrical chronicler, says he had 4000 men, of whom
400 were knights; the Annals of Lough Ce that he had 240 ships.
The Irish writers tell little about these great [events, except
that the king of the Saxons took the hostages of Munster at
Waterford, and of Leinster, Ulster, Thomond and Meath at
Dublin. They did not take in the grave significance of doing
homage to a Norman king, and becoming his "man."
Henry's farthest point westward was Cashel, where he received
the homage of Donald O'Brien, king of Thomond, but he does
not appear to have been present at the famous synod.
in"reiaa'd. Christian O'Conarchy, bishop of Lismore and papal
legate, presided, and the archbishops of Dublin,
Cashel and Tuam attended with their suffragans, as did many
abbots and other dignitaries. The primate of Armagh, the
saintly Gelasius, was absent, and presumably his suffragans also,
but Giraldus says he afterwards came to the king at Dublin,
and favoured him in all things. Henry's sovereignty was
acknowledged, and constitutions made which drew Ireland
closer to Rome. In spite of the "enormities and filthinesses,"
which Giraldus says defiled the Irish Church, nothing worse
could be found to condemn than marriages within the prohibited
degrees and trifling irregularities about baptism. Most of the
details rest on the authority of Giraldus only, but the main
facts are clear. The synod is not mentioned by the Irish annalists,
nor by Regan, but it is by Hoveden and Ralph de Diceto. The
latter says it was held at Lismore, an error arising from the
president having been bishop of Lismore. Tradition says the
members met in Cormac's chapel.
Henry at first tried to be suzerain without displacing the
natives, and received the homage of Roderick O'Connor, the
high king. But the adventurers were uncontrollable, and he
had to let them conquer what they could, exercising a precarious
authority over the Normans only through a viceroy. The early
governors seemingly had orders to deal as fairly as possible
with the natives, and this involved them in quarrels with the
"conquerors," whose object was to carve out principalities for
themselves, and who only nominally respected the sovereign's
wishes. The mail-clad knights were not uniformly successful
against the natives, but they generally managed to occupy the
open plains and fertile valleys. Geographical configuration
preserved centres of resistance — the O'Neills in Tyrone and
Armagh, the O'Donnells in Donegal, and the Macarthies in
Cork being the largest tribes that remained practically unbroken.
On the coast from Bray to Dundalk, and by the navigable rivers
of the east and south coasts, the Norman put his iron foot firmly
down.
Prince John landed at Waterford in 1185, and the neighbouring
chiefs hastened to pay their respects to the king's son. Prince
and followers alike soon earned hatred, the former showing
the incurable vices of his character, and pulling the beards of
the chieftains. After eight disgraceful months he left the govern-
ment to John de Courci, but retained the title "Dominus
Hiberniae." It was even intended to crown him; and Urban III.
sent a licence and a crown of peacock's feathers, which was
never placed on his head. Had Richard I. had children Ireland
might have become a separate kingdom.
Henry II. had granted Meath, about 800,000 acres, to Hugh
de Lacy (d. 1186), reserving scarcely any prerogative to the
crown, and making his vassal almost independent. De Lacy
sublet the land among kinsmen and retainers, and to his grants
the families of Nugent, Tyrell, Nangle, Tuyt, Fleming and others
owe their importance in Irish history. It is not surprising that
the Irish bordering on Meath should have thought De Lacy the
real king of Ireland.
During his brother Richard I.'s reign, John's viceroy was
William Marshal, earl of Pembroke, who married Strongbow's
daughter, and thus succeeded to his claims in Leinster.
John's reputation was no better in Ireland than in ag ° "'
England. He thwarted or encouraged the Anglo-Normans
as best suited him, but on the whole they increased their pos-
sessions. In 1 2 10 John, now king, visited Ireland again, and
being joined by Cathal Crovderg O'Connor, king of Con-
naught, marched from Waterford by Dublin to Carrickfergus
without encountering any serious resistance from Hugh de Lacy
(second son of the Hugh de Lacy mentioned above), who had
been made earl of Ulster in 1205. John did not venture farther
west than Trim, but most of the Anglo-Norman lords swore
fealty to him, and he divided the partially obedient districts
into twelve counties— Dublin (with Wicklow), Meath (with West-
meath), Lputh, Carlow, Kilkenny, Wexford, Waterford, Cork,
Limerick, ^Kerry and Tipperary. John's resignation of his
kingdom to the pope in 1213 included Ireland, and thus
for the second time was the papal claim to Ireland formally
recorded.
During Henry III.'s long reign the Anglo-Norman power
increased, but underwent great modifications. Richard Marshal,
grandson of Strongbow, and to a great extent heir of
his power, was foully murdered by his own feudatories
— men of his own race; and the colony never quite
recovered this blow. On the other hand, the De
Burghs, partly by alliance with the Irish, partly by sheer hard
fighting, made good their claims to the lordship of Connaught,
and the western O'Connors henceforth play a very subordinate
part in Irish history. Tallage was first imposed on the colony
in the first year of this reign, but yielded little, and tithes were
not much better paid.
On the I4th of January 1217 the king wrote from Oxford to his
justiciary, Geoffrey de Marisco, directing that no Irishman should
be elected or preferred in any cathedral in Ireland, _. ...
"since by that means our land might be disturbed, tolrls^ni
which is to be deprecated." This order was annulled clergy.
in 1224 by Honorius III., who declared it "destitute
of all colour of right and honesty." The pope's efforts failed,
for in the I4th century several Cistercian abbeys excluded
Irishmen, and as late as 1436 the monks of Abingdon complained
bitterly that an Irish abbot had been imposed on them by lay
violence. Parliament was not more liberal, for the statute of
Kilkenny, passed in 1366, ordained that "no Irishman be
admitted into any cathedral or collegiate church, nor to any
benefice among the English of the land," and also "that no
religious house situated among the English shall henceforth
receive an Irishman to their profession." This was confirmed
by the English parliament in 1416, and an Irish act of Richard
III. enabled the archbishop of Dublin to collate Irish clerks for
two years, an exception proving the rule. Many Irish Separa-
monasteries admitted no Englishmen, and at least one tloa of
attempt was made, in 1250, to apply the same rule to
cathedrals. The races remained nearly separate, the
Irish simply staying outside the feudal system. If an Englishman
the two
races.
772
IRELAND
[FROM ANGLO-NORMAN INVASION
slew an Irishman (except one of the five regal and privileged
bloods) he was not to be tried for murder, for Irish law
admitted composition (eric) for murder. In Magna Charta
there is a proviso that foreign merchants shall be treated as
English merchants are treated in the country whence the
travellers came. Yet some enlightened men strove to fuse the
two nations together, and the native Irish, or that section which
bordered on the settlements and suffered great oppression,
offered 8000 marks to Edward I. for the privilege of living under
English law. The justiciary supported their petition, but the
prelates and nobles refused to consent.
There is a vague tradition that Edward I. visited Ireland
about 1256, when his father ordained that the prince's seal
should have regal authority in that country. A vast
numDer °f documents remain to prove that he did
1307). not neglect Irish business. Yet this great king cannot
be credited with any specially enlightened views as to
Ireland. Hearing with anger of enormities committed in his
name, he summoned the viceroy, Robert de Ufford (d. 1298), to
explain, who coolly said that he thought it expedient to wink
at one knave cutting off another, " whereat the king smiled and
bade him return into Ireland." The colonists were strong
enough to send large forces to the king in his Scottish wars,
but as there was no corresponding immigration this really
weakened the English, whose best hopes lay in agriculture and
the arts of peace, while the Celtic race waxed proportionally
numerous. Outwardly all seemed fair. The De Burghs were
supreme in Connaught, and English families occupied eastern
Ulster. The fertile southern and central lands were dominated
by strong castles. But Tyrone and Tyrconnel, and the mountains
everywhere, sheltered the Celtic race, which, having reached
its lowest point under Edward I., began to recover under
his son.
In 1315, the year after Bannockburn, Edward Bruce landed
near Larne with 6000 men, including some of the best knights
in Scotland. Supported by O'Neill and other chiefs,
an(^ ^or a t*me assisted by his famous brother, Bruce
1327). gained many victories. There was no general effort
of the natives in their favour; perhaps the Irish
thought one Norman no better than another, and their total
incapacity for national organization forbade the idea of a native
sovereign. The family quarrels of the O'Connors at this time,
and their alliances with the Burkes, or De Burghs, and the
Berminghams, may be traced in great detail in the annalists —
the general result being fatal to the royal tribe of Connaught,
which is said to have lost 10,000 warriors in the battle of Temple-
togher. In other places the English were less successful, the
Butlers being beaten by the O'Carrolls in 1318, and Richard de
Clare falling about the same time in the decisive battle of Dysert
O'Dea. The O'Briens re-established their sway in Thomond
and the illustrious name of Clare disappears from Irish history.
Edward Bruce fell in battle near Dundalk, and most of his army
recrossed the channel, leaving behind a reputation for cruelty
and rapacity. The colonists were victorious, but their organiza-
tion was undermined, and the authority of the crown, which had
never been able to keep the peace, grew rapidly weaker. Within
twenty years after the great victory of Dundalk, the quarrels
of the barons allowed the Irish to recover much of the land they
had lost.
John de Bermingham, earl of Louth, the conqueror of Bruce,
was murdered in 1329 by the Gernons, Cusacks, Everards and
other English of that county, who disliked his firm
8overnrner>t- They were never brought to justice.
1377). Talbot of Malahide and two hundred of Bermingham's
relations and adherents were massacred at the same
time. In 1333, William de Burgh, the young earl of Ulster, was
murdered by the Mandevilles and others; in this case signal
vengeance was taken, but the feudal dominion never recovered
the blow, and on the north-east coast the English laws and
language were soon confined to Drogheda and Dundalk. The
earl left one daughter, Elizabeth, who was of course a royal ward.
She married Lionel, duke of Clarence, and from her springs the
royal line of England from Edward IV., as well as James V. of
Scotland and his descendants.
The two chief men among the De Burghs were loth to hold
their lands of a little absentee girl. Having no grounds for
opposing the royal title to the wardship of the heiress, they
abjured English law and became Irish chieftains. As such they
were obeyed, for the king's arm was short in Ireland. The one
appropriated Mayo as the Lower (Oughter) M'William, and the
earldom of Mayo perpetuates the memory of the event. The
other as the Upper (Eighter) M'William took Galway, and from
him the earls of Clanricarde afterwards sprung.
Edward III. being busy with foreign wars had little time to
spare for Ireland, and the native chiefs everywhere seized their
opportunity. Perhaps the most remarkable of these aggressive
chiefs was Lysaght O'More, who reconquered Leix. Clyn the
Franciscan annalist, whose Latinity is so far above the medieval
level as almost to recall Tacitus, sums up Lysaght's career
epigrammatically: "He was a slave, he became a master;
he was a subject, he became a prince (de servo dominus, de
subjecto princeps effectus)." The two great earldoms whose
contests form a large part of the history of the south of Ireland
were created by Edward III. James Butler, eldest son of
Edmund, earl of Carrick, became earl of Ormonde and palatine
of Tipperary in 1328. Next year Maurice Fitzgerald was
made earl of Desmond, and from his three brethren de-
scended the historic houses of the White Knight, the knight
of Glin, and the knight of Kerry. The earldom of Kildare
dates from 1316. In this reign too was passed the statute
of Kilkenny (q.v.), a confession by the crown that obedient
subjects were the minority. The enactments against Irish
dress and customs, and against marriage and fostering proved
a dead letter.
In two expeditions to Ireland Richard II. at first overcame
all opposition, but neither had any permanent effect. Art
MacMurrough, the great hero of the Leinster Celts,
practically had the best of the contest. The king in «*J* ^
his despatches divided the population into Irish 1399).
enemies, Irish rebels and English subjects. As he
found them so he left them, lingering in Dublin long enough to
lose his own crown. But for MacMurrough and his allies the
house of Lancaster might never have reigned. No English king
again visited Ireland until James II., declared by his English
subjects to have abdicated, and by the more outspoken Scots
to have forfeited the crown, appealed to the loyalty or piety
of the Catholic Irish.
Henry IV. had a bad title, and his necessities were conducive
to the growth of the English constitution, but fatal to the Anglo-
Irish. His son Thomas, duke of Clarence, was viceroy
in 1401, but did very little. "Your son," wrote the
Irish council to Henry, "is so destitute of money that
he has not a penny in the world, nor can borrow a
single penny, because all his jewels and his plate that he can
spare, and those which he must of necessity keep, are pledged
to lie in pawn." The nobles waged private war unrestrained,
and the game of playing off one chieftain against another was
carried on with varying success. The provisions of the statute
of Kilkenny against trading with the Irish failed, for markets
cannot exist without buyers.
The brilliant reign of Henry V. was a time of extreme misery
to the colony in Ireland. Half the English-speaking people
fled to England, where they were not welcome. The
disastrous reign of the third Lancastrian completed ?£%? V'
the discomfiture of the original colony in Ireland. 1422).
Quarrels between the Ormonde and Talbot parties
paralysed the government, and a "Pale" of 30 m. by 20 was
all that remained. Even the walled towns, Kilkenny, Ross,
Wexford, Kinsale, Youghal, Clonmel, Kilmallock,
Thomastown, Fethard and Cashel, were [almost starved ffJ
out; Waterford itself was half ruined and half deserted.
Only one parliament was held for thirty years, but
taxation was not remitted on that account. No viceroy even
pretended to reside continuously. The north and west were still
FROM ANGLO-NORMAN INVASION]
IRELAND
773
worse off than the south. Some thoughtful men saw clearly the
danger of leaving Ireland to be seized by the first chance comer,
and the Libel of English Policy, written about 1436, contains a
long and interesting passage declaring England's interests in
protecting Ireland as " a boterasse and a poste " of her own
power. Sir John Talbot, immortalized by Shakespeare, was
several times viceroy; he was almost uniformly successful in
the field, but feeble in council. He held a parliament at Trim
which made one law against men of English race wearing
moustaches, lest they should be mistaken for Irishmen, and
another obliging the sons of agricultural labourers to follow their
father's vocation under pain of fine and imprisonment. The
earls of Shrewsbury are still earls of Waterford, and retain the
right to carry the white staff as hereditary stewards, but the
palatinate jurisdiction over Wexford was taken away by Henry
VIII. The Ulster annalists give a very different estimate of
the great Talbot from that of Shakespeare: "A son of curses
for his venom and a devil for his evils; and the learned say of
him that there came not from the time of Herod, by whom Christ
was crucified, any one so wicked in evil deeds " (O'Donovan's
Four Masters).
In 1449 Richard, duke of York, right heir by blood to the
throne of Edward III., was forced to yield the regency of France
to his rival Somerset, and to accept the Irish vice-
of York in r°yalty- He landed at Howth with his wife Cicely
Ireland. Neville, and Margaret of Anjou hoped thus to get rid
of one who was too great for a subject. The Irish
government was given to him for ten years on unusually liberal
terms. He ingratiated himself with both races, taking care to
avoid identification with any particular family. At the baptism
of his son George — " false, fleeting, perjured Clarence " — who
was born in Dublin Castle, Desmond and Ormonde stood sponsors
together. In legislation Richard fared no better than others.
The rebellion of Jack Cade, claiming to be a Mortimer and cousin
to the duke of York, took place at this time. This adventurer,
at once ludicrous and formidable, was a native of Ireland, and
was thought to be put forward by Richard to test the popularity
of the Yorkist cause. Returning suddenly to England in 1450,
Richard left the government to James, earl of Ormonde and
Wiltshire, who later married Eleanor, daughter of Edmund
Beaufort, duke of Somerset, and was deeply engaged on the
Lancastrian side. This earl began the deadly feud with the
house of Kildare, which lasted for generations. After Blore
Heath Richard was attainted by the Lancastrian parliament,
and returned to Dublin, where the colonial parliament acknow-
ledged him and assumed virtual independence. A separate
coinage was established, and the authority of the English
parliament was repudiated. William Overy, a bold squire of
Ormonde's, offered to arrest Richard as an attainted traitor,
but was seized, tried before the man whom he had come to take,
and hanged, drawn and quartered. The duke only maintained
his separate kingdom about a year. His party triumphed in
England, but he himself fell at Wakefield.
Among the few prisoners taken on the bloody field of Towton
was Ormonde, whose head long adorned London Bridge. He
and his brothers were attainted in England and by
/vT/*s;- tne Yorkist parliament in Ireland, but the importance
1483). °f tne family was hardly diminished by this. For
the first six years of Edward's reign the two Geraldine
earls engrossed official power. The influence of Queen Elizabeth
Woodville, whom Desmond had offended, then made itself
felt. Tiptoft, earl of Worcester, became deputy. He was an
accomplished Oxonian, who made a speech at Rome in such
good Latin as to draw tears from the eyes of that great patron
of letters Pope Pius II. (Aeneas Sylvius). But his Latinity
did not soften his manners, and he was thought cruel even in
that age. Desmond was beheaded, ostensibly for using Irish
exactions, really, as the partisans of his family hold, to please
Elizabeth. The remarkable lawlessness of this reign was in-
creased by the practice of coining. Several mints had been
established since Richard of York's time; the standards varied
and imitation was easy.
During Richard III.'s short reign the earl of Kildare, head
of the Irish Yorkists, was the strongest man in Ireland. He
espoused the cause of Lambert Simnel (1487), whom
the Irish in general seem always to have thought a lf^
true Plantagenet. The Italian primate, Octavian
de Palatio, knew better, and incurred the wrath of Kildare
by refusing to officiate at the impostor's coronation. The local
magnates and several distinguished visitors attended,
and Lambert was shown to the people borne aloft
on " great D'Arcy of Platten's " shoulders. His iso9).
enterprise ended in the battle of Stoke, near Newark,
where the flower of the Anglo-Irish soldiery fell. " The Irish,"
says Bacon, " did not fail in courage or fierceness, but, being
almost naked men, only armed with darts and skeins, it was
rather an execution than a fight upon them." Conspicuous
among Henry VII. 's adherents in Ireland were the citizens of
Waterford, who, with the men of Clonmel, Callan, Fethard
and the Butler connexion generally, were prepared to take the
field in his favour. Waterford was equally conspicuous some
years later in resisting Perkin Warbeck, who besieged it un-
successfully, and was chased by the citizens, who fitted out a
fleet at their own charge. The king conferred honour and rewards-
on the loyal city, to which he gave the proud title of urbs intacta.
Other events of this reign were the parliament of Drogheda,
held by Sir Edward Poynings, which gave the control of Irish
legislation to the English council (" Poynings's Act " — the
great bone of contention in the later days of Flood and Grattan),
and the battle of Knockdoe, in which the earl of Kildare used
the viceregal authority to avenge a private quarrel.
Occupied in pleasure or foreign enterprise, Henry VIII. at
first paid little attention to Ireland. The royal power was
practically confined to what in the previous century Heary
had become known as the " Pale," that is Dublin, vni.
Louth, Kildare and a part of Meath, and within this (isof-
narrow limit the earls of Kildare were really more
powerful than the crown. Waterford, Drogheda, Dundalk,
Cork, Limerick and Galway were not Irish, but rather free cities
than an integral part of the kingdom; and many inland towns
were in the same position. The house of Ormonde had created
a sort of small Pale about Kilkenny, and part of Wexford had
been colonized by men of English race. The Desmonds were
Irish in all but pride of blood. The Barretts, Condons, Courcies,
Savages, Arundels, Carews and others had disappeared or were
merged in the Celtic mass. Anglo-Norman nobles became
chiefs of pseudo-tribes, which acknowledged only the Brehon
law, and paid dues and services in kind. These pseudo-tribes
were often called " nations," and a vast number of exactions
were practised by the chiefs. " Coyne and livery " — the right
of free-quarters for man and beast — arose among the Anglo-
Normans, and became more oppressive than any native custom.
When Henry took to business, he 'laid the foundation of re-
conquest. The house of Kildare, which had actually besieged
Dublin (1534), was overthrown, and the Pale saved from a
standing danger (see FITZGERALD). But the Pale scarcely
extended 20 m. from Dublin, a march of uncertain width inter-
vening between it and the Irish districts. Elsewhere, says an
elaborate report, all the English folk were of " Irish language
and Irish condition," except in the cities and walled towns.
Down and Louth paid black rent to O'Neill, Meath and
Kildare to O'Connor, Wexford to the Kavanaghs, Kilkenny and
Tipperary to O'Carroll, Limerick to the O'Briens, and Cork to
the MacCarthies. MacMurrough Kavanagh, in Irish eyes the
representative of King Dermod, received an annual pension
from the exchequer. Henry set steadily to work to reassert the
royal title. He assumed the style of king of Ireland, so as to get
rid of the notion that he held the island of the pope. The Irish
chiefs acknowledged his authority and his ecclesiastical supre-
macy, abjuring at the same time that of the Holy See. The
lands of the earl of Shrewsbury and other absentees, who had
performed no duties, were resumed; and both Celtic and feudal
nobles were encouraged to come to court. Here begins the long
line of official deputies, often men of moderate birth and fortune.
774
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[FROM ANGLO-NORMAN INVASION
The Irish
Church.
Butler and Geraldine, O'Neill and O'Donnell, continued to
spill each other's blood, but the feudal and tribal systems were
alike doomed. In the names of these Tudor deputies and other
officers we seethe origin of many great Irish families — Skeffington,
Brabazon, St Leger, Fitzwilliam, Wingfield, Bellingham, Carew,
Bingham, Loftus and others. Nor were the Celts overlooked.
O'Neill and O'Brien went to London to be invested as earls of
Tyrone and Thomond respectively. O'Donnell, whose descend-
ants became earls of Tyrconnel, went to court and was well
received. The pseudo-chief MacWilliam became earl of Clanri-
carde, and others reached lower steps in the peerage, or were
knighted by the king's own hand. All were encouraged to look
to the crown for redress of grievances, and thus the old order
slowly gave place to the new.
The moment when Protestantism and Ultramontanism are
about to begin their still unfinished struggle is a fit time to
notice the chief points in medieval Irish church history.
Less than two years before Strongbow's arrival Pope
Eugenius had established an ecclesiastical constitution
in Ireland depending on Rome, but the annexation was
very imperfectly carried out, and the hope of fully asserting
the Petrine claims was a main cause of Adrian's gift to Henry II.
Hitherto the Scandinavian section of the church in Ireland had
been most decidedly inclined to receive the hierarchical and
diocesan as distinguished from the monastic and quasi-tribal
system. The bishops or abbots of Dublin derived their succes-
sion from Canterbury from 1038 to 1162, and the bishops of
Waterford and Limerick also sought consecration there. But
both Celt and Northman acknowledged the polity of Eugenius,
and it was chiefly in the matters of tithe, Peter's pence, canonical
degrees and the observance of festivals that Rome had still
victories to gain. Between churchmen of Irish and English
race there was bitter rivalry; but the theory that the ancient
Celtic church remained independent, and as it were Protestant,
while the English colony submitted to the Vatican, is a mere
controversial figment. The crown was weak and papal aggres-
sion made rapid progress. It was in the Irish church, about the
middle of the i3th century, that the system of giving jurisdiction
to the bishops " in temporalibus " was adopted by Innocent IV.
The vigour of Edward I. obtained a renunciation in particular
cases, but the practice continued unabated. The system of
provisions was soon introduced at the expense of free election,
and was acknowledged by the statute of Kilkenny. In the
more remote districts it must have been almost a matter of
necessity. Many Irish parishes grew out of primitive monasteries,
but other early settlements remained monastic, and were com-
pelled by the popes to adopt the rule of authorized orders,
generally that of the Augustinian canons. That order became
much the most numerous in Ireland, having not less than three
hundred houses. Of other sedentary orders the Cistercians were
the most important, and the mendicants were very numerous.
Both Celtic chiefs and Norman nobles founded convents after
Henry II. 's time, but the latter being wealthier were most
distinguished in this way. Religious houses were useful as
abodes of peace in a turbulent country, and the lands attached
were better cultivated than those of lay proprietors. Attempts
to found a university at Dublin (1311) or Drogheda (1465)
failed for want of funds. The work of education was partially
done by the great abbeys, boys of good family being brought
up by the Cistercians of Dublin and Jerpoint, and by the
Augustinians of Dublin, Kells and Connel, and girls by the
canonesses of Gracedieu. A strong effort was made to save
these six houses, but Henry VIII. would not hear of it, and there
was no Irish Wolsey partially to supply the king's omissions.
Ample evidence exists that the Irish church was full of abuses
before the movement under Henry VIII. We have detailed
accounts of three sees — Clonmacnoise, Enaghdune and Ardagh.
Ross, also in a wild district, was in rather better case. But
even in Dublin strange things happened; thus the archiepiscopal
crozier was in pawn for eighty years from 1449. The morals of
the clergy were no better than in other countries, and we have
evidence of many scandalous irregularities. But perhaps the most
severe condemnation is that of the report to Henry VIII. in 1515.
" There is," says the document, " no archbishop, ne bishop, abbot,
ne prior, parson, ne vicar, ne any other person of the church,
high or low, great or small, English or Irish, that useth to preach
the word of God, saving the poor friars beggars . . . the church
of this land use not to learn any other science, but the law of
canon, for covetise of lucre transitory." Where his hand reached
Henry had little difficulty in suppressing the monasteries or
taking their lands, which Irish chiefs swallowed as greedily as
men of English blood. But the friars, though pretty generally
turned out of doors, were themselves beyond Henry's power,
and continued to preach everywhere among the people. Their
devotion and energy may be freely admitted; but the mendicant
orders, especially the Carmelites, were not uniformly distinguished
for morality. Monasticism was momentarily suppressed under
Oliver Cromwell, but the Restoration brought the monks back
to their old haunts. The Jesuits, placed by Paul III. under
the protection of Conn O'Neill, " prince of the Irish of Ulster,"
came to Ireland towards the end of Henry's reign, and helped
to keep alive the Roman tradition. Anglicanism was regarded
as a symbol of conquest and intrusion. The Four Masters thus
describes the Reformation: "A heresy and new error arising
in England, through pride, vain glory, avarice, and lust, and
through many strange sciences, so that the men of England
went into opposition to the pope and to Rome." The destruction
of relics and images and the establishment of a schismatic
hierarchy is thus recorded: " Though great was the persecution
of the Roman emperors against the church, scarcely had there
ever come so great a persecution from Rome as this."
The able opportunist Sir Anthony St Leger, who was accused
by one party of opposing the Reformation and by the other of
lampooning the Sacrament, continued to rule during
the early days of Edward VI. To him succeeded
Sir Edward Bellingham, a Puritan soldier whose 1553).
hand was heavy on all who disobeyed the king. He
bridled Connaught by a castle at Athlone, and Munster by a
garrison at Leighlin Bridge. The O'Mores and O'Connors
were brought low, and forts erected where Maryborough and
Philipstown now stand. Both chiefs and nobles were forced
to respect the king's representative, but Bellingham was not
wont to flatter those in power, and his administration found
little favour in England. Sir Francis Bryan, Henry VIII. 's
favourite, succeeded him, and on his death St Leger was again
appointed. Neither St Leger nor his successor Sir James Croft
could do anything with Ulster, where the papal primate Wauchop,
a Scot by birth, stirred up rebellion among the natives and
among the Hebridean invaders. But little was done under
Edward VI. to advance the power of the crown, and that little
was done by Bellingham.
The English government long hesitated about the official
establishment of Protestantism, and the royal order to that
effect was withheld until 1551. Copies of the new TheRem
liturgy were sent over, and St Leger had the com- formatiom.
munion service translated into Latin, for the use of
priests and others who could read, but not in English. The
popular feeling was strong against innovation, as Edward
Staples, bishop of Meath, found to his cost. The opinions of
Staples, like those of Cranmer, advanced gradually until at
last he went to Dublin and preached boldly against the mass.
He saw men shrink from him on all sides. " My lord," said a
beneficed priest, whom he had himself promoted, and who
wept as he spoke, " before ye went last to Dublin ye were the
best beloved man in your diocese that ever came in it, now ye
are the worst beloved. ... Ye have preached against the sacra-
ment of the altar and the saints, and will make us worse than
Jews. . . . The country folk would eat you. ... Ye have more
curses than ye have hairs of your head, and I advise you for
Christ's sake not to preach at Navan." Staples answered
that preaching was his duty, and that he would not fail; but
he feared for his life. On the same prelate fell the task of
conducting a public controversy with the archbishop of Armagh,
George Dowdall, which of course ended in the conversion
FROM ANGLO-NORMAN INVASION]
IRELAND
775
of neither. Dowdall fled; his see was treated as vacant,
and Cranmercast about him for a Protestant to fill St Patrick's
chair. His first nominee, Dr Richard Turner, resolutely declined
the honour, declaring that he would be unintelligible to the
people; and Cranmer could only answer that English was
spoken in Ireland, though he did indeed doubt whether it was
spoken in the diocese of Armagh. John Bale, a man of great
learning and ability, became bishop of Ossory. There is no
reason to doubt his sincerity, but he was coarse and intemperate
— Froude roundly calls him a foul-mouthed ruffian — without
the wisdom of the serpent or the harmlessness of the dove.
His choice rhetoric stigmatized the dean of St Patrick's as ass-
headed, a blockhead who cared only for his kitchen and his
belly.
The Reformation having made no real progress, Mary found
it easy to recover the old ways. Dowdall was restored; Staples
and others were deprived. Bale fled for bare life,
(1553- and I"3 see was treated as vacant. Yet the queen
1558). found it impossible to restore the monastic lands,
though she showed some disposition to scrutinize
the titles of grantees. She was Tudor enough to declare her
intention of maintaining the old prerogatives of the crown
against the Holy See, and assumed the [royal title without
papal sanction. Paul IV. was fain to curb his fiery temper,
and to confer graciously what he could not withhold. English
Protestants fled to Ireland to escape the Marian persecution;
but had the reign continued a little longer, Dublin would probably
have been no safe place of refuge..
Mary scarcely varied the civil policy of her brother's ministers.
Gerald of Kildare, who had been restored to his estates by
Edward VI., was created earl of Kildare. The plan of settling
Leix and Offaly by dividing the country between colonists and
natives holding by English tenure failed, owing to the unconquer-
able love of the people for their own customs. But resistance
gradually grew fainter, and we hear little of the O'Connors
after this. The O'Mores, reduced almost to brigandage, gave
trouble till the end of Elizabeth's reign, and a member of the
clan was chief contriver of the rebellion of 1641. Maryborough
and Philipstown, King's county and Queen's county, commemo-
rate Mary's marriage.
Anne Boleyn's daughter succeeded quietly, and Sir Henry
Sidney was sworn lord-justice with the full Catholic ritual.
When Thomas Radclyffe, earl of Sussex, superseded
h'm as lord-lieutenant, the litany was chanted in
1603). English, both cathedrals having been painted, and
scripture texts substituted for "pictures and popish
fancies." At the beginning of 1560 a parliament was held
which restored the ecclesiastical legislation of Henry and Edward.
In two important points the Irish Church was made more de-
pendent on the state than in England : cong&s d'elire were abolished
and heretics made amenable to royal commissioners or to parlia-
ment without reference to any synod or convocation. According
to a contemporary list, this parliament consisted of 3 arch-
bishops, 17 bishops, 23 temporal peers, and members returned
by 10 counties and 28 cities and boroughs. Some of the Irish
bishops took the oath of supremacy, some were deprived. In
other cases Elizabeth connived at what she could not prevent,
and hardly pretended to enforce uniformity except in the Pale
and in the large towns.
Ulster demanded the immediate attention of Elizabeth.
Her father had conferred the earldom of Tyrone on Conn Bacach
O'Neill, with remainder to his supposed son Matthew,
create(i baron of Dungannon, the offspring of a
O'Neill. smith's wife at Dundalk, who in her husband's life-
time brought the child to Conn as his own. When the
chief's legitimate son Shane grew up he declined to be bound
by this arrangement, which the king may have made in partial
ignorance of the facts. " Being a gentleman," he said, " my
father never refusid no child that any woman namyd to be his."
When Tyrone died, Matthew's son, Brian O'Neill, baron of
Dungannon, claimed his earldom under the patent. Shane
being chosen O'Neill by his tribe claimed to be chief by election,
and earl as Conn's lawful son. Thus the English government
was committed to the cause of one who was at best an adulterine
bastard, while Shane appeared as champion of hereditary right
(See O'NEILL). Shane maintained a contest which had begun
under Mary until 1567, with great ability and a total absence
of morality, in which Sussex had no advantage over him. The
lord-lieutenant twice tried to have Shane murdered; once
he proposed to break his safe-conduct; and he held out hopes
of his sister's hand as a snare. Shane was induced to visit
London, where the government detained him for some time.
On his return to Ireland, Sussex was outmatched both in war
and diplomacy; the loyal chiefs were crushed one by one;
and the English suffered checks of which the moral effect was
ruinous. Shane diplomatically acknowledged Elizabeth as his
sovereign, and sometimes played the part of a loyal subject,
wreaking his private vengeance under colour of expelling the
Scots from Ulster. At last, in 1566, the queen placed the sword
of state in Sidney's strong grasp. Shane was driven helplessly
from point to point, and perished miserably at the hands of the
MacDonnells, whom he had so often oppressed and insulted.
Peace was soon broken by disturbances in the south. The
earl of Desmond having shown rebellious tendencies was detained
for six years in London. Treated leniently, but First
grievously pressed for money, he tried to escape, and, Desmond
the attempt being judged treasonable, he was persuaded ^£?Woa'
to surrender his estates — to receive them back or
not at the queen's discretion. Seizing the opportunity, English
adventurers proposed to plant a military colony in the western
half of Munster, holding the coast from the Shannon to Cork
harbour. Some who held obsolete title-deeds were encouraged
to go to work at once by the example of Sir Peter Carew, who
had established his claims in Carlow. Carew's title had been
in abeyance for a century and a half, yet most of the Kavanaghs
attorned to him. Falling foul of Ormonde's brothers, seizing
their property and using great cruelty and violence, Sir Peter
drove the Butlers, the only one among the great families really
loyal, into rebellion. Ormonde, who was in London, could
alone restore peace; all his disputes with Desmond were at
once settled in his favour, and he was even allowed to resume
the exaction of coyne and livery, the abolition of which had
been the darling wish of statesmen. The Butlers returned to
their allegiance, but continued to oppose Carew, and great
atrocities were committed on both sides. Sir Peter had great
but undefined claims in Munster also, and the people there took
warning. His imitators in Cork were swept away. Sidney
first, and after him Humphrey Gilbert, could only circumscribe
the rebellion. The presidency of Munster, an office the creation
of which had long been contemplated, was then conferred on
Sir John Perrot, who drove James "Fitzmaurice" Fitzgerald
into the mountains, reduced castles everywhere, and destroyed
a Scottish contingent which had come from Ulster to help
the rebels. Fitzmaurice came in and knelt in the mud at the
president's feet, confessing his sins; but he remained the real
victor. The colonizing scheme was dropped, and the first
presidency of Munster left the Desmonds and their allies in
possession. Similar plans were tried unsuccessfully in Ulster, first
by a son of Sir Thomas Smith, afterwards by Walter Devereux,
earl of Essex, a knight-errant rather than a statesman, who
was guilty of many bloody deeds. He treacherously captured
Sir Brian O'Neill and massacred his followers. The Scots in
Rathlin were slaughtered wholesale. Essex struggled on for
more than three years, seeing his friends gradually drop away,
and dying ruined and unsuccessful.
Towards the end of 1575 Sidney was again persuaded to
become viceroy. The Irish recognized his great qualities, and
he went everywhere without interruption. Henceforth pre-
sidencies became permanent institutions. Sir William Drury in
Munster hanged four hundred persons in one year, Sir Nicholas
Malby in reducing the Connaught Burkes spared neither young
nor old, and burned all corn and houses. The Desmonds deter-
mined on a great effort. A holy war was declared. Fitzmaurice
landed in Kerry with a few followers, and accompanied by the
IRELAND
[FROM ANGLO-NORMAN INVASION
famous Nicholas Sanders, who was armed with a legate's com-
mission and -a banner blessed by the pope. Fitzmaurice fell
soon after in a skirmish near Castleconnell, but Sanders and
Desmond's brothers still kept the field. When it was too late
to act with effect, Desmond himself, a vain man, neither frankly
loyal nor a bold rebel, took the field. He surprised Youghal,
then an English town, by night, sacked it, and murdered the
people. Roused at last, Elizabeth sent over Ormonde as general
of Munster, and after long delay gave him the means of conducting
a campaign. It was as much a war of Butlers against Geraldines
as of loyal subjects against rebels, and Ormonde did his work
only too well. Lord Baltinglass raised a hopeless subsidiary
revolt in Wicklow (1580), which was signalized by a crushing
defeat of the lord deputy, Lord Grey de Wilton (Arthegal) in
Glenmalure. A force of Italians and Spaniards landing at
Smerwick in Kerry, Grey hurried thither, and the foreigners,
who had no commission, surrendered at discretion, and were
put to the sword. Neither Grey nor the Spanish ambassador
seems to have seen anything extraordinary in thus disposing
of inconvenient prisoners. Spenser and Raleigh were present.
Sanders perished obscurely in 1581, and in 1583 Desmond
himself was hunted down and killed in the Kerry mountains.
More than 500,000 Irish acres were forfeited to the crown.
The horrors of this war it is impossible to exaggerate. The
Four Masters says that the lowing of a cow or the voice of
a ploughman could scarcely be heard from Cashel to the farthest
point of Kerry; Ormonde, who, with all his severity, was
honourably distinguished by good faith, claimed to have killed
5000 men in a few months. Spenser, an eye-witness, says
famine slew far more than the sword. The survivors were unable
to walk, but crawled out of the woods and glens. " They looked
like anatomies of death; they did eat the dead carrion and
one another soon after, insomuch as the very carcasses they
spared not to scrape out of their graves; ... to a plot of
watercresses or shamrocks they flocked as to a feast."
In 1584 Sir John Perrot, the ablest man available after
Sidney's retirement, became lord-deputy. Sir John Norris,
famed in the Netherland wars, was president of Munster, and
so impressed the Irish that they averred him to be in league
with the devil. Perrot held a parliament in 1585 in which the
number of members was considerably increased. He made a
strenuous effort to found a university in Dublin, and proposed
to endow it with the revenues of St Patrick's, reasonably arguing
that one cathedral was enough for any city. Here he was
opposed by Adam Loftus, archbishop of Dublin and chancellor,
who had expressed his anxiety for a college, but had no idea of
endowing it at his own expense. The colonization of the Munster
forfeitures was undertaken at this time. It failed chiefly from
the grants to individuals who neglected to plant English farmers,
and were often absentees themselves. Raleigh obtained 42,000
acres. The quit rents reserved to the crown were less than
one penny per acre. Racked with the stone, hated by the
official clique, thwarted on all sides, Perrot was goaded into
using words capable of a treasonable interpretation. Archbishop
Loftus pursued him to the end. He died in the Tower of London
under sentence for treason, and we may charitably hope that
Elizabeth would have pardoned him. In his will, written
after sentence, he emphatically repudiates any treasonable
intention — " I deny my Lord God if ever I proposed the same."
In 1584 Hugh O'Neill, if O'Neill he was (being second son
of Matthew, mentioned above), became chief of part of Tyrone;
in 1587 he obtained the coveted earldom, and in
oll'mond JS93 was tne admitted head of the whole tribe. A
Rebellion, quarrel with the government was inevitable, and,
Hugh Roe O'Donnell having joined him, Ulster
was united against the crown. In 1598 James Fitzthomas
Fitzgerald assumed the title of Desmond, to which he had
some claims by blood, and which he pretended to hold as Tyrone's
gift. Tyrone had received a crown of peacock's feathers from
the pope, who was regarded by many as king of Ireland. The
title of Sugan or straw-rope earl has been generally given to
the Desmond pretender. Both ends of the island were soon
in a blaze, and the Four Masters says that in seventeen days
there was not one son of a Saxon left alive in the Desmond
territories. Edmund Spenser lost his all, escaping only to die
of misery in a London garret. Tyrone more than held his own
in the north, completely defeated Sir Henry Bagnal in the
battle of the Yellow Ford (1598), invaded Munster, and ravaged
the lands of Lord Barrymore, who had remained true to his
allegiance. Tyrone's ally, Hugh Roe O'Donnell, overthrew
the president of Connaught, Sir Conyers Clifford. " The Irish
of Connaught," says the Four Masters, " were not pleased
at Clifford's death; ... he had never told them a falsehood."
Robert Devereux, earl of Essex, came over in 1 599 with a great
army, but did nothing of moment, was outgeneralled and out-
witted by Tyrone, and threw up his command to enter on the
mad and criminal career which led to the scaffold. In 1600
Sir George Carew became president of Munster, and, as always
happened when the crown was well served, the rebellion was
quickly put down. Charles Blount, Lord Mountjoy (afterwards
earl of Devonshire), who succeeded Essex, joined Carew, and a
Spanish force which landed at Kinsale surrendered. The
destruction of their crops starved the people into submission,
and the contest was only less terrible than the first Desmond
war because it was much shorter. In Ulster Mountjoy was
assisted by Sir Henry Docwra, who founded the second settle-
ment at Deny, the first under Edward Randolph having been
abandoned. Hugh O'Donnell sought help in Spain, where he
died. Tyrone submitted at last, craving pardon on his knees,
renouncing his Celtic chiefry,. and abjuring all foreign powers,
but still retaining his earldom, and power almost too great for
a subject. Scarcely was the compact signed when he heard
of the great queen's death. He burst into tears, not of grief,
but of vexation at not having held out for better terms.
In reviewing the Irish government of Elizabeth we shall
find much to blame, a want of truth in her dealings and of
steadiness in her policy. Violent efforts of coercion Bllza.
were succeeded by fits of clemency, of parsimony bethan
or of apathy. Yet it is fair to remember that she was Conquest
surrounded by enemies, that her best energies were °flrelaad-
expended in the death-struggle with Spain, and that she was
rarely able to give undivided attention to the Irish problem.
After all she conquered Ireland, which her predecessors had failed
to do, though many of them were as crooked in action and less
upright in intention. Considering the times, Elizabeth cannot
be called a persecutor. "Do not," she said to the
elder Essex, " seek too hastily to bring people that
have been trained in another religion from that in
which they have been brought up." Elizabeth saw that the
Irish could only be reached through their own language. But
for that harvest the labourers were necessarily few. The fate
of Bishop Daly of Kildare, who preached in Irish, and who thrice
had his house burned over his head, was not likely to encourage
missionaries. In all wild parts divine service was neglected,
and wandering friars or subtle Jesuits, supported by every
patriotic or religious feeling of the people, kept Ireland faithful
to Rome. Against her many shortcomings we must set the
queen's foundation of the university of Dublin, which has been
the most successful English institution in Ireland, and which
has continually borne the fairest fruit.
Great things were expected of James I. He was Mary Stuart's
son, and there was a curious antiquarian notion afloat that,
because the Irish were the original " Scoti," a Scottish
king would sympathize with Ireland. Corporate ff^.s/'
towns set up the mass, and Mountjoy, who could 162S).
argue as well as fight, had to teach them a sharp lesson.
Finding Ireland conquered and in no condition to rise again,
James established circuits and a complete system of shires.
Sir John Davies was sent over as solicitor-general. His famous
book (Discoverie of the State of Ireland) in which he glorifies
his own and the king's exploits gives far too much credit to
the latter and far too little to his great predecessor.
Two legal decisions swept away the customs of tanistry
and of Irish gavelkind, and the English land system was violently
FROM ANGLO-NORMAN INVASION]
IRELAND
777
substituted. The earl of Tyrone was harassed by sheriffs and
other officers, and the government, learning that he was engaged
in an insurrectionary design, prepared to seize him. The informa-
tion was probably false, but Tyrone was growing old and perhaps
despaired of making good his defence. By leaving Ireland he
played into his enemies' hands. Rory O'Donnell, created earl
of Tyrconnel, accompanied him. Cuconnaught Maguire had
already gone. The " flight of the earls," as it is called, com-
pleted the ruin of the Celtic cause. Reasons or pretexts for
declaring forfeitures against O'Cahan were easily found.
O'Dogherty, chief of Inishowen, and foreman of the grand jury
which found a bill for treason against the earls of Tyrone and
Tyrconnel, was insulted by Sir George Paulet, the governor
of Derry. O'Dogherty rose, Derry was sacked, and Paulet
murdered. O'Dogherty having been killed and O'Hanlon and
others being implicated, the whole of northern Ulster was at
the disposal of the government. Tyrone, Donegal,
tionof Armagh, Cavan, Fermanagh and Derry were parcelled
Ulster, out among English and Scottish colonists, portions
being reserved to the natives. The site of Derry was
granted to the citizens of London, who fortified and armed it,
and Londonderry became the chief bulwark of the colonists
in two great wars. Whatever may have been its morality,
in a political point of view the plantation of Ulster was successful.
The northern province, which so severely taxed the energies
of Elizabeth, has since been the most prosperous and loyal
part of Ireland. But the conquered people remained side by
side with the settlers; and Sir George Carew, who reported on
the plantation in 1611, clearly foresaw that they would rebel
again. Those natives who retained land were often oppressed
by their stronger neighbours, and sometimes actually swindled
out of their property. It is probable that in the neglect of the
grantees to give proper leases to their tenants arose the Ulster
tenant-right custom which attracted so much notice in more
modern times.
The parliamentary history of the English colony in Ireland
corresponds pretty closely to that of the mother country. First
there are informal meetings of eminent persons;
then, in 1295, there is a parliament of which some
acts remain, and to which only knights of the shire
were summoned to represent the commons. Burgesses
were added as early as 1310. The famous parliament of Kilkenny
in 1366 was largely attended, but the details of its composition
are not known. That there was substantial identity in the
character of original and copy may be inferred from the fact
that the well-known tract called Modus tenendi parliamentum
was exemplified under the Great Seal of Ireland in 6 Hen. V.
The most ancient Irish parliament remaining on record was
held in 1374, twenty members in all being summoned to the
House of Commons, from the counties of Dublin, Louth, Kildare
and Carlow, the liberties and crosses of Meath, the city of Dublin,
and the towns of Drogheda and Dundalk. The liberties were
those districts in which the great vassals of the crown exercised
palatinate jurisdiction, and the crosses were the church lands,
where alone the royal writ usually ran. Writs for another parlia-
ment in the same year were addressed in addition to the counties
of Waterford, Cork and Limerick; the liberties and crosses
of Ulster, Wexford, Tipperary and Kerry; the cities of Water-
ford, Cork and Limerick; and the towns of Youghal, Kinsale,
Ross, Wexford and Kilkenny. The counties of Clare and Long-
ford, and the towns of Galway and Athenry, were afterwards
added, and the number of popular representatives does not appear
to have much exceeded sixty during the later middle ages.
In the House of Lords the temporal peers were largely out-
numbered by the bishops and mitred abbots. In the parliament
which conferred the royal title on Henry VIII. it was finally
decided that the proctors of the clergy had no voice or votes.
Elizabeth's first parliament, held in 1559, was attended by 76
members of the Lower House, which increased to 122 in 1585.
In 1613 James I. by a wholesale creation of new boroughs,
generally of the last insignificance, increased the House of
Commons to 232, and thus secured an Anglican majority to
meat.
carry out his policy. He told those who remonstrated "to mind
their own business. " What is it to you if I had created 40
noblemen and 400 boroughs ? The more the merrier, the
fewer the better cheer." In 1639 the House of Commons had
274 members, a number which was further increased to 300
at the Revolution, and so it remained until the Union.
Steeped in absolutist ideas, James was not likely to tolerate
religious dissent. He thought he could " mak what liked
him law and gospel." A proclamation for banishing
Romish priests issued in 1605, and was followed Religious
policy of
by an active and general persecution, which was so jame» /.
far from succeeding that they continued to flock
in from abroad, the lord-deputy Arthur Chichester admitting
that every house and hamlet was to them a sanctuary. The
most severe English statutes against the Roman Catholic laity
had never been re-enacted in Ireland, and, in the absence of
law, illegal means were taken to enforce uniformity. Privy
seals addressed to men of wealth and position commanded their
attendance at church before the deputy or the provincial president,
on pain of unlimited fine and imprisonment by the Irish Star
Chamber. The Roman Catholic gentry and lawyers, headed
by Sir Patrick Barnewall, succeeded in proving the flagrant
illegality of these mandates, and the government had to yield.
On the whole Protestantism made little progress, though the
number of Protestant settlers increased. As late as 1622, when
Sir Henry Gary, Viscount Falkland, was installed as deputy,
the illustrious James Ussher, then bishop of Meath, preached
from the text " he beareth not the sword in vain," and descanted
on the over-indulgence shown to recusants. The primate,
Christopher Hampton, in a letter which is a model of Christian
eloquence, mildly rebuked his eminent suffragan.
The necessities of Charles I. induced his ministers to propose
that a great part of Connaught should be declared forfeited,
owing to mere technical flaws in title, and planted like
Ulster. Such was the general outcry that the scheme ^162g.
had to be given up; and, on receiving a large H49).
grant from the Irish parliament, the king promised
certain graces, of which the chief were security for titles, free
trade, and the substitution of an oath of allegiance for that of
supremacy. Having got the money, Charles as usual broke
his word; and in 1635 the lord-deputy Strafford
began a general system of extortion. The Connaught
and Munster landowners were shamelessly forced to Stratford.
pay large fines for the confirmation of even recent
titles. The money obtained by oppressing the Irish nation was
employed to create an army for the oppression of the Scottish
and English nations. The Roman Catholics were neither awed
nor conciliated. Twelve bishops, headed by the primate Ussher,
solemnly protested that " to tolerate popery is a grievous sin."
The Ulster Presbyterians were rigorously treated. Of the
prelates employed by Strafford in this persecution the ablest
was John Bramhall (1594-1663) of Derry, who not only op-
pressed the ministers but insulted them by coarse language.
The " black oath," which bound those who took it never to
oppose Charles in anything, was enforced on all ministers, and
those who refused it were driven from their manses and often
stripped of their goods.
Strafford was recalled to expiate his career on the scaffold;
the army was disbanded; and the helm of the state remained
in the hands of a land-jobber and of a superannuated Reheinoa
soldier. Disbanded troops are the ready weapons 0/i64i.
of conspiracy, and the opportunity was not lost. The
Roman Catholic insurgents of 1641 just failed to seize Dublin,
but quickly became masters of nearly the whole country. That
there was no definite design of massacring the Protestants is
likely, but it was intended to drive them out of the country.
Great numbers were killed, often in cold blood and with circum-
stances of great barbarity. The English under Sir Charles
Coote and others retaliated. In 1642 a Scottish army under
General Robert Monro landed in Ulster, and formed a rallying
point for the colonists. Londonderry, Enniskillen, Coleraine,
Carrickfergus and some other places defied Sir Phelim O'Neill's
xiv. 250.
IRELAND
[FROM ANGLO-NORMAN INVASION
tumultuary host. Trained in foreign wars, Owen Roe O'Neill
gradually formed a powerful army among the Ulster Irish,
and showed many of the qualities of a skilful general. But
like other O'Neills, he did little out of Ulster, and his great
victory over Monro at Benburb on the Blackwater (June 5, 1646)
had no lasting results. The English of the Pale were forced into
rebellion, but could never get on with the native Irish, who
hated them only less than the new colonists. Ormonde through-
out maintained the position of a loyal subject, and, as the king's
representative, played a great but hopeless part. The Celts
cared nothing for the king except as a weapon against the
Protestants; the old Anglo-Irish Catholics cared much, but
the nearer Charles approached them the more completely he
alienated the Protestants. In 1645 Rinuccini reached Ireland
as papal legate. He could never co-operate with the Roman
Catholic confederacy at Kilkenny, which was under old English
influence, and by throwing in his lot with the Celts only widened
the gulf between the two sections. The state of parties at this
period in Ireland has been graphically described by Carlyle.
" There are," he says, " Catholics of the Pale, demanding freedom
of religion, under my lord this and my lord that. There are
Old-Irish Catholics, under pope's nuncios, under Abba O'Teague
of the excommunications, and Owen Roe O'Neill, demanding
not religious freedom only, but what we now call ' repeal of the
union,' and unable to agree with Catholics of the English Pale.
Then there are Ormonde Royalists, of the Episcopalian and
mixed creeds, strong for king without covenant; Ulster and
other Presbyterians strong for king and covenant; lastly,
Michael Jones and the Commonwealth of England, who want
neither king nor covenant."
In all their negotiations with Ormonde and Glamorgan,
Henrietta Maria and the earl of Bristol, the pope and Rinuccini
stood out for an arrangement which would have destroyed the
royal supremacy and established Romanism in Ireland, leaving
to the Anglicans bare toleration, and to the Presbyterians not
even that. Charles behaved with his usual weakness. Ormonde
was forced to surrender Dublin to the Parliamentarians (July
1647), and the inextricable knot awaited Cromwell's sword.
Cromwell's campaign (1649-1650) showed how easily a good
general with an efficient army might conquer Ireland. Resist-
mwen ance in the field was soon at an end; the starving-
out policy of Carew and Mountjoy was employed
against the guerrillas, and the soldiers were furnished with
scythes to cut down the green corn. Bibles were also regularly
served out to them. Oliver's severe conduct at Drogheda
and elsewhere is not morally defensible, -but such methods were
common in the wars of the period, and much may be urged in
his favour. Strict discipline was maintained, soldiers being
hanged for stealing chickens; faith was always kept; and
short, sharp action was more merciful in the long run than a
milder but less effective policy. Cromwell's civil policy, to use
Macaulay's words, was " able, straightforward, and cruel."
He thinned the disaffected population by allowing foreign
enlistment, and 40,000 are said to have been thus got rid of.
Already Irish Catholics of good family had learned to offer their
swords to foreign princes. In Spain, France and the Empire
they often rose to the distinction which they were denied at home.
About 9000 persons were sent to the West Indies, practically
into slavery. Thus, and by the long war, the population was
reduced to some 850,000, of whom 150,000 were English and
Scots. Then came the transplantation beyond the Shannon.
The Irish Catholic gentry were removed bodily with their servants
and such tenants as consented to follow them, and with what
remained of their cattle. They suffered dreadful hardships.
To exclude foreign influences, a belt of i m. was reserved to
soldiers on the coast from Sligo to the Shannon, but the idea
was not fully carried out. The derelict property in the other
provinces was divided between adventurers who had advanced
money and soldiers who had fought in Ireland. Many of the
latter sold their claims to officers or speculators, who were thus
enabled to form estates. The majority of Irish labourers stayed
to work under the settlers, and the country gradually became
peaceful and prosperous. Some fighting Catholics haunted
woods and hills under the name of tories, afterwards given
in derision to a great party, and were hunted down with as little
compunction as the wolves to which they were compared.
Measures of great severity were taken against Roman Catholic
priests; but it is said that Cromwell had great numbers in
his pay, and that they kept him well informed. All classes
of Protestants were tolerated, and Jeremy Taylor preached
unmolested. Commercial equality being given to Ireland, the
woollen trade at once revived, and a shipping Interest sprang
up. A legislative union was also effected, and Irish members
attended at Westminster.
Charles II. was bound in honour to do something for such
Irish Catholics as were innocent of the massacres of 1641,
and the claims were not scrutinized too severely. It
was found impossible to displace the Cromwellians, but (/<j<so-
they were shorn of about one-third of their lands. 168S).
When the Caroline settlement was complete it was
found that the great rebellion had resulted in reducing the
Catholic share of the fertile parts of Ireland from two-thirds
to one-third. Ormonde, whose wife had been allowed by Crom-
well's clemency to make him some remittances from the wreck
of his estate, was largely and deservedly rewarded. A revenue
of £30,000 was settled on the king, in consideration of which
Ireland was in 1663 excluded from the benefit of the Navigation
Act, and her nascent shipping interest ruined. In 1666 the
importation of Irish cattle and horses into England was forbidden,
the value of the former at once falling five-fold, of the latter
twenty-fold. Dead meat, butter and cheese were also excluded,
yet peace brought a certain prosperity. The "woollen manu-
facture grew and flourished, and Macaulay is probably warranted
in saying that under Charles II. Ireland was a pleasanter place
of residence than it has been beiore or since. But it was pleasant
only for those who conformed to the state religion. Roman
Catholicism was tolerated, or rather connived at; but its
professors were subject to frequent alarms, and to great severities
during the ascendancy of Titus Gates. Bramhall became
primate, and his hand was heavy against the Ulster Presbyterians.
Jeremy Taylor began a persecution which stopped the influx
of Scots into Ireland. Deprived of the means of teaching, the
Independents and other sectaries soon disappeared. In a
military colony women were scarce, and the " Ironsides " had
married natives. Roman Catholicism held its own. The Quakers
became numerous during this reign, and their peaceful industry
was most useful. They venerate as their founder William
Edmundson (1627-1712), a Westmorland man who had borne
arms for the Parliament, and who settled In Antrim in 1652.
The duke of Ormonde was lord-lieutenant at the death of
Charles II. At seventy-five his brain was as clear as ever,
arid James saw that he was no fit tool for his purpose.
" See, gentlemen," said the old chief, lifting his glass
at a military dinner-party, " they say at court I am 1689).
old and doting. But my hand is steady, nor doth
my heart fail. ... To the king's health." Calculating on his
loyal subservience, James appointed his brother-in-law, Lord
Clarendon, to succeed Ormonde. Monmouth's enterprise made
no stir, but gave an excuse for disarming the Protestant militia.
The tories at once emerged from their hiding-places, and
Clarendon found Ireland in a ferment. It was now the turn
of the Protestants to feel persecution. Richard Talbot, one of
the few survivors of Drogheda, governed the king's Irish policy,
while the lord-lieutenant was kept in the dark. Finally Talbot,
created earl of Tyrconnel, himself received the sword of state.
Protestants were weeded out of the army, Protestant officers
in particular being superseded by idle Catholics of gentle blood,
where they could be found, and in any case by Catholics. Bigotry
rather than religion was Tyrconnel's ruling passion, and he
filled up offices with Catholics independently of character. Sir
Alexander Fitton, a man convicted of forgery, became chancellor,
and but three Protestant judges were left on the bench. The
outlawries growing out of the affairs of 1641 were reversed as
quickly as possible. Protestant corporations were dissolved by
FROM ANGLO-NORMAN INVASION]
IRELAND
779
"quo warrantos"; but James was still Englishman enough
to refuse an Irish parliament, which might repeal Poyning's
Act and the Act of Settlement.
At the close of 1688 James was a fugitive in France. By
this time Londonderry and Enniskillen had closed their gates,
and the final struggle had begun. In March 1689 James reached
Ireland with some French troops, and summoned a parliament
which repealed the Act of Settlement. The estates of absentees
were vested in the crown, and, as only two months law was given,
this was nearly equivalent to confiscating the property of all
Protestants. Between 2000 and 3000 Protestants were attainted
by name, and moreover the act was not published. The appalling
list may be read in the State of the Protestants by William King,
archbishop of Dublin, one of many divines converted by the
logic of events to believe in the lawfulness of resistance. Interest-
ing details may be gleaned from Edmundson's Diary. The
dispossessed Protestants escaped by sea or flocked into Ulster,
where a gallant stand was made. The glories of Londonderry
and Enniskillen will live as long as the English language. The
Irish cause produced one great achievement — the defence of
Limerick, and one great leader — Patrick Sarsfield. The Roman
Catholic Celts aided by France were entirely beaten, the Pro-
testant colonists aided by England were entirely victorious
Will! m at tne battle °f the Boyne, on the ist of July 1690;
y//_ ' and at the battle of Aughrim on the I2th of July
1691. Even the siege of Limerick showed the irre-
concilable divisions which had nullified the efforts of 1641.
Hugh Baldearg O'Donnell, last of Irish chiefs, sold his services
to William for £500 a year. But it was their king that condemned
the Irish to hopeless failure. He called them cowards, whereas
the cowardice was really his own, and he deserted them in their
utmost need. They repaid him with the opprobrious nickname
of " Sheemas-a-Cacagh," or dirty James.
Irish rhetoric commonly styles Limerick " the city of the
violated treaty." The articles of capitulation (Oct. 3, 1691)
may be read in Thomas Leland's History of Ireland (1773)
or in F. P. Plowden's History of Ireland (1809); from the first
their interpretation was disputed. Hopes of religious liberty
were held out, but were not fulfilled. Lords Justices Porter
and Coningsby promised to do their utmost to obtain a parlia-
mentary ratification, but the Irish parliament would not be
persuaded. There was a paragraph in the original draft which
would have protected the property of the great majority of
Roman Catholics, but this was left out in the articles actually
signed. William thought the omission accidental, but this is
hardly possible. At all events he ratified the treaty in the sense
most favourable to the Catholics, while the Irish parliament
adhered to the letter of the document. Perhaps no breach of
faith was intended, but the sorrowful fact remains that the
modern settlement of Ireland has the appearance of resting on
a broken promise. More than 1,000,000 Irish acres were for-
feited, and, though some part returned to Catholic owners, the
Catholic interest in the land was further diminished. William III.
was the most liberally minded man in his dominions; but
the necessities of his position, such is the awful penalty of
greatness, forced him into intolerance against his will, and he
promised to discourage the Irish woollen trade. His manner
of disposing of the Irish forfeitures was inexcusable. The lands
were resumed by the English parliament , less perhaps from a sense
of justice than from a desire to humiliate the deliverer of England,
and were resold to the highest bidder. Nevertheless it became
the fashion to reward nameless English services at the expense
of Ireland. Pensions and sinecures which would not bear the
light in England were charged on the Irish establishment, and
even bishoprics were given away on the same principle. The
tremendous uproar raised by Swift about Wood's halfpence
was heightened by the fact that Wood shared his profits
with the duchess of Kendal, the mistress of George I.
From the first the victorious colonists determined to make
another 1641 impossible, and the English government failed to
moderate their severity. In 1708 Swift declared that the Papists
were politically as inconsiderable as the women and children.
In despair of effecting anything at home, the young and strong
enlisted in foreign armies, and the almost incredible number of
450,000 are said to have emigrated for this purpose between
1691 and 1745. This and the hatred felt towards James II.
prevented any rising in 1715 or 1745. The panic-stricken
severity of minorities is proverbial, but it is not to be forgotten
that the Irish Protestants had been turned out of house and
home twice within fifty years. The restrictions on Irish com-
merce provoked Locke's friend William Molyneux (1656-1698)
to write his famous plea for legislative independence (1698).
Much of the learning contained in it now seems obsolete, but the
question is less an antiquarian one than he supposed. Later
events have shown that a mother country must have supreme
authority, or must relax the tie with self-governing colonies
merely into a close alliance. In the case of Ireland the latter
plan has always been impossible. In 1703 the Irish parliament
begged for a legislative union, but as that would have involved
at least partial free trade the English monopolists prevented
it. By Poyning's law (see above) England had control of all
Irish legislation, and was therefore an accomplice in the penal
laws. These provided that no Papist might teach
a school or any child but his own, or send children
abroad, the burden of proof lying on the accused, and
the decision being left to magistrates without a jury. Mixed
marriages were forbidden between persons of property, and
the children might be forcibly brought up Protestants. A
Catholic could not be a guardian, and all wards in chancery
were brought up Protestants. The Protestant eldest son of
a Catholic landed proprietor might make his father tenant for
life and secure his own inheritance. Among Catholic children
land went in compulsory gavelkind. Catholics could not take
longer leases than thiry-one years at two-thirds of a rack
rent; they were even required to conform within six months
of an inheritance accruing1, on pain of being ousted by the next
Protestant heir. Priests from abroad were banished, and their
return declared treason. All priests were required to register
and to remain in their own parishes, and informers were to be
rewarded at the expense of the Catholic inhabitants. No
Catholic was allowed arms, two justices being empowered to
search; and if he had a good horse any Protestant might claim
it on tendering £5.
These laws were of course systematically evaded. The property
of Roman Catholics was often preserved through Protestant
trustees, and it is understood that faith was generally kept.
Yet the attrition if slow was sure, and by the end of the century
the proportion of land belonging to Roman Catholics was probably
not more than one-tenth of the whole. We can see now that
if the remaining Roman Catholic landlords had been encouraged
they would have done much to reconcile the masses to the
settlement. Individuals are seldom as bad as corporations,
and the very men who made the laws against priests practically
shielded them. The penal laws put a premium on hypocrisy,
and many conformed only to preserve their property or to enable
them to take office. Proselytizing schools, though supported by
public grants, entirely failed.
The restraints placed by English commercial jealousy on
Irish trade destroyed manufacturing industry in the south
and west (see the section Economics above). Driven
by the Caroline legislation against cattle into breeding
sheep, Irish graziers produced the best wool in Europe, restraints.
Forbidden to export it, or to worki it up profitably
at home, they took to smuggling, for which the indented coast
gave great facilities. The enormous profits of the contraband
trade with France enabled Ireland to purchase English goods
to an extent greater than her whole lawful traffic. The moral
effect was disastrous. The religious penal code it was thought
meritorious to evade; the commercial penal code was ostenta-
tiously defied; and both tended to make Ireland the least
law-abiding country in Europe. The account of the smugglers
is the most interesting and perhaps the most valuable part of
J. A. Froude's work in Ireland, and should be compared with
the Irish and Scottish chapters of Lecky's History.
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Dis-
senters.
When William III. promised to depress the Irish woollen
trade, he promised to do all he could for Irish linen. England
did not fulfil the second promise; still the Ulster
Ulster -weavers were not crushed, and their industry flourished.
Some Huguenot refugees, headed by Louis Crommelin
(1652-1727), were established by William III. at
Lisburn, and founded the manufacturing prosperity of Ulster.
Other Huguenots attempted other industries, but commercial
restraints brought them to nought. The peculiar character
of the flax business has prevented it from crossing the mountains
which bound the northern province. Wool was the natural
staple of the south.
The Scottish Presbyterians who defended Londonderry
were treated little better than the Irish Catholics who besieged
it — the sacramental test of 1704 being the work
of the English council rather than of the Irish parlia-
ment. In 1715 the Irish House of Commons resolved
that any one who should prosecute a Presbyterian for accepting
a commission in the army without taking the test was an enemy
to the king and to the Protestant interest. Acts of indemnity
were regularly passed throughout the reign of George II., and
until 1780, when the Test Act was repealed. A bare toleration
had been granted in 1720. Various abuses, especially forced
labour on roads which were often private jobs, caused the
Oakboy Insurrection in 1764. Eight years later the Steelboys
rose against the exactions of absentee landlords, who often
turned out Protestant yeomen to get a higher rent from Roman
Catholic cottiers. The dispossessed men carried to America
an undying hatred of England which had much to say to the
American revolution, and that again reacted on Ireland. Law-
less Protestant associations, called Peep o' Day Boys, terrorized
the north and were the progenitors of the Orangemen (1789).
Out of the rival " defenders " Ribbonism in part sprung, and
the United Irishmen drew from both sources (1791).
The Ulster peasants were never as badly off as those of the
south and west. Writers the most unlike each other — Swift
and Hugh Boulter, George Berkeley and George
Stone> Arthur Y<>ung and Dr Thomas Campbell—
peasantry. *& teU tne same tale. Towards the end of the I7th
century Raleigh's fatal gift had already become the
food of the people. When Sir Stephen Rice (1637-1715), chief
baron of the Irish exchequer, went to London in 1688 to urge
the Catholic claims on James II., the hostile populace escorted
him in mock state with potatoes stuck on poles. Had manu-
factures been given fair play in Ireland, population might have
preserved some relation to capital. As it was, land became
almost the only property, and the necessity of producing wool
for smuggling kept the country in grass. The poor squatted
where they could, receiving starvation wages, and paying
exorbitant rents for their cabins, partly with their own labour.
Unable to rise, the wretched people multiplied on their potato
plots with perfect recklessness. During the famine which began
in the winter of 1739 one-fifth of the population is supposed
to have perished; yet it is hardly noticed in literature, and seems
not to have touched the conscience of that English public which
in 1755 subscribed £100,000 for the sufferers by the Lisbon
earthquake. As might be expected where men were allowed
to smuggle and forbidden to work, redress was sought in illegal
combinations and secret societies. The dreaded name of White-
boy was first heard in 1761; and agrarian crime has never since
been long absent. Since the Union we have had the Threshers,
the Terry Alts, the Molly Maguires, the Rockites, and many others.
Poverty has been the real cause of all these disturbances, which
were often aggravated by the existence of factions profoundly
indicative of barbarism. Communism, cupidity, scoundrelism of
all kinds have contributed to every disturbance. The tendency
shown to screen the worst criminals is sometimes the result of
sympathy, but more often of fear. The cruelties which have
generally accompanied Whiteboyism is common to servile
insurrections all over the world. No wonder if Irish landlords
were formerly tyrannical, for they were in the position of slave-
owners. The steady application of modern principles, by extend-
ing legal protection to all, has altered the slavish character of
the oppressed Irish. The cruelty has not quite died out, but
it is much rarer than formerly; and, generally speaking, the
worst agrarianism has of late years been seen in the districts
which retain most of the old features.
The medieval colony in Ireland was profoundly modified
by the pressure of the surrounding tribes. While partially
adopting their laws and customs, the descendants of the con-
querors often spoke the language of the natives, and in so doing
nearly lost their own. The Book of Howth and many documents
composed in the Pale during the i6th century show this clearly.
Those who settled in Ireland after 1641 were in a very different
mood. They hated, feared and despised the Irish, and took
pride in preserving their pure English speech. Molyneux and
Petty, who founded the Royal Society of Dublin in 1683, were
equally Englishmen, though the former was born in Ireland.
Swift and Berkeley did not consider themselves Irishmen at all.
Burke and Goldsmith, coming later, though they might not
call themselves Englishmen, were not less free from provincialism.
It would be hard to name other four men who, within the same
period, used Shakespeare's language with equal grace and force.
They were all educated at Trinity College, Dublin. The Sheridans
were men of Irish race, but with the religion they adopted the
literary tone of the dominant caste, which was small and ex-
clusive, with the virtues and the vices of an aristocracy.
Systematic infringement of English copyright was discreditable
in itself, but sure evidence of an appetite for reading. " The
bookseller's property," says Gibbon of his first volume, " was
twice invaded by the pirates of Dublin." The oratory of the
day was of a high order, and incursions into the wide field of
pamphlet literature often repay the student. Handel was
appreciated in Dublin at a time when it was still the fashion
to decry him in London. The public buildings of the Irish capital
have great architectural merit, and private houses still preserve
much evidence of a refined taste. Angelica Kauffmann worked
long in Ireland; James Barry and Sir Martin Archer Shee
were of Irish birth; and on the whole, considering the
small number of educated inhabitants, it must be admitted
that the Ireland of Flood and Grattan was intellectually
fertile.
The volunteers (see FLOOD, HENRY) extorted partial free
trade (1779), but manufacturing traditions had perished, and
common experience shows how hard these are to recover.
The demand for union was succeeded by a craving f ru^le
, . , . , * ' for lade-
for independence. Poyning s law was repealed, and penitence.
in 1782, in Grattan's opinion, Ireland was at last a
nation. The ensuing period of eighteen years is the best known
in Irish history. The quarrel and reconciliation of Flood and
Grattan (q.v.), the kindly patriotism of Lord Charlemont, the
eloquence, the devotion, the corruption, are household words.
(Details will be found in the biographical articles on these and
other men of the period.) In the parliament of 1784, out of
300 members 82 formed the regular opposition, of whom 30
were the nominees of Whig potentates and 5 2 were really elected.
The majority contained 29 members considered independent,
44 who expected to be bought, 44 placemen, 12 sitting for
regular government boroughs, and 12 who were supposed to
support the government on public grounds. The remaining
seats were proprietary, and were let to government for valuable
consideration. The House of Lords, composed largely of borough
mongers and controlled by political bishops, was even less
independent. Only Protestant freeholders had votes, which
encouraged leases for lives, about the worst kind of tenure,
and the object of each proprietor was to control as many votes
as possible. The necessity of finding Protestants checked sub-
division for a time, but in 1793 the Roman Catholics received
the franchise, and it became usual to make leases in common,
so that each lessee should have a freehold interest of 403. The
landlord indeed had little choice, for his importance depended
on the poll-book. Salaries, sinecures, even commissions in the
army were reserved for those who contributed to the return of
some local magnate.
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But no political cause swelled the population as much as
the potato. Introduced by Raleigh in 1610, the cultivation
of this important tuber developed with extraordinary
rapidity. The Elizabethan wars were most injurious
the potato, to industry, for men will not sow unless they hope to
reap, and the very essence of military policy had been
to deprive a recalcitrant people of the means of living. The
Mantuan peasant was grieved at the notion of his harvest being
gathered by barbarian soldiers, and the Irishman could not
be better pleased to see his destroyed. There was no security
for any one, and every one was tempted to live from hand
to mouth. The decade of anarchy which followed 1641 stimu-
lated this tendency fearfully. The labour of one man could
plant potatoes enough to feed forty, and they could neither
be destroyed nor carried away easily. When Petty wrote,
early in Charles II. 's reign, this demoralizing esculent was
already the national food. Potatoes cannot be kept very long,
but there was no attempt to keep them at all; they were left
in the ground, and dug as required. A frost which penetrated
deep caused the famine of 1739. Even with the modern system
of storing in pits the potato does not last through the summer,
and the " meal months " — June, July and August — always
brought great hardship. The danger increased as the growing
population pressed ever harder upon the available land. Between
1831 and 1842 there were six seasons of dearth, approaching
in some places to famine.
The population increased from 2,845,932 in 1785 to 5,356,594
in 1803. They married and were given in marriage. Wise
men foresaw the deluge, but people who were already half-
starved every summer did not think their case could well be
worse. In 1845 the population had swelled to 8,295,061, the
greater part of whom depended on the potato only. There
was no margin, and when the " precarious exotic " failed an
awful famine was the result.
Great public and private efforts were made to meet the case,
and relief works were undertaken, on which, in March 1847,
734,000 persons, representing a family aggregate of not less
than 3,000,000, were employed. It was found that labour and
exposure were not good for half-starved men. The jobbing was
frightful, and is probably inseparable from wholesale operations
of this kind. The policy of the government was accordingly
changed, and the task of feeding a whole people was undertaken.
More than 3,000,000 rations, generally cooked, were at one time
distributed, but no exertions could altogether avert death
in a country where the usual machinery for carrying, distributing
and preparing food was almost entirely wanting. From 200,000
to 300,000 perished of starvation or of fever caused by insuffi-
cient food. An exodus followed which, necessary as it was,
caused dreadful hardship, and among the Roman Catholic
Irish in America Fenianism took its rise. One good result
of the famine was thoroughly to awaken Englishmen to their
duty towards Ireland. Since then, purse-strings have been
even too readily untied at the call of Irish distress.
Great brutalities disgraced the rebellion of 1798, but the
people had suffered much and had French examples before
them. The real originator of the movement was
Theobald Wolfe Tone (q.v.), whose proffered services
were rejected by Pitt, and who founded the United
Irishmen. His Parisian adventures detailed by himself are most
interesting, and his tomb is still the object of an annual pilgrim-
age. Tone was a Protestant, but he had imbibed socialist ideas,
and hated the priests whose influence counteracted his own. In
Wexford, where the insurrection went farthest, the ablest leaders
were priests, but they acted against the policy of their church.
The inevitable union followed (ist January 1801). From
this period the history of Ireland naturally becomes intermingled
Union of with EnSlish politics (see ENGLISH HISTORY), and
Great much of the detail will also be found in the biographical
Britain articles on prominent Irishmen and other politicians.
and pjtt had some t;me before (1785) offered a commercial
partnership, which had been rejected on the ground
that it involved the ultimate right of England to tax Ireland.
He was not less liberally inclined in religious matters, but
George III. stood in the way, and like William III. the minister
would not risk his imperial designs. Carried in great measure
by means as corrupt as those by which the constitution of
'82 had been worked, the union earned no gratitude. But it
was a political necessity, and Grattan never gave his country-
men worse advice than when he urged them to " keep knocking
at the union." The advice has, however, been taken. Robert
Emmet's insurrection (1803) was the first emphatic
protest. Then came^the struggle for emancipation,
It was proposed to couple the boon with a veto on tioo.
the appointment of Roman Catholic bishops. It was
the ghost of the old question of investitures. The remnant
of the Roman Catholic aristocracy would have granted it;
even Pius VII. was not invincibly opposed to it; but Daniel
O'Connell took the lead against it. Under his guidance the
Catholic association became a formidable body. At last the
priests gained control of the elections; the victor of Waterloo
was obliged to confess that the king's government could no
longer be carried on, and Catholic emancipation had to be
granted in 1829. The tithe war followed, and this most oppres-
sive of all taxes was unfortunately commuted (1838) only in
deference to clamour and violence. The repeal agitation was
unsuccessful, but let us not be extreme to mark
the faults of O'Connell's later years. He doubtless
believed in repeal at first; probably he ceased to
believe in it, but he was already deeply committed, and
had abandoned a lucrative profession for politics. With some
help from Father Mathew he kept the monster meetings
in order, and his constant denunciations of lawless violence
distinguish him from his imitators. His trial took place in
1844. There is a sympathetic sketch of O'Connell's career in
Lecky's Leaders of Public Opinion in Ireland (1871); Sir Thomas
Wyse's Historical Sketch of the late Catholic Association
(1829) gives the best account of the religious struggle,
and much may be learned from W. J. Fitzpatrick's Life of
Bishop Doyle (1880).
The national system of education introduced in 1833 was
the real recantation of intolerant opinions, but the economic
state of Ireland was fearful. The famine, emigration and the
new poor law nearly got rid of starvation, but the people never
became frankly loyal, feeling that they owed more to their own
importunity and to their own misfortunes than to the wisdom
of their rulers. The literary efforts of young Ireland eventuated
in another rebellion (1848); a revolutionary wave could not
roll over Europe without touching the unlucky island. After
the failure of that outbreak there was peace until the close
of the American civil war released a number of adventurers
trained to the use of arms and filled with hatred to England.
Already in 1858 the discovery of the Phoenix conspiracy
had shown that the policy of John Mitchel (1815-1875) and
his associates was not forgotten. John O'Mahony, one of the
men of '48, organized a formidable secret society in America,
which his historical studies led him to call the Fenian brother-
hood (see FENIANS).
The Fenian movement disclosed much discontent, and was
attended by criminal outrages in England. The disestablishment
of the Irish Church, the privileged position of which had long
been condemned by public opinion, was then decreed (1869)
and the land question was next taken in hand (1870). These
reforms did not, however, put an end to Irish agitation. The
Home Rule party which demanded the restoration of a
separate Irish parliament, showed increased activity, and
the general election of 1874 gave it a strong representation
at Westminster, where one section of the party developed
into the " obstructionists " (see the articles on ISAAC BUTT
and C. S. PARNELL).
Isaac Butt, who died in May 1879, led a parliamentary party
of fifty-four, but the Conservatives were strong enough to out-
vote them and the Liberals together. His procedure was
essentially lawyer-like, for he respected the House of Commons
and dreaded revolutionary violence. His death left the field
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IRELAND
[FROM ANGLO-NORMAN INVASION
clear for younger and bolder men. William Shaw succeeded him
as chairman of the Irish party in Parliament; but after the
election of 1880, Parnell, who had the Land League at his back,
ousted him by 23 votes to 18.
The Land Law of 1860, known as Deasy's Act, had been
based on the principle that every tenancy rested on contract
either expressed or implied. The act of 1870, ad-
niitting tne divergence between theory and practice,
protected the tenants' improvements and provided
compensation for disturbance within certain limits, but not
where the ejectment was for non-payment of rent. In good
times this worked well enough, but foreign competition began
to tell, and 1879 was the worst of several bad seasons. A succes-
sion of wet summers told against all farmers, and in mountainous
districts it was difficult to dry the turf on which the people
depended for fuel. A famine was feared, and in the west there
was much real distress. The Land League, of which Michael
Davitt (q.v.) was the founder, originated in Mayo in August,
and at a meeting in Dublin in October the organization was
extended to all Ireland, with Parnell as president. The country
was thickly covered with branches before the end of the year,
and in December Parnell went to America to collect money.
He was absent just three months, visiting over sixty cities
and towns; and 200,000 dollars were subscribed. Parnell
had to conciliate the Clan-na-Gael and the Fenians generally,
both in Ireland and America, while abstaining from action
which would make his parliamentary position untenable. He
did not deny that he would like an armed rebellion, but acknow-
ledged that it was an impossibility. Speaking at Cincinnati
on the 23rd of February 1880, he declared that the first thing
necessary was to undermine English power by destroying the
Irish landlords. Ireland might thus become independent.
" And let us not forget," he added, " that that is the ultimate
goal at which all we Irishmen aim. None of us, whether we be
in America or in Ireland, or wherever we may be, will be satisfied
until we have destroyed the last link which keeps Ireland bound
to England." At Galway in October of the same year he said
that he " would not have taken off his coat " to help the tenant
farmers had he not known that that was the way to legislative
independence. Fenianism and agrarianism, essentially different
as they are, might be worked to the same end.
To meet the partial failure of the potatoes in Connaught
and Donegal, very large sums were subscribed and administered
by two committees, one under the duchess of Marlborough
and the other under the lord mayor of Dublin. When Lord
Beaconsfield appealed to the country in March 1880, he reminded
the country in a letter to the viceroy, the duke of Marlborough,
that there was a party in Ireland " attempting to sever the
constitutional tie which unites it to Great Britain in that bond
which has favoured the power and prosperity of both," and that
such an agitation might in the end be " scarcely less disastrous
than pestilence and famine." But the general election did
not turn mainly upon Ireland, and the result gave Gladstone
a majority of 50 over Conservatives and Home Rulers combined.
Earl Cowper became lord-lieutenant, with W. E. Forster (q.v.)
as chief [secretary, and Parnell remained chairman of his
own party in parliament. The Compensation for Disturbance
Bill, even where the ejectment was for non-payment of rent,
passed the House of Commons, but the Lords threw it out, and
this has often been represented as the great cause of future
trouble. Probably it made little real difference, for the extreme
party in Ireland were resolved to stop at nothing. It is not
easy to defend the principle that a landlord who has already
lost his rent should also have to pay the defaulter before getting
a new tenant or deriving a profit from the farm by working it
Bo himself. Speaking at Ennis on the igth of September,
cutting. Parnell told the people to punish a man for taking
a farm from which another had been evicted " by
isolating him from his kind as if he was a leper of old." The
advice was at once taken and its scope largely extended. For
refusing to receive rents at figures fixed by the tenants, Captain
Boycott (1832-1897), Lord Erne's agent in Mayo, was severely
" boycotted," the name of the first victim being given to the
new system. His servants were forced to leave him, his crops
were left unsaved, even the post and telegraph were interfered
with. The Ulster Orangemen resolved to get in the crops,
and to go in armed force sufficient for the purpose. The govern-
ment allowed 50 of them to go under the protection of about
900 soldiers. The cost seemed great, but the work was done
and the law vindicated. In Cork William Bence- Jones (1812-
1882) was attacked. The men in the service of the steam-packet
companies refused to put his cattle on board, and they were
eventually smuggled across the Channel in small lots. Several
associations were formed which had more or less success against
the League, and at last a direct attack was made. Parnell with
four other members of parliament and the chief officers of
the Land League were indicted for conspiracy in the Queen's
Bench. No means of intimidating the jurors was neglected,
and in the then state of public feeling a verdict was hardly
to be expected. On the 25th of January 1881 the jury disagreed,
and Parnell became stronger than ever.
Then followed a reign of terror which lasted for years. No
one was safe, and private spite worked freely in the name of
freedom. The system originated by Parnell's Ennis speech
became an all-devouring tyranny. In the House of Commons,
on the 24th of May 1882, Gladstone said that boycotting required
a sanction like every other creed, and that the sanction which
alone made it effective " is the murder which is not to be
denounced." The following description by a resident in Munster
was published in The Times of the 5th of November 1885:
" Boycotting means that a peaceable subject of the queen
is denied food and drink, and that he is ruined in his business;
that his cattle are unsaleable at fairs; that the smith will
not shoe his horse, nor the carpenter mend his cart; that old
friends pass him by on the other side, making the sign of the
cross; that his children are hooted at the village school; that
he sits apart like an outcast in his usual place of public worship:
all for doing nothing but what the law says he has a perfect
right to do. I know of a man who is afraid to visit his own son.
A trader who is even suspected of dealing with such a victim
of tyranny may be ruined by the mere imputation; his customers
shun him from fear, and he is obliged to get a character from
some notorious leaguer. Membership of the National League
is, in many cases, as necessary a protection as ever was a certifi-
cate of civism under Robespierre. The real Jacobins are few,
but the masses groan and submit." Medicine was refused
by a shopkeeper even for the sick child of a boycotted person.
A clergyman was threatened for visiting a parishioner who
was under the ban of the League. Sometimes no one could be
found to dig a grave. The League interfered in every relation
of life, and the mere fact of not belonging to it was often severely
punished. " The people," says the report of the Cowper Com-
mission, " are more afraid of boycotting, which depends for
its success on the probability of outrage, than they are of the
judgments of the courts of justice. This unwritten law in some
districts is supreme."
The session of parliament of 1881 was chiefly occupied with
Ireland. " With fatal and painful precision," Gladstone told
the House of Commons on the 28th of January, nloa
" the steps of crime dogged the steps of the Land
League," and the first thing was to restore the supremacy of
the law. In 1871 there had been an agrarian war in Westmeath,
and an act had been passed authorizing the arrest of suspected
persons and their detention without trial. The ringleaders
disappeared and the county became quiet again. It was now
proposed to do the same thing for the whole of Ireland, the power
of detention to continue until the soth of September 1882.
Parnell cared nothing for the dignity of the House of Commons.
His leading idea was that no concession could be got from
England by fair means, and he made himself as disagreeable
as possible. Parliamentary forms were used with great success
to obstruct parliamentary action. The " Coercion Bill " was
introduced on the 24th of January 1881. There was a sitting
of 22 hours and another of 41 hours, and on the 2nd of February
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the debate was closured by the Speaker on his own responsibility
and the bill read a first time. The Speaker's action was ap-
proved by the House generally, but acrimonious debates were
raised by Irish members. Parnell and 35 of his colleagues were
suspended, and the bill became law on the 2nd of March, but
not before great and permanent changes were made in parlia-
mentary procedure. An Arms Bill, which excited the same sort
of opposition, was also passed into law.
That a Land Act should be passed was a foregone conclusion
as soon as the result of the general election was known. There
Land Act were many drafts and plans which never saw the
1881. light, but it was at last resolved to adopt the policy
known as the "Three F's" — free sale, fixity of tenure
and fair rents. By the first tenants at will were empowered
to sell their occupation interests, the landlord retaining a right
of pre-emption. By the second the tenant was secured from
eviction except for non-payment of rent. By the third the
tenant was given the right to have a "fair rent" fixed by
a newly formed Land Commission Court, the element of com-
petition being entirely excluded. There were several exceptions
and qualifying clauses, but most of them have been swept
away by later acts. The act of 1881 can scarcely be said to have
worked well or smoothly, but it is not easy to see how any
sort of settlement could have been reached without accepting
the principle of having the rent fixed by a third party. Drastic
as the bill was, Parnell refused to be a party to it, and on the
second reading, which was carried by 352 to 176, he walked
out of the House with 35 of his followers. When the bill became
law in August he could not prevent the tenants from using
it, but he did what he could to discourage them in order to
please his American paymasters, who repudiated all parlia-
mentary remedies. In September a convention was held in
Dublin, and Parnell reported its action to the American Land
League: "Resolutions were adopted for national self-govern-
ment, the unconditional liberation of the land for the people,
tenants not to use the rent-fixing clauses of the Land Act, but
follow old Land League lines, and rely on the old methods to
reach justice. The executive of the League is empowered to
select test cases, in order that tenants in surrounding districts
may realize, by the results of cases decided, the hollowness
of the act" (Barry O'Brien, Life of C. S. Parnell, i. 306). His
organ United Ireland declared that the new courts must be
cowed into giving satisfactory decisions. The League, however,
could not prevent the farmers from using the fair-rent clauses.
It was more successful in preventing free sale, maintaining the
doctrine that, rent or no rent, no evictions were to be allowed.
At the first sitting of the Land Commission in Dublin the crier,
perhaps by accident, declared "the court of the Land League
to be open." Speaking at Leeds on the 7th of October, Gladstone
said "the resources of civilization were not exhausted," adding
that Parnell " stood between the living and the dead, not
like Aaron to stay the plague, but to spread the plague." Two
days later Parnell called the prime minister a " masquerading
knight-errant," ready to oppress the unarmed, but submissive
to the Boers as soon as he found " that they were able to shoot
straighter than his own soldiers." Four days after this Parnell
Was arrested under the Coercion Act and lodged in Kilmainham
gaol. The Land League having retorted by ordering
the tenants to pay no rent, it was declared illegal,
"Treaty." and suppressed by proclamation. Parnell is said to
have disapproved of the no-rent manifesto, as also
Mr John Dillon, who was in Kilmainham with him, but both
of them signed it (ib. i. 319). At Liverpool on the 27th of
October Gladstone described Parnell and his party as" marching
through rapine to the disintegration and dismemberment of
the empire." In 1881, 4439 agrarian outrages were reported;
nothing attracted more attention in England than the cruel
mutilations of cattle, which became very frequent. The Ladies'
Land League tried to carry on the work of the suppressed
organization and there was even an attempt at a Children's
League. Sex had no effect in softening the prevalent style
of oratory, but the government thought it better to take no
notice. The imprisonment of suspects under the Coercion
Act had not the expected result, and outrages were incessant,
the agitation being supported by constant supplies of money
from America. Gladstone resolved on a complete change of
policy. It was decided to check evictions by an Arrears Bill,
and the three imprisoned members of parliament — Messrs
Parnell, Dillon and O'Kelly — were released on the and of May
1882, against the wishes of the Irish government. This was
known as the Kilmainham Treaty. Lord Cowper and Forster
at once resigned, and were succeeded by Lord Spencer and
Lord Frederick Cavendish, who entered Dublin on the 6th of
May.
That same evening Lord Frederick and the permanent under-
secretary Thomas Henry Burke were murdered in the Phoenix
Park in broad daylight. The weapons were amputating
knives imported for the purpose. The assassins drove
rapidly away; no one, not even those who saw the murders.
deed from a distance, knew what had been done.
A Dublin tradesman named Field, who had been a juror in a
murder trial, was attacked by the same gang and stabbed in
many places. He escaped with life, though with shattered
health, and it was the identification of the man who drove his
assailants' car that afterwards led to the discovery of the whole
conspiracy. The clue was obtained by a private examination
of suspected persons under the powers given by the Crimes
Act. To obtain convictions the evidence of an informer was
wanted, and the person selected was James Carey, a member
of the Dublin Corporation and a chief contriver of the murders.
He swore that they had been ordered immediately after the
appearance of an article in the Freeman's Journal which declared
that a " clean sweep " should be made of Dublin Castle officials.
The evidence disclosed the fact that several abortive attempts
had been previously made to murder Forster. Out of twenty
persons, subsequently arraigned, five were hanged, and others
sentenced to long terms of imprisonment. Carey embarked
for South Africa in the following July, and was murdered on
board ship by Patrick O'Donnell, who was brought to
England, convicted, and hanged on the i7th of December
1883.
Mr (afterwards Sir) G. O. Trevelyan had been appointed
chief secretary in May 1882, and in July the Crimes Prevention
Act was passed for three years on lines indicated by
Lord Cowper. In the first six months of the year
2597 agrarian outrages were reported, and in the last
six months 836. They fell to 834 in 1883, and to 744 in 1884.
The Arrears Bill also became law. Money enough was advanced
out of the surplus property of the Irish Church to pay for tenants
of holdings under £30 one year's rent upon all arrears accruing
before November 1880, giving them a clear receipt to that
date on condition of their paying another year themselves;
of the many reasons against the measure the most important
was that it was a concession to agrarian violence. But the
same could be and was said of the Land Act of 1881. That
had been passed, and it was probably impossible to make it
work at all smoothly without checking evictions by dealing
with old arrears. The Irish National League was, however,
founded in October to take up the work of the defunct Land
League, and the country continued to be disturbed. The
law was paralysed, for no jury could be trusted to convict
even on the clearest evidence, and the National League branches
assumed judicial functions. Men were openly tried all over
the country for disobeying the revolutionary decrees, and
private spite was often the cause of their being accused.
" Tenants," to quote the Cowper Commission again, " who
have paid even the judicial rents have been summoned to appear
before self-constituted tribunals, and if they failed to do so,
or on appearing failed to .satisfy those tribunals, have been
fined or boycotted." In February 1883 Mr Trevelyan gave
an account of his stewardship at Hawick, and said that all
law-abiding Irishmen, whether Conservative or Liberal, were
on one side, while on the other were those who " planned and
executed the Galway and Dublin murders, the boycotting and
784
IRELAND
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firing into houses, the mutilation of cattle and intimidation
of every sort." In this year the campaign of outrage in Ireland
was reinforced by one of dynamite in Great Britain.
Dynamite. Thg home secretary> sir \y. Harcourt, brought in an
Explosives Bill on the Qth of April, which was passed through
all its stages in one day and received the royal assent on the
next. The dynamiters were for the most part Irish-Americans,
who for obvious reasons generally spared Ireland, but one
land-agent's house in Kerry was shaken to its foundations in
November 1884. At Belfast in the preceding June Lord Spencer,
who afterwards became a Home Ruler, had announced that
the secret conspirators would " not terrify the English nation."
On the 22nd of February 1883 Forster made his great attack
on Parnell in the House of Commons, accusing him of moral
complicity with Irish crime. A detailed answer was never
attempted, and public attention was soon drawn to the trial
of the " Invincibles " who contrived the Phoenix Park murders.
On the nth of December Parnell received a present of £37,000
from his followers in Ireland. The tribute, as it was called,
was raised in spite of a papal prohibition. As a complement
to the Land Act and Arrears Act, boards of guardians
Acts""*™ were tn's vear emPowered to build labourers' cottages
with money borrowed on the security of the rates
and repayable out of them. Half an acre of land went with the
cottage, and by a later act this was unwisely extended to one
acre. That the labourers had been badly housed was evident,
and there was little chance of improvement by private capitalists,
for cottage property is not remunerative. But the working
of the Labourers Acts was very costly, cottages being often
assigned to people who were not agricultural labourers at all.
In many districts the building was quite overdone, and the rent
obtainable being far less than enough to recoup the guardians,
the system operated as out-door relief for the able-bodied and
as a rate in aid of wages.
The Explosives Act, strong as it was, did not at once 'effect
its object. In February 1884 there was a plot to blow up four
London railway stations by means of clockwork infernal machines
containing dynamite, brought from America. Three Irish-
Americans were convicted, of whom one, John Daly, who was
sentenced to penal servitude for life, lived to be mayor of Limerick
in 1899. In January 1885 Parnell visited Thurles, where he
gave a remarkable proof of his power by breaking down local
opposition to his candidate for Tipperary. In April the prince
and princess of Wales visited Ireland. At Dublin they were
well received, and at Belfast enthusiastically, but there were
hostile demonstrations at Mallow and Cork. In May it was
intended to renew the Crimes Prevention Act, but before that
was done the government was beaten on a financial question
by 264 to 252, Parnell and 39 of his followers voting with the
Conservatives. The Crimes Prevention Act expired on the
1 2th of July, and the want of it was at once felt. The number
of agrarian outrages reported in the first six months of the year
was 373; in the last six months they rose to 543, and the number
of persons boycotted was almost trebled. Lord Salisbury
came into office, with Lord Carnarvon as lord-lieutenant and
Sir W. Hart Dyke as chief secretary. The lord-lieutenant
had an interview with Parnell, of which very conflicting accounts
were given, but the Irish leader issued a manifesto advising
his friends to vote against the Liberals as oppressors and
coercionists, who promised everything and did nothing. The
constitutional Liberal party in Ireland was in fact annihilated
by the extension of the franchise to agricultural labourers and
very small farmers. The most important Irish measure of
the session was the Ashbourne Act,'by which £5,000,000
was allotted on the security of the land for the creation
of an occupying proprietary. Later the same sum
was again granted, and there was still a good deal unexpended
when the larger measure of 1891 became law. In December
1885, when the general election was over, an anonymous scheme
of Home Rule appeared in some newspapers, and in spite of
disclaimers it was at once believed that Gladstone had made
up his mind to surrender. In October 1884, only fourteen
"
months before, he had told political friends that he had a sneaking
regard fbr Parnell, and that Home Rule might be a matter for
serious consideration within ten years (Sir A. West's Recollec-
tions, 1899, ii. 206). The shortening of the time was perhaps
accounted for by the fact that the new House of Commons
consisted of 331 Liberals, 249 Conservatives, 86 Home Rulers
and Independents, Parnell thus holding the balance of parties.
In Ireland there had been 66 elections contested, and out
of 451,000 voters 93,000 were illiterates. Such were the
constituencies to whom it was proposed to hand Ireland
over. On the 26th of January 1886 the government were
defeated by a combination of Liberal and Nationalists on an
issue not directly connected with Ireland, and their resigna-
tion immediately followed. Gladstone became prime
minister, with Lord Aberdeen as lord-lieutenant ^1^886 *
and Mr John Morley as chief secretary. Lord Harting-
ton and Mr Goschen were not included in this adminis-
tration. In February Parnell again showed his power by
forcing Captain O'Shea upon the unwilling electors of Galway.
He introduced a Land Bill to relieve tenants from legal process
if they paid half their rent, and foretold disorder in consequence
of its rejection. In April the Government of Ireland Bill was
brought in, Mr Chamberlain (?.».), Mr Trevelyan and others
leaving the ministry. The bill attempted to safeguard British
interests, while leaving Ireland at the mercy of the native
politicians. Irish members were excluded from the imperial
parliament. The local legislature was to consist of two orders
sitting and voting together, but with the power of separating
on the demand of either order present. The 28 representative
peers, with 75 other members having an income of £200, or a
capital of £4000, elected for ten years by £25 occupiers, were to
constitute the first order. The second was to have 204 members
returned for five years by the usual parliamentary electorate.
The status of the lord-lieutenant was unalterable by this legisla-
ture. Holders of judicial offices and permanent civil servants
had the option of retiring with pensions, but the constabulary,
whom the Home Rulers had openly threatened to punish when
their time came, were to come after an interval under the
power of the Irish Parliament. Parnell accepted the bill,
but without enthusiasm.
The Government of Ireland Bill gave no protection to land-
owners, but as the crisis was mainly agrarian, it would have
been hardly decent to make no show of considering them.
A Land Purchase Bill was accordingly introduced on the i6th
of April by the prime minister under " an obligation of honour
and policy," to use his own words. Fifty millions sterling in
three years was proposed as payment for what had been officially
undervalued at 113 millions. It was assumed that there would
be a rush to sell, the choice apparently lying between that
and confiscation, and priority was to be decided by lot. The
Irish landlords, however, showed no disposition to sell their
country, and the Purchase Bill was quickly dropped, though
Gladstone had declared the two measures to be inseparable.
He reminded the landlords that the " sands were running in
the hour-glass," but this threat had no effect. The Unionists
of Ireland had been taken by surprise, and out of Ulster they
had no organization capable of opposing the National League
and the government combined. Individuals went to England
and spoke wherever they could get a hearing, but it was uphill
work. In Ulster the Orange lodges were always available,
and the large Protestant population made itself felt. Terrible
riots took place at Belfast in June, July and August. In October
there was an inquiry by a royal commission with Mr Justice
Day at its head, and on the report being published in the follow-
ing January there were fresh riots. Foolish and criminal as
these disturbances were, they served to remind the English
people that Ireland would not cease to be troublesome under
Home Rule. In parliament the Home Rule Bill soon got
into rough water; John Bright declared against it. The " dis-
sentient Liberals," as Gladstone always called them, were not
converted by the abandonment of the Purchase Bill, and on
the 7th of June 93 of them voted against the second reading,
FROM ANGLO-NORMAN INVASION]
IRELAND
785
which was lost by 30 votes. A general election followed in
July, and 74 Liberal Unionists were returned, forming with
the Conservatives a Unionist party, which outnumbered Glad-
stonians and Parnellites together by over a hundred. Gladstone
resigned, and Lord Salisbury became prime minister, with
Lord Londonderry as lord-lieutenant and Sir M. Hicks-Beach
(afterwards Lord St Aldwyn) as chief secretary.
The political stroke having failed, agrarianism again occupied
the ground. The " plan of campaign " was started, against
Parnell's wishes, towards the end of 1886. The gist
ot Cam- °^ this movement was that tenants should offer what
paiga." they were pleased to consider a fair rent, and if it
was refused, should pay the money into the hands
of a committee. In March 1887 Sir M. Hicks-Beach resigned
on account of illness, and Mr Arthur Balfour (q.v.) became
chief secretary. The attempt to govern Ireland under what
was called " the ordinary law " was necessarily abandoned,
and a perpetual Crimes Act was passed which enabled the lord-
lieutenant to proclaim disturbed districts and dangerous associa-
tions, and substituted trial by magistrates for trial by jury
in the case of certain acts of violence. In August the National
League was suppressed by proclamation. The conservative
instincts of the Vatican were alarmed by the lawless state of
Ireland, and an eminent ecclesiastic, Monsignor Persico, arrived
in the late summer on a special commission of inquiry. He made
no secret of his belief that the establishment of an occupying
proprietary was the only lasting cure, but the attitude of the
clergy became gradually more moderate. The government
passed a bill giving leaseholders the benefit of the act of 1881,
and prescribing a temporary reduction upon judicial rents
already fixed. This last provision was open to many great
and obvious objections, but was more or less justified by the
fall in prices which had taken place since 1881.
The steady administration of the Crimes Act by Mr Balfour
gradually quieted the country. Parnell had now gained the
bulk of the Liberal party, including Lord Spencer (in spite of
all that he had said and done) and Sir G. Trevelyan (in spite
of his Ha wick speech). In the circumstances the best chance
for Home Rule was not to stir the land question. Cecil Rhodes,
hoping to help imperial federation, gave Parnell £10,000 for
the cause. In September 1887 a riot arising out of the " plan
of campaign " took place at Mitchelstown. The police fired,
and two lives were lost, Mr Henry Labouchere and Mr (after-
wards Sir John) Brunner, both members of parliament, being
present at the time. The coroner's jury brought in a verdict
against the police, but that was a matter of course, and the
government ignored it. A telegram sent by Gladstone a little
later, ending with the words " remember Mitchelstown," created
a good deal of feeling, but it did the Home Rulers no good.
In October Mr Chamberlain visited Ulster, where he was received
with enthusiasm, and delivered several stirring Unionist speeches.
In November Lord Hartington and Mr Goschen were in Dublin,
and addressed a great loyalist meeting there.
In July 1888 an act was passed appointing a commission,
consisting of Sir James Hannen, Mr Justice Day and Mr Justice
A. L. Smith, to inquire into certain charges made by
Parnell fhe Times against Parnell and his party. What
caused most excitement was the publication by The
Times on the isth of May 1887 of a facsimile letter
purporting to have been written by Parnell on the isth of
May 1882, nine days after the Phoenix Park murders. The
writer of this letter suggested that his open condemnation
of the murders had been a matter of expediency, and that
Burke deserved his fate. Parnell at once declared that this was
a forgery, but he did nothing more at the time. Other alleged
incriminating letters followed. The case of O' Dennett v. Walter,
tried before the Lord Chief Justice of England in July 1888,
brought matters to a head, and the special commission followed.
The proceedings were necessarily of enormous length, and
the commissioners did not report until the i3th of February
1890, but the question of the letters was decided just twelve
months earlier, Richard Pigott, who shot himself at Madrid,
Commis-
sion.
having confessed to the forgeries. A few days later, on the
8th of March 1889, Parnell was entertained at dinner by the
Eighty Club, Lords Spencer and Rosebery being present;
and he was well received on English platforms when he chose
to appear. Yet the special commission shed a flood of light on
the agrarian and Nationalist movement in Ireland. Eight
members of parliament were pronounced by name to have
conspired for the total political separation of the two islands.
The whole party were proved to have disseminated newspapers
tending to incite to sedition and the commission of crime,
to have abstained from denouncing the system of intimidation,
and to have compensated persons injured in committing crime.
(See PARNELL.)
The conduct of the agrarian war had in the meantime almost
passed from Parnell's hands. The " plan of campaign " was
not his work, still less its latest and most remark-
able exploit. To punish Mr Smith-Barry (afterwards Twenty
Lord Barry more) for his exertions in favour of a brother
landlord, his' tenants in Tipperary were ordered to give up
their holdings. A sum of £50,000 was collected to build " New
Tipperary," and the fine shops and flourishing concerns in
the town were deserted to avoid paying small ground-rents.
The same course was pursued with the farmers, some of whom
had large capitals invested. Mr William O'Brien presided at
the inaugural dinner on the izth of April, and some English
M.P.'s were present, but his chief supporter throughout was
Father Humphreys. Parnell was invited, but neither came
nor answered. No shopkeeper nor farmer had any quarrel
with his landlord. " Heretofore," a tenant wrote in The Times
in the following December, " people were boycotted for taking
farms; I am boycotted for not giving up mine, which I have
held for twenty-five years. A neighbour of mine, an English-
man, is undergoing the same treatment, and we alone. We are
the only Protestant tenants on the Cashel estate. The re-
mainder of the tenants, about thirty, are clearing everything
off their land, and say they will allow themselves to be evicted."
In the end the attack on Mr Smith-Barry completely failed,
and he took back his misguided tenants. But the town of
Tipperary has not recovered its old prosperity.
The principal Irish measure passed in 1891 was Mr Balfour's
Purchase Act, to extend and modify the operation of the Ash-
bourne acts. £30,000,000 were provided to convert
tenants into proprietors, the instalments paid being puKhase.
again available, so that all the tenanted land in
Ireland might ultimately be passed through if desired. The
land itself in one shape or another formed the security, and
guaranteed stock was issued which the holder might exchange
for consols. The 4oth clause of the Land Act of 1896 greatly
stimulated the creation of occupying owners in the case of
over-incumbered estates, but solvent landlords were not in
a hurry to sell. The interests of the tenant were so carefully
guarded that the prices obtainable were ruinous to the vendor
unless he had other resources. The security of the treasury
was also so jealously scrutinized that .even the price which
the tenant might be willing to pay was often disallowed. Thus
the Land Commission really fixed the price of all property, and
the last vestige of free contract was obliterated. Compulsory
purchase became a popular cry, especially in Ulster. Owners,
however, could not with any pretence of justice be forced to
sell at ruinous prices, nor tenants be forced to give more than
they thought fair. If the state, for purposes of its own, insisted
upon expropriating all landlords, it was bound to find the differ-
ence, or to enter upon a course of undisguised confiscation.
The Purchase Act was not the only one relied on by Mr Balfour.
The Light Railways Act, passed by him in 1890, did much to
open up some of the poorest parts of the west, and the temporary
scarcity of that year was dealt with by relief works.
An action begun by Parnell against The Times was settled
by the payment of a substantial sum. The Nationalist leader
seemed to stand higher than ever, but the writ in the divorce
proceedings, brought by Captain O'Shea against his wife, with
the Irish leader as co-respondent, was hanging over him. To
786
IRELAND
[FROM ANGLO-NORMAN INVASION
downfall,
public astonishment, when the case came on for trial there was
no defence, and on the i7th of November 1890 a decree nisi
was granted. ParnelTs subsequent marriage with
t*16 respondent before a registrar did him no good
with his Roman Catholic supporters. The Irish
bishops remained silent, while in England the " Nonconformist
conscience " revolted. Three days after the verdict a great
meeting was held in the Leinster Hall, Dublin, attended by
25 members of the Irish parliamentary party. The result
was an enthusiastic vote of confidence in Parnell, moved by
Mr Justin M'Carthy and seconded by Mr T. M. Healy. Five
days later he. was unanimously re-elected chairman by his party
in parliament, but the meeting was scarcely over when Glad-
stone's famous letter to. Mr Morley became public. The writer
in effect demanded Parnell's resignation of the leadership as
the condition upon which he could continue at the head of
the Liberal party. He had to choose between the Nonconformist
vote and the Irish leader, and he preferred the former. Next
day the secession of the Irish members from their chief began.
Long and acrimonious debates followed in committee-room
15, and on the 6th of December Parnell was left in the chair
with only 26 supporters. The majority of 45 members — Anti-
Parnellites, as they came to be called — went into another room,
unanimously deposed him, and elected Mr Justin M'Carthy
in his place. Parnell then began a campaign as hopeless as
that of Napoleon after Leipzig. He seized the office of United
Ireland in person. The Fenian element was with him, as he
admitted, but the clergy were against him, and the odds were
too great, especially against a Protestant politician. His
candidate in a by-election at Kilkenny was beaten by nearly
two to one, and he himself was injured in the eyes by lime
being thrown at him. Similar defeats followed at Sligo and
Carlow. He went over to France to meet Messrs Dillon and
O'Brien, who had not yet taken sides, but nothing was agreed
to, and in the end both these former followers went against
him. Every Saturday he went from London to Dublin and
addressed some Sunday meeting in the country. The last was
on the 27th of September. On the 6th of October 1891
he died at Brighton, from the effects of a chill following on
overwork and excitement. His funeral at Glasnevin was
attended by 200,000 people. At the general election of 1892,
however, only 9 Parnellites — the section which under Mr John
Redmond remained staunch to his memory — were returned
to parliament.
The " Parnelh'te split," as it was called, proved fatal to
the cause of Home Rule, for the Nationalist party broke up
into factions. No one of the sectional leaders commanded
general confidence, and personal rivalries were of the bitterest
kind. An important result of these quarrels was to stop the
supply of American money, without which neither the Land
League nor the Home Rule agitation could have been worked.
The Unionist party had adopted a policy of local government
for Ireland while opposing legislative independence, and a bill
was introduced into the House of Commons by Mr Balfour
in February 1892. The principle was affirmed by a great
majority, but the measure could not then be proceeded with.
At the general election in July the Gladstonians and Nationalists
together obtained a majority of 40 over Conservatives and
Liberal Unionists. Lord Salisbury resigned in August, and
was succeeded by Gladstone, with Lord Houghton (afterwards
earl of Crewe) as lord-lieutenant and Mr John Morley as chief
secretary. The Crimes Act, which had already been relaxed,
was altogether suspended, and the proclamation declaring the
National League illegal was revoked. The lord-lieutenant,
on taking up his quarters in Dublin, refused a loyal address
because of its Unionist tone; and in October the government
issued a commission, with Mr Justice Mathew as chairman,
which had the restoration of the evicted tenants as its avowed
object. Two of the commissioners very shortly resigned, and
the whole inquiry became somewhat farcical. It was given
in evidence that out of £234,431 collected under the plan of
campaign only £125,000 had been given to evicted tenants.
In February 1893, on the application of the sheriff of Kerry,
an order from Dublin Castle, refusing protection, was pronounced
illegal in the Queen's Bench, and persons issuing it were declared
liable to criminal prosecution. In the same month Gladstone
introduced his second Home Rule Bill, which pro-
posed to retain 80 Irish members in the imperial
parliament instead of 103, but they were not to vote
on any proceedings expressly confined to Great Britain. On
the 8th of April 1886 he had told the House of Commons that
it " passed the wit of man " to draw a practical distinction
between imperial and non-imperial affairs. On the 2oth of July
1888 he informed the same assembly that there was no difficulty
in doing so. It had become evident, in the meantime, to number-
less Englishmen that the exclusion of the Irish members would
mean virtual separation. The plan now proposed met with
no greater favour, for a good many English Home Rulers had
been mainly actuated all along by the wisk to get the Irish
members out of their way. The financial provisions of the
bill were objected to by the Nationalists as tending to keep
Ireland in bondage.
During the year 1892 a vast number of Unionist meetings
were held throughout Ireland, the most remarkable being
the great Ulster convention in Belfast, and that of the three
other provinces in Dublin, on the I4th and 23rd of June. On
the 22nd of April 1893, the day after the second reading of
the bill, the Albert Hall in London was filled by enthusiastic
Unionist delegates from all parts of Ireland. Next day the
visitors were entertained by Lord Salisbury at Hatfield, the
duke of Devonshire, Mr Balfour, Mr Goschen and Mr Chamber-
lain being present. Between the second reading and the third
on ist September the government majority fell from 43 to 34.
A great part of the bill was closured by what was known as the
device of the " gag " without discussion, although it occupied
the House of Commons altogether eighty-two nights. It was
thrown out by the Lords by 419 to 41, and the country un-
doubtedly acquiesced in their action. On the 3rd of March
1894 Gladstone resigned, and Lord Rosebery (q.v.) became
prime minister. A bill to repeal the Crimes Act of 1887 was
read a second time in the Commons by 60, but went no farther.
A committee on the Irish Land Acts was closured at the end of
July by the casting vote of the chairman, Mr Morley, and
the minority refused to join in the report. The bill to restore
the evicted tenants, which resulted from the Mathew Com-
mission, was rejected in the Lords by 249 to 30. In March
1895 Mr Morley introduced a Land Bill, but the government
majority continued to dwindle. Another Crimes Act Repeal
Bill passed the second reading in May by only 222 to 208. In
July, however, the government were defeated on the question
of the supply of small-arms ammunition. A general election
followed, which resulted in a Unionist majority of 150. The
Liberal Unionists, whose extinction had once been so con-
fidently foretold, had increased from 46 to 71, and the Parnellites,
in spite of the most violent clerical opposition, from 9 to 12.
Lord Cadogan became lord-lieutenant of Ireland, and Mr Gerald
Balfour — who announced a policy of " killing Home Rule by
kindness " — chief secretary.
In the session of 1896 a new Land Act was added to the
statute-book. The general effect was to decide most disputed
points in favour of the tenants, and to repeal the
exceptions made by former acts in the landlord's
favour. Dairy farms, to mention only a few of the
most important points which had been hitherto excluded,
were admitted within the scope of the Land Acts, and purely
pastoral holdings of between £50 and £100 were for the first
time included. A presumption of law in the tenant's favour
was created as to improvements made since 1850. The 4oth
clause introduced the principle of compulsory sale to the tenants
of estates in the hands of receivers. The tendency of this
provision to lower the value of all property was partly, but only
partly, neutralized by the firmness of the land judge. The
landlords of Ireland, who had made so many sacrifices and
worked so hard to return Lord Salisbury to power, felt that
LgndAct
FROM ANGLO-NORMAN INVASION]
IRELAND
787
the measure was hardly what they had a right to expect from
a Unionist administration. In their opinion it unsettled the
agricultural mind, and encouraged judicial tenants to go to
law at the expiration of the first fifteen years' term instead of
bargaining amicably with their landlords.
In the autumn of this year was published the report of the
royal commission on the financial relations between England
. and Ireland. Mr Hugh C. E. Childers was the original
Financial , . , ... . . f
relations, chairman of this commission, which was appointed
in 1894 with the object of determining the fiscal
contribution of Ireland under Home Rule, and after his death
in 1896 The O'Conor Don presided. The report — or rather
the collection of minority reports — gave some countenance
to those who held that Ireland was overtaxed, and there was
a strong agitation on the subject, in which some Irish Unionists
joined without perceiving the danger of treating the two islands
as " separate entities." No individual Irishman was taxed
on a higher scale than any corresponding citizen of Great Britain.
No tax, either on commodities or property, was higher in Ireland
than in England. The alleged grievance was, however, ex-
ploited to the utmost extent by the Nationalist party. In
1897 a royal commission, with Sir Edward Fry as chair-
man, was appointed to inquire into the operation of the Land
Acts. Voluminous evidence was taken in different parts of
Ireland, and the commissioners reported in the following
year. The methods and procedure of the Land Commission
were much criticized, and many recommendations were made,
but no legislation followed. This inquiry proved, what
few in Ireland doubted, that the prices paid for occupancy
interest or tenant right increased as the landlord's rent was
cut down.
The session of 1898 was largely occupied with the discussion
of a bill to establish county and district councils on the lines
Local °f tne English Act °f l888- The fiscal jurisdiction
Govern- of grand juries, which had lasted for more than two
meat Act centuries and a half, was entirely swept away. Local
I89S- government for Ireland had always been part of
the Unionist programme, and the vote on the abortive bill
of 1892 had committed parliament to legislation. It may,
nevertheless, be doubted whether enough attention was paid
to the local peculiarities of Ireland, and whether English pre-
cedents were not too closely followed. In Ireland the poor-
rate used to be divided between landlord and tenant, except
on holdings valued at £4 and under, in which the landlord paid
the whole. Councils elected by small farmers were evidently
unfit to impose taxes so assessed. The poor-rate and the county
cess, which latter was mostly paid by the tenants, were con-
solidated, and an agricultural grant of £730,000 was voted by
parliament in order to relieve both parties. The consolidated
rate was now paid by the occupier, who would profit by economy
and lose by extravagance. The towns gained nothing by
the agricultural grant, but union rating was established for
the first time. The net result of the county council elections
in the spring of 1899 was to displace, except in some northern
counties, nearly all the men who had hitherto done the local
business. Nationalist pledges were exacted, and long service
as a grand juror was an almost certain bar to election. The
Irish gentry, long excluded, as landlords and Unionists, from
political life, now felt to a great extent that they had no field
for activity in local affairs. The new councils very generally
passed resolutions of sympathy with the Boers in the South
African war. The one most often adopted, though sometimes
rejected as too mild, was that of the Limerick corporation,
hoping " that it may end in another Majuba Hill." Efforts
not wholly unsuccessful were made to hinder recruiting in Ireland,
and every reverse or repulse of British arms was greeted with
Nationalist applause.
The scheme for a Roman Catholic University— of which
Mr Arthur Balfour, speaking for himself and not for the govern-
ment, made himself a prominent champion — was much can-
vassed in 1899, but it came to nothing. It had not been forgotten
that this question wrecked the Liberal party in 1874.
-„
The chief Irish measure of 1899 was an Agricultural and
Technical Instruction Act, which established a new depart-
ment (see the section Economics above) with the
chief secretary at its head and an elaborate system
of local committees. Considerable funds were made
available, and Mr (afterwards Sir) Horace Plunkett,
who as an independent Conservative member had been active
in promoting associations for the improvement of Irish methods
in this direction, became the first vice-president. The new
county councils were generally induced to further attempts
at technical instruction and to assist them out of the rates,
but progress in this direction was necessarily slow in a country
where organized industries have hitherto been so few. In
agriculture, and especially in cattle-breeding, improvement
was formerly due mainly to the landlords, who had now been
deprived by law of much of their power. The gap has been partly
filled by the new department, and a good deal has been done.
Some experience has been gained not only through the voluntary
associations promoted by Sir H. Plunkett, but also from the
Congested Districts Board founded under the Land Purchase
Act of 1891. This board has powerwithin the districts affected
by it to foster agriculture and fisheries, to enlarge holdings,
and to buy and hold land. In March 1899 it had from first
to last laid out a little more than half a million. The principal
source of income was a charge of £41,250 a year upon the Irish
Church surplus, but the establishment expenses were paid by
parliament.
At the opening of the session in January 1900 there was
a formal reconciliation of the Dillonite, Healyite, and Red-
mondite or Parnellite factions. It was evident
from the speeches made on the occasion that there
was not much cordiality between the various leaders, but
the outward solidarity of the party was calculated to bring
in renewed subscriptions both at home and from America.
It was publicly agreed that England's difficulty in South Africa
was Ireland's opportunity, and that all should abstain from
supporting an amendment to the address which admitted
that the war would have to be fought out. Mr John Redmond
was chosen chairman, and the alliance of Nationalists and
Gladstonian Liberals was dissolved. The United Irish League,
founded in Mayo in 1898 by Mr William O'Brien, had recently
become a sort of rival to the parliamentary party, its avowed
object being to break up the great grass farms, and its methods
resembling those of the old Land League.
The most striking event, however, in Ireland in the earlier
part of 1 900 was Queen Victoria's visit. Touched by the gallantry
of the Irish regiments in South Africa, and moved to some extent,
no doubt, by the presence of the xluke of Connaught in Dublin
as commander-in-chief, the queen determined in April to make
up for the loss of her usual spring holiday abroad by paying
a visit to Ireland. The last time the queen had been in Dublin
was in 1861 with the Prince Consort. Since then, besides the
visit of the prince and princess of Wales in 1885, Prince Albert
Victor and Prince George of Wales had visited Ireland in 1887,
and the duke and duchess of York (afterwards prince and
princess of Wales) in 1897; but the lack of any permanent
royal residence and the long-continued absence of the sovereign
in person had aroused repeated comment. Directly the an-
nouncement of the queen's intention was made the greatest
public interest was taken in the project. Shortly before St
Patrick's Day the queen issued an order which intensified this
interest, that Irish soldiers might in future wear a sprig of
shamrock in their headgear on this national festival. For
some years past the " wearing of the green " had been regarded
by the army authorities as improper, and friction had con-
sequently occurred, but the queen's order put an end in a
graceful manner to what had formerly been a grievance. The
result was that St Patrick's Day was celebrated in London and
throughout the empire as it never had been before, and when
the queen went over to Dublin at the beginning of April she
was received with the greatest enthusiasm.
The general election later in the year made no practical
788
IRELAND
[FROM ANGLO-NORMAN INVASION
Recent
years.
difference in the strength of parties, but Mr George Wyndham
took Mr Gerald Balfour's place as chief secretary, without a
seat in the Cabinet. Both before and after the election the
United Irish League steadily advanced, fresh branches con-
tinually springing up.
The visit of Mr Redmond and others to America in 1901
was not believed to have brought in much money, and the
activity of the League was more or less restrained
by want of funds. Boycotting, however, became
rife, especially in Sligo, and paid agents also pro-
moted an agitation against grass farms in Tipperary, Clare
and other southern counties. In Roscommon there was a
strike against rent, especially on the property of Lord De Freyne.
This was due to the action of the Congested Districts Board in
buying the Dillon estate and reducing all the rents without
consulting the effect upon others. It was argued that no one
else's tenants could be expected to pay more. Some pro-
secutions were undertaken, but the government was much
criticized for not using the special provisions of the Crimes
Act; and in April 1902 certain counties were " proclaimed "
under it. In February 1902 Lord Rosebery definitely repudiated
Home Rule, and steps to oppose his followers were at once
taken among Irish voters in English constituencies.
Lord Cadogan resigned the viceroyalty in July 1902, and
was succeeded by Lord Dudley. In November Sir Antony
Macdonnell (b. 1844), a member of the Indian Council, became
under-secretary to the lord-lieutenant. During a long and
successful career in India (1865-1901) Sir Antony had never
concealed his Nationalist proclivities, but his appointment,
about the form of which there was nothing peculiar, was favoured
by Lord Lansdowne and Lord George Hamilton, and ultimately
sanctioned by Mr Balfour, who had been prime minister since
Lord Salisbury's resignation in July. About the same time
a conference took place in Dublin between certain landlords
and some members of the Nationalist party, of whom Mr W.
O'Brien was the most conspicuous. Lord Dunraven presided,
and it was agreed to recommend a great extension of the Land
Purchase system with a view to give the vendor as good an
income as before, while decreasing the tenants' annual burden.
This was attempted in Mr Wyndham's Land Purchase Act
of 1903, which gave the tenants a material reduction, a bonus
of 12% on the purchase-money being granted to vendors
from funds provided by parliament. A judicial decision made
it doubtful whether this percentage became the private property
of tenants for life on settled estates, but a further act passed
in 1904 answered the question in the affirmative. After this
the sale of estates proceeded rapidly. In March 1903 was
published the report of the Royal Commission on Irish University
Education appointed two years before with Lord Robertson
as chairman, Trinity College, Dublin, being excluded from
the inquiry. The report, which was not really unanimous,
was of little value as. a basis for legislation. It recommended
an examining university with the Queen's Colleges at Belfast,
Cork and Galway, and with a new and well-endowed Roman
Catholic college in Dublin.
In August was formed the Irish Reform Association out of
the wreckage of the late Land Conference and under Lord
The Dunraven's presidency, and it was seen that Sir
"Devolu- A. Macdonnell took a great interest in the proceedings.
Besides transferring private bill legislation to Dublin
on the Scottish plan, to which no one in Ireland
objected, it was proposed to hand over the internal expenditure
of Ireland to a financial council consisting half of nominated
and half of elected members, and to give an Irish assembly
the initiative in public Irish bills. This policy, which was
called Devolution, found little support anywhere, and was
ultimately repudiated both by Mr Wyndham and by Mr Balfour.
But a difficult parliamentary crisis, caused by Irish Unionist
suspicions on the subject, was only temporarily overcome
by Mr Wyndham's resignation in March 1905. Mr Walter
Long succeeded him. One of the chief questions at issue was
the position actually occupied by Sir Antony Macdonnell. The
new chief secretary, while abstaining from displacing the under-
secretary, whose encouragement of " devolution " had caused
considerable commotion among Unionists, announced that
he considered him as on the footing of an ordinary and sub-
ordinate civil servant, but Mr Wyndham had said that he was
" invited by me rather as a colleague than as a mere under-
secretary to register my will," and Lord Lansdowne that he
" could scarcely expect to be bound by the narrow rules of
routine which are applicable to an ordinary member of the
civil service." While Mr Long remained in office no further
complication arose, but in 1906 (Sir A. Macdonnell being re-
tained in office by the Liberal government) his Nationalist
leanings again became prominent, and the responsibility of the
Unionist government in introducing him into the Irish adminis-
tration became a matter of considerable heart-burning among
the Unionist party.
Mr Balfour resigned in December 1905 and was succeeded
by Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman, Lord Aberdeen becoming
lord-lieutenant for the second time, with Mr James Bryce as
chief secretary. The general election at the beginning of 1906
was disastrous to the Unionist party, and the Liberal govern-
ment secured an enormous majority. Mr Walter Long, un-
seated at Bristol, had made himself very popular among Irish
Unionists, and a seat was found him in the constituency of
South Dublin. Speaking in August 1906 he raised anew the
Macdonnell question and demanded the production of all
correspondence connected with the under-secretary's appoint-
ment. Sir A. Macdonnell at once admitted through the news-
papers that he had in his possession letters (rumoured to be
" embarrassing " to the Unionist leaders) which he might
publish at his own discretion; and the discussion as to how
far his appointment by Mr Wyndham had prejudiced the
Unionist cause was reopened in public with much bitterness,
in view of the anticipation of further steps in the Home
Rule direction by the Liberal ministry. In 1908 Sir Antony
resigned and was created a peer as Baron Macdonnell. Soon
after the change of government in 1906 a royal commission,
with ex-Lord Justice Fry as chairman, was appointed to inves-
tigate the condition of Trinity College, Dublin, and another
under Lord Dudley to inquire into the question of the congested
districts.
Mr Bryce being appointed ambassador to Washington,
Mr Birrell faced the session of 1907 as chief secretary. Before
he left office Mr Bryce publicly sketched a scheme of his own
for remodelling Irish University Education, but his scheme
was quietly put on the shelf by his successor and received almost
universal condemnation. Mr Birrell began by introducing
a bill for the establishment of an Irish Council, which would
have given the Home Rulers considerable leverage, but, to the
surprise of the English Liberals, it was summarily rejected by a
Nationalist convention in Dublin, and was forthwith abandoned.
The extreme party of Sinn Fein (" ourselves alone ") were against
it because of the power it gave to the government officials,
and the Roman Catholic clergy because it involved local control
of primary education, which would have imperilled their position
as managers. An Evicted Tenants Bill was however passed
at the end of the session, which gave the Estates Commissioners
unprecedented powers to take land compulsorily. In the late
summer and autumn, agitation in Ireland (led by Mr Ginnell,
M.P.) took the form of driving cattle off large grass farms, as
part of a campaign against what was known as " ranching."
This reckless and lawless practice extended to several counties,
but was worst in Galway and Roscommon. The government
was determined not to use the Crimes Act, and the result was
that offenders nearly always went unpunished, benches of
magistrates being often swamped by the chairmen of district
councils who were ex officio justices under the act of 1898.
The general election of 1910 placed the Liberal and Unionist
parties in a position of almost exact equality in the House
of Commons, and it was at once evident that the Nationalists
under Mr Redmond's leadership would hold the balance of
power and control the fortunes of Mr Asquith's government.
IRELAND, CHURCH OF
789
A small body of " independent Nationalists," led by Mr William
O'Brien and Mr T. M. Healy, voiced the general dislike in Ireland
of the Budget of 1909, the rejection of which by the House of
Lords had precipitated the dissolution of parliament. But
although this band of free-lances was a menace to Mr Redmond's
authority and to the solidarity of the " pledge-bound" Irish
parliamentary party, the two sections did not differ in their
desire to get rid of the " veto " of the House of Lords, which
they recognized as the standing obstacle to Home Rule, and
which it was the avowed policy of the government to abolish.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.— Ancient: The Annals of the Four Masters,
ed. J. O'Donovan (1851), compiled in Donegal under Charles I.,
gives a continuous account of Celtic Ireland down to 1616. The
independent Annals of Lough Ce (Rolls series) end with 1590. The
Topographia and Expugnatio of Giraldus Cambrensis (Rolls series)
are chiefly valuable for his account of the Anglo-Norman invaders
and for descriptions of the country. Sir J. T. Gilbert's Viceroys of
Ireland (Dublin, 1865) gives a connected view of the feudal establish-
ment to the accession of Henry VIII. The Calendar of Documents
relating to Ireland in the Public Record Office extends from 1171 to
1307. Christopher Pembridge's Annals from 1162 to 1370 were
published by William Camden and reprinted in Sir J. T. Gilbert's
Chartularies of St Mary's Abbey (Dublin, 1884). The Annals of Clyn,
Dowling and Grace have been printed by the Irish Archaeological
Society and the Celtic Society.
For the i6th century see volumes ii. and iii. of the Printed State
Papers (1834), and the Calendars of State Papers, Ireland, including
that of the Carew MSS. 1515 to 1603. See also Richard Stanihurst's
Chronicle, continued by John Hooker, which is included in Holin-
shed's Chronicles; E. Spenser, View of the State of Ireland, edited by
H. Morley (1890); Fynes Moryson, History of Ireland (1735);
Thomas Stafford, Pacata Hibernia (1810) ; and R. Bagwell, Ireland
under the Tudor s (1885-1890).
For the I7th century see the Calendars of Irish State Papers,
1603-1665 (Dublin, 1772); Straff ord Letters, edited by W. Knowler
(!739); Thomas Carte, Life of Ormonde (1735-1736), and Ormonde
Papers (1739); Roger Boyle, earl of Orrery, State Letters (1743);
the Contemporary History of Affairs in Ireland, 1641-1652 (1879-
1880), and History of the Irish Confederation and the War in Ireland,
1641-1649 (1882-1891), both edited by Sir I. T. Gilbert; Edmund
Ludlow's Memoirs, edited by C. H. Firth (1894); the Memoirs of
James Touchet, earl of Castlehaven (1815); and Cromwell's Letters
and Speeches, edited by T. Carlyle (1904). See also J. P. Prendergast,
The Cromwellian Settlement of Ireland (1870); Denis Murphy,
Cromwell in Ireland (1885); M. A. Hickson, Ireland in the ifih
Century (1884); Sir John Temple, History of the Irish Rebellion
(1812); P. Walsh, History of the Remonstrance (1674); George
Story, Impartial History of the Wars of Ireland (1693) I Thomas
Witherow, Derry and Enniskillen (1873); Philip Dwyer, Siege of
Derry (1893) ; Lord Macaulay, History of England-, and S. R. Gardiner,
History of England, 1603—1656. Further writings which may be
consulted are: The Embassy in Ireland of Rinuccini, 1645—1640,
translated from the Italian by A. Hutton (1873); Sir William
Petty 's Down Survey, edited by T. A. Larcom (1851 ), and his Economic
Writings, edited by C. H. Hull (1899); Charles O'Kelly's Macariae
Excidium, edited by J. C. O'Callaghan (1850); and A Jacobite
Narrative of the War in Ireland, 1688-91, edited by Sir J. T. Gilbert
(1892).
For the l8th century J. A. Froude's English in Ireland and W. E.
H. Lecky's History of England cover the whole ground. See also
the Letters 1724-1738 of Archbishop Hugh Boulter, edited by
G. Faulkner (1770); the Works of Dean Swift; John Campbell's
Philosophical Survey of Ireland (1778); Arthur Young's Tour in
Ireland (1780); Henry Grattan's Life of the Right Hon. Henry
Grattan (1839-1846) ; the Correspondence of the Marquess Cornwallis,
edited by C. Ross (1859); Wolfe Tone's Autobiography, edited by
R. B. O'Brien (1893); and R. R. Madden's United Irishmen (1842-
1846).
For the igth and the beginning of the zoth century see the
Annual Register; R. M. Martin, Ireland before and after the Union
(1848); Sir T. Wyse, Historical Sketch of the late Catholic Association
(1829); G. L. Smyth, Ireland, Historical and Statistical (1844—
1849); Sir C. E. Trevelyan, The Irish Crisis (1880); N. W. Senior,
Journals, Conversations and Essays relating to Ireland (1868);
Sir G. C. Lewis, On Local Disturbances in Ireland and on the Irish
Church Question (1836); John Morley, Life of W. E. Gladstone;
Lord Fitzmaurice, Life of Lord Granville (1905); and R. Barry
O'Brien, Life of Parnell (1898). Other authorities are Isaac Butt,
Irish Federalism (1870); H. O. Arnold-Forster, The Truth about
the Land League (1883); A. V. Dicey, England's Case against Home
Rule (1886); W. E. Gladstone, History of an Idea (1886), and a
reply to this by J. E. Webb entitled The Queen's Enemies in America
(1886); and Mrs E. Lynn Linton, About Ireland (1890). See also
the Report of the Parnell Special Commission (1890); the Report
of the Bessborough Commission (1881), of the Richmond Com-
mission (i88i),of the Co wper Commission (1887), and of theMathew
Commission (1893), and the Report of the Congested Districts Board
(1899).
For the church in Ireland see: Henry Cotton, Fasti ecclesiae
hibernicae (1848-1878); W. M. Brady, The Episcopal Succession
(Rome, 1876); R. Mant, History of the Church »f Ireland (1840);
I. T. Ball, Tlie Reformed Church in Ireland, 1537-1886 (1886); and
W. D. Killen, Ecclesiastical History of Ireland (1875). A. Theiner's
Vetera Monumenta (Rome, 1864) contains documents concerning
the medieval church, and there are many others in Ussher's Works,
and for a later period in Cardinal Moran's Spicilegium Ossoriense
(1874-1884). The Works of Sir James Ware, edited by Walter
Harris, are generally useful, and Alice S. Green's The Making of
Ireland and its Undoing (1908), although written from a partisan
standpoint, may also be consulted. (R. BA.)
IRELAND, CHURCH OF. The ancient Church of Ireland
(described in the Irish Church Act 1869 by this its historic
title) has a long and chequered history, which it will be interest-
ing to trace in outline. The beginnings ef Christianity in
Ireland are difficult to trace, but there is no doubt that the first
Christian missionary whose labours were crowned with any
considerable success was Patrick (fl. c. 450), who has always
been reckoned the patron saint of the country. For six centuries
the Church of which he was the founder occupied a remarkable
position in Western Christendom. Ireland, in virtue at once
of its geographical situation and of the spirit of its people, was
less affected than other countries by the movements of European
thought; and thus its development, social and religious, was
largely independent of foreign influences, whether Roman
or English. In full communion with the Latin Church, the
Irish long preserved many peculiarities, such as their monastic
system and the date at which Easter was kept, which distinguished
them in discipline, though not conspicuously in doctrine, from
the Christians of countries more immediately under papal
control (see IRELAND: Early History). The incessant incursions
of the Danes, who were the scourge of the land for a period of
nearly three hundred years, prevented the Church from redeem-
ing the promise of her infancy ; and at the date of the English
conquest of Ireland (1172) she had lost much of her ancient
zeal and of her independence. By this time she had come more
into line with the rest of Europe, and the Synod of Cashel
put the seal to a new policy by its acknowledgment of the
papal jurisdiction and by its decrees assimilating the Church,
in ritual and usages, to that of England. There was no thought
of a breach of continuity, but the distinctive features of Celtic
Christianity gradually disappeared from this time onwards.
English influence was strong only in the region round Dublin
(known as the Pale); and beyond this district the Irish were
not disposed to view with favour any ecclesiastical reforms
which had their origin in the sister country. Thus from the
days of Henry VIII. the Reformation movement was hindered
in Ireland by national prejudice, and it never succeeded in
gaining the allegiance of the Irish people as a whole. The
policy which directed its progress was blundering and stupid,
and reflects little credit on the English statesmen who were
responsible for it. No attempt was made to commend the
principles of the Reformation to the native Irish by conciliating
national sentiment; and the policy which forbade the transla-
tion of the Prayer Book into the Irish language, and suggested
that where English was not understood Latin might be used
as an alternative, was doomed to failure from the beginning.
And, in fact, the reformed church of Ireland is to this day the
church of a small section only of the population.
The Reformation period begins with the passing of the Irish
Supremacy Act 1537. As in England, the changes in religion
of successive sovereigns alternately checked and promoted
the progress of the movement, although in Ireland the mass
of the people were less deeply affected by the religious con-
troversies of the times than in Great Britain. At Mary's ac-
cession five bishops either abandoned, or were deprived of,
their sees; but the Anglo-Irish who remained faithful to the
Reformation were not subjected to persecution such as would
have been their fate on the other side of the Channel. Again,
under Elizabeth, while two bishops (William Walsh of Meath and
Thomas Leverous of Kildare) were deprived for open resistance
790
IRELAND, CHURCH OF
to the new order of things, and while stern measures were taken
to suppress treasonable plotting against the constitution, the
uniform policy of the government in ecclesiastical matters was
one of toleration. James I. caused the Supremacy Act to
be rigorously enforced, but on political rather than on religious
grounds. In distant parts of Ireland, indeed, the unreformed
order of service was often used without interference from the
secular authority, although the bishops had openly accepted
the Act of Uniformity.
The episcopal succession, then, was unbroken at the Reforma-
tion. The Marian prelates are admitted on all hands to have
'been the true bishops of the Church, and in every case they
were followed by a. line of lawful successors, leading down
to the present occupants of the several sees. The rival lines
of Roman Cathoh'c titulars are not in direct succession to the
Marian bishops, and cannot be regarded as continuous with the
medieval Church. The question of the continuity of the pre-
Reformation Church with the Church of the Celtic period before
the Anglo-Norman conquest of Ireland is more difficult. Ten
out of eleven archbishops of Armagh who held office between
1272 and 1439 were consecrated outside Ireland, and there
is no evidence forthcoming that any one of them derived his
apostolic succession through bishops of the Irish Church. It
may be stated with confidence that the present Church of Ireland
is the direct and legitimate successor of the Church of the I4th
and isth centuries, but it cannot so clearly be demonstrated
that any existing organization is continuous with the Church
of St Patrick. In the reign of James I. the first Convocation
of the clergy was summoned in Ireland, of which assembly the
most notable act was the adoption of the " Irish Articles "
(1615). These had been drawn up by Usher, and were more
decidedly Calvinistic in tone than the Thirty-nine Articles,
which were not adopted as standards in Ireland until 1634,
when Strafford forced them on Convocation. During the
Commonwealth period the bishoprics which became vacant
were not filled; but on the accession of Charles II. the Church
was strengthened by the translation of John Bramhall (the
most learned and zealous of the prelates) from Derry to the
primatial see of Armagh, and the consecration of twelve other
bishops, among whom was Jeremy Taylor. The short period
during which the policy of James II. prevailed in Ireland was
one of disaster to the Church; but under William and Mary
she regained her former position. She had now been reformed
for more than 100 years, but had made little progress; and
the tyrannical provisions of the Penal Code introduced by
the English government made her more unpopular than ever.
The clergy, finding their ministrations unacceptable to the
great mass of the population, were tempted to indolence and
non-residence; and although bright exceptions could be named,
there was much that called for reform. To William King (1650-
1729), bishop of Derry, and subsequently archbishop of Dublin,
it was mainly due that the work of the Church was reorganized,
and the impulse which he gave it was felt all through the i8th
century. His ecclesiastical influence was exerted in direct
opposition to Primate Hugh Boulter and his school, who aimed
at making the Established Church the instrument for the
promotion of English political opinions rather than the spiritual
home of the Irish people. In 1800 the Act of Union was passed
by the Legislature; and thenceforward, until Disestablishment,
there was but one " United Church of England and Ireland."
Continuous agitation for the removal of Roman Catholic
disabilities brought about in 1833 the passing of the Church
Temporalities Act, one of the most important provisions of
which was the reduction of the number of Irish archbishoprics
from four to two, and of bishoprics from eighteen to ten, the
funds thus released being administered by commissioners.
In 1838 the Tithe Rentcharge Act, which transferred the pay-
ment of tithes from the occupiers to the owners of land, was
passed, and thus a substantial grievance was removed. It
became increasingly plain, however, as years passed, that all
such measures of relief were inadequate to allay the dissatisfac-
tion felt by the majority of Irishmen because of the continued
existence of the Established Church. Her position had been
pledged to her by the Act of Union, and she was undoubtedly
the historical representative of the ancient Church of the land;
but such arguments proved unavailing in view of the visible
fact that she had not gained the affections of the people. The
census of 1861 showed that out of a total population of 5,798,967
only 693,357 belonged to the Established Church, 4,505,265
being Roman Catholics; and once this had been made clear,
the passing of the Act of Disestablishment was only a question
of time. Introduced by Mr Gladstone, and passed in 1869,
it became law on the ist of January 1871.
The Church was thus suddenly thrown on her own resources,
and called on to reorganize her ecclesiastical system, as well
as to make provision for the maintenance of her future clergy.
A convention of the bishops, clergy, and laity was summoned
in 1870, and its first act was to declare the adherence of the Church
of Ireland to the ancient standards, and her determination to
uphold the doctrine and discipline of the Catholic and Apostolic
Church, while reaffirming her witness, as Protestant and Re-
formed, against the innovations of Rome. Under the constitu-
tion then agreed on, the supreme governing body of the Church
is the General Synod, consisting of the bishops and of 208
clerical and 416 lay representatives of the several dioceses,
whose local affairs are managed by subordinate Diocesan Synods.
The bishops are elected as vacancies arise, and, with certain
restrictions, by the Diocesan Synods, the Primate, whose see
is Armagh, being chosen by the bishops out of their own number.
The patronage of benefices is vested in boards of nomination,
on which both the diocese and the parish are represented. The
Diocesan Courts, consisting of the bishop, his chancellor, and
two elected members, one clerical and the other lay, deal as courts
of first instance with legal questions; but there is an appeal
to the Court of the General Synod, composed of three bishops
and four laymen who have held judicial office. During the
years 1871 to 1878 the revision of the Prayer Book mainly
occupied the attention of the General Synod; but although
many far-reaching resolutions were proposed by the then
predominant Evangelical party, few changes of moment were
carried, and none which affected the Church's doctrinal position.
A two-thirds majority of both the lay and clerical vote is necessary
before any change can be made in the formularies, and an
ultimate veto rests, on certain conditions, with the house of
bishops.
The effects of Disestablishment have been partly good and
partly evil. On the one hand, the Church has now all the
benefits of autonomy and is free from the anomalies incidental
to state control. Her laws are definite, and the authority
of her judicial courts is recognized by all her members. The
place given to the laity in her synods has quickened in them
the sense of responsibility so essential to the Church's progress.
And although there are few worldly inducements to men to
take orders in Ireland, the clergy are, for the most part, the
equals of their predecessors in social standing and in intellectual
equipment, while the standard of clerical activity is higher
than in pre-Disestablishment days. On the other hand, the
vesting of patronage in large bodies like synods, or (as is the
case in some districts) in nominators with little knowledge
of the Church beyond the borders of their own parish, is not
an ideal system, although it is working better as the dangers
of parochialism and provinciality are becoming more generally
recognized than in the early years of Disestablishment.
The finances are controlled by the Representative Church
Body, to which the sum of £7,581,075, sufficient to provide
life annuities for the existing clergy (2043 in number), amounting
to £596,913, was handed over by the Church Temporalities
Commissioners in 1870. So skilfully was this fund administered,
and so generous were the contributions of clergy and laity,
at and since Disestablishment, that while on 3ist December
1906 only 136 annuitants were living, the total assets in the
custody of the Representative Church Body amounted at
that date to £8,729,941. Of this sum no less than £6,525,952
represented the free-will offerings of the members of the Church
IRENAEUS
791
for the thirty-seven years ending 3ist December 1906. Out
of the interest on capital, augmented by the annual parochial
assessments, which are administered by the central office, pro-
vision has to be made for two archbishops at £2500 per annum,
eleven bishops, who receive about £1500 each, and over 1500
parochial clergy. Of the clergy only 338 are curates, while
1161 are incumbents, the average annual income of a benefice
being about £240, with (in most cases) a house. The large
majority of the clergy receive their training in the Divinity
School of Trinity College, Dublin. At the census of 1901 the
members of the Church of Ireland numbered 579,385 out of a
total population of 4,456,546.
See R. Mant, History of the Church of Ireland (2 vols., London, 1840) ;
Essays on the Irish Church, by various writers (Oxford, 1866);
Maziere Brady, The Alleged Conversion of the Irish Bishops (London,
1877); A. T. Lee, The Irish Episcopal Succession (Dublin, 1867);
G. T. Stokes, Ireland and the Celtic Church (London, 1888), Ireland
and the Anglo-Norman Church (London, 1892), Some Worthies of the
Irish Church (London, 1900); T. Olden, The Church of Ireland
(London, 1892) ; J. T. Ball, The Reformed Church of Ireland (London,
1 890) ; H. C. Groves, The Titular A rchbishops of Ireland (Dublin, 1 897) ;
W. Lawlor, The Reformation in Ireland (London, 1906) ; Reports of
the Representative Church Body (Dublin, 1872-1905). (J. H. BE.)
IRENAEUS, bishop of Lyons at the end of the 2nd century,
was one of the most distinguished theologians of the ante-
Nicene Church. Very little is known of his early history.
His childhood was spent in Asia Minor, probably at or near
Smyrna; for he himself tells us (Adv. haer. iii. 3, 4, and Euseb.
Hist. Eccl. v. 20) that as a child he heard the preaching of Poly-
carp, the aged bishop of Smyrna (d. February 22, 156). But
we do not know when this was. He can hardly have been
born very long after 130, for later on he frequently mentions
having met certain Christian presbyters who had actually
seen John, the disciple of our Lord. The circumstances under
which he came into the West are also unknown to us; the
only thing which is certain is that at the time of the persecution
of the Gallic Church under Marcus Aurelius (177) he was a
presbyter of the church at Lyons. In 177 or 178 he went to
Rome on a mission from this church, to make representations
to Bishop Eleutherius in favour of a more lenient treatment
of the Montanists (see MONTANISM. ; Eus. v. 4. 2). On his
return he was called upon to undertake the direction of the
church at Lyons in the place of Bishop Pothinus, who had
perished in the persecution (Eus. v. 5. 8). As bishop he carried
on a great and fruitful work. Though the statement of Gregory
of Tours (Hist. Franc, i. 29), that within a short time he succeeded
in converting all Lyons to Christianity, is probably exaggerated,
from him at any rate dates the wide spread of Christianity in
Lyons and its neighbourhood. He devoted particular attention
to trying to reconcile the numerous sects which menaced the
existence of the church (see below). In the dispute on the
question of Easter, which for a long time disturbed the Christian
Church both in West and East, he endeavoured by means
of many letters to effect a compromise, and in particular to
exercise a moderating influence on Victor, the bishop of Rome,
and his unyielding attitude towards the dissentient churches of
Africa, thus justifying his name of " peace-maker " (Eirenaios)
(Eus. H.E. v. 24. 28). The date of his death is unknown. His
martyrdom under Septimius Severus is related by Gregory of
Tours, but by no earlier writer.
The chief work of Irenaeus, written about 180, is his " Refuta-
tion and Overthrow of Gnosis, falsely so called " (usually in-
dicated by the name Against the Heresies) . Of the Greek original
of this work only fragments survive; it only exists in full in
an old Latin translation, the slavish fidelity of which to a certain
extent makes up for the loss of the original text. The treatise
is divided into five books: of these the first two contain a
minute and well-informed description and criticism of the tenets
of various heretical sects, especially the Valentinians; the
other three set forth the true doctrines of Christianity, and it
is from them that we find out the theological opinions of the
author. Irenaeus admits himself that he is not a good writer.
And indeed, as he worked, his materials assumed such un-
manageable proportions that he could not succeed in throwing
them into a satisfactory form. But however clumsily he may
have handled his material, he has produced a work which is
even nowadays rightly valued as the first systematic exposition
of Catholic belief. The foundation upon which Irenaeus bases
his system consists in the episcopate, the canon of the Old and
New Testaments, and the rule of faith. With their assistance
he sets forth and upholds, in opposition to the gnostic dualism,
i.e. the severing of the natural and the supernatural, the Catholic
monism, i.e. the unity of the life of faith as willed by God.
The " grace of truth " ( the charisma), which the apostles had
called down upon their first disciples by prayer and laying-
on of hands, and which was to be imparted anew by way of
succession (Sta&oxri, successio) to the bishops from generation
to generation without a break, makes those who receive it
living witnesses of the salvation offered to the faithful by written
and spoken tradition. The Scriptures of the Old and New
Testaments, rightly expounded by the church alone, give us
an insight into God's plan of salvation for mankind, and explain
to us the covenant which He made on various occasions (Moses
and Christ; or Noah, Abraham, Moses and Christ). Finally,
the " rule of faith " (regida fidei), received at baptism, contains
in itself all the riches of Christian truth. To distribute these,
i.e. to elucidate the rule of faith as set forth in the creed, and
further to point out its agreement with the Scriptures, is the
object of Irenaeus as a theologian. Hence he lays the greatest
stress on the conception of God's disposition of salvation towards
mankind (oeconomia), the object of which is that mankind,
who in Adam were sunk in sin and deaths should in Christ,
comprised as it were in his person, be brought back to life.
God, as the head of the family, so to speak, disposes of all. The
Son, the Word (Logos) for ever dwelling with the Father, carries
out His behests. The Holy Ghost (Pneuma), however, as the
Spirit of wisdom for ever dwelling with the Father, controls
what the Father has appointed and the Son fulfilled, and this
Spirit lives in the church. The climax of the divine plan of
salvation is found in the incarnation of the Word. God was
to become man, and in Christ he became man. Christ must
be God; for if not, the devil would have had a natural claim
on him, and he would have been no more exempt from death
than the other children of Adam; he must be man, if his blood
were indeed to redeem us. On God incarnate the power of the
devil is broken, and in Him is accomplished the reconciliation
between God and man, who henceforth pursues his true object,
namely, to become like unto God. In the God-man God has
drawn men up to Himself. Into their human, fleshly and
perishable nature imperishable life is thereby engrafted; it
has become deified, and death has been changed into immortality.
In the sacrament of the Lord's Supper it is the heavenly body
of the God-man which is actually partaken of in the elements.
This exposition by Irenaeus of the divine economy and the
incarnation was taken as a criterion by later theologians, especi-
ally in the Greek Church (cf. Athanasius, Gregory of Nyssa,
Cyril of Alexandria, John of Damascus). He himself was
especially influenced by St John and St Paul. Before him the
Fourth Gospel did not seem to exist for the Church; Irenaeus
made it a living force. His conception of the Logos is not that
of the philosophers and apologists; he looks upon the Logos
not as the " reason " of God, but as the " voice " with which
the Father speaks in the revelation to mankind, as did the
writer of the Fourth Gospel. And the Pauline epistles are
adopted almost bodily by Irenaeus, according to the ideas
contained in them; his expositions often present the appearance
of a patchwork of St Paul's ideas. Certainly, it is only one
side of Paul's thought that he displays to us. The great con-
ceptions of justification and atonement are hardly ever touched
by Irenaeus. In Irenaeus is no longer heard the Jew, striving
about and against the law, who has had to break free from his
early tradition of Pharisaism.
Till recent times whatever other writings and letters of
Irenaeus are mentioned by Eusebius appeared to be lost, with
the exception of a fragment here or there. Recently, however,
two Armenian scholars, Karapet Ter-Mekerttschian and Erwand
792
IRENE— IRETON
Ter-Minassianz, have published from an Armenian translation
a German edition (Leipzig, 1907; minor edition 1908) of the
work "in proof of the apostolic teaching" mentioned by Eusebius
(H.E. v. 26). This work, which is in the form of a dialogue with
one Marcianus, otherwise unknown to us, contains a statement
of the fundamental truths of Christianity. It is the oldest
catechism extant, and an excellent example of how Bishop
Irenaeus was able not only to defend Christianity as a theologian
and expound it theoretically, but also to preach it to lay-
men.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The edition of the Benedictine R. Massuet
(Paris, 1710 and 1734, reprinted in Migne, Cursus patrologiae. Series
Graeca, vol. v., Paris, 1857) long continued to be the standard one,
till it was superseded by the editions of Adolph Stieren (2 vols.,
Leipzig, 1848-1853) and of W. Wigan Harvey (2 vols., Cambridge,
1857), the latter being the only edition which contains the Synac
fragments. For an English translation see the Ante-Nicene Library.
Of modern monographs consult H. Ziegler, Irenaeus, der Bischof
von Lyon (Berlin, 1871); Friedrich Loofs, Irenaeus-Handschriften
(Leipzig, 1888); Johannes Werner, Der Paulinismus des Irenaeus
(Leipzig, 1889) ; Johannes Kunze, Die Gotteslehre des Irenaeus
(Leipzig, 1891); Ernst Klebba, Die Anthropologie des heiligen
Irenaeus (Miinster, 1894); Albert Dufourcq, Saint Irenee (Paris,
1904) ; Franz Stoll, Die Lehre des Heil. Irenaeus von der Erlosung
und Heiligung (Mainz, 1905) ; also the histories of dogma, especially
Harnack, and Bethune-Baker, An Introduction to the Early History
of Christian Doctrine (London, 1903). (G. K.)
IRENE, the name of several Byzantine empresses.
i. IRENE (752-803), the wife of Leo IV., East Roman emperor.
Originally a poor but beautiful Athenian orphan, she speedily
gained the love and confidence of her feeble husband, and at his
death in 780 was left by him sole guardian of the empire and of
their ten-year-old son Constantine VI. Seizing the supreme
power in the name of the latter, Irene ruled the empire at her
own discretion for ten years, displaying great firmness and
sagacity in her government. Her most notable act was the
restoration of the orthodox image-worship, a policy which she
always had secretly favoured, though compelled to abjure it
in her husband's lifetime. Having elected Tarasius, one of her
partisans, to the patriarchate (784), she summoned two church
councils. The former of these, held in 786 at Constantinople,
was frustrated by the opposition of the soldiers. The second,
convened at Nicaea in 787, formally revived the adoration of
images and reunited the Eastern church with that of Rome.
As Constantine approached maturity he began to grow restive
under her autocratic sway. An attempt to free himself by force
was met and crushed by the empress, who demanded that the
oath of fidelity should thenceforward be taken in her name alone.
The discontent which this occasioned swelled in 790 into open
resistance, and the soldiers, headed by the Armenian guard,
formally proclaimed Constantine VI. as the sole ruler. A hollow
semblance of friendship was maintained between Constantine
and Irene, whose title of empress was confirmed in 792; but
the rival factions remained, and Irene, by skilful intrigues with
the bishops and courtiers, organized a powerful conspiracy on
her own behalf. Constantine could only flee for aid to the pro-
vinces, but even there he was surrounded by participants in
the plot. Seized by his attendants on the Asiatic shore of the
Bosporus, the emperor was carried back to the palace at Con-
stantinople; and there, by the orders of his mother, his eyes were
stabbed out. An eclipse of the sun and a darkness of seventeen
days' duration were attributed by the common superstition to
the horror of heaven. Irene reigned in prosperity and splendour
for five years. She is said to have endeavoured to negotiate a
marriage between herself and Charlemagne; but according to
Theophanes, who alone mentions it, the scheme was frustrated
by Aetius, one of her favourites. A projected alliance between
Constantine and Charlemagne's daughter, Rothrude, was in turn
broken off by Irene. In 802 the patricians, upon whom she had
lavished every honour and favour, conspired against her, and
placed on the throne Nicephorus, the minister of finance. The
haughty and unscrupulous princess, " who never lost sight of
political power in the height of her religious zeal," was exiled
to Lesbos and forced to support herself by spinning. She
died the following year. Her zeal in restoring images and
monasteries has given her a place among the saints of the Greek
church.
See E. Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (ed.
J. Bury, London, 1896), vol. v. ; G. Finlay, History of Greece (ed.
1877, Oxford,) vol. li. ; F. C. Schlosser, Geschichte der bilderstur-
menden Kaiser des ostromischen Reiches (Frankfort, 1812); J. D.
Phoropoulos, Elpr)VT) 17 atroKpirapa 'Paiiaiuv (Leipzig, 1887); J. B.
Bury, The Later Roman Empire (London, 1889), ii. 480-498 ; C. Diehl,
Figures byzantines (Paris, 1906), pp. 77-109. (M. O. B. C.)
2. IRENE (c., io66-c. 1120), the wife of Alexius I. The best-
known fact of her life is the unsuccessful intrigue by which she
endeavoured to divert the succession from her son John to
Nicephorus Bryennius, the husband of her daughter Anna.
Having failed to persuade Alexius, or, upon his death, to carry
out a coup d'etat with the help of the palace guards, she retired
to a monastery and ended her life in obscurity.
3. IRENE (d. 1161), the first wife of Manuel Comnenus. She
was the daughter of the count of Sulzbach, and sister-in-law
of the Roman emperor Conrad II., who arranged her betrothal.
The marriage was celebrated at Constantinople in 1146. The
new empress, who had exchanged her earlier name of Bertha
for one more familiar to the Greeks, became a devoted wife, and
by the simplicity of her manner contrasted favourably with
most Byzantine queens of the age.
H. v. Kap-Herr, Die abendlandische Politik des Kaisers Manuel
(Strassburg, 1881).
IRETON, HENRY (1611-1651), English parliamentary general,
eldest son of German Ireton of Attenborough, Nottinghamshire,
was baptized on the 3rd of November 1611, became a gentleman
commoner of Trinity College, Oxford, in 1626, graduated B.A.
in 1629, and entered the Middle Temple the same year. On the
outbreak of the Civil War he joined the parliamentary army,
fought at Edgehill and at Gainsborough in July 1643, was made
by Cromwell deputy-governor of the Isle of Ely, and next year
served under Manchester in the Yorkshire campaign and at the
second battle of Newbury, afterwards supporting Cromwell
in his accusations of incompetency against the general. On the
night before the battle of Naseby, in June 1645, he succeeded
in surprising the Royalist army and captured many prisoners,
and next day, on the suggestion of Cromwell, he was made
commissary-general and appointed to the command of the left
wing, Cromwell himself commanding the right. The wing under
Ireton was completely broken by the impetuous charge of Rupert,
and Ireton was wounded and taken prisoner, but after the rout
of the enemy which ensued on the successful charge of Cromwell
he regained his freedom. He was present at the siege of Bristol
in the September following, and took an active part in the sub-
sequent victorious campaign which resulted in the overthrow
of the royal cause. On the 3oth of October 1645 Ireton entered
parliament as member for Appleby, and while occupied with
the siege of Oxford he was, on the isth of June 1646, married
to Bridget, daughter of Oliver Cromwell. This union brought
Ireton into still closer connexion with Cromwell, with whose
career he was now more completely identified. But while
Cromwell's policy was practically limited to making the best of
the present situation, and was generally inclined to compromise,
Ireton's attitude was based on well-grounded principles of
statesmanship. He was opposed to the destructive schemes
of the extreme party, disliked especially the abstract and un-
practical theories of the Republicans and the Levellers, and
desired, while modifying their mutual powers, to retain the
constitution of King, Lords and Commons. He urged these
views in the negotiations of the army with the parliament, and
in the conferences with the king, being the person chiefly entrusted
with the drawing up of the army proposals, including the mani-
festo called " The Heads of the Proposals." He endeavoured
to prevent the breach between the army and the parliament,
but when the division became inevitable took the side of the
former. He persevered in supporting the negotiations with the
king till his action aroused great suspicion and unpopularity. He
became at length convinced of the hopelessness of dealing with
Charles, and after the king's flight to the Isle of Wight treated
his further proposals with coldness and urged the parliament
IRIARTE— IRIDACEAE
793
to establish an administration without him. Ireton served
under Fairfax in the second civil war in the campaigns in Kent
and Essex, and was responsible for the executions of Lucas and
Lisle at Colchester. After the rejection by the king of the last
offers of the army, he showed special zeal in bringing about his
trial, was one of the chief promoters of " Pride's Purge," attended
the court regularly, and signed the death-warrant. The regiment
of Ireton having been chosen by lot to accompany Cromwell
in his Irish campaign, Ireton was appointed major-general;
and on the recall of his chief to take the command in Scotland,
he remained with the title and powers of lord-deputy to complete
Cromwell's work of reduction and replantation. This he pro-
ceeded to do with his usual energy, and as much by the severity
of his methods of punishment as by his military skill was rapidly
bringing his task to a close, when he died on the 26th of November
1651 of fever after the capture of Limerick. His loss " struck
a great sadness into Cromwell," and perhaps there was no one
of the parliamentary leaders who could have been less spared,,
for while he possessed very high abilities as a soldier, and great
political penetration and insight, he resembled in stern un-
flinchingness of purpose the protector himself. By his wife,
Bridget Cromwell, who married afterwards General Charles
Fleetwood, Ireton left one son and three daughters.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Article by C. H. Firth in Diet, of Nat. Biog. with
authorities there quoted; Wood's Ath. Oxon. iii 298, and Fasti, 1.
451; Cornelius Brown's Lives of Notts Worthies, 181; Clarke Papers
published by Camden Society; Gardiner's History of the Civil War
and of the Commonwealth.
IRIARTE (or YRIARTE) Y OROPESA, TOMAs DE (1750-
1791), Spanish poet, was born on the i8th of September 1750,
at Orotava in the island of Teneriffe, and received his literary
education at Madrid under the care of his uncle, Juan de Iriarte,
librarian to the king of Spain. In his eighteenth year the
nephew began his literary career by translating French plays
for the royal theatre, and in 1770, under the anagram of Tirso
Imarete, he published an original comedy entitled Hacer que
haeemos. In the following year he became official translator
at the foreign office, and in 1776 keeper of the records in the
war department. In 1780 appeared a dull didactic poem in
sihas entitled La Musica, which attracted some attention in
Italy as well as at home. The Fdbulas literarias (1781), with
which his name is most intimately associated, are composed
in a great variety of metres, and show considerable ingenuity
in their humorous attacks on literary men and methods; but
their merits have been greatly exaggerated. During his later
years, partly in consequence of the Fdbulas, Iriarte was absorbed
in personal controversies, and in 1786 was reported to the Inquisi-
tion for his sympathies with the French philosophers. He died
on the i7th of September 1791.
He is the subject of an exhaustive monograph (1897) by Emilio
Cotarelo y Mori.
IRIDACEAE (the iris family), in botany, a natural order of
flowering plants belonging to the series Liliiflorae of the class
Monocotyledons, containing about 800 species in 57 genera,
and widely distributed in temperate and tropical regions. The
members of this order are generally perennial herbs growing
from a corm as in Crocus and Gladiolus, or a rhizome as in Iris;
more rarely, as in the Spanish iris, from a bulb. A few South
African representatives have a shrubby habit. The flowers
are hermaphrodite and regular as in Iris (fig. i) and Crocus
(fig. 3), or with a symmetry in the median plane as in Gladiolus.
The petaloid perianth consists of two series, each with three
members, which are joined below into a longer or shorter tube,
followed by one whorl of three stamens; the inferior ovary
is three-celled and contains numerous ovules on an axile placenta;
the style is branched and the branches are often petaloid. The
fruit (fig. 2) is a capsule opening between the partitions and
containing generally a large number of roundish or angular
seeds. The arrangement of the parts in the flower resembles
that in the nearly allied order Amaryllidaceae (Narcissus,
Snowdrop, &c.), but differs in the absence of the inner whorl
of stamens.
The most important genera are Crocus (g.t>.),with about 70
species, Iris (q.v.), with about 100, and Gladiolus (q.v.), with
150. Ixia, Freesia (q.v.) and Tritonia (including Montbretia),
FIG. i. — Yellow Iris, Iris Pseudacorus, \ nat. size.
3. Fruit cut across showing the
three chambers containing
seeds.
4. A seed. 1-4 about \ nat. size.
1. Flower, from which the outer
petals and the stigmas have
been removed, leaving the
inner petals (a) and stamens.
2. Pistil with petaloid stigmas.
all natives of South Africa, are well known in cultivation.
Sisyrinchium, blue-eyed grass, is a new-world genus extending
FIG. 2. — Seed-vessel
(capsule) of the
Flower-de-Luce (iris),
opening in a loculi-
cidal manner. The
three valves bear the
septa in the centre and
the opening takes
place through the
back of the chambers.
Each valve is formed
by the halves of con-
tiguous carpels.
FIG. 3. — I. Crocus in flower, reduced.
2. Flower dissected, b, b', Upper and
lower membranous spathe-like bracts;
c, Tube of perianth ; d, Ovary ; e, Style ;
/, Stigmas.
from arctic America to Patagonia and the Falkland Isles. One
794
IRIDIUM— IRIS
species, 5. angustifolium, an arctic and temperate North American
species, is also native in Galway and Kerry in Ireland. Other
British representatives of the order are: Iris Pseudacorus,
(yellow iris), common by river-banks and ditches, /. foetidissima
(stinking iris), Gladiolus communis, a rare plant found in the
New Forest and the Isle of Wight, and Romulea Columnae, a
small plant with narrow recurved leaves a few inches long and
a short scape bearing one or more small regular funnel-shaped
flowers, which occurs at Dawlish in Devonshire.
IRIDIUM (symbol Ir.; atomic weight 193-1), one of the metals
of the platinum group, discovered in 1802 by Smithson Tennant
during the examination of the residue left when platinum ores
are dissolved in aqua regia ; the element occurs in platinum
ores in the form of alloys of platinum and iridium, and of osmium
and iridium. Many methods have been devised for the separa-
tion of these metals (see PLATINUM), one of the best being that
of H. St. C. Deville and H. J. Debray (Comptes rendus, 1874,
78, p. 1502). In this process the osmiridium is fused with zinc
and the excess of zinc evaporated; the residue is then ignited
with barium nitrate, extracted with water and boiled with nitric
acid. The iridium is then precipitated from the solution (as
oxide) by the addition of baryta, dissolved in aqua regia, and
precipitated as iridium ammonium chloride by the addition of
ammonium chloride. The double chloride is fused with nitre,
the melt extracted with water and the residue fused with lead,
the excess of lead being finally removed by solution in nitric
acid and aqua regia. It is a brittle metal of specific gravity
22-4 (Deville and Debray), and is only fusible with great difficulty.
It may be obtained in the spongy form by igniting iridium
ammonium chloride, and this variety of the metal readily
oxidizes when heated in air.
Two oxides of iridium are known, namely the sesquioxide, Ir2O3,
and the dioxide, IrOz, corresponding to which there are two series of
salts, the sesqui-salts and the iridic salts; a third series of salts is also
known (the iridious salts) derived from an oxide IrO. Iridium
sesquioxide, IrzOs, is obtained when potassium iridium chloride is
heated with sodium or potassium carbonates, in a stream of carbon
dioxide. It is a bluish-black powder which at high temperatures
decomposes into the metal, dioxide and oxygen. The hydroxide,
Ir(OH)j, may be obtained by the addition of caustic potash to
iridium sodium chloride, the mixture being then heated with alcohol.
Iridium dioxide, IrOa, may be obtained as small needles by heating the
metal to bright redness in a current of oxygen (G. Geisenheimer,
Comptes rendus, 1890, no, p. 855). The corresponding hydroxide,
Ir(OH)<, is formed when potassium iridate is boiled with ammonium
chloride, or when the tetrachloride is boiled with caustic potash or
sodium carbonate. It is an indigo-blue powder, soluble in hydro-
chloric acid, but insoluble in dilute nitric and sulphuric acids.
On the oxides see L. Wohler and W. Witzmann, Zeit. anorg. Chem.
(1908), 57, p. 323. Iridium sesquichloride, IrClj, is obtained when
one of the corresponding double chlorides is heated with concentrated
sulphuric acid, the mixture being then thrown into water. It is thus
obtainqd as an olive green precipitate which is insoluble in acids and
alkalis. Potassium iridium sesquichloride, KjIrCU-SHzO, is obtained
by passing sulphur dioxide into a suspension of potassium chloriridate
in water until all dissolves, and then adding potassium carbonate to
the solution (C. Claus, Jour. prak. Chem., 1847, 42, p. 351). It forms
green prisms which are readily soluble in water. Similar sodium and
ammonium compounds are known. Iridium tetrachloride, IrCh, is
obtained by dissolving the finely divided metal in aqua regia; by
dissolving the hydroxide in hydrochloric acid; and by digesting the
hydrated sesquichloride with nitric acid. On evaporating the
solution (not above 40° C.) a dark mass is obtained, which contains
a little sesquichloride. It forms double chlorides with the alkaline
chlorides. For a bromide see A. Gautbier and M. Riess, Ber., 1909,
42, p. 3905. Iridium sulphide, IrS, is obtained when the metal is
ignited in sulphur vapour. The sesquisulphide, IraSj, is obtained as a
brown precipitate when sulphuretted hydrogen is passed into a solu-
tion of one of the sesqui-salts. It is slightly soluble in potassium
sulphide. The disulphide, IrSj, is formed when powdered iridium is
heated with sulphur and an alkaline carbonate. It is a dark brown
powder. Iridium forms many ammine derivatives, which are ana-
logous to the corresponding platinum compounds (see M. Skoblikoff,
Jahresb., 1852, p. 428; W. Palmer, Ber., 1889, 22, p. 15; 1890, 23,
p. 3810; 1891, 24, p. 2090; Zeit. anorg. Chem., 1896, 13, p. 211).
Iridium is always determined quantitatively by conversion into
the metallic state. The atomic weight of the element has been
determined in various ways, C. Seubert (Ber., 1878, 1 1, p. 1770), by the
analysis of potassium chloriridate obtaining the value 192-74, and A.
Joly (Comptes rendus, 1890, no, p. 1131) from analyses of potassium
and ammonium chloriridites, the value 191-78 (O = 15-88).
IRIGA, a town of the province of Ambos Camarines, Luzon,
Philippine Islands, on the Bicol river, about 20 m. S.E. of Nueva
Caceres and near the S.W. base of Mt. Iriga, a volcanic peak
reaching a height of 4092 ft. above the sea. Pop. (1903) 19,297.
Iriga has a temperate climate. The soil in its vicinity is rich,
producing rice, Indian corn, sugar, pepper, cacao, cotton, abaca,
tobacco and copra. The neighbouring forests furnish ebony,
molave, tindalo and other very valuable hardwoods. The
language is Bicol.
IRIS, in Greek mythology, daughter of Thaumas and the
Ocean nymph Electra (according to Hesiod), the personifica-
tion of the rainbow and messenger of the gods. As the rainbow
unites earth and heaven, Iris is the messenger of the gods to men;
in this capacity she is mentioned frequently in the Iliad, but never
in the Odyssey, where Hermes takes her place. She is represented
as a youthful virgin, with wings of gold, who hurries with the
swiftness of the wind from one end of the world to the other,
into the depths of the sea and the underworld. She is especially
the messenger of Zeus and Hera, and is associated with Hermes,
whose caduceus or staff she often holds. By command of Zeus
she carries in a ewer water from the Styx, with which she puts
to sleep all who perjure themselves. Her attributes are the
caduceus and a vase.
IRIS, in botany. The iris flower belongs to the natural order
Iridaceae of the class Monocotyledons, which is characterized
by a petaloid six-parted perianth, an inferior ovary and only
three stamens (the outer series), being thus distinguished from
the Amaryllidaceae family, which has six stamens. They are
handsome showy-flowered plants, the Greek name having been
applied on account of the hues of the flowers. The genus con-
tains about 170 species widely distributed throughout the north
temperate zone. Two of the species are British. /. Pseudacorus,
the yellow flag or iris, is common in Britain on river-banks,
and in marshes and ditches. It is called the " water-flag "
or " bastard floure de-luce " by Gerard, who remarks that
" although it be a water-plant of nature, yet being planted in
gardens it prospereth well." Its flowers appear in June and July,
and are of a golden-yellow colour. The leaves are from 2 to 4 ft.
long, and half an inch to an inch broad. Towards the latter part
of the year they are eaten by cattle. The seeds are numerous
and pale-brown; they have been recommended when roasted as
a substitute for coffee, of which, however, they have not the
properties. The astringent rhizome has diuretic, purgative
and emetic properties, and may, it is said, be used for dyeing
black, and in the place of galls for ink-making. The other
British species, I. foetidissima, the fetid iris, gladdon or roast-
beef plant, the Xyris or stinking gladdon of Gerard, is a native
of England south of Durham, and also of Ireland, southern
Europe and North Africa. Its flowers are usually of a dull,
leaden-blue colour; the capsules, which remain attached to
the plant throughout the winter, are 2 to 3 in. long; and the
seeds scarlet. When bruised this species emits a peculiar and
disagreeable odour.
Iris florentina, with white or pale-blue flowers, is a native of
the south of Europe, and is the source of the violet-scented
orris root used in perfumery. Iris versicolor, or blue flag, is
indigenous to North America, and yields " iridin," a powerful
hepatic stimulant. Iris germanica of central Europe, " the
most common purple Fleur de Luce" of Ray, is the large common
blue iris of gardens, the bearded iris or fleur de luce and probably
the Illyrian iris of the ancients. From the flowers of Iris floren-
tina a pigment — the " verdelis," " vert d'iris," or iris-green,
formerly used by miniature painters — was prepared by maceration,
the fluid being left to putrefy, when chalk or alum was added.
The garden plants known as the Spanish iris and the English
iris are both of Spanish origin, and have very showy flowers.
Along with some other species, as 7. reliculala and 7. persica,
both of which are fragrant, they form great favourites with
florists. All these just mentioned differ from those formerly
named in the nature of the underground stem, which forms
a bulb and not a strict creeping rhizome as in I. Pseudacorus,
germanica, florenlina, &c. Some botanists separate these bulbous
IRISH MOSS— IRKUTSK
795
st
irises from the genus Iris, and place them apart in the genus
Xiphium, the Spanish iris, including about 30 species, all from
the Mediterranean region and the East.
The iris flower is of special interest as an example of the relation
between the shape of the flower and the position of the pollen-
receiving and stig-
matic surfaces on the
one hand and the
visits of insects on
the other. The large
outer petals form a
landing-stage for a
flying insect which in FIG. 2. — Diagram
probing the perianth- of Trimerous Sym-
tube for honey will Sfs^kh twoThorls
first come in contact Of perianth, three
with the stigmatic stamens in one whorl
surface which is borne and an ovary formed
on the outer face of ^r^dotsmdilte
a shelf-like transverse the position of an
projection on the inner whorl of
FIG. i. — Gynoecium under side of the stamens which is
of Iris.consisting of an petaloid style-arm. Pres?Tnt in j;he **%?
inferior ovary o, and a J£- f, * ,. h families Amarylh-
style, with three peta- ine antner> «™™ daceae and Lihaceae
loid segments i.bearing opens towards the but absent in Ind-
stigmas st. outside, is sheltered aceae.
beneath the over-arching style arm below
the stigma, so that the insect comes in contact with its
pollen-covered surface only after passing the stigma, while in
backing out of the flcwer it will come in contact only with
the non-receptive lower face of the stigma. Thus an insect
bearing pollen from one flower will in entering a second deposit
the pollen on the stigma, while in backing out of a flower
the pollen which it bears will not be rubbed off on the stigma
of the same flower.
The hardier bulbous irises, including the Spanish iris (I. Xiphium)
and the English iris (/. xiphioides, so called, which is also of Spanish
origin), require to be planted in thoroughly drained beds in very light
open soil, moderately enriched, and should have a rather sheltered
position. Both these present a long series of beautiful varieties of
the most diverse colours, flowering in May, June and July, the
smaller Spanish iris being the earlier of the two. There are many
other smaller species of bulbous iris. Being liable to perish from
excess of moisture, they should have a well-drained bed of good but
porous soil made up for them, in some sunny spot, and in winter
should be protected by a 6-in. covering of half-decayed leaves or
fresh coco-fibre refuse. To this set belong /. persica, reticulata,
filifolia, Histrio, juncea, Danfordiae Rosenbachiar.a and others which
flower as early as February and March.
The flag irises are for the most part of the easiest culture; they
grow in any good free garden soil, the smaller and more delicate
species only needing the aid of turfy ingredients, either peaty or
loamy, to keep it light and open in texture. The earliest to bloom
are the dwarf forms of Iris pumila, which blossom during March,
April and May ; and during the latter month and the following one
most of the larger growing species, such as /. germanica, florentina,
pallida, variegata, amoena, flavescens, sambucina, neglecta, ruthenica,
&c., produce their gorgeous flowers. Of many of the foregoing there
are, besides the typical form, a considerable number of named garden
varieties. Iris unguicularis (or stylosa) is a remarkable winter
flowering species from Algeria, with sky-blue flowers blotched with
yellow, produced at irregular intervals from November to March,
the bleakest period of the year.
The beautiful Japanese Iris Kaempferi (or /. laevigata) is of com-
paratively modern introduction, and though of a distinct type is
equally beautiful with the better-known species. The outer segments
are rather spreading than deflexed, forming an almost circular flower,
which becomes quite so in some of the very remarkable duplex
varieties, in which six of these broad segments are produced instead
of three. Of this too there are numberless varieties cultivated under
names. They require a sandy peat soil on a cool moist subsoil.
What are known as Oncocyclus, or cushion irises, constitute a
magnificent group of plants remarkable for their large, showy and
beautifully marked flowers. Compared with other irises the
" cushion " varieties are scantily furnished with narrow sickle-
shaped leaves and the blossoms are usually borne singly on the
stalks. The best-known kinds are atrofusca, Barnumae, Bismarckiana,
Gatesi, Heylandiana, iberica, Lorteti, Haynei, lupina, Mariae, meda,
paradoxa, sari, sofarana and susiana — the last-named being
popularly called the " mourning " iris owing to the dark silvery
appearance of its huge flowers. All these cushion irises are somewhat
fastidious growers, and to be successful with them they must be
planted rather shallow in very gritty well-drained soil. They should
not be disturbed in the autumn, and after the leaves have withered
the roots should be protected from heavy rains until growth starts
again naturally.
A closely allied group to the cushion irises are those known as
Regelia, of which Korolkowi, Leichtlini and vaga are the best known.
Some magnificent hybrids have been raised between these two groups,
and a hardier and more easily grown race of garden irises has been
produced under the name of Regelio-Cyclus. They are best planted
in September or October in warm sunny positions, the rhizomes being
lifted the following July after the leaves have withered.
IRISH MOSS, or CARRAGEEN (Irish carraigeen, " moss of the
rock "), a sea-weed (Chondrus crispus) which grows abundantly
along the rocky parts of the Atlantic coast of Europe and North
America. In its fresh condition the plant is soft and cartilaginous,
varying in colour from a greenish-yellow to a dark purple or
purplish-brown; but when washed and sun-dried for preserva-
tion it has a yellowish translucent horn-like aspect and consist-
ency. The principal constituent of Irish moss is a mucilaginous
body, of which it contains about 55%; and with that it has
nearly 10% of albuminoids and about 15% of mineral matter
rich in iodine and sulphur. When softened in water it has a
sea-like odour, and from the abundance of its mucilage it will
form a jelly on boiling with from 20 to 30 times its weight of
water. The jelly of Irish moss is used as an occasional article
of food. It may also be used as a thickener in calico-printing
and for fining beer. Irish moss is frequently mixed with Gigartina
mammillosa, G. acicularis and other sea-weeds with which it is
associated in growth.
IRKUTSK, a government of Asiatic Russia, in East Siberia,
bounded on the W. by the government of Yeniseisk, on the
N. by Yakutsk, on the E. by Lake Baikal and Transbaikalia
and on the S. and S.W. by Mongolia; area, 287,061 sq. m.
The most populous region is a belt of plains 1200 to 2000 ft. in
altitude, which stretch north-west to south-east, having the
Sayan mountains on the south and the Baikal mountains on the
north, and narrowing as it approaches the town of Irkutsk. The
high road, now the Trans-Siberian railway, follows this belt.
The south-western part of the government is occupied by
mountains of the Sayan system, whose exact orography is as
yet not well known. From the high plateau of Mongolia, fringed
by the Sayan mountains, of which the culminating point is the
snow-clad Munko-sardyk (11,150 ft.), a number of ranges,
7500 to 8500 ft. high, strike off in a north-east direction. Going
from south to north they are distinguished as the Tunka Alps,
the Kitoi Alps (both snow-clad nearly all the year round), the
Ida mountains and the Kuitun mountains. These are, however,
by no means regular chains, but on the contrary are a complex
result of upheavals which took place at different geological
epochs, and of denudation on a colossal scale. A beautiful,
fertile valley, drained by the river Irkut, stretches between the
Tunka Alps and the Sayan, and another somewhat higher plain,
but not so wide, stretches along the river Kitoi. A succession
of high plains, 2000 to 2500 ft. in altitude, formed of horizontal
beds of Devonian (or Upper Silurian) sandstone and limestone,
extends to the north of the railway along the Angara, or Verkh-
nyaya (i.e. upper) Tunguzka, and the upper Lena, as far as
Kirensk. The Bratskaya Steppe, west of the Angara, is a
prairie peopled by Burials. A mountain region, usually de-
scribed as the Baikal range, but consisting in reality of several
ranges running north-eastwards, across Lake Baikal, and
scooped out to form the depression occupied by the lake, is
fringed on its north-western slope by horizontal beds of sandstone
and limestone. Farther north-east the space between the Lena
and the Vitim is occupied by another mountain region belonging
to the Olekma and Vitim system, composed of several parallel
mountain chains running north-eastwards (across the lower
Vitim), and auriferous in the drainage area of the Mama (N.E.
of Lake Baikal). Lake Baikal separates Irkutsk from Trans-
baikalia. The principal rivers of the government are the Angara,
which flows from this lake northwards, with numerous sharp
windings, and receives from the left several large tributaries.
796
IRKUTSK— IRON
as the Irkut, Kitoi, Byelaya, Oka and lya. The Lena is the
principal means of communication both with the gold-mines
on its own tributary, the lower Vitim, and with the province ol
Yakutsk. The Nizhnyaya Tunguzka flows northwards, to
join the Yenisei in the far north, and the mountain streams
tributary to the Vitim drain the north-east.
The post-Tertiary formations are represented by glacial deposits in
the highlands and loess on their borders. Jurassic deposits are
met with in a zone running north-westwards from Lake Baikal to
Nizhne-udinsk. The remainder of this region is covered by vast
series of Carboniferous, Devonian and Silurian deposits — the first
two but slightly disturbed over wide areas. All the highlands are
built up of older, semi-crystalline Cambrp-Silurian strata, which
attain a thickness of 2500 ft., and of crystalline slates and limestones
of the Laurentian system, with granites, syenites, diorites and
diabases protruding from beneath them. Very extensive beds of
basaltic lavas and other volcanic deposits are spread along the
border ridge of the high plateau, about Munko-sardyk, up the Irkut,
and on the upper Oka, where cones of extinct volcanoes are found
(Jun-bulak). Earthquakes are frequent in the neighbourhood of
Lake Baikal and the surrounding region. Gold is extracted in the
Nizhne-udinsk district ; graphite is found on the Botu-gol and Alibert
mountains (abandoned many years since) and on the Olkhon island
of Lake Baikal. Brown coal (Jurassic) is found in many places, and
coal on the Oka. The salt springs of Usoliye (45 m. west of Irkutsk),
as also those on the Him and of Ust-Kutsk (on the Lena), yield
annually about 7000 tons of salt. Fireclay, grindstones, marble and
mica, lapis-lazuli, granites and various semi-precious stones occur on
the Sludyanka (south-west corner of the Baikal).
The climate is severe; the mean temperatures being at Irkutsk
(1520 ft), for the year 31° Fahr., for January -6°, for July 65°; at
Shimki (valley of the Irkut, 2620 ft.), for the year 24°, for January
-17°, for July 63°. The average rainfall is 15 in. a year. Virgin
forests cover all the highlands up to 6500 ft.
The population which was 383,578 in 1879, was 5iS>i32 in
1897, of whom 238,997 were women and 60,396 were urban;
except about 109,000 Burials and 1700 Tunguses, they are
Russians. The estimated population in 1906 was ' 552,700.
Immigration contributes about 14,000 every year. Schools
are numerous at Irkutsk, but quite insufficient in the country
districts, and only 12% of the children receive education.
The soil is very fertile in certain parts, but meagre elsewhere,
and less than a million acres are under crops (rye, wheat, barley,
oats, buckwheat, potatoes). Grain has to be imported from
West Siberia and cattle from Transbaikalia. Fisheries on
Lake Baikal supply every year about 2,400,000 Baikal herring
(omul). Industry is only beginning to be developed (iron- works,
glass- and pottery-works and distilleries, and all manufactured
goods are imported from Russia. The government is divided
into five districts, the chief towns of which are Irkutsk (q.v.),
Balagansk (pop., 1313 in 1897), Kirensk (2253), Nizhneudinsk
and Verkholensk. (P. A. K.; J. T. BE.)
IRKUTSK, the chief town of the above government, is the
most important place in Siberia, being not only the largest
centre of population and the principal commercial depot north
of Tashkent, but a fortified military post, an archbishopric
of the Orthodox Greek Church and the seat of several learned
societies. It is situated in 52° 17' N. and 104° 16' E., 3792 m.
by rail from St Petersburg. Pop. (1875) 32,512, (1000) 49,106.
The town proper lies on the right bank of the Angara, a tributary
of the Yenisei, 45 m. below its outflow from Lake Baikal, and on
the opposite bank is the Glaskovsk suburb. The river, which
has a breadth of 1900 ft., is crossed by a flying bridge. The
Irkut, from which the town takes its name, is a small river which
joins the Angara directly opposite the town, the main portion
of which is separated from the monastery, the castle, the port
and the suburbs by another confluent, the Ida or Ushakovka.
Irkutsk has long been reputed a remarkably fine city — its streets
being straight, broad, well paved and well lighted; but in 1879,
on the 4th and 6th of July, the palace of the (then) governor-
general, the principal administrative and municipal offices and
many of the other public buildings were destroyed by fire;
and the government archives, the library and museum of the
Siberian section of the Russian Geographical Society were
utterly ruined. A cathedral (built of wood in 1693 and rebuilt
of stone in 1718), the governor's palace, a school of medicine, a
museum, a military hospital, and the crown factories are among
the public institutions and buildings. An important fair is
held in December. Irkutsk grew out of the winter-quarters
established (1652) by Ivan Pokhabov for the collection of the fur
tax from the Burials. Its existence as a town dates from 1686.
IRMIN, or IRMINUS, in Teutonic mythology, a deified eponymic
hero of the Herminones. The chief seat of his worship was
Irminsal, or Ermensul, in Westphalia, destroyed in 772 by
Charlemagne. Huge wooden posts (Irmin pillars) were raised to
his honour, and were regarded as sacred by Ihe Saxons.
IRNERIUS (Hirnerius, Hyrnerius, lernerius, Gernerius,
Guarnerius, Warnerius, Wernerius, Yrnerius), Italian jurist,
somelimes referred to as " lucerna juris." He taught the " free
arts " at Bologna, his native city, during the earlier decades
of the 1 2th century. Of his personal history nothing is known,
except that it was at the inslance of the countess Matilda,
Hildebrand's friend, who died in 1115, thai he directed his
attention and that of his studenls lo Ihe Institutes and Code
of Juslinian; that after 1116 he appears to have held some
office under the emperor Henry V.; and thai he died, perhaps
during the reign of the emperor Lolhair II., but certainly before
1140. He was the first of Ihe Glossators (see GLOSS), and
according to ancient opinion (which, however, has been much
controverted) was the author of the epitome of the Novellae
of Justinian, called the Authentica, arranged according to the
titles of the Code. His Formularium tabellionum (a directory
for notaries) and Quaestiones (a book of decisions) are no longer
extanl. (See ROMAN LAW.)
See Savigny, Gesch. d. ront. Rechts im Mittelalter, Hi. 83 ; Vecchio,
Notizie di Irnerio e delta sua scuola (Pisa, 1869) ; Ficker, Forsch. z.
Reichs- u. Rechtsgesch. Italiens, vol. iii. (Innsbruck, 1870); and
Fitting, Die Anfdnge der Rechtsschtde zu Bologna (Berlin, 1888).
IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55-85 (0=i6)], a metallic
chemical element. Allhough iron occurs only sparingly in Ihe
free slale, the abundance of ores from which it may be readily
obtained led to its application in the arts at a very remote period.
It is generally agreed, however, thai Ihe Iron Age, the period
of civilization during which this metal played an all-important
part, succeeded the ages of copper and bronze, notwilhslanding
Ihe facl that the extraclion of Ihese melals required grealer
melallurgical skill. The Assyrians and Egyplians made con-
siderable use of Ihe [melal; and in Genesis iv. 22 mention
is made of Tubal-cain as the inslructor of workers in iron and
copper. The earlier sources of the ores appear to have been
in India; the Greeks, however, obtained it from the Chalybes,
who dwelt on the south coast of the Black Sea; and the Romans,
besides drawing from Ihese deposils, also exploited Spain,
Elba and the province of Noricum. (See METAL-WORK.)
The chief occurrences of metallic iron are as minute spiculae
disseminated through basaltic rocks, as at Giant's Causeway
and in the Auvergne, and, more particularly, in meteoriles (q.v.).
[n combinalion it occurs, usually in small quantily, in most
nalural walers, in planls, and as a necessary constituent of blood.
The economic sources are treated under IRON AND STEEL below;
n Ihe same place will be found accounls of Ihe manufaclure,
properties, and uses of the metal, Ihe present article being
confined lo ils chemislry. The principal iron ores are Ihe
oxides and carbonales, and these readily yield the metal by
melting with carbon. The metal so obtained invariably contains
a certain amount of carbon, free or combined, and Ihe proporlion
and condilion regulale Ihe properties of Ihe melal, giving
origin lo Ihe Ihree imporlanl varielies: casl iron, sleel, wroughl
ron. The perfeclly pure melal may be prepared by healing
Ihe oxide or oxalale in a currenl of hydrogen; when obtained
at a low temperature it is a black powder which oxidizes in air
with incandescence; produced al higher lemperalures Ihe
metal is not pyrophoric. P61igot oblained il as minule letragonal
octahedra and cubes by reducing ferrous chloride in hydrogen.
!t may be obtained electrolytically from solutions of ferrous
and magnesium sulphales and sodium bicarbonate, a wrought
ron anode and a rolaling cathode of copper, thinly silvered and
odized, being employed (S. Maximowitsch, Zeit. Elektrochem.,
1905, n, p. 52).
IRON
797
In bulk, the metal has a silvery white lustre and takes a
high polish. Its specific gravity is 7-84; and the average
specific heat over the range is°-ioo° is 0-10983; this value
increases with temperature to 850°, and then begins to diminish.
It is the most tenacious of all the ductile metals at ordinary
temperatures with the exception of cobalt and nickel; it becomes
brittle, however, at the temperature of liquid air. It softens
at a red heat, and may be readily welded at a white heat;
above this point it becomes brittle. It fuses at about 1550°-
1600°, and may be distilled in the electric furnace (H. Moissan,
Compt. rend., 1906, 142, p. 425). It is attracted by a magnet
and may be magnetized, but the magnetization is quickly
lost. The variation of physical properties which attends iron
on heating has led to the view that the metal exists in allotropic
forms (see IRON AND STEEL, below).
Iron is very reactive chemically. Exposed to atmospheric
influences it is more or less rapidly corroded, giving the familiar
rust (q.v.). S. Burnie (Abst. J.C.S., 1907, ii. p. 469) has shown
that water is decomposed at all temperatures from o° to 100°
by the finely divided metal with liberation of hydrogen, the
action being accelerated when oxides are present. The de-
composition of steam by passing it through a red-hot gun-
barrel, resulting in the liberation of hydrogen and the production
of magnetic iron oxide, Fe3O4, is a familiar laboratory method
for preparing hydrogen (q.v.). When strongly heated iron
inflames in oxygen and in sulphur vapour; it also combines
directly with the halogens. It dissolves in most dilute acids
with liberation of hydrogen; the reaction between sulphuric
acid and iron turnings being used for the commercial manu-
facture of this gas. It dissolves in dilute cold nitric acid with
the formation of ferrous and ammonium nitrates, no gases
being liberated; when heated or with stronger acid ferric
nitrate is formed with evolution of nitrogen oxides.
It was observed by James Keir (Phil. Trans., 1790, p. 359)
that iron, after having been immersed in strong nitric acid,
is insoluble in acids, neither does it precipitate metals from
solutions. This " passivity " may be brought about by immer-
sion in other solutions, especially by those containing such
oxidizing anions as NO'3, C1O'3) less strongly by the anions
S0"4, CN', CNS', C2H3O'2) OH', while Cl', Br' practically inhibit
passivity; H' is the only cation which has any effect, and this
tends to exclude passivity. It is also occasioned by anodic
polarization of iron in sulphuric acid. Other metals may
be rendered passive; for example, zinc does not precipitate
copper from solutions of the double cyanides and sulphocyanides,
nickel and cadmium from the nitrates, and iron from the sulphate,
but it immediately throws down nickel and cadmium from
the sulphates and chlorides, and lead and copper from the
nitrates (see O. Sackur, Zeit. Elektrochem., 1904, 10, p. 841).
Anodic polarization in potassium chloride solution renders
molybdenum, niobium, ruthenium, tungsten, and vanadium
passive (W. Muthmann and F. Frauenberger, Sitz. Bayer.
Akad. Wiss., 1904, 34, p. 201), and also gold in commercial
potassium cyanide solution (A. Coehn and C. L. Jacobsen,
Abs. J.C.S., 1907, ii. p. 926). Several hypotheses have been
promoted to explain this behaviour, and, although the question
is not definitely settled, the more probable view is that it is
caused by the formation of a film of an oxide, a suggestion made
many years ago by Faraday (see P. Krassa, Zeit. Elektrochem.,
1909, 15, P- 490)- Fredenhagen (Zeit. physik. Ghent., 1903,
43, p. i), on the other hand, regarded it as due to surface films
of a gas; submitting that the difference between iron made
passive by nitric acid and by anodic polarization was explained
by the film being of nitrogen oxides in the first case and of
oxygen in the second case. H. L. Heathcote and others regard
the passivity as invariably due to electrolytic action (see papers
in the Zeit. physik. Chem., 1901 et seq.).
Compounds of Iron.
Oxides and Hydroxides. — Iron forms three oxides: ferrous
oxide, FeO, ferric oxide, Fe203, and ferroso-ferric oxide, Fe304.
The first two give origin to well-defined series of salts, the ferrous
salts, wherein the metal is divalent, and the ferric salts, wherein
the metal is trivalent; the former readily pass into the latter on
oxidation, and the latter into the former on reduction.
Ferrous oxide is obtained when ferric oxide is reduced in
hydrogen at 300° as a black pyrophoric powder. Sabatier and
Senderens (Compt. rend., 1892, 114, p. 1429) obtained it by
acting with nitrous oxide on metallic iron at 200°, and Tissandier
by heating the metal to 900° in carbon dioxide; Donau (Monals.,
1904, 25, p. 181), on the other hand, obtained a magnetic and
crystalline-ferroso-ferric oxide at 1200°. It may also be prepared
as a black velvety powder which readily takes up oxygen from
the air by adding ferrous oxalate to boiling caustic potash.
Ferrous hydrate, Fe(OH)2, when prepared from a pure ferrous
salt and caustic soda or potash free from air, is a white powder
which may be preserved in an atmosphere of hydrogen. Usually,
however, it forms a greenish mass, owing to partial oxidation.
It oxidizes on exposure with considerable evolution of heat;
it rapidly absorbs carbon dioxide; and readily dissolves in acids
to form ferrous salts, which are usually white when anhydrous,
but greenish when hydrated.
Ferric oxide or iron sesquioxide, Fe2O3, constitutes the valuable
ores red haematite and specular iron; the minerals brown
haematite or limonite, and gothite and also iron rust are hydrated
forms. It is obtained as a steel-grey crystalline powder by
igniting the oxide or any ferric salt containing a volatile acid.
Small crystals are formed by passing ferric chloride vapour over
heated lime. When finely ground these crystals yield a brownish
red powder which dissolves slowly in acids, the most effective
solvent being a boiling mixture of 8 parts of sulphuric acid and
3 of water. Ferric oxide is employed as a pigment, as jeweller's
rouge, and for polishing metals. It forms several hydrates, the
medicinal value of which was recognized in very remote times.
Two series of synthetic hydrates were recognized by Muck and
Tommasi: the " red " hydrates, obtained by precipitating ferric
salts with alkalis, and the " yellow " hydrates, obtained by
oxidizing moist ferrous hydroxide or carbonates. J. van Bem-
melen has shown that the red hydrates are really colloids, the
amount of water retained being such that its vapour pressure
equals the pressure of the aqueous vapour in the superincumbent
atmosphere. By heating freshly prepared red ferric hydrate
with water under 5000 atmospheres pressure Ruff (Ber., 1901,
34, p. 3417) obtained definite hydrates corresponding to the
minerals limonite (3O°-42-s°), gothite (42 -s0-^- 5°), and
hydrohaematite (above 62-5°). Thomas Graham obtained a
soluble hydrate by dissolving the freshly prepared hydrate in
ferric chloride and dialysing the solution, the soluble hydrate
being left in the dialyser. All the chlorine, however, does not
appear to be removed by this process, the residue having the
composition 82Fe(OH)3-FeCl3; but it may be by electrolysing
in a porous cell (Tribot and Chretien, Compt. rend., 1905, 140,
p. 144). On standing, the solution usually gelatinizes, a process
accelerated by the addition of an electrolyte. It is employed in
medicine under the name Liquor ferri dialysati. The so-called
soluble meta-ferric hydroxide, FeO(OH) (?), discovered by Pean
de St Gilles in 1856, may be obtained by several methods. By
heating solutions of certain iron salts for some time and then
adding a little sulphuric acid it is precipitated as a brown powder.
Black scales, which dissolve in water to form a red solution, are
obtained by adding a trace of hydrochloric acid to a solution of
basic ferric nitrate which has been heated to 100° for three days.
A similar compound, which, however, dissolves in water to form
an orange solution, results by adding salt to a heated solution of
ferric chloride. These compounds are insoluble in concentrated,
but dissolve readily in dilute acids.
Red ferric hydroxide dissolves in acids to form a well-defined
series of salts, the ferric salts, also obtained by oxidizing ferrous
salts; they are usually colourless when anhydrous, but yellow
or brown when hydrated. It has also feebly acidic properties,
forming ferrites with strong bases.
Magnetite, Fe3O4, may be regarded as ferrous ferrite,
FeO-Fe2O3. This important ore of iron is most celebrated for
its magnetic properties (see MAGNETISM and COMPASS), but the
IRON
mineral is not always magnetic, although invariably attracted
by a magnet. It may be obtained artificially by passing steam
over red-hot iron. It dissolves in acids to form a mixture of a
ferrous and ferric salt,1 and if an alkali is added to the solution
a black precipitate is obtained which dries to a dark brown mass
of the composition Fe(OH)2-Fe2O3; this substance is attracted
by a magnet, and thus may be separated from the admixed ferric
oxide. Calcium ferrite, magnesium ferrite and zinc ferrite,
RO-FezOs (R=Ca, Mg, Zn), are obtained by intensely heating
mixtures of the oxides; magnesium ferrite occurs in nature as
the mineral magnoferrite, and zinc ferrite as franklinite, both
forming black octahedra.
Ferric acid, HsFeCV By fusing iron with saltpetre and
extracting the melt with water, or by adding a solution of ferric
nitrate in nitric acid to strong potash, an amethyst or purple-red
solution is obtained which contains potassium ferrate. E.
Fremy investigated this discovery, made by Stahl in 1702, and
showed that the same solution resulted when chlorine is passed
into strong potash solution containing ferric hydrate in suspen-
sion. Haber and Pick (Zeit. Elektrochem., 1900, 7, p. 215) have
prepared potassium ferrate by electrolysing concentrated potash
solution, using an iron anode. A temperature of 70°, and a
reversal of the current (of low density) between two cast iron
electrodes every few minutes, are the best working conditions.
When concentrated the solution is nearly black, and on heating
it yields a yellow solution of potassium ferrite, oxygen being
evolved. Barium ferrate, BaFeOi-HjO, obtained as a dark red
powder by adding barium chloride to a solution of potassium
ferrate, is fairly stable. It dissolves in acetic acid to form a red
solution, is not decomposed by cold sulphuric acid, but with
hydrochloric or nitric acid it yields barium and ferric salts, with
evolution of chlorine or oxygen (Baschieri, Gazetta, 1906, 36,
ii. p. 282).
Halogen Compounds. — Ferrous fluoride, FeFi, is obtained as
colourless prisms (with 8H2O) by dissolving iron in hydrofluoric acid,
or as anhydrous colourless rhombic prisms by heating iron or ferric
chloride in dry hydrofluoric acid gas. Ferric fluoride, FeF«, is ob-
tained as colourless crystals (with 4JHaO) by evaporating a solution
of the hydroxide in hydrofluoric acid. When heated in air it yields
ferric oxide. Ferrous chloride, FeClj, is obtained as shining scales
by passing chlorine, or, better, hydrochloric acid gas, over red-hot
iron, or by reducing ferric chloride in a current of hydrogen. It is
very deliquescent, and freely dissolves in water and alcohol. Heated
in air it yields a mixture of ferric oxide and chloride, and in steam
magnetic oxide, hydrochloric acid, and hydrogen. It absorbs
ammonia gas, forming the compound FeCU-CNHj, which on heating
loses ammonia, and, finally, yields ammonium chloride, nitrogen and
iron nitride. It fuses at a red-heat, and volatilizes at a yellow-heat ;
its vapour density at 1300°— 1400° corresponds to the formula
FeClj. By evaporating in vacuo the solution obtained by dis-
solving iron in hydrochloric acid, there results bluish, monoclinic
crystals of FeCU^HjO, which deliquesce, turning greenish, on ex-
posure to air, and effloresce in a desiccator. Other hydrates are
known. By adding ammonium chloride to the solution, evaporating
in vacuo, and then volatilizing the ammonium chloride, anhydrous
ferrous chloride is obtained. The solution, in common with those of
most ferrous salts, absorbs nitric oxide with the formation of a
brownish solution.
Ferric chloride, FeCla, known in its aqueous solution to Glauber as
oleum martis, may be obtained anhydrous by the action of dry
chlorine on the metal at a moderate red-heat, or by passing hydro-
chloric acid gas over heated ferric oxide. It forms iron-black plates
or tablets which appear red by transmitted and a metallic green by
reflected light. It is very deliquescent, and readily dissolves in
water, forming a brown or yellow solution, from which several
hydrates may be separated (see SOLUTION). The solution is best
prepared by dissolving the hydrate in hydrochloric acid and re-
moving the excess of acid by evaporation, or by passing chlorine into
the solution obtained by dissolving the metal in hydrochloric acid
and removing the excess of chlorine by a current of carbon dioxide.
It also dissolves in alcohol and ether; boiling point determinations
of the molecular weight in these solutions point to the formula
FeCU._ Vapour density determinations at 448° indicate a partial
dissociation of the double molecule FejCl8; on stronger heating it
splits into ferrous chloride and chlorine. It forms red crystalline
double salts with the chlorides of the metals of the alkalis and of the
1 By solution in concentrated hydrochloric acid, a yellow liquid is
obtained, which on concentration over sulphuric acid gives yellow
deliquescent crusts of ferroso-ferric chloride, Fe»Cl8-18HjO.
magnesium group. An aqueous solution of ferric chloride is used in
pharmacy under the name Liquor ferri ferchloridi; and an alcoholic
solution constitutes the quack medicine known as " Lamotte's
golden drops." Many oxychlorides are known; soluble forms are
obtained by dissolving precipitated ferric hydrate in ferric chloride,
whilst insoluble compounds result when ferrous chloride is oxidized
in air, or by boiling for some time aqueous solutions of ferric chloride.
Ferrous bromide, FeBra, is obtained as yellowish crystals by the
union of bromine and iron at a dull red-heat, or as bluish-green
rhombic tables of the composition FeBr2-6H2O by crystallizing a
solution of iron in hydrobromic acid. _ Ferric bromide, FeBr8, is
obtained as dark red crystals by heating iron in an excess of bromine
vapour. It closely resembles the chloride in being deliquescent,
dissolving ferric hydrate, and in yielding basic salts. Ferrous iodide,
Fela, is obtained as a grey crystalline mass by the direct union of
its components. Ferric iodide does not appear to exist.
Sulphur Compounds. — Ferrous sulphide, FeS, results from the
direct union of its elements, best by stirring molten sulphur with a
white-hot iron rod, when the sulphide drops to the bottom of the
crucible. It then forms a yellowish crystalline mass, which readily
dissolves in acids with the liberation of sulphuretted hydrogen.
Heated in air it at first partially oxidizes to ferrous sulphate, and at
higher temperatures it yields sulphur dioxide and ferric oxide. It
is unaltered by ignition in hydrogen. An amorphous form results
when a mixture of iron filings and sulphur are triturated with water.
This modification is rapidly oxidized by the air with such an elevation
of temperature that the mass may become incandescent. Another
black amorphous form results when ferrous salts are precipitated by
ammonium sulphide.
Ferric sulphide, FeaSs, is obtained by gently heating a mixture of
its constituent elements, or by the action of sulphuretted hydrogen
on ferric oxide at temperatures below 100°. It is also prepared by
precipitating a ferric salt with ammonium sulphide; unless the
alkali be in excess a mixture of ferrous sulphide and sulphur is ob-
tained. It combines with other sulphides to form compounds of the
type M'jFesS^ Potassium ferric sulphide, KjFejSj, obtained by
heating a mixture of iron filings, sulphur and potassium carbonate,
forms purple glistening crystals, which burn when heated in air.
Magnetic pyrites or pyrrhotite has a composition varying between
FeySs and FesSg, i.e. SFeS-FejSs and CFeS-FeaSa. It has a some-
what brassy colour, and occurs massive or as hexagonal plates; it
is attracted by a magnet and is sometimes itself magnetic. The
mineral is abundant in Canada, where the presence of about 5 % of
nickel makes it a valuable ore of this metal. Iron disulphide, FeS-j,
constitutes the minerals pyrite and marcasite (q.v.); copper pyrites
is (Cu, Fe)S2. Pyrite may be prepared artificially by gently heating
ferrous sulphide with sulphur, or as brassy octahedra and cubes by
slowly heating an intimate mixture of ferric oxide, sulphur and sal-
ammoniac. It is insoluble in dilute acids, but dissolves in nitric
acid with separation of sulphur.
Ferrous sulphite, FeSOj. Iron dissolves in a solution of sulphur
dioxide in the absence of air to form ferrous sulphite and thio-
sulphate; the former, being less soluble than the latter, separates
out as colourless or greenish crystals on standing.
Ferrous sulphate, green vitriol or copperas, FeSOi-THaC), was
known to, and used by, the alchemists; it is mentioned in the
writings of Agricola, and its preparation from iron and sulphuric
acid occurs in the Tractatus chymico-phtiospphicus ascribed to Basil
Valentine. It occurs in nature as tne mineral melanterite, either
crystalline or fibrous, but usually massive; it appears to have been
formed by the oxidation of pyrite or marcasite. It is manufactured
by piling pyrites in heaps and exposing to atmospheric oxidation,
the ferrous sulphate thus formed being dissolved in water, and the
solution run into tanks, where any sulphuric acid which may be
formed is decomposed by adding scrap iron. By evaporation the
green vitriol is obtained as large crystals. The chief impurities are
copper and ferric sulphates; the former may be removed by adding
scrap iron, which precipitates the copper; the latter is eliminated by
recrystallization. Other impurities such as zinc and mangartese
sulphates are more difficult to remove, and hence to prepare thapure
salt it is best to dissolve pure iron wire in dilute sulphuric acid.
Ferrous sulphate forms large green crystals belonging to the mono-
clinic system ; rhombic crystals, isomorphous with zinc sulphate, are
obtained by inoculating a solution with a crystal of zinc sulphate, and
triclinic crystals of the formula FeSO^SHjO by inoculating with
copper sulphate. By evaporating a solution containing free sul-
phuric acid in a vacuum, the hepta-hydrated salt first separates, then
the penta-, and then a tetra-hydrate, FeSOj^HzO, isomorphous
with manganese sulphate. By gently heating in a vacuum to 140°,
the hepta-hydrate loses 6 molecules of water, and yields a white
powder, which on heating in the absence of air gives the anhydrous
salt. The monohydrate also results as a white precipitate when
concentrated sulphuric acid is added to a saturated solution of ferrous
sulphate. Alcohol also throws down the salt from aqueous solution,
the composition of the precipitate varying with the amount of salt
and precipitant employed. The solution absorbs nitric oxide to form
a dark brown solution, which loses the gas on heating or by placing
in. a vacuum. Ferrous sulphate forms double salts with the alkaline
sulphates. The most important is ferrous ammonium sulphate,
FeSO4-(NH4)jSO4-6H20, obtained by dissolving equivalent amounts
IRON
799
of the two salts in water and crystallizing. It is very stable and is
much used in volumetric analysis.
Ferric sulphate, Fe^SO^j, is obtained by adding nitric acid to a
hot solution of ferrous sulphate containing sulphuric acid, colourless
crystals being deposited on evaporating the solution. The an-
hydrous salt is obtained by heating, or by adding concentrated
sulphuric acid to a solution. It is sparingly soluble in water, and on
heating it yields ferric oxide and sulphur dioxide. The mineral
coquimbite is Fej(SO4)r9HjO. Many basic ferric sulphates are
known, some of which occur as minerals; carphosiderite is
Fe(FeO)5(SO4)4-10H2O;amarantiteisFe(FeO) (SO4)2-7H2O; utahite
is 3(FeO)2SO4-4H2O; copiapite is Fe3(FeO) (SO4)6-18H2O; castanite
is Fe(FeO) (SO4)2-8H2O; romerite is FeSO4-Fe2(SO4)3-12H2O. The
iron alums are obtained by crystallizing solutions of equivalent
quantities of ferric and an alkaline sulphate. Ferric potassium
sulphate, the common iron alum, K2SO4'Fej(SO4)3'24H2O, forms
bright violet octahedra.
Nitrides, Nitrates, &c. — Several nitrides are known. Guntz
(Compt, rend., 1902, 135, p. 738) obtained ferrous nitride, Fe3N2,
and ferric nitride, FeN, as black powders by heating lithium nitride
with ferrous potassium chloride and ferric potassium chloride re-
spectively. Fowler (Jour. Chem. Soc., 1901, p. 285) obtained a
nitride Fe2N by acting upon anhydrous ferrous chloride or bromide,
finely divided reduced iron, or iron amalgam with ammonia at 420°;
and, also, in a compact form, by the action of ammonia on red-
hot iron wire. It oxidizes on heating in air, and ignites in chlorine ; on
solution in mineral acids it yields ferrous and ammonium salts,
hydrogen being liberated. A nitride appears to be formed when
nitrogen is passed over heated iron, since the metal is rendered
brittle. Ferrous nitrate, Fe(NO3)2-6H2O, is a very unstable salt, and
is obtained by mixing solutions of ferrous sulphate and barium
nitrate, filtering, and crystallizing in a vacuum over sulphuric acid.
Ferric nitrate, Fe(NO3)«, is obtained by dissolving iron in nitric acid
(the cold dilute acid leads to the formation of ferrous and ammonium
nitrates) and crystallizing, when cubes of Fe(NO3)3-6H2O or mono-
clinic crystals of Fe(NO5)3-9H2O are obtained. It is used as a
mordant.
Ferrous solutions absorb nitric oxide, forming dark green to black
solutions. The coloration is due to the production of unstable
compounds of the ferrous salt and nitric oxide, and it seems that in
neutral solutions the compound is made up of one molecule of salt
to one of gas; the reaction, however, is reversible, the composition
varying with temperature, concentration and nature of the salt.
Ferrous chloride dissolved in strong hydrochloric acid absorbs two
molecules of the gas (Kohlschtitter and Kutscheroff, Ber., 1907, 40,
p. 873). Ferric chloride also absorbs the gas. Reddish brown
amorphous powders of the formulae 2FeCl3-NO and 4FeCl3-NO are
obtained by passing the gas over anhydrous ferric chloride. By
passing the gas into an ethereal solution of the salt, nitrosyl chloride
is produced, and on evaporating over sulphuric acid, black needles
of FeCl2-NO-2H2O are obtained, which at 60° form the yellow
FeCl2-NO. Complicated compounds, discovered by Roussin in
1858, are obtained by the interaction of ferrous sulphate and alkaline
nitrites and sulphides. Two classes may be distinguished: — (l) the
ferrodinitroso salts, e.g. K[Fe(NO)2S], potassium ferrodinitroso-
sulphide, and (2) the ferroheptanitroso salts, e.g. K[Fe4(NO)7S3],
potassium ferroheptanitrososulphide. These salts yield the corre-
sponding acids with sulphuric acid. The dinitrpso acid slowly
decomposes into sulphuretted hydrogen, nitrogen, nitrous oxide, and
the heptanitroso acid. The heptanitroso acid is precipitated as a
brown amorphous mass by dilute sulphuric acid, but if the salt be
heated with strong acid it yields nitrogen, nitric oxide, sulphur, sul-
phuretted hydrogen, and ferric, ammonium and potassium sulphates.
Phosphides, Phosphates. — H. Le Chatelier and S. Wologdine (Compt.
rend., 1909, 149, p. 709) have obtained Fe3P, Fe2P, FeP, Fe2PS)
but failed to prepare five other phosphides previously described.
FejP occurs as crystals in the product of fusing iron with phosphorus ;
it dissolves in strong hydrochloric acid. Fe2P forms crystalline
needles insoluble in acids except aqua regia; it is obtained by fusing
copper phosphide with iron. FeP is obtained by passing phosphorus
vapour over Fe2P at a red-heat. Fe2P3 is prepared by the action of
phosphorus iodide vapour on reduced iron. Ferrous phosphate,
Fe3(PO4)2-8H2O, occurs in nature as the mineral vivianite. It may
be obtained artificially as a white precipitate, which rapidly turns
blue or green on exposure, by mixing solutions of ferrous sulphate
and sodium phosphate. It is employed in medicine. Normal ferric
phosphate, FePO4-2H2O, occurs as the mineral strengite, and is
obtained as a yellowish-white precipitate by mixing solutions of
ferric chloride and sodium phosphate. It is insoluble in dilute acetic
acid, but dissolves in mineral acids. The acid salts Fe(H2PO4)s and
2FeH3(PO4)2-5H2O have been described. Basic salts have been
prepared, and several occur in the mineral kingdom; dufrenite is
Fe2(OH)3P04. .
Arsenides, Arsenites, &c. — Several iron arsenides occur as minerals ;
lolingite, FeAs2, forms silvery rhombic prisms ; mispickel or arsenical
pyrites, FeijAsS^ is an important commercial source of arsenic.
A basic ferric arsenite, 4Fe2O3- As2O3-5H2O, is obtained as a flocculent
brown precipitate by adding an arsenite to ferric acetate, or by
shaking freshly prepared ferric hydrate with a solution of arsenious
oxide. The last reaction is the basis of the application of ferric
hydrate as an antidote in arsenical poisoning. Normal ferric
arsenate, FeAsO4-2H2O, constitutes the mineral scorodite ; pharmaco-
siderite is the basic arsenate 2FeAsO4-Fe(OK)3-5H2O. An acid
arsenate, 2Fe2(HAsO4)3-9H2O, is obtained as a white precipitate by
mixing solutions of ferric chloride and ordinary sodium phosphate.
It readily dissolves in hydrochloric acid.
Carbides, Carbonates. — The carbides of iron play an important part
in determining the properties of the different modifications of the
commercial metal, and are discussed under IRON AND STEEL.
Ferrous carbonate, FeCOs, or spathic iron ore, may be obtained as
microscopic rhombohedra by adding sodium bicarbonate to ferrous
sulphate and heating to 150° for 36 hours. Ferrous sulphate and
sodium carbonate in the cold give a flocculent precipitate, at first
white but rapidly turning green owing to oxidation. A soluble
carbonate and a ferric salt give a precipitate which loses carbon
dioxide on drying. Of great interest are the carbonyl compounds.
Ferropentacarbonyl, Fe(CO)5, obtained by L. Mond, Quincke and
Langer (Jour. Chem. Soc., 1891; see also ibid. 1910, p. 798) by
treating iron from ferrous oxalate with carbon monoxide, and heating
at 150 , is a pale yellow liquid which freezes at about -20°, and
boils at 102-5°. Air and moisture decompose it. The halogens give
ferrous and ferric haloids and carbon monoxide; hydrochloric and
hydrobromic acids have no action, but hydriodic decomposes it.
By exposure to sunlight, either alone or dissolved in ether or ligroin,
it gives lustrous orange plates of diferrononacarbonyl, Fe2(CO)«.
If this substance be heated in ethereal solution to 50°, it deposits
lustrous dark-green tablets of ferrotetracarbonyl, Fe(CO)4, very
stable at ordinary temperatures, but decomposing at I4O°-I5O° into
iron and carbon monoxide (J. Dewar and H. O. Jones, Abst. J.C.S.,
1907, ii. 266). For the cyanides see PRUSSIC ACID.
Ferrous salts give a greenish precipitate with an alkali, whilst
ferric give a characteristic red one. Ferrous salts also give a bluish
white precipitate with ferrocyanide, which on exposure turns to a
dark blue; ferric salts are characterized by the intense purple
coloration with a thiocyanate. (See also CHEMISTRY, § Analytical).
For the quantitative estimation see ASSAYING.
A recent atomic weight determination by Richards and Baxter
(Zeit. anorg. Chem., 1900, 23, p. 245; 1904, 38, p. 232), who found the
amount of silver bromide given by ferrous bromide, gave the value
55-44[O = i6].
Pharmacology.
All the official salts and preparations of iron are made directly or
indirectly from the metal. The pharmacopoeial forms of iron are as
follow : — •
1. Ferrum, annealed iron wire No. 35 or wrought iron nails free
from oxide; from which we have the preparation Vinum ferri, iron
wine, iron digested in sherry wine for thirty days. (Strength, I
in 20.)
2. Ferrum redactum, reduced iron, a powder containing at least
75 % of metallic iron and a variable amount of oxide. A preparation
of it is Trochiscus ferri redacti (strength, i grain of reduced iron in
each).
3. Ferri sulphas, ferrous sulphate, from which is prepared Mistura
ferri composite., " Griffiths' mixture," containing ferrous sulphate
25 gr-i potassium carbonate 30 gr., myrrh 60 gr., sugar 60 gr.,
spirit of nutmeg 50 m'., rose water ip fl. oz.
4. Ferri sulphas exsiccatus, which has two subpreparations :
(a) Pilula ferri, " Blaud's pill" (exsiccated ferrous sulphate 150,
exsiccated sodium carbonate 95, gum acacia 50, tragacanth 15,
glycerin 10, syrup 150, water 20, each to contain about I grain of
ferrous carbonate) ; (b) Pilula aloes et ferri (Barbadoes aloes 2,
exsiccated ferrous sulphate I, compound powder of cinnamon 3,
syrup of glucose 3).
5. Ferri carbonas saccharatus, saccharated iron carbonate. The
carbonate forms about one-third and is mixed with sugar into a
greyish powder.
6. Ferri arsenas, iron arsenate, ferrous and ferric arsenates with
some iron oxides, a greenish powder.
7. Ferri phosphas, a slate-blue powder of ferrous and ferric phos-
phates with some oxide. Its preparations are: (a) Syrupus ferri
phosphalis (strength, I gr. of ferrous phosphate in each fluid drachm) ;
(6) Syrupus ferri phosphatis cum quinina et strychnina, " Easton's
syrup " (iron wire 75 grs., concentrated phosphoric acid IO fl. dr.,
powdered strychnine 5 gr., quinine sulphate 130 gr., syrup 14
fl. oz., water to make 20 fl. oz.), in which each fluid drachm represents
i gr. of ferrous phosphate, $ gr. of quinine sulphate, and & gr. of
strychnine.
8. Syrupus ferri iodidi, iron wire, iodine, water and syrup
(strength, 5-5 gr. of ferrous iodide in one fl. dr.).
9. Liquor ferri perchloridi fortis, strong solution of ferric chloride
(strength, 22-5 % of iron); its preparations only are prescribed, viz.
Liquor ferri perchloridi and Tinctura ferri perchloridi.
10. Liquor ferri persulphatis, solution of ferric sulphate.
11. Liquor ferri pernitratus, solution of ferric nitrate (strength,
3-3% of iron).
12. Liquor ferri acetatis, solution of ferric acetate.
13. The scale preparations of iron, so called because they are
dried to form scales, are three in number, the base of all being ferric
hydrate :
8oo
IRON AGE
(a) Ferrum tartaratum, dark red scales, soluble in water.
(6) Ferri et guininae citratis, greenish yellow scales soluble in
(c) Ferri et ammonii citratis, red scales soluble in water, from
which is prepared Vinum Jerri citratis (ferri et ammonii citratis
I gr., orange wine i fl. dr.).
Substances containing tannic or gallic acid turn black when com-
pounded with a ferric salt, so it cannot be used in combination
with vegetable astringents except with the infusion of quassia or
calumba. Iron may, however, be prescribed in combination with
digitalis by the addition of dilute phosphoric acid. Alkalis and their
carbonates, lime water, carbonate of calcium, magnesia and its
carbonate give green precipitates with ferrous and brown with ferric
salts.
Unofficial preparations of iron are numberless, and some of them
are very useful. Ferri hydroxidum (U.S.P.), the hydrated oxide of
iron, made by precipitating ferric sulphate with ammonia, is used
solely as an antidote iii arsenical poisoning. The Syrupus ferri
phosphatis Co. is well known as " Parrish's " syrup or chemical food,
and the Pilulae ferri phosphatis cum quinina et strychnina, known
as Easton's pills, form a solid equivalent to Easton's syrup.
There are numerous organic preparations of iron. Ferratin is a
reddish brown substance which claims to be identical with the iron
substance found in pig's liver. Carniferrin is another tasteless
powder containing iron in combination with the phosphocarnic acid
of muscle preparations, and contains 35% of iron. Ferratogen is
prepared from ferric nuclein. Triferrin is a paranucleinate of iron,
and contains 22% of iron and 2|% of organically combined phos-
phorus, prepared from the casein of cow's milk. Haemoglobin is
extracted from the blood of an ox and may be administered in bolus
form. Dieterich's solution of peptonated iron contains about 2 gr.
of iron per oz. Vachetta has used the albuminate of iron with
striking success in grave cases of anaemia. Succinate of iron has
been prepared by Hausmann. Haematogen, introduced by Hommel,
claims to contain the albuminous constituents of the blood serum
and all the blood salts as well as pure haemoglobin. Sicco, the name
given to dry haematogen, is a tasteless powder. Haemalbumen,
introduced by Dahmen, is soluble in warm water.
Therapeutics.
Iron is a metal which is used both as a food and as a medicine and
has also a definite local action. Externally, it is not absorbed by the
unbroken skin, but when applied to the broken skin, sores, ulcers
and mucous surfaces, the ferric salts are powerful astringents, because
they coagulate the albuminous fluids in the tissues themselves.
The salts of iron quickly cause coagulation of the blood, and the clot
plugs the bleeding vessels.' They thus act locally as haemostatics or
styptics, and will often arrest severe haemorrhage from parts which
are accessible, such as the nose. They were formerly used in the
treatment of post partum haemorrhage. The perchlpride, sulphate
and pernitrate are strongly astringent; less extensively they are
used in chronic discharges from the vagina, rectum and nose, while
injected into the rectum they destroy worms.
Internally, a large proportion of the various articles of ordinary
diet contains iron. When given medicinally preparations of iron
have an astringent taste, and the teeth and tongue are blackened
owing to the formation of sulphide of iron. It is therefore advisable
to take liquid iron preparations through a glass tube or a quill.
In the stomach all salts of iron, whatever their nature, are con-
verted into ferric chloride. If iron be given in excess, or if the
hydrochloric acid in the gastric juice be deficient, iron acts directly
as an astringent upon the mucous membrane of the stomach wall.
Iron, therefore, may disorder the digestion even in healthy subjects.
Acid preparations are more likely to do this, and the acid set free
after the formation of the chloride may act as an irritant. Iron,
therefore, must not be given to subjects in whom the gastric functions
are disturbed, and it should always be given after meals. Prepara-
tions which are not acid, or are only slightly acid, such as reduced
iron, dialysed iron, the carbonate and scale preparations, do not
disturb the digestion. If the sulphate is prescribed in the form of a
pill, it may be so coated as only to be soluble in the intestinal digestive
fluid. In the intestine the ferric chloride becomes changed into an
oxide of iron ; the sub-chloride is converted into a ferrous carbonate,
which is soluble. Lower down in the bowel these compounds are
converted into ferrous sulphide and tannate, and are eliminated with
the faeces, turning them black. Iron in the intestine causes an
astringent or constipating effect. The astringent salts are therefore
useful occasionally to check diarrhoea and dysentery. Thus most
salts of iron are distinctly constipating, and are best used in com-
bination with a purgative. The pill of iron and aloes (B.P.) is de-
signed for this purpose. Iron is certainly absorbed from the intestinal
canal. As the iron in the food supplies all the iron in the body of a
healthy person, there is no doubt that it is absorbed in the organic
form. Whether inorganic salts are directly absorbed has been a
matter of much discussion; it has, however, been directly proved
by the experiments of Kunkel (Archiv fiir die ff sarnie Pnysiologie
des Menschen und der Tiere, Ixi.) and Gaule. The amount of iron
existing in the human blood is only 38 gr. ; therefore, when an
excess of iron is absorbed, part is excreted immediately by the bowel
and kidneys, and part is stored in the liver and spleen.
Iron being a constituent part of the blood itself, there is a direct
indication for the physician to prescribe it when the amount of
haemoglobin in the blood is lowered or the red corpuscles are
diminished. In certain forms of anaemia the administration of ;ron
rapidly improves the blood in both respects. The exact meth'. . in
which the prescribed iron acts is still a matter of dispute. Ralph
Stockman points out that there are three chief theories as to the
action of iron in anaemia. The first is based on the fact that the iron
in the haemoglobin of the blood must be derived from the food,
therefore iron medicinally administered is absorbed. The second
theory is that there is no absorption of iron given by the mouth, but
it acts as a local stimulant to the mucous membrane, and so improves
anaemia by increasing the digestion of the food. The third theory is
that of Bunge, who says that in chlorotic conditions there is an excess
of sulphuretted hydrogen in the bowel, changing the food iron into
sulphide of iron, which Bunge states cannot be absorbed. He
believes that inorganic iron saves the organic iron of the food by
combining with the sulphur, and improves anaemia by protecting
the organic food iron. Stockman's own experiments are, however,
directly opposed to Bunge's view. Wharfinger states that in chlorosis
the specific action of iron is only obtained by administering those
inorganic preparations which give a reaction with the ordinary re-
agents; the iron ions in a state of dissociation act as a catalytic
agent, destroying the hypothetical toxin which is the cause of
chlorosis. Practical experience teaches every clinician that, what-
ever the mode of action, iron is most valuable in anaemia, though in
many cases, where there is well-marked toxaemia from absorption of
the intestinal products, not only laxatives in combination with iron
but intestinal antiseptics are necessary. That form of neuralgia
which is associated with anaemia usually yields to iron.
IRON AGE, the third of the three periods, Stone, Bronze
and Iron Ages, into which archaeologists divide prehistoric
time; the weapons, utensils and implements being as a general
rule made of iron (see ARCHAEOLOGY). The term has no real
chronological value, for there has been no universal synchronous
sequence of the three epochs in all quarters of the world. Some
countries, such as the islands of the South Pacific, the interior
of Africa, and parts of North and South America, have passed
direct from the Stone to the Iron Age. In Europe the Iron
Age may be said to cover the last years of the prehistoric and
the early years of the historic periods. In Egypt, Chaldaea,
Assyria, China, it reaches far back, to perhaps 4000 years before
the Christian era. In Africa, where there has been no Bronze
Age, the use of iron succeeded immediately the use of stone.
In the Black Pyramid of Abusir (Vlth Dynasty), at least 3000
B.C., Gaston Maspero found some pieces of iron, and in the
funeral text of Pepi I. (about 3400 B.C.) the metal is mentioned.
The use of iron in northern Europe would seem to have been
fairly general long before the invasion of Caesar. But iron was
not in common use in Denmark until the end of the ist century
A.D. In the north of Russia and Siberia its introduction was
even as late as A.D. 800, while Ireland enters upon her Iron Age
about the beginning of the ist century. In Gaul, on the other
hand, the Iron Age dates back some 800 years B.C.; while in
Etruria the metal was known some six centuries earlier. Homer
represents Greece as beginning her Iron Age twelve hundred
years before our era. The knowledge of iron spread from the
south to the north of Europe. In approaching the East from
the north of Siberia or from the south of Greece and the Troad,
the history of iron in each country eastward is relatively later;
while a review of European countries from the north towards
the south shows the latter becoming acquainted with the metal
earlier than the former. It is suggested that these facts support
the theory that it is from Africa that iron first came into use.
The finding of worked iron in the Great Pyramids seems to
corroborate this view. The metal, however, is singularly scarce
in collections of Egyptian antiquities. The explanation of this
would seem to lie in the fact that the relics are in most cases
the paraphernalia of tombs, the funereal vessels and vases, and
iron being considered an impure metal by the ancient Egyptians
it was never used in their manufacture of these'or for any religious
purposes. This idea of impurity would seem a further proof
of the African origin of iron. It was attributed to Seth, the
spirit of evil who according to Egyptian tradition governed the
central deserts of Africa. The Iron Age in Europe is character-
ized by an elaboration of designs in weapons, implements and
utensils. These are no longer cast but hammered into shape,
and decoration is elaborate curviliaear rather than simple
IRON AND STEEL
801
rectilinear, the forms and character of the ornamentation of the
northern European weapons resembling in some respects Roman
arms, while in others they are peculiar and evidently repre-
sentative of northern art. The dead were buried in an extended
position, while in the preceding Bronze Age cremation had
been the rule.
See Lord Avebury, Prehistoric Times (1865; 1900); Sir J. Evans,
Ancient Stone Implements (1897); Horae Ferales, or Studies in
the Archaeology of Northern Nations, by Kemble (1863) ; Gaston C. C.
Maspero, Guide du Musee de Boulaq, 296 ; Scotland in Pagan Times
—The Iron Age, by Joseph Anderson (1883).
IRON AND STEEL.1 i. Iron, the most abundant and the
cheapest of the heavy metals, the strongest and most magnetic
of known substances, is perhaps also the most indispensable
of all save the air we breathe and the water we drink. For one
kind of meat we could substitute another; wool could be
replaced by cotton, silk or fur; were our common silicate glass
gone, we could probably perfect and cheapen some other of
the transparent solids; but even if the earth could be made
to yield any substitute for the forty or fifty million tons of
iron which we use each year for rails, wire, machinery, and
structural purposes of many kinds, we could not replace either
the steel of our cutting tools or the iron of our magnets, the
basis of all commercial electricity. This usefulness iron owes
in part, indeed, to its abundance, through which it has led
us in the last few thousands of years to adapt our ways to its;
but still in chief part first to the single qualities in which it
very weak; conducting heat and electricity easily, and again
offering great resistance to their passage; here welding readily,
there incapable of welding; here very infusible, there melting
with relative ease. The coincidence that so indispensable a
thing should also be so abundant, that an iron-needing man
should be set on an iron-cored globe, certainly suggests design.
The indispensableness of such abundant things as air, water
and light is readily explained by saying that their very abundance
has evolved a creature dependent on them. But the indis-
pensable qualities of iron did not shape man's evolution, because
its great usefulness did not arise until historic times, or even,
as in case of magnetism, until modern times.
These variations in the properties of iron are brought about
in part by corresponding variations in mechanical and thermal
treatment, by which it is influenced profoundly, and in part by
variations in the proportions of certain foreign elements which
it contains; for, unlike most of the other metals, it is never
used in the pure state. Indeed pure iron is a rare curiosity.
Foremost among these elements is carbon, which iron inevitably
absorbs from the fuel used in extracting it from its ores. So
strong is the effect of carbon that the use to which the metal
is put, and indeed its division into its two great classes, the
malleable one, comprising steel and wrought iron, with less
than 2-20% of carbon, and the unmalleable one, cast iron,
with more than this quantity, are based on carbon-content.
(See Table I.)
TABLE I. — General Classification of Iron and Steel according (i) to Carbon- Content and (2) to Presence or Absence of Inclosed Slag.
Containing very little Carbon (say,
less than 0-30%).
Containing an Intermediate
Quantity of Carbon (say, between
0-30 and 2-2%).
Containing much Carbon (say,
from 2-2 to 5%).
Slag-bearing or
" Weld-metal " Series.
WROUGHT IRON.
Puddled and bloomary, or Charcoal-
hearth iron belong here.
WELD STEEL.
Puddled and blister steel
belong here.
Slagless or " Ingot-
Metal " Series.
LOW-CARBON or MILD STEEL,
sometimes called " ingot-iron."
It may be either Bessemer, open-
hearth, or crucible steel.
HALF-HARD and HIGH-CARBON
STEELS, sometimes called
" ingot-steel."
They may be either Bessemer,
open-hearth, or crucible steel.
Malleable cast iron also often
belongs here.
CAST IRON.
Normal cast iron, " washed " metal,
and most " malleable cast iron "
belong here.
ALLOY STEELS.
Nickel, manganese, tungsten, and
chrome steels belong here.
ALLOY CAST IRONS.*
Spiegeleisen, ferro-manganese, and
silico-spiegel belong here.
* The term " Alloy Cast Irons " is not actually in frequent use, not because of any question as to its fitness or meaning, but because
the need of such a generic term rarely arises in the industry.
excels, such as its strength, its magnetism, and the property
which it alone has of being made at will extremely hard by sudden
cooling and soft and extremely pliable by slow cooling; second,
to the special combinations of useful properties in which it
excels, such as its strength with its ready welding and shaping
both hot and cold; and third, to the great variety of its pro-
perties. It is a very Proteus. It is extremely hard in our
files and razors, and extremely soft in our horse-shoe nails,
which in some countries the smith rejects unless he can bend
them on his forehead; with iron we cut and shape iron. It
is extremely magnetic and almost non-magnetic; as brittle
as glass and almost as pliable and ductile as copper; extremely
springy, and springless and dead; wonderfully strong, and
1 The word " iron " was in O. Eng. iren, isern or isen, cf. Ger. Eisen,
Dut. ysen, Swed. jarn, Dan. jern ; the original Teut. base is isarn, and
cognates are found in Celtic, Ir. iarun, Gael, iarunn, Breton, houarn,
&c. The ulterior derivation is unknown; connexion has been
suggested without much probability with is, ice, from its hard bright
surface, or with Lat. aes, aeris, brass. The change from isen to iren
(in l6th cent, yron) is due to rhotacism, but whether direct from
isen or through isern, irern is doubtful. " Steel " represents the
O. Eng. stel or stele (the true form ; only found, however, with spelling
style, cf. st$l-ecg, steel-edged), cognate with Ger. Stahl, Dut. and Dan.
staal, &c. ; the word is not found outside Teutonic. Skeat (Etym.
Diet., 1898) finds the ultimate origin in the Indo-European base
stak-, to be firm or still, and compares Lat. stagnum, standing-water.
2. Nomenclature. — Until about 1860 there were only three
important classes of iron — wrought iron, steel and cast iron.
The essential characteristic of wrought iron was its nearly
complete freedom from carbon; that of steel was its moderate
carbon-content (say between 0-30 and 2-2%), which, though
great enough to confer the property of being rendered intensely
hard and brittle by sudden cooling, yet was not so great but
that the metal was malleable when cooled slowly; while that of
cast iron was that it contained so much carbon as to be very
brittle whether cooled quickly or slowly. This classification
was based on carbon-content, or on the properties which it gave.
Beyond this, wrought iron, and certain classes of steel which
then were important, necessarily contained much slag or " cinder,"
because they were made by welding together pasty particles
of metal in a bath of slag, without subsequent fusion. But the
best class of steel, crucible steel, was freed from slag by fusion in
crucibles; hence its name, " cast steel." Between 1860 and
1870 the invention of the Bessemer and open-hearth processes
introduced a new class of iron to-day called " mild " or " low-
carbon steel," which lacked the essential property of steel, the
hardening power, yet differed from the existing forms of wrought
iron in freedom from slag, and from cast iron in being very
malleable. Logically it was wrought iron, the essence of which
was that it was (i) "iron" as distinguished from steel, and
xiv. 26
802
IRON AND STEEL
(2) malleable, i.e. capable of being " wrought." This name did
not please those interested in the new product, because existing
wrought iron was a low-priced material. Instead of inventing
a wholly new name for the wholly new product, they appropriated
the name " steel," because this was associated in the public
mind with superiority. This they did with the excuse that the
new product resembled one class of steel— cast steel — in being
free from slag; and, after a period of protest, all acquiesced in
calling it " steel," which is now its firmly established name.
The old varieties of wrought iron, steel and cast iron preserve
their old names; the new class is called steel by main force.
As a result, certain varieties, such as blister steel, are called
" steel " solely because they have the hardening power, and
others, such as low-carbon steel, solely because they are free
from slag. But the former lack the essential quality, slaglessness,
which makes the latter steel, and the latter lack the essential
quality, the hardening power, which makes the former steel.
" Steel " has come gradually to stand rather for excellence than
for any specific quality. These anomalies, however confusing
to the general reader, in fact cause no appreciable trouble to
important makers or users of iron and steel, beyond forming
an occasional side-issue in litigation.
3. Definitions. — Wrought iron is slag-bearing malleable iron,
containing so little carbon (0-30% or less), or its equivalent, that
it does not harden greatly when cooled suddenly.
Steel is iron which is malleable at least in some one range of
temperature, and also is either (a) cast into an initially malleable
mass, or (b) is capable of hardening greatly by sudden cooling,
or (c) is both so cast and so capable of hardening. (Tungsten
steel and certain classes of manganese steel are malleable only
when red-hot.) Normal or carbon steel contains between 0-30
and 2-20% of carbon, enough to make it harden greatly when
cooled suddenly, but not enough to prevent it from being usefully
malleable when hot.
Cast iron is, generically, iron containing so much carbon
(2-20% or more) or its equivalent that it is not usefully malleable
at any temperature. Specifically, it is cast iron in the form of
castings other than pigs, or remelted cast iron suitable for such
castings, as distinguished from pig iron, i.e. the molten cast iron
as it issues from the blast furnace, or the pigs into which it is
cast.
Malleable cast iron is iron which has been cast in the condition
of cast iron, and made malleable by subsequent treatment
without fusion.
Alloy steels and cast irons are those which owe their properties
chiefly to the presence of one or more elements other than carbon.
Ingot iron is slagless steel with less than 0-30% of carbon.
Ingot steel is slagless steel containing more than 0-30% of
carbon.
Weld steel is slag-bearing iron malleable at least at some one
temperature, and containing more than 0-30% of carbon.
4. Historical Sketch. — The iron oxide of which the ores of
iron consist would be so easily deoxidized and thus brought to
the metallic state by the carbon, i.e. by the glowing coals of any
primeval savage's wood fire, and the resulting metallic iron
would then differ so strikingly from any object which he had
previously seen, that its very early use by our race is only natural.
The first observing savage who noticed it among his ashes might
easily infer that it resulted from the action of burning wood
on certain extremely heavy stones. He could pound it out into
many useful shapes. The natural steps first of making it intention-
ally by putting such stones into his fire, and next of improving
his fire by putting it and these stones into a cavity on the weather
side of some bank with an opening towards the prevalent wind,
would give a- simple forge, differing only in size, in lacking forced
blast, and in details of construction, from the Catalan forges
and bloomaries of to-day. Moreover, the coals which deoxidized
the iron would inevitably carburize some lumps of it, here so
far as to turn it into the brittle and relatively useless cast iron,
there only far enough to convert it into steel, strong and very
useful even in its unhardened state. Thus it is almost certain
that much of the earliest iron was in fact steel. How soon after
man's discovery, that he could beat iron and steel out while
cold into useful shapes, he learned to forge it while hot is hard
to conjecture. The pretty elaborate appliances, tongs or their
equivalent, which would be needed to enable him to hold it
conveniently while hot, could hardly have been devised till a
very much later period; but then he may have been content
to forge it inconveniently, because the great ease with which
it mashes out when hot, perhaps pushed with a stout stick from
the fire to a neighbouring flat stone, would compensate for much
inconvenience. However this may be, very soon after man began
to practise hot-forging he would inevitably learn that sudden
cooling, by quenching in water, made a large proportion of his
metal, his steel, extremely hard and brittle, because he would
certainly try by this very quenching to avoid the inconvenience
of having the hot metal about. But the invaluable and rather
delicate art of tempering the hardened steel by a very careful
and gentle reheating, which removes its extreme brittleness
though leaving most of its precious hardness, needs such skilful
handling that it can hardly have become known until very long
after the art of hot-forging.
The oxide ores of copper would be deoxidized by the savage's
wood fire even more easily than those of iron, and the resulting
copper would be recognized more easily than iron, because it
would be likely to melt and run together into a mass conspicuous
by its bright colour and its very great malleableness. From
this we may infer that copper and iron probably came into use
at about the same stage in man's development, copper before
iron in regions which had oxidized copper ores, whether they
also had iron ores or not, iron before copper in places where
there were pure and easily reduced ores of iron but none of copper.
Moreover, the use of each metal must have originated in many
different places independently. Even to-day isolated peoples,
are found with their own primitive iron-making, but ignorant
of the use of copper.
If iron thus preceded copper in many places, still more must
it have preceded bronze, an alloy of copper and tin much less-
likely than either iron or copper to be made unintentionally.
Indeed, though iron ores abound in many places which have
neither copper nor tin, yet there are but few places which have
both copper and tin. It is not improbable that, once bronze
became known, it might replace iron in a measure, perhaps even
in a very large measure, because it is so fusible that it can be
cast directly and easily [into many useful shapes. It seems to-
be much more prominent than iron in the Homeric poems;
but they tell us only of one region at one age. Even if a nation
here or there should give up the use of iron completely, that all
should is neither probable nor shown by the evidence. The
absence of iron and the abundance of bronze in the relics of a
prehistoric people is a piece of evidence to be accepted with
caution, because the great defect of iron, its proneness to rust,
would often lead to its complete disappearance, or conversion
into an unrecognizable mass, even though tools of bronze
originally laid down beside it might remain but little corroded.
That the ancients should have discovered an art of hardening
bronze is grossly improbable, first because it is not to be hardened
by any simple process like the hardening of steel, and second
because, if they had, then a large proportion of the ancient
bronze tools now known ought to be hard, which is not the case.
Because iron would be so easily made by prehistoric and even
by primeval man, and would be so useful to him, we are hardly
surprised to read in Genesis that Tubal Cain, the sixth in descent
from Adam, discovered it; that the Assyrians had knives and
saws which, to be effective, must have been of hardened steel,
i.e. of iron which had absorbed some carbon from the coals
with which it had been made, and had been quenched in water
from a red heat; that an iron tool has been found embedded in
the ancient pyramid of Kephron (probably as early as 3500 B.C.) ;
that iron metallurgy had advanced at the time of Tethmosis
(Thothmes) III. (about 1500 B.C.) so far that bellows were used
for forcing the forge fire; that in Homer's time (not later than
the gth century B.C.) the delicate art of hardening and tempering
steel was so familiar that the poet used it for a simile, likening
IRON AND STEEL
803
the hissing of the stake which Ulysses drove into the eye of
Polyphemus to that of the steel which the smith quenches in
water, and closing with a reference to the strengthening effect
of this quenching; and that at the time of Pliny (A.D. 23-79)
the relative value of different baths for hardening was known,
and oil preferred for hardening small tools. These instances of
the very early use of this metal, intrinsically at once so useful
and so likely to disappear by rusting away, tell a story like that
of the single foot-print of the savage which the waves left for
Robinson Crusoe's warning. Homer's familiarity with the art
of tempering could come only after centuries of the wide use
of iron.
5. Three Periods. — The history of iron may for convenience
be divided into three periods: a first in which only the direct
extraction of wrought iron from the ore was practised; a
second which added to this primitive art the extraction of iron
in the form of carburized or cast iron, to be used either as such
or for conversion into wrought iron; and a third in which the
iron worker used a temperature high enough to melt wrought
iron, which he then called molten steel. For brevity we may
call these the periods of wrought iron, of cast iron, and of molten
steel, recognizing that in the second and third the earlier pro-
cesses continued in use. The first period began in extremely
remote prehistoric times; the second in the i4th century; and
the third with the invention of the Bessemer process in 1856.
6. First Period. — We can picture to ourselves how in the first
period the savage smith, step by step, bettered his control over his
fire, at once his source of heat and his deoxidizing agent. Not con-
tent to let it burn by natural draught, he would blow it with his own
breath, would expose it to the prevalent wind, would urge it with a
fan, and would devise the first crude valveless bellows, perhaps the
pigskin already familiar as a water-bottle, of which the psalmist says :
I am become as a bottle in the smoke." To drive the air out of this
skin by pressing on it, or even by walking on it, would be easy; to
fill it again with air by pulling its sides apart with his fingers would
be so irksome that he would soon learn to distend it by means of
strings. If his bellows had only a single opening, that through which
they delivered the blast upon the fire, then in inflating them he
would draw back into them the hot air and ashes from the fire. To
prevent this he might make a second or suction hole, and thus he
would have a veritable engine, perhaps one of the very earliest of all.
While inflating the bellows he would leave the suction port open and
close the discharge port with a pinch of his finger; and while blowing
the air against the fire he would leave the discharge port open and
pinch together the sides of the suction port.
The next important step seems to have been taken in the 4th
century when some forgotten Watt devised valves for the bellows.
But in spite of the activity of the iron manufacture in many of the
Roman provinces, especially England, France, Spain, Carinthia and
near the Rhine, the little forges in which iron was extracted from the
ore remained, until the I4th century, very crude and wasteful of
labour, fuel, and iron itself: indeed probably not very different from
those of a thousand years before. Where iron ore was found, the
local smith, the Waldschmied, converted it with the charcoal of the
surrounding forest into the wrought iron which he worked up.
Many farmers had their own little forges or smithies to supply the iron
ior their tools.
The fuel, wood or charcoal, which served both to heat and to
deoxidize the ore, has so strong a carburizing action that it would
turn some of the resultant metal into " natural steel," which differs
from wrought iron only in containing so much carbon that it is re-
latively hard and brittle in its natural state, and that it becomes
intensely hard when quenched from a red heat in water. Moreover,
this same carburizing action of the fuel would at times go so far as
to turn part of the metal into a true cast iron, so brittle that it could
not be worked at all. In time the smith learnt how to convert this
unwelcome product into wrought iron by remelting it in the forge,
exposing it to the blast in such a way as to burn out most of its
carbon.
7. Second Period. — With the second period began, in the I4th
century, the gradual displacement of the direct extraction of wrought
iron from the ore by the intentional and regular use of this indirect
method of first carburizing the metal and thus turning it into cast
iron, and then converting it into wrought iron by remelting it in the
forge. This displacement has been going on ever since, and it is not
quite complete even to-day. It is of the familiar type of the re-
placing of the simple but wasteful by the complex and economical,
and it was begun unintentionally in the attempt to save fuel and
labour, by increasing the size and especially the height of the forge,
and by driving the bellows by means of water-power. Indeed it was
the use of water-power that gave the smith pressure strong enough
to force his blast up through a longer column of ore and fuel, and thus
enabled him to increase the height of his forge, enlarge the scale of his
operations, and in turn save fuel and labour. And it was the lengthen-
ing of the forge, and the length and intimacy of contact between ore
and fuel to which it led, that carburized the metal and turned it into
cast iron. This is so fusible that it melted, and, running together
into a single molten mass, freed itself mechanically from the
" gangue," as the foreign minerals with which the ore is mixed are
called. Finally, the improvement in the quality of the iron which
resulted from thus completely freeing it from the gangue turned out
to be a great and unexpected merit of the indirect process, probably
the merit which enabled it, in spite of its complexity, to drive out the
direct process. Thus we have here one of these cases common in the
evolution both of nature and of art, in which a change, made for a
specific purpose, has a wholly unforeseen advantage in another
direction, so important as to outweigh that for which it was made
and to determine the path of future development.
With this method of making molten cast iron in the hands of a
people already familiar with bronze founding, iron founding, i.e. the
casting of the molten cast iron into shapes which were useful in spite
of its brittleness, naturally followed. Thus ornamental iron castings
were made in Sussex in the I4th century, and in the l6th cannons
weighing three tons each were cast.
The indirect process once established, the gradual increase in the
height and diameter of the high furnace, which has lasted till our
own days, naturally went on and developed the gigantic blast
furnaces of the present time, still called " high furnaces " in French
and German. The impetus which the indirect process and the ac-
celeration of civilization in the 15th and 1 6th centuries gave to the
iron industry was so great that the demands of the iron masters for
fuel made serious inroads on the forests, and in 1558 an act of Queen
Elizabeth's forbade the cutting of timber in certain parts of the
country for iron-making. Another in 1584 forbade the building of
any more iron-works in Surrey, Kent, and Sussex. This increasing
scarcity of wood was probably one of the chief causes of the attempts
which the iron masters then made to replace charcoal with mineral
fuel. In 1611 Simon Sturtevant patented the use of mineral coal for
iron-smelting, and in 1619 Dud Dudley made with this coal both
cast and wrought iron with technical success, but through the
opposition of the charcoal iron-makers all of his many attempts were
defeated. In 1625 Stradda's attempts in Hainaut had no better
success, and it was not till more than a century later that iron-
smelting with mineral fuel was at last fully successful. It was then,
'n 1735> that Abraham Darby showed how to make cast iron with
coke in the high furnace, which by this time had become a veritable
blast furnace.
The next great improvement in blast-furnace practice came in
1811, when Aubertot in France used for heating steel the furnace
gases rich in carbonic oxide which till then had been allowed to burn
uselessly at the top of the blast furnace. The next was J. B. Neilson's
invention in 1828 of heating the blast, which increased the pro-
duction and lessened the fuel-consumption of the furnace wonder-
fully. Very soon after this, in 1832, the work of heating the blast
was done by means of the waste gases, at Wasseralfingen in Bavaria.
Meanwhile Henry Cprt had in 1784 very greatly simplified the
conversion of cast iron into wrought iron. In place of the old forge,
in which the actual contact between the iron and the fuel, itself an
energetic carburizing agent, made decarburization difficult, he
devised the reverberatory puddling furnace (see fig. 14 below), in
which the iron lies in a chamber apart from the fire-place, and is thus
protected from the carburizing action of the fuel, though heated by
the flame which that fuel gives out.
The rapid advance in mechanical engineering in the latter part of
this second period stimulated the iron industry greatly, giving it in
1728 Payn and Hanbury's rolling mill for rolling sheet iron, in 1760
John Smeaton's cylindrical cast-iron bellows in place of the wooden
and leather ones previously used, in 1783 Cort's grooved rolls for
rolling bars and rods of iron, and in 1838 James Nasmyth's steam
hammer. But even more important than these were the advent of
the steam engine between 1760 and 1770, and of the railroad in
1825, each of which gave the iron industry a great impetus. Both
created a great demand for iron, not only for themselves but for the
industries which they in turn stimulated; and both directly aided
the iron master: the steam engine by giving him powerful and con-
venient tools, and the railroad by assembling his materials and
distributing his products.
About 1740 Benjamin Huntsman introduced the " crucible
process " of melting steel in small crucibles, and thus freeing it from
the slag, or rich iron silicate, with which it, like wrought iron, was
mechanically mixed, whether it was made in the old forge or in the
puddling furnace. This removal of the cinder very greatly improved
the steel ; but the process was and is so costly that it is used only for
making steel for purposes which need the very best quality.
8. Third Period. — -The third period has for its great distinction the
invention of the Bessemer and open-hearth processes, which are like
Huntsman's crucible process in that their essence is their freeing
wrought iron and low carbon steel from mechanically entangled
cinder, by developing the hitherto unattainable temperature, rising
to above 1500° C., needed for melting these relatively infusible pro-
ducts. These processes are incalculably more important than
Huntsman's, both because they are incomparably cheaper, and
aecause their products are far more useful than his.
Thus the distinctive work of the second and third periods is freeing
8 04
IRON AND STEEL
the metal from mechanical impurities by fusion. The second period,
by converting the metal into the fusible cast iron and melting this,
for the first time removed the gangue of the ore; the third period by
giving a temperature, high enough to melt the most infusible forms
of iron, liberated the slag formed in deriving them from cast iron.
In 1856 Bessemer not only invented his extraordinary process of
making the heat developed by the rapid oxidation of the impurities
in pig iron raise the temperature above the exalted melting-point of
the resultant purified steel, but also made it widely known that this
steel was a very valuable substance. Knowing this, and having in
the Siemens regenerative gas furnace an independent means of gener-
ating this temperature, the Martin brothers of Sireuil in France in
1864 developed the open-hearth process of making steel of any
desired carbon-content by melting together in this furnace cast and
wrought iron. The great defect of both these processes, that they
could not remove the baneful phosphorus with which all the ores
of iron are associated, was remedied in 1878 by S. G. Thomas, who
showed that, in the presence of a slag rich in lime, the whole of the
phosphorus could be removed readily.
9. After the remarkable development of the blast furnace, the
Bessemer, and the open-hearth processes, the most important work
of this, the third period of the history of iron, is the birth and growth
of the science and art of iron metallography. In 1868 Tschernoff
enunciated its chief fundamental laws, which were supplemented in
1885 by the laws of Brinell. In 1888 F. Osmond showed that the
wonderful changes which thermal treatment andthe presence of certain
foreign elements cause were due to allotropy, and from these and like
teachings have come a rapid growth of the use of the so-called " alloy
steels " in which, thanks to special composition and treatment, the
iron exists in one or more of its remarkable allotropic states. These
include the austenitic or gamma non-magnetic manganese steel,
already patented by Robert Hadfield in 1883, the first important
known substance which combined great malleableness with great
hardness, and the martensitic or beta " high speed tool steel " of
White and Taylor, which retains its hardness and; cutting power even
at a red heat.
10. Constitution of Iron and Steel. — The constitution of the
various classes of iron and steel as shown by the microscope
explains readily the great influence of carbon which was outlined
in §§ 2 and 3. The metal in its usual slowly cooled state is a
conglomerate like the granitic rocks. Just as a granite is a
conglomerate or mechanical mixture of distinct crystalline
grains of three perfectly definite minerals, mica, quartz, and
felspar, so iron and steel in their usual slowly cooled state consist
of a mixture of microscopic particles of such definite quasi-
minerals, diametrically unlike. These are cementite, a definite
iron carbide, Fe3C, harder than glass and nearly as brittle, but
probably very strong under gradually and axially applied stress;
and ferrite, pure or nearly pure metallic a-iron, soft, weak, with
high electric conductivity, and in general like copper except in
colour. In view of the fact that the presence of i % of carbon
implies that 15% of the soft ductile ferrite is replaced by the
glass-hard cementite, it is not surprising that even a little
carbon influences the properties of the metal so profoundly.
But carbon affects the properties of iron not only by giving
rise to varying proportions of cementite, but also both by itself
shifting from one molecular state to another, and by enabling
us to hold the iron itself in its unmagnetic allotropic forms,
/3- and 7-iron, as will be explained below. Thus, sudden cooling
from a red heat leaves the carbon not in definite combination
as cementite, but actually dissolved in j3- and 7-allotropic iron,
in the conditions known as martensite and austenite, not granitic
but glass-like bodies, of which the " hardened " and " tempered "
steel of our cutting tools in large part consists. Again, if more
than 2% of carbon is present, it passes readily into the state of
pure graphitic carbon, which, in itself soft and weak, weakens
and embrittles the metal as any foreign body would, by breaking
up its continuity.
11. The Roberts-Austen or carbon-iron diagram (fig. i), in
which vertical distances represent temperatures and horizontal
ones the percentage of carbon in the iron, aids our study of these
constituents of iron. If, ignoring temporarily and for simplicity
the fact that part of the carbon may exist in the state of graphite,
we consider the behaviour of iron in cooling from the molten
state, AB and BC give the temperature at which, for any given
percentage of carbon, solidification begins, and Aa, aB, and Be
that at which it ends. But after solidification is complete and
the metal has cooled to a much lower range of temperature,
usually between 900° and 690° C., it undergoes a very remarkable
series of transformations. GHSa gives the temperature at which,
for any given percentage of carbon, these transformations begin,
and PSP' that at which they end.
These freezing-point curves and transformation curves thus
divide the diagram into 8 distinct regions, each with its own
specific state or constitution of the metal, the molten state for
region i, a mixture of molten metal and of solid austenite for
region 2, austenite alone for region 4 and so on. This will be
explained below. If the metal followed the laws of equilibrium,
then whenever through change of temperature it entered a new
region, it would forthwith adopt the constitution normal to that
region. But in fact the change of constitution often lags greatly,
so that the metal may have the constitution normal to a region
higher than that in which it is, or even a patchwork constitution,
representing fragments of those of two or more regions. It is
Steel
Cast Iron
O BOO
S *'
•J.600
S
t soo
Austenite+Cement te
Pro-eutectoiil Cintintile forms roor«M/u«/f
K'" Si *<y, Austenite hurt splits up into Pearlite —
Pear lite* ,
Pro-eutec-t
id Ferritb
ttectoid ferrite and ctmtntitt
Pearlite+
/ primary, \
Cementitef •— — '
/ primary. \
el tuttctic.and I
\ftm-tutictoidj
CortonO O*6 1-0
Iron 1OO M*& 00*0
-
Percentage Composition
FIG. i. — Roberts- Austen or Carbon-Iron diagram.
The Cementite-Austenite or Metastable form.
by taking advantage of this lagging that thermal treatment
causes such wonderful changes in the properties of the cold
metal.
12. With these facts in mind we may now study further these
different constituents of iron.
Austenite, gamma (7) iron. — Austenite is the name of the solid
solution of an iron carbide in allotropic 7-iron of which the metal
normally consists when in region 4. In these solid solutions, as in
aqueous ones, the ratios in which the different chemical substances
are present are not fixed or definite, but vary from case to case, not
per saltum as between definite chemical compounds, but by infini-
tesimal steps. The different substances are as it were dissolved in
each other in a state which has the indefiniteness of composition, the
absolute merging of identity, and the weakness of reciprocal chemical
attraction, characteristic of aqueous solutions.
On cooling into region 6 or 8 austenite should normally split up
into ferrite and cementite, after passing through the successive
stages of martensite, troostite and sorbite, Fe-*C =Fe3C-(-Fe(i-j).
But this change may be prevented so as to preserve the austenite in
the cold, either very incompletely, as when high-carbon steel is
" hardened," i.e. is cooled suddenly by quenching in water, in
which case the carbon present seems to act as a brake to retard the
change; or completely, by the presence of a large quantity of
manganese,' nickel, tungsten or molybdenum, which in effect sink the
lower boundary GHSa of region 4 to below the atmospheric tempera-
ture. The important manganese steels of commerce and certain
nickel steels are manganiferous and niccoliferous austenite, un-
magnetic and hard but ductile.
Austenite may contain carbon in any proportion up to about 2-2 %.
It is non-magnetic, and, when preserved in the cold either by quench-
ing or by the presence of manganese, nickel, &c., it has a very
remarkable combination of great malleability with very marked hard-
ness, though it is less hard than common carbon steel is when hardened,
and probably less hard than martensite. When of eutectoid com-
position, it is called " hardenite." Suddenly cooled carbon steel,
IRON AND STEEL
805
even if rich in austenite, is strongly magnetic because of the very
magnetic a-iron which inevitably forms even in the most rapid
cooling from region 4. Only in the presence of much manganese,
nickel, or their equivalent can the true austenite be preserved in the
cold so completely that the steel remains non-magnetic.
13. Beta (ft) iron, an unmagnetic, intensely hard and brittle
allotropic form of iron, though normal and stable only in the little
triangle GHM, is yet a state through which the metal seems always
to pass when the austenite of region 4 changes into the ferrite and
cementite of regions 6 and 8. Though not normal below MHSP',
yet like 7-iron it can be preserved in the cold by the presence of about
5% of manganese, which, though not enough to bring the lower
boundary of region 4 below the atmospheric temperature and thus
to preserve austenite in the cold, is yet enough to make the
transformation of /3 into a iron so sluggish that the former
remains untransformed even during slow cooling.
Again, /3-iron may be preserved incompletely as in the " hardening
of steel," which consists in heating the steel into the austenite state
of region 4, and then cooling it so rapidly, e.g. by quenching it in cold
water, that, for lack of the time needed for the completion of the
change from austenite into ferrite and cementite, much of the iron is
caught in transit in the /3 state. According to our present theory, it
is chiefly to beta iron, preserved in one of these ways, that all of our
tool steel proper, i.e. steel used for cutting as distinguished from
grinding, seems to owe its hardness.
14. Martensite, Troostite and Sprbite are the successive stages
through which the metal passes in changing from austenite into
ferrite and cementite. Martensite, very hard because of its large
content of /3-iron, is characteristic of hardened steel, but the two
others, far from being definite substances, are probably only roughly
bounded stages of this transition. Troostite and sorbite, indeed,
seem to be chiefly very finely divided mixtures of ferrite and cementite,
and it is probably because of this fineness that sorbitic steel has its
remarkable combination of strength and elasticity with ductility
which fits it for resisting severe vibratory and other dynamic stresses,
such as those to which rails and shafting are exposed.
15. Alpha (a) iron is the form normal and stable for regions 5, 6
and 8, i.e. for all temperatures below MHSP'. It is the common,
very magnetic form of iron, in itself ductile but relatively soft and
weak, as we know it in wrought iron and mild or low-carbon steel.
1 6. Ferrite and cementite, already described in § 10, are the final
products of the transformation of austenite in slow-cooling. 0-
ferrite and austenite are the normal constituents for the triangle
GHM, a-ferrite (i.e. nearly pure a-iron) with austenite for the space
MHSP, cementite with austenite for region 7, and a-ferrite and
cementite jointly for regions 6 and 8. Ferrite and cementite are thus
the normal and usual constituents of slowly cooled steel, including all
structural steels, rail steel, &c., and of white cast iron (see § 18).
17. Pearlite. — The ferrite and cementite present interstratify
habitually as a " eutectoid " 1 called " pearlite " (see ALLOYS,
PI., fig. n), in the ratio of about 6 parts of ferrite to I of cementite,
and hence containing about 0-90% of carbon. Slowly cooled steel
containing just 0-90% of carbon (S in fig. i) consists of pearlite
alone. Steel and white cast iron with more than this quantity
of carbon consist typically of kernels of pearlite surrounded by
envelopes of free cementite (see ALLOYS, PL, fig. 13) sufficient in
quantity to represent their excess of carbon over the eutectoid ratio;
they are called " hyper-eutectoid," and are represented by region 8
of fig. I. Steel containing less than this quantity of carbon consists
typically of kernels of pearlite surrounded by envelopes of ferrite
(see ALLOYS, PL, fig. 12) sufficient in quantity to represent their
excess of iron over this eutectoid ratio; is called " hypo-eutectoid ";
and is represented by region 6 of fig. I. This typical ' envelope and
kernel " structure is often only rudimentary.
1 A " eutectic " is the last-freezing part of an alloy, and corresponds
to what the mother-liquor of a saline solution would become if such
a solution, after the excess of saline matter had been crystallized out,
were finally completely frozen. It is the mother-liquor or " bittern "
frozen. Its striking characteristics are: (l) that for given metals
alloyed together its composition is fixed, and does not vary with the
proportions in which those metals are present, because any " excess
metal," i.e. so much of either metal as is present in excess over the
eutectic ratio, freezes out before the eutectic; (2) that though thus
constant, its composition is not in simple atomic proportions; (3)
that its freezing-point is constant ; and (4) that, when first formed, it
habitually consists of interstratified plates of the metals which
compose it. If the alloy has a composition very near that of its own
eutectic, then when solidified it of course contains a large proportion
of the eutectic, and only a small proportion of the excess metal. If
it differs widely from the eutectic in composition, then when solidi-
fied it consists of only a small quantity of eutectic and a very large
quantity of the excess metal. But, far below the freezing-point,
transformations may take place in the solid metal, and follow a course
quite parallel with that of freezing, though with no suggestion of
liquidity. A " eutectoid " is to such a transformation in solid metal
what a eutectic is to freezing proper. It is the last part of the metal
to undergo this transformation and, when thus transformed, it is of
constant though not atomic composition, and habitually consists
of interstratified plates of its component metals.
The percentage of pearlite and of free ferrite or cementite in these
products is shown in fig. 2, in which the ordinates of the line ABC
represent the percentage of pearlite corresponding to each percentage
of carbon, and the intercept ED, MN or KF, of any point H, P or L,
_100
I 80
0-4 O-lf"9 1-2
Percentage of Combined Carbon
FIG. 2. — Relation between the carbon-content and the percentage
of the several constituents of slowly cooled steel and white cast
iron.
measures the percentage of the excess of ferrite or cementite for hypo-
and hyper-eutectic steel and white cast iron respectively.
18. The Carbon- Content, i.e. the Ratio of Ferrite to Cementite, of
certain typical Steels. — Fig. 3 shows how, as the carbon-content rises
from o to 4-5 %, the percentage of the glass-hard cementite, which is
15 times that of the carbon itself, rises, and that of the soft copper-
like ferrite falls, with consequent continuous increase of hardness
and loss of malleableness and ductility. The tenacity or tensile
strength increases till the carbon-content reaches about I -25 %, and
the cementite about 19 %, and then in turn falls, a result by no means
surprising. The presence of a small quantity of the hard cementite
ought naturally to strengthen the mass, by opposing the tendency of
the soft ferrite to flow under any stress applied to it ; but more
cementite by its brittleness naturally weakens the mass, causing it to
crack open under the distortion which stress inevitably causes.
The fact that this decrease of strength begins shortly after the carbon-
content rises above the eutectoid or pearlite ratio of 0-90% is
natural, because the brittleness of the cementite which, in hyper-
eutectoid steels, forms a more or less continuous skeleton (ALLOYS,
PL, fig. 13) should be much more effective in starting cracks under
distortion than that of the far more minute particles of cementite
which lie embedded, indeed drowned, in the sixfold greater mass of
ferrite with which they are associated in the pearlite itself. The
large massive plates of cementite which form the network or skeleton,
in hyper-eutectoid steels should, under distortion, naturally tend to
cut, in the softer pearlite, chasms too serious to be healed by the
inflowing of the plastic ferrite, though this ferrite flows around and
Steel
White Cast I ran
^
— -s
5" — —
^
I
>0>S,
I T
^-B^*> k&ft
u
•IK
~~%*
^
%ie
\~—~
•5
X--1
';,'„£>
\ r«\
gr^.--
^s
_^>oc
If,
5 0
— -.
0 1
0 1
1
120000
H •<
Percentage of Carbon
7>>»a<-:tij Ductility
___ _' Hatdne&s Dn- cent Ferrite or Cementite
FIG. 3. — Physical properties and assumed microscopic con-
stitution of the pearlite series, graphiteless steel slowly cooled
and white cast iron. By " total ferrite " is meant both that which
forms part of the pearlite and that which is in excess of the pearlite,
taken jointly. So with the " total cementite."
immediately heals over any cracks which form in the small quantity
of cementite interstratified with it in the pearlite of hypo-eutectoid
steels.
As the carbon-content increases the welding power naturally
decreases rapidly, because of the rapid fall of the " solidus curve
at which solidification is complete (Ao of fig. l), and hence of the
range in which the steel is coherent enough to be manipulated, and,
finally, of the attainable pliancy and softness of the metal. Clearly
the mushy mixture of solid austenite and molten iron of which the
metal in region 2 consists cannot cohere under either the blows or
the pressure by means of which welding must be done. Rivet steel,
which above all needs extreme ductility to endure the distortion of
being driven home, and tube steel which must needs weld easily, no
matter at what sacrifice of strength, are made as free from carbon,
i.e. of as nearly pure ferrite, as is practicable. The distortion which
rails undergo in manufacture and use is incomparably less than that
to which rivets are subjected, and thus rail steel may safely be much
richer in carbon and hence in cementite, and therefore much stronger
and harder, so as to better endure the load and the abrasion of the
passing wheels. Indeed, its carbon-content is made small quite as
much because of the violence of the shocks from these wheels as because
of any actual distortion to be expected, since, within limits, as the
8o6
IRON AND STEEL
carbon-content increases the shock-resisting power decreases. Here,
as in all cases, the carbon-content must be the result of a compromise,
neither so small that the rail flattens and wears out like lead, nor so
great that it snaps like glass. Boiler plates undergo in shaping and
assembling an intermediate degree of distortion, and therefore they
must be given an intermediate carbon-content, following the general
rule that the carbon-content and hence the strength should be as
great as is consistent with retaining the degree of ductility and the
shock-resisting power which the object will need in actual use. Thus
the typical carbon-content may be taken as about 0-05 % for rivets
and tubes, 0-20% for boiler plates, and 0-50 to 0-75% for rails,
implying the presence of 0-75 % of cementite in the first two, 3 % in
the third and 7-5% to 11-25% m the last.
19. Carbon- Content of Hardened Steels. — Turning from these cases
in which the steel is used in the slowly cooled state, so that it is a
mixture of pearlite with ferrite or cementite, i.e. is pearlitic, to those
in which it is used in the hardened or martensitic state, we find that
the carbon-content is governed by like considerations. Railway car
springs, which are exposed to great shock, have typically about
°'757o of carbon; common tool steel, which is exposed to less
severe shock, has usually between 0-75 and 1-25%; file steel, which
is subject to but little shock, and has little demanded of it but to bite
hard and stay hard, has usually from 1-25 to 1-50%. The carbon-
content of steel is rarely greater than this, lest the brittleness be
excessive. But beyond this are the very useful, because very fusible,
cast irons with from 3 to 4% of carbon, the embrittling effect of
which is much lessened^ by its being in the state of graphite.
20. Slag or Cinder, a characteristic component of wrought iron,
which usually contains from 0-20 to 2-00% of it, is essentially a
silicate of iron (ferrous silicate), and is present in wrought iron
simply because this product is made by welding together pasty
granules of iron in a molten bath of such slag, without ever melting
the resultant mass or otherwise giving the envelopes of slag thus
imprisoned a chance to escape completely.
21. Graphite, nearly pure carbon, is characteristic of " gray cast
iron," in which it exists as a nearly continuous skeleton of very
thin laminated plates or flakes (fig. 27), usually curved, and forming
from 2-50% to 3-50% of the whole. As these flakes readily split
open, when a piece of this iron is broken rupture passes through them,
with the result that, even though the graphite may form only some
3% of the mass by weight (say 10% by volume), practically nothing
but graphite is seen in the fracture. Hence the weakness and the
dark-grey fracture of this iron, and hence; by brushing this fracture
with a wire brush and so detaching these loosely clinging flakes of
graphite, the colour can be changed nearly to the very light-grey of
pure iron. There is rarely any important quantity of graphite in
commercial steels. (See § 26.)
22. Further Illustration of the Iron-Carbon Diagram. — In order to
illustrate further the meaning of the diagram (fig. i), let us follow
by means of the ordinate QLhu the undisturbed slow cooling of molten
hyper-eutectiod steel containing I % of carbon, for simplicity assum-
ing that no graphite forms and that the several transformations occur
promptly as they fall due. When the gradually falling temperature
reaches 1430° (g), the mass begins to freeze as 7-iron or austenite,
called " primary " to distinguish it from that which forms part of the
eutectic. But the freezing, instead of completing itself at a fixed
temperature as that of pure water does, continues until the tempera-
ture sinks to r on the line Aa. Thus the iron has rather a freezing-
range than a freezing-point. Moreover, the freezing is " selective."
The first particles of austenite to freeze contain about 0-33% of
carbon (p). As freezing progresses, at each successive temperature
reached the frozen austenite has the carbon-content of the point on
Aa which that temperature abscissa cuts, and the still molten part or
" mother-metal " has the carbon-content horizontally opposite this
on the line AB. In other words, the composition of the frozen part
and that of the mother-metal respectively are p and y at the beginning
of the freezing, and r and t' at the end; and during freezing they
slide along Aa and AB from p to r and from q to t'. This, of course,
brings the final composition of the frozen austenite when freezing is
complete exactly to that which the molten mass had before freezing
began.
The heat evolved by this process of solidification retards the fall
of temperature; but after this the rate of cooling remains regular
until T (750°) on the line Sa (Arj) is reached, when a second retarda-
tion occurs, due to the heat liberated by the passage within the
pasty; mass of part of the iron and carbon from a state of mere
solution to that of definite combination in the ratio FcjC, forming
microscopic particles of cementite, while the remainder of the iron
and carbon continue dissolved in each other as austenite. This
formation of cementite continues as the temperature falls, till at
about 690° C., (U, called Arj_i) so much of the carbon (in thiscase
about 0-10%) and of the iron have united in the form of cementite,
that the composition of the remaining solid-solution or " mother-
metal " of austenite has reached that of the eutectoid, hardenite;
i.e. it now contains 0-90 % of carbon. The cementite which has thus
far been forming may be called " pro-eutectoid " cementite, because
it forms before the remaining austenite reacnes the eutectoid com-,
position. As the temperature now falls past 690°, this hardenite
mother-metal in turn splits up, after the fashion of eutectics, into
alternate layers of ferrite and cementite grouped together as pearlite,
so that the mass as a whole now becomes a mixture of pearlite with
cementite. The iron thus liberated, as the ferrite of this pearlite,
changes simultaneously to o-ferrite. The passage of this large
quantity of carbon and iron, 0-90% of the former and 12-6 of the
latter, from a state of mere solution as hardenite to one of definite
chemical union as cementite, together with the passage of the iron
itself from the 7 to the a state, evolves so much heat as actually to
heat the mass up so that it brightens in a striking manner. This
phenomenon is called the " recalescence."
This change from austenite to ferrite and cementite, from the 7
through the 0 to the a state, is of course accompanied by the loss of
the " hardening power," i.e. the power of being hardened by sudden
cooling, because the essence of this hardening is the retention of the 0
state. As shown in ALLOYS, PL, fig. 13, the slowly cooled steel now
consists of kernels of pearlite surrounded by envelopes of the cementite
which was born of the austenite in cooling from T to U.
23. To take a second case, molten hypo-eutectpid steel of O-2O %
of carbon on freezing from K to x passes in the like manner to the
state of solid austenite, 7-iron with this 0-20 % of carbon dissolved
in it. Its further cooling undergoes three spontaneous retardations,
one at K' (Ar3 about 820 ), at which part of the iron begins to isolate
itself within the austenite mother-metal in the form of envelopes of
/3-ferrite, i.e. of free iron of the /3 allotropic modification, which
surrounds the kernels or grains of the residual still undecomposed
part of the austenite. At the second retardation, K" (Ar2, about 770°)
this ferrite changes to the normal magnetic o-ferrite, so that the
mass as a whole becomes magnetic. Moreover, the envelopes of
ferrite which began forming at Ar8 continue to broaden by the
accession of more and more ferrite born from the austenite pro-
gressively as the temperature sinks, till, by the time when Ar1 (about
690°) is reached, so much free ferrite has been formed that the re-
maining mother-metal has been enriched to the composition of
hardenite, i.e. it now contains 0-90% of carbon. Again, as the
temperature in turn falls past An this hardenite mother-metal splits
up into cementite and ferrite grouped together as pearlite, with the
resulting recalescence, and the mass, as shown in ALLOYS, PL, fig. 12,
then consists of kernels of pearlite surrounded by envelopes of ferrite.
All these phenomena are parallel with those of 1-00% carbon steel
at this same critical point An. As such steel cools slowly past Ar8,
Arj and An, it loses its hardening power progressively.
In short, from Ars to An the excess substance ferrite or cementite,
in hypo- and hyper-eutectoid steels respectively, progressively
crystallizes out as a network or skeleton within the austenite mother-
metal, which thus progressively approaches the composition of
hardenite, reaching it at An, and there splitting up into ferrite and
cementite interstratified as pearlite. Further, any ferrite liberated
at Ar» changes there from 7 to ft, and any present at Ara changes
from 0 to a. Between H and S, Ar8 and Ar2 occur together, as do
Ar2 and Art between S and P' and Ar8, Ar2 and An at S itself; so
that these critical points in these special cases are called Ar8_2, Arj_i
and Ar8_2_i respectively. The corresponding critical points which
occur during rise of temperature, with the reverse transformations,
are called Aci, Aci, Ac8, &c. A (TschernorT) is the generic name, r
refers to falling temperature (refroidissant) and c to rising tempera-
ture (chauffant, Osmond).
24. The freezing of molten cast iron of 2-50% of carbon goes on
selectively like that of these steels which we have been studying,
till the enrichment of the molten mother-metal in carbon brings its
carbon-contents to B, 4-30%, the eutectic1 carbon-content, i.e. that
of the greatest fusibility or lowest melting-point. At this point
selection ceases; the remaining molten metal freezes as a whole, and
in freezing splits up into a conglomerate eutectic of (l) austenite of
about 2-2 % of carbon, and therefore saturated with that element,
and (2) cementite; and with this eutectic is mixed the " primary "
austenite which froze out as the temperature sank from v to »'.
The white-hot, solid, but soft mass is now a conglomerate 01 \i)
" primary " austenite, (2) " eutectic " austenite and (3) " eutectic "
cementite. As the temperature sinks still farther, pro-eutectoid
cementite (see §22) forms progressively in the austenite Doth primary
and eutectic, and this pro-eutectoid cementite as it comes into
existence tends to assemble in the form of a network enveloping the
kernels or grains of the austenite from which it springs. The reason
for its birth, of course, is that the solubility of carbon in austenite pro-
gressively decreases as the temperature falls, from about 2-2% at
1 130° (a), to 0-90% at 690° (An), as shown by the line aS, with the
consequence that the austenite keeps rejecting in the form of this
pro-eutectoid cementite all carbon in excess of it? saturation-point
for the existing temperature. Here the mass consists of (i) primary
austenite, (2) eutectic austenite and cementite interstratified and
(3) pro-eutectoid cementite.
This formation of cementite through the rejection of carbon by
both the primary and the eutectic austenite continues quite as in the
case of I -oo % carbon steel, with impoverishment of the austenite to
the hardenite or eutectoid ratio, ana the splitting up of that hardenite
into pearlite at An, so that the mass when cold finally consists of (i)
1 Note the distinction between the " eutectic " or alloy of lowest
freezing-point, 1130°, B, with 4-30% of carbon, and the " eutectoid,"
hardenite and pearlite, or alloy of lowest transformation-point,
690° S, with 0-90% of carbon. (See § 17.)
IRON AND STEEL
the primary austenite now split up into kernels of pearlite surrounded
by envelopes of pro-eutectoid cementite, (2) the eutectic of cementite
plus austenite, the latter of which has in like manner split up into a
mixture of pearlite plus cementite. Such a mass is shown in fig. 4.
Here the black bat-like patches are the masses of pearlite plus pro-
eutectoid cementite resulting from the splitting up of the primary
austenite. The magnification is too small to show the zebra striping
of the pearlite. In the black-and-white ground mass the white is
the eutectic cementite, and the black the eutectic austenite, now
split up into pearlite and pro-eutectoid cementite, which cannot here
be distinguished from each other.
25. As we pass to cases with higher and higher carbon-content, the
primary austenite which freezes in cooling across region 2 forms a
807
FIG. 4. — The constitution of hypo-eutectic white or cementitifer-
ous cast iron (washed metal), VV. Campbell. The black bat-like
areas are the primary austenite, the zebra-marked ground mass the
eutectic, composed of white stripes of cementite and black stripes of
austenite. Both the primary and eutectic austenite have changed in
cooling into a mixture of pearlite and pro-eutectoid cementite, too
fine to be distinguished here.
smaller and smaller proportion of the whole, and the austenite-
cementite eutectic which forms at the eutectic freezing-point, 1130°
(oB), increases in amount until, when the carbon-content reaches the
eutectic ratio, 4-30%, there is but a single freezing-point, and the
whole mass when solid is made up of this eutectic. If there is more
than 4'3O% of carbon, then in cooling through region 3 the excess
of carbon over this ratio freezes out as " primary " cementite. But
in any event the changes which have just been described for cast
iron of 2-50% of carbon occur in crossing region 7, and at Ari
(PSP').
Just as variations in the carbon-content shift the temperature of
the freezing-range and of the various critical points, so do variations
in the content of other elements, notably silicon, phosphorus, man-
ganese, chromium, nickel and tungsten. Nickel and manganese
lower these critical points, so that with 25 % of nickel Ar3 lies below
the common temperature 20° C. With 13 % of manganese Ar3 is very
low, and the austenite decomposes so slowly that it is preserved
practically intact by sudden cooling. These steels then normally
consist of 7-iron, modified by the large amount of nickel or manganese
with which it is alloyed. They are non-magnetic or very feebly
magnetic. But the critical points of such nickel steel though thus
depressed, are not destroyed; and if it is cooled in liquid air below
its Ar2, it passes to the a state and becomes magnetic.
26. Double Nature of the Carbon-Iron Diagram. — The part played
by graphite in the constitution of the iron-carbon compounds,
hitherto ignored for simplicity, is shown in fig. 5. Looking at the
matter in a broad way, in all these carbon-iron alloys, both steel and
cast irons, part of the carbon may be dissolved in the iron, usually
as austenite, e.g. in regions 2, 4, 5 and 7 of fig. I ; the rest, i.e. the
carbon which is not dissolved, or the " undissolved carbon," forms
either the definite carbide, cementite, Fe3C, or else exists in the free
state as graphite. Now, just as fig. I shows the constitution of these
iron-carbon alloys for all temperatures and all percentages of carbon
when the undissolved carbon exists as cementite, so there should be
a diagram showing this constitution when all the undissolved carbon
exists as graphite. In short, there are two distinct carbon-iron
diagrams, the iron-cementite one shown in fig. I and studied at
length in §§ 22 to 25, and the iron-graphite one shown in fig. 5 in
unbroken lines, with the iron-cementite diagram reproduced in
broken lines for comparison. What here follows represents our
present rather ill-established theory. These two diagrams naturally
have much the same general shape, but though the boundaries of the
several regions in the iron-cementite diagram are known pretty
accurately, and though the relative positions of the boundaries of the
two diagrams are probably about as here shown, the exact topography
of the iron-graphite diagram is not yet known. In it the normal con-
stituents are, for region II., molten metal+primary austenite; for
region III., molten metal+primary graphite; for region IV., primary
austenite; for region VI I. .eutectic austenite, eutectic graphite, and a
quantity of pro-eutectoid graphite which increases as we pass from
the upper to the lower part of the region, together with primary
austenite at the left of the eutectic point B' amf primary graphite at
the right of that point. Thus when iron containing 2-50% of carbon
(v. fig. i) solidifies, its carbon may form cementite following the
cementite-austenite diagram so that white, *'.«. cementitiferous, cast
iron results; or graphite, following the graphite-austenite diagram,
so that ultra -grey, i.e. typical graphitic cast iron results; or, as
usually happens, certain molecules may follow one diagram while the
rest follow the other diagram, so that cast iron which has both
cementite and graphite results, as in most commercial grey cast iron,
and typically in fl mottled cast iron," in which there are distinct
patches of grey and others of white cast iron.
Though carbon passes far more readily under most conditions into
the state of cementite than into that of graphite, yet of the two
graphite is the more stable and cementite the less stable, or the
" metastable " form. Thus cementite is always tending to change
over into graphite by the reaction Fe3C=3Fe+Gr, though this
tendency is often held in check by different causes; but graphite
never changes back directly into cementite, at least according to our
present theory. The fact that graphite may dissolve in the iron as
austenite, and that when this latter again breaks up it is more likely
to yield cementite than graphite, is only an apparent and not a real
exception to this law of the greater stability of graphite than of
cementite.
Slow cooling, slow solidification, the presence of an abundance of
carbon, and the presence of silicon, all favour the formation of
graphite; rapid cooling, the presence of sulphur, and in most cases
that of manganese, favour the formation of cementite. For in-
stance, though in cast iron, which is rich in carbon, that carbon
passes comparatively easily into the state of graphite, yet in steel,
which contains much less carbon, but little graphite forms under most
conditions. Indeed, in the common structural steels which contain
only very little carbon, hardly any of that carbon exists as graphite.
27. Thermal Treatment. — The hardening, tempering and annealing
of steel, the chilling and annealing of cast iron, and the annealing of
malleable cast iron are explained readily by the facts just set forth.
28. The hardening of steel consists in first transforming it into
austenite by heating it up into region 4 of fig. I, and then quenching
it, usually in cold water, so as to cool it very suddenly, and thus to
deny the time which the complete transformation of the austenite
into ferrite and cementite requires, and thereby to catch much of
the iron in transit in the hard brittle 0 state. In the cold this trans-
formation cannot take place, because of molecular rigidity or some
Steel
Cast Iron
400
300
900
100
c«,W
Iron 100
«• Oxtdt
-Straw Oxidt
Ugeatf
Graphite- A ustenite diagram =
Ccmtntt'te-Austfnite diagram
Shown for comparison
I M-0 SI-S H*0 ST.S IT>0 IS £ S6.Q tS 8 fS-0 4
Percentage Composition
FIG. 5. — Graphite-austenite or stable carbon-iron, diagram.
other impediment. The suddenly cooled metal is hard and brittle,
because the cold /3-iron which it contains is hard and brittle.
The degree of hardening which the steel undergoes increases with
its carbon-content, chiefly because, during sudden cooling, the
presence of carbon acts like a brake to impede the transformations,
and thus to increase the quantity of jS-iron caught in transit, but
probably also in part because the hardness of this /3-iron increases
with its carbon-content. Thus, though sudden cooling has very
little effect on steel of 0-10% of carbon, it changes that of 1-50%
from a somewhat ductile body to one harder and more brittle than
glass.
29. The Temperingand Annealing of Steel. — But this sudden cooling
goes too far, preserving so much 0-iron as to make the steel too brittle
for most purposes. This brittleness has therefore in general to be
mitigated or " tempered," unfortunately at the cost of losing part
of the hardness proper, by reheating the hardened steel slightly,
8o8
IRON AND STEEL
usually to between 200° and 300° C., so as to relax the molecular
rigidity and thereby to allow the arrested transformation to go on a
little farther, shifting a little of the 0-iron over into the o state.
The higher the tempering-temperature, i.e. that to which the
hardened steel is thus reheated, the more is the molecular rigidity
relaxed, the farther on does the transformation go, and the softer
does the steel become; so that, if the reheating reaches a dull-
red heat, the transformation from austenite into ferrite and cementite
completes itself slowly, and when now cooled the steel is as soft and
ductile as if it had never been hardened. It is now said to be
" annealed."
30. Chilling cast iron, i.e. hastening its cooling by casting it in a
cool mould, favours the formation of cementite rather than of
graphite in the freezing of the eutectic at aBc, and also, in case of
hyper-eutectic iron, in the passage through region 3. Like the
hardening of steel, it hinders the transformation of the austenite,
whether primary or eutectic, into pearlite+cementite, and thus
catches part of the iron in transit in the hard /3 state. The annealing
of such iron may occur in either of two degrees — a small one, as in
making common chilled cast iron objects, such as railway car wheels,
or a great one, as in making malleable cast iron. In the former case,
the objects are heated only to the neighbourhood of Act, say to
730° C., so that the /3-iron may slip into the a state, and the trans-
formation of the austenite into pearlite and cementite may complete
itself. The joint effect of such chilling and such annealing is to make
the metal much harder than if slowly cooled, because for each I %
of graphite which the chilling suppresses, 15% of the glass-hard
cementite is substituted. Thus a cast iron which, if cooled slowly,
would have been " grey," i.e. would have consisted chiefly of graphite
with pearlite and ferrite (which are all relatively soft bodies), if thus
chilled and annealed consists of cementite and pearlite. But in
most such cases, in spite of the annealing, this hardness is accom-
panied by a degree of brittleness too great for most purposes. The
process therefore is so managed that only the outer shell of the cast-
ing is chilled, and that the interior remains graphitic, i.e. grey cast
iron, soft and relatively malleable.
31. In making malleable castings the annealing, i.e. the change
towards the stable state of ferrite 4-graphite, is carried much farther
by means of a much longer and usually a higher heating than in the
manufacture of chilled castings. The castings, initially of white
cast iron, are heated for about a week, to a temperature usually above
730° C. and often reaching 900° C. (1346° and 1652° F.). For about
60 hours the heat is held at its highest point, from which it descends
extremely slowly. The molecular freedom which this high tempera-
ture gives enables the cementite to change gradually into a mixture
of graphite and austenite with the result that, after the castings
have been cooled and their austenite has in cooling past Aci changed
into pearlite and ferrite, the mixture of cementite and pearlite of
which they originally consisted has now given place to one of fine or
" temper " graphite and ferrite, with more or less pearlite according to
the completeness of the transfer of the carbon to the state of graphite.
Why, then, is this material malleable, though the common grey
cast iron, which is made up of about the same constituents and often
in about the same proportion, is brittle ? The reason is that the
particles of temper graphite which are thus formed within the solid
casting in its long annealing are so finely divided that they do not
break up the continuity of the mass in a very harmful way ; whereas
in grey cast iron both the eutectic graphite formed in solidifying,
and also the primary graphite which, in case the metal is hyper-
eutectic, forms in cooling through region 3 of fig. I, surrounded as
it is by the still molten mother-metal out of which it is growing,
form a nearly continuous skeleton of very large flakes, which do break
up in a most harmful way the continuity of the mass of cast iron in
which they are embedded.
In carrying put this process the castings are packed in a mass of
iron oxide, which at this temperature gradually removes the fine or
" temper " graphite by oxidizing that in the outer crust to carbonic
oxide, whereon the carbon farther in begins diffusing outwards by
" molecular migration," to be itself oxidized on reaching the crust.
This removal of graphite doubtless further stimulates the formation
of graphite, by relieving the mechanical and perhaps the osmotic
pressure. Thus, first, for the brittle glass-hard cementite there is
gradually substituted the relatively harmless temper graphite; and,
second, even this is in part removed by surface oxidation.
32. Fineness of Structure. — Each of these ancient processes thus
consists essentially in so manipulating the temperature that, out
of the several possible constituents, the metal shall actually consist
of a special set in special proportions. But in addition there is
another very important principle underlying many of our thermal
processes, viz. that the state of aggregation of certain of these con-
stituents, and through it the properties of the metal as a whole, are
profoundly affected by temperature manipulations. Thus, prior
exposure to a temperature materially above Ac> coarsens the struc-
ture of most steel, in the sense of giving it when cold a coarse fracture,
and enlarging the grains of pearlite, &c., later found in the slowly
copied metal. This coarsening and the brittleness which accompanies
it increase with the temperature to which the metal has been exposed.
Steel which after a slow cooling from about 722° C. will bend 166°
before breaking, will, after slow cooling from about 1050° C., bend
only 18° before breaking. This injury fortunately can be cured
either by reheating the steel to Acs when it " refines," i.e. returns
spontaneously to its fine-grained ductile state (cooling past Ar3 does
not have this effect) ; or by breaking up the coarse grains by mechani-
cal distortion, e.g. by forging or rolling. For instance, if steel has
been coarsened by heating to 1400° C., and if, when it has cooled
to a lower temperature, say 850° C. we forge it, its grain-size and
ductility when cold will be approximately those which it would have
had if heated only to 850°. Hence steel which has been heated very
highly, whether for welding, or for greatly softening it so that it can
be rolled to the desired shape with but little expenditure of power,
ought later to be refined, either by reheating it from below An to
slightly above Acs or by rolling it after it has cooled to a relatively
low temperature, i.e. by having a low '' finishing temperature. '
Steel castings have initially the extremely coarse structure due to
cooling without mechanical distortion from their very high tempera-
ture of solidification; they are "annealed," i.e. this coarseness
and the consequent brittleness are removed, by reheating them much
above Ac3, which also relieves the internal stresses due to the different
rates at which different layers cool, and hence contract, during and
after solidification. For steel containing less than about 0-13%
of carbon, the embrittling temperature is in a different range, near
700° C., and such steel refines at temperatures above 900° C.
33 . The Possibilities of Thermal Treatment. — When we consider
the great number of different regions in fig. i, each with its own
set of constitutents, and remember that by different rates of
cooling from different temperatures we can retain in the cold
metal these different sets of constituents in widely varying
proportions; and when we further reflect that not only the
proportion of each constituent present but also its state of
aggregation can be controlled by thermal treatment, we see
how vast a field is here opened, how great a variety of different
properties can be induced in any individual piece of steel, how
enormous the variety of properties thus attainable in the different
varieties collectively, especially since for each percentage of
carbon an incalculable number of varieties of steel may be made
by alloying it with different proportions of such elements as
nickel, chromium, &c. As yet there has been only the roughest
survey of certain limited areas in this great field, the further
exploration of which will enormously increase the usefulness
of this wonderful metal.
34. Alloy steels have come into extensive use for important
special purposes, and a very great increase of their use is to
be expected. The chief ones are nickel steel, manganese steel,
chrome steel and chrome-tungsten steel. The general order of
merit of a given variety or specimen of iron or steel may be
measured by the degree to which it combines strength and
hardness with ductility. These two classes of properties tend
to exclude each other, for, as a general rule, whatever tends
to make iron and steel hard and strong tends to make it corre-
spondingly brittle, and hence liable to break treacherously,
especially under shock. Manganese steel and nickel steel form
an important exception to this rule, in being at once very strong
and hard and extremely ductile. Nickel steel, which usually
contains from 3 to 3-50% of nickel and about 0-25% of carbon,
combines very great tensile strength and hardness, and a very
high limit of elasticity, with great ductility. Its combination
of ductility with strength and hardening power has given it very
extended use for the armour of war-vessels. For instance,
following Krupp's formula, the side and barbette armour of
war-vessels is now generally if not universally made of nickel
steel containing about 3-25% of nickel, 0-40% of carbon,
and 1-50% of chromium, deeply carburized on its impact face.
Here the merit of nickel steel is not so much that it resists
perforation, as that it does not crack even when deeply penetrated
by a projectile. The combination of ductility, which lessens the
tendency to break when .overstrained or distorted, with a very
high limit of elasticity, gives it great value for shafting, the
merit of which is measured by its endurance of the repeated
stresses to which its rotation exposes it whenever its alignment
is not mathematically straight. The alignment of marine
shafting, changing with every passing wave, is an extreme
example. Such an intermittently applied stress is far more
destructive to iron than a continuous one, and even if it is
only half that of the limit of elasticity, its indefinite repetition
eventually causes rupture. In a direct competitive test the
presence of 3-25 % of nickel increased nearly sixfold the
IRON AND STEEL
809
number of rotations which a steel shaft would endure before
breaking.
35. As actually made, manganese steel contains about 12%
of manganese and 1-50% of carbon. Although the presence
of 1-50% of manganese makes steel relatively brittle, and
although a further addition at first increases this brittleness, so
that steel containing between 4 and 5-5% can be pulverized
under the hammer, yet a still further increase gives very great
ductility, accompanied by great hardness — a combination of
properties which was not possessed by any other known substance
when this remarkable alloy, known as Hadfield's manganese
steel, was discovered. Its ductility, to which it owes its value, is
profoundly affected by the rate of cooling. Sudden cooling
makes the metal extremely ductile, and slow cooling makes it
brittle. Its behaviour in this respect is thus the opposite of
that of carbon steel. But its great hardness is not materially
affected by the rate of cooling. It is used extensively for objects
which require both hardness and ductility, such as rock-crushing
machinery, railway crossings, mine-car wheels and safes. The
burglar's blow-pipe locally " draws the temper," i.e. softens a
spot on a hardened carbon steel or chrome steel safe by simply
heating it, so that as soon as it has again cooled he can drill
through it and introduce his charge of dynamite. But neither
this nor any other procedure softens manganese steel rapidly.
Yet this very fact that it is unalterably hard has limited its use,
because of the great difficulty of cutting it to shape, which has
in general to be done with emery wheels instead of the usual
iron-cutting tools. Another defect is its relatively low elastic
limit.
36. Chrome steel, which usually contains about 2 % of chromium
and 0-80 to 2% of carbon, owes its value to combining, when
in the " hardened " or suddenly cooled state, intense hardness
with a high elastic limit, so that itis neither deformed permanently
nor cracked by extremely violent shocks. For this reason it is
the material generally if not always used for armour-piercing
projectiles. It is much used also for certain rock-crushing
machinery (the shoes and dies of stamp-mills) and for safes.
These are made of alternate layers of soft wrought iron and
chrome steel hardened by sudden cooling. The hardness of the
hardened chrome steel resists the burglar's drill, and the ductility
of the wrought iron the blows of his sledge.
Vanadium in small quantities, 0-15 or 0-20%, is said to improve
steel greatly, especially in increasing its resistance to shock
and to often-repeated stress. But the improvement may be
due wholly to the considerable chromium content of these so-
called vanadium steels.
37. Tungsten steel, which usually contains from 5 to 10% of
tungsten and from i to 2% of carbon, is used for magnets,
because of its great retentivity.
38. Chrome-tungsten or High-speed Steel. — Steel with a large
content of both chromium and tungsten has the very valuable
property of " red-hardness," i.e. of retaining its hardness and
hence its power of cutting iron and other hard substances,
even when it is heated to dull redness, say 600° C. (1112° F.) by
the friction of the work which it is doing. Hence a machinist
can cut steel or iron nearly six times as fast with a lathe tool
of this steel as with one of carbon steel, because with the latter
the cutting speed must be so slow that the cutting tool is not
heated by the friction above say 250° C. (482° F.), lest it be unduly
softened or " tempered " (§ 20). This effect of chromium,
tungsten and carbon jointly consists essentially in raising the
" tempering temperature," i.e. that to which the metal, in which
by suitable thermal treatment the iron molecules have been
brought to the allotropic 7 or |3 state or a mixture of both, can
be heated without losing its hardness through the escape of that
iron into the a state. In short, these elements seem to impede
the allotropic change of the iron itself. The composition of this
steel is as follows: —
The usual limits. Apparently the best.
Carbon .... 0-32 to i -28 0-68 to 0-67
Manganese .... 0-03,, 0-30 0-07 „ o-n
Chromium .... 2-23 „ 7-02 5-95 „ 5'47
Tungsten .... 9-25 „ 25-45 I7'8i ,,18-19
39. Impurities. — The properties of iron and steel, like those
of most of the metals, are profoundly influenced by the presence
of small and sometimes extremely small quantities of certain
impurities, of which the most important are phosphorus and
sulphur, the former derived chiefly from apatite (phosphate of
lime) and other minerals which accompany the iron ore itself,
the latter from the pyrite found not only in most iron ores but
in nearly all coal and coke. All commercial iron and steel
contain more or less of both these impurities, the influence of
which is so strong that a variation of o-oi %, i.e. of one part in
10,000, of either of them has a noticeable effect. The best tool
steel should not contain more than 0-02% of either, and in
careful practice it is often specified that the phosphorus and
sulphur respectively shall not exceed 0-04 and 0-05% in the
steel for important bridges, or 0-06 and 0-07% in rail steel,
though some very prudent engineers allow as much as -085%
or even o-io % of phosphorus in rails.
40. The specific effect of phosphorus is to make the metal
cold-short, i.e. brittle in the cold, apparently because it increases
the size and the sharpness of demarcation of the crystalline
grains of which the mass is made up. The specific effect of sulphur
is to make the metal red-short, i.e. brittle when at a red heat,
by forming a network of iron sulphide which encases these
crystalline grains and thus plays the part of a weak link in a
strong chain.
41. Oxygen, probably dissolved in the iron as ferrous oxide
FeO, also makes the metal red-short.
42. Manganese by itself rather lessens than increases the
malleableness and, indeed, the general merit of the metal, but
it is added intentionally, in quantities even as large as 1-5%
to palliate the effects of sulphur and oxygen. With sulphur
it forms a sulphide which draws together into almost harmless
drops, instead of encasing the grains of iron. With oxygen it
probably forms manganous oxide, which is less harmful than
ferrous oxide. (See § 35.)
43. Ores of Iron. — Even though the earth seems to be a huge
iron meteor with but a thin covering of rocks, the exasperating
proneness of iron to oxidize explains readily why this metal is
only rarely found native, except in the form of meteorites.
They are four important iron ores, magnetite, haematite,
limonite and siderite, and one of less but still considerable
importance, pyrite or pyrites.
44. Magnetite, Fe3C>4, contains 72-41 % of iron. It crystallizes in
the cubical system, often in beautiful octahedra and rhombic
dodecahedra. It is black with a black streak. Its specific gravity
is 5-2, and its hardness 5-5 to 6-5. It is very magnetic, and sometimes
polar.
45. Haematite, or red haematite, Fe2O3, contains 70% of iron.
It crystallizes in the rhombohedral system. Its colour varies from
brilliant bluish-grey to deep red. Its streak is always red. Its
specific gravity is 5-3 and its hardness 5-5 to 6-5.
46. Limonite, 2Fe2O3, SHjO, contains 59-9% of iron. Its colour
varies from light brown to black. Its streak is yellowish-black,
its specific gravity 3-6 to 4-0, and its hardness 5 to 5-5. Limonite
and the related minerals, turgite, 2Fe2O3+H2O, and gothite,
Fe2O3-|-H2O, are grouped together under the term " brown haema-
tite."
47. Siderite, or spathic iron ore, FeCO3, crystallizes in the rhombo-
hedral system and contains 48-28% of iron. Its colour varies from
yellowish-brown to grey. Its specific gravity is 3-7 to 3-9, and its
hardness 3-5 to 4-5. The clayey siderite of the British coal measures
is called " clay band," and that containing bituminous matter
is called " black band."
48. Pyrite, FeS2, contains 46-7% of iron. It crystallizes in the
cubic system, usually in cubes, pentagonal dodecahedra or octa-
hedra, often of great beauty and perfection. It is golden-yellow,
with a greenish or brownish-black streak. Its specific gravity is
4-83 to 5-2, its hardness 6 to 6-5. Though it contains far too much
sulphur to be used in iron manufacture without first being desulphur-
ized, yet great quantities of slightly cupriferous pyrite, alter yielding
nearly all their sulphur in the manufacture of sulphuric acid, and
most of the remainder in the wet extraction of their copper, are then
used under the name of " blue billy " or " purple ore, ' as an ore of
iron, a use which is likely to increase greatly in importance with the
gradual exhaustion of the richest deposits of the oxidized ores.
49. The Ores actually Impure. — As these five minerals actually
exist in the earth's crust they are usually more or less impure
chemically, and they are almost always mechanically mixed with
xiv. 26a
8io
IRON AND STEEL
barren mineral matter, such as quartz, limestone and clay,
collectively called " the gangue." In some cases the iron-bearing
mineral, such as magnetite or haematite, can be separated from
the gangue after crushing, either mechanically or magnetically,
so that the part thus enriched or " concentrated " alone need be
smelted.
50. Geological Age. — The Archaean crystalline rocks abound
in deposits of magnetite and red haematite, many of them very
large and rich. These of course are the oldest of our ores, and
from deposits of like age, especially those of the more readily
decomposed silicates, has come the iron which now exists in the
siderites and red and brown haematites of the later geological
formations.
51. The World's Supply of Iron Ore. — The iron ores of the
earth's crust will probably suffice to supply our needs for a
very long period, perhaps indeed for many thousand years.
It is true that an official statement, which is here reproduced,
TABLE II. — Professor Tornebohm' s Estimate of the World's
Ore Supply.
Workable
Annual
Annual Con-
Country.
Deposits.
Output.
sumption.
tons.
tons.
tons.
United States . .
,100,000,000
35,000,000
35,000,000
Great Britain .
,000,000,000
14,000,000
20,000,000
Germany
,200,000,000
21,000,000
24,000,000
Spain
500,000,000
8,000,000
1,000,000
Russia and Finland
,500,000,000
4,000,000
6,000,000
France ....
,500,000,000
6,000,000
8,000,000
Sweden
,000,000,000
4,000,000
1,000,000
Austria-Hungary .
Other countries
,200,000,000
3,000,000
5,000,000
4,000,000
1,000,000
Total . .
10,000,000,000
100,000,000
100,000,000
Note to Table. — Though this estimate seems to be near the truth as
regards the British ores, it does not credit the United States with
one-tenth, if indeed with one-twentieth, of their true quantity as
estimated by that country's Geological Survey in 1907.
given in 1905 by Professor Tornebohm to the Swedish parliament,
credited the world with only 10,000,000,000 tons of ore, and that,
if the consumption of iron should continue to increase hereafter
as it did between 1893 and 1906, this quantity would last only
until 1946. How then can it be that there is a supply for
thousands of years? The two assertions are not to be reconciled
by pointing out that Professor Tornebohm underestimated, for
instance crediting the United States with only i-i billion tons,
whereas the United States Geological Survey's expert credits
that country with from ten to twenty times this quantity;
nor by pointing out that only certain parts of Europe and a
relatively small part of North America have thus far been
carefully explored for iron ore, and that the rest of these two
continents and South America, Asia and Africa may reasonably
be expected to yield very great stores of iron, and that pyrite,
one of the richest and most abundant of ores, has not been
included. Important as these considerations are, they are
much less important than the fact that a very large proportion
of the rocks of the earth's crust contain more or less iron, and
therefore are potential iron ores.
52. What Constitutes an Iron Ore. — Whether a ferruginous
rock is or is not ore is purely a question of current demand and
supply. That is ore from which there is reasonable hope that
metal can be extracted with profit, if not to-day, then within a
reasonable length of time. Rock containing 2j% of gold is an
extraordinarily rich gold ore; that with zj% of copper is a
profitable one to-day; that containing 2^% of iron is not so
to-day, for the sole reason that its iron cannot be extracted with
profit in competition with the existing richer ores. But it will
become a profitable ore as soon as the richer ore shall have
been exhausted. Very few of the ores which are mined to-day
contain less than 25% of iron, and some of them contain over
60%. As these richest ores are exhausted, poorer and poorer
ones will be used, and the cost of iron will increase progressively
if measured either in units of the actual energy used in mining
and smelting it, or in its power of purchasing animal and vegetable
products, cotton, wool, corn, &c., the supply of which is renewable
and indeed capable of very great increase, but probably not if
measured in its power of purchasing the various mineral products,
e.g. the other metals, coal, petroleum and the precious stones,
of which the supply is limited. This is simply one instance of the
inevitable progressive increase in cost of the irrecreatabJe mineral
relatively to the recreatable animal and vegetable. When, in
the course of centuries, the exhaustion of richer ores shall have
forced us to mine, crush and concentrate mechanically or by
magnetism the ores which contain only 2 or 3% of iron, then
the cost of iron in the ore, measured in terms of the energy
needed to mine and concentrate it, will be comparable with the
actual cost of the copper in the ore of the copper-mines of to-day.
But, intermediate in richness between these two extremes, the
iron ores mined to-day and these 2 and 3% ores, there is an
incalculably great quantity of ore capable of mechanical concen-
tration, and another perhaps vaster store of ore which we do
not yet know how to concentrate mechanically, so that the day
when a pound of iron in the ore will cost as much as a pound of
copper in the ore costs to-day is immeasurably distant.
33. Future Cost of Ore. — The cost of iron ore is likely to rise
much less rapidly than that of coal, because the additions to our
known supply are likely to be very much greater in the case of
ore than in that of coal, for the reason that, while rich and great
iron ore beds may exist anywhere, those of coal are confined
chiefly to the Carboniferous formation, a fact which has led to the
systematic survey and measurement of this formation in most
countries. In short, a very large part of the earth's coal supply
is known and measured, but its iron ore supply is hardly to be
guessed. On the other hand, the cost of iron ore is likely to
rise much faster than that of the potential aluminium ores,
clay and its derivatives, because of the vast extent and richness
of the deposits of this latter class. It is possible that, at some
remote day, aluminium, or one of its alloys, may become the
great structural material, and iron be used chiefly for those
objects for which it is especially fitted, such as magnets, springs
and cutting tools.
In passing, it may be noted that the cost of the ore itself forms
a relatively small part of the cost even of the cruder forms of steel,
hardly a quarter of the cost of such simple products as rails, and an
insignificant part of the cost of many most important finished
objects, such as magnets, cutting tools, springs and wire, for which
iron is almost indispensable. Thus, if the use of ores very much
poorer than those we now treat, and the need of concentrating them
mechanically, were to double the cost of a pound of iron in the
concentrated ore ready for smelting, that would increase the cost of
rails by only one quarter. Hence the addition to the cost of finished
steel objects which is due to our being forced to use progressively
poorer and poorer ores is likely to be much less than the addition
due to the progressive rise in the cost of coal and in the cost of labour,
because of the ever-rising scale of living. The effect of each of these
additions will be lessened by the future improvements in processes
of manufacture, and more particularly by the progressive replace-
ment of that ephemeral source of energy, coal, by the secular sources,
the winds, waves, tides, sunshine, the earth's heat and, greatest of
all, its momentum.
54. Ore Supply of the 'Chief Iron-making Countries. — The
United States mine nearly all of their iron ores, Austria-Hungary,
Russia and France mine the greater part of theirs, but none of
these countries exports much ore. Great Britain and Germany,
besides mining a great deal of ore, still have to import much
from Spain, Sweden and in the case of Germany from Luxemburg,
although, because of the customs arrangement between these
last two countries, this importation is not usually reported.
Belgium imports nearly all of its ore, while Sweden and Spain
export most of the ore which they mine.
55. Great Britain has many valuable ore beds, some rich in iron,
many of them near to beds of coal and to the sea-coast, to canals or
to navigable rivers. They extend from Northamptonshire to near
Glasgow. About two-thirds of the ore mined is clayey siderite.
In 1905 the Cleveland district in North Yorkshire supplied 41 %
of the total British product of iron ores; Lincolnshire, 14-8%;
Northamptonshire, 13-9%; Leicestershire, 4-7%; Cumberland,
8-6%; North Lancashire, 2-7%; Staffordshire, 6-1%; and
Scotland, 5-7%. The annuaj production of British iron ore reached
18,031,957 tons in 1882, but in 1905 it had fallen to 14,590,703 tons,
IRON AND STEEL
811
valued at £3,482,184. In addition 7,344,786 tons, or about half
as much as was mined in Great Britain, were imported, 78-5 % of
it from Spain. The most important British ore deposit is the Lower
Cleveland bed of oolitic siderite in the Middle Lias, near Middles-
borough. It is from 10 to 17 ft. thick, and its ore contains about
30 % of iron.
56. ideographical Distribution of the British Works. — Most of the
British iron works lie in and near the important coal-fields in
Scotland between the mouth of the Clyde and the Forth, in Cleveland
and Durham, in Cumberland and Lancashire, in south Yorkshire,
Derbyshire, and Lincolnshire, in Staffordshire and Northamptonshire,
and in south Wales in spite of its lack of ore.
The most important group is that of Cleveland and Durham,
which makes about one-third of all the British pig iron. It has the
great Cleveland ore bed and the excellent Durham coal near tide-
water at Middlesbrough. The most important seat of the manu-
facture of cutlery and the finer kinds of steel is at Sheffield.
57. The United, States have great deposits of ore in many different
places. The rich beds near Lake Superior, chiefly red haematite,
yielding at present about 55 % of iron, are thought to contain between
li and 2 billion tons, and the red and brown haematites of the
southern states about 10 billion tons. The middle states, New York,
New Jersey and Pennsylvania, are known to have many great
deposits of rich magnetite, which supplied a very large pro-
portion of the American ores till the discovery of the very cheaply
mined ores of Lake Superior. In 1906 these latter formed 80%
of the American production, and the southern states supplied
about 13% of it, while the rich deposits of the middle states are
husbanded in accordance with the law that ore bodies are drawn
on in the order of their apparent profitableness.
The most important American iron-making district is in and
about Pittsburg, to whose cheap coal the rich Lake Superior ores are
brought nearly 1000 m., about four-fifths of the distance in the large
ore steamers of the Great Lakes. Chicago, nearer to the Lake ores,
though rather far from the Pittsburg coal-field, is a very important
centre for rail-making for the railroads of the western states. Ohio,
the Lake Erie end of New York State, eastern Pennsylvania and
Maryland have very important works, the ore for which comes in
part from Lake Superior and in part from Pennsylvania, New York
and Cuba, and the fuel from Pennsylvania and its neighbourhood.
Tennessee and Alabama in the south rely on southern ore and fuel.
58. Germany gets about two-thirds of her total ore supply from
the great Jurassic " Minette " ore deposit of Luxemburg and Lorraine,
which reaches also into France and Belgium. In spite of its contain-
ing only about 36% of iron, this deposit is of very great value
because of its great size, and of the consequent small cost of mining.
It stretches through an area of about 8 m. wide and 40 m. long, and
in some places it is nearly 60 ft. thick. There are valuable deposits
also in Siegerland and in many other parts of the country.
59. Sweden has abundant, rich and very pure iron ores, but her
lack of coal has restricted her iron manufacture chiefly to the very
purest and best classes of iron and steel, in making which her thrifty
and intelligent people have developed very rare skill. The magnetite
ore bodies which supply this industry lie in a band about 1 80 m. long,
reaching from a little north of Stockholm westerly toward the
Norwegian frontier, between the latitudes 59° and 61 ° N. In Swedish
Lapland, near the Arctic circle, are the great Gellivara, Kirunavara
and Luossavara magnetite beds, among the largest in Europe.
From these beds, which in some parts are about 300 ft. thick, much
ore is sent to Germany and Great Britain.
60. Other Countries. — Spain has large, rich and pure iron ore
beds, near both her northern and her southern sea coast. She exports
about 90 % of all the iron ore which she mines, most of it to England.
France draws most of her iron ore from her own part of the great
Minette ore deposit, and from those parts of it which were taken from
her when she lost Alsace and Lorraine. Russia's most valuable ore
deposit is the very large and easily mined one of Krivoi Rog in the
south, from which comes about half of the Russian iron ore. It is
near the Donetz coal-field, the largest in Europe. There are also
important ore beds in the Urals, near the border of Finland, and at the
south of Moscow. In Austria- Hungary, besides the famous Styrian
Erzberg, with its siderite ore bed about 450 ft. thick, there are cheaply
mined but poor and impure ores near Prague, and important ore beds
in both northern and southern Hungary. Algeria, Canada, Cuba
and India have valuable ore bodies.
61. Richness of Iron Ores. — The American ores now mined are
decidedly richer than those of most European countries. To make
a ton of pig iron needs only about I -9 tons of ore in the United States,
2 tons in Sweden and Russia, 2-4 tons in Great Britain and Germany,
and about 2-7 tons in France and Belgium, while about 3 tons of the
native British ores are needed per ton of pig iron.
62. The general scheme of iron manufacture is shown dia-
grammatically in fig. 6. To put the iron contained in iron ore
into a state in which it can be used as a metal requires essentially,
first its deoxidation, and second its separation from the other
mineral matter, such as clay, quartz, &c., with which it is found
associated. These two things are done simultaneously by heating
and melting the ore in contact with coke, charcoal or anthracite,
in the iron blast furnace, from which issue intermittently two
molten streams, the iron now deoxidized and incidentally
carburized by the fuel with which it has been in contact, and
the mineral matter, now called " slag." This crude cast iron,
called " pig iron," may be run from the blast furnace directly
FIG. 6. — General Scheme of Iron Manufacture.
into moulds, which give the metal the final shape in which it
is to be used in the arts; but it is almost always either remelted,
following path i of fig. 6, and then cast into castings of cast
iron, or converted into wrought iron of steel by purifying it,
following path 2.
If it is to follow path I, the castings into which it is made may be
either (a) grey or (ft) chilled or (c) malleable. Grey iron castings are
made by remelting the pig iron either in a small shaft of " cupola"
furnace, or in a reverberatory or " air " furnace, with very little
change of chemical composition, and then casting it directly into
suitable moulds, usually of either " baked," i.e. oven-dried, or
" green," i.e. moist undried, sand, but sometimes of iron covered
with a refractory coating to protect it from being melted or over-
heated by the molten cast iron. The general procedure in the manu-
facture of chilled and of malleable castings has been described in
§§ 30 and 31.
If the pig iron is to follow path 2, the purification which converts
it into wrought iron or steel consists chiefly in oxidizing and thereby
removing its carbon, phosphorus and other impurities, while it is
molten, either by means of the oxygen of atmospheric air blown
through it as in the Bessemer process, or by the oxygen of iron ore
stirred into it as in the puddling and Bell-Krupp processes, or by
both together as in the open hearth process.
On its way from the blast furnace to the converter or open hearth
furnace the pig iron is often passed through a great reservoir called
a " mixer," which acts also as an equalizer, to lessen the variation in
composition of the cast iron, and as a purifier, removing part of the
sulphur and silicon.
63. Shaping and Adjusting Processes. — Besides these ex-
traction and purification processes there are those of adjust-
ment and shaping. The adjusting processes adjust either the
ultimate composition, e.g. carburizing wrought iron by long
heating in contact with charcoal (cementation) , or the proximate
composition or constitution, as in the hardening, tempering
and annealing of steel already described (§§ 28, 29), or both,
as in the p'rocess of making malleable cast iron (§ 31). The
shaping processes include the mechanical ones, such as rolling,
forging and wire-drawing, and the remelting ones such as the
crucible process of melting wrought iron or steel in crucibles
and casting it in ingots for the manufacture of the best kinds
of tool steel. Indeed, the remelting of cast iron to make grey
iron castings belongs here. This classification, though it helps
to give a general idea of the subject, yet like most of its kind
cannot be applied rigidly. Thus the crucible process in its
American form both carburizes and remelts, and the open
hearth process is often used rather for remelting than for
purifying.
64. The iron blast furnace, a crude but very efficient piece
of apparatus, is an enormous shaft usually about 80 ft. high
and 20 ft. wide at its widest part. It is at all times full from
top to bottom, somewhat as sketched in figs. 7 and 8, of a solid
column of lumps of fuel, ore and limestone, which are charged
through a hopper at the top, and descend slowly as the lower
end of the column is eaten off through the burning away of
its coke by means of very hot air or " blast " blown through
812
IRON AND STEEL
Melting
Collecting
FIG. 7. — Section of Duquesne Blast Furnace.
GG, Flanges on the ore bucket ; P, Cinder notch;
HH, Fixed flanges on the top of RR', Water cooled boxes;
the furnace; S, Blast pipe;
J, Counterweighted false bell; T, Cable for allowing conical
K, Main bell; bottom of bucket to
O, Tuyere ; drop.
holes or " tuyeres " near the bottom or " hearth," and through
the melting away, by the heat thus generated, both of the iron
itself which has been deoxidized in its descent, and of the other
minerals of the ore, called the " gangue," which unite with the
FIG. 8. — Lower Part of the Blast Furnace.
-^* Drops of Slag
Lumps of Coke - C3» Dsops of Iron
Lumps'of Iron Ore «» £aytr of Molten Slag--
Lumps of Lime • • O • Layer of Molten Iron - - MM
* The ore and lime actually exist here in powder. They are
shown in lump form because of the difficulty of presenting to the
eye their powdered state.
lime of the limestone and the ash of the fuel to form a complex
molten silicate called the " cinder " or " slag."
Interpenetrating this descending column of solid ore, limestone
and coke, there is an upward rushing column of hot gases, the
atmospheric nitrogen of the blast from the tuyeres, and the
FIG. p. — Method of transferring charge from bucket to main charg-
ing bell, without permitting escape of furnace gas (lettering as in
% 7).
carbonic oxide from the combustion of the coke by that blast.
The upward ascent of the column of gases is as swift as the
descent of the solid charge is slow. The former occupies but a
very few seconds, the latter from 1 2 to 1 5 hours.
IRON AND STEEL
813
In the upper part of the furnace the carbonic oxide deoxidizes
the iron oxide of the ore by such reactions as *CO+FeO* =
Fe+zCOa. Part of the resultant carbonic acid is again de-
oxidized to carbonic oxide by the surrounding fuel, CO2+C = 2CO,
and the carbonic oxide thus formed deoxidizes more iron oxide,
&c. As indicated in fig. 7, before the iron ore has descended
very far it has given up nearly the whole of its oxygen, and thus
lost its power of oxidizing the rising carbonic oxide, so that
from here down the atmosphere of the furnace consists essentially
of carbonic oxide and nitrogen.
But the transfer of heat from the rising gases to the sinking
solids, which has been going on in the upper part of the furnace,
continues as the solid column gradually sinks downward to
the hearth, till at the " fusion level " (A in fig. 7) the solid
matter has become so hot that the now deoxidized iron melts,
as does the slag as fast as it is formed by the union of its three
constituents, the gangue, the lime resulting from the decom-
position of the limestone and the ash of the fuel. Hence from
this level down the only solid matter is the coke, in lumps which
are burning rapidly and hence shrinking, while between them
the molten iron and slag trickle, somewhat as sketched in fig. 8,
to collect in the hearth in two layers as distinct as water and
oil, the iron below, the slag above.
As they collect, the molten iron is drawn off at intervals
through a hole A (fig. 8), temporarily stopped with clay, at the
very bottom, and the slag through another hole a little higher
up, called the " cinder notch." Thus the furnace may be said
to have four zones, those of (i) deoxidation, (2) heating, (3)
melting, and (4) collecting, though of course the heating is
really going on in all four of them.
In its slow descent the deoxidized iron nearly saturates
itself with carbon, of which it usually contains between 3-5
and 4%, taking it in part from the fuel with which it is in such
intimate contact, and in part from the finely divided carbon
deposited within the very lumps of ore, by the reaction 2CO =
C-j-COz. This carburizing is an indispensable part of the process,
because through it alone can the iron be made fusible enough
to melt at the temperature which can be generated in the furnace,
and only when liquid can it be separated readily and completely
from the slag. In fact, the molten iron is heated so far above
its melting point that, instead of being run at once into pigs
as is usual, it may, without solidifying, be carried even several
miles in large clay-lined ladles to the mill where it is to be
•converted into steel.
65. The fuel has, in addition to its duties of deoxidizing
and carburizing the iron and yielding the heat needed for melting
both the iron and slag, the further task of desulphurizing the
iron, probably by the reaction FeS+CaO+C = Fe+CaS+CO.
The desulphurizing effect of this transfer of the sulphur from
union with iron to union with calcium is due to the fact that, whereas
iron sulphide dissolves readily in the molten metallic iron, calcium
sulphide, in the presence of a slag rich in lime, does not, but by
preference enters the slag, which may thus absorb even as much as
3 % of sulphur. This action is of great importance whether the
metal is to be used as cast iron or is to be converted into wrought
iron or steel. In the former case there is no later chance to remove
sulphur, a minute quantity of which does great harm by leading
to the formation of cementite instead of graphite and ferrite, and
thus making the cast-iron castings too hard to be cut to exact shape
with steel tools; in the latter case the converting or purifying pro-
cesses, which are essentially oxidizing ones, though they remove
the other impurities, carbon, silicon, phosphorus and manganese,
are not well adapted to desulphurizing, which needs rather deoxidiz-
ing conditions, so as to cause the formation of calcium sulphide, than
oxidizing ones.
66. The duty of the limestone (CaCOs) is to furnish enough
lime to form with the gangue of the ore and the ash of the
fuel a lime silicate or slag of such a composition (i) that it
will melt at the temperature which it reaches at about level
A, of fig. 7, (2) that it will be fluid enough to run out through
the cinder notch, and (3) that it will be rich enough in lime
to supply that needed for the desulphurizing reaction FeS+
CaO+C = Fe+CaS-f-CO. In short, its duty is to "flux"
the gangue and ash, and wash out the sulphur.
67. In order that the slag shall have these properties its
composition usually lies between the following limits: silica,
26 to 35%; lime, plus 1-4 times the magnesia, 45 to 55%;
alumina, 5 to 20%. Of these the silica and alumina are chiefly
those which the gangue of the ore and the ash of the fuel intro-
duce, whereas the lime is that added intentionally to form with
these others a slag of the needed physical properties.
Thus the more gangue the ore contains, i.e. the poorer it is in iron,
the more limestone must in general be added, and hence the more
slag results, though of course an ore the gangue of which initially
contains much lime and little silica needs a much smaller addition
of limestone than one of which the gangue is chiefly silica. Further,
the more sulphur there is to remove, the greater must be the quantity
of slag needed to dissolve it as calcium sulphide. In smelting the
rich Lake Superior ores the quantity of slag made was formerly as
small as 28 % of that of the pig iron, whereas in smelting the Cleve-
land ores of Great Britain it is usually necessary to make as much as
i i tons of slag for each ton of iron.
68. Shape and Size of the "Blast-Furnace. — Large size has here,
as in most metallurgical operations, not only its usual advantage
of economy of installation, labour and administration per unit
of product, but the further very important one that it lessens
the proportion which the outer heat-radiating and hence heat-
wasting surface bears to the whole. The limits set to the furnace
builder's natural desire to make his furnace as large as possible,
and its present shape (an obtuse inverted cone set below an
acute upright one, both of them truncated), have been reached
in part empirically, and in part by reasoning which is open
to question, as indeed are the reasons which will now be offered
reservedly for both size and shape.
First the width at the tuyeres (fig. 7) has generally been
limited to about \i\ ft. by the fear that, if it were greater,
the blast would penetrate so feebly to the centre that the differ-
ence in conditions between centre and circumference would
be so great as to cause serious unevenness of working. Of
late furnaces have been built even as wide as 17 ft. in the hearth,
and it may prove that a width materially greater than 125 ft.
can profitably be used. With the width at the bottom thus
limited, the furnace builder naturally tries to gain volume as
rapidly as possible by flaring or " battering " his walls outwards,
i.e. by making the " bosh " or lower part of his furnace an
inverted cone as obtuse as is consistent with the free descent
of the solid charge. In practice a furnace may be made to
work regularly if its boshes make an angle of between 73° and
76° with the horizontal, and we may assume that one element
of this regularity is the regular easy sliding of the charge over
this steep slope. A still steeper one not only gives less available
room, but actually leads to irregular working, perhaps because
it unduly favours the passage of the rising gas along the walls
instead of up and through the charge, and thus causes the
deoxidation of the central core to lag behind that of the periphery
of the column, with the consequence that this central core arrives
at the bottom incompletely deoxidized.
In the very swift-running furnaces of the Pittsburg type
this outward flare of the boshes ceases at about 12 ft. above
the tuyeres, and is there reversed, as in fig. 7, so that the furnace
above this is a very acute upright cone, the walls of which
make an angle of about 4° with the vertical, instead of an obtuse
inverted cone.
In explanation or justification of this it has been said that a much
easier descent must be provided above this level than is needed
below it. Below this level the solid charge descends easily, because
it consists of coke alone or nearly alone, and this in turn because the
temperature- here is so high as to melt not only the iron now de-
oxidized and brought to the metallic state, but also the gangue of the
ore and the limestone, which here unite to form the molten slag,
and run freely down between the lumps of coke. This coke descends
freely even through this fast-narrowing space, because it is perfectly
solid and dry without a trace of pastiness. But immediately above
this level the charge is relatively viscous, because here the temperature
has fallen so far that it is now at the melting or formation point of
the slag, which therefore is pasty, liable to weld the whole mass
together as so much tar would, and thus to obstruct the descent of
the charge, or in short to " scaffold."
The reason why at this level the walls must form an upright
instead of an inverted cone, why the furnace must widen downward
instead of narrowing, is, according to some metallurgists, that this
IRON AND STEEL
shape is needed in order that, in spite of the pastiness of the slag in
this formative period of incipient fusion, this layer may descend
freely as the lower part of the column is gradually eaten away.
To this very plausible theory it may be objected that in many slow-
running furnaces, which work very regularly and show no sign of
scaffolding, the outward flare of the boshes continues (though
steepened) far above this region of pastiness, indeed nearly half-way
to the top of the furnace. This proves that the regular descent of the
material in its pasty state can take place even in a space which is
narrowing downwards. To this objection it may in turn be answered
that, though this degree of freedom of descent may suffice for a slow-
running furnace, particularly if the slag is given such a composition
that it passes quickly from the solid state to one of decided fluidity,
yet it is not enough for swift-running ones, especially if the com-
position of the slag is such that, in melting, it remains long in a very
sticky condition. In limiting the diameter at the tuyeres to I2j ft.,
the height of the boshes to one which will keep their upper end
below the region of pastiness, and their slope to one over which the
burning coke will descend freely, we limit the width of the furnace
at the top of the boshes and thus complete the outline of the lower
part of the furnace.
The height of the furnace is rarely as great as 100 ft., and in
the belief of many metallurgists it should not be much more
than 80 ft. There are some very evident disadvantages of
excessive height; for instance, that the weight of an excessively
high column of solid coke, ore and limestone tends to crush the
coke and jam the charge in the lower and narrowing part of the
furnace, and that the frictional resistance of a long column
calls for a greater consumption of power for driving the blast
up through it. Moreover, this resistance increases much more
rapidly than the height of the furnace, even if the rapidity with
which the blast is forced through is constant; and it still further
increases if the additional space gained by lengthening the
furnace is made useful by increasing proportionally the rate
of production, as indeed would naturally be done, because
the chief motive for gaining this additional space is to increase
production.
The reason why the frictional resistance would be further increased
is the very simple one that the increase in the rate of production
implies directly a corresponding increase in the quantity of blast
forced through, and hence in the velocity of the rising gases, because
the chemical work of the blast furnace needs a certain quantity of
blast for each ton of iron made. In short, to increase the rate of
production by lengthening the furnace increases the frictional
resistance of the rising gases, both by increasing their quantity and
hence their velocity and by lengthening their path.
Indeed, one important reason for the difficulties in working very
high furnaces, e.g. those 100 ft. high, may be that this frictional
resistance becomes so great as actually to interrupt the even descent
of the charge, parts of which are at times suspended like a ball in
the rising jet of a fountain, to fall perhaps with destructive violence
when some shifting condition momentarily lessens the friction.
We see how powerful must be the lifting effect of the rising gases
when we reflect that their velocity in a loo ft. furnace rapidly driven
is probably at least as great as 2000 ft. per minute, or that of a
" high wind." Conceive these gases passing at this great velocity
through the narrow openings between the adjoining lumps of coke
and ore. Indeed, the velocity must be far greater than this where the
edge or corner of one lump touches the side of another, and the only
room for the passage of this enormous quantity of gas is that left
by the roughness and irregularity of the individual lumps.
The furnace is made rather narrow at the top or " stock line,"
in order that the entering ore, fuel and flux may readily be
distributed evenly. But extreme narrowness would not only
cause the escaping gases to move so swiftly that they would sweep
much of the fine ore out of the furnace, but would also throw
needless work on the blowing engines by throttling back the
rising gases, and would lessen unduly the space available for
the charge in the upper part of the furnace.
From its top down, the walls of the furnace slope outward at
an angle of between 3° and 8°, partly in order to ease the descent
of the charge, here impeded by the swelling of the individual
particles of ore caused by the deposition within them of great
quantities of fine carbon, by the reaction of 2CO = C+CO2.
To widen it more abruptly would indeed increase the volume of
the furnace, but would probably lead to grave irregularities in
the distribution of the gas and charge, and hence in the working
of the furnace.
When we have thus fixed the height of the furnace, its
diameter at its ends, and the slope of its upper and lower
parts, we have completed its outline closely enough for our
purpose here.
69. Hoi Blast and Dry Blast. — On its way from the blowing
engine to the tuyeres of the blast-furnace, the blast, i.e. the air
forced in for the purpose of burning the fuel, is usually pre-heated,.
and in some of the most progressive works is dried by Gayley's
refrigerating process. These steps lead to a saving of fuel so
great as to be astonishing at first sight — indeed in case of Gayley's
blast-drying process incredible to most writers, who proved
easily and promptly to their own satisfaction that the actual
saving was impossible. But the explanation is really so very
simple that it is rather the incredulity of these writers that is
astonishing. In the hearth of the blast furnace the heat made
latent by the fusion of the iron and slag must of course be supplied
by some body which is itself at a temperature above the melting
point of these bodies, which for simplicity of exposition we may
call the critical temperature of the blast-furnace process, because
heat will flow only from a hotter to a cooler object. Much the
same is true of the heat needed for the deoxidation of the silica,
SiO2+2C = Si+2CO2. Now the heat developed by the com-
bustion of coke to carbonic oxide with cold air containing the
usual quantity of moisture, develops a temperature only slightly
above this critical point; and it is only the heat represented by
this narrow temperature-margin that is available for doing this
critical work of fusion and deoxidation. That is the crux of the
matter. If by pre-heating the blast we add to the sum of the
heat available; or if by drying it we subtract from the work
to be done by that heat the quantity needed for decomposing
the atmospheric moisture; or if by removing part of its nitrogen.
we lessen the mass over which the heat developed has to be
spread — if by any of these means we raise the temperature
developed by the combustion of the coke, it is clear that we
increase the proportion of the total heat which is available for
this critical work in exactly the way in which we should increase
the proportion of the water of a stream, initially 100 in. deep,,
which should flow over a waste weir initially i in. beneath the
stream's surface, by raising the upper surface of the water 10 in.
and thus increasing the depth of the water to no in. Clearly
this raising the level of the water by 10% increases tenfold, or
by 1000%, the volume of water which is above the level of the
weir.
The special conditions of the blast-furnace actually exaggerate
the saving due to this widening of the available temperature- margin,,
and beyond this drying the blast does great good by preventing the
serious irregularities in working the furnace caused by changes in
the humidity of the air with varying weather.
70. Means of Heating the Blast. — After the ascending column
of gases has done its work of heating and deoxidizing the ore,
it still necessarily contains so much carbonic oxide, usually
between 20 and 26% by weight, that it is a very valuable fuel,
part of which is used for raising steam for generating the blast
itself and driving the rolling mill engines, &c., or directly in
gas engines, and the rest for heating the blast. This heating
was formerly done by burning part of the gases, after their
escape from the furnace top, in a large combustion chamber,
around a series of cast iron pipes through which the blast passed
on its way from the blowing engine to the tuyeres. But these
" iron pipe stoves " are fast going out of use, chiefly because
they are destroyed quickly if an attempt is made to heat the
blast above 1000° F. (538° C.), often a very important thing.
In their place the regenerative stoves of the Whitwell and
Cowper types (figs. 10 and 1 1) are used. With these the regular
temperature of the blast at some works is about 1400° F.
(76o°C.), and the usual blast temperature lies between 900°
and i2oo°F. (480° and 650° C.).
Like the Siemens furnace, described in § 99, they have twa
distinct phases: one, " on gas," during which part of the waste
gas of the blast-furnace is burnt within the stove, highly heating
the great surface of brickwork which for that purpose is provided
within it; the other, "on wind," during which the blast is
heated by passing it back over these very surfaces which
have thus been heated. They are heat-filters or heat-traps for
IRON AND STEEL
impounding the heat developed by the combustion of the furnace
gas, and later returning it to the blast. Each blast-furnace is
now provided with three or even four of these stoves, which
collectively may be nearly thrice as large as the furnace itself.
At any given time one of these is " on wind " and the others
" on gas."
The Whitwell stove (fig. 10), by means of the surface of several
fire-brick walls, catches in one phase the heat evolved by the burning
gas as it sweeps
through, and in the
other phase returns
that heat to the
entering blast as it
sweeps through from
left to right. In the
original Whitwell
stove, which lacks
the chimneys shown
at the top of fig. 10,
both the burning gas
and the blast pass
up and down re-
peatedly. In the H.
Kennedy modifica-
tion, shown in fig. ip,
the gas and air in
one phase enter at
the bottom of all
three of the large
vertical chambers,
burn in passing up-
wards, and escape at
once at the top, as
shown by the broken
arrows. In the other
phase the cold blast,
forced in at A, passes
four times up and
down, as shown by
the unbroken arrows,
and escapes as hot
blast at B. This,
then, isa " one-pass "
stove when on gas
but a " four-pass "
one when on wind.
The Cowper stove
815
Wind
FIG. 10. — Whitwell Hot-Blast Stove, as
modified by H. Kennedy. When " on wind," , • - •
the cold blast is forced in at A, and passes hfvam% not a ser'es
four times up and down, as shown by means ?f ™* sm°°th wa'ls.
of unbroken arrows, escaping as hot-blast at bfut a Sreat num.ber
B. When " on gas," the gas and air enter at 2 "prr?Wr tjer
the bottom of each of the three larger flues, E forthealter-
vertical chambers, pass once up through the nat.e absorption and
stove, and escape at the top, as shown by emission of the heat,
means of broken arrows. Hence this is a four- $J the consequence
pass stove when on wind, but a one-pass t?f ' Y?r Slv.en
side dimensions, it
g offers
more heating surface than the true Whitwell stove; and (2)
in that the gas and the blast pass only once up and once down
through it, instead of twice up and twice down as in the modern
true Whitwell stoves. As regards frictional resistance, this smaller
number of reversals of direction compensates in a measure for the
smaller area of the Cowper flues. The large combustion chamber
B permits thorough combustion of the gas.
71. Preservation of the Furnace Walls. — The combined fluxing
.and abrading action of the descending charge tends to wear
away the lining of the furnace where it is hottest, which of
course is near its lower end, thus changing its shape materially,
lessening its efficiency, and in particular increasing its consump-
tion of fuel. The walls, therefore, are now made thin, and are
thoroughly cooled by water, which circulates through pipes or
boxes bedded in them. James Gayley's method of cooling, shown
in fig. 7, is to set in the brick- work walls several horizontal rows
of flat water-cooled bronze boxes, RR', extending nearly to the
interior of the furnace, and tapered so that they can readily be
withdrawn and replaced in case they burn through. The brick-
work may wear back to the front edges of these boxes, or even,
as is shown at R', a little farther. But in the latter case their
edges still determine the effective profile of the furnace walls
because the depressions at the back of these edges become filled
with carbon and scoriaceous matter when the furnace is in normal
working. Each of these rows, of which five are shown in fig. 7,
consists of a great number of short segmental boxes.
72. Blast-furnace Gas Engines. — When the gas which escapes
from the furnace top is used in gas engines it generates about
four times as much power as when it is used for raising steam.
It has been calculated that the gas from a pair of old-fashioned
blast-furnaces making 1600 tons of iron per week would in this
way yield some 16,000 horse-power in excess of their own needs,
and that all the available blast-furnace gas in the United States
would develop about 1,500,000 horse-power, to develop which
by raising steam would need about 20,000,000 tons of coal a
year. Of this power about half would be used at the blast-
furnaces them-
selves, leaving
750,000 horse-
power available-
for driving the
machinery of the
rolling mills, &c.
This use of the gas
engine is likely to
have far-reaching
results. In order to
utilize this power,
the converting mill,
in which the pig iron
is converted into
steel, and the rolling
mills must adjoin
the blast - furnace.
The numerous con-
verting mills which
treat pig iron made
at a distance will
now have the crush-
ing burden of pro-
viding in other ways
the power which
their rivals get from
the blast-furnace, in
addition to the severe
disadvantage under
which they already
suffer, of wasting the
initial heat of the
molten cast iron as
it runs from the blast-
furnace. Before its
use in the gas engine,
the blast-furnace gas
has to be freed care-
fully from the large
quantity of fine ore
dust which it carries
in suspension.
73. Mechanical
Appliances. — Mov-
ing the raw ma-
terials and the pro-
ducts: In order to
move economically
the great quantity
of materials which
enter and issue from
each furnace daily,
mechanical appli-
ances have at many
works displaced
hand labour wholly,
and indeed that any
of the materials
should be shovelled by hand is not to be thought of in designing
new works.
The arrangement at the Carnegie Company's Duquesne works
(fig. 12) may serve as an example of modern methods of handling.
The standard-gauge cars which bring the ore and coke to Duquesne
pass over one of three very long rows of bins, A, B, and C (fig. 12),
of which A and B receive the materials (ore, coke and limestone)
FIG. ii.- — Diagram of Cowper Hot-Blast
Stove at Duquesne. (After J.Kennedy. )Broken
arrows show the path of the gas and air
while the stove is " on gas," and solid arrows
that of the blast while it is " on wind."
A, Entrance for blast-furnace gas.
B, B, Combustion chamber.
C, Chimney valve.
D, Cold blast main.
E, Hollow bricks.
8i6
IRON AND STEEL
for immediate use, while C receives those to be stored for winter
use. From A and B the materials are drawn as they are needed
into large buckets D standing on cars, which carry them to the foot
of the hoist track EE, up which they are hoisted to the top of the
furnace. Arrived here, the material is introduced into the furnace
by an ingenious piece of mechanism which completely prevents the
furnace gas from escaping into the air. The hoist-engineer in the
house F at the foot of the furnace, when informed by means of an
indicator that the bucket has arrived at the top, lowers it so that
its flanges GG (fig. 7) rest on the corresponding fixed flanges HH, as
shown in fig. 9. The farther descent of the bucket being thus
arrested, the special cable T is now slackened, so that the conical
bottom of the bucket drops down, pressing down by its weight the
the string of moulds, each thus containing a pig, moves slowly
forward, the pigs solidify and cool, the more quickly because
in transit they are sprayed with water or even submerged ia
^"^'^^
FIG. 12. — Diagram of the Carnegie Blast-Furnace Plant at Duquesne, Pa.
A and B, Bins for stock for immediate use. F, Hoist-engine house. N, N, N, Ladles carrying the molten
C, Receiving bin for winter stock pile. LL, Travelling crane commanding stock pile. fas.^ *ron *° *he works, where
D, D, Ore bucket. M, Ore bucket receiving ore for stock pile. it is converted into steel by the
EE, Hoist-track. M', Bucket removing ore from stock pile. open hearth process.
counter-weighted false cover J of the furnace, so that the contents
of the bucket slide down into the space between this false ,cover
and the true charging bell, K. The special cable T is now tightened
again, and lifts the bottom of the bucket so as both to close it and
to close the space between J and K, by allowing J to rise back to
its initial place. The bucket then descends along the hoist-track
to make way for the next succeeding one, and K is lowered, dropping
the charge into the furnace. Thus some 1700 tons of materials
are charged daily into each of these furnaces without being shovelled
at all, running by gravity from bin to bucket and from bucket to
furnace, and being noisted and charged into the furnace by a single
engineer below, without any assistance or supervision at the furnace-
top.
The winter stock of materials is drawn from the left-hand row of
bins, and distributed over immense stock piles by means of the
water in the tank EE. Arrived at the farther sheave C, the now
cool pigs are dumped into a railway car.
Besides a great saving of labour, only partly offset by the cost of
repairs, these machines have the great merit of making the manage-
ment independent of a very troublesome set of labourers, the hand
pig-breakers, who were not only absolutely indispensable for every
cast and every day, because the pig iron must be removed promptly
to make way for the next succeeding cast of iron, but very difficult
to replace because of the great
physical endurance which their
work requires.
75. Direct Processes for making
Wrought Iron and Steel. — The
FIG. 13. — Diagram of Pig-Casting Machine.
A, Ladle bringing the cast iron from the blast-furnace. EE, Tank in which the moulds are submerged.
BB, The moulds. F, Car into which the cooled pigs are dropped.
C, D, Sheaves carrying the endless chain of moulds. G, Distributing funnel.
great crane LL (fie. 12), which transfers it as it is needed to the
row A of bins, whence it is carried to the furnace, as already ex-
plained.
74. Casting the Molten Pig Iron. — The molten pig iron at many
works is still run directly from the furnace into sand or iron
moulds arranged in a way which suggests a nursing litter of pigs;
hence the name " pig iron." These pigs are then usually broken
by hand. The Uehling casting machine (fig. 13) has displaced
this method in many works. It consists essentially of a series
of thin-walled moulds, BB, carried by endless chains past the
lip of a great ladle A. This pours into them the molten cast iron
which it has just received directly from the blast-furnace. As
present way of getting the iron of the ore into the form of wrought
iron and steel by first making cast iron and then purifying it,
i.e. by first putting carbon and silicon into the iron and then
taking them out again at great expense, at first sight seems
so unreasonably roundabout that many " direct " processes
of extracting the iron without thus charging it with carbon and
silicon have been proposed, and some of them have at times been
important. But to-day they have almost ceased to exist.
That the blast-furnace process must be followed by a purifying
one, that carburization must at once be undone by decarburization,
is clearly a disadvantage, but it is one which is far out-weighed by
five important incidental advantages, (i) The strong deoxidizing
IRON AND STEEL
817
action incidental to this carburizing removes the sulphur easily and
cheaply, a thing hardly to be expected of any direct process so far
as we can see. (2) The carburizing incidentally carburizes the
brickwork of the furnace, and thus protects it against corrosion by
the molten slag. (3) It protects the molten iron against reoxidation,
the greatest stumbling block in the way of the direct processes
hitherto. (4) This same strong deoxidizing action leads to the
practically complete deoxidation and hence extraction of the iron.
(5) In that carburizing lowers the melting point of the iron greatly,
it lowers somewhat the temperature to which the mineral matter of
the ore has to be raised in order that the iron may be separated
from it, because this separation requires that both iron and slag
shall be very fluid. Indeed, few if any of the direct processes have
attempted to make this separation, or to make it complete, leaving
it for some subsequent operation, such as the open hearth process.
In addition, the blast-furnace uses a very cheap source of energy,
coke, anthracite, charcoal, and even certain kinds of raw bituminous
coal, and owing first to the intimacy of contact between this fuel and
the ore on which it works, and second to the thoroughness of the
transfer of heat from the products of that fuel's combustion in
their long upward journey through the descending charge, even
this cheap energy is used most effectively.
Thus we have reasons enough why the blast-furnace has displaced
all competing processes, without taking into account its further
advantage in lending itself easily to working on an enormous scale
and with trifling consumption of labour, still further lessened by the
general practice of transferring the molten cast iron in enormous
ladles into the vessels in which its conversion into steel takes place.
Nevertheless, a direct process may yet be made profitable under
conditions which specially favour it, such as the lack of any fuel
suitable for the blast-furnace, coupled with an abundance of cheap
fuel suitable for a direct process and of cheap rich ore nearly free
from sulphur.
76. The chief difficulty in the way of modifying the blast-
furnace process itself so as to make it accomplish what the direct
processes aim at, by giving its product less carbon and silicon
than pig iron as now made contains, is the removal of the sulphur.
The processes for converting cast iron into steel can now remove
phosphorus easily, but the removal of sulphur in them is so
difficult that it has to be accomplished for the most part in the
blast-furnace itself. As desulphurizing seems to need the direct
and energetic action of carbon on the molten iron itself, and as
molten iron absorbs carbon most greedily, it is hard to see how
the blast-furnace is to desulphurize without carburizing almost
to saturation, i.e. without making cast iron.
77. Direct Metal and the Mixer. — Until relatively lately the
cast iron for the Bessemer and open-hearth processes was nearly
always allowed to solidify in pigs, which were next broken up
by hand and remelted at great cost. It has long been seen that
there would be a great saving if this remelting could be avoided
and " direct metal," i.e. the molten cast iron direct from the blast-
furnace, could be treated in the conversion process. The obstacle
is that, owing to unavoidable irregularities in the blast-furnace
process, the silicon- and sulphur-content of the cast iron vary
to a degree and with an abruptness which are inconvenient for
any conversion process and intolerable for the Bessemer process.
For the acid variety of this process, which does not remove
sulphur, this most harmful element must be held below a limit
which is always low, though it varies somewhat with the use to
which the steel is to be put. Further, the point at which the
process should be arrested is recognized by the appearance of
the flame which issues from the converter's mouth, and variations
in the silicon-content of the cast iron treated alter this appearance,
so that the indications of the flame become confusing, and control
over the process is lost. Moreover, the quality of the resultant
steel depends upon the temperature of the process, and this in
turn depends upon the proportion of silicon, the combustion
of which is the chief source of the heat developed. Hence the
importance of having the silicon-content constant. In the basic
Bessemer process, also, unforeseen variations in the silicon-
content are harmful, because the quantity of lime added should
be just that needed to neutralize the resultant silica and the
phosphoric acid and no more. Hence the importance of having
the silicon-content uniform. This uniformity is now given by
the use of the " mixer " invented by Captain W. R. Jones.
This " mixer " is a great reservoir into which successive lots
of molten cast iron from all the blast-furnaces available are
poured, forming a great molten mass of from 200 to 750 tons.
This is kept molten by a flame playing above it, and successive
lots of the cast iron thus mixed are drawn off, as they are needed,
for conversion into steel by the Bessemer or open-hearth process.
An excess of silicon or sulphur in the cast iron from one blast-
furnace is diluted by thus mixing this iron with that from the
other furnaces. Should several furnaces simultaneously make
iron too rich in silicon, this may be diluted by pouring into the
mixer some low-silicon iron melted for this purpose in a cupola
furnace. This device not only makes the cast iron much more
uniform, but also removes much of its sulphur by a curious
slow reaction. Many metals have the power of dissolving their
own oxides and sulphides, but not those of other metals. Thus
iron, at least highly carburetted, i.e. cast iron, dissolves its own
sulphide freely, but not that of either calcium or manganese.
Consequently, when we deoxidize calcium in the iron blast-
furnace, it greedily absorbs the sulphur which has been dissolved
in the iron as iron sulphide, and the sulphide of calcium thus
formed separates from the iron. In like manner, if the molten
iron in the mixer contains manganese, this metal unites with the
sulphur present, and the manganese sulphide, insoluble in the
iron, slowly rises to the surface, and as it reaches the air, its
sulphur oxidizes to sulphurous acid, which escapes. Further,
an important part of the silicon may be removed in the mixer
by keeping it very hot and covering the metal with a rather
basic slag. This is very useful if the iron is intended for either
the basic Bessemer or the basic open-hearth process, for both
of which silicon is harmful.
78. Conversion or Purifying Processes for converting Cast Iron
into Steel or Wrought Iron. — As the essential difference between
cast iron on one hand and wrought iron and steel on the other
is that the former contains necessarily much more carbon,
usually more silicon, and often more phosphorus that are suit-
able or indeed permissible in the latter two, the chief work of
all these conversion processes is to remove the excess of these
several foreign elements by oxidizing them to carbonic oxide
CO, silica SiO2, and phosphoric acid PzOt, respectively. Of
these the first escapes immediately as a gas, and the others
unite with iron oxide, lime, or other strong base present to form
a molten silicate or silico-phosphate called " cinder " or " slag,"
which floats on the molten or pasty metal. The ultimate source
of the oxygen may be the air, as in the Bessemer process, or rich
iron oxide as in the puddling process, or both as in the open-hearth
process; but in any case iron oxide is the chief immediate source,
as is to be expected, because the oxygen of the air would naturally
unite in much greater proportion with some of the great quantity
of iron offered to it than with the small quantity of these im-
purities. The iron oxide thus formed immediately oxidizes
these foreign elements, so that the iron is really a carrier of oxygen
from air to impurity. The typical reactions are something like
the following: Fe3O4+4C = 4CO+3Fe; Fe3O4-|-C = 3FeO-|-CO;
2P + 5Fe3O4 = 12FeO + 3FeO,P2O5; Si + 2Fe3O4 = 3FeO,SiO2 +
3FeO. Beside this their chief and easy work of oxidizing carbon,
silicon and phosphorus, the conversion processes have the harder
task of removing sulphur, chiefly by converting it into calcium
sulphide, CaS, or manganous sulphide, MnS, which rise to the
top of the molten metal and there enter the overlying slag,
from which the sulphur may escape by oxidizing to the gas.eous
compound, sulphurous acid, SO2.
79. In the puddling process molten cast iron is converted into
wrought iron, i.e. low-carbon slag-bearing iron, by oxidizing its
carbon, silicon and phosphorus, by means of iron oxide stirred
into it as it lies in a thin shallow layer in the " hearth " or flat
basin of a reverberatory furnace (fig. 14), itself lined with iron
ore. As the iron oxide is stirred into the molten metal laboriously
by the workman or "puddler " with his hook or "rabble,"
it oxidizes the silicon to silica and the phosphorus to phosphoric
acid, and unites with both these products, forming with them
a basic iron silicate rich in phosphorus, called " puddling "
or " tap cinder." It oxidizes the carbon also, which escapes
in purple jets of burning carbonic oxide. As the melting point of
the metal is gradually raised by the progressive decarburization,
it at length passes above the temperature of the furnace, about
8i8
IRON AND STEEL
1400° C., with the consequence that the metal, now below its
melting point, solidifies in pasty grains, or " comes to nature."
These grains the puddler welds together by means of his rabble
FIG. 14. — Puddling Furnace.
into rough 8o-ft> balls, each like a sponge of metallic iron
particles with its pores filled with the still molten cinder. These
balls are next worked into merchantable shape, and the cinder
is simultaneously expelled in large part, first by hammering
them one at a time under a steam hammer (fig. 37) or by squeez-
ing them, and next by rolling them. The squeezing is usually
done in the way shown in fig. 15.
Here BB is a large fixed iron cylinder, corrugated within, and C
an excentric cylinder, also corrugated, which, in turning to the
right, by the friction of its cor-
rugated surface rotates the puddled
ball D which has just entered at A,
so that, turning around its own
axis, it travels to the right and is
gradually changed from a ball into
a bloom, a rough cylindrical mass
of white hot iron, still dripping
with cinder. This bloom is im-
mediately rolled down into a Ion
flat bar, called " muck bar," am
this in turn is cut into short lengths
which, piled one on another, are
reheated and again rolled down,
, sometimes with repeated cutting,
FIG. 15.— Plan of Burden s pilmg and re-rolling, into the
Excentric Revo ymg Squeezer finai shape ;n which it ;s actually
for Puddled Balls. to ^ used. But> ro\\ and re-roll
as often as we like, much cinder remains imbedded in the iron, in
the form of threads and rods drawn out in the direction of rolling,
and of course weakening the metal in the transverse direction.
80. Machine Puddling. — The few men who have, and are
willing to exercise, the great strength and endurance which the
puddler needs when he is stirring the pasty iron and balling it
up, command such high wages, and with their little soo-lb
charges turn out their iron so slowly, that many ways of puddling
by machinery have been tried. None has succeeded permanently,
though indeed one offered by J. P. Roe is not without promise.
The essential difficulty has been that none of them could sub-
divide the rapidly solidifying charge into the small balls which
the workman dexterously forms by hand, and that if the charge
is not thus subdivided but drawn as a single ball, the cinder
cannot be squeezed out of it thoroughly enough.
81. Direct Puddling. — In common practice the cast iron as
it runs from the blast-furnace is allowed to solidify and cool
completely in the form of pigs, which are then graded by their
fracture, and remelted in the puddling furnace itself. At
Hourpes, in order to save the expense of this remelting, the
molten cast iron as it comes from the blast-furnace is poured
directly into the puddling furnace, in large charges of about
2200 Ib, which are thus about four times as large as those
of common puddling furnaces. These large charges are puddled
by two gangs of four men each, and a great saving in fuel and
labour is effected.
Attractive as are these advances in puddling, they have not been
widely adopted, for two chief reasons: First, owners of puddling
works have been reluctant to spend money freely in plant for a
process of which the future is so uncertain, and this unwillingness
has been the more natural because these very men are in large
part the more conservative fraction, which has resisted the tempta-
tion to abandon puddling and adopt the steel-making processes.
Second, in puddling iron which is to be used as a raw material for
making very fine steel by the crucible process, quality is the thing
of first importance. Now in the series of operations, the blast-
furnace, puddling and crucible processes, through which the iron
passes from the state of ore to that of crucible tool steel, it is so
difficult to detect just which are the conditions essential to excellence
in the final product that, once a given procedure has been found to
yield excellent steel, every one of its details is adhered to by the
more cautious ironmasters, often with surprising conservatism.
Buyers of certain excellent classes of Swedish iron have been said
to object even to the substitution of electricity for water-power as
a means of driving the machinery of the forge. In case of direct
puddling and the use of larger charges this conservatism has some
foundation, because the established custom of allowing the cast iron
to solidify gives a better opportunity of examining its fracture,
and thus of rejecting unsuitable iron, than is afforded in direct
puddling. So, too, when several puddlers are jointly responsible
for the thoroughness of their work, as happens in puddling large
charges, they will not exercise such care (nor indeed will a given
degree of care be so effective) as when responsibility for each charge
rests on one man.
82. The removal of phosphorus, a very important duty of the
puddling process, requires that the cinder shall be " basic,"
i.e. that it shall have a great excess of the strong base, ferrous
oxide, FeO, for the phosphoric acid to unite with, lest it be
deoxidized by the carbon of the iron as fast as it forms, and so
return to the iron, following the general rule that oxidized bodies
enter the slag and unoxidized ones the metallic iron. But this
basicity implies that for each part of the silica or silicic acid
which inevitably results from the oxidation of the silicon of the
pig iron, the cinder shall contain some three parts of iron oxide,
itself a valuable and expensive substance. Hence, in order to
save iron oxide the pig iron used should be nearly free from
silicon. It should also be nearly free from sulphur, because of
the great difficulty of removing this element in the puddling
process. But the strong deoxidizing conditions needed in the
blast-furnace to remove sulphur tend strongly to deoxidize
silica and thus to make the pig iron rich in silicon.
83. The " refinery process " of fitting pig iron for the puddling
process by removing the silicon without the carbon, is sometimes
used because of this difficulty in making a pig iron initially low
in both sulphur and silicon. In this process molten pig iron
with much silicon but little sulphur has its silicon oxidized to
silica and thus slagged off, by means of a blast of air playing on
the iron through a blanket of burning coke which covers it.
The coke thus at once supplies by its combustion the heat
needed for melting the iron and keeping it hot, and by itself
dissolving in the molten metal returns carbon to it as fast as
this element is burnt out by the blast, so that the " refined "
cast iron which results, though still rich in carbon and therefore
easy to melt in the puddling process, has relatively little silicon.
84. In the Bessemer or " pneumatic " process, which indeed
might be called the " fuel-less " process, molten pig iron is
converted into steel by having its carbon, silicon and manganese,
and often its phosphorus and sulphur, oxidized and thus removed
by air forced through it in so many fine streams and hence so
rapidly that the heat generated by the oxidation of these im-
purities suffices in and by itself, unaided by burning any other
fuel, not only to keep the iron molten, but even to raise its
temperature from a point initially but little above the melting
point of cast iron, say 1150° to 1250° C., to one well above the
melting point of the resultant steel, say 1 500° C. The " Bessemer
converter " or " vessel " (fig. 16) in which this wonderful
process is carried out is a huge retort, lined with clay, dolomite
or other refractory material, hung aloft and turned on trunnions,
DD, through the right-hand one of which the blast is carried
to the gooseneck E, which in turn delivers it to the tuyeres Q
at the bottom.
There are two distinct varieties of this process, the original
undephosphorizing or " acid " Bessemer process, so called
because the converter is lined with acid materials, i.e. those rich
in silicic acid, such as quartz and clay, and because the slag is
consequently acid, i.e. siliceous; and the dephosphorizing or
" Thomas " or " basic Bessemer " process, so called because
the converter is lined with basic materials, usually calcined
dolomite, a mixture of lime and magnesia, bound together with
tar, and because the slag is made very basic by adding much
IRON AND STEEL
819
lime to it. In the basic Bessemer process phosphorus is readily
removed by oxidation, because the product of its oxidation,
phosphoric acid, PiQs, in the presence of an excess of base forms
stable phosphates of lime and iron which pass into the slag,
making it valuable as an artificial manure. But this dephos-
phorization by oxidation can be carried out only in the case slag
is basic. If it is acid, i.e. if it holds much more than 20% of
A,
ft
D,
E,
F,
Trunnion-ring.
Main shell.
Upper part of shell.
Trunnions.
Goose-neck.
Tuyere-box.
FIG. 16. — 12-15 ton Bessemer Converter.
[ N, Lid of tuyere-box.
O, Tuyere-plate.
P, False plate.
Q, Tuyeres.
R, Keys holding lid of tuyere-
box.
S, Refractory lining.
U, Key-link holding bottom.
so powerful an acid as silica, then the phosphoric acid has so
feeble a hold on the base in the slag that it is immediately re-
deoxidized by the carbon of the metal, or even by the iron itself,
P2O5-f 5Fe = 2P+5FeO, and the resultant deoxidized phosphorus
immediately recombines with the iron. Now in an acid-lined
converter the slag is necessarily acid, because even an initially
basic slag would immediately corrode away enough of the acid
lining to make itself acid. Hence phosphorus cannot be removed
in an acid-lined converter. Though all this is elementary to-day,
not only was it unknown, indeed unguessed, at the time of the
invention of the Bessemer process, but even when, nearly a
quarter of a century later, a young English metallurgical chemist,
Sidney Gilchrist Thomas (1850-1885), offered to the British Iron
and Steel Institute a paper describing his success in dephosphoriz-
ing by the Bessemer process
with a basic-lined converter
and a basic slag, that body
rejected it.
85. In carrying out the acid
Bessemer process, the con-
verter, preheated to about
1200° C. by burning coke in it,
is turned into the position
shown in fig. 17, and the charge
of molten pig iron, which
sometimes weighs as much
as 20 tons, is poured into it
FIG. 17. — Bessemer Converter,
turned down in position to receive
and discharge the molten metal.
through its mouth. The converter is then turned upright
into the position shown in fig. 16, so that the blast, which has
been let on just before this, entering through the great number
of tuyere holes in the bottom, forces its way up through the
relatively shallow layer of iron, throwing it up within the con-
verter as a boiling foam, and oxidizing the foreign elements so
rapidly that in some cases their removal is complete after 5
minutes. The oxygen of the blast having been thus taken up by the
molten metal, its nitrogen issues from the mouth of the converter
as a pale spark-bearing cone. Under normal conditions the silicon
oxidizes first. Later, when most of it has been oxidized, the
carbon begins to oxidize to carbonic oxide, which in turn burns
to carbonic acid as it meets the outer air on escaping from the
mouth of the converter, and generates a true flame which grows
bright, then brilliant, then almost blinding, as it rushes and roars,
then " drops," i.e. shortens and suddenly grows quiet when the
last of the carbon has burnt away, and no flame-forming substance
remains. Thus may a 20-ton charge of cast iron be converted
into steel in ten minutes.1 It is by the appearance of the flame
that the operator or " blower " knows when to end the process,
judging by its brilliancy, colour, sound, sparks, smoke and other
indications.
86. Recarburizing. — The process may be interrupted as soon
as the carbon-content has fallen to that which the final product
is to have, or it may be continued till nearly the whole of the
carbon has been burned out, and then the needed carbon may
be added by " recarburizing." The former of these ways is
followed by the very skilful and intelligent blowers in Sweden,
who, with the temperature and all other conditions well under
control, and with their minds set on the quality rather than on
the quantity of their product, can thus make steel of any desired
carbon-content from o-io to 1-25%. But even with all their
skill and care, while the carbon-content is still high the indications
of the flame are not so decisive as to justify them in omitting to
test the steel before removing it from the converter, as a check
on the accuracy of their blowing. The delay which this test
causes is so unwelcome that in all other countries the blower
continues the blow until decarburization is nearly complete,
because of the very great accuracy with which he can then read
the indications of the flame, an accuracy which leaves little to
be desired. Then, without waiting to test the product, he
" recarburizes " it, i.e. adds enough carbon to give it the content
desired, and then immediately pours the steel into a great clay-
lined casting ladle by turning the converter over, and through
a nozzle in the bottom of this ladle pours the steel into its ingot
moulds. In making very low-carbon steel this recarburizing
proper is not needed; but in any event a considerable quantity
of manganese must be added unless the pig iron initially contains
much of that metal, in order to remove from the molten steel
the oxygen which it has absorbed from thej blast, lest this make
it redshort. If the carbon-content is not to be raised materially,
this manganese is added in the form of preheated lumps of
" ferro-manganese," which contains about 80% of manganese,
5% of carbon and 15% of iron, with a little silicon and other
impurities. If, on the other hand, the carbon-content is to be
raised, then carbon and manganese are usually added together
in the form of a manganiferous molten pig iron, called spiegel-
eisen, i.e. " mirror-iron," from the brilliancy of its facets, and
usually containing somewhere about 12% of manganese and
4% of carbon, though the proportion between these two elements
has to be adjusted so as to introduce the desired quantity of
each into the molten steel. Part of the carbon of this spiegel-
eisen unites with the oxygen occluded in the molten iron to
form carbonic oxide, and again a bright flame, greenish with
manganese, escapes from the converter.
87. Darby's Process. — Another way of introducing the carbon
is Darby's process of throwing large paper bags filled with
anthracite, coke or gas-carbon into the casting ladle as the
molten steel is pouring into it. The steel dissolves the carbon
of this fuel even more quickly than water would dissolve salt
under like conditions.
88. Bessemer and Mushet. — Bessemer had no very wide
knowledge of metallurgy, and after overcoming many stupendous
1 The length of the blow varies very greatly, in general increasing
with the proportion of silicon and with the size of charge. Thus
the small Swedish charges with but little silicon may be blown in
5 minutes, but for a 2o-ton charge the time is more likely to reach
or exceed 10 minutes, and sometimes reaches 20 minutes or even
more.
820
IRON AND STEEL
difficulties he was greatly embarrassed by the brittleness or
" redshortness " of his steel, which he did not know how to
cure. But two remedies were quickly offered, one by the skilful
Swede, Goransson, who used a pig iron initially rich in manganese
and stopped his blow before much oxygen had been taken up;
and the other by a British steel maker, Robert Mushet, who
proposed the use of the manganiferous cast iron called spiegeleisen,
and thereby removed the only remaining serious obstacle to the
rapid spread of the process.
From this many have claimed for Mushet a part almost or even
quite equal to Bessemer's in the development of the Bessemer pro-
cess, even calling it the " Bessemer-Mushet process." But this
seems most unjust. Mushet had no such exclusive knowledge of the
effects of manganese that he alone could have helped Bessemer;
and even if nobody ha'd then proposed the use of spiegeleisen, the
development of the Swedish Bessemer practice would have gone on,
and, the process thus established and its value and great economy
thus shown in Sweden, it would have been only a question of time
how soon somebody would have proposed the addition of manganese.
Mushet's aid was certainly valuable, but not more than Goransson's,
who, besides thus offering a preventive of redshortness, further
helped the process on by raising its temperature by the simple
expedient of further subdividing the blast, thus increasing the
surface of contact between blast and metal, and thus in turn hasten-
ing the oxidation. The two great essential discoveries were first
that the rapid passage of air through molten cast iron raised its
temperature above the melting point of low-carbon steel, or as it
was then called " malleable iron," and second that this low-carbon
steel, which Bessemer was the first to make in important quantities,
was in fact an extraordinarily valuable substance when made under
proper conditions.
89. Source of Heat. — The carbon of the pig iron, burning as it
does only to carbonic oxide within the converter, does not by
itself generate a temperature high enough for the needs of the
process. The oxidation of manganese is capable of generating
a very high temperature, but it has the very serious disadvantage
of causing such thick clouds of smoky oxide of manganese as
to hide the flame from the blower, and prevent him from
recognizing the moment when the blow should be ended. Thus
it comes about that the temperature is regulated primarily by
adjusting the quantity of silicon in the pig iron treated, ij%
of this element usually sufficing. If any individual blow proves
to be too hot, it may be cooled by throwing cold " scrap " steel
such as the waste ends of rails and other pieces, into the converter,
or by injecting with the blast a little steam, which is decomposed
by the iron by the endothermic reaction H2O+Fe = 2H+FeO.
If the temperature is not high enough, it is raised by managing
the blast in such a way as to oxidize some of the iron itself
permanently, and thus to generate much heat.
90. The basic or dephosphorizing variety of the Bessemer
process, called in Germany the " Thomas " process, differs from
the acid process in four chief points: (i) that its slag is made
very basic and hence dephosphorizing by adding much lime to
it; (2) that the lining is basic, because an acid lining would
quickly be destroyed by such a basic slag; (3) that the process
is arrested not at the " drop of the flame " (§85) but at a pre-
determined length of time after it; and (4) that phosphorus
instead of silicon is the chief source of heat. Let us consider
these in turn.
91. The slag, in order that it may have such an excess of base
that this will retain the phosphoric acid as fast as it is formed
by the oxidation of the phosphorus of the pig iron, and prevent
it from being re-deoxidized and re-absorbed by the iron, should,
according to von Ehrenwerth's rule which is generally followed,
contain enough lime to form approximately a tetra-calcic silicate,
4CaO,SiO2 with the silica which results from the oxidation of
the silicon of the pig iron and tri-calcic phosphate, SCaO^Os,
with the phosphoric acid which forms. The danger of this
" rephosphorization " is greatest at the end of the blow, when
the recarburizing additions are made. This lime is charged in
the form of common quicklime, CaO, resulting from the calcina-
tion of a pure limestone, CaCOs, which should be as free as
possible from silica. The usual composition of this slag is iron
oxide, 10 to 16%; lime, 40 to 50%; magnesia, 5%; silica,
6 to 9%; phosphoric acid, 16 to 20%. Its phosphoric acid
makes it so valuable as a fertilizer that it is a most important
by-product. In order that the phosphoric acid may be the
more fully liberated by the humic acid, &c., of the earth, a little
silicious sand is mixed with the still molten slag after it has been
poured off from the molten steel. The slag is used in agriculture
with no further preparation, save very fine grinding.
92. The lining of the converter is made of 90% of the mixture
of lime and magnesia which results from calcining dolomite,
(Ca,Mg)CC>3, at a very high temperature, and 10% of coal tar
freed from its water by heating. This mixture may be rammed in
place, or baked blocks of it may be laid up like a masonry wall.
In either case such a lining is expensive, and has but a short life,
in few works more than 200 charges, and in some only 100,
though the silicious lining of the acid converter lasts thousands
of charges. Hence, for the basic process, spare converters must
be provided, so that there may always be some of them re-lining,
either while standing in the same place as when in use, or, as
in Holley's arrangement, in a separate repair house, to which
these gigantic vessels are removed bodily.
93. Control of the Basic Bessemer Process. — The removal of
the greater part of the phosphorus takes place after the carbon
has been oxidized and the flame has consequently " dropped,"
probably because the lime, which is charged in solid lumps,
is taken up by the slag so slowly that not until late in die
operation does the slag become so basic as to be retentive of
phosphoric acid. Hence in making steel rich in carbon it is not
possible, as in the acid Bessemer process, to end the operation
as soon as the carbon in the metal has fallen to the point sought,
but it is necessary to remove practically all of the carbon, then
the phosphorus, and then " recarburize," i.e. add whatever
carbon the steel is to contain. The quantity of phosphorus in
the pig iron is usually known accurately, and the dephosphoriza-
tion takes place so regularly that the quantity of air which it
needs can be foretold closely. The blower therefore stops the
process when he has blown a predetermined quantity of air
through, counting from the drop of the flame; but as a check
on his forecast he usually tests the blown metal before recar-
burizing it.
94. Source of Heat. — Silicon cannot here be used as the chief
source of heat as it is in the acid Bessemer process, because most
of the heat which its oxidation generates is consumed in heating
the great quantities of lime needed for neutralizing the resultant
silica. Fortunately the phosphorus, turned from a curse into a
blessing, develops by its oxidation the needed, temperature,
though the fact that this requires at least 1-80% of phosphorus
limits the use of the process, because there are few ores which
can be made to yield so phosphoric a pig iron. Further objec-
tions to the presence of silicon are that the resultant silica (i)
corrodes the lining of the converter, (2) makes the slag froth so
that it both throws much of the charge out and blocks up the
nose of the converter, and (3) leads to rephosphorization. These
effects are so serious that until very lately it was thought that
the silicon could not safely be much in excess of i %. But
Massenez and Richards, following the plan outlined by Pourcel
in 1879, have found that even 3% of silicon is permissible if,
by adding iron ore, the resultant silica is made into a fluid slag,
and if this is removed in the early cool part of the process, when
it attacks the lining of the converter but slightly. Manganese
to the extent of 1-80% is desired as a means of preventing the
resultant steel from being redshort, i.e. brittle at a red or forging
heat. The pig iron should be as nearly free as possible from
sulphur, because the removal of any large quantity of this
injurious element in the process itself is both difficult and
expensive.
95. The car casting~system deserves description chiefly because it
shows how, when the scale of operations is as enormous as it is in
the Bessemer process, even a slight simplification and a slight heat-
saving may be of great economic importance.
Whatever be the form into which the steel is to be rolled, it must
in general first be poured from the Bessemer converter in which it
is made into a large clay-lined ladle, and thence cast in vertical
pyramidal ingots. To bring them to a temperature suitable for
rolling, these ingots must be set in heating or soaking furnaces
(§ 125), and this should be done as soon as possible after they are
cast, both to lessen the loss of their initial heat, and to make way
IRON AND STEEL
821
for the next succeeding lot of ingots, a matter of great importance,
because the charges of steel follow each other at such very brief
intervals. A pair of working converters has made 4958 charges
of 10 tons each, or a total of 50,547 tons, in one month, or at an
average rate of a charge every seven minutes and twenty-four seconds
throughout every working day. It is this extraordinary rapidity
that makes the process so economical and determines the way in
-which its details must be carried out. Moreover, since the mould
acts as a covering to retard the loss of heat, it should not be removed
from the ingot until just before the latter is to be placed in its
soaking furnace. These conditions are fulfilled by the car casting
system of F. W. Wood, of Sparrows Point, Md., in which the moulds,
while receiving the steel, stand on a train of cars, which are im-
mediately run to the side of the soaking furnace. Here, as soon
as the ingots have so far solidified that they can be lifted without
breaking, their moulds are removed and set on an adjoining train
of cars, and the ingots are charged directly into the soaking furnace.
The mould-train now carries its empty moulds to a cooling yard,
and, as soon as they are cool enough to be used again, carries them
back to the neighbourhood of the converters to receive a new lot
of steel. In this system there is for each ingot and each mould
only one handling in which it is moved as a separate unit, the mould
from one train to the other, the ingot from its train into the furnace.
In the other movements, all the moulds and ingots of a given charge
of steel are grouped as a train, which is moved as a unit by a loco-
motive. The difficulty in the way of this system was that, in pouring
the steel from ladle to mould, more or less of it [occasionally spatters,
and these spatterings, if they strike the rails or the running
gear of the cars, obstruct and foul them, preventing the movement
of the train, because the solidified steel is extremely tenacious. But
this cannot be tolerated, because the economy of the process requires
extreme promptness in each of its steps. On account of this difficulty
the moulds formerly stood, not on cars, but directly on the floor of
a casting pit while receiving the molten steel. When the ingots had
so far solidified that they could be handled, the moulds were removed
and set on the floor to cool, the ingots were set on a car and carried
to the soaking furnace, and the moulds were then replaced in the
casting pit. Here each mould and each ingot was handled as a
separate unit twice, instead of only once as in the car casting system ;
the ingots radiated away great quantities of heat in passing naked
from the converting mill to the soaking furnaces, and the heat
which they and the moulds radiated while in the converting mill
was not only wasted, but made this mill, open-doored as it was,
so intolerably hot, that the cost of labour there was materially in-
creased. Mr Wood met this difficulty by the simple device of so
shaping the cars that they completely protect both their own
running gear and the track from all possible spattering, a device
which, simple as it is, has materially lessened the cost of the steel
and greatly increased the production. How great the increase has
been, from this and many other causes, is shown in Table III.
TABLE III. — Maximum Production of Ingots by a Pair of
American Converters,
Gross Tons per Week.
254
3,433
8,549
n,233
15,704
1870
1880
1889
1899 (average for a month)
1903
Thus in thirty-three years the rate of production per pair of vessels
increased more than sixty-fold. The production of European
Bessemer works is very much less than that of American. Indeed,
the whole German production of acid Bessemer steel in 1899 was
at a rate but slightly greater than that here given for one pair of
American converters; and three pairs, if this rate were continued,
would make almost exactly as much steel as all the sixty-five active
British Bessemer converters, acid and basic together, made in 1899.
96. Range in Size of Converters. — In the Bessemer process, and
indeed in most high-temperature processes, to operate on a large
scale has, in addition to the usual economies which it offers in other
industries, a special one, arising from the fact that from a large
hot furnace or hot mass in general a very much smaller proportion
of its heat dissipates through radiation and like causes than from a
smaller body, just as a thin red-hot wire cools in the air much faster
than a thick bar equally hot. Hence the progressive increase which
has occurred in the size of converters, until now some of them can
treat a 2O-ton charge, is not surprising. But, on the other hand,
when only a relatively small quantity of a special kind of steel is
needed, very much smaller charges, in some cases weighing even less
than half a ton, have been treated with technical success.
97. The Bessemer Process for making Steel Castings. — This has
been particularly true in the manufacture of steel castings, i.e.
objects usually of more or less intricate shape, which are cast initially
in the form in which they are to be used, instead of being forged or
rolled to that form from steel cast originally in ingots. For making
castings, especially those which are so thin and intricate that, in
order that the molten steel may remain molten long enough to run
into the thin parts of the mould, it must be heated initially very far
Above its melting-point, the Bessemer process has a very great
advantage in that it can develop a much higher temperature than is
attainable in either of its competitors, the crucible and the open-
hearth processes. Indeed, no limit has yet been found to the
temperature which can be reached, if matters are so arranged that
not only the carbon and silicon of the pig iron, but also a considerable
part of the metallic iron which is the iron itself, are oxidized by the
blast; or if, as in the Walrand-Legenisel modification, after the
combustion of the initial carbon and silicon of the pig iron has already
raised the charge to a very high temperature, a still further rise of
temperature is brought about by adding more silicon in the form of
ferro-silicon, and oxidizing it by further blowing. But in the
crucible and the open-hearth processes the temperature attainable
is limited by the danger of melting the furnace itself, both because
some essential parts of it, which, unfortunately, are of a destructible
shape, are placed most unfavourably in that they are surrounded
by the heat on all sides, and because the furnace is necessarily
hotter than the steel made within it. But no part of the Bessemer
converter is of a shape easily affected by the heat, no part of it is
exposed to the heat on more than one sideband the converter itself
is necessarily cooler than the metal within it, because the heat is
generated within the metal itself by the combustion of its silicon and
other calorific elements. In it the steel heats the converter, whereas
in the open-hearth and crucible processes the furnace heats the steel.
98. The open-hearth process consists in making molten steel
out of pig or cast iron and " scrap," i.e. waste pieces of steel
and iron melted together on the " open hearth," i.e. the un-
covered basin-like bottom of a reverberatory furnace, under
conditions of which fig. 18 may give a general idea. The con-
FIG. 18. — Open-Hearth Process.
Half Section showing condition Half Section showing condition
of charge when boiling very of charge when boiling violently
gently. during oreing.
version of cast iron into steel, of course, consists in lessening its
content of the several foreign elements, carbon, silicon, phos-
phorus, &c. The open-hearth process does this by two distinct
steps: (i) by oxidizing and removing these elements by means
of the flame of the furnace, usually aided by the oxygen of
light charges of iron ore, and (2) by diluting them with scrap
steel or its equivalent. The " pig and ore " or " Siemens "
variety of the process works chiefly by oxidation, the " pig
and scrap " or " Siemens-Martin " variety chiefly by dilution,
sometimes indeed by extreme dilution, as when 10 parts of
cast iron are diluted with 90 parts of scrap. Both varieties
may be carried out in the basic and dephosphorizing way,
i.e. in presence of a basic slag and in a basic- or neutral-lined
furnace; or in the acid and undephosphorizing way, in presence
of an acid, i.e. silicious slag, and in a furnace with a silicious
lining.
The charge may be melted down on the " open hearth "
itself, or, as in the more advanced practice, the pig iron may
be brought in the molten state from the blast furnace in which
it is made. Then the furnaceman, controlling the decarburiza-
tion and purification of the molten charge by his examination
of test ingots taken from time to time, gradually oxidizes and
so removes the foreign elements, and thus brings the metal
simultaneously to approximately the composition needed
and to a temperature far enough above its present melting-
point to permit of its being cast into ingots or other castings.
He then pours or taps the molten charge from the furnace into
a large clay-lined casting ladle, giving it the final additions
of manganese, usually with carbon and often with silicon,
needed to give it exactly the desired composition. He then
casts it into its final form through a nozzle in the bottom of the
casting ladle, as in the Bessemer process.
The oxidation of the foreign elements must be very slow,
lest the effervescence due to the escape of carbonic oxide from
the carbon of the metal throw the charge out of the doors and
822
IRON AND STEEL
ports of the furnace, which itself must be shallow in order
to hold the flame down close to the charge. It is in large part
because of this shallowness, which contrasts so strongly with
the height and roominess of the Bessemer converter, that
the process lasts hours where the Bessemer process lasts minutes,
though there is the further difference that in the open-hearth
process the transfer of heat from flame to charge through the
intervening layer of slag is necessarily slow, whereas in the
Bessemer process the heat, generated as it is in and by the
metallic bath itself, raises the temperature very rapidly. The
slowness of this rise of the temperature compels us to make
the removal of the carbon slo'w for a very simple reason. That
removal progressively raises the melting-point of the metal,
after line Aa of fig. j, i.e. makes the charge more and more
infusible; and this progressive rise of the melting-point of the
charge must not be allowed to outrun the actual rise of tempera-
ture, or in other words the charge must always be kept molten,
because once solidified it is very hard to remelt. Thus the neces-
sary slowness of the heating up of the molten charge would
compel us to make the removal of the carbon slow, even if this
slowness were not already forced on us by the danger of having
the charge froth so much as to run out of the furnace.
The general plan of the open-hearth process was certainly
conceived by Josiah Marshall Heath in 1845; if not indeed
by Reaumur in 1722, but for lack of a furnace in which a high
enough temperature could be generated it could not be carried
out until the development of the Siemens regenerative gas
furnace about 1860. It was in large part through the efforts
of Le Chatelier that this process, so long conceived, was at
last, in 1864, put into actual use by the brothers Martin, of
Sireuil in France.
99. Siemens Open-Hearth Furnace. — These furnaces are usually
stationary, but in that shown in figs. 19 to 22 the working chamber
or furnace body, G of fig. 22, rotates about its own axis, rolling on
the rollers M shown in fig. 21. In this working chamber, a long
quasi-cylindrical vessel of brickwork, heated by burning within it
pre-heated gas with pre-heated air, the charge is melted and brought
to the desired composition and temperature. The working chamber
indeed is the furnace proper, in which the whole of the open-hearth
process is carried out, and the function of all the rest of the apparatus,
apart from the tilting mechanism, is simply to pre-heat the air and
gas, and to lead them to the furnace proper and thence to the chim-
ney. How this is done may be understood more easily if figs. 19
and 20 are regarded for a moment as forming a single diagrammatic
figure instead of sections in different planes. The unbroken arrows
show the direction of the incoming gas and air, the broken ones the
direction of the escaping products of their combustion. The air
and gas, the latter coming from the gas producers or other source,
arrive through H and J respectively, and their path thence is deter-
mined by the position of the reversing valves K and K'. In the
position shown in solid lines, these valves deflect the air and gas
into the left-hand pair of " regenerators " or spacious heat-trans-
ferring chambers. In these, bricks in great numbers are piled
loosely, in such a way that, while they leave ample passage for the
gas and air, yet they offer to them a very great extent of surface,
and therefore readily transfer to them the heat which they have as
readily sucked out of the escaping products of combustion in the
last preceding phase. The gas and air thus separately pre-heated
to about 1100° C. (2012° F.) rise thence as two separate streams
through the uptakes (fig. 22), and first mix at the moment of entering
the working chamber through {he ports L and L' (fig. 19). As they
are so hot at starting, their combustion of course yields a very much
higher temperature than if they had been cold before burning, and
they form an enormous flame, which fills the great working chamber.
The products of combustion are sucked by the pull of the chimney
through the farther or right-hand end of this chamber, out through
the exit ports, as shown by the dotted arrows, down through the
right-hand pair of regenerators, heating to perhaps 1300° C. the
upper part of the loosely-piled masses of brickwork within them,
and thence past the valves K and K' to the chimney-flue O. During
this phase the incoming gas and air have been withdrawing heat
from the left-hand regenerators, which have thus been cooling down,
while the escaping products of combustion have been depositing
heat in the right-hand pair of regenerators, which have thus been
heating up. After some thirty minutes this condition of things is
reversed by turning the valves K and K' 90° into the positions
shown in dotted lines, when they deflect the incoming gas and air
into the right-hand regenerators, so that they may absorb in passing
the heat which has just been stored there; thence they pass up
through the right-hand uptakes and ports into the working chamber,
where as before they mix, burn and heat the charge. Thence they
are sucked out by the chimney-draught through the left-hand ports,
down through the uptakes and regenerators, here again meeting and
heating the loose mass of " regenerator " brickwork, and finally
escape by the chimney-flue O. After another thirty minutes the
FIG. 19. — Section on EF through Furnace and Port Ends.
FIG. 20. — Plan through Regenerators, Flues and Reversing Valves.
V V
FIG. 21. — Section on CD through Body of Furnace.
FIG. 22.— Section on AB through Uptake, Slag Pocket
and Regenerator.
FIGS. 19 to 22. — Diagrammatic Sections of Tilting Siemens Furnace.
G, Furnace body. N, Hydraulic cylinder for tilting
H, Air supply.
J, Gas supply.
K, Air reversing valve.
K', Gas reversing valve.
L, Air port.
L', Gas port.
M, Rollers on which the furnace
tilts.
the furnace.
O, Flue leading to chimney.
P, Slag pockets.
R, Charging boxes.
W, Water-cooled joints between
furnace proper, G, and ports
I ., I . .
current is again reversed to its initial direction, and so on. These
regenerators are the essence of the Siemens or " regenerative
furnace"; they are heat-traps, catching and storing by their
IRON AND STEEL
823
enormous surface of brickwork the heat of the escaping products
of combustion, and in the following phase restoring the heat to the
entering air and gas. At any given moment one pair of regenerators
is storing heat, while the other is restoring it.
The tilting working chamber is connected with the stationary
ports L and L' by means of the loose water-cooled joint W in
Campbell's system, which is here shown. The furnace, resting on
the rollers M, is tilted by the hydraulic cylinder N. The slag-
pockets P (fig. 22), below the uptakes, are provided to catch the
dust carried out of the furnace proper by the escaping products of
combustion, lest it enter and choke the regenerators. Wellman's
tilting furnace rolls on a fixed rack instead of on rollers. By his
charging system a charge of as much as fifty tons is quickly intro-
duced. The metal is packed by unskilled labourers in iron boxes,
•R (fig. 21), standing on cars in the stock-yard. A locomotive
carries a train of these cars to the track running beside a long line
of open-hearth furnaces. Here the charging machine lifts one box
at a time from its car, pushes it through the momentarily opened
furnace door, and empties the metal upon the hearth of the furnace
by inverting the box, which it then replaces on its car.
I op. The proportion of pig to scrap used depends chiefly on the
relative cost of these two materials, but sometimes in part also on
the carbon-content which the resultant steel is to have. Thus part
at least of the carbon which a high-carbon steel is to contain may
be supplied by the pig iron from which it is made. The length of
the process increases with the proportion of pig used. Thus in the
Westphalian pig and scrap practice, scrap usually forms 75 or even
80% of the charge, and pig only from 20 to 25%, indeed only
enough to supply the carbon inevitably burnt out in melting the
charge and heating it up to a proper casting temperature ; and here
the charge lasts only about 6 hours. In some British and Swedish
" pig and ore " practice (§ 98), on the other hand, little or no scrap
is used, and here the removal of the large quantity of carbon, silicon
and phosphorus prolongs the process to 17 hours. The common
practice in the United States is to use about equal parts of pig and
scrap, and here the usual length of a charge is about nj hours.
The pig and ore process is held back, first by the large quantity
of carbon, and usually of silicon and phosphorus, to be removed,
and second by the necessary slowness of their removal. The gangue
of the ore increases the quantity of slag, which separates the metal
from the source of its heat, the flame, and thus delays the rise of
temperature; and the purification by " oreing," i.e. by means of
the oxygen of the large lumps of cold iron ore thrown in by hand,
is extremely slow, because the ore must be fed in very slowly lest
it chill the metal both directly and because the reaction by which
it removes the carbon of the metal, Fe2O3+C =2FeO+CO, itself
absorbs heat. Indeed, this local cooling aggravates the frothing.
A cold lump of ore chills the slag immediately around it, just where
its oxygen, reacting on the carbon of the metal, generates carbonic
oxide; the slag becomes cool, viscous, and hence easily made to
froth, just where the froth-causing gas is evolved.
The length of these varieties of the process just given refers to the
basic procedure. The acid process goes on much faster, because in
it the heat insulating layer of slag is much thinner. For instance it
lasts only about 8J hours when equal parts of pig and scrap are used,
instead of the 1 1 j hours of the basic process. Thus the actual cost
of conversion by the acid process is materially less than by the
basic, but this difference is more than outweighed in most places
by the greater cost of pig and scrap free enough from phosphorus
to be used in the undephosphorizing acid process.
101. Three special varieties of the open-hearth process, the
Bertrand-Thiel, the Talbot and the Monell, deserve notice. Bertrand
and Thiel oxidize the carbon of molten cast iron by pouring it into
a bath of molten iron which has first been oxygenated, i.e. charged
with oxygen, and superheated, in an open-hearth furnace. The
two metallic masses coalesce, and the reaction between the oxygen
of one and the carbon of the other is therefore extremely rapid
because it occurs throughout their depth, whereas in common pro-
cedure oxidation occurs only at the upper surface of the bath of
cast iron at its contact with the overlying slag. Moreover, since
local cooling, with its consequent viscosity and tendency to froth,
are avoided, the frothing is not excessive in spite of the rapidity of
the reaction. The oxygenated metal is prepared by melting cast
iron diluted with as much scrap steel as is available, and oxidizing
it with the flame and with iron ore as it lies in a thin molten layer
on the hearth of a large open-hearth furnace; the thinness of the
layer hastens the oxidation, and the large size of the furnace permits
considerable frothing. But the oxygenated metal might be prepared
easily in a Bessemer converter.
To enlarge the scale of operations makes strongly for economy
in the open-hearth process as in other high temperature ones. Yet
the use of an open-hearth furnace of very great capacity, say of
200 tons per charge, has the disadvantage that such very large lots
of steel, delivered at relatively long intervals, are less readily managed
in the subsequent operations of soaking and rolling down to the
final shape, than smaller lots delivered at shorter intervals. To
meet this difficulty Mr B. Talbot carries on the process as a quasi-
continuous instead of an intermittent one, operating on loo-ton or
2OO-ton lots of cast iron in such a way as to draw off his steel in
20-ton lots at relatively short intervals, charging a fresh 2O-ton lot
of cast iron to replace each lot of steel thus drawn off, and thus keep-
ing the furnace full of metal from Monday morning till Saturday
night. Besides minor advantages, this plan has the merit of avoiding
an ineffective period which occurs in common open-hearth procedure
just after the charge of cast iron has been melted down. At this
time the slag is temporarily rich in iron oxide and silica, resulting
from the oxidation of the iron and of its silicon as the charge slowly
melts and trickles down. Such a slag not only corrodes the furnace
lining, but also impedes dephosphorization, because it is irretentive
of phosphorus. Further, the relatively low temperature impedes
decarburization. Clearly, no such period can exist in the continuous
process.
At a relatively low temperature, say 1300° C., the phosphorus
of cast iron oxidizes and is removed much faster than its carbon,
while at a higher temperature, say 1500° C., carbon oxidizes in pre-
ference to phosphorus. It is well to remove this latter element
early, so that when the carbon shall have fallen to the proportion
which the steel is to contain, the steel shall already be free from
phosphorus, and so ready to cast. In common open-hearth pro-
cedure, although the temperature is low early in the process, viz.
at the end of the melting down, dephosphorization is then impeded
by the temporary acidity of the slag, as just explained. At the
Carnegie works Mr Monell gets the two dephosphorizing conditions,
low temperature and basicity of slag, early in the process, by pour-
ing his molten but relatively cool cast iron upon a layer of pre-heated
lime and iron oxide on the bottom of the open-hearth furnace.
The lime and iron oxide melt, and, in passing up through the over-
lying metal, the iron oxide very rapidly oxidizes its phosphorus and
thus drags it into the slag as phosphoric acid. The ebullition from
the formation of carbonic oxide puffs up the resultant phosphoric
slag enough to make most of it run out of the furnace, thus both
removing the phosphorus permanently from danger of being later
deoxidized and returned to the steel, and partly freeing the bath of
metal from the heat-insulating blanket of slag. Yet frothing is
not excessive, because the slag is not, as in common practice, locally
chilled and made viscous by cold lumps of ore.
102. In the duplex process the conversion of the cast iron into
steel is begun in the Bessemer converter and finished in the open-
hearth furnace. In the most promising form of this process an acid
converter and a basic open-hearth furnace are used. In the former
the silicon and part of the carbon are moved rapidly, in the latter
the rest of the carbon and the phosphorus are removed slowly, and
the metal is brought accurately to the proper temperature and
composition. The advantage of this combination is that, by simpli-
fying the conditions with which the composition of the pig iron has
to comply, it makes the management of the blast furnace easier,
and thus lessens the danger of making " misfit " pig iron, i.e. that
which, because it is not accurately suited to the process for which
it is intended, offers us the dilemma of using it in that process at
poor advantage or of putting it to some other use, a step which
often implies serious loss.
For the acid Bessemer process the sulphur-content must be small
and the silicon-content should be constant; for the basic open-
hearth process the content of both silicon and sulphur should be
small, a thing difficult to bring about, because in the blast furnace
most of the conditions which make for small sulphur-content make
also for large silicon-content. In the acid Bessemer process the
reason why the sulphur-content must be small is that the process
removes no sulphur; and the reason why the silicon-content should
be constant is that, because silicon is here the chief source of heat,
variations in its content cause corresponding variations in the
temperature, a most harmful thing because it is essential to the
good quality of the steel that it shall be finished and cast at the
proper temperature. It is true that the use of the " mixer " (§ 77)
lessens these variations, and that there are convenient ways of
mitigating their effects. Nevertheless, their harm is not com-
pletely done away with. But if the conversion is only begun in the
converter and finished on the open-hearth, then there is no need
of regulating the temperature in the converter closely, and variations
in the silicon-content of the pig iron thus become almost harmless
in this respect. In the basic open-hearth process, on the other hand,
silicon is harmful because the silica which results from its oxidation
not only corrodes the lining of the furnace but interferes with the
removal of the phosphorus, an essential part of the process. The
sulphur-content should be small, because the removal of this element
is both slow and difficult. But if the silicon of the pig iron is
removed by a preliminary treatment in the Bessemer converter, then
its presence in the pig iron is harmless as regards the open-hearth
process. Hence the blast furnace process, thus freed from the
hampering need of controlling accurately the silicon-content, can
be much more effectively guided so as to prevent the sulphur from
entering the pig iron.
Looking at the duplex process in another way, the preliminary
desilicidizing in the Bessemer converter should certainly be an
advantage ; but whether it is more profitable to give this treatment
in the converter than in the mixer remains to be seen.
103. In the cementation process bars of wrought iron about
7 in. thick are carburized and so converted into high carbon
"blister steel," by heating them in contact with charcoal in
824
IRON AND STEEL
a closed chamber to about 1000° C. (1832° F.) for from 8 to n
days. Low-carbon steel might thus be converted into high-
carbon steel, but this is not customary. The carbon dissolves
in the hot but distinctly solid 7-iron (compare fig. i) as salt
dissolves in water, and works its way towards the centre of the
bar by diffusion. When the mass is cooled, the carbon changes
over into the condition of cementite as usual, partly inter-
stratified with ferrite in the form of pearlite, partly in the form
of envelopes enclosing kernels of this pearlite (see ALLOYS,
PL fig. 13). Where the carbon, in thus diffusing inwards, meets
particles of the slag, a basic ferrous silicate which is always
present in wrought iron, it forms carbonic oxide, FeO+C =
Fe+CO, which puffs the pliant metal up and forms blisters.
Hence the name " blister steel." It was formerly sheared to
short lengths and formed into piles, which were then rolled
out, perhaps to be resheared and rerolled into bars, known
as " single shear " or " double shear " steel according to the
number of shearings. But now the chief use for blister steel
is for remelting in the crucible process, yielding a product which
is asserted so positively, so universally and by such com-
petent witnesses to be not only better but very much better
than that made from any other material, that we must believe
that it is so, though no clear reason can yet be given why it
should be. For long all the best high-carbon steel was made
by remelting this blister steel in crucibles (§ 106), but in the
last few years the electric processes have begun to make this
steel (§ 108).
104. Case Hardening. — The many steel objects which need
an extremely hard outer surface but a softer and more malleable
interior may be carburized superficially by heating them in
contact with charcoal or other carbonaceous matter, for instance
for between 5 and 48 hours at a temperature of 800° to 900° C.
This is known as " case hardening." After this carburizing
these objects are usually hardened by quenching in cold water
(see § 28).
105. Deep Carburizing; Harvey and Krupp Processes. —
Much of the heavy side armour of war-vessels (see ARMOUR-
PLATE) is made of nickel steel initially containing so little carbon
that it cannot be hardened, i.e. that it remains very ductile
even after sudden cooling. The impact face of these plates
is given the intense hardness needed by being converted into
high-carbon steel, and then hardened by sudden cooling. The
impact face is thus carburized to a depth of about ij in. by
being held at a temperature of 1100° for about a week, pressed
strongly against a bed of charcoal (Harvey process). The plate
is then by Krupp's process heated so that its impact face is
above while its rear is below the hardening temperature, and
the whole is then cooled suddenly with sprays of cold water.
Under these conditions the hardness, which is very extreme
at the impact face, shades off toward the back, till at about
quarter way from face to back all hardening ceases, and the rest of
the plate is in a very strong, shock-resisting state. Thanks
to the glass-hardness of this face, the projectile is arrested
so abruptly that it is shattered, and its energy is delivered
piecemeal by its fragments; but as the face is integrally united
with the unhardened, ductile and slightly yielding interior and
back, the plate, even if it is locally bent backwards somewhat
by the blow, neither cracks nor flakes.
106. The crucible process consists essentially in melting one
or another variety of iron or steel in small 8o-lb. charges in
closed crucibles, and then casting it into ingots or other castings,
though in addition the metal while melting may be carburized.
Its chief, indeed almost its sole use, is for making tool steel,
the best kinds of spring steel and other very excellent kinds
of high-carbon and alloy steel. After the charge has been fully
melted, it is held in the molten state from 30 to 60 minutes.
This enables it to take up enough silicon from the walls of the
crucible to prevent the evolution of gas during solidification,
and the consequent formation of blowholes or internal gas
bubbles. In Great Britain the charge usually consists of blister
steel, and is therefore high in carbon, so that the crucible
process has very little to do except to melt the charge. In the
United States the charge usually consists chiefly of wrought
iron, and in melting in the crucible it is carburized by mixing
with it either charcoal or " washed metal," a very pure cast
iron made by the Bell-Krupp process (§ 107).
Compared with the Bessemer process, which converts a charge
of even as much as 20 tons of pig iron into steel in a few minutes,
and the open-hearth process which easily treats charges of 75 tons,
the crucible process is, of course, a most expensive one, with its
little 8o-lb charges, melted with great consumption of fuel because
the heat is kept away from the metal by the walls of the crucible,
themselves excellent heat insulators. But it survives simply be-
cause crucible steel is very much better than either Bessemer or open-
hearth steel. This in turn is in part because of the greater care
which can be used in making these small lots, but probably in chief
part because the crucible process excludes the atmospheric nitrogen,
which injures the metal, and because it gives a good opportunity for
the suspended slag and iron oxide to rise to the surface. Till Hunts-
man developed the crucible process in 1740, the only kinds of steel
of commercial importance were blister steel made by carburizing
wrought iron without fusion, and others which like it were greatly
injured by the presence of particles of sjag. Huntsman showed that
the mere act of freeing these slag-bearing steels from their slag by
melting them in closed crucibles greatly improved them. It is true
'that Reaumur in 1722 described his method of making molten steel
in crucibles, and that the Hindus have for centuries done this on a
small scale, though they let the molten steel resolidify in the crucible.
Nevertheless, it is to Huntsman that the world is immediately
indebted for the crucible process. He could make only high-carbon
steel, because he could not develop within his closed crucibles the
temperature needed for melting low-carbon steel. The crucible
process remained the only one by which slagless steel could be
made, till Bessemer, by his astonishing invention, discovered at
once low-carbon steel and a process for making both it and high-
carbon steel extremely cheaply.
107. In the Bell-Krupp or " pig- washing " process, invented
independently by the famous British iron-master, Sir Lowthian
Bell, and Krupp of Essen, advantage is taken of the fact that,
at a relatively low temperature, probably a little above 1200° C.,
the phosphorus and silicon of molten cast iron are quickly oxidized
and removed by contact with molten iron oxide, though carbon
is thus oxidized but slowly. By rapidly stirring molten iron
oxide into molten pig iron in a furnace shaped like a saucer,
slightly inclined and turning around its axis, at a temperature
but little above the melting-point of the metal itself, the
phosphorus and silicon are removed rapidly, without removing
much of the carbon, and by this means an extremely pure cast
iron is made. This is used in the crucible process as a convenient
source of the carbon needed for high-carbon steel.
108. Electric steel-making processes, or more accurately
processes in which electrically heated furnaces are used, have
developed very rapidly. In steel-making, electric furnaces are
used for two distinct purposes, first for making steel sufficiently
better than Bessemer and open-hearth steels to replace these
for certain important purposes, and second for replacing the
very expensive crucible process for making the very best steel.
The advantages of the electric furnaces for these purposes can
best be understood after examining the furnaces themselves
and the way in which they are used. The most important ones
are either " arc " furnaces, i.e. those heated by electric arcs,
or " induction " ones, i.e. those in which the metal under treat-
ment is heated by its own resist-
ance to a current of electricity
induced in it from without. The
Heroult furnace, the best known
in the arc class, and the Kjellin
and Roechling-Rodenhauser fur-
naces, the best known of the
induction class, will serve as
examples.
The Heroult furnace (fig. 23) is
practically a large closed crucible, FlG- 23.— Heroult Double-
ABCA, with two carbon electrodes, arc Electric Steel Purifying
E and F, " in series " with the bath, Furnace.
H , of molten steel. A pair of electric
arcs play between these electrodes and the molten steel, passing
through the layer of slag, G, and generating much heat. The
lining of the crucible may be of either magnesite (MgO) or
chromite (FeOCr?O3). The whole furnace, electrodes and all,
rotates about the line KL for the purpose of pouring out the molten
IRON AND STEEL
825
slag and purified metal through the spout J at the end of the
process. This spout and the charging doors A, A are kept closed
except when in actual use for pouring or charging.
The Kjellin furnace consists essentially of an annular trough,
AA (fig. 24), which contains the molten charge. This charge is
heated, like the filaments of a common household electric lamp, by
the resistance which it offers to the passage of a current of electricity
induced in it by means of
the core C and the frame
EEE. The ends of this
core are connected above,
below and at the right of
the trough A, by means
of that frame, so that the
trough and this core and
frame stand to each other
in a position like that of
two successive links of
a common oval - linked
chain. A current of great
FIG. 24, — Kjellin Induction Electric electromotive force (in-
Steel Melting Furnace. tensity or voltage) passed
through the coil D, in-
duces, by means of the core and frame, a current of enormous
quantity (volume or amperage), but very small electromotive force,
in the metal in the trough. Thus the apparatus is analogous to the
common transformers used for inducing from currents of great
electromotive force and small quantity, which carry energy through
long distances, currents of great quantity and small electromotive
force for incandescent lights and for welding. The molten metal
in the Kjellin trough forms the " secondary " circuit. Like the
Heroult furnace, the Kjellin furnace may be lined with either
magnesite or chromite, and it may be tilted for the purpose of
pouring off slag and metal.
The shape which the molten metal under treatment has in the
Kjellin furnace, a 'thin ring of large diameter, is evidently bad,
inconvenient for manipulation and with excessive heat-radiating
surface. In the Roechling-Rodenhauser induction furnace (fig. 25),
FIG. 25. — Plan of Roechling-Rodenhauser Induction Electric
Furnace.
the molten metal lies chiefly in a large compact mass A, heated at
three places on its periphery by the current induced in it there by
means of the three coils and cores CCC. The molten metal also
extends round each of these three coils, in the narrow channels B.
It is in the metal in these channels and in that part of the main
mass of metal which immediately adjoins the coils that the current
is induced by means of the coils and cores, as in the Kjellin furnace.
When the Heroult furnace is used for completing the purification
of molten steel begun in the Bessemer or open-hearth process, and
this is its most appropriate use, the process carried out in it may
be divided into two stages, first dephosphorization, and second
deoxidation and desulphurization.
In the first stage the phosphorus is removed from the molten steel
by oxidizing it to phosphoric acid, PzOs, by means of iron oxide
contained in a molten slag very rich in lime, and hence very basic
and retentive of that phosphoric acid. This slag is formed by
melting lime and iron oxide, with a little silica sand if need be.
Floating on top of the molten metal, it rapidly oxidizes its phos-
phorus, and the resultant phosphoric acid combines with the lime
in the overlying slag as phosphate of lime. When the removal of
the phosphorus is sufficiently complete, this slag is withdrawn from
the furnace.
Next comes the deoxidizing and desulphurizing stage, of which
the first step is to throw some strongly deoxidizing substance, such
as coke or ferro-silicon, upon the molten metal, in order to remove
thus the chief part of the oxygen which it has taken up during the
oxidation of the phosphorus in the preceding stage. Next the
metal is covered with a very basic slag, made by melting lime with
a little silica and fluor spar. Coke now charged into this slag first
deoxidizes any iron oxide contained in either slag or metal, and next
deoxidizes part of the lime of the slag and thus forms calcium,
which, uniting with the sulphur present in the molten metal, forms
calcium sulphide, CaO+FeS+C = CaS+Fe+CO. This sulphide is
nearly insoluble in the metal, but is readily soluble in the over-
lying basic slag, into which it therefore passes. The thorough
removal of the sulphur is thus brought about by the deoxidation of
the calcium. It is by forming calcium sulphide that sulphur is
removed in the manufacture of pig iron in the iron blast furnace,
in the crucible of which, as in the electric furnaces, the conditions
are strongly deoxidizing But in the Bessemer and open-hearth
processes this means of removing sulphur cannot be used, because m
each of them there is always enough oxygen in the atmosphere to
re-oxidize any calcium as fast as it is deoxidized. Here sulphur
may indeed be removed to a very important degree in the form of
manganese sulphide, which distributes itself between metal and
slag in rough accord with the laws of equilibrium. But if we rely
on this means we have difficulty in reducing the sulphur content
of the metal to 0-03% and very great difficulty in reducing it to
0-02 %, whereas with the calcium sulphide of the electric furnaces
we can readily reduce it to less than o-oi %.
When the desulphurization is sufficiently complete, the sulphur-
bearing slag is removed, the final additions needed to give the metal
exactly the composition aimed at are made, and the molten steel is
tapped out of the furnace into its moulds. If the initial quantity
of phosphorus or sulphur is large, or if the removal of these im-
purities is to be made very thorough, the dephosphorizing or the
desulphurizing slagging off may be repeated. While the metal lies
tranquilly on the bottom of the furnace, any slag mechanically
suspended in it has a chance to rise to the surface and unite with
the slag layer above.
In addition to this work of purification, the furnace may be used
for melting down the initial charge of cold metal, and for beginning
the purification — in short not only for finishing but also for roughing.
But this is rarely expedient, because electricity is so expensive that
it should be used for doing only those things which cannot be accom-
plished by any other and cheaper means. The melting can be done
much more cheaply in a cupola or open-hearth furnace, and the first
part of the purification much more cheaply in a Bessemer converter
or open-hearth furnace.
The normal use of the Kjellin induction furnace is to do the work
usually done in the crucible process, i.e. to melt down very pure
iron for the manufacture of the best kinds of steel, such as fine tool
and spring steel, and to bring the molten metal simultaneously to
the exact composition and temperature at which it should be cast
into its moulds. This furnace may be used also for purifying the
molten metal, but it is not so well suited as the arc furnaces for
dephosphorizing. The reason for this is that in it the slag, by means
of which all the purification must needs be done, is not heated
effectively; that hence it is not readily made thoroughly liquid;
that hence the removal of the phosphoric slag made in the early
dephosphorizing stage of the process is liable to be incomplete;
and that hence, finally, the phosphorus of any of this slag which is
left in the furnace becomes deoxidized during the second or de-
oxidizing stage, and is thereby returned to befoul the underlying
steel. The reason why the slag is not heated effectively is that the
heat is developed only in the layer of metal itself, by its resistance
to the induced current, and hence the only heat which the slag
receives is that supplied to its lower surface by the metal, while its
upper side is constantly radiating heat away towards the relatively
cool roof above.
The Roechling-Rodenhauser furnace is unfitted, by the vulner-
ability of its interior walls, for receiving charges of cold metal to be
melted down, but it is used to good advantage for purifying molten
basic Bessemer steel sufficiently to fit it for use in the form of rail-
way rails.
We are now in a position to understand why electricity
should be used as a source of heat in making molten steel.
Electric furnaces are at an advantage over others as regards
the removal of sulphur and of iron oxide from the molten steel,
because their atmosphere is free from the sulphur always present
in the flame of coal-fired furnaces, and almost free from oxygen,
because this element is quickly absorbed by the carbon and
silicon of the steel, and in the case of arc furnaces by the carbon
of the electrodes themselves, and is replaced only very slowly
by leakage, whereas through the Bessemer converter and the
open-hearth furnace a torrent of air is always rushing. As
we have seen, the removal of sulphur can be made complete
only by deoxidizing calcium, and this cannot be done if much
oxygen is present. Indeed, the freedom of the atmosphere
of the electric furnaces from oxygen is also the reason indirectly
826
IRON AND STEEL
why the molten metal can be freed from mechanically suspended
slag more perfectly in them than in the Bessemer converter or
the open-hearth furnace. In order that this finely divided slag
shall rise to the surface and there coalesce with the overlying
layer, the metal must be tranquil. But tranquillity is clearly
imp ssib'e in the Bessemer converter, in which the metal can
be kept hot only by being torn into a spray by the blast. It is
practically unattainable in the open-hearth furnace, because
here the oxygen of the furnace atmosphere indirectly oxidizes
the carbon of the metal which is kept boiling by the escape of
the resultant carbonic oxide. In short the electric furnaces
can be used to improve the molten product of the Bessemer
converter and open-hearth furnace, essentially because their
atmosphere is free from sulphur and oxygen, and because they
can therefore remove sulphur, iron oxide and mechanically
suspended slag, more thoroughly than is possible in these older
furnaces. They make a better though a dearer steel.
Further, the electric furnaces, e.g. the Kjellin, can be used
to replace the crucible melting process (§ 106), chiefly because
their work is cheaper for two reasons. First, they treat a larger
charge, a ton or more, whereas the charge of each crucible is
only about 80 pounds. Second, their heat is applied far more
economically, directly to the metal itself, whereas in the crucible
process the heat is applied most wastefully to the outside of the
non-conducting walls of a closed crucible within which the charge
to be heated lies. Beyond this sulphur and phosphorus can be
removed in the electric furnace, whereas in the crucible process
they cannot. In short electric furnaces replace the old crucible
furnace primarily because they work more cheaply, though in
addition they may be made to yield a better steel than it can.
Thus we see that the purification in these electric furnaces has
nothing to do with electricity. We still use the old familiar purifying
agents, iron oxide, lime and nascent calcium. The electricity is
solely a source of heat, free from the faults of the older sources
which for certain purposes it now replaces. The electric furnaces
are likely to displace the crucible furnaces completely, because
they work both more cheaply and better. They are not likely
to displace either the open-hearth furnace or the Bessemer con-
verter, because their normal work is only to improve the product
of these older furnaces. Here their use is likely to be limited by its
costliness, because for the great majority of purposes the superiority
of the electrically purified steel is not worth the cost of the electric
purification.
109. Electric Ore-smelting Processes. — Though the electric
processes which have been proposed for extracting the iron from
iron ore, with the purpose of displacing the iron blast furnace,
have not become important enough to deserve description here,
yet it should be possible to devise one which would be useful
in a place (if there is one) which has an abundance of water
power and iron ore and a local demand for iron, but has not
coke, charcoal or bituminous coal suitable for the blast furnace.
But this ancient furnace does its fourfold work of deoxidizing,
melting, removing the gangue and desulphurizing, so very
economically that it is not likely to be driven out in other places
until the exhaustion of our coal-fields shall have gone so far as to
increase the cost of coke greatly.
1 10. Comparison of Steel-making Processes. — When Bessemer
discovered that by simply blowing air through molten cast iron
rapidly he could make low-carbon steel, which is essentially
wrought iron greatly improved by being freed from its essential
defect, its necessarily weakening and embrittling slag, the very
expensive and exhausting puddling process seemed doomed,
unable to survive the time when men should have familiarized
themselves with the use of Bessemer steel, and should have
developed the evident possibilities of cheapness of the Bessemer
process. Nevertheless the use of wrought iron actually continued
to increase. The first of the United States decennial censuses
to show a decrease in the production of wrought iron was that
in 1890, 35 years after the invention of the Bessemer process.
It is still in great demand for certain normal purposes for which
either great ease in welding or resistance to corrosion by rusting
is of great importance; for purposes requiring special forms of
extreme ductility which are not so confidently expected in steel;
for miscellaneous needs of many users, some ignorant, some
very conservative ; and for remelting in the crucible process.
All the best cutlery and tool steel is made either by the crucible
process or in electric furnaces, and indeed all for which any
considerable excellence is claimed is supposed to be so made,
though often incorrectly. But the great mass of the steel of
commerce is made by the Bessemer and the open-hearth processes.
Open-hearth steel is generally thought to be better than Bessemer,
and the acid variety of each of these two processes is thought
to yield a better product than the basic variety. This may not
necessarily be true, but the acid variety lends itself more readily
to excellence than the basic. A very large proportion of ores
cannot be made to yield cast iron either free enough from
phosphorus for the acid Bessemer or the acid open-hearth
process, neither of which removes that most injurious element,
or rich enough in phosphorus for the basic Bessemer process,
which must rely on that element as its source of heat. But
cast iron for the basic open-hearth process can be made from
almost any ore, because its requirements, comparative freedom
from silicon and sulphur, depend on the management of the
blast-furnace rather than on the composition of the ore, whereas
the phosphorus-content of the cast iron depends solely on that
of the ore, because nearly all the phosphorus of the ore necessarily
passes into the cast iron. Thus the basic open-hearth process
is the only one which can make steel from cast iron containing
more than o-io % but less than 1-80 %of phosphorus.
The restriction of the basic Bessemer process to pig iron
containing at least 1-80% of phosphorus has prevented it from
getting a foothold in the United States; the restriction of the
acid Bessemer process to pig iron very low in phosphorus, usually
to that containing less than 0-10% of that element, has almost
driven it out of Germany, has of late retarded, indeed almost
stopped, the growth of its use in the United States, and has even
caused it to be displaced at the great Duquesne works of the
Carnegie Steel Company by the omnivorous basic open-hearth
process, the use of which has increased very rapidly. Under
most conditions the acid Bessemer process is the cheapest in
cost of conversion, the basic Bessemer next, and the acid open-
hearth next, though the difference between them is not great.
But the crucible process is very much more expensive than any
of the others.
Until very lately the Bessemer process, in either its acid or its
basic form, made all of the world's rail steel ; but even for this work
it has now begun to be displaced by the basic open-hearth process,
partly because of the fast-increasing scarcity of ores which yield pig
iron low enough in phosphorus for the acid Bessemer process, and
partly because the increase in the speed of trains and in the loads on
the individual engine- and car-wheels has made a demand for rails of
a material better than Bessemer steel.
in. Iron founding, i.e. the manufacture of castings of cast
iron, consists essentially in pouring the molten cast iron into
moulds, and, as preparatory steps, melting the cast iron itself
and preparing the moulds. These are usually made of sand
containing enough clay to give it the needed coherence, but of
late promising attempts have been made to use permanent iron
moulds. In a very few places the molten cast iron as it issues
from the blast furnace is cast directly in these moulds, but in
general it is allowed to solidify in pigs, and then remelted either
in cupola furnaces or in air furnaces. The cupola furnace (fig. 26)
is a shaft much like a miniature blast furnace, filled from top
to bottom by a column of lumps of coke and of iron. The blast
of air forced in through the tuyeres near the bottom of the
furnace burns the coke there, and the intense heat thus caused
melts away the surrounding iron, so that this column of coke and
iron gradually descends; but it is kept at its full height by
feeding more coke and iron at its top, until all the iron needed
for the day's work has thus been charged. As the iron melts
it runs out through a tap hole and spout at the bottom of the
furnace, to be poured into the moulds by means of clay-lined
ladles. The air furnace is a reverberatory furnace like that used
for puddling (fig. 14), but larger, and in it the pigs of iron, lying
on the bottom or hearth, are melted down by the flame from the
coal which burns in the firebox. The iron is then held molten
till it has grown hot enough for casting and till enough of its
IRON AND STEEL
827
carbon has been burnt away to leave just the carbon-content
desired, and it is then tapped out and poured into the moulds.
Of the two the cupola is very much the more economical of fuel,
thanks to the direct transfer of heat from the burning coke to the
pig iron with which
it is in contact. But
this contact both
causes the iron to
absorb sulphur
from the coke to
its great harm, and
prevents it from
having any large
part of its carbon
burnt away, which
in many cases
Charging would improve it
\Door very greatly by
strengthening it.
Thus it comes about
that the cupola,
because it is so
economical, is used
for all but the rela-
tively few cases in
which the strength-
ening of the iron by
the removal of part
of its carbon and
the prevention of
the absorption of
sulphur are so im-
portant as to com-
pensate for the
greater cost of the
air-furnace melt-
ing.
112. Cast iron
for foundry pur-
poses, i.e. for
making castings of
cast iron. Though,
as we have seen in
§ 19, steel is rarely
given a carbon-
P.GS or IRON.. » content greater
LUMP50FCOKE. -<&» than i -50% lest its
MOLTEN IRON VH brittleness should
Slog
Spout
MOLTEN SLAG *=be excessive, yet
DROPS OF IRON . -,.-.( . . ... ,
DROPS OF SLAG. . ..I C£lSt lrO11 WltH be-
tween 3 and 4 % of
carbon, the usual
FIG. 26. — Cupola Furnace for Remelting cast iron of the
piglr°n- foundry, is very
useful. Because of the ease and cheapness with which, thanks to
its fluidity and fusibility (fig. i), it can be melted and run even into
narrow and intricate moulds, castings made of it are very often
more economical, i.e. they serve a given purpose more cheaply, in
the long run, than either rolled or cast steel, in spite of their need
of being so massive that the brittleness of the material itself
shall be endurable. Indeed this high carbon-content, 3 to 4%,
in practice actually leads to less brittleness than can readily be
had with somewhat less carbon, because with it much of the
carbon can easily be thrown into the relatively harmless state
of graphite, whereas if the carbon amounts to less than 3% it
can be brought to this state only with difficulty. For crushing
certain kinds of rock, the hardness of which cast iron is capable
really makes it more valuable, pound for pound, than steel.
113. Qualities needed in Cast Iron Castings. — Different kinds
of castings need very different sets of qualities, and the com-
position of the cast iron itself must vary from case to case so as
to give each the qualities needed. The iron for a statuette must
first of all be very fluid, so that it will run into every crevice in
its mould, and it must expand in solidifying, so that it shall
reproduce accurately every detail of that mould. The iron for
most engineering purposes needs chiefly to be strong and not
excessively brittle. That for the thin-walled water mains must
combine strength with the fluidity needed to enable it to run
freely into ite narrow moulds; that for most machinery must
be soft enough to be cut easily to an exact shape; that for
hydraulic cylinders must combine strength with density lest the
water leak through; and that for car- wheels must be intensely
hard in its wearing parts, but in its other parts it must have that
shock-resisting power which can be had only along with great
softness. Though all true cast iron is brittle, in the sense that
it is not usefully malleable, i.e. that it cannot be hammered from
one shape into another, yet its degree of brittleness differs as
that of soapstone does from that of glass, so that there are the
intensely hard and brittle cast irons, and the less brittle ones,
softer and unhurt by a shock which would shiver the former.
Of these several qualities which cast iron may have, fluidity
is given by keeping the sulphur-content low and phosphorus-
content high; and this latter element must be kept low if
shock is to be resisted; but strength, hardness, endurance of
shock, density and expansion in solidifying are controlled
essentially by the distribution of the carbon between the states
of graphite and cementite, and this in turn is controlled chiefly
by the proportion of silicon, manganese and sulphur present,
and in many cases by the rate of cooling.
114. Constitution of Cast Iron.— Cast iron naturally has a high
carbon-content, usually between 3 and 4 %, because while molten
it absorbs carbon greedily from the coke with which it is in contact
in the iron blast furnace in which it is made, and in the cupola furnace
in which it is remelted for making most castings. This carbon may
all be present as graphite, as in typical grey cast iron ; or all present
as cementite, Fe3C, as in typical white cast iron; or, as is far more
usual, part of it may be present as graphite and part as cementite.
Now how does it come about that the distribution of the carbon
between these very unlike states determines the strength, hardness
and many other valuable properties of the metal as a whole? The
answer to this is made easy by a careful study of the effect of this
same distribution on the constitution of the metal, because it is
through controlling this constitution that the condition of the carbon
controls these useful properties. To fix our ideas let us assume that
the iron contains 4% of carbon. If this carbon is all present as
graphite, so that in cooling the graphite-austenite diagram has been
followed strictly (§ 26), the constitution is extremely simple; clearly
the mass consists first of a metallic matrix, the carbonless iron itself
with whatever silicon, manganese, phosphorus and sulphur happen
to be present, in short an impure ferrite, encased in which as a wholly
distinct foreign body is the graphite. The primary graphite (§ 26)
generally forms a coarse, nearly continuous skeleton of curved black
plates, like those shown in fig. 27; the eutectic graphite is much
FIG. 27. — Graphite in Grey Cast Iron.
finer; while the pro-eutectoid and eutectoid graphite, if they exist,
are probably in very fine particles. We must grasp clearly this
conception of metallic matrix and encased graphite skeleton if we
are to understand this subject.
Now this matrix itself is equivalent to a very low-carbon steel,
strictly speaking to a carbonless steel, because it consists of pure
ferrite, which is just what such a steel consists of; and the cast iron
as a whole is therefore equivalent to a matrix of very low-carbon
828
IRON AND STEEL
steel in which is encased a skeleton of graphite plates, besides some
very fine scattered particles of graphite.
Next let us imagine that, in a series of cast irons all containing 4 %
of carbon, the graphite of the initial skeleton changes gradually
into cementite and thereby becomes part of the matrix, a change
which of course has two aspects, first, a gradual thinning of the
graphite skeleton and a decrease of its continuity, and second, a
gradual introduction of cementite into the originally pure ferrite
matrix. By the time that 0-4% of graphite has thus changed,
and in changing has united with 0-4X14 = 5-6 % ofj the iron of the
original ferrite matrix, it will have changed this matrix from pure
ferrite into a mixture of
Cementite
Ferrite
0-4+5-6= 6-0
96-0-5-6= 90-4
The residual graphite skeleton forms 4 - 0-4 =
100-0
But this matrix is itself equivalent to a steel of about 0-40% of
carbon (more accurately o-4OXioo-j-96-4
, a rail steel,
because it is of just such a mixture of ferrite and cementite in the
ratio of 90-4 : 6 or 94 % and 6 %, that such a rail steel consists. The
mass as a whole, then, consists of 96-4 parts of metallic matrix, which
itself is in effect a 0-415 % carbon rail steel, weakened and embrittled
by having its continuity broken up by this skeleton of graphite
forming 3-6% of the whole mass by weight, or say 12 % by volume.
As, in succeeding members of this same series of cast irons, more
of the graphite of the initial skeleton changes into cementite and
thereby becomes part of the metallic matrix, so the graphite skeleton
becomes progressively thinner and more discontinuous, and the
matrix richer in cementite and hence in carbon and hence equivalent
first to higher and higher carbon steel, such as tool steel of I %
carbon, file steel of 1-50%, wire-die steel of 2% carbon and then
to white cast iron, which consists essentially of -much cementite
with little ferrite. Eventually, when the whole of the graphite of
the skeleton has changed into cementite, the mass as a whole becomes
typical or ultra white cast iron, consisting of nothing but ferrite and
cementite, distributed as follows (see fig. 2) : —
Eutectoid ferrite
cementite
„ Interstratified as pearlite .
Cementite, primary, eutectoid and pro-eutectoid
Total ferrite .
Total cementite
40-0
6-7
46-7
53-3
IOO-O
40-0
60-0
100-0
The constitution and properties of such a series of cast irons,
all containing 4 % of carbon but with that carbon shifting pro-
portion of ferrite and cementite respectively in the matrix, DEF,
KS and TU reproduced from fig. 3 give the consequent properties
3 g11
of the matrix, and GAF, RS and VU give, partly from conjecture,
the properties of the cast iron as a whole. Above the diagram are
given the names of the different classes of cast iron to which different
stages in the change from graphite to cementite correspond, and
above these the names of kinds of steel or cast iron to which at the
corresponding stages the constitution of the matrix corresponds,
while below the diagram are given the properties of the cast iron as
a whole corresponding to these stages, and still lower the purposes
for which these stages fit the cast iron, first because of its strength
and shock-resisting power, and second because of its hardness.
115. Influence of the Constitution of Cast Iron on Us Properties. —
How should the hardness, strength and ductility, or rather shock-
resisting power, of the cast iron be affected by this progressive
change from graphite into cementite ? First, the hardness (VU)
should increase progressively as the soft ferrite and graphite are
replaced by the glass-hard cementite. Second, though the brittle-
ness should be lessened somewhat by the decrease in the extent to
which the continuity of the strong matrix is broken up by the
graphite skeleton, yet this effect is outweighed greatly by that of
the rapid substitution in the matrix of the brittle cementite for the
very ductile copper-like ferrite, so that the brittleness increases
continuously (RS), from that of the very grey graphitic cast irons,
which, like that of soapstone, is so slight that the metal can endure
severe shock and even indentation without breaking, to that of the
pure white cast iron which is about as brittle as porcelain. Here
let us recognize that what gives this transfer of carbon from graphite
skeleton to metallic matrix such very great influence on the pro-
perties of the metal is the fact that the transfer of each I %
of carbon means substituting in the matrix no less than 15% of
the brittle, glass-hard cementite for the soft, very ductile ferrite.
Third, the tensile strength of steel proper, of which the matrix
consists, as we have already seen (fig. 3), increases with the carbon-
content till this reaches about 1-25%, and then in turn decreases
(fig. 28, DEF). Hence, as with the progressive transfer of the
carbon from the graphitic to the cementite state in pur imaginary
series of cast irons, the combined carbon present in the matrix
increases, so does the tensile strength of the mass as a whole for
two reasons; first, because the strength of the matrix itself is in-
creasing (DE), and second, because the discontinuity is decreasing
with the decreasing proportion of graphite. With further transfer
of the carbon from the graphitic to the combined state, the matrix
itself grows weaker (EF); but this weakening is offset in a measure
by the continuing decrease of discontinuity due to the decreasing
proportion of graphite. The resultant of these two effects has not
yet been well established; but it is probable that the strongest
cast iron has a little more than I % of carbon combined as cementite,.
so that its matrix is nearly equivalent to the strongest of the steels.
As regards both tensile strength and ductility not only the quantity
but the distribution of the graphite is of great importance. Thus it
is extremely probable that the primary graphite, which forms large
sheets, is much more weakening and embrittling than the eutectic
and other forms, and therefore that, if either strength or ductility
is sought, the metal should be free from primary graphite, i.e.
that it should not be hyper-eutectic.
The presence of graphite has two further and very natural
effects. First, if the skeleton which it forms is continuous, then
its planes of junction with the metallic matrix offer a path of
low resistance to the passage of liquids or gases, or in short they
make the metal so porous as to unfit it for objects like the
cylinders of hydraulic presses, which ought to be gas-tight
and water-tight. For such purposes the graphite-content should
be low. Second, the very genesis of so bulky a substance as the
primary and eutectic graphite while the metal is solidifying
(fig. 5) causes a sudden and permanent expansion, which forces
the metal into even the finest crevices in its mould, a fact
which is taken advantage of in making ornamental castings and
others which need great sharpness of detail, by making them
rich in graphite.
To sum this up, as graphite is replaced by carbon combined
as cementite, the hardness, brittleness and density increase,
and the expansion in solidification decreases, in both cases
continuously, while the tensile strength increases till the com-
bined carbon-content rises a little above I %, and then in turn
decreases. That strength is good and brittleness bad goes with-
out saying; but here a word is needed about hardness. The
expense of cutting castings accurately to shape, cutting on them
screw threads and what not, called " machining " in trade
parlance, is often a very large part of their total cost; and it
increases rapidly with the hardness of the metal. On the other
FIG. 28.— Physical Properties and assumed Microscopic Constitution "and, the extreme hardness of nearly graphiteless cast iron is
of Cast Iron containing 4 % of carbon, as affected by the distribution °f great value for objects of which the chief duty is to resist
of that carbon between the combined and graphitic states. abrasion, such as parts of crushing machinery. Hence objects
Strength
mcngtn
and
mw
the Iron Is suited to
no shock unlc»
TTWUlfe
strongly
(upportcd
Ing in preparation.
not cxccuiv*
atmtonlnuM
no machining
In preparation.
much abrasion
tn use
gressively from the state of graphite to that of cementite as we pass
from specimen to specimen, may, with the foregoing picture of a
skeleton-holding matrix clearly in our minds be traced by means of
fig. 28. The change from graphite into cementite is supposed to
take place as we pass from left to right. BC and OH give the pro-
which need much machining are made rich in graphite, so that
they may be cut easily, and those of the latter class rich in
cementite so that they may not wear out.
116. Means of controlling the Constitution of Cast Iron. — The
distribution of the carbon between these two states, so as to give
the cast iron the properties needed, is brought about chiefly by
IRON AND STEEL
829
adjusting the silicon-content, because the presence of this element
favours the formation of graphite. Beyond this, rapid cooling and
the presence of sulphur both oppose the formation of graphite, and
hence in cast iron rich in sulphur, and in thin and therefore rapidly
cooling castings, the silicon-content must be greater than in thick
ones and in those freer from sulphur. Thus thick machinery cast-
ings usually contain between 1-50 and 2-25% of silicon, whereas
thin castings and ornamental ones which must reproduce the finest
details of the mould accurately may have as much as 3 or even
3-40% of it. Castings which, like hydraulic press cylinders and
steam radiators, must be dense and hence must have but little
graphite lest their contents leak through their walls, should not
have more than I -75% of silicon and may have even as little as
I % if impenetrability is so important that softness and consequent
ease of machining must be sacrificed to it. Cast iron railroad car-
wheels, the tread or rim of which must be intensely hard so as to
endure the grinding action of the brakeshoe while their central
parts must have good shock-resisting power, are given such
moderate silicon-content, preferably between 0-50 and 0-80%, as in
and by itself leaves the tendencies toward graphite-forming and
toward cementite-forming nearly in balance, so that they are easily
controlled by the rate of cooling. The " tread " or circumferential
part of the mould itself is made of iron, because this, by conducting
the heat away from the casting rapidly, makes it cool quickly,
and thus causes most of the carbon here to form cementite, and
thus in turn makes the tread of the wheel intensely hard; while
those parts of the mould which come in contact with the central
parts of the wheel are made of sand, which conducts the heat away
from the molten metal so slowly that it solidifies slowly, with the
result that most of its carbon forms graphite, and here the metal
is soft and shock-resisting.
117. Influence of Sulphur. — Sulphur has the specific harmful
effects of shifting the carbon from the state of graphite to that of
cementite, and thus of making the metal hard and brittle; of
making it thick and sluggish when molten, so that it does not run
freely in the moulds; and of making it red short, i.e. brittle at a
red heat, so that it is very liable to be torn by the aeolotachic
contraction in cooling from the molten state; and it has no good
effects to offset these. Hence the sulphur present is, except in
certain rare cases, simply that which the metallurgist has been
unable to remove. The sulphur-content should not exceed 0-12%,
and it is better that it should not exceed 0-08 % in castings which
have to be soft enough to be machined, nor 0-05 % in thin castings
the metal for which must be very fluid.
1 1 8. Influence of Manganese. — Manganese in many cases, but
not in all, opposes the formation of graphite and thus hardens the
iron, and it lessens the red shortness (§ 40), which sulphur causes,
by leading to the formation of the less harmful manganese sulphide
instead of the more harmful iron sulphide. Hence the manganese-
content needed increases with the sulphur-content which has to be
endured. In the better classes of castings it is usually between 0-40
and 0-70%, and in chilled railroad car- wheels it may well be be-
tween 0-15 and 0-30%; but skilful founders, confronted with the
task of making use of cast iron rich in manganese, have succeeded
in making good grey iron castings with even as much as 2-20% of
this element.
119. Influence of Phosphorus. — Phosphorus has, along with its
great merit of giving fluidity, the grave defect of causing brittleness,
especially under shock. Fortunately its embrittling effect on cast
iron is very much less than on steel, so that the upper limit or
greatest tolerable proportion of phosphorus, instead of being o-io
or better 0-08% as in the case of rail steel, may be put at 0-50%
in case of machinery castings even if they are exposed to moderate
shocks; at I -60% for gas and water mains in spite of the gravity
of the disasters which extreme brittleness here might cause; and
even higher for castings which are not exposed to shock, and
are so thin that the iron of which they are made must needs be very
fluid. The permissible phosphorus-content is lessened by the
presence of either much sulphur or much manganese, and by rapid
cooling, as for instance in case of thin castings, because each of these
three things, by leading to the formation of the brittle cementite,
in itself creates brittleness which aggravates that caused by phos-
phorus.
120. Defects in Steel Ingots. — Steel ingots and other steel
castings are subject to three kinds of defects so serious as to
deserve notice here. They are known as " piping," " blowholes "
and " segregation."
121. Piping. — In an early period of the solidification of a molten
steel ingot cast in a cold iron mould we may distinguish three
parts: (i) the outer layers, i.e. the outermost of the now solid
metal ; (2) the inner layers, i.e. the remainder of the solid metal ;
and (3) the molten lake, i.e. the part which still is molten. At this
instant the outer layers, because of their contact with the cold
mould, are cooling much faster than the inner ones, and hence tend
to contract faster. But this excess of their contraction is resisted
by the almost incompressible inner layers so that the outer layers
are prevented from contracting as much as they naturally would if
unopposed, and they are thereby virtually stretched. Later on the
cooling of the inner layers becomes more rapid than that of the
outer ones, and on this account their contraction tends to become
.greater than that of the outer ones. Because the outer and inner
layers are integrally united, this excess of
contraction of the inner layers makes them
draw outward towards and against the outer
layers, and because of their thus drawing out-
ward the molten lake within no longer suffices
to fill completely the central space, so that
its upper surface begins to sink. This ebb
continues, and, combined with the progressive
narrowing of the molten lake as more and more
of it solidifies and joins the shore layers, gives
rise to the pipe, a cavity like an inverted pear,
as shown at C in fig. 29. Because this pipe is
due to the difference in the rates of contraction
of interior and exterior, it may be lessened
by retarding the cooling of the mass as a
whole, and it may be prevented from stretch-
ing down deep by retarding the solidification
of the upper part of the ingot, as, for instance,
by preheating the top of the mould, or by
covering the ingot with a mass of burning fuel
or of molten slag. This keeps the upper part
of the mass molten, so that it continues to
flow down and feed the pipe during the early
part of its formation in the lower and quicker-
cooling part of the ingot. In making castings
of steel this same difficulty arises; and much
of the steel-founder's skill consists either in
preventing these pipes, or in so placing them
that they shall not occur in the finished cast-
ing, or at least not in a harmful position. piG. 29. — Dia-
In making armour-plates from steel ingots, gram showing how
as much as 40% of the metal may be re- a pipe ;s formed,
jected as unsound from this cause. An ingot J^t Superficial
should always stand upright while solidifying, blowholes,
so that the unsound region due to the pipe 3, Deep-seated
may readily be cut off, leaving the rest of blowholes,
the ingot solid. If the ingot lay on its side c, pjpe.
while solidifying, the pipe would occur as
shown in fig. 30, and nearly the whole of the ingot would be
unsound.
122. Blowholes. — Iron, like water and many other substances,
has a higher solvent power for gases, such as hydrogen and nitrogen,
when molten, i.e. liquid, than when frozen, i.e. solid. Hence in the
act of solidifying it expels any excess of gas which it has dissolved
while liquid, and this gas becomes entangled in the freezing mass,
causing gas bubbles or blowholes, as at A and B in fig. 29. Because
the volume of the pipe represents the excess of the contraction of the
inner walls and the molten lake jointly over that of the outer walls,
between the time when the lake begins to ebb and the time when
even the axial metal is too firm to be drawn further open by this
contraction, the space occupied by blowholes must, by compensating
for part of this excess, lessen the size of the pipe, so that the more
FIG. 30. — Diagram showing a Pipe so formed as to
render Ingot unsound.
abundant and larger the blowholes are, the smaller will the pipe be.
The interior surface of a blowhole which lies near the outer crust of
the ingot, as at A in fig. 29, is liable to become oxidized by the
diffusion of the atmospheric oxygen, in which case it can hardly be
completely welded later, since welding implies actual contact of
metal with metal; it thus forms a permanent flaw. But deep-
seated blowholes like those at B are relatively harmless in low-
carbon easily welding steel, because the subsequent operation of
forging or rolling usually obliterates them by welding their sides
firmly together.
Blowholes may be lessened or even wholly prevented by adding
to the molten metal shortly before it solidifies either silicon or
aluminium, or both; even as little as 0-002 % of aluminium is
usually sufficient. These additions seem to act in part by deoxidizing
the minute quantity of iron oxide and carbonic oxide present, in
part by increasing the solvent power of the metal for gas, so that
even after freezing it can retain in solution the gas which it had
dissolved when molten. But, because preventing blowholes in-
creases the volume of the pipe, it is often better to allow them to
form, but to control their position, so that they shall be deep-seated.
This is done chiefly by casting the steel at a relatively low tempera-
ture, and by limiting the quantity of manganese and silicon which
it contains. Brinell finds that, for certain normal conditions, if
the sum of the percentage of manganese plus 5-2 times that of the
83o
IRON AND STEEL
silicon equals 1-66, there will be no blowholes; if this sum is less,
blowholes will occur, and will be injuriously near the surface unless
this sum is reduced to 0-28. He thus finds that this sum should be
either as great as I -66, so that blowholes shall be absent ; or as low
as 0-28, so that they shall be harmlessly deep-seated. These numbers
must be varied with the variations in other conditions, such as
casting temperature, rapidity of solidification, &c.
123 Segregation. — The solidification of an ingot of steel takes
place gradually from without inwards, and each layer in solidifying
tends to expel into the still molten interior the impurities which it
contains, especially the carbon, phosphorus, and sulphur, which by
this process are in part concentrated or segregated in the last-freezing
part of the ingot. This is in general around the lower part of the
pipe, so that here is a second motive for rejecting the piped part of
the ingot. While segregation injures the metal here, often fatally,
by giving it an indeterminate excess of phosphorus and sulphur, it
clearly purifies the remainder of the ingot, and on this account it
ought, under certain conditions, to be promoted rather than re-
strained. The following is an extreme case: —
Carbon.
Silicon.
Manganese.
Phosphorus.
Sulphur.
Composition of the
initial metal per
cent
Composition of the
segregate
0-24
1-27
0-336
0-41
0-97
i -08
0-089
0-753
0-074
0-418
The surprising fact that the degree of segregation does not increase
greatly either with the slowness of solidification or with the size of the
ingot, at least between the limits of 5 in. sq. and 16 in. sq., has been
explained by the theory that the relative quiet due to the gentleness
of the convection currents in a slowly cooling mass favours the
formation of far outshooting pine-tree crystals, and that the tangled
branches of these crystals landlock much of the littoral molten
mother metal, and thus mechanically impede that centreward
diffusion and convection of the impurities which is the essence of
segregation.
124. Castings and Forgings. — There are two distinct ways of
making the steel objects actually used in the arts, such as rails,
gear wheels, guns, beams, &c., out of the molten steel made by
the Bessemer, open hearth, or crucible process, or in an electric
furnace. The first is by " steel founding," i.e. casting the steel
as a " steel casting " in a mould which has the exact shape of
the object to be made, e.g. a gear wheel, and letting it solidify
there. The second is by casting it into a large rough block called
an " ingot," and rolling or hammering this out into the desired
shape. Though the former certainly seems the simpler way,
yet its technical difficulties are so great that it is in fact much
the more expensive, and therefore it is in general used only in
making objects of a shape hard to give by forging or rolling.
These technical difficulties are due chiefly to the very high melting
point of the metal, nearly 1500° C. (2732° F.), and to the conse-
quent great contraction which it undergoes in cooling through
the long range between this temperature and that of the room.
The cooling of the thinner, the outer, and in general the more
exposed parts of the casting outruns that of the thicker and less
exposed parts, with the consequence that, at any given instant,
the different parts are contracting at very different rates, i.e.
aeolotachically; and this aeolotachic contraction is very likely
to concentrate severe stress on the slowest cooling parts at the
time when they are passing from the molten to the solid state,
when the steel is mushy, with neither the fluidity of a liquid
nor the strength and ductility of a solid, and thus to tear it
apart. Aeolotachic contraction further leads to the " pipes
or contraction cavities already described in § 121, and the
procedure must be carefully planned first so as to reduce these
to a minimum, and second so as to induce them to form either
in those parts of the casting which are going to be cut off and
re-melted, or where they will do little harm. These and kindred
difficulties make each new shape or size a new problem, and
in particular they require that for each and every individual
casting a new sand or clay mould shall be made with care by a
skilled workman. If a thousand like gears are to be cast, a
thousand moulds must be made up, at least to an important
extent by hand, for even machine moulding leaves something
for careful manipulation by the moulder. It is a detail, one is
tempted to say a retail, manufacture.
In strong contrast with this is the procedure in making rollec
products such as rails and plates. The steel is cast in lots,
weighing in some cases as much as 75 tons, in enduring cast
ron moulds into very large ingots, which with their initial heat
are immediately rolled down by a series of powerful roll trains
nto their final shape with but slight wear and tear of the moulds
and the machinery. But in addition to the greater cost of steel
bunding as compared with rolling there are two facts which
imit the use of steel castings: (i) they are not so good as
rolled products, because the kneading which the metal undergoes
n rolling improves its quality, and closes up its cavities; and
[2) it would be extremely difficult and in most cases impracticable
to cast the metal directly into any of the forms in which the great
aulk of the steel of commerce is needed, such as rails, plates,
3eams, angles, rods, bars, and wire, because the metal would
aecome so cool as to solidify before running far in such thin
sections, and because even the short pieces which could thus be
made would pucker or warp on account of their aeolotachic
contraction.
125. Heating Furnaces are used in iron manufacture chiefly
Eor bringing masses of steel or wrought iron to a temperature
proper for rolling or forging. In order to economize power in
these operations, the metal should in general be as soft and hence
as hot as is consistent with its reaching a low temperature before
the rolling or forging is finished, because, as explained in § 32,
undisturbed cooling from a high temperature injures the metal.
Many of the furnaces used for this heating are in a general way
like the puddling furnace shown in fig. 14, except that they are
heated by gas, that the hearth or bottom of the chamber in
which they are heated is nearly flat, and that it is usually very
much larger than that of a puddling furnace. But in addition
there are many special kinds of furnaces arranged to meet the
needs of each case. Of these two will be shown here, the Gjers
soaking pit for steel ingots, and the Eckman or continuous
furnace, as modified by C. H. Morgan for heating billets.
126. Gjers Soaking Pit. — When the outer crust of a large
ingot in which a lot of molten steel has been cast has so far
cooled that it can be moved without breaking, the temperature
of the interior is still far above that suitable for rolling or hammer-
ing— so far above that the surplus heat of the interior would
more than suffice to reheat the now cool crust to the rolling
temperature, if we could only
arrest or even greatly retard the
further escape of heat from that
crust. Bringing such an ingot,
then, to the rolling temperature
is not really an operation of heat-
ing, because its average tempera-
ture is already above the rolling
temperature, but one of equal-
izing the temperature, by allow-
ing the internal excess of heat to
" soak " through the mass. Gjers
did this by setting the partly-
solidified ingot in a well-closed
" pit " of brickwork, preheated
by the excess heat of previous
lots of ingots. The arrange-
ment, shown in fig. 31, has three
advantages — (i) that the tem-
perature is adjusted with abso-
FIG. 31. — Section of Gjers
Soaking Pit.
lutely no consumption of fuel; (2) that the waste of iron due
to the oxidation of the outer crust of the ingot is very slight,
because the little atmospheric oxygen initially in the pit is
not renewed, whereas in a common heating furnace the flame
brings a constant fresh supply of oxygen; and (3) that the ingot
remains upright during solidification, so that its pipe is con-
centrated at one end and is thus removable. (See §121.) In this
form the system is rather inflexible, for if the supply of ingots
is delayed the pits grow unduly cool, so that the next ensuing
lot of ingots either is not heated hot enough or is delayed too
long in soaking. This defect is usually remedied by heating
the pits by the Siemens regenerative system (see § 99) ; the greater
IRON AND STEEL
831
flexibility thus gained outweighs the cost of the fuel used and
the increased loss of iron by oxidation by the Siemens gas
flame.
127. Continuous Heating Furnace. — The Gjers system is not
applicable to small ingots or "billets,"1 because they lack the
inner surplus heat of large ingots; indeed, they are now allowed
to cool completely. To heat these on the intermittent plan for
further rolling, i.e. to charge a lot of them as a whole in a heating
furnace, bring them as a whole to rolling temperature, and then
withdraw them as a whole for rolling, is very wasteful of heat,
because it is only in the first part of the heating that the outside
of the ingots is cool enough to abstract thoroughly the heat from
the flame. During all the latter part of the heating, when the
temperature of the ingot has approached that of the flame,
only an ever smaller and smaller part of the heat of that flame
can be absorbed by the ingots. Hence in the intermittent system
most of the heat generated within the furnace escapes from it
with the products of combustion. The continuous heating system
(fig. 32) recovers this heat by bringing the flame into contact
FIG. 32. — Diagram of C. H. Morgan
for 2-inch billets
A, Hottest billet ready for roll- H
ing.
B, Exit door.
C, Pusher, for forcing billets for-
ward.
D, Water-cooled pipe on which
billets are pushed forward.
E, Magnesite bricks on which the
hot billets slide forward.
F, The billet last entered.
G, The suspended roof.
t
M
N
's Continuous Heating Furnace
30 ft. long.
, The incoming air preheated by
G and by the pipes N and
brought from above G to
between N by a flue not
shown.
The incoming gas.
The flame.
, The escaping products of com-
bustion.
Pipes through which the pro-
ducts of combustion pass.
with successively cooler and cooler billets, A-F, and finally with
quite cold ones, of consequently great heat-absorbing capacity.
As soon as a hot billet A is withdrawn by pushing it endwise out
of the exit door B, the whole row is pushed forward by a set of
mechanical pushers C, the billets sliding on the raised water-cooled
Eipes D, and, in the hotter part of the furnace, on the magnesite
ricks E, on which iron slides easily when red-hot. A new cold
billet is then charged at the upper end of the hearth, and the new cycle
begins by pushing out through B a second billet, and so forth.
To lessen the loss in shape of " crop ends," and for general economy,
these billets are in some cases 30 ft. long, as in the furnace shown
in fig. 32. It is to make it wide enough to receive such long billets
that its roof is suspended, as here shown, by two sets of iron tie-rods.
As the foremost end of the billet emerges from the furnace it enters the
first of a series of roll-trains, and passes immediately thence to
others, so that before half of the billet has emerged from the furnace
its front end has already been reduced by rolling to its final shape,
that of merchant-bars, which are relatively thin, round or square
rods, in lengths of 300 ft.
In the intermittent system the waste heat can, it is true, be
utilized either for raising steam (but inefficiently and inconveniently,
because of the intermittency), or by a regenerative method like the
Siemens, Fig. 19; but this would probably recover less heat than the
continuous system, first, because it transfers the heat from flame to
metal indirectly instead of directly ; and, second, because the brick-
work of the Siemens system is probably a poorer heat-catcher than
the iron billets of the continuous system, because its disadvantages
of low conductivity and low specific heat probably outweigh its
advantages of roughness and porosity.
1 28. Rolling, Forging, and Drawing. — The three chief processes
for shaping iron and steel, rolling, forging (i.e. hammering,
pressing or stamping) and drawing, all really proceed by squeezing
1 A " billet " is a bar, 5 in. sq. or smaller, drawn down from a
bloom, ingot, or pile for further manufacture.
the metal into the desired shape. In forging, whether under a
hammer or under a press, the action is evidently a squeeze,
however skilfully guided. In drawing, the pull of the pincers
(fig- 33) upon the protruding end,
F, of the rod, transmitted to the
still undrawn part, E, squeezes the
yielding metal of the rod against
the hard unyielding die, C. As when
a half-opened umbrella is thrust
ferrule-foremost between the balus- FJG 33._wire undergoing
ters of a staircase, so when the rod is Reduction in the Die.
drawn forward, its yielding metal is
folded and forced backwards and centrewards by the resistance
of the unyielding die, and thus it is reduced in diameter and
simultaneously lengthened proportionally, without material
change of volume or density.
129. Methods of Rolling. — Of rolling much the same is true.
The rolling mill in its simplest form is a pair of cylindrical rollers,
BB (figs. 34 and 35) turning about their axes in opposite directions
as shown by the arrows, and supported at their ends in strong
frames called " housings," CC (fig. 35). The skin of the object,
D, which is undergoing rolling, technically called " the piece,"
is drawn forward powerfully by the friction of the revolving
rolls, and especially of that part of their surface which at any
given instant is moving horizontally (HH in fig. 34), much as,
the rod is drawn through the die
in fig. 33, while the vertical com-
ponent of the motion of the rear
part JJ of the rolls forces the
plastic metal of that part of
" the piece " with which they are
in contact backwards and centre-
wards, reducing its area and simul-
taneously lengthening it proportion-
ally, here again as in drawing
through a die. The rolls thus
both draw the piece forward like
the pincers of a wire die, and
themselves are a die which like a
river ever renews or rather main-
tains its fixed shape and position,
though its particles themselves are
moving constantly forward with " the piece
between them.
FIG. 34.-
-Two-high Rolling
Mill.
which is passing
After the piece has been reduced in thickness by its first
passage or " pass " between the rolls, it may be given a second
reduction and then a third and so on, either by bringing the
two rolls nearer together, as in case of the plain rolls BB at the
left in fig. 35, or by passing the piece through an aperture, F',
smaller than the first F, as in case of the grooved rolls, AA,
shown at the right, or by both means jointly. If, as sketched
in fig. 34, the direction in which each of the rolls turns is constant,
then after the piece has passed once through the rolls to the
right, it cannot undergo a second pass till it has been brought
back to its initial position at the left. But bringing it back
FIG. 35. — Two-high Rolling Mill.
wastes power and, still worse, time, heat, and metal, because
the yellow- or even white-hot piece is rapidly cooling down and
oxidizing. In order to prevent this waste the direction in which
the rolls move may be reversed, so that the piece may be reduced
a second time in passing to the left, in which case the rolls are
usually driven by a pair of reversing engines; or the rolls may
832
IRON AND STEEL
"be " three high," as shown in fig. 36, with the upper -and the lower
roll moving constantly to the right and the middle roll constantly
to the left, so that the piece first passes to the right between
the middle and lower rolls, and then to the left between the middle
and upper rolls. The advantage of the
" reversing " system is that it avoids lifting
the piece from below to above the middle
roll, and again lowering it, which is rather
difficult because the white-hot piece cannot
be guided directly by hand, but must be
moved by means of hooks, tongs, or even
complex mechanism. The advantage of the
,, "" ~, three-high mill is that, because each of its
x* IG. 'so. — i nree- . . . ...
high Rolling Mill, moving parts is always moving in the same
direction, it may be driven by a relatively
small and hence cheap engine, the power delivered by which
between the passes is taken up by a powerful fly-wheel, to be
given up to the rolls during the next pass. (See also ROLLING
MILL.)
130. Advantages and Applicability of Rolling. — Rolling uses
very much less power than drawing, because the friction against
the fixed die in the latter process is very great. For much the
same reason rolling proceeds much faster than drawing, and on
both these accounts it is incomparably the cheaper of the two.
It is also very much cheaper than forging, in large part because
it works so quickly. The piece travels through the rolls very
rapidly, so that the reduction takes place over its whole length
in a very few seconds, whereas in forging, whether under hammer
or press, after one part of the piece has been compressed the piece
must next be raised, moved forward, and placed so that the
hammer or press may compress the next part of its length.
This moving is expensive, because it has to be done, or at least
guided, by hand, and it takes up much time, during which both
heat and iron are wasting. Thus it comes about that rolling is
so very much cheaper than either forging or drawing that these
latter processes are used only when rolling is impracticable.
The conditions under which it is impracticable are(i) when the
piece has either an extremely large or an extremely small cross
section, and (2) when its cross section varies materially in different
parts of its length. The number of great shafts for marine engines,
reaching a diameter of 225 in. in the case of the " Lusitania,"
is so small that it would be wasteful to instal for their manu-
facture the great and costly rolling mill needed to reduce them
from the gigantic ingots from which they must be made, with
its succession of decreasing passes, and its mechanism for
rotating the piece between passes and for transferring it from
pass to pass. Great armour plates can indeed be made by rolling,
because in making such flat plates the ingot is simply rolled
back and forth between a pair of plain cylindrical rolls, like
BB of fig. 35, instead of being transferred from one grooved
pass to another and smaller one. Moreover, a single pair of rolls
suffices for armour plates of any width or thickness, whereas
if shafts of different diameters were to be rolled, a special final
groove would be needed for each different diameter, and, as
there is room for only a few large grooves in a single set of rolls,
this would imply not only providing but installing a separate
set of rolls for almost every diameter of shaft. Finally the
quantity of armour plate needed is so enormous that it justifies
the expense of installing a great rolling mill. Krupp's armour-
plate mill, with rolls 4 ft. in diameter and 12 ft. long, can roll
an ingot 4 ft, thick.
Pieces of very small cross section, like wire, are more con-
veniently made by drawing through a die than by rolling,
essentially because a single draft reduces the cross section of a
wire much more than a single pass between rolls can. This in
turn is because the direct pull of the pincers on the protruding
end of the wire is much stronger than the forward-drawing
pull due to the friction of the cold rolls on the wire, which is
necessarily cold because of its small section.
Pieces which vary materially in cross section from point.
to point in their length cannot well be made by rolling, because
the cross section of the piece as it emerges from the rolls is
necessarily that of the aperture between the rolls from which
it is emerging, and this aperture is naturally of constant size
because the rolls are cylindrical. Of course, by making the rolls
eccentric, and by varying the depth and shape of the different
parts of a given groove cut in their surface, the cross section
of the piece made in this groove may vary somewhat from point
to point. But this and other methods of varying the cross section
have been used but little, and they do not seem capable of wide
application.
The fact that rolling is so much cheaper than forging has led
engineers to design their pieces so that they can be made by
rolling, i.e. to make them straight and of uniform cross section.
It is for this reason, for instance, that railroad rails are of constant
uniform section throughout their length, instead of having those
parts of their length which come between the supporting ties
deeper and stronger than the parts which rest on the ties. When,
as in the case of eye bars, it is imperative that one part should
differ materially in section from the rest, this part may be
locally thickened or thinned, or a special part may here be welded
on. When we come to pieces of very irregular shape, such as
crank-shafts, anchors, trunnions, &c.,we must resort to forging,
except for purposes for which unforged castings are good
enough.
131. Forging proceeds by beating or squeezing the piece
under treatment from its initial into its final shape, as for instance
by hammering a square ingot or bloom first on one corner and
then on another until it is
reduced to a cylindrical
shape as shown at A in
fig. 37. As the ingot is
reduced in section, it is of
course lengthened propor-
tionally. Much as in the
smith's forge the object
forged rests on a massive
anvil and anvil block, B
and C, and is struck by
the tup D of the hammer.
This tup is raised and
driven down by steam
pressure applied below or
above the piston E of the
steam cylinder mounted
aloft, and connected with
the tup by means of the
strong piston-rod F. The
demand for very large
forgings, especially for
guns and armour plate,
led to the building of
enormous steam hammers.
The falling parts of the
FIG. 37. — Steam Hammer.
Round bar to be hammered.
^, Anvil.
largest of these, that at c, Anvil block or foundation.
Bethlehem, Pa., weigh 125 D, Falling tup.
E, Steam piston.
F, Piston-rod
tons.
The
first cost of a
tup and
for lifting
driving it down,
hammer of moderate size G, Steam cylinder,
is much less than that of
a hydraulic press of like capacity, as is readily understood
when we stop to reflect what powerful pressure, if gradually
applied, would be needed to drive the nail which a light blow
from our hand hammer forces easily into the woodwork. Never-
theless the press uses much less power than the hammer, because
much of the force of the latter is dissipated in setting up useless
— indeed harmful, and at times destructive — vibrations in the
foundations and the surrounding earth and buildings. Moreover,
the effect of the sharp blow of the hammer is relatively superficial,
and does not penetrate to the interior of a large piece as the
slowly applied pressure of the hydraulic press does. Because of
these facts the great hammers have given place to enormous
forging presses, the 12 5-ton Bethlehem hammer, for instance, to a
i4,ooo-ton hydraulic press, moved by water under a pressure of
IRON AND STEEL
833
7000 lb per square inch, supplied by pumps of 16,000 horse
power.
132. Statistics. — The cheapening of manufacture by improvements
in processes and machinery, and by the increase in the scale of
operations, has been very great. The striking examples of it shown
in Table IV. are only typical of what has been going on continuously
In this same period the production of Great Britain increased 28%,
and that of the world more than tripled. The corresponding changes
in the case of steel are even more striking. The United States produc-
tion in 1907 was 1714 times that of 1865, and the proportion which it
formed of the worlds steel rose from 3% in 1865 to 10% in 1870,
30% in 1880; 36% in 1890, 40% in 1899 and 46% in 1907. In
1907 the British steel production was nearly five times, that of the
TABLE IV. — Reduction in Cost of Iron Manufacture in America — C. Kirchoff.
Place represented.
Operation represented.
Period
covered.
Cost, Profit and Production at End of Period in Percentage
of that at Beginning of Period.
From
To
Cost.
Profit
per
Ton.
Produc-
tion per
Furnace,
&c., per
Day.
Ore.
Fuel.
Labour.
Total.
Total
excluding
Raw
Material.
A large Southern Establishment
Manufacture of Pig Iron
1889
1898
79
64-1
51-9
63-4
47-9
167-7
North-eastern District .
ii n
1890
1898
103-7
97
61-1
65-8
33-9
I63-3
Pittsburg District ... . .
ii n
1887
1897
..
46
..
44
..
• •
Eastern District ....
Manufacture of Bessemer Steel Ingots
1891
1898
75
64-39
..
107
Pittsburg
Not stated
n ii
Rolling Wire Rods
1887
1888
1897
1898
••
63-6
52
325
since 1868. Note, for instance, a reduction of some 35% in the
total cost, and an even greater reduction in the cost of labour,
reaching in one case 54%, in a period of between seven and ten
years. This great economy is not due to reduction in wages. Ac-
cording to Mr Carnegie, in one of the largest American steel works
the average wages in 1900 for all persons paid by the day, including
labourers, mechanics and boys, were more than $4 (say, l6s. 6d.) a day
for the 311 working days. How economical the methods of mining,
transportation and manufacture have become is shown by the fact
that steel billets have been sold at $13-96 (£2, 173. 8d.) per ton, and
in very large quantities at $15 (£3, 2s.) per ton, in the latter case,
according to Mr Carnegie, without further loss than that represented
by interest, although the cost of each ton includes that of mining
2 tons of ore and carrying them 1000 miles, mining and coking 1-3
tons of coal and carrying its coke 50 m., and quarrying one-third
of a ton of limestone and carrying it 140 m., besides the cost of
smelting the ore, converting the resultant cast iron into steel, and
rolling that steel into rails.
TABLE V. — Reduction in Price of Certain Products.
Yearly average Price in Pennsylvania, gross tons.
Date.
Bar (Wrought)
Iron.
Wrought Iron
Rails.
Steel
Rails.
No. i
Foundry
Pig Iron.
1800
$100-50]
1815
144-50 1
1824
82-5O| Hammered
1837
II I -00 J
1850
59-54T
$47-88
$20-88
1865
106-46
98-62
$158-46'
46-08
1870
78-96
72-25
106-79
33-23
1880
62-04
Best
49-25
67-52
28-48
1890
45-83
. refined
25-18'
3I-78
18-41
1898
28-65
rolled
12-39*
17-62
n-66
1900
44-00
19-51 *
32-29
19-98
1906
23-03 '
28-00
20-98
1908'
31-00.
18-25'
28-00
I7-25
1 July 1st. l Old, i.e. second-hand wrought iron rails. 3 1868.
Table V. shows the reduction in prices. The price of wrought iron
in Philadelphia reached $155 (£32, os. 8d.) m 1815, and, after
declining to $80 (£16, los. 8d.), again reached $115 (£23, 153. 4d.) in
1837. Bessemer steel rails sold at $174 in the depreciated currency
of 1868 (equivalent to about £25, 173. 4d. in gold), and at $17
(£3- i os. 3d.) in 1898.
133. Increase in Production. — In 1810 the United States made
about 7%, and in 1830, 1850 and 1860 not far from 10% of the
world's production of pig iron, though, indeed, in 1820 their produc-
tion was only about one-third as great as in 1810. But after the
close of the Civil War the production increased by leaps and bounds,
till in 1907 it was thirty-One times as great as in 1865; and the
percentage which it formed of the world's production rose to some
14% in 1870, 21 % in 1880, 35% in 1900 and 43% in 1907. In this
last year the United States production of pig iron was nearly 7 times,
and that of Germany and Luxemburg nearly 5 times, that of 1880.
United States nearly nineteen times, as great as in 1880. Of the
combined wrought iron and steel of the United States, steel formed
only 2 % in 1865, but 37% in 1880, 85% in 1899 and 91 % in 1907.
Thus in the nineteen years between 1880 and 1899 the age of iron
gave place to that of steel.
The per capita consumption of iron in Great Britain, excluding
exports, has been calculated as 144 ft in 1855 and 250 lb in 1890, that
of the United States as 117 lb for 1855, 300 lb for 1890 and some
378 ft for 1899, and that of the United Kingdom, the United States
and Germany for 1906 as about a quarter of a ton, so that the British
per capita consumption is about four-fold and the American about
five-fold that of 1855. This great increase in the per capita con-
sumption of iron by the human race is of course but part of the
general advance in wealth and civilization. Among the prominent
causes of this increase is the diversion of mankind from agricultural
to manufacturing, i.e. machinery-using work, nearly all machinery
being necessarily made of iron. This diversion may be unwelcome,
but it is inevitable for the two simple reasons that the wonderful
improvements in agriculture decrease the number of men needed
to raise a given quantity of food, i.e. to feed the rest of the race ; and
that with every decade our food forms a smaller proportion of our
needs, so rapidly do these multiply and diversify. Among the other
causes of the increase of the per capita consumption of iron are the
displacement of wood by iron for ships and bridge-building; the
great extension of the use of iron beams, columns and other pieces in
constructing buildings of various kinds; the growth of steam and
electric railways; and the introduction of iron fencing. The in-
creased importance of Germany and Luxemburg may be referred in
large part to the invention of the basic Bessemer and open-hearth
processes by Thomas, who by them gave an inestimable value to the
phosphoric ores of these countries. That of the United States is due
in part to the growth of its population; to the introduction of
labour-saving machinery in iron manufacture ; to the grand scale on
which this manufacture is carried on; and to the discovery of the
cheap and rich ores of the Mesabi region of Lake Superior. But,
given all these, the 1000 m. which separate the ore fields of Lake
Superior from the cheap coal of Pennsylvania would have handi-
capped the American iron industry most seriously but for the re-
markable cheapening of transportation which has occurred. As this
in turn has been due to the very men who have developed the iron
industry, it can hardly be questioned that, on further analysis, this
development must in considerable part be referred to racial qualities.
The same is true of the German iron development. We may note
with interest that the three great iron producers so closely related
by blood — Great Britain, the United States and Germany and
Luxemburg — made in 1907 81 % of the world's pig iron and 83% of
its steel ; and that the four great processes by which nearly all steel
and wrought iron are made — the puddling, crucible and both the
acid and basic varieties of the Bessemer and open-hearth processes,
as well as the steam-hammer and grooved rolls for rolling iron and
steel — were invented by Britons, though in the case of the open-
hearth process Great Britain must share with France the credit of
the invention.
Tables VI., VII., VIII. and IX. are compiled mainly from figures
given in J. M. Swank's Reports (American Iron and Steel Associa-
tion). Other authorities are indicated as follows: °, The Mineral
Industry (1892); b, Idem (1899); c, Idem (1907); ', Journal Iron
and Steel Institute (1881), 2; *, Eckel in Mineral Resources of the
United, States, (published by the United States Geological Survey
(1906), pp. 92-93.
xrv. 27
834
IRON MASK
TABLE VI. — Production of Pig Iron (in thousands of long tons).
Year.
United States.
Great
Britain.
Germany and
Luxemburg.
The World.
1800
825
1810
54
1830
165
677
1,825
1850
565
4,75°
1865
832
4825
972
9,250
1870
1,665
5964
1,369
11,900
1880
3-835
7749
2,685
17,950
1890
9,203
7904
4,583
27,157
1900
13.789
8960
8,386
38,973"
1907
25,781
9924
12,672
59,72 1«
TABLE VII. — Production of Pig Iron in the United States (in
thousands of long tons).
Year.
Anthracite.
Charcoal.
Coke and
Bituminous.
Total.
1880
1885
1890
1895
1900
1907
1614
1299
2186
1271
1677
1372
480
357
628
225
384
437
1,741
2,389
6,388
7,950
11,728
23,972
3,835
4,045
9,203
9,446
13,789
25,781
" Anthracite " here includes iron made with anthracite and coke
mixed, " Bituminous " includes iron made with coke, with raw
bituminous coal, or with both, and " Charcoal " in 1900 and 1907
includes iron made either with charcoal alone or with charcoal mixed
with coke.
TABLE VIII. — Production of Wrought Iron, also that of Bloomary Iron
(in thousands of long tons).
Wrought Iron.
Bloomary Iron
direct from the Ore.
1870.
United States .
Great Britain .
"53
1880.
United States .
Great Britain .
2083(1)
36
1890.
United States .
Great Britain .
25180)
1894
7
1899.
United States .
Great Britain .
1202*
3
1900.
United States .
Great Britain .
••
4
1907.
United States .
Great Britain .
22OO
975
TABLE IX. — Production of Steel (in thousands of long tons).
Bessemer.
Open-
Hearth.
Crucible
and Mis-
cellaneous.
Total.
1870.
United States . . .
37
I
31
69
Great Britain .
215
78
292"
(for 1873)
The World ....
692"
1880.
United States . . .
1,074
IOI
72
!,247
Great Britain .
1,044
251
80
1,375
Germany and
Luxemburg .
608"
87'
33
728
The World ....
4,205°
1890.
United States . . .
3,689
513
75
4,277
Great Britain .
Germany and
2,015
1,564
100
3,679
• Luxemburg .
2,127
The World ....
1 1 ,902°
1900.
United States j g"^
6,685
0
853}
2,545!
105
10,188
Great Britain . j B^'S;C
'491!
3,156
149
5,050
Germany and
Luxemburg .
6,54i
The World ....
28,273
1907.
United States jg^.
11,668
o
1,270}
10,279 >
145
23,363
Great Britain |A^C
1,280
579
3,385
1,279 5
6,523'
Germany and \ Acid
Luxemburg ( Basic
7,098'
209';
3.976M
208 »
"-873
The World . . .
50,375
Ingots only. 2 Bessemer and open hearth only. 3 Castings.
TABLE X. — Tonnage (gross register) of Iron and Steel Vessels built
under Survey of Lloyd's Registry (in thousands of tons).
1 Hammered products are excluded.
TABLE XI. — Production of Iron Ore (in thousands of long tons).
1877.
1880.
1885.
1890.
1895.
1900.
1906.
Wrought Iron
443
460
304
50
8
14
0
Steel . . .
o
35
162
1079
863
'305
1492
1905
1906
1907.
Thousands of
Long Tons.
Per Cent.
Thousands of
Long Tons.
Per Cent.
Thousands of
Long Tons.
United States
Germany and Luxemburg .
Great Britain
42,526
23,074
Id. SOI
37-4
20-3
12-8
47.750
26,312
I S 5OO
38-6
21-3
I2lC*
5i,72i
27,260
I 5 "712
Spain
France
Russia
8,934
7,279
5,954 *
7'9
6-4
V2
9-299
8,347
•?,8i2
7-5
6-7
VI
1 TIO *
Sweden
4.2Q7
V8
A, A -11
3-6
1 6V)
V2
.1 O24.
3.1
Other Countries
3.457
3-o
4,297
3-5
Total
"3,751
IOO-O
123,773
IOO-I
1 Calculated from the production of pig iron
IRON MASK (masque de fer). The identity of the " man in
the iron mask " is a famous historical mystery. The person
so called was a political prisoner under Louis XIV., who died
in the Bastille in 1703. To the mask itself no real importance
attaches, though that feature of the story gave it a romantic
1 Approximately.
(H. M. H.)
interest; there is rio historical evidence that the mask he was
said always to wear was made of anything but black velvet
(velours), and it was only afterwards that legend converted its
material into iron. As regards the " man," we have the con-
temporary official journals of Etienne du Jfunca (d. 1706), the
IRON MASK
835
king's lieutenant at the Bastille, from which we learn that on the
i8th of September 1698 a new governor, Benigne D'Auvergne
de Saint-Mars, arrived from the fortress of the Isles Ste
Marguerite (in the bay of Cannes), bringing with him " un
ancien prisonnier qu'il avait a Pignerol " (Pinerolo, in Piedmont)
whom he kept always masked and whose name remained untold
(Saint-Mars, it may here be noted, had been commandant at
Pignerol from the end of 1664 till 1681; he was in charge there
of such important prisoners as Fouquet, from 1665 to his death
in 1680, and Lauzun, from 1671 till his release in 1681; he was
then in authority at Exiles from 1681 to 1687, and at Ste
Marguerite from 1687 to 1698). Du Junca subsequently records
that " on Monday the igth of November 1703, the unknown
prisoner, always masked with a black velvet mask, whom M. de
Saint-Mars had brought with him from the islands of Ste
Marguerite, and had kept for a long time, . .,. died at about ten
o'clock in the evening." He adds that " this unknown prisoner
was buried on the 2oth in the parish cemetery of Saint Paul,
and was registered under a name also unknown " — noting in the
margin that he has since learnt that the name in the register
was " M. de Marchiel. " The actual name in the register of
the parish cemetery of Saint Paul (now destroyed, but a facsimile
is still in existence) was " Marchioly "; and the age of the
deceased was there given'as " about 45."
The identity of this prisoner was already, it will be observed,
a mystery before he died in 1703, and soon afterwards we begin
to see the fruit of the various legends concerning him which
presumably started as early as 1670, when Saint-Mars himself
(see below) found it necessary to circulate " fairy tales " (contes
jaunes). In 1711 the Princess Palatine wrote to the Electress
Sophia of Hanover, and suggested that he was an English
nobleman who had taken part in a plot of the duke of Berwick
against William III. Voltaire, in his Siecle de Louis XIV (1751),
told the story of the mysterious masked prisoner with many
graphic details; and, under the heading of " Ana " in the
Questions sur I'encyclopedie (Geneva, 1771), he asserted that
he was a bastard brother of Louis XIV., son of Mazarin and
Anne of Austria. Voltaire's influence in creating public interest
in the " man in the mask," was indeed enormous; he had himself
been imprisoned in the Bastille in 1717 and again in 1726; as
early as 1745 he is found hinting that he knows something;
in the Siecle de Louis XIV he justifies his account on the score
of conversations with de Bernaville,' who succeeded Saint-Mars
(d. 1708) as governor of the Bastille, and others; and after Heiss
in 1770 had identified the " mask " with Mattioli (see below),
Voltaire was not above suggesting that he really knew more than
he had said, but thought it sufficient to have given the clue to the
enigma. According to the Abbe Soulavie, the duke of Richelieu's
advice was to reflect on Voltaire's " last utterances " on the
subject. In Soulavie's Memoires of Richelieu (London, 1790)
the masked man becomes (on the authority of an apocryphal
note by Saint-Mars himself) the legitimate twin brother of Louis
XIV. In 1801 the story went that this scion of the royal house of
France had a son born to him in prison, who settled in Corsica
under the name of " De Buona Parte," and became the ancestor
of Napoleon! Dumas's Vicomte de Bragelonne afterwards did
much to popularize the theory that he was the king's brother.
Meanwhile other identifications, earlier or later, were also
supported, in whose case the facts are a sufficient refutation.
He was Louis, count of Vermandois, son of Louise de la Valliere
(Memoires secrets pour servir d I'histoire de Perse, Amsterdam,
1745); Vermandois, however, died in 1683. He was the duke
of Monmouth (Lettre de Sainte Foy . . . Amsterdam, 1768),
although Monmouth was beheaded in 1685. He was Francois
de Venddme, duke of Beaufort, who disappeared (and pretty
certainly died) at the siege of Candia (1669); Avedick, an
Armenian patriarch seized by the Jesuits, who was not imprisoned
till 1706 and died in 1711; Fouquet, who undoubtedly died at
Pignerol in 1680; and even, according to A. Loquin (1883),
Moliere!
Modern criticism, however, has narrowed the issue. The
" man in the mask " was either (i) Count Mattioli, who became
the prisoner of Saint-Mars at Pignerol in 1679, or (2) the person
called Eustache Dauger, who was imprisoned in July 1669
in the same fortress. The evidence shows conclusively that
these two were the only prisoners under Saint-Mars at Pignerol
who could have been taken by him to the Bastille in 1698.
The arguments in favour of Mattioli (first suggested by Heiss,
and strongly supported by Topin in 1870) are summed up,
with much weight of critical authority, by F. Funck-Brentano
in vol. Ivi. of the Revue historique (1894); the claims of Eustache
Dauger were no less ably advocated by J. Lair in vol. ii. of his
Nicolas Foucquet (1890). But while we know who Mattioli
was, and why he was imprisoned, a further question still remains
for supporters of Dauger, because his identity and the reason
for his incarceration are quite obscure.
It need only be added, so far as other modern theories are con-
cerned, that in 1873 M. Jung (La Verite sur la masque defer) had
brought forward another candidate, with the attractive name of
"Marechiel," a soldier of Lorraine who had taken part in a poisoning
plot against Louis XIV., and was arrested at Peronne by Louvois in
1673, and said to be lodged in the Bastille and then sent to Pignerol.
But Jung's arguments, though strong destructively against the
Mattioli theory, break down as regards any valid proof either that the
prisoner arrested at Peronne was a Bastille prisoner in 1673 or that
he was ever at Pignerol, where indeed we find no trace of him.
Another theory, propounded by Captain Bazeries (La Masque defer,
1883), identified the prisoner with General du Bulonde, punished for
cowardice at the siege of Cuneo; but Bulonde only went to Pignerol
in 1691, and has been proved to be living in 1705.
The Mattioli Theory. — Ercole Antonio Mattioli (born at
Bologna on the ist of December 1640) was minister of Charles
IV., duke of Mantua, who as marquess of Montferrat was in
possession of the frontier fortress of Casale, which was coveted
by Louis XIV. He negotiated the sale of Casale to the French
king for 100,000 crowns, and himself received valuable presents
from Louis. But on the eve of the occupation of Casale by the
French, Mattioli — actuated by a tardy sense of patriotism or
by the hope of further gain — betrayed the transaction to the
governments of Austria, Spain, Venice and Savoy. Louis,
in revenge, had him kidnapped (1679) by the French envoy,
J. F. d'Estrades, abbe of Moissac, and Mattioli was promptly
lodged in the fortress of Pignerol. This kidnapping of Mattioli,
however, was no secret, and it was openly discussed in La Pru-
denza trionfante di Casale (Cologne, 1682), where it was stated
that Mattioli was masked when he was arrested. In February
1680 he is described as nearly mad, no doubt from the effects
of solitary confinement. When Saint-Mars was made governor
of Exiles in 1681 we know from one of his letters that Mattioli
was left at Pignerol; but in March 1694, Pignerol being about
to be given up by France to Savoy, he and two other prisoners
were removed with much secrecy to Ste Marguerite, where
Saint-Mars had been governor since 1687. Funck-Brentano
emphasizes the fact that, although Eustache Dauger was then
at Ste Marguerite, the king's minister Barbezieux, writing
to Saint-Mars (March 20, 1694) about the transfer of these
prisoners, says: " You know that they are of more consequence
(plus de consequence), at least one " (presumably Mattioli),
than those who are at present at the island." From this
point, however, the record is puzzling. A month after his
arrival at Ste Marguerite, a prisoner who had a valet died there.1
Now Mattioli undoubtedly had a valet at Pignerol, and nobody
Ise at Ste Marguerite is known at this time to have had one;
so that he may well have been the prisoner who died. In that
case he was clearly not " the mask " of 1698 and 1703. Funck-
Brentano's attempt to prove that Mattioli did not die in 1694
s far from convincing; but the assumption that he did is
nferential, and to" that extent arguable. " Marchioly " in the
jurial register of Saint Paul naturally suggests indeed at first
.hat the " ancien prisonnier " taken by Saint-Mars to the
Bastille in 1698 was Mattioli, Saint-Mars himself sometimes
1 Barbezieux to Saint-Mars, May 10, 1694: " J'ai rec.u la lettre que
'ous avez pris la peine de m'eerire le 29. du mois passe; vous pouvez,
uivant que vous le proposez, faire mettre dans la prison voutee le
valet du prisonnier qui est mort." It may be noted that Barbezieux
lad recently told Saint-Mars to designate his prisoners by circurn-
ocutions in his correspondence, and not by name.
836
IRON MASK
writing the name " Marthioly " in his letters; but further
consideration leaves this argument decidedly weak. In any
case the age stated in the burial register, " about 45," was
fictitious, whether for Mattioli (63) or Dauger (at least 53);
and, as Lair points out, Saint-Mars is known to have given
false names at the burial of other prisoners. Monsignor Barnes,
in The Man of the Mask (1908), takes the entry " Marchioly "
as making it certain that the prisoner was not Mattioli, on the
ground (i) that the law1 explicitly ordered a false name to be
given, and (2) that after hiding his identity so carefully the
authorities were not likely to give away the secret by means
of a burial register.
In spite of Funck-Brentano it appears practically certain
that Mattioli must be ruled out. If he was the individual
who died in 1703 at the Bastille, the obscurity which gathered
round the nameless masked prisoner is almost incomprehensible,
for there was no real secret about Mattioli's incarceration.
The existence of a " legend " as to Dauger can, however, be
traced, as will be seen below, from the first. Any one who
accepts the Mattioli theory must be driven, as Lang suggests,
to suppose that the mystery which grew up about the unknown
prisoner was somehow transferred to Mattioli from Dauger.
The Dauger Theory. — What then was Dauger's history?
Unfortunately it is only in his capacity as a prisoner that we
can trace it. On the ipth of July 1669 Louvois, Louis XIV. 's
minister, writes to Saint-Mars at Pignerol that he is sending
him " le nomme Eustache Dauger " (Dauger, D'Angers — the
spelling is doubtful),2 whom it is of the last importance to
keep with special closeness; Saint-Mars is to threaten him with
death if he speaks about anything except his actual needs.
On the same day Louvois orders Vauroy, major of the citadel
of Dunkirk, to seize Dauger and conduct him to Pignerol. Saint-
Mars writes to Louvois (Aug. 21) that Vauroy had brought
Dauger, and that people " believe him to be a marshal of France."
Louvois (March 26, 1670) refers to a report that one of Fouquet's
valets — there was constant trouble about them — had spoken
to Dauger, who asked to be left in peace, and he emphasizes
the importance of there being no communication. Saint-Mars
(April 12, 1670) reports Dauger as " resign e a la volonte de
Dieu et du Roy," and (again the legend grows) says that " there
are persons who are inquisitive about my prisoner, and I am
obliged to tell contes jaunes pour me moquer d'eux." In 1672
Saint- Mars proposes — the significance of this action is discussed
later — to allow Dauger to act as " valet " to Lauzun; Louvois
firmly refuses, but in 1673 allows him to be employed as valet
to Fouquet, and he impresses upon Saint-Mars the importance
of nobody learning about Dauger's " past." After Fouquet's
death (1680) Dauger and Fouquet's other (old-standing) valet
La Riviere are put together, by Louvois's special orders, in one
lower dungeon; Louvois evidently fears their knowledge of
things heard from Fouquet, and he orders Lauzun (who had
recently been allowed to converse freely with Fouquet) to be
told that they are released. When Saint-Mars is transferred
to Exiles, he is ordered to take these two with him, as too
important to be in other hands; Mattioli is left behind. At
Exiles they are separated and guarded with special precautions;
and in January 1687 one of them (all the evidence admittedly
pointing to La Riviere) dies. When Saint-Mars is again trans-
ferred, in May 1687, to Ste Marguerite, he takes his " prisoner "
(apparently he now has only one — Dauger) with great show of
caution; and next year (Jan. 8, 1688) he writes to Louvois
that " mon prisonnier " is believed " in all this province " to
be a son of Oliver Cromwell, or else the duke of Beaufort (a
point which at once rules out Beaufort). In 1691 Louvois's
successor, Barbezieux, writes to him about his " prisonnier
de vingt ans " (Dauger was first imprisoned in 1669, Mattioli
in 1679), and Saint-Mars replies that " nobody has seen him
but myself." Subsequently Barbezieux and the governor
continue to write to one another about their " ancien prisonnier "
* He cites Bingham's Bastille, i. 27.
J It was the common practice to give pseudonyms to prisoners,
and this is clearly such a case. Mattioli's prison name was Lestang.
(Jan. 6, 1696; Nov. 17, 1697). When, therefore, we come to
Saint-Mars's appointment to the Bastille in 1698, Dauger appears
almost certainly to be the " ancien prisonnier " he took with
him.3 There is at least good ground for supposing Mattioli's
death to have been indicated in 1694, but nothing is known that
would imply Dauger's, unless it was he who died in 1703.
Theories as to Dauger's Identity. — Here we find not only
sufficient indication of the growth of a legend as to Dauger,
but also the existence in fact of a real mystery as to who he
was and what he had done, two things both absent in Mattioli's
case. The only " missing link " is the want of any precise
allusion to a mask in the references to Dauger. But in spite
of du Junca's emphasis on the mask, it is in reality very question-
able whether the wearing of a mask was an unusual practice.
It was one obvious way of enabling a prisoner to appear in
public (for exercise or in travelling) without betrayal of identity.
Indeed three years before the arrival of Saint-Mars we hear
(Gazette d' Amsterdam, March 14, 1695) of another masked man
being brought to the Bastille, who eventually was known to be
the son of a Lyons banker.
Who then was Dauger, and what was his " past "? We will
take first a theory propounded by Andrew Lang in The Valet's
Tragedy (1963). As the result of research in the diplomatic
correspondence at the Record Office in London 4 Mr Lang finds
a clue in the affairs of the French Huguenot, Roux de Marsilly,
the secret agent for a Protestant league against France between
Sweden, Holland, England and the Protestant cantons of
Switzerland, who in February 1669 left London, where he had
been negotiating with Arlington (apparently with Charles II. 's
knowledge), for Switzerland, his confidential valet Martin
remaining behind. On the I4th of April 1669 Marsilly was
kidnapped for Louis XIV. in Switzerland, in defiance of inter-
national right, taken to] Paris and on the 22nd of June tortured
to death on a trumped-up charge of rape. The duke of York
is said to have betrayed him to Colbert, the French ambassador
in London. The English intrigue was undoubtedly a serious
matter, because the shifty Charles II. was at the same time
negotiating with Louis XIV. a secret alliance against Holland,
in support of the restoration of Roman Catholicism in England.
It would therefore be desirable for both parties to remove
anybody who was cognizant of the double dealing. Now
Louvois's original letter to Saint-Mars concerning Dauger
(July 19, 1669), after dealing with the importance of his being
guarded with special closeness, and of Saint-Mars personally
taking him food and threatening him with death if he speaks,
proceeds as follows (in a second paragraph, as printed in Delort,
1.155,156):—
" Je mande au Sieur Poupart de faire incessamment travailler a ce
que vous ddsirerez, et vous ferez prdparer les meubles qui sont
n6cessaires pour la vie de celui que 1'on vous am^nera, observant que
comme ce n est qu'un valet, il ne lui en faut pas de bien considerables,
et je vous ferai rembourser tant de la dispenses des meubles, que de
ce que vous deiirerez pour sa nourriture. '
Assuming the words here, " as he is only a valet," to refer
to Dauger, and taking into account the employment of Dauger
from 1675 to 1680 as Fouquet's valet, Mr Lang now obtains a
solution of the problem of why a mere valet should be a political
1 Funck-Brentano argues that " un ancien prisonnier qu'il avait
4 Pignerol " (du Junca s words) cannot apply to Dauger, because
then du Junca would have added " et «l Exiles." But this is de-
cidedly far-fetched; du Junca would naturally refer specially to
Pignerol, the fortress with which Saint-Mars had been originally and
particularly associated. Funck-Brentano also insists that the
references to the " ancien prisonnier " in 1606 and 1697 must be to
Mattioli, giving ancien the meaning of " late ' or " former " (as in the
phrase " ancien ministre "), and regarding it as an expression
pertinent to Mattioli, who had been at Pignerol with Saint-Mars but
not at Exiles, and not to Dauger, who had always been with Saint-
Mars. But when he attempts to force du Junca's phrase " un
ancien prisonnier qu'il avait a Pignerol " into this sense, he is
straining language. The natural interpretation of the word ancien
is simply " of old standing," and Barbezieux's use of it, coming after
Louvois's phrase in 1691, clearly points to Dauger being meant.
4 This identification had been previously suggested by H. Mont-
audon in Revue de la socitlt des etudes historiquestor 1888, p. 452, and
by A. le Grain in L ' Intermbdiaire des chercheurs for 1891, col. 227-228.
IRON MASK
837
prisoner of so much concern to Louis XIV. at this time. He
points out that Colbert, on the 3rd, loth and 24th of June,
writes from London to Louis XIV. about his efforts to get Martin,
Roux de Marsilly's valet, to go to France, and on the ist of July
expresses a hope that Charles II. will surrender " the valet."
Then, on the ipth of July, Dauger is arrested at Dunkirk,
the regular port from England. Mr Lang regards his conclusion
as to the identity between these valets as irresistible. It is
true that what is certainly known about Martin hardly seems
to provide sufficient reason for Eustache Dauger being regarded
for so long a time as a specially dangerous person. But Mr
Lang's answer on that point is that this humble supernumerary
in Roux de Marsilly's conspiracy simply became one more
wretched victim of the " red tape " of the old French absolute
monarchy.
Unfortunately for this identification, it encounters at once a
formidable, if not fatal, objection. Martin, the Huguenot
conspirator Marsilly's valet, must surely have been himself a
Huguenot. Dauger, on the other hand, was certainly a Catholic;
indeed Louvois's second letter to Saint-Mars about him (Sept. 10,
1669) gives precise directions as to his being allowed to attend
mass at the same time as Fouquet. It may perhaps be argued
that Dauger (if Martin) simply did not make bad worse by pro-
claiming his creed; but against this, Louvois must have known
that Martin was a Huguenot. Apart from that, it will be observed
that the substantial reason for connecting the two men is simply
that both were " valets." The identification is inspired by the
apparent necessity of an explanation why Dauger, being a valet,
should be a political prisoner of importance. The assumption,
however, that Dauger was a valet when he was arrested is itself
as unnecessary as the fact is intrinsically improbable. Neither
Louvois's letter of July 19, 1669, nor Dauger's employment as
valet to Fouquet in 1675 (six years later) — and these are the only
grounds on which the assumption rests — prove anything of the
sort.
Was Dauger a valet? If Dauger was the " mask," it is just
as well to remove a misunderstanding which has misled too
many commentators.
i. If Louvois's letter of July 19 be read in connexion with
the preceding correspondence it will be seen that ever since
Fouquet's incarceration in 1665 Saint-Mars had had trouble
over his valets. They fall ill, and there is difficulty in replacing
them, or they play the traitor. At last, on the I2th of March
1669, Louvois writes to Saint-Mars to say (evidently in answer
to some suggestion from Saint-Mars in a letter which is not
preserved) : " It is annoying that both Fouquet's valets should
have fallen ill at the same time, but you have so far taken such
good measures for avoiding inconvenience that I leave it to you
to adopt whatever course is necessary." There are then no
letters in existence from Saint-Mars to Louvois up to Louvois's
letter of July 19, in which he first refers to Dauger; and for
three months (from April 22 to July 19) there is a gap in the
correspondence, so that the sequence is obscure. The portion,
however, of the letter of the igth of July, cited above, in which
Louvois uses the words " ce n'est qu'un valet," does not, in the
present writer's judgment, refer to Dauger at all, but to something
which had been mooted in the meanwhile with a view to obtaining
a valet for Fouquet. This is indeed the natural reading of the
letter as a whole. If Louvois had meant to write that Dauger
was " only a valet " he would have started by saying so. On
the contrary, he gives precise and apparently comprehensive
directions in the first part of the letter about how he is to be
treated: "Je vous en donne ad vis par advance, afin que vous
puissiez faire accomoder un cachot ou vous le mettrez surement,
observant de faire en sorte que les jours qu'aura le lieu ou il sera ne
donnent point sur les lieux qui puissent estre abordez de personne,
et qu'il y ayt assez de portes fermees, les unes sur les autres, pour
que vos sentinelles ne puissent bien entendre," &c. Having
finished his instructions about Dauger, he then proceeds in a fresh
paragraph to tell Saint-Mars that orders have been given to " Sieur
Poupart " to do " whatever you shall desire." He is here dealing
with a different question; and it is unreasonable to suppose,
and indeed contrary to the style in which Louvois corresponds
with Saint-Mars, that he devotes the whole letter to the one
subject with which he started. The words " et vous ferez preparer
les meubles qui sont necessaires pour la vie de celui que Ton vous
amenera " are not at all those which Louvois would use with
regard to Dauger, after what he has just said about him. Why
" celui que 1'on vous amenera," instead of simply " Dauger,"
who was being brought, as he has said, by Vauroy ? The clue
to the interpretation of this phrase may be found in another
letter from Louvois not six months later (Jan. i, 1670), when he
writes: " Le roy se remet a vous d'en uzer comme vous le jugerez
a propos a 1'esgard des valets de Monsieur Foucquet; il faut
seulement observer que si vous luy donnez des valets que 1' on vous
amenera d'icy, il pourra bien arriver qu'ils seront gaignez par
avance, et qu'ainsy Us feroient pis que ceux que vous en osteriez
presentement." Here we have the identical phrase used of valets
whom it is contemplated to bring in from outside for Fouquet;
though it does not follow that any such valet was in fact brought
in. The whole previous correspondence (as well as a good deal
afterwards) is full of the valet difficulty; and it is surely more
reasonable to suppose that when Louvois writes to Saint-Mars
on the 1 9th of July that he is sending Dauger, a new prisoner
of importance, as to whom " il est de la derniere importance
qu'il soit garde avec une grande seurete," his second paragraph
as regards the instructions to " Sieur Poupart " refers to some-
thing which Saint-Mars had suggested about getting a valet
from outside, and simply points out that in preparing furniture
for " celui que Ton vous amenera " he need not do much, " comme
ce n'est qu'un valet."
2. But this is not all. If Dauger had been originally a valet,
he might as well have been used as such at once, when one was
particularly wanted. On the contrary, Louvois flatly refused
Saint-Mars's request in 1672 to be allowed to do so, and was
exceedingly chary of allowing it in 1675 (only " en cas de neces-
site," and " vous pouvez donner le dit prisonnier a M. Foucquet, si
son valet venoit a luy manquer et non autrement" ). The words
used by Saint-Mars in asking Louvois in 1672 if he might use
Dauger as Lauzun's valet are themselves significant to the point
of conclusiveness: "II ferait, ce me semble, un bon valet."
Saint-Mars could not have said this if Dauger had all along been
known to be a valet. The terms of his letter to Louvois (Feb 20,
1672) show that Saint-Mars wanted to use Dauger as a valet
simply because he was not a valet. That a person might be used
as a valet who was not really a valet is shown by Louvois having
told Saint-Mars in 1666 (June 4) that Fouquet's old doctor,
Pecquet, was not to be allowed to serve him " soit dans sa
profession, soit dans le mestier d'un simple valet." The fact
was that Saint-Mars was hard put to it in the prison for anybody
who could be trusted, and that he had convinced himself by this
time that Dauger (who had proved a quiet harmless fellow)
would give no trouble. Probably he wanted to give him some
easy employment, and save him from going mad in confinement.
It is worth noting that up to 1672 (when Saint-Mars suggested
utilizing Dauger as valet to Lauzun) none of the references
to Dauger in letters after that of July 19, 1669, suggests his
being a valet; and their contrary character makes it all the
more clear that the second part of the letter of July 19 does not
refer to Dauger.
In this connexion it may be remarked (and this is a point
on which Funck-Brentano entirely misinterprets the allusion)
that, even in his capacity as valet to Fouquet, Dauger was still
regarded an as exceptional sort of prisoner; for in 1679 when
Fouquet and Lauzun were afterwards allowed to walk freely
all over the citadel, Louvois impresses on Saint-Mars that "le
nommS Eustache " is never to be allowed to be in Fouquet's
room when Lauzun or any other stranger, or anybody but
Fouquet and the "ancien valet," La Riviere, is there, and that
he is to stay in Fouquet's room when the latter goes out to walk
in the citadel, and is only to go out walking with Fouquet and
La Riviere when they promenade in the special part of the
fortress previously set apart for them (Louvois's letter to Saint-
Mars, Jan. 30, 1679).
838
IRON MOUNTAIN— IRON-WOOD
Was Danger James de la Cloche? In The Man of the Mask
(1908) Monsignor Barnes, while briefly dismissing Mr Lang's
identification with Martin, and apparently not realizing the
possibility of reading Louvois's letter of July 19, 1669, as in-
dicated above * deals in detail with the history of James de la
Cloche, the natural son of Charles II. (acknowledged privately
as such by the king) in whom he attempts to unmask the person-
ality of Dauger. Mr Lang, in The Valet's Tragedy, had some
years earlier ironically wondered why nobody made this sugges-
tion, which, however, he regarded as untenable. The story of
James de la Cloche is indeed itself another historical mystery;
he abruptly vanishes as such at Rome at the end of 1668, and
thus provides a disappearance of convenient date; but the
question concerning him is complicated by the fact that a James
Henry de Bovere Roano Stuardo, who married at Naples early
in 1669 and undoubtedly died in the following August, claiming
to be a son of Charles II., makes just afterwards an equally
abrupt appearance; in many respects the two men seem to be
the same, but Monsignor Barnes, following Lord Acton, here
regards James Stuardo as an impostor who traded on a knowledge
of James de la Cloche's secret. If the latter then did not die in
1669, what became of him ? According to Monsignor Barnes's
theory, James de la Cloche, who had been brought up to be a
Jesuit and knew his royal father's secret profession of Roman
Catholicism, was being employed by Charles II. as an inter-
mediary with the Catholic Church and with the object of making
him his own private confessor; he returned from Rome at the
beginning of 1669, and is then identified by Monsignor Barnes
with a certain Abbe Pregnani, an "astrologer" sent by Louis
in February 1669 to influence Charles II. towards the French
alliance. Pregnani, however, made a bad start by " tipping
winners" at Newmarket with disastrous results, and was
quickly recalled to France, actually departing on July 5th
(French isth). But he too now disappears, though a letter
from Lionne (the French foreign secretary) to Colbert of July 1 7
(two days before Louvois's letter to Saint-Mars about Dauger) says
that he is expected in Paris. Monsignor Barnes's theory is that
Pregnani alias James de la Cloche, without the knowledge of
Charles II., was arrested by order of Louis and imprisoned as
Dauger on account of his knowing too much about the French
schemes in regard to Charles II. This identification of Pregnani
with James de la Cloche is, however, intrinsically incredible.
We are asked to read into the Pregnani story a deliberate intrigue
on Charles's part for an excuse for having James de la Cloche
in England. But this does not at all seem to square with the
facts given in the correspondence, and it is hard to understand
why Charles should have allowed Pregnani to depart, and should
not have taken any notice of his son's " disappearance." There
would still remain, no doubt, the possibility that Pregnani,
though not James de la Cloche, was nevertheless the " man in
the mask." But even then the dates will not suit; for Lionne
wrote to Colbert on July 27, saying, "Pregnani has been so
slow on his voyage that he has only given me ( m'a rendu) your
despatch of July 4 several days after I had already received
those of the 8th and the nth." Allowing for the French style
of dating this means that instead of arriving in Paris by July 18,
Pregnani only saw Lionne there at earliest on July 25. This
seems to dispose of his being sent to Pignerol on the igth.
Apart altogether, however, from such considerations, it now
seems fairly certain, from Mr Lang's further research into the
problem of James de la Cloche (see LA CLOCHE), that the latter
was identical with the "Prince" James Stuardo who died in
Naples in 1669, and that he hoaxed the general of the Jesuits
and forged a number of letters purporting to be from Charles II.
which were relied on in Monsignor Barnes's book; so that the
theory breaks down at all points.
'The view taken by Monsignor Barnes of the phrase " Ce n'est
gu'un valet " in Louvois's letter of July 19, is that (reading this part
of the letter as a continuation of what precedes) the mere fact of
Louvois's saying that Dauger is only a valet means that that was
just what he was not ! Monsignor Barnes is rather too apt to employ
the method of interpretation by contraries, on the ground that in
such letters the writer always concealed the real facts.
The identification of Dauger thus still remains the historical
problem behind the mystery of the "man in the mask." He
was not the valet Martin; he was not a valet at all when he was
sent to Pignerol; he was not James de la Cloche. The fact
nevertheless that he was employed as a valet, even in special
circumstances, for Fouquet, makes it difficult to believe that
Dauger was a man of any particular social standing. We may
be forced to conclude that the interest of the whole affair, so far
as authentic history is concerned, is really nugatory, and that
the romantic imagination has created a mystery in a fact of no
importance.
AUTHORITIES. — The correspondence between Saint-Mars and
Louvois is printed by J. Delort in Histoire de la detention des
philosophes (1829). Apart from the modern studies by Lair, Funck-
Brentano, Lang and Barnes, referred to above, there is valuable
historical matter in the work of Roux-Fazaillac, Recherches hisloriques
sur I'homme au masque defer (1801) ; see also Marius Tocin, L'Homme
au masque defer (Paris, 1870), and Loiseleur, Trois Enigmes histo-
riqiies (1882). (H. CH.)
IRON MOUNTAIN, a city and the county-seat of Dickinson
county, Michigan, U.S.A., about 50 m. W. by N. of Escanaba,
in the S.W. part of the Upper Peninsula. Pop. (1900) 9242,
of whom 4376 were foreign-born; (1904, state census) 8585. It
is served by the Chicago & North Western and the Chicago,
Milwaukee & Saint Paul railways. The city is situated about
1 160 ft. above sea-level in an iron-mining district, and the mining
of iron ore (especially at the Great Chapin Iron Mine) is its
principal industry. Iron Mountain was settled in 1879, and
was chartered in 1889.
IRONSIDES, a nickname given to one of great bravery, strength
or endurance, particularly as exhibited in a soldier. In English
history Ironside or Ironsides first appears as the name of Edmund
II., king of the English. In the Great Rebellion it was first given
by Prince Rupert to Cromwell, after the battle of Marston Moor
in 1644 (see S. R. Gardiner's History of the Great CM War,
1893, vol. ii. p. i, and Mercurius civicus, September 19-26, 1644,
quoted there). From Cromwell it was transferred to the troopers
of his cavalry, those "God-fearing men," raised and trained
by him in an iron discipline, who were the main instrument of
the parliamentary victories in the field. This (see S. R. Gardiner,
op. cit. iv. 179) was first given at the raising of the siege
of Pontefract 1648, but did not become general till later.
IRONTON, a city and the county-seat of Lawrence county,
Ohio, U.S.A., on the Ohio river, about 142 m. E.S.E. of Cincinnati.
Pop. (1890) 10,939; (1900) n,868, of whom 924 were negroes
and 714 foreign-born; (estimated 1906) 12,186. It is served by
the Chesapeake and Ohio, the Cincinnati, Hamilton and Dayton,
the Norfolk and Western, and the Detroit, Toledo and Ironton
railways, and by river steamboats. The city is built on a plain
at the base of hills rising from the river bottom and abounding
in iron ore and bituminous coal; fire and pottery clay also
occur in the vicinity. Besides mining, Ironton has important
lumber interests, considerable river traffic, and numerous
manufactures, among which are iron, wire, nails, machinery,
stoves, fire-brick, pressed brick, terra-cotta, cement, carriages
and wagons, and furniture. The total value of its factory
product in 1905 was $4,755,304; in 1900, $5,410,528. The
municipality owns and operates its water- works. Ironton was
first settled in 1848, and in 1851 was incorporated.
IRONWOOD, a city of Gogebic county, Michigan, U.S.A.,
on the Montreal river, in the N.W. part of the upper peninsula.
Pop. (1890) 7745; (1900) 9705, of whom 4615 were foreign-born;
(estimated 1906) 10,177. It is served by the Chicago and North-
Western and the Wisconsin Central railways. The city is
situated about 1500 ft. above sea-level in the Gogebic iron-
district, and is principally a mining town; some of the largest
iron mines in the United States are within the city limits.
Ironwood was settled in 1884, and was chartered as a city in
1889.
IRON-WOOD, the name applied to several kinds of timber,
the produce of trees from different parts of the tropics, and
belonging to very different natural families. Usually the
wood is extremely hard, dense and dark-coloured, and sinks
IRON- WORK— IRRAWADDY
839
in water. Several species of Sideroxylon (Sapotaceae) yield
iron-wood, Sideroxylon cinereum or Bojerianum being the
bois de fer blanc of Africa and Mauritius, and the name is
also given to species of Metrosideros (Myrtaceae) and Diospyros
(Ebenaceae).
West Indian iron-wood is the produce of Colubrina redinata
(and C.ferruginosa (Rhamnaceae) , and of Aegiphila martinicensis
Verbenaceae). Ixora (Siderodendron) triflorum (Rubiaceae) is
the bois defer of Martinique, and Zanthoxylum Plerota (Rulaceae)
is the iron-wood of Jamaica, while Robinia Ponacoco (Legumi-
nosae) is described as the iron-wood of Guiana. The iron-wood
of India and Ceylon is the produce of M esua ferrea (Guttiferae).
The iron-wood tree of Pegu and Arracan is Xylia dolabriformis
(Leguminosae) , described as the most important timber-tree
of Burma after teak, and known as pyingado. The endemic
bois de fer of Mauritius, once frequent in the primeval woods,
but now becoming very scarce, is Stadtmannia Sideroxylon
(Sapindaceae) , while Cossignya pinnata is known as the bois
de fer de Judas. In Australia species of Acacia, Casuarina,
Eucalyptus, Melaleuca, Myrtus, and other genera are known
more or less widely as iron-wood. Tasmanian iron-wood is the
produce of Notelaea ligustrina (Oleaceae), and is chiefly used for
making ships' blocks. The iron-wood or lever-wood of North
America is the timber of the American hop hornbeam, Ostrya
virginica (Cupuliferae) . In Brazil Apuleia ferrea and Caesalpinia
ferrea yield a kind of iron-wood, called, however, the Pao ferro
or false iron-wood.
IRON-WORK, as an ornament in medieval architecture,
is chiefly confined to the hinges, &c., of doors and of church
chests, &c. Specimens of Norman iron-work are very rare.
Early English specimens are numerous and very elaborate.
In some instances not only do the hinges become a mass of scroll
work, but the surface of the doors is covered by similar ornaments.
In both these periods the design evidently partakes of the feeling
exhibited in the stone or wood carving. In the Decorated period
the scroll work is more graceful, and, like the foliage of the time,
more natural. As styles progressed, there was a greater desire
that the framing of the doors should be richer, and the ledges
were chamfered or raised, then panelled, and at last the doors
became a mass of scroll panelling. This, of course, interfered
with the design of the hinges, the ornamentation of which
gradually became unusual. In almost all styles the smaller
and less important doors had merely plain strap-hinges, terminat-
ing in a few bent scrolls, and latterly in fleurs-de-lis. Escutcheon
and ring handles, and the other furniture, partook more or less
of the character of the time. On the continent of Europe
the knockers are very elaborate. At all periods doors have been
ornamented with nails having projecting heads, sometimes
square, sometimes polygonal, and sometimes ornamented with
roses, &c. The iron work of windows is generally plain, and the
ornament confined to simple fleur-de-lis heads to the stanchions.
For the iron-work of screens enclosing tombs and chapels see
GRILLE; and generally see METAL- WORK.
IRONY (Gr. eipuvda, from elpoiv, one who says less than he
means, flpav, to speak), a form of speech in which the real
meaning is concealed or contradicted by the words used; it
is particularly employed for the purpose of ridicule, mockery
or contempt, frequently taking the form of sarcastic phrase.
The word is frequently used figuratively, especially in such
phrases as " the irony of fate," of an issue or result that seems to
contradict the previous state or condition. The Greek word was
particularly used of an under-statement in the nature of dis-
simulation. It is especially exemplified in the assumed ignorance
which Socrates adopted as a method of dialectic, the " Socratic
irony " (see SOCRATES). In tragedy, what is called " tragic
irony " is a device for heightening the intensity of a dramatic
situation. Its use is particularly characteristic of the drama
of ancient Greece, owing to the familiarity of the spectators
with the legends on -which so many of the plays were based.
In this form of irony the words and actions of the characters
belie the real situation, which the spectators fully realize. It
may take several forms; the character speaking may be con-
scious of the irony of his words while the rest of the actors may
not, or he may be unconscious and the actors share the knowledge
with the spectators, or the spectators may alone realize irony.
The Oedipus Tyrannus of Sophocles is the classic example of
tragic irony at its fullest and finest.
IROQUOIS, or Six NATIONS, a celebrated confederation
of North American Indians. The name is that given them
by the French. It is suggested that it was formed of two cere-
monial words constantly used by the tribesmen, meaning " real
adders," with the French addition of ois. The league was
originally composed of five tribes or nations, viz. Mohawks,
Oneidas, Onondagas, Senecas and Cayugas. The confederation
probably took place towards the close of the i6th century and
in 1722 the Tuscaroras were admitted, the league being then
called that of " the Six Nations." At that time their total
number was estimated at 11,650, including 2150 warriors. They
were unquestionably the most powerful confederation of Indians
on the continent. Their home was the central and western
parts of New York state. In the American War of Independence
they fought on the English side, and in the repeated battles
their power was nearly destroyed. They are now to the number
of 17,000 or more scattered about on various reservations in
New York state, Oklahoma, Wisconsin and Canada. The
Iroquoian slock, the larger group of kindred tribes, of which
the five nations were the most powerful, had their early home
in the St Lawrence region. Besides the five nations, the
Neutral nation, Huron, Erie, Conestoga, Nottoway, Meherrin,
Tuscarora and Cherokee were the most important tribes of
the stock. The hostility of the Algonquian tribes seems to
have been the cause of the southward migration of the Iroquoian
peoples. In 1535 Jacques Cartier found an Iroquoian tribe
in possession of the land upon which now stand Montreal and
Quebec; but seventy years later it was in the hands of Algon-
quians.
See L. H. Morgan, League of the Hodeno Swanee or Iroquois
(Rochester, N.Y., 1854) ; Handbook of American Indians (Washington,
1907). Also INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN.
IRRAWADDY, or IRAWADI, the principal river in the province
of Burma, traversing the centre of the country, and practically
running throughout its entire course in British territory. It
is formed by the confluence of the Mali and N'mai rivers (usually
called Mali-kha and N'mai-kha, the kha being the Kachin word
for river) in 25° 45' N. The N'mai is the eastern branch. The
definite position of its source is still uncertain, and it seems
to be made up of a number of considerable streams, all rising
within a short distance of each other in about 28° 30' N. It
is shown on some maps as the Lu river of Tibet; but it is now
quite certain that the Tibetan Lu river is the Salween, and that
the N'mai has its source or sources near the southern boundary
of Tibet, to the north-east or east of the source of the Mali.
At the confluence the N'mai is larger than the Mali. The general
width of its channel seems to be 350 or 400 yds. during this
part of its course. In the rains this channel is filled up, but
in the cold weather the average breadth is from 150 to 200 yds.
The N'mai is practically unnavigable. The Mali is the western
branch. Like the main river, it is called Nam Kiu by the Shans.
It rises in the hills to the north of the Hkamti country, probably
in about 28° 30' N. Between Hkamti and the country compara-
tively close to the confluence little or nothing is known of it,
but it seems to run in a narrow channel through continuous
hills. The highest point on the Mali reached from the south
by Major Hobday in 1891 was Ting Sa, a village a little off the
river, in 26° 15' N. About i m. above the confluence it is 150
yds. wide in January and 17 ft. deep, with a current of 3! m.
an hour. Steam launches can only ascend from Myitkyina
to the confluence in the height of the rains. Native boats
ascend to Laikaw or Sawan 26° 2' N., all the year around, but
can get no farther at any season. From the confluence the
river flows in a southerly direction as far as Bhamo, then turns
west as far as the confluence of the Kaukkwe stream, a little
above Katha, where it again turns in a southerly direction,
and maintains this in its general course through Upper and
840
IRREDENTISTS
Lower Burma, though it is somewhat tortuous immediately
below Mandalay. Just below the confluence of the Mali and
N'mai rivers the Irrawaddy is from 420 to 450 yds. wide and
about 30 ft. deep in January at its deepest poinl^ Here it
flows between hills, and after passing the Manse and Mawkan
rapids, reaches plain country and expands to nearly 500 yds.
at Sakap. At Myitkyina it is split into two channels by Naung-
talaw island, the western channel being 600 yds. wide and the
eastern 200. The latter is quite dry in the hot season. At
Kat-kyo, 5 or 6 m. below Myitkyina, the width is 1000 yds.,
and below this it varies from 600 yds. to f m. at different points.
Three miles below Sinbo the third defile is entered by a channel
not more than 50 yds. wide, and below this, throughout the
defile, it is never wider than 250 yds., and averages about 100.
At the " Gates of the Irrawaddy " at Poshaw two prism-shaped
rocks narrow the river to 50 yds., and the water banks up in
the middle with a whirlpool on each side of the raised pathway.
All navigation ceases here in the floods. The defile ends at
Hpatin, and below this the river widens out to a wet-season
channel of 2 m., and a breadth in the dry season of about i m.
At Sinkan, below Bhamo, the second defile begins. It is not
so narrow nor is the current so strong as in the third defile.
The narrowest place is more than 100 yds. wide. The hills
'are higher, but the defile is much shorter. At Shwegu the river
leaves the hills and becomes a broad stream, flowing through
a wide plain. The first defile is tame compared with the others.
The river merely flows between low hills or high wooded banks.
The banks are covered at this point with dense vegetation,
and slope down to the water's edge. Here and there are places
which are almost perpendicular, but are covered with forest
growth. The course of the Irrawaddy after receiving the waters
of the Myit-nge at Sagaing, as far as 17° N. lat., is exceedingly
tortuous; the line of Lower Burma is crossed in 19° 29' 3" N.
lat., 95° 15' E. long., the breadth of the river here being f m.;
about it m. lower down it is nearly 3 m. broad. At Akauk-
taung, where a spur of the Arakan hills end in a precipice 300
ft. high, the river enters the delta, the hills giving place to
low alluvial plains, now protected on the west by embank-
ments. From 17° N. lat. the Irrawaddy divides and subdivides,
converting the lower portion of its valley into a network of
intercommunicating tidal creeks. It reaches the sea in 15° 50'
N. lat. and 95° 8' E. long., by nine principal mouths. The only
ones used by sea-going ships are the Bassein and Rangoon
mouths. The area of the catchment basin of the Irrawaddy
is 158,000 sq. m.; its total length from its known source to the
sea is about 1300 m. As far down as Akauk-taung in Henzada
district its bed is rocky, but below this sandy and muddy. It
is full of islands and sandbanks; its waters are extremely
muddy, and the mud is carried far out to sea. The river com-
mences to rise in March; about June it rises rapidly, and attains
its maximum height about September. The total flood discharge
is between four and five hundred million metre tons of 37 cub. ft.
From Mandalay up to Bhamo the river is navigable a distance
of nearly 1000 m. for large steamers all the year round; but
small launches and steamers with weak engines are often unable
to get up the second defile in the months of July, August and
September, owing to the strong current. The Irrawaddy Flotilla
Company's steamers go up and down twice a week all through
the rains, and the mails are carried to Bhamo on intermediate
days by a ferry-boat from the railway terminus at Katha.
During the dry season the larger boats are always liable to run
on sandbanks, more especially in November and December,
when new channels are forming after the river has been in flood.
From Bhamo up to Sinbo no steamers can ply during the rains,
that is to say, usually from June to November. From Novem-
ber to June small steamers can pass through the third defile
from Bhamo to Sinbo. Between Sinbo and Myitkyina small
launches can run all the year round. Above Myitkyina small
steamers can reach the confluence at the height of the flood
with some difficulty, but when the water is lower they cannot
pass the Mawkan rapid, just above Mawme, and the navigation
of the river above Myitkyina is always difficult. The journey
from Bhamo to Sinbo can be made during the rains in native
boats, but it is always difficult and sometimes dangerous. It
is never done in less than five days and often takes twelve or
more. As a natural source of irrigation the value of the
Irrawaddy is enormous, but the river supplies no artificial
systems of irrigation. It is nowhere bridged, though crossed
by two steam ferries to connect the railway system on either
bank. (j. G. Sc.)
IRREDENTISTS, an Italian patriotic and political party,
which was of importance in the last quarter of the igth century.
The name was formed from the words Italia Irredenta — Un-
redeemed Italy — and the party had for its avowed object the
emancipation of all Italian lands still subject to foreign rule.
The Irredentists took language as the test of the alleged Italian
nationality of the countries they proposed to emancipate, which
were South Tirol (Trentino), Gorz, Istria, Trieste, Tessino,
Nice, Corsica and Malta. The test was applied in the most
arbitrary manner, and in some cases was not applicable at all.
Italian is not universally spoken in South Tirol, Gorz or Istria.
Malta has a dialect of its own though Italian is used for literary
and judicial purposes, while Dalmatia is thoroughly non-Italian
though it was once under the political dominion of the ancient
Republic of Venice. The party was of little note before 1878.
In that year it sprang into prominence because the Italians were
disappointed by the result of the conference at Berlin summoned
to make a European settlement after the Russo-Turkish War
of 1877. The Italians had hoped to share in the plunder of
Turkey, but they gained nothing, while Austria was endowed
with the protectorate of Bosnia, and the Herzegovina, the vitally
important hinterland of her possessions on the Adriatic. Under
the sting of this disappointment the cry of Italia Irredenta
became for a time loud and apparently popular. It was in
fact directed almost wholly against Austria, and was also used
as a stalking-horse by discontented parties in Italian domestic
politics — the Radicals, Republicans and Socialists. In addition
to the overworked argument from language, the Irredentists
made much of an unfounded claim that the Trentino had been
conquered by Giuseppe Garibaldi during the war of 1866, and
they insisted that the district was an " enclave " in Italian
territory which would give Austria a dangerous advantage in
a war of aggression. It would be equally easy and no less accurate
to call the Trentino an exposed and weak spot of the frontier of
Austria. On the zist of July 1878 a noisy public meeting was
held at Rome with Menotti Garibaldi, the son of the famous
Giuseppe, in the chair, and a clamour was raised for the formation
of volunteer battalions to conquer the Trentino. Signor Cairoli,
then prime minister of Italy, treated the agitation with tolerance.
It was, however, mainly superficial, for the mass of the Italians
had no wish to launch on a dangerous policy of adventure against
Austria, and still less to attack France for the sake of Nice and
Corsica, or Great Britain for Malta. The only practical con-
sequences of the Irredentist agitation outside of Italy were such
things as the assassination plot organized against the emperor
Francis Joseph in Trieste, in 1882 by Oberdank, which was
detected and punished. When the Irredentist movement
became troublesome to Italy through the activity of Republicans
and Socialists, it was subject to effective police control by
Signor Depretis. It sank into insignificance when the French
occupation of Tunis in 1881 offended the Italians deeply, and
their government entered into those relations with Austria
and Germany which took shape by the formation of the Triple
Alliance. In its final stages it provided a way in which Italians
who sympathized with French republicanism, and who disliked
the monarchical governments of Central Europe, could agitate
against their own government. It also manifested itself in
periodical war scares based on affected fears of Austrian aggres-
sion in northern Italy. Within the dominions of Austria Irre-
dentism has been one form of the complicated language question
which has disturbed every portion of the Austro-Hungarian
empire.
See Colonel von Haymerle, Italicae res (Vienna, 1879) for the
early history of the Irredentists.,
IRRIGATION
841
IRRIGATION (Lat. in, and rigare, to water or wet), the
artificial application of water to land in order to promote vegeta-
tion; it is therefore the converse of " drainage " (?.».)> which
is the artificial withdrawal of water from lands that are over-
saturated. In both cases the object is to promote vegetation.
I. General. — Where there is abundance of rainfall, and when
it falls at the required season, there is in general no need for
irrigation. But it often happens that, although there is sufficient
rainfall to raise an inferior crop, there is not enough to raise
a more valuable one.
Irrigation is an art that has been practised from very early
times. Year after year fresh discoveries are made that carry
back our knowledge of the early history of Egypt. It is certain
that, until the cultivator availed himself of the natural overflow
of the Nile to saturate the soil, Egypt must have been a desert,
and it is a very small step from that to baling up the water from
the river and pouring it over lands which the natural flood has
not touched. The sculptures and paintings of ancient Egypt
bear no trace of anything approaching scientific irrigation, but
they often show the peasant baling up the water at least as
early as 2000 B.C. By means of this simple plan of raising
water and pouring it over the fields thousands of acres are
watered every year in India, and the system has many advantages
in the eyes of the peasant. Though there is great waste of
labour, he can apply his labour when he likes; no permission
is required from a government official; no one has to be bribed.
The simplest and earliest form of water-raising machinery is
the pole with a bucket suspended from one end of a crossbeam
and a counterpoise at the other. In India this is known as the
denkli or paecottah; in Egypt it is called the shadHf. All along
the Nile banks from morning to night may be seen brown-skinned
peasants working these skadufs, tier above tier, so as to raise
the water 15 or 16 ft. on to their lands. With a shadtif it is only
possible to keep about 4 acres watered, so that a great number of
hands are required to irrigate a large surface. Another method
largely used is the shallow basket or bucket suspended to strings
between two men, who thus bail up the water. A step higher
than these is the rude water-wheel, with earthen pots on an
endless chain running round it, worked by one or two bullocks.
This is used everywhere in Egypt, where it is known as the
sakya. In Northern India it is termed the harat, or Persian
wheel. With one such water-wheel a pair of oxen can raise
water any height up to 1 8 ft., and keep from 5 to 12 acres irrigated
throughout an Egyptian summer. A very familiar means in
India of raising water from wells in places where the spring
level is as much sometimes as 100 ft. below the surface of the
field is the churras, or large leather bag, suspended to a rope
passing over a pulley, and raised by a pair of bullocks which go
up and down a slope as long as the depth of the well. All these
primitive contrivances are still in full use throughout India.
It is not improbable that Assyria and Babylon, with their
splendid rivers, the Euphrates and Tigris, may have taken the
idea from the Nile, and that Carthage and Phoenicia as well
as Greece and Italy may have followed the same example.
In spite of a certain amount of investigation, the early history of
irrigation in Persia and China remains imperfectly known. In
Spain irrigation may be traced directly to the Moorish occupation,
and almost everywhere throughout Asia and Africa where the
Moslem penetrated is to be found some knowledge of irrigation.
Reservoirs are familiar everywhere for the water-supply of
towns, but as the volume necessary, even for a large town, does
not go far in irrigating land, many sites which would
Spam. ^o admirably for the former would not contain water
sufficient to be worth applying to the latter purpose. In the
Mediterranean provinces of Spain there are some very remark-
able irrigation dams. The great masonry dam of Alicante on
the river Monegre, which dates from 1579, is situated in a narrow
gorge, so that while 140 ft. high, it is only 190 ft. long at the
crest. The reservoir is said to contain 130 million cub. ft. of
water, and to serve for the irrigation of 9000 acres, but unless
it refills several times a year, it is hardly possible that so much
land can be watered in any one season. The Elche reservoir,
in the same province, has a similar dam 55 ft. high. In neither
case is there a waste-weir, the surplus water being allowed to
pour over the crest of the dam. South of Elche is the province
of Murcia, watered by the river Segura, on which there is a dam
25 ft. high, said to be 800 years old, and to serve for the irrigation
of 25,000 acres. The Lorca dam in the same neighbourhood
irrigates 27,000 acres. In the jungles of Ceylon are to be found
remains of gigantic irrigation dams, and on the neighbouring
mainland of Southern India, throughout the provinces fadja
of Madras and Mysore, the country is covered with
irrigation reservoirs, or, as they are locally termed, tanks. These
vary from village ponds to lakes 14 or 15 m. long. Most of them
are of old native construction, but they have been greatly
improved and enlarged within the last half century. The
casual traveller in southern India constantly remarks the
ruins of old dams, and the impression is conveyed that at one
time, before British rule prevailed, the irrigation of the country
was much more perfect than it is now. That idea, however,
is mistaken. An irrigation reservoir, like a human being, has
a certain life. Quicker or slower, the water that fills it will wash
in sand and mud, and year by year this process will go on till
ultimately the whole reservoir is filled up. The embankment
is raised, and raised again, but at last it is better to abandon
it and make a new tank elsewhere, for it would never pay to dig
out the silt by manual labour. It may safely be said that at
no time in history were there more tanks in operation than at
present. The ruins which are seen are the ruins of long centuries
of tanks that once flourished and became silted up. But they
did not all flourish at once.
In the countries now being considered, the test of an irrigation
work is how it serves in a season of drought and famine. It is
evident that if there is a long cessation of rain, there can be none
to fill the reservoirs. In September 1877 there were very few
in all southern India that were not dry. But even so, they
helped to shorten the famine period; they stored up the rain
after it had ceased to fall, and they caught up and husbanded
the first drops when it began again.
Irrigation effected by river-fed canals naturally depends
on the regimen of the rivers. Some rivers vary much in their
discharge at different seasons. In some cases this
variation is comparatively little. Sometimes the flood Ca/ais°
season recurs regularly at the same time of the year;
sometimes it is uncertain. In some rivers the water is generally
pure; in others it is highly charged with fertilizing alluvium,
or, it may be, with barren silt. In countries nearly rainless, such
as Egypt or Sind, there can be no cultivation without irrigation.
Elsewhere the rainfall may be sufficient for ordinary crops, but
not for the more valuable kinds. In ordinary years in southern
India the maize and the millet, which form so large a portion of
the peasants' food, can be raised without irrigation, but it is
required for the more valuable rice or sugar-cane. Elsewhere in
India the rainfall is usually sufficient for all the cultivation of
the district, but about every eleven years comes a season of
drought, during which canal water is so precious as to make it
worth while to construct costly canals merely to serve as a
protection against famine. When a river partakes of the nature
of a torrent, dwindling to a paltry stream at one season and
swelling into an enormous flood at another, it is impossible to
construct a system of irrigation canals without very costly
engineering works, sluices, dams, waste-weirs, &c., so as to give
the engineer entire control of the water. Such may be seen on the
canals of Cuttack, derived from the Mahanadi,a river of which
the discharge does not exceed 400 cub. ft. per second in the dry
season, and rises to 1,600,000 cub. ft. per second in the rainy
season.
Very differently situated are the great canals of Lombardy,
drawn from theTicino and Adda rivers, flowing from the Maggiore
and Como lakes. The severest drought never exhausts these
reservoirs, and the heaviest rain can never convert these rivers
into the resistless floods which they would be but for the moderat-
ing influence of the great lakes. The Ticino and Adda do not
rise in floods more than 6 or 7 ft. above their ordinary level,
xrv. 270
IRRIGATION
or fall in droughts more than 4 or 5 ft. below it, and their water
is at all seasons very free from silt or mud. Irrigation cannot
be practised in more favourable circumstances than these.
The great lakes of Central Africa, Victoria and Albert
Nyanza, and the vast swamp tract of the Sudan, do for the
Nile on a gigantic scale what Lakes Maggiore and Como do for
the rivers Ticino and Adda. But for these great reservoirs
the Nile would decrease in summer to quite an insignificant
stream. India possesses no great lakes from which to draw
rivers and canals, but through the plains of northern India flow
rivers which are fed from the glaciers of the Himalaya; and the
Ganges, the Indus, and their tributaries are thus prevented from
diminishing very much in volume. The greater the heat, the
more rapidly melts the ice, and the larger the quantity of water
available for irrigation. The canal system of northern India is
the most perfect the world has yet seen, and contains works of
hydraulic engineering which can be equalled in no other country.
In the deltas of southern India irrigation is only practised during
the monsoon season. The Godaveri, Kistna and Kaveri all
take their rise on the Western Ghats, a region where the rainfall
is never known to fail in the monsoon season. Across the apex
of the deltas are built great weirs (that of the Godaveri being
25 m. long), at the ends and centre of which is a system of sluices
feeding a network of canals. For this monsoon irrigation there
is always abundance of water, and so long as the canals and
sluices are kept in repair, there is little trouble in distributing it
over the fields. Similar in character was the ancient irrigation
of Egypt practised merely during the Nile flood — a system which
still prevails in part of Upper Egypt. A detailed description of
it will be found below.
Where irrigation is carried on throughout the whole year,
even when the supply of the river is at its lowest, the distribution
of the water becomes a very delicate operation. It
is 8enerally considered sufficient in such cases if during
anX one crop one-third of the area that can be com-
manded is actually supplied with water. This
encourages a rotation of crops and enables the precious liquid
to be carried over a krger area than could be done otherwise.
It becomes then the duty of the engineer in charge to use every
effort to get its full value out of every cubic foot of water. Some
crops of course require water much oftener than others, and
much depends on the temperature at the time of irrigation.
During the winter months in northern India magnificent wheat
crops can be produced that have been watered only twice or
thrice. But to keep sugar-cane, or indigo, or cotton alive in
summer before the monsoon sets in in India or the Nile rises
in Egypt the field should be watered every ten days or fortnight,
while rice requires a constant supply of water passing over it.
Experience in these sub-tropical countries shows the absolute
necessity of having, for successful irrigation, also a system of
thorough drainage. It was some time before this was discovered
in India, and the result has been the deterioration of much good
land.
In Egypt, prior to the British occupation in 1883, no attempt
had been made to take the water off the land. The first impres-
sion of a great alluvial plain is that it is absolutely flat, with no
drainage at all. Closer examination, however, shows that if
the prevailing slopes are not more than a few inches in the mile,
yet they do exist, and scientific irrigation requires that the canals
should be taken along the crests and drains along the hollows.
In the diagram (fig. i) is shown to the right of the river a system
of canals branching out and afterwards rejoining one another
so as to allow of no means for the water that passes off the field to
escape into the sea. Hence it must either evaporate or sink into
the soil. Now nearly all rivers contain some small percentage
of salt, which forms a distinct ingredient in alluvial plains.
The result of this drainless irrigation is an efflorescence of salt
on the surface of the field. The spring level rises, so that water
can be reached by digging only a few feet, and the land, soured
and water-logged, relapses into barrenness. Of this description
was the irrigation of Lower Egypt previous to 1883. To the
left of the diagram is shown (by firm lines) a system of canals
laid out scientifically, and of drains (by dotted lines) flowing
between them. It is the effort of the British engineers in Egypt
to remodel the surface of the fields to this type.
Further information may be found in Sir C. C. Scott-Moncrieff,
Irrigation in Southern Europe (London, 1868) ; Moncrieff, " Lectures
on Irrigation in Egypt," Professional Papers of the Corps of Royal
Engineers, vol. xix. (London, 1893) ; W. Willcocks, Egyptian Irriga-
tion (2nd ed., London, 1899).
II. Water Meadows. — Nowhere in England can it be said that
irrigation is necessary to ordinary agriculture, but it is occasion-
ally employed in stimulating the growth of grass and meadow
herbage in what are known as water-meadows. These are in
some instances of very early origin. On the Avon in Wiltshire
and the Churn in Gloucestershire they may be traced back to
Roman times. This irrigation is not practised in the drought
of summer, but in the coldest and wettest months of the year,
SEA
dis&ibutory Canals.
j)rainaye lines.
FIG. I. — Diagram showing irrigation properly combined with
drainage (to left), and laid out regardless of drainage required later
(to right).
the water employed being warmer than the natural moisture of
the soil and proving a valuable protection against frost.
Before the systematic conversion of a tract into water-meadows
can be safely determined on, care must be taken to have good
drainage, natural or artificial, a sufficient supply of water, and
water of good quality. It might indeed have been thought
that thorough drainage would be unnecessary, but it must be
noted that porous subsoils or efficient drains do not act merely
by carrying away stagnant water which would otherwise cool
the earth, incrust the surface, and retard plant growth. They
cause the soil to perform the office of a filter. Thus the earth
and the roots of grasses absorb the useful matters not only from
the water that passes over it, but from that which passes through
it. These fertilizing materials are found stored up in the soil
ready for the use of the roots of the plants. Stagnation of water
is inimical to the action of the roots, and does away with the
advantageous processes of flowing and percolating currents.
Some of the best water-meadows in England have but a thin
soil resting on gravel and flints, this constituting a most effectual
system of natural drainage. The fall of the water supply must
suffice for a fairly rapid current, say 10 in. or i ft. in from 100 to
IRRIGATION
843
200 yds. If possible the water should be taken so far above the
meadows as to have sufficient fall without damming up the river.
If a dam be absolutely necessary, care must be taken so to build
it as to secure the fields on both sides from possible inundation;
and it should be constructed substantially, for the cost of repair-
ing accidents to a weak dam is very serious.
Even were the objects of irrigation always identical, the condi-
tions under which it is carried on are so variable as to preclude
calculations of quantity. Mere making up of necessary
ot'water. water m droughty seasons is one thing, protection
against frost is another, while the addition of soil
material is a third. Amongst causes of variation in the quantity
of water needed will be its quality and temperature and rate
of flow, the climate, the season, the soil, the subsoil, the artificial
drainage, the slope, the aspect and the crop. In actual practice
the amount of water varies from 300 gallons per acre in the hour
to no less than 28,000 gallons. Where water is used, as in dry
and hot countries, simply as water, less is generally needed than
in cold, damp and northerly climates, where the higher tempera-
ture and the action of the water as manure are of more con-
sequence. But it is necessary to be thoroughly assured of a good
supply of water before laying out a water-meadow. Except in
a few places where unusual dryness of soil and climate indicate
the employment of water, even in small quantity, merely to
avoid the consequences of drought, irrigation works are not to
be commenced upon a large area, if only a part can ever be
efficiently watered. The engineer must not decide upon the plan
till he has gauged at different seasons the stream which has to
supply the water, and has ascertained the rain-collecting area
available, and the rainfall of the district, as well as the proportion
of storable to percolating and evaporating water. Reservoirs
for storage, or for equalizing the flow, are rarely resorted to in
England; but they are of absolute necessity in those countries
in which it is just when there is least water that it is most wanted.
It is by no means an injudicious plan before laying out a system
of water-meadows, which is intended to be at all extensive,
to prepare a small trial plot, to aid in determining a number of
questions relating to the nature and quantity of the water,
the porosity of the soil, &c.
The quality of the water employed for any of the purposes
of irrigation is of much importance. Its dissolved and its sus-
pended matters must both be taken into account. Clear
water ° water is usually preferable for grass land, thick for
arable land. If it is to be used for warping, or in any way
for adding to the solid material of the irrigated land, then the
nature and amount of the suspended material are necessarily of
more importance than the character of the dissolved substances,
provided the latter are not positively injurious. For use on
ordinary water-meadows, however, not only is very clear water
often found to be perfectly efficient, but water having no more
than a few grains of dissolved matter per gallon answers the
purposes in view satisfactorily. Water from moors and peat-
bogs or from gravel or ferruginous sandstone is generally of
small utility so far as plant food is concerned. River water,
especially that which has received town sewage, or the drainage
of highly manured land, would naturally be considered most
suitable for irrigation, but excellent results are obtained also
with waters which are uncontaminated with manurial matters,
and which contain but 8 or 10 grains per gallon of the usual
dissolved constituents of spring water. Experienced English
irrigators generally commend as suitable for water-meadows
those streams in which fish and waterweeds abound. But the
particular plants present in or near the water-supply afford
further indications of quality. Water-cress, sweet flag, flowering
rush, several potamogetons, water milfoil, water ranunculus,
and the reedy sweet watergrass (Glyceria aquatica) rank amongst
the criteria of excellence. Less favourable signs are furnished
by such plants as Arundo Donax (in Germany), Cicuta virosa and
Typha latifolia, which are found in stagnant and torpid waters.
Water when it has been used for irrigation generally becomes
of less value for the same purpose. This occurs with clear water
as well as with turbid, and obviously arises mainly from the
loss of plant food which occurs when water filters through or
trickles over poor soil. By passing over or through rich soil
the water may, however, actually be enriched, just as clear
water passed through a charcoal filter which has been long
used becomes impure. It has been contended that irrigation
water suffers no change in composition by use, since by evapora-
tion of a part of the pure water the dissolved matters in the
remainder would be so increased as to make up for any matters
removed. But it is forgotten that both the plant and the soil
enjoy special powers of selective absorption, which remove
and fix the better constituents of the water and leave the less
valuable.
Of the few leguminous plants which are in any degree suitable
for water-meadows, Lotus corniculatus major, Trifolium hybridum,
and T. pratense are those which generally flourish
best; T. repens is less successful. Amongst grasses ^^*/°r
the highest place must be assigned to ryegrass, especially meadows.
to the Italian variety, commonly called Lolium
italicum. The mixture of seeds for sowing a water-meadow
demands much consideration, and must be modified according
to local circumstances of soil, aspect, climate and drainage.
From the peculiar use which is made of the produce of an
irrigated meadow, and from the conditions to which it is subjected,
it is necessary to include in our mixture of seeds some that
produce an early crop, some that give an abundant growth,
and some that impart sweetness and good flavour, while all the
kinds sown must be capable of flourishing on irrigated soil.
The following mixtures of seeds (stated in pounds per acre)
have been recommended for sowing on water-meadows, Messrs
Sutton of Reading, after considerable experience, regarding
No. I. as the more suitable:
Lolium perenne
Lolium italicum
Poa triyialis .
Glyceria fluitans
Glyceria aquatica
Agrostis alba .
Agrostis stolonifera
Alopecurus pratensis
Festuca elatior
I. II.
8 12
o 8
3
2
I
I
2
2
2
Festuca pratensis .
Festuca loliacea .
Anthoxanthum odoratum
Phleum pratense .
Phalaris arundinacea
Lotus corniculatus major
Trifolium hybridum .
Trifolium pratense
i. n.
O 2
3
In irrigated meadows, though in a less degree than on sewaged
land, the reduction of the amount or even the actual suppression
of certain species of plants is occasionally well marked, changes
Sometimes this action is exerted upon the finer grasses, in irri-
but happily also upon some of the less profitable gated
constituents of the miscellaneous herbage. Thus Aer/>a£e-
Ranunculus bulbosus has been observed to become quite rare
after a few years' watering of a meadow in which it had been
most abundant, R. acris rather increasing by the same treatment ;
Plantago media was extinguished and P. lanceolata reduced
70%. Amongst the grasses which may be spared, Air a ca.es-
pitosa, Briza media and Cynosurus cristatus are generally much
reduced by irrigation. Useful grasses which are increased are
Lolium perenne and Alopecurus pratensis, and among those of
less value Avenafavescens, Dactylis glomerata and Poa pratensis.
Four ways of irrigating land with water are practised in
England: (i) bedwork irrigation, which is the most efficient
although it is also the most costly method by which
currents of water can be applied to level land; (2)
catchwork irrigation, in which the same water is caught and
used repeatedly; (3) subterraneous or rather upward irrigation,
in which the water in the drains is sent upwards through the
soil towards the surface; and (4) warping, in which the water
is allowed to stand over a level field until it has deposited the
mud suspended in it.
There are two things to be attended to most carefully in the
construction of a water-meadow on the first or second of these
plans. First, no portion of them whatever should be on a dead
level, but every part should belong to one or other of a series of
true inclined planes. The second point of primary importance
is the size and slope of the main conductor, which brings the
water from the river to the meadow. The size of this depends
Methods.
IRRIGATION
upon the quantity of water required, but whatever its size
its bottom at its origin should be as low as the bed of the river,
in order that it may carry down as much as possible of the river
mud. Its course should be as straight and as near a true inclined
plane as possible. The stuff taken out of the conductor should
be employed in making up its banks or correcting inequalities
in the meadow.
In bedwork irrigation, which is eminently applicable to level
ground, the ground is thrown into beds or ridges. Here the con-
„. . ductor should be led along the highest end or side of the
Bedwork. mea(jow ;n an inclined plane; should it terminate in the
meadow, its end should be made to taper when there are no feeders,
or to terminate in a feeder. The main drain to carry off the water
from the meadow should next be formed. It should be cut in the
lowest part of the ground at the lower end or side of the meadow.
Its dimensions should be capable of carrying off the whole water
used so quickly as to prevent the least stagnation, and discharge it
into the river. The next process is the forming of the ground in-
tended for a water-meadow into beds or ridges. That portion of the
ground which is to be watered by one conductor should be made into
beds to suit the circumstances of that conductor; that is, instead
of the beds over the meadow being all reduced to one common level,
they should be formed to suit the different swells in the ground, and,
should any of these swells be considerable, it will be necessary
to give each side of them its respective conductor. The beds should
run at or nearly at right angles to the line of the conductor. The
breadth of the beds is regulated by the nature of the soil and the
supply of water. Tenacious soils and subsoils, with a small supply
of water, require beds as narrow as 30 ft. Porous soils and a large
supply of water may have beds of 40 ft. The length of the beds is
regulated by the supply of water and the fall from the conductor to
the main drain. If the beds fall only in one direction longitudinally,
their crowns should be made in the middle; but, should they fall
laterally as well as longitudinally, as is usually the case, then the
crowns should be made towards the upper sides, more or less ac-
cording to the lateral slope of the ground. The crowns should rise
I ft. above the adjoining furrows. The beds thus formed should slope
in an inclined plane from the conductor to the main drain, that the
water may flow equably over them.
The beds are watered by " feeders," that is, channels gradually
tapering to the lower extremities, and their crowns cut down, wher-
ever these are placed. The depth of the feeders depends on their
width, and the width on their length. A bed 200 yds. in length
requires a feeder of 20 in. in width at its junction with the conductor,
and it should taper gradually to the extremity, which should be I ft.
in width. The taper retards the motion of the water, which con-
stantly decreases by overflow as it proceeds, whilst it continues to
fill the feeder to the brim. The water overflowing from the feeders
down the sides of the beds is received into small drains formed in the
furrows between the beds. These small drains discharge themselves
into the main drain, and are in every respect the reverse of the
feeders. The depth of the small drain at the junction is made about
as great as that of the main drain, and it gradually lessens towards
the taper to 6 in. in tenacious and to less in porous soils. The depth
of the feeders is the same in relation to the conductor. For the more
equal distribution of the water over the surface of the beds from the
conductor and feeders, small masses, such as stones or solid portions
of earth or turf fastened with pins, are placed in them, in order to
retard the momentum which the water may have acquired. These
" stops," as they are termed, are generally placed at regular intervals,
or rather they should be left where any inequality of the current is
observed. Heaps of stones answer very well for stops in the con-
ductor, particularly immediately below the points of junction with
the feeders. The small or main drains require no stops. The descent
of the water in the feeders will no doubt necessarily increase in
rapidity, but the inclination of the beds and the tapering of the
feeders should be so adjusted as to counteract the increasing rapidity.
The distribution of the water over the whole meadow is regulated by
the sluices, which should be placed at the origin of every conductor.
By means of these sluices any portion of the meadow that is desired
can be watered, whilst the rest remains dry; and alternate watering
must be adopted when there is a scarcity of water. All the sluices
should be substantially built at first with stones and mortar, to
prevent the leakage of water; for, should water from a leak be
permitted to find its way into the meadow, that portion of it will
stagnate and produce coarse grasses. In a well-formed water-
meadow it is as necessary to keep it perfectly dry at one time as it is
to place it under water at another. A small sluice placed in the side
of the conductor opposite to the meadow, and at the upper end of it,
will drain away the leakage that may have escaped from the head
sluice.
To obtain a complete water-meadow, the ground will often require
to be broken up and remodelled. This will no doubt be attended
with cost; but it should be considered that the first cost is the
least, and remodelling the only way of having a complete water-
meadow which will continue for years to give satisfaction. To effect
a remodelling when the ground is in stubble, let it be ploughed up,
harrowed, and cleaned as in a summer fallow, the levelling-box
Catch-
work.
employed when required, the stuff from the conductors and main
drains spread abroad, and the beds ploughed into shape — all
operations that can be performed at little expense. The meadow
should be ready by August for sowing with one of the mixtures of
grass-seeds already given. But though this plan is ultimately
better, it is attended with the one great disadvantage that the soft
ground cannot be irrigated for two or three years after it is sown
with grass-seeds. This can only be avoided where the ground is
covered with old turf which will bear to be lifted. On ground in
that state a water-meadow may be most perfectly formed. Let the
turf be taken off with the spade, and laid carefully aside for relaying.
Let the stript ground then be neatly formed with the spade and
barrow, into beds varying in breadth and shape according to the
nature of the soil and the dip of the ground — the feeders from the
conductor and the small drains to the main drain being formed at
the same time. Then let the turf be laid down again and beaten
firm, when the meadow will be complete at once, and ready for
irrigation. This is the most beautiful and most expeditious method
of making a complete water-meadow where the ground is not natur-
ally sufficiently level to begin with.
The water should be let on, and trial made of the work, whenever
it is finished, and the motion of the water regulated by the intro-
duction of a stop in the conductors and feeders where a change in
the motion of the current is observed, beginning at the upper end
of the meadow. Should the work be finished as directed by August,
a good crop of hay may be reaped in the succeeding summer. There
are few pieces of land where the natural descent of the ground will
not admit of the water being collected a second time, and applied to
the irrigation of a second and lower meadow. In such a case the
main drain of a watered meadow may form the conductor of the one
to be watered, or a new conductor may be formed by a prolongation
of the main drain; but either expedient is only advisable where
water is scarce. Where it is plentiful, it is better to supply the second
meadow directly from the river, or by a continuation of the first
main conductor.
In the ordinary catchwork water-meadow, the water is used over
and over again. On the steep sides of valleys the plan is easily and
cheaply carried out, and where the whole course of the
water is not long the peculiar properties which give it
value, though lessened, are not exhausted when it reaches
that part of the meadow which it irrigates last. The design of any
piece of catchwork will vary with local conditions, but generally it
may be stated that it consists in putting each conduit save the first to
the double use of a feeder or distributor and of a drain or collector.
In upward or subterranean irrigation the water used rises upward
through the soil, and is that which under ordinary circumstances
would be carried off by the drains. The system has v warj or
received considerable development in Germany, where the s^ter.
elaborate method invented by Petersen is recommended ranean
by many agricultural authorities. In this system the
well-fitting earthenware drain-pipes are furnished at intervals with
vertical shafts terminating at the surface of the ground in movable
caps. Beneath each cap, and near the upper end of the shaft, are a
number of vertical slits through which the drainage water which
rises passes out into the conduit or trench from which the irrigating
streams originate. In the vertical shaft there is first of all a grating
which intercepts solid matters, and then, lower down, a central
valve which can be opened and closed at pleasure from the top of
the shaft. In the ordinary English system of upward or drainage
irrigation, ditches are dug all round the field. They act the part
of conductors when the land is to be flooded, and of main drains
when it is to be laid dry. The water flows from the ditches as
conductors into built conduits formed at right angles to them in
parallel lines through the fields; it rises upwards in them as high
as the surface of the ground, and again subsides through the soil
and the conduits into the ditches as main drains, and thence it
passes at a lower level either into a stream or other suitable outfall.
The ditches may be filled in one or other of several different ways.
The water may be drainage-water from lands at a higher level; or
it may be water from a neighbouring river; or it may be drainage-
water accumulated from a farm and pumped up to the necessary
level. But it may also be the drainage-water of the field itself.
In this case the mouths of the underground main pipe-drains are
stopped up, and the water in them and the secondary drains thus
caused to stand back until it has risen sufficiently near the surface.
Of course it is necessary to build the mouths of such main drains
of very solid masonry, and to construct efficient sluices for the re-
tention of the water in the drains. Irrigation of the kind now
under discussion may be practised wherever a command of water
can be secured, but the ground must be level. It has been success-
fully employed in recently drained morasses, which are apt to
become too dry in summer. It is suitable for stiffish soils where
the subsoil is fairly open, but is less successful in sand. The water
used may be turbid or clear, and it acts, not only for moistening the
soil, but as manure. For if, as is commonly the case, the water em-
ployed be drainage-water from cultivated lands, it is sure to contain
a considerable quantity of nitrates, which, not being subject to
retention by the soil, would otherwise escape. These coming into
contact with the roots of plants during their season of active growth,
are utilized as direct nourishment for the vegetation. It is necessary
IRRIGATION
845
in upward or subterranean irrigation to send the water on and
to take it off very gently, in order to avoid the displacement and
loss of the finer particles of the soil which a forcible current would
cause.
In warping the suspended solid matters are of importance, not
merely for any value they may have as manure, but also as a material
Waralax Addition to the ground to be irrigated. The warping which
is practised in England is almost exclusively confined to
the overflowing of level ground within tide mark, and is conducted
mostly within the districts commanded by estuaries or tidal rivers.
The best notion of the process of warping may be gained by sailing
up the Trent from the Humber to Gainsborough. Here the banks of
the river were constructed centuries ago to protect the land within
them from the encroachments of the tide. A great tract of country
was thus laid comparatively dry. But while the wisdom of one age
thus succeeded in restricting within bounds the tidal water of the
river, it was left to the greater wisdom of a succeeding age to improve
upon this arrangement by admitting these muddy waters to lay a
fresh coat of rich silt on the exhausted soils. The process began more
than a century ago, but has become a system in recent times. Large
sluices of stone, with strong doors, to be shut when it is wished to
exclude the tide, may be seen on both banks of the river, and from
these great conduits are carried miles inward through the flat country
to the point previously prepared by embankment over which the
muddy waters are allowed to spread. These main conduits, being
very costly, are constructed for the warping of large adjoining
districts, and openings are made at such points as are then under-
going the operation. The mud is deposited and the waters return
with the falling tide to the bed of the river. Spring-tides are pre-
ferred, and so great is the quantity of mud in these rivers that from
IO to 15 acres have been known to be covered with silt from I to 3 ft.
in thickness during one spring of ten or twelve tides. Peat-moss of
the most sterile character has been by this process covered with soil
of the greatest fertility, and swamps which used to be resorted to for
leeches are now, by the effects of warping, converted into firm and
fertile fields. The art is now so well understood that, by careful
attention to the currents, the expert warp farmer can temper his soil
as he pleases. When the tide is first admitted the heavier particles,
which are pure sand, are first deposited; the second deposit is a
mixture of sand and fine mud, which, from its friable texture, forms
the most valuable soil; while lastly the pure mud subsides, contain-
ing the finest particles of all, and forms a rich but very tenacious soil.
The great effort, therefore, of the warp farmer is to get the second or
mixed deposit as equally over the whole surface as he can and to
prevent the deposit of the last. This he does by keeping the water in
constant motion, as the last deposit can only take place when the
water is suffered to be still. Three years may be said to be spent in
the process, one year warping, one year drying and consolidating,
and one year growing the first crop, which is generally seed-hoed
in by hand, as the mud at this time is too soft to admit of horse
labour.
The immediate effect, which is highly beneficial, is the deposition
of silt from the tide. To ensure this deposition, it is necessary to
surround the field to be warped with a strong embankment, in order
to retain the water as the tide recedes. The water is admitted by
valved sluices, which open as the tide flows into the field and shut
by the pressure of the confined water when the tide recedes. These
sluices are placed on as low a level as possible to permit the most
turbid water at the bottom of the tide to pass through a channel in
the base of the embankment. The silt deposited after warping is
exceedingly rich and capable of carrying any species of crop. It
may be admitted in so small a quantity as only to act asa manure
to arable soil, or in such a large quantity as to form a new soil.
This latter acquisition is the principal object of warping, and it
excites astonishment to witness how soon a new soil may be formed.
From June to September a soil of 3 ft. in depth may be formed under
the favourable circumstances of a very dry season and long drought.
In winter and in floods warping ceases to be beneficial. In ordinary
circumstances on the Trent and Humber a soil from 6 to 16 in. in
depth may be obtained and inequalities of 3 ft. filled up. But every
tide generally leaves only | in. of silt, and the field which has only
one sluice can only be warped every other tide. The silt, as deposited
in each tide, does not mix into a uniform mass, but remains in distinct
layers. The water should be made to run completely off and the
ditches should become dry before the influx of the next tide, other-
wise the silt will not incrust and the tide not have the same effect.
Warp soil is of surpassing fertility. The expense of forming canals,
embankments and sluices for warping land is from £10 to £20 an acre.
A sluice of 6 ft. in height and 8 ft. wide will warp from 60 to 80 acres,
according to the distance of the field from the river. The embank-
ments may be from 3 to 7 ft. in height, as the field may stand in
regard to the level of the highest tides. After the new land has been
left for a year or two in seeds and clover, it produces great crops of
wheat and potatoes.
Warping is practised only in Lincolnshire and Yorkshire, on the
estuary of the Humber, and in the neighbourhood of the rivers
which flow into it — the Trent, the Ouse and the Don. The silt
and mud brought down by these rivers is rich in clay and organic
matter, and sometimes when dry contains as much as I % of
nitrogen.
Constant care is required if a water-meadow is to yield quite
satisfactory results. The earliness of the feed, its quantity
and its quality will all depend in very great measure manage-
upon the proper management of the irrigation. The meat
points which require constant attention are — the aadad-
perfect freedom of all carriers, feeders and drains vaataxes-
from every kind of obstruction, however minute; the state
and amount of water in the river or stream, whether it be
sufficient to irrigate the whole area properly or only a part of
it; the length of time the water should be allowed to remain
on the meadow at different periods of the season; the regula-
tion of the depth of the water, its quantity and its rate of flow,
in accordance with the temperature and the condition of the
herbage; the proper times for the commencing and ending of
pasturing and of shutting up for hay; the mechanical condition
of the surface of the ground; the cutting out of any very large
and coarse plants, as docks; and the improvement of the physical
and chemical conditions of the soil by additions to it of sand,
silt, loam,'chalk, &c.
Whatever may be the command of water, it is unwise to attempt
to irrigate too large a surface at once. Even with a river supply
fairly constant in level and always abundant, no attempt
should be made to force on a larger volume of water than the
feeders can properly distribute and the drains adequately re-
move, or one part of the meadow will be deluged and another
stinted. When this inequality of irrigation once occurs, it is
likely to increase from the consequent derangement of the
feeders and drains. And one result on the herbage will be an
irregularity of composition and growth, seriously detrimental
to its food-value. The adjustment of the water by means
of the sluices is a delicate operation when there is little water
and also when there is much; in the latter case the fine earth
may be washed away from some parts of the meadow; in
the former case, by attempting too much with a limited water
current, one may permit the languid streams to deposit their
valuable suspended matters instead of carrying them forward
to enrich the soil. The water is not to be allowed to remain
too long on the ground at a time. The soil must get dry at
stated intervals in order that the atmospheric air may come
in contact with it and penetrate it. In this way as the water
sinks down through the porous subsoil or into the subterranean
drains oxygen enters and supplies an element which is needed,
not only for the oxidation of organic matters in the earth,
but also for the direct and indirect nutrition of the roots. With-
out this occasional drying of the soil the finer grasses and the
leguminous plants will infallibly be lost; while a scum of
confervae and other algae will collect upon the surface and
choke the higher forms of vegetation. The water should be
run off thoroughly, for a little stagnant water lying in places
upon the surface does much injury. The practice of irrigating
differs in different places with differences in the quality of
the water, the soil, the drainage, &c. As a general rule, when
the irrigating season begins in November the water may flow
for a fortnight continuously, but subsequent waterings, especially
after December, should be shortened gradually in duration
till the first week in April, when irrigation should cease. It
is necessary to be very careful in irrigating during frosty weather.
For, though grass will grow even under ice, yet if ice be formed
under and around the roots of the grasses the plants may be
thrown out by the expansion of the water at the moment of its
conversion into ice. The water should be let off on the morning
of a dry day, and thus the land will be dry enough at night
not to suffer from the frost; or the water may be taken off in
the morning and let on again at night. In spring the newly
grown and tender grass will be easily destroyed by frost if
it be not protected by water, or if the ground be not made
thoroughly dry.
Although in many cases it is easy to explain the reasons why
water artificially applied to land brings crops or increases their
yield, the theory of our ordinary water-meadow Theory
irrigation is rather obscure. For we are not dealing
in these grass lands with a semi-aquatic plant like rice, nor are
846
IRRIGATION
we supplying any lack of water in the soil, nor are we restoring
the moisture which the earth cannot retain under a burning
sun. We irrigate chiefly in the colder and wetter half of the
year, and we " saturate " with water the soil in which are growing
such plants as are perfectly content with earth not containing
more than one-fifth of its weight of moisture. We must look
in fact to a number of small advantages and not to any one
striking beneficial process in explaining the aggregate utility
of water-meadow irrigation. We attribute the usefulness of
water-meadow irrigation, then, to the following causes: (i)
the temperature of the water being rarely less than 10° Fahr.
above freezing, the severity of frosts in winter is thus obviated,
and the growth, especially of the roots of grasses, is encouraged;
(2) nourishment or 'plant food is actually brought on to the
soil, by which it is absorbed and retained, both for the immediate
and for the future use of the vegetation, which also itself obtains
some nutrient material directly; (3) solution and redistribution
of the plant food already present in the soil occur mainly through
the solvent action of the carbonic acid gas present in a dis-
solved state in the irrigation-water; (4) oxidation of any excess
of organic matter in the soil, with consequent production of
useful carbonic acid and nitrogen compounds, takes place
through the dissolved oxygen in the water sent on and through
the soil where the drainage is good; and (5) improvement of
the grasses, and especially of the miscellaneous herbage, of the
meadow is promoted through the encouragement of some at
least of the better species and the extinction or reduction of
mosses and of the innutritious weeds.
To the united agency of the above-named causes may safely
be attributed the benefits arising from the special form of
water-irrigation which is practised in England. Should it
be thought that the traces of the more valuable sorts of plant
food (such as compounds of nitrogen, phosphates, and potash
salts) existing in ordinary brook or river water can never bring
an appreciable amount of manurial matter to the soil, or exert
an appreciable effect upon the vegetation, yet the quantity
of water used during the season must be taken into account.
If but 3000 gallons hourly trickle over and through an acre,
and if we assume each gallon to contain no more than one-
tenth of a grain of plant food of the three sorts just named
taken together, still the total, during a season including ninety
days of actual irrigation, will not be less than 9 ft per acre. It
appears, however, that a very large share of the benefits of
water-irrigation is attributable to the mere contact of abund-
ance of moving water, of an even temperature, with the roots
of the grass. The growth is less checked by early frosts; and
whatever advantages to the vegetation may accrue by occasional
excessive warmth in the atmosphere in the early months of the
year are experienced more by the irrigated than by the ordinary
meadow grasses by reason of the abundant development of roots
which the water has encouraged.
III. Italian Irrigation. — The most highly developed irrigation
in the world is probably that practised in the plains of Piedmont
and Lombardy, where every variety of condition is to be found.
The engineering works are of a very high class, and from long
generations of experience the farmer knows how best to use
his water. The principal river of northern Italy is the Po,
which rises to the west of Piedmont and is fed not from glaciers
like the Swiss torrents, but by rain and snow, so that the water
has a somewhat higher temperature, a point to which much
importance is attached for the valuable meadow irrigation
known as marcite. This is only practised in winter when there
is abundance of water available, and it much resembles the
water-meadow irrigation of England. The great Cavour canal
is drawn from the left bank of the Po a few miles below Turin,
and it is carried right across the drainage of the country. Its
full discharge is 3800 cub. ft. per second, but it is only from
October to May, when the water is least required, that it carries
anything like this amount. For the summer irrigation Italy
depends on the glaciers of the Alps; and the great torrents
of the Dora Baltea and Sesia can be counted on for a volume
exceeding 6000 cub. ft. per second. Lombardy is quite as well
off as Piedmont for the means of irrigation and, as already
said, its canals have the advantage that being drawn from
the lakes Maggiore and Como they exercise a moderating
influence on the Ticino and Adda rivers, which is much wanted
in the Dora Baltea. The Naviglio Grande of Lombardy is a
very fine work drawn from the left bank of the Ticino and
useful for navigation as well as irrigation. It discharges between
3000 and 4000 cub. ft. per second, and probably nowhere is irriga-
tion carried on with less expense. Another canal, the Villoresi,
drawn from the same bank of the Ticino farther upstream, is
capable of carrying 6700 cub. ft. per second. Like the Cavour
canal, the Villoresi is taken across the drainage of the country,
entailing a number of very bold and costly works.
Interesting as these Italian works are, the administration and
distribution of the water is hardly less so. The system is due
to the ability of the great Count Cavour; what he originated
in Piedmont has been also carried out in Lombardy. The Pied-
montese company takes over from the government the control of
all the irrigation within a triangle between the left bank of the
Po and the right bank of the Sesia. It purchases from govern-
ment about 1250 cub. ft. per second, and has also obtained
the control of all private canals. Altogether it distributes about
2275 cub. ft. of water and irrigates about 141,000 acres, on
which rice is the most important crop. The association has
14,000 members and controls nearly 10,000 m. of distributary
channels. In each parish is a council composed of all land-
owners who irrigate. Each council sends two deputies to what
may be called a water parliament. This assembly elects three
small committees, and with them rests the whole management
of the irrigation. An appeal may be made to the civil courts
from the decision of these committees, but so popular are they
that such appeals are never made. The irrigated area is
divided into districts, in each of which is an overseer and a
staff of watchmen to see to the opening and shutting of the
modules (see HYDRAULICS, §§ 54 to 56) which deliver the water
into the minor channels. In the November of each year it is
decided how much water is to be given to each parish in the year
following, and this depends largely on the number of acres of
each crop proposed to be watered. In Lombardy the irrigation
is conducted on similar principles. Throughout, the Italian
farmer sets a very high example in the loyal way he submits
to regulations which there must be sometimes a strong tempta-
tion to break. A sluice surreptitiously opened during a dark
night and allowed to run for six hours may quite possibly
double the value of his crop, but apparently the law is not often
broken.
IV. Egypt. — The very life of Egypt depends on its irrigation,
and, ancient as this irrigation is, it was never practised on a
really scientific system till after the British occupation. Character.
As every one knows, the valley of the Nile outside of istics „/
the tropics is practically devoid of rainfall. Yet it was the Nile
the produce of this valley that formed the chief granary Valff~
of the Roman Empire. Probably nowhere in the world
is there so large a population per square mile depending solely
on the produce of the soil. Probably nowhere is there an
agricultural population so prosperous, and so free from the
risks attending seasons of drought or of flood. This wealth
and prosperity are due to two very remarkable properties of
the Nile. First, the regimen of the river is nearly constant.
The season of its rise and its fall, and the height attained by its
waters during the highest flood and at lowest Nile vary to a
comparatively small extent. Year after year the Nile rises at
the same period, it attains its maximum in September and begins
to diminish first rapidly till about the end of December, and then
more slowly and more steadily until the following June. A late
rise is not more than about three weeks behind an early rise.
From the lowest to the highest gauge of water-surface the rise
is on an average 25-5 ft. at the First Cataract. The highest flood
is 3-5 ft. above this average, and this means peril, if not disaster,
in Lower Egypt. The lowest flood on record has risen only to
5-5 ft. below the average, or to 20 ft. above the mean water-
surface of low Nile. Such a feeble Nile flood has occurred only
IRRIGATION
847
four times in modern history: in 1877, when it caused wide-
spread famine and death throughout Upper Egypt, 047,000 acres
remained barren, and the land revenue lost £1,112,000; in 1899
and again in 1902 and 1907, when by the thorough remodelling
of the whole system of canals since 1883 all famine and disaster
were avoided and the loss of revenue was comparatively slight.
In 1907, for instance, when the flood was nearly as low as in 1877,
the area left unwatered was little more than 10% of the area
affected in 1877.
This regularity of flow is the first exceptional excellence of
the river Nile. The second is hardly less valuable, and consists
in the remarkable richness of the alluvium brought down the
river year after year during the flood. The object of the engineer
is so to utilize this flood-water that as little as possible of the
alluvium may escape into the sea, and as much as possible may
be deposited on the fields. It is the possession of these two
properties that imparts to the Nile a value quite unique among
rivers, and gives to the farmers of the Nile Valley advantages
over those of any rain-watered land in the world.
Until the igth century irrigation in Egypt on a large scale
was practised merely during the Nile flood. Along each edge
.. ,. of the river and following its course has been erected
during0" an earthen embankment high enough not to be
high Nile, topped by the highest floods. In Upper Egypt,
the valley of which rarely exceeds 6 m. in width,
a series of cross embankments have been constructed, abut-
ting at the inner ends on those along the Nile, and at the
outer ends on the ascending sides of the valley. The whole
country has thus been divided into a series of oblongs,
surrounded by embankments on three sides and by the
desert slopes on the fourth. These oblong areas vary from
60,000 to 1500 or 2000 acres in extent. Throughout all
Egypt the Nile is deltaic in character; that is, the slope
of the country in the valley is away from the river and not
towards it. It is easy, then, when the Nile is low, to cut
short, deep canals in the river banks, which fill as the flood
rises, and carry the precious mud-charged water into these
great flats. There the water remains for a month or more,
some 3 ft. deep, depositing its mud, and thence at the
end of the flood the almost clear water may either be run
off directly into the receding river, or cuts may be made
in the cross embankments, and it may be allowed to
flow from one flat to another and ultimately into the river.
In November the waters have passed off; and when-
ever a man can walk over the mud with a pair of bullocks,
it is roughly turned over with a wooden plough, or merely the
branch of a tree, and the wheat or barley crop is immediately
sown. So soaked is the soil after the flood, that the grain
germinates, sprouts, and ripens in April, without a shower of
rain or any other watering.
In Lower Egypt this system was somewhat modified, but it
was the same in principle. No other was known in the Nile
Valley until the country fell, early in the igth century, under the
vigorous rule of Mehemet AH Pasha. He soon recognized that
with such a climate and soil, with a teeming population, and
with the markets of Europe so near they might produce in
Egypt something more profitable than wheat and maize. Cotton
and sugar-cane would fetch far higher prices, but they could only
be grown while the Nile was low, and they required water at
all seasons.
It has already been said that the rise of the Nile is about
2sJ ft., so that a canal constructed to draw water out of the
river while at its lowest must be 255 ft. deeper than
during"" if it is intended to draw off only during the highest
low Nile, floods. Mehemet Ali began by deepening the canals
of Lower Egypt by this amount, a gigantic and futile
task; for as they had been laid out on no scientific principles,
the deep channels became filled with mud during the first flood,
and all the excavation had to be done over again, year after
year. With a serf population even this was not impossible;
but as the beds of the canals were graded to no even slope, it
did not follow that if water entered the head it would flow
evenly on. As the river daily fell, of course the water in the
canals fell too, and since they were never dug deep enough to
draw water from the very bottom of the river, they occasionally
ran dry altogether in the month of June, when the river was at
its lowest, and when, being the month of greatest heat, water
was more than ever necessary for the cotton crop. Thus large
tracts which had been sown, irrigated, weeded and nurtured for
perhaps three months perished in the fourth, while all the time
the precious Nile water was flowing useless to the sea. The
obvious remedy was to throw a weir across each branch of the
river to control the water and force it into canals taken from
above it. The task of constructing this great work was committed
to Mougel Bey, a French engineer of ability, who designed and
constructed the great barrage across the two branches
of the Nile at the apex of the delta, about 12 m. north
of Cairo (fig. 2). It was built to consist of two bridges —
one over the eastern or Damietta branch of the river having
71 arches, the other, over the Rosetta branch, having 61 arches,
each arch being of 5 metres or 16-4 ft. span. The building was
all of stone, the floors of the arches were inverts. The height of
pier from edge of flooring to spring of arch] was 28-7 ft., the
spring of the arch being about the surface-level of maximum flood.
The arches were designed to be fitted with
self-acting drop gates; but they were not
a success, and were only put into place on
the Rosetta branch. The gates were in-
tended to hold up the water 4-5 metres,
FIG. 2. — Map showing the Damietta and
Rosetta dams on the Nile.
or 14-76 ft., and to divert it into three main
canals — the Behera on the west, theMenufia
in the centre and the Tewfikia on the east.
The river was thus to be emptied, and to
flow through a whole network of canals,
watering all Lower Egypt. Each barrage was provided with
locks to pass Nile boats 160 by 28 ft. in area.
Mougel's barrage, as it may now be seen, is a very imposing
and stately work. Considering his want of experience of such
rivers as the Nile, and the great difficulties he had to contend
with under a succession of ignorant Turkish rulers, it would
be unfair to blame him because, until it fell into the hands
of British engineers in 1884, the work was condemned as a
hopeless failure. It took long years to complete, at a cost
which can never be estimated, since much of it was done by
serf labour. In 1861 it was at length said to be finished; but
it was not until 1863 that the gates of the Rosetta branch
were closed, and they were reopened again immediately, as
a settlement of the masonry took place. The experiment
was repeated year after year till 1867, when the barrage cracked
right across from foundation to top. A massive coffer-dam
was then erected, covering the eleven arches nearest the crack;
but the work was never trusted again, nor the water-surface
raised more than about 3 ft.
An essential part of the barrage project was the three canals,
taking their water from just above it, as shown in fig. 2. The
heads of the existing old canals, taken out of the river at intervals
throughout the delta, were to be closed, and the canals themselves
all put into connexion with the three high-level trunk lines
taken from above the barrage. The central canal, or Menufia,
was more or less finished, and, although full of defects, has
done good service. The eastern canal was never dug at all until
IRRIGATION
the British occupation. The western, or Behera, canal was dug,
but within its first 50 m. it passes through desert, and sand drifted
into it. Coniees of 20,000 men used to be forced to clear it out
year after year, but at last it was abandoned. Thus the whole
system broke down, the barrage was pronounced a failure,
and attention was turned to watering Lower Egypt by a system
of gigantic pumps, to raise the water from the river and dis-
charge it into a system of shallow surface-canals, at an annual
cost of about £250,000, while the cost of the pumps was estimated
at £700,000. Negotiations were on foot for carrying out this
system when the British engineers arrived in Egypt. They
soon resolved that it would be very much better if the original
scheme of using the barrage could be carried out, and after
a careful examination of the work they were satisfied that this
could be done. The barrage rests entirely on the alluvial bed
of the Nile. Nothing more solid than strata of sand and mud
is to be found for more than 200 ft. below the river. It was
out of the question, therefore, to think of founding on solid
material, and yet it was desired to have a head of water of
13 or 14 ft. upon the work. Of course, with such a pressure
as this, there was likely to be percolation under the founda-
tions and a washing-out of the soil. It had to be considered
whether this percolation could best be checked by laying a
solid wall across the river, going down to 50 or 60 ft. below its
bed, or by spreading out the foundations above and below the
bridge, so as to form one broad water-tight flooring — a system
practised with eminent success by Sir Arthur Cotton in Southern
India. It was decided to adopt the latter system. As originally
designed, the flooring of the barrage from up-stream to down-
stream face was 111-50 ft. wide, the distance which had to
be travelled by water percolating under the foundations. This
width of flooring was doubled to 223 ft., and along the up-
stream face a line of sheet piling was driven 16 ft. deep. Over
the old flooring was superposed 15 in. of the best rubble masonry,
an ashlar floor of blocks of close-grained trachyte being laid
directly under the bridge, where the action was severest. The
working season lasted only from the end of November to the
end of June, while the Nile was low; and the difficulty of getting
in the foundations was increased, as, in the interests of irrigation
and to supply the Menufia canal, water was held up every
season while the work was in progress to as much as 10 ft. The
work was begun in 1886, and completed in June 1890. More-
over, in the meantime the eastern, or Tewfikia, canal was
dug and supplied with the necessary masonry works for a
distance of 23 m., to where it fed the network of old canals.
The western, or Behera, canal was thoroughly cleared out and
remodelled; and thus the whole delta irrigation was supplied
from above the barrage.
The outlay on the barrage between 1883 and 1891 amounted
to about £460,000. The average cotton crop for the 5 years
preceding 1884 amounted to 123,000 tons, for the 5 years ending
1898 it amounted to 251,200 tons. At the low rate of £40 per
ton, this means an annual increase to the wealth of Lower
Egypt of £5,128,000. Since 1890 the barrage has done its
duty without accident, but a work of such vast importance
to Lower Egypt required to be placed beyond all risk. It
having been found that considerable hollow spaces existed
below the foundations of some of the piers, five bore-holes from
the top of the roadway were pierced vertically through each
pier of both barrages, and similar holes were drilled at intervals
along all the lock walls. Down these holes cement grout was
injected under high pressure on the system of Mr Kinipple.
The work was successfully carried out during the seasons 1896
to 1898. During the summer of 1898 the Rosetta barrage was
worked under a pressure of 14 ft. But this was looked on as too
near the limit of safety to be relied on, and in 1899 subsidiary weirs
were started across both branches of the river a short distance
below the two barrages. These were estimated to cost £530,000
altogether, and were to stand 10-8 ft. above the river's bed,
allowing the water-surface up-stream of the barrage to be raised
7-2 ft., while the pressure on that work itself would not exceed
10 ft. These weirs were satisfactorily completed in 1901.
The barrage is the greatest, but by no means the only im-
portant masonry work in Lower Egypt. Numerous regulating
bridges and locks have been built to give absolute control
of the water and facilities for navigation; and since 1901 a
second weir has been constructed opposite Zifta, across the
Damietta branch of the Nile, to improve the irrigation of the
Dakhilia province.
In the earlier section of this article it is explained how necessary
it is that irrigation should always be accompanied by drainage.
This had been totally neglected in Egypt; but very large sums
have been spent on it, and the country is now covered with
a network of drains nearly as complete as that of the canals.
The ancient system of basin irrigation is still pursued in
Upper Egypt, though by the end of 1907 over 320,000 feddans
of land formerly under basin irrigation had been Basin
given, at a cost of over ££3,000,000, perennial irriga- irrigation
tion. This conversion work was carried out in the "' Upper
provinces situated between Cairo and Assiut, a region
sometimes designated Middle Egypt. The ancient system
seems simple enough; but in order really to flood the whole
Nile Valley during seasons of defective as well as favourable
floods, a system of regulating sluices, culverts and syphons
is necessary; and for want of such a system it was found, in
the feeble flood of 1888, that there was an area of 260,000 acres
over which the water never flowed. This cost a loss of land
revenue of about £300,000, while the loss of the whole season's
crop to the farmer was of course much greater. The attention
of the British engineers was then called to this serious calamity;
and fortunately for Egypt there was serving in the country
Col. J. C. Ross, R.E., an officer who had devoted many years
of hard work to the irrigation of the North-West Provinces
of India, and who possessed quite a special knowledge as well
as a glowing enthusiasm for the subject. Fortunately, too,
it was possible to supply him with the necessary funds to com-
plete and remodel the canal system. When the surface-water
of a river is higher than the fields right and left, there is nothing
easier than to breach the embankments and flood the fields —
in fact, it may be more difficult to prevent their being flooded
than to flood them — but in ordinary floods the Nile is never
higher than all the bordering lands, and in years of feeble flood
it is higher than none of them. To water the valley, there-
fore, it is necessary to construct canals having bed-slopes less
than that of the river, along which the water flows until its
surface is higher than that of the fields. If, for instance, the
slope of the river be 4 in. per mile, and that of the canal 2 in.
it is evident that at the end of a mile the water in the canal
will be 2 in. higher than in the river; and if the surface of
the land is 3 ft. higher than that of the river, the canal, gaining
on it at 2 in. per mile, will reach the surface in 18 m., and from
thence onwards will be above the adjoining fields. But to
irrigate this upper 18 m., water must either be raised artificially,
or supplied from another canal taking its source 18 m. farther
up. This would, however, involve the country in great lengths
of canal between the river and the field, and circumstances
are not so unfavourable as this. Owing to the deltaic nature
of the Nile Valley, the fields on the banks are 3 ft. above the
flood, at 2 m. away from the banks they may not be more
than i ft. above that level, so that the canal, gaining 2 in. per
mile and receding from the river, will command the country
in 6 m. The slope of the river, moreover, is taken in its winding
course; and if it is 4 in. per mile, the slope of the axis of the
valley parallel to which the canals may be made to flow is at
least 6 in. per mile, so that a canal with a slope of 2 in. gains
4 in. per mile.
The system of having one canal overlapping another has one
difficulty to contend with. Occasionally the desert cliffs and
slopes come right down to the river, and it is difficult, if not
impossible, to carry the higher-level canals past these obstructions.
It should also be noticed that on the higher strip bordering the
river it is the custom to take advantage of its nearness to raise
water by pumps, or other machinery, and thereby to grow
valuable crops of sugar-cane, maize or vegetables. When the
IRRIGATION
849
river rises, these crops, which often form a very important
part of the year's produce and are termed Nabdri, are still in
the ground, and they require water in moderate and regulated
quantities, in contradistinction to the wholesale flooding of the
flats beyond. Fig. 3 will serve to explain this system of irriga-
tion, the firm lines representing canals, the dotted lines embank-
ments. It will be seen, beginning on the east or right bank of
the river, that a high-level canal from an upper system is carried
past a steep slope, where perhaps it is cut entirely out of rock,
and it divides into two. The right branch waters all the desert
slopes within its reach and level. The left branch passes, by
a syphon aqueduct, under what is the main canal of the system,
taken from the river close at hand (and therefore at a lower
level). This left branch irrigates the Nabdri on the high lands
bordering the river. In years of very favourable flood this
high-level canal would not be wanted at all: the irrigation could
be done from the main canal, and with this great advantage,
that the main canal water would carry with it much more
fertilizing matter than would be got from the tail of the high-
level canal, which left the river perhaps 25 m. up. The main
canal flows freely over the flats C and D, and, if the flood is good,
over B and part of A. It is carried round the next desert point,
and to the north becomes the high-level canal. The masonry
remained. There being at its head no weir across the Nile,
the water in the Ibrahimia canal used to rise and fall with that
of the river, and so the supply was apt to run short during the
hottest months, as was the case with the canals of Lower Egypt
before the barrage was built. To supply the Ibrahimia canal
at all during low Nile, it had been necessary to carry on dredging
operations at an annual cost of about £12,000. This has now
been rectified, in the same way as in Lower Egypt, by the
construction of a weir across the Nile, intended to Assiut
give complete control over the river and to raise the Weiraad
water-surface 8-2 ft. The Assiut weir is constructed
on a design very similar to that of the barrage in
Bsaa
Barrage.
w
Storage.
FIG. 3. — Map of the Basin System of Irrigation.
works required for this system are a syphon to pass the high
level under the main canal near its head, bridges fitted with
sluices where each canal passes under an embankment, and an
escape weir at the tail of the system, just south of the desert
point, to return surplus water to the river. Turning to the left
bank, there is the same high-level canal from the upper system
irrigating the basins K, P and L, as well as the large basin E
in such years as it cannot be irrigated from the main canal.
Here there are two main canals — one following the river, irrigat-
ing a series of smaller basins, and throwing out a branch to its
left, the other passing under the desert slopes and supplying
the basins F, G, H and S. For this system two syphons will be
required near the head, regulating bridges under all the embank-
ments, and an escape weir back into the river.
In the years following 1888 about 100 new masonry works of
this kind were built in Upper Egypt, nearly 400 m. of new canal
were dug, and nearly 300 m. of old canal were enlarged and
deepened. The result has been, as already stated, that with a
complete failure of the Nile flood the loss to the country has been
trifling compared with that of 1877.
The first exception in Upper Egypt to the basin system of
irrigation was due to the Khedive Ismail. The khedive, having
acquired vast estates in the provinces of Assiut, Miniah, Beni-
Suef and the Fayum, resolved to grow sugar-cane on a very large
scale, and with this object constructed a very important perennial
canal, named the Ibrahimia, taking out of the left bank of the
Nile at the town of Assiut, and flowing parallel to the river for
about 200 m., with an important branch which irrigates the
Fayum. This canal was badly constructed, and by entirely
blocking the drainage of the valley did a great deal of harm
to the lands. Most of its defects had been remedied, but one
Lower Egypt. It consists of a bridge of in arches, each 5
metres span, with piers of 2 metres thickness. In each arch are
fitted two gates. There is a lock 80 metres long and 16 metres
wide at the left or western end of the weir, and adjoining it
are the regulating sluices of the Ibrahimia canal. The Assiut
weir across the Nile is just about half a mile long. The work
was begun at the end of 1898 and finished early in 1902 — in
time to avert over a large area the disastrous effects which
would otherwise have resulted from the low Nile of that year.
The money value of the crops saved by the closing of the weir
was not less than ££690,000. The conversion of the lands north
of Assiut from basin to perennial irrigation began
immediately after the completion of the Assiut weir
and was finished by the end of 1908. To render the
basin lands of the Kena province independent of the
flood being bad or good, another barrage was built
. across the Nile at Esna at a cost of £1,000,000. This
work was begun in 1906 and completed in 1909.
These works, as well as that in Lower Egypt, are
intended to raise the water-surface above it, and to
control the distribution of its supply, but in
no way to store that supply. The idea of
ponding up the superfluous flood discharge of the river
is not a new one, and if Herodotus is to be believed,
it was a system actually pursued at a very early
period of Egyptian history, when Lake Moeris in the
Fayum was filled at each Nile flood, and drawn upon
as the river ran down. When British engineers first
undertook the management of Egyptian irrigation
many representations were made to them of the ad-
vantage of storing the Nile water; but they consistently
maintained that before entering on that subject it was their
duty to utilize every drop of the water at their disposal. This
seemed all the more evident, as at that time financial reasons
made the construction of a costly Nile dam out of the question.
Every year, however, between 1890 and 1902 the supply of the
Nile during May and June was actually exhausted, no water
at all flowing then out into the sea. In these years, too, owing
to the extension of drainage works, the irrigable area of Egypt
was greatly enlarged, so that if perennial cultivation was at all
to be increased, it was necessary to increase the volume of the
river, and this could only be done by storing up the flood supply.
The first difficulty that presented itself in carrying this out,
was that during the months of highest flood the Nile is so charged
with alluvial matter that to pond it up then would inevitably
lead to a deposit of silt in the reservoir, which would in no great
number of years fill it up. It was found, however, that the
flood water was comparatively free from deposit by the middle
of November, while the river was still so high that, without
injuring the irrigation, water might go on being stored up until
March. Accordingly, when it was determined to construct
a dam, it was decided that it should be supplied with sluices
large enough to discharge unchecked the whole volume of the
river as it comes down until the middle of November, and then
to begin the storage.
The site selected for the great Nile dam was at the head
of the First Cataract above Assuan. A dyke of syenite granite
here crosses the valley, so hard that the river had nowhere
scoured a deep channel through it, and so it was found possible
to construct the dam entirely in the open air, without the
850
IRRIGATION
necessity of laying under- water foundations. The length of the
dam is about 6400 ft. — nearly i J m. The greatest head of water
in it is 65 ft. It is pierced by 140 under-sluices of
Tbe 150 sq. ft. each, and by 40 upper-sluices, each of 75 sq.
Dam."" ft. These, when fully open, are capable of discharging
the ordinary maximum Nile flood of 350,000 cub. ft.
per second, with a velocity of 15-6 ft. per second and a head
of 6-6 ft. The top width of the dam is 23 ft., the bottom width
at the deepest part about 82 ft. On the left flank of the dam
there is a canal, provided with four locks, each 262 by 31 ft.
in area, so that navigation is possible at all seasons. The
storage capacity of the reservoir is about 3,750,000 millions
of cub. ft., which creates a lake extending up the Nile Valley
for about 200 m. The reservoir is filled yearly by March; after
that the volume reaching the reservoir from the south is passed
on through the sluices. In May, or earlier when the river is
late in rising, when the demand for water increases, first the upper
and then the under sluices are gradually opened, so as to increase
the river supply, until July, when all the gates are open, to allow
of the free passage of the flood. On the loth of December
1902 this magnificent work was completed. The engineer
who designed it was Sir W. Willcocks. The contractors were
Messrs John Aird & Co., the contract price being £2,000,000.
The financial treaties in which the Egyptian government were
bound up prevented their ever paying so large a sum as this
within five years; but a company was formed in London to
advance periodically the sum due to the contractors, on receipt
from the government of Egypt of promissory notes to pay sixty
half-yearly instalments of £ 78,613, beginning on the ist of July
1903. Protective works downstream of the dam were com-
pleted in 1906 at a cost of about ££304,000. It had been at
first intended to raise the dam to a height which would have
involved the submergence, for some months of every year,
of the Philae temples, situated on an island just upstream
of the dam. Had the natives of Egypt been asked to choose
between the preservation of Ptolemy's famed temple and the
benefit to be derived from a considerable additional depth of
water storage, there can be no question that they would have
preferred the latter; but they were not consulted, and the
classical sentiment and artistic beauty of the place, skilfully
pleaded by archaeologists and artists, prevailed. In 1907,
however, it was decided to carry out the plan as originally
proposed and raise the dam 26 ft. higher. This would increase
the storage capacity 2j times, or to about 9,375,000 millions
of cubic feet.
There is no middle course of farming in Egypt between
irrigation and desert. No assessment can be levied on lands
which have not been watered, and the law of Egypt requires
that in order to render land liable to taxation the water during
the Nile flood must have flowed naturally over it. It is not
enough that it should be pumped on to the land at the expense
of the landowner. The tax usually levied is from £i to £2
per acre.
See Sir W. Willcocks, Egyptian Irrigation (2nd ed., 1899); Sir
C. C. Scott-Moncrieff, Lectures on Irrigation in Egypt. Professional
Papers on the Corps of Royal Engineers, vol. xix. (London, 1893);
Sir W. Garstin, Report upon the Basin of the Upper Nile. Egypt No. 2
(1904).
V. India. — Allusion has already been made to the irrigation
of India. The year 1878, which saw the end of a most disastrous
famine, may be considered as the commencement of a new era
as regards irrigation. It had at last been recognized that such
famines must be expected to occur at no very long intervals
of time, and that the cost of relief operations must not be met
by increasing the permanent debt on the country, but by the
creation of a famine relief and a famine insurance fund. For
this purpose it was fixed that there should be an annual provision
of Rx. i, 500,000, to be spent on: (i) relief, (2) protective works,
(3) reduction of debt. Among protective works the first place
was given to works of irrigation. These works were divided
into three classes: (i.) productive works; (ii.) protective
works; (iii.) minor works.
Productive works, as their name implies, are such as may
reasonably be expected to be remunerative, and they include
all the larger irrigation systems. Their capital cost is provided
from loan funds, and not from the relief funds mentioned above.
In the seventeen years ending 1896-1897 the capital expenditure
on such works was Rx. 10,954,948, including a sum of Rx. i ,742,246
paid to the Madras Irrigation Company as the price of the
Kurnool-Cuddapah canal, a work which can never be financially
productive, but which nevertheless did good service in the
famine of 1896-1897 by irrigating 87,226 acres. In the famine
year 1877-1878 the area irrigated by productive canals was
5,171,497 acres. In the famine year 1896-1897 the area was
9»S7i,779 acres, including an area of 123,087 acres irrigated on
the Swat river canal in the Punjab. The revenue of the year
1879-1880 was nearly 6% on the capital outlay. In 1897-1898
it was 7j%. In the same seventeen years Rx.2,o99,253 were
spent on the construction of protective irrigation works, not
expected to be directly remunerative, but of great value during
famine years. On four works of this class were spent Rx. i ,649,823 ,
which in 1896-1897 irrigated 200,733 acres, a valuable return
then, although in an ordinary year their gross revenue does
not cover their working expenses. Minor works may be divided
into those for which capital accounts have been kept and those
where they have not. In the seventeen years ending 1896-1897,
Rx.827,2i4 were spent on the former, and during that year
they yielded a return of 9-13%. In the same year the irrigation
effected by minor works of all sorts showed the large area
of 7,442,990 acres. Such are the general statistics of outlay,
revenue and irrigated area up to the end of 1896-1897. The
government might well be congratulated on having through
artificial means ensured in that year of widespread drought
and famine the cultivation of 27,326 sq. m., a large tract even
in so large a country as India. And progress has been steadily
made in subsequent years.
Some description will now be given of the chief of these
irrigation works. Beginning with the' Punjab, the province
in which most progress has been made, the great Sutlej canal,
which irrigates the country to the left of that river, was opened
in 1882, and the Western Jumna canal (perhaps the oldest in
India) was extended into the dry Hissar and Sirsa districts,
and generally improved so as to increase by nearly 50% its
area of irrigation between 1878 and 1897. Perhaps this is as
much as can well be done with the water at command for the
country between the Sutlej and the Jumna, and it is enough
to secure it for ever from famine. The Bari Doab canal, which
irrigates the Gurdaspur, Amritsar and Lahore districts, has been
enlarged and extended so as to double its irrigation since it was
projected in 1877-1878. The Chenab canal, the largest in India
and the most profitable, was only begun in 1 889. It was designed
to command an area of about 2^ million acres, and to irrigate
annually rather less than half that area. This canal flows
through land that in 1889 was practically desert. From the
first arrangements were made for bringing colonists in from
the more congested parts of India. The colonization began in
1892. Nine years later this canal watered 1,830,525 acres.
The population of the immigrant colony was 792,666, consisting
mainly of thriving and prosperous peasants with occupancy
rights in holdings of about 28 acres each. The direct revenue
of this canal in 1906 was 26% on the capital outlay. The
Jhelum canal was opened on the 3oth of October 1901. It is
a smaller work than the Chenab, but it is calculated to command
1,130,000 acres, of which at least half will be watered annually.
A much smaller work, but one of great interest, is the Swat
river canal in the Peshawar valley. It was never expected that
this would be a remunerative work, but it was thought for
political reasons expedient to construct it in order to induce
turbulent frontier tribes to settle down into peaceful agriculture.
This has had a great measure of success, and the canal itself
has proved remunerative, irrigating 123,000 acres in 1896-1897.
A much greater scheme than any of the above is that of the
Sind Sagar canal, projected from the left bank of the Indus
opposite Kalabagh, to irrigate 1,750,000 acres at a cost of
Rx. 6,000,000. Another great canal scheme for the Punjab
IRRIGATION
851
proposed to take off from the right bank of the Sutlej, and to
irrigate about 600,000 acres in the Montgomery and Multah
districts, at a cost of Rx. 2,500,000. These three last projects
would add 2,774,000 acres to the irrigated area of the province,
and as they would flow through tracts almost unpeopled, they
would afford a most valuable outlet for the congested districts
of northern India. In addition to these great perennial canals,
much has been done since 1878 in enlarging and extending
what are known as the " inundation canals " of the Punjab,
which utilize the flood waters in the rivers during the monsoon
season and are dry at other times. By these canals large portions
of country throughout most of the Punjab are brought under
cultivation, and the area thus watered has increased from
about 180,000 to 500,000 acres since 1878.
It is on inundation canals such as these that the whole cultiva-
tion of Sind depends. In 1878 the area was about 1,500,000
acres; in 1896-1897 it had increased to 2,484,000 acres. This
increase was not due to famine in Sind, for that rainless province
depends always on the Indus, as Egypt does on the Nile, and
where there is no rainfall there can be no drought. But the famine
prices obtained for agricultural produce doubtless gave an im-
petus to cultivation. In Sind, too, there is room for much in-
crease of irrigation. It has been proposed to construct two
new canals, the Jamrao and the Shikarpur, and to improve and
extend three existing canals — Nasrat, Naulakhi and Dad.
The total cost of these five projects, some of which are now
in progress, was estimated at Rx. 1,596,682, and the extension
of irrigation at 660,563 acres.
Turning from the basin of the
Indus to that of the Ganges,
the commissioners appointed to
report on the famine of 1896-1897
found that in the country be-
tween the Ganges and the Jumna
little was left to be done beyond
the completion of some distribu-
tary channels. The East India
Company's great work, the Ganges
canal, constructed between 1840
and 1854 before there was a mile
of railway open in India, still
holds its place unsurpassed
among later irrigation work for
boldness of design and complete-
ness of execution, a lasting monu-
ment to the genius of Sir Proby
Cautley, an officer of the Bengal
Artillery, but a born engineer.
Ever since 1870 consideration has
been given to projects for irrigat-
ing the fertile province of Oudh by
means of a great canal to be drawn
from the river Sarda. The water is there in abundance, the land is
well adapted for irrigation, but as there is a considerable rainfall,
it is doubtful whether the scheme would prove remunerative,
and a large section of the landowners have hitherto opposed it, as
likely to waterlog the country. Among the four protective works
of irrigation which were said above to have irrigated 200,733
acres in 1896-1897, one of the most important is the Betwa canal,
in the parched district of Bundelkhand. This canal has cost
Rx.42S,o86, and causes an annual loss to the state in interest
and working expenses of about Rx. 20,000. It irrigated, how-
ever, in 1896-1897 an area of 87,306 acres, raising crops valued
at Rx. 231,081, or half the cost of the canal, so it may be said
to have justified its construction. A similar canal from the
river Ken in the same district has been constructed. Pro-
ceeding farther east, we find very satisfactory progress in the
irrigation of southern Behar, effected by the costly system of
canals drawn from the river Sone. In 1877-1878 these canals
irrigated 241,790 acres. Rapid progress was not expected
here, and 792,000 acres was calculated as being the maximum
area that could be covered with the water supply available.
In the five years preceding 1901-1902 the average irrigated area
was 463,181 acres, and during that year the area was 555,156
acres, the maximum ever attained.
The canal system of Orissa was never expected to be re-
munerative, since in five years out of six the local rainfall is
sufficient for the rice crop. In 1878-1879 the area irrigated was
111,250 acres, and the outlay up to date was Rx. 1,750,000. In
1900-1901 the area was 203,540 acres, the highest ever attained,
and the capital outlay amounted to Rx. 2,623, 703. It should
be mentioned in favour of these canals that although the irriga-
tion is not of yearly value, they supply very important water
communication through a province which, from its natural
configuration, is not likely to be soon intersected by railways.
If, moreover, such a famine were again to occur in Orissa as that
of 1866-1867, there would be no doubt of the value of these fine
canals.
In the Madras presidency and in Mysore irrigation has long
assumed a great importance, and the engineering works of
the three great deltas of the Godavari, Kistna and Cauvery,
the outcome of the genius and indefatigable enthusiasm of
Sir Arthur Cotton, have always been quoted as showing what
a boon irrigation is to a country. In 1878 the total area of
irrigation in the Madras presidency amounted to about 5,000,000
acres. The irrigation of the eight productive systems was
1,680,178 acres, and the revenue Rx.739,778. In 1898 there
were ten of these systems, with an irrigation area, as shown
by the accompanying table, of 2,685,915 acres, and a revenue
of Rx.i,i63,268:
Capital
Percentage
Area
Total
Total
Net
and
of Net
Irrigation.
Watered.
Revenue.
Expenditure.
Revenue.
Indirect
Revenue
Charges.
to Capital.
Major Works.
Acres.
Kx.
Kx.
Rx.
Kx.
i. Godavari Delta
779,435
328,443
68,376
260,067
1,297,807
I9-I5
2. Kistna Delta
520,373
254,579
74,142
180,437
1,319,166
13-18
3. Pennar Weir System .
70,464
28,160
5,037
23,123
189,919
7-59
4. Sangam System
76,277
32,627
7,037
25-590
385,601
3-68
5. Kurnool Canal
47,008
15,622
12,404
3.218
2,171,740
•15
6. Barur Tank System
4,421
1,162
385
777
4,250
i'39
7. Cauvery Delta
989,808
434,346
43,464
390,882
199,458
44-87
8. Srivaikuntam System
41,668
19,349
4,680
14,669
147,192
5-45
9. Periyar Project
89-H3
37,526
10,751
26,775
852,914
•27
10. Rushikulya Canal .
67,318
"454
3,678
7,776
464,423
•54
Total
2,685,915
1,163,268
229,954
933-314
7,032,470
7-88
Minor Works.
23 Works for which Capital
and Revenue Accounts
are kept
Minor Works for which such
535,8i3
200,558
34,655
165,903
1,693,878
4-44
Accounts are not kept
3,131,009
830,175
193,295
636,880
Grand Total
6,352,737
2,194,001
457,904
1,736,097
In the three great deltas, and the small southern one that
depends on the Srivaikuntam weir over the river Tumbraparni,
extension and improvement works have been carried on. The
Sangam and Pennar systems depend on two weirs on the river
Pennar in the Nellore district, the former about 18 m. above
and the latter just below the town of Nellore. The former
irrigates on the left, the latter on the right bank of the river.
This district suffered severely in the famine of 1877-1878, and
the irrigation works were started in consequence. The Barur
tank system in the Salem district was also constructed after
the famine of 1877-1878. As yet it has not fulfilled expectations.
The Periyar scheme has for its object both the addition of
new irrigation and the safeguarding of that which exists in
the district of Madura, a plain watered by means of a great
number of shallow tanks drawing their supply from a very
uncertain river, the Vaigai. This river takes its rise on the
eastern slopes of the Ghat range of mountains, and just opposite
to it, on the western face of the range, is the source of the river
Periyar. The rainfall on the west very much exceeds that on
the east, and the Periyar used to find its way by a short torrent
IRRIGATION
course to the sea, rendering no service to mankind. Its upper
waters are now stemmed by a masonry dam 178 ft. high, forming
a large lake, at the eastern end of which is a tunnel 5700 ft.
long, piercing the watershed and discharging 1600 cub. ft.
per second down the eastern side of the mountains into the
river Vaigai. No bolder or more original work of irrigation
has been carried out in India, and the credit of it is due to
Colonel J. Pennycuick, C.S.I. The dam and tunnel were works
of unusual difficulty. The country was roadless and uninhabited
save by wild beasts, and fever and cholera made sad havoc
of the working parties; but it was successfully accomplished.
The last of those given in the table above was not expected to
be remunerative, but it should prove a valuable protective
against famine. The system consists of weirs over the rivers
Gulleri, Mahanadi and Rushikulya in the backward province
of Ganjam, south of Orissa. From these weirs flow canals
altogether about 127 m. long, which, in connexion with two
large reservoirs, are capable of irrigating 120,000 acres. In 1901
the works, though incomplete, already irrigated 6 7,31 8 acres.
In addition to all these great engineering systems, southern
India is covered with minor works of irrigation, some drawn
from springs in the sandy beds of rivers, some from the rainfall
of 5 sq. m. ponded up in a valley. In other cases tanks are
fed from neighbouring streams, and the greatest ingenuity
is displayed in preventing the precious water from going to
waste.
Allusion has been already made to the canals of Sind. Else-
where in the Bombay presidency, in the Deccan and Gujarat,
there are fewer facilities for irrigation than in other parts of
India. The rivers are generally of uncertain volume. The
cost of storage works is very great. The population is back-
ward, and the black soil is of a nature that in ordinary years
can raise fair crops of cotton, millet and maize without artificial
watering. Up to the end of 1896-1897 the capital spent on the
irrigation works of the Deccan and Gujarat was -Rx. 2,616,959.
The area irrigated that year was 262,830 acres. The most
important works are the Mutha and Nira canals in the Poona
district.
In Upper Burma three productive irrigation works were
planned at the opening of the century — the Mandalay, the
Shwebo, and the Mon canals, of which the first was estimated
to cost -Rx.323,28o, and to irrigate 72,000 acres. The area
estimated from the whole three projects is 262,000 acres, situated
in the only part of Burma that is considered liable to famine.
In 1901, after years of disastrous drought and famine, the
government of India appointed a commission to examine
throughout all India what could be done by irrigation to alleviate
the horrors of famine. Up to that time it had been the principle
of the government not to borrow money for the execution of
irrigation works unless there was a reasonable expectation that
within a few years they would give a return of 4 or 5% on the
capital outlay. In 1901 the government took larger views.
It was found that although some irrigation works (especially
in the Bombay Deccan) would never yield a direct return of
4 °r 5%> still in a famine year they might be the means of
producing a crop which would go far to do away with the
necessity for spending enormous sums on famine relief. In the
Sholapur district of Bombay, for instance, about three years'
revenue was spent on relief during the famine of 1901. An
expenditure of ten years' revenue on irrigation works might
have done away for all future time with the necessity for the
greater part of this outlay. The Irrigation Commission of 1901-
1903 published a very exhaustive report after a careful study
of every part of India. While emphatically asserting that
irrigation alone could never prevent famine, they recommended
an outlay of £45,000,000 spread over a period of 25 years.
See also A nnual Reports Irrigation Department Local Governments of
India ; Reports of the Indian Famine Commissions of 1878, 1808 and
jpoi; Sir Hanbury Brown, Irrigation, its Principles and Practice
(London, 1907).
VI. United States. — At the opening of the 2oth century,
•during Mr Roosevelt's presidency, the new " Conservation "
policy (i.e. conservation of natural resources by federal initiative
and control), to which he gave so much impetus and encourage-
ment, brought the extension of irrigation works in the United
States to the front in American statecraft (see Vrooman, Mr
Roosevelt, Dynamic Geographer, 1909). Though the carrying
out of this policy on a large scale was hampered by many
difficulties, the subject was made definitely one of national
importance.
On account of the aridity of the climate throughout the greater
part of the western third of the United States, the practice of
agriculture is dependent upon an artificial supply of water.
On most of the country west of the 97th meridian and extending
to the Pacific Ocean less than 20 in. of rain falls each year.
The most notable exceptions are in the case of a narrow strip
west of the Cascade Range and of some of the higher mountain
masses. In ordinary years the climate is too dry for successful
cultivation of the field crops, although under favourable condi-
tions of soil and cultivation there are certain areas where cereals
are grown by what is known as " dry farming." The progress
in irrigation up to the end of the igth century was spasmodic
but on the whole steady. The eleventh census of the United
States, 1890, showed that 3,564,416 acres were irrigated in 1889.
This included only the lands from which crops were produced.
Besides this, there were probably 10 million acres under irriga-
tion systems constructed in whole or in part. In 1899 the
irrigated area in the arid states and territories was more than
twice as great as in 1889, the acreage being as follows: —
Arizona 185,936
California 1,445,872
Colorado 1,611,271
Idaho 602,568
Montana 95M54
Nevada
New Mexico
Oregon
Utah
Washington
Wyoming
Total
504,168
203,893
388,310
629,293
135.470
605,878
7,263,813
In addition to the area above given, in 1899, 273,117 acres
were under irrigation in the semi-arid region, east of the states
above mentioned and including portions of the states of North
and South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, Texas and Oklahoma.
The greater part of these lands was irrigated by canals or ditches
built by individuals acting singly or in co-operation with their
neighbours, or by corporations. The national and state govern-
ments had not built any works of reclamation excepting where
the federal government, through the Indian department, had
constructed irrigation ditches for Indian tribes, notably the
Crow Indians of Montana. A few of the state governments,
such, for example, as Colorado, had built small reservoirs
or portions of canals from internal improvement funds.
The construction of irrigation canals and ditches was for the
most part brought about by farmers joining to plough out or
dig ditches from the rivers, descending on a gentle grade. Some
of the corporations constructing works for the sale of water built
structures of notable size, such, for example, as the Sweet-water
and Hemet dams of southern California, the Bear river canal
of Utah, and the Arizona canal, taking water from Salt river,
Arizona. The cost of bringing water to the land averaged
about $8 per acre where the ordinary ditches were built. The
owners of extensive works were charged from $12 to $20 per
acre and upwards for so-called " water rights," or the privilege
to take water from the canal, this covering cost of construction.
Besides the first cost of construction, the irrigator was usually
called upbn to pay annually a certain amount for maintenance,
which might often be worked out by labour on the canal. The cost
ranged from 50 cents to $i per acre; or, with incorporated com-
panies, from $1.50 to $2.50 per acre and upwards. The largest
expense for water rights and for annual maintenance was in-
curred in southern California, where the character of the crops,
such as citrus fruits, and the scarcity of the water make possible
IRULAS— IRUN
expensive construction and heavy charges. The legal expens
for the maintenance of water rights was often large becausi
of the interminable suits brought during the times of wate
scarcity. The laws regarding water in most of the arid state
were indefinite or contradictory, being based partly on th
common law regarding riparian rights, and partly upon th<
Spanish law allowing diversion of water from natural streams
Few fundamental principles were established, except in the
case of the state of Wyoming, where an official was charged with
the duty of ascertaining the amount of water in the streams anc
apportioning this to the claimants in the order of their priority
of appropriation for beneficial use.
It may be said that, up to the year 1900, irrigation progressed
to such an extent that there remained few ordinary localitie
where water could not be easily or cheaply diverted from creeks
and rivers for the cultivation of farms. The claims for the avail-
able supply from small streams, however, exceeded the water
to be had in the latter part of the irrigating season. There
remained large rivers and opportunities for water storage
which could be brought under irrigation at considerable expense.
The large canals and reservoirs built by corporations had rarely
been successful from a financial standpoint, and irrigation con-
struction during the latter part of the decade 1890-1899 was
relatively small. Owing to the difficulty and expense of securing
water from running streams by gravity systems, a great
variety of methods were developed of pumping water by wind-
mills, gasoline or hot-air engines, and steam. Ordinary recipro-
cating pumps were commonly employed, and also air lifts and
similar devices for raising great quantities of water to a height
of from 20 to 50 ft. For greater depths the cost was usually
prohibitive. Throughout the Great Plains region, east of the
Rocky Mountains, and in the broad valleys to the west, wind-
mills were extensively used, each pumping water for from i to
5 acres of cultivated ground. In a few localities, notably in
South Dakota, the Yakima valley of Washington, San Joaquin,
and San Bernardino valleys of California, San Luis valley of
Colorado, and Utah valley of Utah, water from artesian wells
was also used for the irrigation of from i to 160 acres. The total
acreage supplied by such means was probably less than i % of
that watered by gravity systems.
The development of irrigation was in part retarded by the
improper or wasteful use of water. On permeable soils, especially
those of the terrace lands along the valleys, the soluble salts
commonly known as alkali were gradually leached out and
carried by the percolating waters towards the lower lands,
where, reaching the surface, the alkali was left as a glistening
crust or as pools of inky blackness. Farms adjacent to the rivers
were for a time increased in richness by the alkaline salts,
which in diffuse form might be valuable plant foods, and then
suddenly become valueless when the concentration of alkali
had reached a degree beyond that which the ordinary plants
would endure.
The situation as regards the further progress of irrigation
on a large scale was however dominated in the early years of
the 2oth century by the new Conservation policy. Mr Roosevelt
brought the whole subject before Congress in his message of
the 3rd of December 1901, and thereby started what seemed
likely to be a new sphere of Federal initiative and control.
After referring to the effects of forests (see FORESTS AND
FORESTRY) on water-supply, he went on as follows: —
The forests alone cannot fully regulate and conserve the waters of
the and regions. Great storage works are necessary to equalize the
flow of the streams and to save the flood waters. Their construction
has been conclusively shown to be an undertaking too vast for private
effort. Nor can it be best accomplished by the individual states
acting alone.
" Far-reaching interstate problems are involved, and the re-
sources of single states would often be inadequate. It is properly
a national function, at least in some of its features. It is as right for
the National Government to make the streams and rivers of the arid
regions useful by engineering works for water storage, as to make
useful the rivers and harbours of the humid regions by engineering
works of another kind. The storing of the floods in reservoirs at the
headquarters of our rivers is but an enlargement of our present policy
853
of river control, under which levees are built on the lower reaches of
the same streams.
" The government should construct and maintain these reservoirs
as it does other public works. Where their purpose is to regulate the
flow of streams, the water should be turned freely into the channels
in the dry season, to take the same course under the same laws as the
natural flow.
" The reclamation of the unsettled arid public lands presents a
different problem. Here it is not enough to regulate the flow of
streams. The object of the government is to dispose of the land to
settlers who will build homes upon it. To accomplish the object
water must be brought within their reach.
" The reclamation and settlement of the arid lands will enrich
every portion of our country, just as the settlement of the Ohio and
Mississippi valleys brought prosperity to the Atlantic States. The
increased demand for manufactured articles will stimulate industrial
production, while wider home markets and the trade of Asia will
consume the larger food supplies and effectually prevent Western
competition with Eastern agriculture. Indeed, the products of
irrigation will be consumed chiefly in upbuilding local centres of
mining and other industries, which would otherwise not come into
existence at all. Our people as a whole will profit, for successful
home-making is but another name for the upbuilding of the nation."
In 1902, by Act of Congress, a " reclamation fund " was
created from moneys received from the sale of public lands;
it was to be used under a " Reclamation Service " (part of the
Department of the Interior) for the reclamation of arid lands.
The " Truckee-Carson project " for irrigation in Nevada was
immediately begun. About thirty other government projects
were taken in hand under the new Reclamation Service,
in some cases involving highly interesting engineering
problems, as in the Uncompahgre Project in Colorado. Here
the Uncompahgre and Gunnison rivers flowed parallel, about
10 m. apart, with a mountain range 2000 ft. high between them.
The Uncompaghre, with only a small amount of water, flowed
through a broad and fertile valley containing several hundred
thousand acres of cultivable soil. The Gunnison, with far more
water, flowed through a canyon with very little land. The
problem was to get the water from the Gunnison over the
mountain range into the Uncompahgre valley; and a tunnel,
6 m. long, was cut through, resulting in 1909 in 148,000 acres
of land being irrigated and thrown open to settlers. Similarly,
near Yuma in Arizona, a project was undertaken for carrying
the waters of the main canal on the California side under the
Colorado river by a siphon. In the report for 1907 of the
Reclamation Service it was stated that it had dug 1881 m. of
canals, some carrying whole rivers, like the Truckee river in
Nevada and the North Platte in Wyoming, and had erected
281 large structures, including the great dams in Nevada and
the Minidoka dam (80 ft. high and 650 ft. long) in Idaho. As
the result of the operations eight new towns had been established,
100 m. of branch railroads constructed, and 14,000 people
settled in what had been the desert.
A White House conference of governors of states was held at
Washington in May 1909, which drew up a " declaration of
snnciples for the conservation of natural resources, recommending
the appointment of a commission by each state to co-operate with
one another and with the Federal government ; and by the end of
die year thirty-six states had appointed Conservation committees.
I hus, in the first decade of the 2Oth century a great advance had
seen made in the way in which the whole problem was being viewed
n America, though the very immensity of the problem of bringing
:he Federal power to bear on operations on so vast a scale, involving
he limitation of private land speculation in important areas, still
presented political difficulties of considerable magnitude.
IRULAS (" Benighted ones," from Tamil, iral, " darkness "),
a semi-Hinduized forest-tribe of southern India, who are found
mainly in North Arcot, Chingleput, South Arcot, Trichinopoly,
and the Malabar Wynaad. The typical Irulas of the Nilgiris
ive a wild life on the lower slopes of those hills. At the 1901
:ensus this branch of the Irulas numbered 1915, while the total
if so-called Irulas was returned at 86,087.
See J. W. Breeks, Primitive Tribes of the Nilgiris (1873)- Nileiri
Manual, i. 214-217; North Arcot Manual, {..248-249.
IRDN, a frontier town of northern Spain, in the province of
luipuzcoa, on the left bank of the river Bidassoa, opposite the
French village of Hendaye. Pop. (1900) 9912. Irun is the
northern terminus of the Spanish Northern railway, and a
854
IRVINE— IRVING, EDWARD
thriving industrial town, with ironworks, tan-yards, potteries
and paper mills. Its principal buildings are the fine Renaissance
parish church and the fortress-like 17th-century town hall. It
derives its prosperity from the fact that it is the most important
custom-house in Spain for the overland trade with the rest of
Europe. Irun is also on the chief highway for travellers and
mails. It is the terminus of some important narrow-gauge
mining railways and steam tramways, which place it in communi-
cation with the mining districts of Guipuzcoa and Navarre, and
with the valuable oak, pine and beech forests of both provinces.
There are hot mineral springs in the town.
IRVINE, a royal, municipal and police burgh, and seaport
of Ayrshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 9607. It is situated on the
north bank of the estuary of the Irvine, 29^ m. S.W. of Glasgow
by the Caledonian railway, with a station also on the Glasgow
& South Western railway. It is connected with the suburb
of Fullarton on the south side of the river by a stone bridge,
which was built in 1746 and widened in 1827. Alexander II.
granted it a charter, which was confirmed by Robert Bruce.
Towards the end of the I7th century it was reckoned the third
shipping port in Scotland (Port Glasgow and Leith being the
leaders), and though its importance in this respect declined
owing to the partial silting-up of the harbour, its water-borne
trade revived after 1875, the sandy bar having been removed
and the wharfage extended and improved. The public buildings
include the town hall, academy (1814) and fever hospital. The
principal historical remains are the square tower of Stanecastle
and the ancient Seagate Castle, which contains some good speci-
mens of Norman architecture. The industries include engine-
making, shipbuilding, iron- and brass-founding, the manufacture
of chemicals, brewing and soap-making. Irvine unites with
Ayr, Campbeltown, Inveraray and Oban in sending one member
to parliament. The exports consist principally of coal, iron
and chemical products, and the imports of grain, timber, lime-
stone, ores and general produce. At DREGHORN, 2 m. to the S.E.
(pop. 1155) coal and iron are worked.
IRVING, EDWARD (1792-1834), Scottish church divine,
generally regarded as the founder of the " Catholic Apostolic
Church " (q.v.), was born at Annan, Dumfriesshire, on the 4th
of August 1792. By his father's side, who followed the occupa-
tion of a tanner, he was descended from a family long known
in the district, and the purity of whose Scottish lineage had been
tinged by alliance with French Protestant refugees; but it
was from his mother's race, the Lowthers, farmers or small pro-
prietors in Annandale, that he seems to have derived the most
distinctive features of his personality. The first stage of his
education was passed at a school kept by " Peggy Paine," a
relation of the well-known author of the Age of Reason, after
which he entered the Annan academy, taught by Mr Adam
Hope, of whom there is a graphic sketch in the Reminiscences
of Thomas Carlyle. At the age of thirteen he entered the
university of Edinburgh. In 1809 he graduated M.A.; and in
1810, on the recommendation of Sir John Leslie, he was chosen
master of an academy newly established at Haddington, where
he became the tutor of Jane Welsh, afterwards famous as Mrs
Carlyle. He became engaged in 1812 to Isabella Martin, whom
in 1823 he married; but it may be at once stated here that
meanwhile he gradually fell in love with Jane Welsh, and she
with him. He tried to get out of his engagement with Miss
Martin, but was prevented by her family. If he had married
Miss Welsh, his life, as well as hers, would have been very dif-
ferent. It was Irving who in 1821 introduced Carlyle to her.
His appointment at Haddington he exchanged for a similar
one at Kirkcaldy in 1812. Completing his divinity studies by a
series of partial sessions, he was " licensed " to preach in June
1815, but continued to discharge his scholastic duties for three
years. He devoted his leisure, not only to mathematical and
physical science, but to a course of reading in English literature,
his bias towards the antique in sentiment and style being
strengthened by a perusal of the older classics, among whom
Richard Hooker was his favourite author. At the same time
his love of the marvellous found gratification in the wonders
of the Arabian Nights, and it is further characteristically related
of him that he used to carry continually in his waistcoat pocket
a miniature copy of Ossian, passages from which he frequently
recited with " sonorous elocution and vehement gesticulation."
In the summer of 1818 he resigned his mastership, and, in
order to increase the probability of obtaining a permanent
appointment in the church, took up his residence in Edinburgh.
Although his exceptional method of address seems to have gained
him the qualified approval of certain dignitaries of the church,
the prospect of his obtaining a settled charge seemed as remote
as ever, and he was meditating a missionary tour in Persia when
his departure was arrested by steps taken by Dr Chalmers,
which, after considerable delay, resulted, in October 1819, in
Irving being appointed his assistant and missionary in St John's
parish, Glasgow. Except in the case of a select few, Irving's
preaching awakened little interest among the congregation of
Chalmers, Chalmers himself, with no partiality for its bravuras
and flourishes, comparing it to " Italian music, appreciated only
by connoisseurs "; but as a missionary among the poorer
classes he wielded an influence that was altogether unique. The
benediction " Peace be to this house," with which, in accordance
with apostolic usage, he greeted every dwelling he entered, was
not inappropriate to his figure and aspect, and it is said " took
the people's attention wonderfully," the more especially after
the magic of his personality found opportunity to reveal itself
in close and homely intercourse. This half-success in a sub-
ordinate sphere was, however, so far from coinciding with his
aspirations that he had again, in the winter of 1821, begun to
turn his attention towards missionary labour in the East, when
the possibility of fulfilling the dream of his h'fe was suddenly
revealed to him by an invitation from the Caledonian church,
Hatton Garden, London, to " make trial and proof " of his
gifts before the " remnant of the congregation which held
together." Over that charge he was ordained in July 1822.
Some years previously he had expressed his conviction that
" one of the chief needs of the age was to make inroad after the
alien, to bring in the votaries of fashion, of literature, of senti-
ment, of policy and of rank, who are content in their several
idolatries to do without piety to God and love to Him whom He
hath sent "; and, with an abruptness which must have produced
on him at first an effect almost astounding, he now had the
satisfaction of beholding these various votaries thronging to
hear from his lips the words of wisdom which would deliver them
from their several idolatries and remodel their lives according
to the fashion of apostolic times.
This sudden leap into popularity seems to have been occasioned
in connexion with a veiled allusion to Irving's striking eloquence
made in the House of Commons by Canning, who had been
induced to attend his church from admiration of an expression
in one of his prayers, quoted to him by Sir James Mackintosh.
His commanding stature, the symmetry of his form, the dark
and melancholy beauty of his countenance, rather rendered
piquant than impaired by an obliquity of vision, produced an
imposing impression even before his deep and powerful voice
had given utterance to its melodious thunders; and harsh and
superficial half-truths enunciated with surpassing ease and
grace of gesture, and not only with an air of absolute conviction
but with the authority of a prophetic messenger, in tones whose
magical fascination was inspired by an earnestness beyond
all imitation of art, acquired a plausibility and importance
which, at least while the orator spoke, made his audience entirely
forgetful of their preconceived objections against them. The
subject-matter of his orations, and his peculiar treatment of
his themes, no doubt also, at least at first, constituted a con-
siderable part of his attractive influence. He had specially
prepared himself, as he thought, for " teaching imaginative
men, and political men, and legal men, and scientific men who
bear the world in hand "; and he did not attempt to win their
attention to abstract and worn-out theological arguments,
but discussed the opinions, the poetry, the politics, the manners
and customs of the time, and this not with philosophical com-
prehensiveness, not in terms of warm eulogy or measured blame,
IRVING, SIR HENRY
855
but of severe satire varied by fierce denunciation, and with
a specific minuteness which was concerned primarily with
individuals. A fire of criticism from pamphlets, newspapers and
reviews opened on his volume of Orations, published in 1823;
but the excitement produced was merely superficial and essen-
tially evanescent. Though cherishing a strong antipathy to the
received ecclesiastical formulas, Irving's great aim was to revive
the antique style of thought and sentiment which had hardened
into these formulas, and by this means to supplant the new
influences, the accidental and temporary moral shortcomings
of which he detected with instinctive certainty, but whose pro-
found and real tendencies were utterly beyond the reach of his
conjecture. Being thus radically at variance with the main
current of the thought of his time, the failure of the commission
he had undertaken was sooner or later inevitable; and shortly
after the opening of his new church in Regent Square in 1827,
he found that " fashion had taken its departure," and the
church, " though always well filled," was " no longer crowded."
By this desertion his self-esteem, one of his strongest passions,
though curiously united with singular sincerity and humility,
was doubtless hurt to the quick; but the wound inflicted was
of a deeper and deadlier kind, for it confirmed him finally in
his despair of the world's gradual amelioration, and established
his tendency towards supernaturalism.
For years the subject of prophecy had occupied much of
his thoughts, and his belief in the near approach of the second
advent had received such wonderful corroboration by the
perusal of the work of a Jesuit priest, writing under the assumed
Jewish name of Juan Josafat Ben-Ezra, that in 1827 he published
a translation of it, accompanied with an eloquent preface.
Probably the religious opinions of Irving, originally in some
respects more catholic and truer to human nature than generally
prevailed in ecclesiastical circles, had gained breadth and
comprehensiveness from his intercourse with Coleridge, but
gradually his chief interest in Coleridge's philosophy centred
round that which was mystical and obscure, and to it in all
likelihood may be traced his initiation into the doctrine of
millenarianism. The first stage of his later development,
which resulted in the establishment of the " Irvingite " or
" Holy Catholic Apostolic Church," in 1832, was associated
with conferences at his friend Henry Drummond's seat at
Albury concerning unfulfilled prophecy, followed by an almost
exclusive study of the prophetical boo'ks and especially of the
Apocalypse, and by several series of sermons on prophecy both
in London and the provinces, his apocalyptic lectures in 1828
more than crowding the largest churches of Edinburgh in the
early summer mornings. In 1830, however, there was opened
up to his ardent imagination a new vista into spiritual things,
a new hope for the age in which he lived, by the seeming actual
revival in a remote corner of Scotland of those apostolic gifts
of prophecy and healing which he had already in 1828 persuaded
himself had only been kept in abeyance by the absence of faith.
At once he welcomed the new " power " with an unquestioning
evidence which could be shaken by neither the remonstrances
or desertion of his dearest friends, the recantation of some of
the principal agents of the " gifts," his own declension into a
comparatively subordinate position, the meagre and barren
results of the manifestations, nor their general rejection both
by the church and the world. His excommunication by the
presbytery of London, in 1830, for publishing his doctrines
regarding the humanity of Jesus Christ, and the condemnation
of these opinions by the General Assembly of the Church of
Scotland in the following year, were secondary episodes which
only affected the main issue of his career in so far as they tended
still further to isolate him from the sympathy of the church;
but the " irregularities " connected with the manifestation of
the " gifts " gradually estranged the majority of his own congre-
gation, and on the complaint of the trustees to the presbytery
of London, whose authority they had formerly rejected, he was
declared unfit to remain the minister of the National Scotch
Church of Regent Square. After he and those who adhered
to him (describing themselves as of the Holy Catholic Apostolic
Church) had in 1832 removed to a new building in Newman
Street, he was in March 1833 deposed from the ministry of the
Church of Scotland by the presbytery of Annan on the original
charge of heresy. With the sanction of the " power " he was
now after some delay reordained " chief pastor of the church
assembled in Newman Street," but unremitting labours and
ceaseless spiritual excitement soon completely exhausted the
springs of his vital energy. He died, worn out and wasted
with labour and absorbing care, while still in the prime of life,
on the 7th of December 1834.
The writings of Edward Irving published during his lifetime were
For the Oracles of God, Four Orations (1823) ; For Judgment to come
(1823); Babylon and Infidelity foredoomed (1826); Sermons, &c.
(3 vols., 1828) ; Exposition of the Book of Revelation (1831) ; an intro-
duction to a translation of Ben-Ezra; and an introduction to
Home's Commentary on the Psalms. His collected works were pub-
lished in 5 volumes, edited by Gavin Carlyle. See also the article
CATHOLIC APOSTOLIC CHURCH.
The Life of Edward Irving, by Mrs Oliphant, appeared in 1862 in
2 vols. Among a large number of biographies published previously,
that by Washington Wilks (1854) has some merit. See also Hazlitt's
Spirit of the Age; Coleridge's Notes on English Divines; Carlyle's
Miscellanies, and Carlyle's Reminiscences, vol. i. (1881).
IRVING, SIR HENRY (1838-1905), English actor, whose
original name was John Brodribb, was born at Keinton-Mande-
ville, Somerset, on the 6th of February 1838. After a few years'
schooling he became a clerk to a firm of East India merchants
in London, but he soon gave up a commercial career and
started as an actor. On the 2pth of September 1856 he made his
first appearance at Sunderland as Gaston, duke of Orleans,
in Bulwer Lytton's Richelieu, billed as Henry Irving. This
name he eventually assumed by royal licence. For ten years
he went through an arduous training in various provincial
stock companies, acting in more than five hundred parts. By
degrees his ability gained recognition, and in 1866 he obtained
an engagement at the St James's Theatre, London, to play
Doricourt in The 'Belle's Stratagem. A year later he joined the
company of the newly-opened Queen's Theatre, where he acted
with Charles Wyndham, J. L. Toole, Lionel Brough, John
Clayton, Mr and Mrs Alfred Wigan, Ellen Terry and Nelly
Farren. This was followed by short engagements at the Hay-
market, Drury Lane and Gaiety. At last he made his first con-
spicuous success as Digby Grant in James Albery's The Two
Roses, which was produced at the Vaudeville on the 4th of
June 1870 and ran for 300 nights. In 1871 he began his
association with the Lyceum Theatre by an engagement under
Bateman's management. The fortunes of the house were at a
low ebb when the tide was turned by Irving's immediate success
as Mathias in The Bells, a version of Erckmann-Chatrian's Le
Juif Polonais by Leopold Lewis. The play ran for 150 nights.
With Miss Bateman, Irving was seen in W. G. Wills's Charles I .
and Eugene Aram, in Richelieu, and in 1874 in Hamlet. The
unconventionality of this last performance, during a run of
200 nights, aroused keen discussion, and singled him out as the
most interesting English actor of his day. In 1875, still with
Miss Bateman, he was seen as Macbeth; in 1876 as Othello,
and as Philip in Tennyson's Queen Mary; in i877in Richard III.
and The Lyons Mail.
In 1878 Irving opened the Lyceum under his own management.
With Ellen Terry as Ophelia and Portia, he revived Hamlet and
produced The Merchant of Venice (1879). His Shylock was as
much discussed as his Hamlet had been, the dignity with which
he invested the Jew marking a departure from the traditional
interpretation of the role, and pleasing some as much as it
offended others. After the production of Tennyson's The Cup,
a revival of Othello (in which Irving played lago to the Othello
of Edwin Bqoth) and of Romeo and Juliet, there began a period
at the Lyceum which had a potent effect on the English stage.
The Lyceum stage management, and the brilliancy of its produc-
tions in scenery, dressing and accessories, were revelations in
the art of mise-en-scene. Much Ado about Nothing (1882) was
followed by Twelfth Night (1884), Olivia — an adaptation of
Goldsmith's Vicar of Wakefield by W. G. Wills (1885); Faust
(1886); Macbeth (1888); The Dead Heart, by Watts Phillips
856
IRVING, WASHINGTON
(1889); and Ravenswood — Herman Merivale's dramatic version
of Scott's Bride of Lammermoor ( 1 890) . Fine assumptions in 1 89 2
of the characters of Wolsey in Henry VIII. and of King Lear
were followed in 1893 by a striking and dignified performance
of Becket in Tennyson's play of that name. During these years
too, Irving, with the whole Lyceum company, paid several visits to
America, which met with conspicuous success, and were repeated
in succeeding years. The chief remaining novelties at the Lyceum
during Irving's sole managership (the theatre passed, at the
beginning of 1899, into the hands of a limited liability company)
were Comyns Carr's King Arthur in 1895; Cymbeline, in which
Irving played lachimo, in 1896; Sardou's Madame Sans-Gene
in 1897; Peter the Great, a play by Laurence Irving, the actor's
second son, in 1898; and Conan Doyle's Waterloo (1894). The
new regime at the Lyceum was signalized by the production of
Sardou's Robespierre in 1899, in which Irving reappeared after
a serious illness, and in 1901 by an elaborate revival of Coriolanus.
Irving's only subsequent production in London was Sardou's
Dante (1903), a vast spectacular drama, staged at Drury Lane.
He died " on tour " at Bradford on the I3th of October 1905,
and was buried in Westminster Abbey.
Both on and off the stage Irving always maintained a high
ideal of his profession, and in 1895 he received the honour of
knighthood, the first ever accorded an actor. He was also the
recipient of honorary degrees from the universities of Dublin,
Cambridge and Glasgow. His acting, apart from his genius
as a presenter of plays, divided criticism, opinions differing as
to the extent to which his mannerisms of voice and deportment
interfered with or assisted the expression of his ideas. So strongly
marked a personality as his could not help giving its own colour-
ing to whatever part he might assume, but the richness and
originality of this colouring at its best cannot be denied, any
more than the spirit and intellect which characterized his render-
ings. At the least, extraordinary versatility must be conceded
to an actor who could satisfy exacting audiences in roles so
widely different as Digby Grant and Louis XI., Richard III. and
Becket, Benedick and Shylock, Mathias and Dr Primrose.
Sir Henry Irving had two sons, Harry Brodribb (b. 1870)
and Laurence (b. 1872). They were educated for other walks
of life, the former for the bar, and the latter for the diplomatic
service; but both turned to the stage, and the elder, who had
already established himself as the most prominent of the younger
English actors at the time of his father's death, went into
management on his own account.
IRVING, WASHINGTON (1783-1859), American man of letters,
was born at New York on the 3rd of April 1783. Both his
parents were immigrants from Great Britain, his father, originally
an officer in the merchant service, but at the time of Irving's
birth a considerable merchant, having come from the Orkneys,
and his mother from Falmouth. Irving was intended for the
legal profession, but his studies were interrupted by an illness
necessitating a voyage to Europe, in the course of which he pro-
ceeded as far as Rome, and made the acquaintance of Washington
Allston. He was called to the bar upon his return, but made
little effort to practise, preferring to amuse himself with literary
ventures. The first of these of any importance, a satirical
miscellany entitled Salmagundi, or the Whim-Whams and
Opinions of Launcelot Langslaff and others, written in conjunction
with his brother William and J. K. Paulding, gave ample proof
of his talents as a humorist. These were still more conspicuously
displayed in his next attempt, A History of New York from the
Beginning of the World to the End of the Dutch Dynasty, by
" Diedrich Knickerbocker " (2 vols., New York, 1809). The
satire of Salmagundi had been principally local, and the original
design of " Knickerbocker's " History was only to burlesque a
pretentious disquisition on the history of the city in a guide-
book by Dr Samuel Mitchell. The idea expanded as Irving
proceeded, and he ended by not merely satirizing the pedantry
of local antiquaries, but by creating a distinct literary type
out of the solid Dutch burgher whose phlegm had long been an
object of ridicule to the mercurial Americans. Though far from
the most finished of Irving's productions, " Knickerbocker "
manifests the most original power, and is the most genuinely
national in its quaintness and drollery. The very tardiness and
prolixity of the story are skilfully made to heighten the humorous
effect.
Upon the death of his father, Irving had become a sleeping
partner in his brother's commercial house, a branch of which
was established at Liverpool. This, combined with the restora-
tion of peace, induced him to visit England in 181 5, when he found
the stability of the firm seriously compromised. After some
years of ineffectual struggle it became bankrupt. This mis-
fortune compelled Irving to resume his pen as a means of sub-
sistence. His reputation had preceded him to England, and the
curiosity naturally excited by the then unwonted apparition
of a successful American author procured him admission into
the highest literary circles, where his popularity was ensured
by his amiable temper and polished manners. As an American,
moreover, he stood aloof from the political and literary disputes
which then divided England. Campbell, Jeffrey, Moore, Scott,
were counted among his friends, and the last-named zealously
recommended him to the publisher Murray, who, after at first
refusing, consented (1820) to bring out The Sketch Book of
Geoffrey Crayon, Gent. (7 pts., New York, 1819-1820). The
most interesting part of this work is the description of an English
Christmas, which displays a delicate humour not unworthy
of the writer's evident model Addison. Some stories and
sketches on American themes contribute to give it variety;
of these Rip van Winkle is the most remarkable. It speedily
obtained the greatest success on both sides of the Atlantic.
Bracebridge Hall, or the Humourists (2 vols., New York), a work
purely English in subject, followed in 1822, and showed to what
account the American observer had turned his experience of
English country life. The humour is, nevertheless, much more
English than American. Tales of a Traveller (4 pts.) appeared
in 1824 at Philadelphia, and Irving, now in comfortable circum-
stances, determined to enlarge his sphere of observation by a
journey on the continent. After a long course of travel he
settled down at Madrid in the house of the American consul
Rich. His intention at the time was to translate the Coleccion
de los Viajes y Descubrimientos (Madrid, 1825-1837) of Martin
Fernandez de Navarrete; finding, however, that this was
rather a collection of valuable materials than a systematic
biography, he determined to compose a biography of his own
by its assistance, supplemented by independent researches in
the Spanish archives. His History of the Life and Voyages of
Christopher Columbus (London, 4 vols.) appeared in 1828, and
obtained a merited success. The Voyages and Discoveries of
the Companions of Columbus (Philadelphia, 1831) followed;
and a prolonged residence in the south of Spain gave Irving
materials for two highly picturesque books, A Chronicle of the
Conquest of Granada from the MSS. of [an imaginary] Fray
Antonio Agapida (2 vols., Philadelphia, 1829), and The Alhambra:
a series of tales and sketches of the Moors and Spaniards (2 vols.,
Philadelphia, 1832). Previous to their appearance he had been
appointed secretary to the embassy at London, an office as
purely complimentary to his literary ability as the legal degree
which he about the same time received from the university of
Oxford.
Returning to the United States in 1832, after seventeen
years' absence, he found his name a household word, and himself
universally honoured as the first American who had won for his
country recognition on equal terms in the literary republic.
After the rush of fetes and public compliments had subsided,
he undertook a tour in the western prairies, and returning to the
neighbourhood of New York built for himself a delightful retreat
on the Hudson, to which he gave the name of " Sunnyside."
His acquaintance with the New York millionaire John Jacob
Astor prompted his next important work — Astoria (2 vols.,
Philadelphia, 1836), a history of the fur-trading settlement
founded by Astor in Oregon, deduced with singular literary
ability from dry commercial records, and, without laboured
attempts at word-painting, evincing a remarkable faculty for
bringing scenes and incidents vividly before the eye. The
IRVINGTON— ISAAC I.
857
Adventures of Captain Bonneville (London and Philadelphia,
1837), based upon the unpublished memoirs of a veteran explorer,
was another work of the same class. In 1842 Irving was appointed
ambassador to Spain. He spent four years in the country,
without this time turning his residence to literary account;
and it was not until two years after his return that Forster's
life of Goldsmith, by reminding him of a slight essay of his own
which he now thought too imperfect by comparison to be
included among his collected writings, stimulated him to the
production of his Life of Oliver Goldsmith, with Selections from
his Writings (2 vols., New York, 1849). Without pretensions
to original research, the book displays an admirable talent for
employing existing material to the best effect. The same may
be said of The Lives of Mahomet and his Successors (New York,
2 vols., 1840-1850). Here as elsewhere Irving correctly dis-
criminated the biographer's province from the historian's, and
leaving the philosophical investigation of cause and effect to
writers of Gibbon's calibre, applied himself to represent the
picturesque features of the age as embodied in the actions and
utterances of its most characteristic representatives. His last
days were devoted to his Life of George Washington (5 vols.,
1855-1859, New York and London), undertaken in an enthusi-
astic spirit, but which the author found exhausting and his
readers tame. His genius required a more poetical theme,
and indeed the biographer of Washington must be at least a
potential soldier and statesman. Irving just lived to complete
this work, dying of heart disease at Sunnyside, on the 28th
of November 1859.
Although one of the chief ornaments of American literature,
Irving is not characteristically American. But he is one of the
few authors of his period who really manifest traces of a vein
of national peculiarity which might under other circumstances
have been productive. " Knickerbocker's" History of New
York, although the air of mock solemnity which constitutes the
staple of its humour is peculiar to no literature, manifests never-
theless a power of reproducing a distinct national type. Had
circumstances taken Irving to the West, and placed him amid a
society teeming with quaint and genial eccentricity, he might
possibly have been the first Western humorist, and his humour
might have gained in depth and richness. In England, on the
other hand, everything encouraged his natural fastidiousness;
he became a refined writer, but by no means a robust one.
His biographies bear the stamp of genuine artistic intelligence,
equally remote from compilation and disquisition. In execution
they are almost faultless; the narrative is easy, the style
pellucid, and the writer's judgment nearly always in accordance
with the general verdict of history. Without ostentation or
affectation, he was exquisite in all things, a mirror of loyalty,
courtesy and good taste in all his literary connexions, and
exemplary in all the relations of domestic life. He never married,
remaining true to the memory of an early attachment blighted
by death.
The principal edition of Irving' s works is the "Geoffrey Crayon,"
published at New York in 1880 in 26 vols. His Life and Letters was
published by his nephew Pierre M. Irving (London, 1862-1864,
4 vols.; German abridgment by Adolf Laun, Berlin, 1870, 2 vols.)
There is a good deal of miscellaneous information in a compilation
entitled Irvingiana (New York, 1860) ; and W. C. Bryant's memorial
oration, though somewhat too uniformly laudatory, may be con-
sulted with advantage. It was republished in Studies of Irvine (1880)
along with C. Dudley Warner's introduction to the " Geoffrey
Crayon " edition, and Mr G. P. Putnam's personal reminiscences of
Irving, which originally appeared in the Atlantic Monthly. See also
Washington Irving (1881), by C. D. Warner, in the " American Men
of Letters " series; H. R. Haweis, American Humourists (London,
1883). (R. G.)
IRVINGTON, a town of Essex county, New Jersey, U.S.A.,
bordering on the S.W. side of Newark. Pop. (1900) 5255, of
whom 993 were foreign-born; (1905, state census) 7180.
Irvington is served by the Lehigh Valley railroad and by electric
railway to Newark. It is principally a residential suburb of
Newark, but it has a small smelter (for gold and silver), and
various manufactures, including textile working machinery,
measuring rules and artisans' tools. There are large strawberry
farms here. Irvington was settled near the close of the xyth
century, and was called Camptown until 1852, when the present
name was adopted in honour of Washington Irving. It was
incorporated as a village in 1874, and as a town in 1898.
ISAAC (Hebrew for " he laughs," on explanatory references to
the name, see ABRAHAM), the only child of Abraham and Sarah,
was born when his parents were respectively a hundred and
ninety years of age (Gen. xvii. 17). Like his father, Isaac lived a
nomadic pastoral life, but within much narrower local limits, south
of Beersheba (Gen. xxvi., on the incidents here recorded, see
ABIMELECH). After the death of his mother, when he was forty
years old, he married Rebekah the Aramaean, by whom after
twenty years of married life he became the father of Esau and
Jacob. He died at the age of one hundred and eighty.1 " Isaac "
is used as a synonym for " Israel " by Amos (vii. o, 16), who
also bears witness to the importance of Beersheba as a sanctuary.
It was in this district, at the well Beer-Lahai-roi, that Isaac
dwelt (Gen. xxiv. 62, xxv. n), and the place was famous for an
incident in the life of Hagar (xvi. 14). This was perhaps the
original scene of the striking episode " in the land of Moriah,"
when at the last moment he was by angelic interposition released
from the altar on which he was about to be sacrificed by his
father in obedience to a divine command (Gen. xxii).2 The
narrative (which must be judged with due regard to the condi-
tions of the age) shows that the sacrifice of the first-born, though
not inconsistent with Yahweh's claims (Ex. xxii. 29), was neither
required nor tolerated (cp. Micah vi. 6-8). See MOLOCH.
Isaac is by general consent of the Christian church taken as a
representative of the unobtrusive, restful, piously contemplative
type of human character. By later Judaism, which fixed its atten-
tion chiefly on the altar scene, he was regarded as the pattern and
prototype of all martyrs. The Mahommedan legends regarding him
are curious, but trifling.
The resemblance between incidents in the lives of Isaac and
Abraham is noteworthy; in each case Isaac appears to be the more
original. See further ISHMAEL, and note that the pair Isaac and
Ishmael correspond to Abraham and Lot, Jacob and Esau. On
general questions, see E. Meyer, Israeliten (Index, s.v.). For
attempts to find a mythological interpretation of Isaac's life, see
Goldziher, Mythology of the Hebrews; Winckler, Gesch. Israels (vol. ii.).
ISAAC I. (COMNENUS), emperor of the East (1057-1059), was
the son of an officer of Basil II. named Manuel Comnenus, who
on his deathbed commended his two sons Isaac and John to the
emperor's care. Basil had them carefully educated at the
monastery of Studion, and afterwards advanced them to high
official positions. During the disturbed reigns of Basil's seven
immediate successors, Isaac by his prudent conduct won the
confidence of the army; in 1057 he joined with the nobles of the
capital in a conspiracy against Michael VI., and after the latter's
deposition was invested with the crown, thus founding the new
dynasty of the Comneni. The first care of the new emperor was
to reward his noble partisans with appointments that removed
them from Constantinople, and his next was to repair the
beggared finances of the empire. He revoked numerous pensions
and grants conferred by his predecessors upon idle courtiers,
and, meeting the reproach of sacrilege made by the patriarch of
Constantinople by a decree of exile, resumed a proportion of the
revenues of the wealthy monasteries. Isaac's only military
expedition was against the Hungarians and Petchenegs, who
began to ravage the northern frontiers in 1059. Shortly after
this successful campaign he was seized with an illness, and
believing it mortal appointed as his successor Constantine Ducas,
to the exclusion of his own brother John. Although he recovered
Isaac did not resume the purple, but retired to the monastery of
Studion and spent the remaining two years of his life as a monk,
alternating menial offices with literary studies. His Scholia to
1 The stories, including the delightful history of the courting of
Rebekah by proxy, are due to the oldest narrators. The jarring
chronological notices belong to the post-exilic framework of the
book (see GENESIS).
2 The name is hopelessly obscure, and the identification with
the mountain of the temple in Jerusalem rests upon a late view
(2 Chron. iii. l). It is otherwise called " Yahweh-yir'eh " (" Y.
sees ") which is analogous to " El-ro'i " (" a God of Seeing ") in
xvi. 13. See further the commentaries.
858
ISAAC II.— ISAAC OF ANTIOCH
the Iliad and other works on the Homeric poems are still
extant in MS. He died in the year 1061. Isaac's great aim was
to restore the former strict organization of the government, and
his reforms, though unpopular with the aristocracy and the
clergy, and not understood by the people, certainly con-
tributed to stave off for a while the final ruin of the Byzantine
empire.
See E. Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (ed.
J. Bury, London, 1896, vol. v.) ; G. Finlay, History of Greece
(ed. 1877, Oxford, vols. ii. and iii.).
ISAAC II. (ANGELUS), emperor of the East 1185-1195, and
again 1203-1204, was the successor of Andronicus I. He
inaugurated his reign by a decisive victory over the Normans in
Sicily, but elsewhere his policy was less successful. He failed in
an attempt to recover Cyprus from a rebellious noble, and by the
oppressiveness of his taxes drove the Bulgarians and Vlachs to
revolt (1186). In 1187 Alexis Branas, the general sent against
the rebels, treacherously turned his arms against his master, and
attempted to seize Constantinople, but was defeated and slain.
The emperor's attention was next demanded hi the east, where
several claimants to the throne successively rose and fell. In
1189 Frederick Barbarossa of Germany sought and obtained leave
to lead his troops on the third crusade through the Byzantine
territory; but he had no sooner crossed the border than Isaac,
who had meanwhile sought an alliance with Saladin, threw every
impediment in his way, and was only compelled by force of arms
to fulfil his engagements. The next five years were disturbed by
fresh rebellions of the Vlachs, against whom Isaac led several
expeditions in person. During one of these, in 1195, Alexius, the
emperor's brother, taking advantage of the latter's absence from
camp on a hunting expedition, proclaimed himself emperor, and
was readily recognised by the soldiers. Isaac was blinded and
imprisoned in Constantinople. After eight years, he was raised
for six months from his dungeon to his throne once more (see
CRUSADES). But both mind and body had been enfeebled by
captivity, and his son Alexius IV. was the actual monarch. Isaac
died in 1204, shortly after the usurpation of his general, Mour-
zouphles. He was one of the weakest and most vicious princes
that occupied the Byzantine throne. Surrounded by a crowd of
slaves, mistresses and flatterers, he permitted his empire to be
administered by unworthy favourites, while he squandered the
money wrung from his provinces on costly buildings and expensive
gifts to the churches of his metropolis.
See Gibbon, Decline and Fall (ed. J. Bury, London, 1896, vol. vi.);
G. Finlay, History of Greece (ed. 1877, Oxford, vols. iii. and iv.).
ISAAC OF ANTIOCH, "one of the stars of Syriac literature,"1
the reputed author of a large number of metrical homilies,2
many of which are distinguished by an originality and acumen
rare among Syriac writers. As to the identity and history of the
author considerable difficulty has arisen. The statements of
ancient writers, Eastern and Western, were collected by Assemani
(B.O. i. 207-214). According to these accounts Isaac flourished
under Theodosius II. (408-450),' and was a native either of Amid
(Diarbekr) or of Edessa. Several writers identify him with Isaac,
the disciple of S. Ephraim, who is mentioned in the anonymous
Life of that father; but according to the patriarch Bar Shushan
(d. 1073), who made a collection of his homilies, his master was
Ephraim's disciple Zenobius. He is supposed to have migrated
to Antioch, and to have become abbot of one of the convents in
its neighbourhood. According to Zacharias Rhetor he visited
Rome and other cities, and the chronicle of Pseudo-Dionysius of
Tell-Mahrg informs us that he composed poems on the secular
games of 404, and wrote on the destruction of Rome by Alaric in
410. He also commemorated the destruction of Antioch by an
earthquake in 459, so that he must have lived till about 460.
Unfortunately these poems have perished. He is of course to be
1 W. Wright, Short Hist, of Syr. Lit. p. 51.
1 The fullest list, by G. Bickell, contains 191 which
MSS.
are extant in
3 The trustworthy Chronicle of Edessa gives his date as 451-452
(Hallier, No. Ixvii.); and the recently published Chronicle of Michael
the Syrian makes him contemporary with Nonus, who became the
3 1st bishop of Edessa in 449.
distinguished from Isaac of Nineveh, a Nestorian writer on the
ascetic life who belongs to the second half of the 7th century.4
When we examine the collection of homilies attributed to Isaac,
a difficulty arises on two grounds, (i) The author of some of the
poems is fervently orthodox or Catholic (see especially Nos. 1-3 in
Bickell's edition = 62-64 in Bedjan), in other and more important
homilies (such as Bickell 6, 8 = Bedjan 59, 61, and especially
Bedjan 60) the doctrine is monophysite, even though Eutyches and
Nestorius are equally condemned. (2) One of the monophysite
homilies, the famous poem of 2136 lines on the parrot which uttered
the Trisagion in the streets of Antioch (Bickell, 8 = Bedjan 61),
appears to have been written at Antioch after Peter the Fuller
(patriarch 471-488) raised the dispute about the addition to the
doxology of the words qui crucifixus es pro nobis. It is therefore
scarcely possible that the author of this homily should be the same
who composed the lost poems on the secular games in 404 and on the
sack of Rome.
Moreover, Lamy (5. Ephraemi hymni et sermones, iv. 361-364) and
Bedjan (Homiliae S. Isaaci, i. pp. iv-ix) have recently called attention
to statements made by Jacob of Edessa (708) in a letter to John
the Stylite. He says there were three Isaacs who wrote in Syriac —
two orthodox (i.e. monophysite), and one a Chalcedonian heretic
(i.e. orthodox or Catholic), (a) The first, he says, a native of Amid,
and pupil of S. Ephraim, visited Rome in the time of Arcadius
(395-408) , on his return journey suffered imprisonment at Byzantium,
and afterwards became a priest in the church of Amid, (b) The
second was a priest of Edessa, and nourished in the reign of Zeno
(474-491). He went up to Antioch in the time of Peter the Fuller.
Jacob then tells the story of the parrot (see above), (c) The third
was also an Edessene. At first in the days of Bishop Paul (510-522)
he was orthodox (monophysite): but afterwards in the time of the
Chalcedonian (Catholic) bishop Asclepius he became Nestorian
(Catholic) and wrote poems setting forth Nestorian doctrine.
With such conflicting evidence it is impossible to arrive at a
certain result. But Jacob is an early witness: and on the whole it
seems safe to conclude with Bedjan (p. ix) that works by at least two
authors have been included in the collection attributed to Isaac of
Antioch. Still the majority of the poems are the work of one hand —
the other 10 had been previously copied by Zingerle. But the two
volumes published by Bickell in his lifetime (Giessen, 1873 and 1877)
contain only 37 homilies. Bedjan's edition, of which the first volume
has alone appeared (Paris, 1903) contains 67 poems, viz. 24 previously
published (18 by Bickell), and 43 that are new, though their titles are
all included in Bickell's list.
The writer's main interest lies in the application of religion
to the practical duties of life, whether in the church or in the
world. He has a great command of forcible language and con-
siderable skill in apt illustration. The zeal with which he
denounces the abuses prevalent in the church of his day, and
particularly in the monastic orders, is not unlike that of the
Protestant reformers. He shows acquaintance with many
phases of life. He describes the corruption of judges, the pre-
valence of usury and avarice, the unchastity which especially
characterized the upper classes, and the general hypocrisy of
so-called Christians. His doctrinal discussions are apt to be
diffuse; but he seldom loses sight of the bearing of doctrine on
practical life. He judges with extreme severity those who argue
about religion while neglecting its practice, and those who though
stupid and ignorant dare to pry into mysteries which are sealed
to the angels. " Not newly have we found Him, that we should
search and pry into God. As He was He is: He changeth not with
the times. . . . Confess that He formed thee of dust: search
not the mode of His being: Worship Him that He redeemed thee
by His only Son: inquire not the manner of His birth."7
Some of Isaac's works have an interest for the historian of the 5th
century. In two poems (Bickell u, i2 = Bedjan 48, 49), written
probably at Edessa, he commemorates the capture of Beth-rjur (a
4 The date of Isaac of Nineveh is now known from the Liber
fundatorum of Isho'-dfinah, an 8th-century writer; see Bedjan's
edition, and Chabot, Livre de la chastete, p. 63. Assemani (B.O. i.
^45) had placed him late in the 6th century, and Chabot (De S.
saaci Ninivitae vita, &c.) in the second half of the 5th.
* Lamy (op. cit. iv. 364-366) has pointed out that several of the
poems are in certain MsS. attributed to Ephraim. Possibly the
author of the orthodox poems was not named Isaac at all.
• Assemani's list of 104 poems (B.O. i. 214-234) is completely
covered by Bickell's.
7 From a really noble poem (Bedjan 60) on the problem whether
God suffered and died on the cross.
ISABELLA— ISABELLA II.
859
city near Nisibis) by the Arabs. Although the historical allusions
are far from clear, we gather that Beth-Hur, which in zealous
paganism had been a successor to Haran, had been in earlier days
devastated by the Persians:1 but for the last 34 years the Persians
had themselves suffered subjection.2 And now had come a flood of
Arab invaders, " sons of Hagar," who had swept away the city and
carried all its inhabitants captive. From these two poems, and from
the 2nd homily on Fasting (Bickell i4 = Bedjan 17) we gain a vivid
picture of the miseries borne by the inhabitants of that frontier region
during the wars between Persia and the Romano-Greek empire.
There are also instructive references to the heathen practices and
the worship of pagan deities (such as Baalti, Uzzi, Gedlath and the
planet Venus) prevalent in Mesopotamia. Two other poems (Bickell
35, 36 = Bedjan 66, 67), written probably at Antioch,3 describe the
prevalence of sorcery and the extraordinary influence possessed by
" Chaldeans " and enchanters over women who were nominally
Christians.
The metre of all the published homilies is heptasyllabic. (N. M.)
ISABELLA (1451-1504), surnamed la Catolica, " the Catholic,"
queen of Castile, was the second child and only daughter
of John II. of Castile by his second wife Isabella, granddaughter
of John I. of Portugal (thus being through both parents a
descendant of John of Gaunt), and was born at Madrigal on
the 22nd of April 1451. On the death of her father, who was
succeeded by her brother Henry IV. (1454), she was withdrawn
by her mother to Arevalo, where her early education was con-
ducted in the deepest seclusion; in 1462, however, along with
her uterine brother Alphonso, she was removed by Henry to the
court, where she showed a remarkable example of staidness
and sobriety. Already more than one suitor had made application
for her hand, Ferdinand of Aragon, who ultimately became her
husband, being among the number; for some little time she
was engaged to his elder brother Charles, who died in 1461.
In her thirteenth year her brother promised her in marriage
to Alphonso of Portugal, but she firmly refused to consent;
her resistance seemed less likely to be effectual in the case
of Pedro Giron, grand master of the order of Calatrava and
brother of the marquis of Villena, to whom she was next affianced,
when she was delivered from her fears by the sudden death of the
bridegroom while on his way to the nuptials in 1466. After an
offer of the crown of Castile, made by the revolutionary leaders
in the civil war, had been declined by her, she was in 1468
formally recognized by her brother as lawful heir, after himself,
to the united crowns of Castile and Leon. New candidates for
her hand now appeared in the persons of a brother of Edward IV.
of England (probably Richard, duke of Gloucester), and the
duke of Guienne, brother of Louis XL, and heir presumptive
of the French monarchy. Finally however, in face of very
great difficulties, she was married to Ferdinand of Aragon at
Valladolid on the igth of October 1469. Thence forward the
fortunes of Ferdinand and Isabella were inseparably blended.
For some time they held a humble court at Duenas, and after-
wards they resided at Segovia, where, on the death of Henry, she
was proclaimed queen of Castile and Leon (December 13, 1474).
Spain undoubtedly owed to Isabella's clear intellect, resolute
energy and unselfish patriotism much of that greatness which
for the first time it acquired under "the Catholic sovereigns."
The moral influence of the queen's personal character over the
Castilian court was incalculably great; from the debasement
and degradation of the preceding reign she raised it to being
" the nursery of virtue and of generous ambition." She did
much for letters in Spain by founding the palace school and by
her protection of Peter Martyr d'Anghiera. The very sincerity
of her piety and strength of her religious convictions led her
more than once, however, into great errors of state policy, and into
more than one act which offends the moral sense of a more
refined age; her efforts for the introduction of the Inquisition into
Castile, and for the proscription of the Jews, are outstanding
evidences of what can only be called her bigotry. But not even
1 Possibly in the war at the beginning of the reign of Bahrain V. :
but on the uncertainty see Noldeke, Gesch. d. Perser und Amber, 117.
2 Probably at the hands of the Hephthalites or White Huns of
Kushan : cf. Isaac's mention of the Huns in I. 420 of the 1st poem.
1 The author refers to the weeping for Tammuz (i. 125 of the 1st
poem), and speaks of his city as illustrious throughout the world
(ib. I. 132).
the briefest sketch of her life can omit to notice that happy instinct
or intuition which led her, when all others had heard with in-
credulity the scheme of Columbus, to recall the wanderer to her
presence with the words, " I will assume the undertaking for my
own crown of Castile, and am ready to pawn my jewels to defray
the expenses of it, if the funds in the treasury should be found
inadequate." She died at Medina del Campo on the 24th of
November 1504, and was succeeded by her daughter Joanna
" la loca " (the " Crazy ") and her husband, Philip of Habsburg.
See W. H. Prescott, History of the Reign of Ferdinand and Isabella
(1837), where the original authorities are exhaustively enumerated;
and for later researches, Baron de Nervo, Isabella the Catholic,
translated by Lieut.-Col. Temple-West (1897).
ISABELLA II. (1830-1904), queen of Spain, was born in
Madrid on the roth of October 1 830. She was the eldest daughter
of Ferdinand VII., king of Spain, and of his fourth wife, Maria
Christina, a Neapolitan Bourbon, who became queen-regent
on 29th September 1833, when her daughter, at the age of three
years, was proclaimed on the death of the king. Queen Isabella
succeeded to the throne because Ferdinand VII. induced the
Cortes to assist him in setting aside the Salic law, which the
Bourbons had introduced since the beginning of the i8th century,
and to re-establish the older succession law of Spain. The
brother of Ferdinand, Don Carlos, the first pretender, fought
seven years, during the minority of Isabella, to dispute her
title, and her rights were only maintained through the gallant
support of the army, the Cortes and the Liberals and Progressists,
who at the same time established constitutional and parliamentary
government, dissolved the religious orders, confiscated the
property of the orders and of the Jesuits, disestablished the
Church property, and attempted to restore order in finances.
After the Carlist war the queen-regent, Christina, resigned to
make way for Espartero, the most successful and most popular
general of the Isabelline armies, who only remained regent two
years. He was turned out in 1843 by a military and political
pronunciamiento, led by Generals O'Donnell and Narvaez, who
formed a cabinet, presided over by Joaquin Maria Lopez, and
this government induced the Cortes to declare Isabella of age
at thirteen. Three years later the Moderado party or Castilian
Conservatives made their queen marry, at sixteen, her cousin,
Prince Francisco de Assisi de Bourbon (1822-1902), on the same
day (loth October 1846) on which her younger sister married
the duke of Montpensier. These marriages suited the views of
France and Louis Philippe, who nearly quarrelled in consequence
with Great Britain; but both matches were anything but happy.
Queen Isabella reigned from 1843 to 1868, and that period was
one long succession of palace intrigues, back-stairs and ante-
chamber influences, barrack conspiracies, military pronuncia-
mientos to further the ends of the political parties — Moderados,
who ruled from 1846 to 1854, Progressists from 1854 to 1856,
Union Liberal from 1856 to 1863; Moderados and Union Liberal
quickly succeeding each other and keeping out the Progressists
so steadily that the seeds were sown which budded into the
revolution of 1868. Queen Isabella II. often interfered in
politics in a wayward, unscrupulous manner that made her
very unpopular. She showed most favour to her reactionary
generals and statesmen, to the Church and religious orders, and
was constantly the tool of corrupt and profligate courtiers and
favourites who gave her court a deservedly bad name. She
went into exile at the end of September 1868, after her'Moderado
generals had made a slight show of resistance that was crushed at
the battle of Alcolea by Marshals Serrano and Prim. The only
redeeming traits of Queen Isabella's reign were a war against
Morocco, which ended in an advantageous treaty and some cession
of territory; some progress in public works, especially railways;
a slight improvement in commerce and finance. Isabella was
induced to abdicate in Paris on 25th June 1870 in favour of her
son, Alphonso XII., and the cause of the restoration was thus
much furthered. She had separated from her husband in the
previous March. She continued to live in France after the
restoration in 1874. On the occasion of one of her visits to Madrid
during Alphonso XII. "s reign she began to intrigue with the
86o
ISABELLA OF BAVARIA— ISAEUS
politicians of the capital, and was peremptorily requested to go
abroad again. She died on the loth of April 1904.
ISABELLA, ISABEAU, or ELIZABETH OF BAVARIA (1370-1435),
wife of Charles VI. of France, was the daughter of Stephen II.,
duke of Bavaria. She was born in 1370, was married to Charles
VI. on the i7th of July 1385, and crowned at Paris on the 22nd
of August 1389. After some years of happy married life she fell
under the influence of the dissolute court in which she lived,
and the king having become insane (August 1392) she consorted
chiefly with Louis of Orleans. Frivolous, selfish, avaricious and
fond of luxury, she used her influence, during the different
periods when she was invested with the regency, not for the
public welfare, but mainly in her own personal interest. After
the assassination of the duke of Orleans (November 23, 1407)
she attached herself sometimes to the Armagnacs, sometimes
to the Burgundians, and led a scandalous life. Louis de Bosredon,
the captain of her guards, was executed for complicity in her
excesses; and Isabella herself was imprisoned at Blois and after-
wards at Tours (1417). Having been set free towards the end of
that year by John the Fearless, duke of Burgundy, whom she had
called to her assistance, she went to Troyes and established her
government there, returning afterwards to Paris when that city
had capitulated to the Burgundians in July 1418. Once more
in power, she now took up arms against her son, the dauphin
Charles; and after the murder of John the Fearless she went over
to the side of the English, into whose hands she surrendered
France by the treaty of Troyes (May 21, 1420), at the same time
giving her daughter Catherine in marriage to the king of England,
Henry V. After her triumphal entry into Paris with the latter
she soon became an object of loathing to the whole French
nation. She survived her husband, her son-in-law, and eight
out of her twelve children, and she passed the last miserable
years of her life in poverty, solitude and ill-health. She died at
the end of September 1435, and was interred without funeral
honours in the abbey of St Denis, by the side of her husband,
Charles VI.
See Vallet de Viriville, Isabeau de Baviere (1859) ; Marcel Thibault,
Isabeau de Baviere, Reine de France, La Jeunesse,\ 1370-1405 (1903).
ISABELLA OF HAINAUT (1170-1100), queen of France,
was the daughter of Baldwin V., count of Hainaut, and Margaret,
sister of Philip of Alsace, and was born in 1170 at Lille. She
was married to Philip Augustus, and brought to him as her
dowry the province of Artois. She was crowned at St Denis
on the 29th of May 1180. As Baldwin V. claimed to be a
descendant of Charlemagne, the chroniclers of the time saw in
this marriage a union of the Carolingian and Capetian dynasties.
Though she received extravagant praise from certain annalists,
she failed to win the affections of Philip, who, in 1184, waging
war against Flanders, was angered at seeing Baldwin support his
enemies, and called a council at Sens for the purpose of repudiat-
ing her. Robert, the king's uncle, successfully interposed.
She died in childbirth in noo, and was buried in the church of
Notre Dame in Paris. Her son became Louis VIII. of France.
See Cartellieri, " L'Avenement de Phil. Aug." in Rev. hist. liii.
262 et seq.
ISABEY, JEAN BAPTISTE (1767-1855), French painter, was
born at Nancy on the nth of April 1767. At nineteen, after
some lessons from Dumont, miniature painter to Marie Antoinette,
he became a pupil of David. Employed at Versailles on portraits
of the dukes of Angoule'me and Berry, he was given a commission
by the queen , which opens the long list of those which he received,
up to the date of his death in 1855, from the successive rulers of
France. Patronized by Josephine and Napoleon, he arranged
the ceremonies of their coronation and prepared drawings for
the publication intended as its official commemoration, a work
for which he was paid by Louis XVIII., whose portrait (en-
graved, Debucourt) he executed in 1814. Although Isabey did
homage to Napoleon on his return from Elba, he continued to
enjoy the favour of the Restoration, and took part in arrange-
ments for the coronation of Charles X. The monarchy of July
conferred on him an important post in connexion with the royal
collections, and Napoleon III. granted him a pension, and the
cross of commander of the Legion of Honour. " Review of
Troops by the First Consul " was one of his most important com-
positions, and " Isabey's Boat," — a charming drawing of himself
and family — produced at a time when he was much occupied
with lithography — had an immense success at the Salon of 1820
(engraved, Landon, Annales, i. 125). His portrait of " Napoleon
at Malmaison " is held to be the best ever executed, and even
his tiny head of the king of Rome, painted for a breast-pin, is
distinguished by a decision and breadth which evidence the hand
of a master.
A biography of Isabey was published by M. E. Taigny in 1859,
and M. C. Lenormant's article, written for Michaud's Biog. univ.,
is founded on facts furnished by Isabey's family.
ISABNORMAL (or ISANOMALOUS) LINES, in physical geo-
graphy, lines upon a map or chart connecting places having
an abnormal temperature. Each place has, theoretically, a
proper temperature due to its latitude, and modified by its
configuration. Its mean temperature for a particular period
is decided by observation and called its normal temperature.
Isabnormal lines may be used to denote the variations due to
warm winds or currents, great altitudes or depressions, or great
land masses as compared with sea. Or they may be used to
indicate the abnormal result -of weather observations made in an
area such as the British Isles for a particular period.
ISAEUS (c.42o B.C.-C. 350 B.C.), Attic orator, the chronological
limits of whose extant work fall between the years 390 and 353
B.C., is described in the Plutarchic life as a Chalcidian; by Suidas,
whom Dionysius follows, as an Athenian. The accounts have
been reconciled by supposing that his family sprang from the
settlement (xXTjpouxia) of Athenian citizens among whom the
lands of the Chalcidian hippobotae (knights) had been divided
about 509 B.C. In 411 B.C. Euboea (except Oreos) revolted
from Athens; and it would not have been strange if residents of
Athenian origin had then migrated from the hostile island to
Attica. Such a connexion with Euboea would explain the non-
Athenian name Diagoras which is borne by the father of Isaeus,
while the latter is said to have been " an Athenian by descent "
('Afl^cuos r6 7«vos). So far as we know, Isaeus took no part in
the public affairs of Athens. " I cannot tell," says Dionysius,
" what were the politics of Isaeus — or whether he had any
politics at all." Those words strikingly attest the profound
change which was passing over the life of the Greek cities.
It would have been scarcely possible, fifty years earlier, that an
eminent Athenian with the powers of Isaeus should have failed
to leave on record some proof of his interest in the political
concerns of Athens or of Greece. But now, with the decline of
personal devotion to the state, the life of an active citizen had
ceased to have any necessary contact with political affairs.
Already we are at the beginning of that transition which is
to lead from the old life of Hellenic citizenship to that Hellenism
whose children are citizens of the world.
Isaeus (who was born probably about 420 B.C.) is believed to
have been an early pupil of Isocrates, and he certainly was a
student of Lysias. A passage of Photius has been understood
as meaning that personal relations had existed between Isaeus
and Plato, but this view appears erroneous.1 The profession
of Isaeus was that of which Antiphon had been the first repre-
sentative at Athens — that of a \oyoy pafos, who composed
speeches which his clients were to deliver in the law-courts.
But, while Antiphon had written such speeches chiefly (as Lysias
frequently) for public causes, it was with private causes that
Isaeus was almost exclusively concerned. The fact marks the
progressive subdivision of labour in his calling, and the extent to
which the smaller interests of private life now absorbed the
attention of the citizen.
The most interesting recorded event in the career of Isaeus
is one which belongs to its middle period — his connexion with
Demosthenes. Born in 384 B.C., Demosthenes attained his civic
majority in 366. At this time he had already resolved to
1 See further Jebb's Attic Orators from Antiphon to Isaeus,
(ii. 264).
ISAEUS
861
prosecute the fraudulent guardians who had stripped him of
his patrimony. In prospect of such a legal contest, he could
have found no better ally than Isaeus. That the young
Demosthenes actually resorted to his aid is beyond reason-
able doubt. But the pseudo-Plutarch embellishes the story
after his fashion. He says that Demosthenes, on coming of age,
took Isaeus into his house, and studied with him for four years
— paying him the sum of 10,000 drachmas (about £400), on
condition that Isaeus should withdraw from a school of rhetoric
which he had opened, and devote himself wholly to his new pupil.
The real Plutarch gives us a more sober and a more probable
version. He simply states that Demosthenes " employed Isaeus
as his master in rhetoric, though Isocrates was then teaching,
either (as some say) because he could not pay Isocrates the
prescribed fee of ten minae, or because he preferred the style
of Isaeus for his purpose, as being vigorous and astute" (SpaffTypiov
teal Travovpyov) . It may be observed that, except by the pseudo-
Plutarch, a school of Isaeus is not mentioned, — for a notice in
Plutarch need mean no more than that he had written a text-
book, or that his speeches were read in schools; l nor is any other
pupil named. As to Demosthenes, his own speeches against
Aphobus and Onetor (363-362 B.C.) afford the best possible gauge
of the sense and the measure in which he was the disciple of
Isaeus; the intercourse between them can scarcely have been
either very close or very long. The date at which Isaeus died
can only be conjectured from his work; it may be placed about
350 B.C.
Isaeus has a double claim on the student of Greek literature. He
is the first Greek writer who comes before us as a consummate
master of strict forensic controversy. He also holds a most important
place in the general development of practical oratory, and therefore
in the history of Attic prose. Antiphon marks the beginning of that
development, Demosthenes its consummation. Between them stand
Lysias and Isaeus. The open, even ostentatious, art of Antiphon
had been austere and rigid. The concealed art of Lysias had charmed
and persuaded by a versatile semblance of natural grace and
simplicity. Isaeus brings us to a final stage of transition, in which
the gifts distinctive of Lysias were to be fused into a perfect harmony
with that masterly art which receives its most powerful expression in
Demosthenes. Here, then, are the two cardinal points by which the
place of Isaeus must be determined. We must consider, first, his
relation to Lysias; secondly, his relation to Demosthenes.
A comparison of Isaeus and Lysias must set out from the distinc-
tion between choice of words (X<£«) and mode of putting words
together (abvQaris). In choice of words, diction, Lysias and Isaeus
are closely alike. Both are clear, pure, simple, concise; both have
the stamp of persuasive plainness (&4>e\tia), and both combine it
with graphic power (iv&pyua). In mode of putting words together,
composition, there is, however, a striking difference. Lysias threw
off the stiff restraints of the earlier periodic style, with its wooden
monotony; he is too fond indeed of antithesis always to avoid a
rigid effect; but, on the whole, his style is easy, flexible and various;
above all, its subtle art usually succeeds m appearing natural.
Now this is just what the art of Isaeus does not achieve. With less
love of antithesis than Lysias, and with a diction almost equally
pure and plain, he yet habitually conveys the impression of conscious
and confident art. Hence he is least effective in adapting his style
to those characters in which Lysias peculiarly excelled — the in-
genuous youth, the homely and peace-loving citizen. On the other
hand, his more open and vigorous art does not interfere with his
moral persuasiveness where there is scope for reasoned remonstrance,
for keen argument or for powerful denunciation. Passing from the
formal to the real side of his work, from diction and composition to
the treatment of subject-matter, we find the divergence wider still.
Lysias usually adheres to a simple four-fold division — proem,
narrative, proof, epilogue. Isaeus frequently interweaves the
narrative with the proof.2 He shows the most dexterous ingenuity
in adapting his manifold tactics to the case in hand, and often
" out-generals " (naraaTpaTri-fti) his adversary by some novel and
daring disposition of his forces. Lysias, again, usually contents
himself with a merely rhetorical or sketchy proof; Isaeus aims at
strict logical demonstration, worked out through all its steps. As
1 Plut. De glor. Athen. p. 350 c, where he mentions TO^J 'lao-
xpcxTets KCU. 'AvTK^wpras nai 'laatovs among TOVS kv rats trxoXcus ret
2 Here he was probably influenced by the teaching of Isocrates.
The forensic speech of Isocrates known as the Aegineticus (Or. xix.),
which belongs to the peculiar province of Isaeus, as dealing
with a claim to property (eiriSuujuria) , affords perhaps the earliest
example of narrative and proof thus interwoven. Earlier
forensic writers had kept the Sii^Tjcrts and ir(or«5 distinct, as Lysias
does.
Sir William Jones well remarks, Isaeus lays close siege to the under-
standings of the jury.8
Such is the general relation of Isaeus to Lysias. What, we must
next ask, is the relation of Isaeus to Demosthenes ? The Greek
critic who had so carefully studied both authors states his own view
in broad terms when he declares that " the power of Demosthenes
took its seeds and its beginnings from Isaeus ' (Dion. Halic. Isaeus,
20). A closer examination will show that within certain limits the
statement may be allowed. Attic prose expression had been con-
tinuously developed as an art; the true link between Isaeus and
Demosthenes is technical, depending on their continuity. Isaeus
had made some original contributions to the resources of the art ; and
Demosthenes had not failed to profit by these. The composition of
Demosthenes resembles that of Isaeus in blending terse and vigorous
periods with passages of_ more lax and fluent ease, as well as in that
dramatic vivacity which" is given by rhetorical question and similar
devices. In the versatile disposition of subject-matter, the divisions
of " narrative " and " proof ' being shifted and interwoven according
to circumstances, Demosthenes has clearly been instructed by the
example of Isaeus. Still more plainly and strikingly is this so in
regard to the elaboration of systematic proof; here Demosthenes
invites direct and close comparison with Isaeus by his method of
drawing out a chain of arguments, or enforcing a proposition by
strict legal argument. And, more generally, Demosthenes is the
pupil of Isaeus, though here the pupil became even greater than the
master, in that faculty of grappling with an adversary's case point
by point, in that aptitude for close and strenuous conflict which is
expressed by the words 47<ic, b>ay&vua.*
The pseudo-Plutarch, in his life of Isaeus, mentions an Art of
Rhetoric and sixty-four speeches, of which fifty were accounted
genuine. From a passage of Photius it appears that at least 6 the fifty
speeches of recognized authenticity were extant as late as A.D. 850.
Only eleven, with a large part of a twelfth, have comedown to us;
but the titles of forty-two 6 others are known.7
The titles of the lost speeches confirm the statement of Dionysius
that the speeches of Isaeus were exclusively forensic; and only three
titles indicate speeches made in public causes. The remainder,
concerned with private causes, may be classed under six heads: —
(i) KXijpiKot — cases of claim to an inheritance; (2) JjrtxXrjpi/coi —
cases of claim to the hand of an heiress; (3) SiaSucaalai — cases of
claim of property; (4) &TmaTturtov — cases of claim to the ownership
of a slave; (5) lyyinis — action brought against a surety whose
principal had made default; (6) Awwjuoffla (as = irap<rypa</>i5) — a
special plea; (7) fefco-is — appeal from one jurisdiction to another.
Eleven of the twelve extant speeches belong to class (i), the
K\rjpiKol, or claims to an inheritance. This was probably the branch
of practice in which Isaeus had done his most important and most
characteristic work. And, according to the ancient custom, this
class of speeches would therefore stand first in the manuscript collec-
tions of his writings. The case of Antiphon is parallel : his speeches
in cases of homicide (foviKoi) were those on which his reputation
mainly depended, and stood first in the manuscripts. Their ex-
clusive preservation, like that of the speeches made by Isaeus in
will-cases, is thus, primarily an accident of manuscript tradition, but
partly also the result of the writer's special prestige.
Six of the twelve extant speeches are directlv concerned with
claims to an estate; five others are connected with legal proceedings
arising out of such a claim. They may be classified thus (the name
given in each case being that of the person whose estate is in dispute) :
I. Trials of Claim to an Inheritance (StaSinairLai).
1. Or. i., Clepnymus. Date between 360 and 353 B.C.
2. Or. iv., Nicostratus. Date uncertain.
3. Or. vii., Apollodorus. 353 B.C.
4. Or. yiii., Ciron. 375 B.C.
5. Or. ix., Astyphilus. 369 B.C. (c. 390, Schomann).
6. Or. x., Aristarchus. 377-371 B.C. (386-384, Schomann).
3 This is what Dionysius means when he says (Isaeus, 61) that
Isaeus differs from Lysias — r<J /*i) KCLT' iv6vnrm&. TI \4-yeiv 4\Xd KOT'
iinxtlprina. Here the " enthymeme " means a rhetorical syllogism with
one premiss suppressed (curium, Juv. vi. 449) ; " epicheireme," such
a syllogism stated in full. Cf. R. Volkmann, Rhetorik der Griechen
und Romer, 1872, pp. 153 f.
* Cleon's speech in Thuc. iii. 37, 38, works out this image with
remarkable force; within a short space we have £vvlotus bytiv —
8(Tttv. See Attic Orators, vol. i. 39 ; ii. 304.
6 For the words of Photius (cod. 263), roirruv 5i ol T& yviiaiov
liaprvprfliVTis v' KaraXeiiroJTai nbvov, might be so rendered as to
imply that, besides these fifty, others also were extant. See Alt.
Oral. ii. 311, note 2. 'Forty-four are given in Thalheim's ed.
7 The second of our speeches (the Meneclean) was discovered in the
Laurentian Library in 1785, and was edited in that year by Tyrwhitt.
In editions previous to that date, Oration i. is made to conclude with
a few lines which really belong to the end of Orat. ii. (§ 47, AXX'
eireiSi) ri> xpfiwa . . . <f>-ri<t>i<r<ur8i), and this arrangement is followed
in the translation of Isaeus by Sir William Jones, to whom our second
oration, was, of course, then (1779) unknown. In Oration i. all that
follows the words ^ iroiit<ravTt^ in § 22 was first published in 1815
by Mai, from a MS. in the Ambrosian Library at Milan.
862
ISAIAH
II. Actions for False Witness (SUait
1. Or. ii., Menecles. 354 B.C.
2. Or. iii., Pyrrhus. Date uncertain, but comparatively late.
3. Or. vi., Philoctemon. 364-363 B.C.
III. Action to Compel the Discharge of a Suretyship (iytinrs &IKTI).
Or. v., Dicaeogenes. 390 B.C.
IV. Indictment of a Guardian for Maltreatment of a Ward (titroTTeXia
xo/ccixrtu? 6p<t>a.mv).
Or. xi., Hagnias. 359 B.C.
V. Appeal from Arbitration to a Dicastery (fcfco-is).
Or. xii., For Euphiletus. (Incomplete.) Date uncertain.
The speeches of Isaeus supply valuable illustrations to the early
history of testamentary law. They show us the faculty of adoption,
still, indeed, associated with the religious motive in which it
originated, as a mode of securing that the sacred rites of the family
shall continue to be discharged by one who" can call himself the son
of the deceased. But practically the civil aspect of adoption is, for
the Athenian citizen, predominant over the religious; he adopts a
son in order to bestow property on a person to whom he wishes to
bequeath it. The Athenian system, as interpreted by Isaeus, is thus
intermediate, at least in spirit, between the purely religious stand-
point of the Hindu and the maturer form which Roman testamentary
law had reached before the time of Cicero.1 As to the form of the
speeches, it is remarkable for its variety. There are three which,
taken together, may be considered as best representing the diversity
and range of their author's power. The fifth, with its simple but
lively diction, its graceful and persuasive narrative, recalls the
qualities of Lysias. The eleventh, with its sustained and impetuous
power, has no slight resemblance to the manner of Demosthenes.
The eighth is, of all, the most characteristic, alike in narrative and
in argument. Isaeus is here seen at his best. No reader who is
interested in the social life of ancient Greece need find Isaeus dull.
If the glimpses of Greek society which he gives us are seldom so
gay and picturesque as those which enliven the pages of Lysias, they
are certainly not less suggestive. Here, where the innermost rela-
tions and central interests of the family are in question, we touch
the springs of social life; we are not merely presented with scenic
details of dress and furniture, but are enabled in no small degree to
conceive the feelings of the actors.
The best manuscript of Isaeus is in the British Museum, — Crippsi-
anus A ( = Burneianus95,Jl3th century), which contains also Antiphon,
Andocides, Lycurgus and Dinarchus. The next best is Bekker's
Laurentianus B (Florence), of the I5th century. Besides these, he
used Marcianus L (Venice), saec. 14, Vratislaviensis Z saec. I42 and
two very inferior MSS. Ambrosianus A. 99, P (which he dismissed
after Or. i.), and Ambrosianus D. 42, Q (which contains only Or.
i., ii.). Schomann, in his edition of 1831, generally followed Bekker's
text; he had no fresh apparatus beyond a collation of a Paris MS.
R in part of Or. i. ; but he had sifted the Aldine more carefully.
Baiter and Sauppe (1850) had a new collation of A, and also used a
collation of Burneianus 96, M, given by Dobson in vol. iv. of his
edition (1828). C. Scheibe (Teubner, 1860) made it his especial
aim to complete the work of his predecessors by restoring the correct
Attic forms of words; thus (e.g.) he gives f/yyiia for tveyda, Si&iiuv for
dtdiantv, and the like, — following the consent of the MSS., however,
in such forms as the accusative of proper names in -i\v rather than -ij,
or (e.g.) the future </>a^<ro^ot rather than 4>a»-o0^ai, &c., and on such
doubtful points as <£pdT«p« instead of tfrp&ropa, or ElXi^ulas instead of
EDITIONS. — Editio princeps (Aldus, Venice, 1513); in Oratores
Attici, by I. Bekker (1823-1828); W. S. Dobson (1828); J. G.
Baiter and Hermann Sauppe (1850) ; separately, by G. F. Schomann,
with commentary (1831); C. Scheibe (1860) (Teubner series, new
ed. by T. Thalheim, 1903); H. Bucrmann (1883); W. Wyse (1904).
English translation by Sir William Jones, 1779.
On Isaeus generally see Wyse's edition; R. C. Jebb, Attic Orators;
F. Blass, Die attische Beredsamkeit (2nd ed., 1887-1893); and L.
Moy, £tude sur les plaidoyers d'Isee (1876). (R. C. J.)
ISAIAH. I. Life and Period. — Isaiah is the name of the
greatest, and both in life and in death the most influential of the
Old Testament prophets. We do not forget Jeremiah, but
Jeremiah's literary and religious influence is secondary compared
with that of Isaiah. Unfortunately we are reduced to inference
and conjecture with regard both to his life and to the extent of
his literary activity. In the heading (i. i) of what we may call
the occasional prophecies of Isaiah (i.e. those which were called
forth by passing events), the author is called " the son of Amoz "
and Rabbinical legend identifies this Amoz with a brother of
Amaziah, king of Judah; but this is evidently based on a mere
etymological fancy. We know from his works that (unlike
Jeremiah) he was married (viii. 3), and that he had at least two
1 Cf. Maine's Ancient Law, ch. vi., and the Tagore Law Lectures
(1870) by Herbert Cowell, lect. ix., " On the Rite of Adoption,"
pp. 208 f.
1 The date of L and Z is given as the end of the isth century in
the introduction to Wyse's edition.
sons, whose names he regarded as, together with his own,
symbolic by divine appointment of certain decisive events or
religious truths — Isaiah (Yesha'-yahu), meaning " Salvation —
Yahweh "; Shear-Yashub, "a remnant shall return"; and
Maher-shalal-hash-baz, " swift (swiftly cometh) spoil, speedy
(speedily cometh) prey " (vii. 3, viii. 3, 4, 18). He lived at
Jerusalem, perhaps in the " middle " or " lower city " (2 Kings
xx. 4), exercised at one time great influence at court (chap,
xxxvii.), and could venture to address a king unbidden (vii. 4),
and utter the most unpleasant truths, unassailed, in the plainest
fashion. Presumably therefore his social rank was far above
that of Amos and Micah; certainly the high degree of rhetorical
skill displayed in his discourses implies a long course of literary
discipline, not improbably in the school of some older prophet
(Amos vii. 14 suggests that " schools " or companies " of the
prophets " existed in the southern kingdom). We know but
little of Isaiah's predecessors and models in the prophetic art (it
were fanaticism to exclude the element of human preparation) ;
but certainly even the acknowledged prophecies of Isaiah (and
much more the disputed ones) could no more have come into
existence suddenly and without warning than the masterpieces
of Shakespeare. In the more recent commentaries (e.g. Cheyne's
Prophecies of Isaiah, ii. 218) lists are generally given of the points
of contact both in phraseology and in ideas between Isaiah and
the prophets nearly contemporary with him. For Isaiah cannot
be studied by himself.
The same heading already referred to gives us our only
traditional information as to the period during which Isaiah
prophesied; it refers to Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz and Hezekiah
as the contemporary kings. It is, however, to say the least,
doubtful whether any of the extant prophecies are as early as the
reign of, Uzziah. Exegesis, the only safe basis of criticism for
the prophetic literature, is unfavourable to the view that even
chap. i. belongs to the reign of this king, and we, must therefore
regard it as most probable that the heading in i. i is (like those
of the Psalms) the work of one or more of the Sopherlm (or
students and editors of Scripture) in post-exilic times, apparently
the same writer (or company of writers) who prefixed the headings
of Hosea and Micah, and perhaps of some of the other books.
Chronological study had already begun in his time. But he
would be a bold man who would profess to give trustworthy dates
either for the kings of Israel or for the prophetic writers. (See
BIBLE, Old Testament, Chronology; the article " Chronology "
in the Encyclopaedia Biblica; and cf. H. P. Smith, Old Testa-
ment History, Edin., 1903, p. 202, note 2.)
II. Chronological Arrangement, how far possible. — Let us now
briefly sketch the progress of Isaiah's prophesying on the basis
of philological exegesis, and a comparison of the sound results of
the study of the inscriptions. If our results are imperfect and
liable to correction, that is only to be expected in the present
position of the historical study of the Bible. Chap, vi., which
describes a vision of Isaiah " in the death-year of King Uzziah "
(740 or 734 B.C.?) may possibly have arisen out of notes put down
in the reign of Jotham; but for several reasons it is not an
acceptable view that, in its present form, this striking chapter
is earlier than the reign of Ahaz. It seems, in short, to have
originally formed the preface to the small group of prophecies
which now follows it, viz. vii. i.-ix. 7. The portions which may
represent discourses of Jotham's reign are chap. ii. and chap. ix. 8
-x. 4 — stern denunciations which remind us somewhat of Amos.
But the allusions in the greater part of chaps, ii.-v. correspond
to no period so closely as the reign of Ahaz, and the same remark
applies still more self-evidently to vii. i-ix. 7.' Chap. xvii. i-u
ought undoubtedly to be read in immediate connexion with chap,
vii.; it presupposes the alliance of Syria and northern Israel,
whose destruction it predicts, though opening a door of hope
for a remnant of Israel. The fatal siege of Samaria (724-722 B.C.)
seems to have given occasion to chap, xxviii.; but the following
1 On the question of the Isaianic origin of the prophecy, ix. 1-6,
and the companion passage, xi. 1-8, see Cheyne Introd. to the Book of
Isaiah, 1895, pp. 44, 45 and 62-66. Cf., however, J. Skinner " Isaiah
i.-xxxix." in Cambridge Bible.
ISAIAH
863
prophecies (chaps, xxix.-xxxiii.) point in the main to Sennacherib's
invasion, 701 B.C., which evidently stirred Isaiah's deepest
feelings and was the occasion of some of his greatest prophecies.
It is, however, the vengeance taken by Sargon upon Ashdod (711)
which seems to be preserved in chap. xx.,and the striking little
prophecy in xxi. i-io, sometimes referred of late to a supposed
invasion of Judah by Sargon, rather belongs to some one of the
many prophetic personages who wrote, but did not speak like
the greater prophets, during and after the Exile. It is also an
opinion largely held that the prophetic epilogue in xvi. 13, 14,
was attached by Isaiah to an oracle on archaic style by another
prophet (Isaiah's hand has, however, been traced by some in
xvi. 46, 5) . In fact no progress can be expected in the accurate
study of the prophets until the editorial activity both of the great
prophets themselves and of their more reflective and studious
successors is fully recognized.
Thus there were two great political events (the Syro-Israelitish
invasion under Ahaz, and the great Assyrian invasion of Sen-
nacherib) which called forth the spiritual and oratorical faculties
of our prophet, and quickened his faculty of insight into the
future. The Sennacherib prophecies must be taken in connexion
with the historical appendix, chaps, xxxvi.-xxxix. The beauty
and incisiveness of the poetic prophecy in xxxvii. 21-32 have,
by some critics, been regarded as evidence for its authenticity.
This, however, is, on critical grounds, most questionable.
A special reference seems needed at this point to the oracle
on Egypt, chap. xix. The comparative feebleness of the style has
led to the conjecture that, even if the basis of the prophecy be
Isaianic, yet in its present form it must have undergone the
manipulation of a scribe. More probably, however, it belongs to
the early Persian period. It should be added that the Isaianic
origin of the appendix in xix. 18-24 is, if possible, even more
doubtful, because of the precise, circumstantial details of the
prophecy which are not like Isaiah's work. It is plausible to
regard v. 18 as a fictitious prophecy in the interests of Onias, the
founder of the rival Egyptian temple to Yahweh at Leontopolis
in the name of Heliopolis (Josephus, Ant. xii. 9, 7).
III. Disintegration Theories. — We must now enter more fully
into the question whether the whole of the so-called Book of
Isaiah was really written by that prophet. The question relates,
at any rate, to xiii.-xiv. 23, xxi. i-io, xxiv.-xxvii., xxxiv., xxxv.
and xl.-lxvi. The father of the controversy may be said to be the
Jewish rabbi, Aben Ezra, who died A.D. 1167. We need not,
however, spend much time on the well-worn but inconclusive
arguments of the older critics. The existence of a tradition in
the last three centuries before Christ as to the authorship of
any book is (to those acquainted with the habits of thought of
that age) of but little critical moment; the Sopherlm, i.e.
students of Scripture, in those times were simply anxious for the
authority of the Scriptures, not for the ascertainment of their
precise historical origin. It was of the utmost importance to
declare that (especially) Isaiah xl.-lxvi. was a prophetic work
of the highest order; this was reason sufficient (apart from any
presumed phraseological affinities in xl.-lxvi.) for ascribing them
to the royal prophet Isaiah. When the view had once obtained
currency, it would naturally become a tradition. The question of
the Isaianic or non-Isaianic origin of the disputed prophecies
(especially xl.-lxvi.) must be decided on grounds of exegesis
alone. It matters little, therefore, when the older critics appeal
to Ezra i. 2 (interpreted by Josephus, Ant. xi. i, 1-2), to the
Septuagint version of the book (produced between 260 and 130
B.C.), in which the disputed prophecies are already found, and
to the Greek translation of the Wisdom of Jesus, the son of Sirach,
which distinctly refers to Isaiah as the comforter of those that
mourned in Zion (Eccles. xlviii. 24, 25).
The fault of the controversialists on both sides has been that
each party has only seen " one side of the shield." It will be
admitted by philological students that the exegetical data
supplied by (at any rate) Isa. xl.-lxvi. are conflicting, and there-
fore susceptible of no simple solution. This remark applies,
it is true, chiefly to the portion which begins at lii. 13. The
earlier part of Isa. xl.-lxvi. admits of a perfectly consistent
interpretation from first to last. There is nothing in it to indicate
that the author's standing-point is earlier than the Babylonian
captivity. His object is (as most scholars, probably, believe) to
warn, stimulate or console the captive Jews, some full believers,
some semi-believers, some unbelievers or idolaters. The develop-
ment of the prophet's message is full of contrasts and surprises:
the vanity of the idol-gods and the omnipotence of Israel's
helper, the sinfulness and infirmity of Israel and her high spiritual
destiny, and the selection (so offensive to patriotic Jews, xlv.
9, 10) of the heathen Cyrus as the instrument of Yahweh's
purposes, as in fact his Messiah or Anointed One (xlv. i), are
brought successively before us. Hence the semi-dramatic char-
acter of the style. Already in the opening passage mysterious
voices are heard crying, " Comfort ye, comfort ye my people ";
the plural indicates that there were other prophets among the
exiles besides the author of Isa. xl.-xlviii. Then the Jews and
the Asiatic nations in general are introduced trembling at the
imminent downfall of the Babylonian empire. The former are
reasoned with and exhorted to believe ; the latter are contemptu-
ously silenced by an exhibition of the futility of their religion.
Then another mysterious form appears on the scene, bearing the
honourable title of " Servant of Yahweh," through whom God's
gracious purposes for Israel and the world are to be realized.
The cycle of poetic passages on the character and work of this
" Servant," or commissioned agent of the Most High, may have
formed originally a separate collation which was somewhat later
inserted in the Prophecy of Restoration (i.e. chaps, xl.-xlviii., and
its appendix chaps, xlix.-lv.).
The new section which begins at chap. xlix. is written in much
the same delightfully flowing style. We are still among the
exiles at the close of the captivity, or, as others think, amidst a
poor community in Jerusalem, whose members have now been
dispersed among the Gentiles. The latter view is not so strange
as it may at first appear, for the new book has this peculiarity,
that Babylon and Cyrus are not mentioned in it at all. [True,
there was not so much said about Babylon as we should have
expected even in the first book; the paucity of references to
the local characteristics of Babylonia is in fact one of the negative
arguments urged by older scholars in favour of the Isaianic
origin of the prophecy.] Israel himself, with all his inconsistent
qualities, becomes the absorbing subject of the prophet's medita-
tions. The section opens with a soliloquy of the " Servant of
Yahweh," which leads on to a glorious comforting discourse,
" Can a woman forget her sucking child," &c. (xlix. i, comp.
li. 12, 13). Then his tone rises, Jerusalem can and must be
redeemed; he even seems to see the great divine act in process
of accomplishment. Is it possible, one cannot help asking, that
the abrupt description of the strange fortunes of the " Servant "
— by this time entirely personalized — was written to follow
chap. lii. 1-12?
The whole difficulty seems to arise from the long prevalent
assumption that chaps, xl.-lxvi. form a whole in themselves.
Natural as the feeling against disintegration may be, the diffi-
culties in the way of admitting the unity of chaps, xl.-lxvi.
are insurmountable. Even if, by a bold assumption, we grant
the unity of authorship, it is plain upon the face of it that
the chapters in question cannot have been composed at the
same time or under the same circumstances; literary and
artistic unity is wholly wanting. But once admit (as it is only
reasonable to do) the extension of Jewish editorial activity to
the prophetic books and all becomes clear. The record before
us gives no information as to its origin. It is without a heading,
and by its abrupt transitions, and honestly preserved variations
of style, invites us to such a theory as we are now indicating.
It is only the inveterate habit of reading Isa. xlix.-lxvi. as a part
of a work relating to the close of the Exile that prevents us from
seeing how inconsistent are the tone and details with this pre-
supposition.
The present article in its original form introduced here a survey
of the portions of Isa. xl.-lxvi. which were plainly of Palestinian
origin. It is needless to reproduce this here, because the information
is now readily accessible elsewhere; in 1 88 1 there was an originality
in this survey, which gave promise of a still more radical treatment
864
ISAIAH, ASCENSION OF
such as that of Bernhard Duhm, a fascinating commentary published
in 1892. See also Cheyne, Jewish Quarterly Remew, July and October
1891; Introd. to Book of Isaiah (1895), which also point forward,
like Stade's Geschichte in Germany, to a bolder criticism of Isaiah.
IV. Non-Isaianic Elements in Chaps, i.-xxxix. — We have said
nothing hitherto, except by way of allusion, of the disputed
prophecies scattered up and down the first half of the book of
Isaiah. There is only one of these prophecies which may, with
any degree of apparent plausibility, be referred to the age of
Isaiah, and that is chaps, xxiv.-xxvii. The grounds are (i) that
according to xxv. 6 the author dwells on Mount Zion; (2) that
Moab is referred to as an enemy (xxv. 10) ; and (3) that at the
close of the prophecy, Assyria and Egypt are apparently mentioned
as the principal foes of Israel (xxvii. 12, 13). A careful and
thorough exegesis will show the hollowness of this justification.
The tone and spirit of the prophecy as a whole point to the same
late apocalyptic period to which chap, xxxiv. and the book of
Joel; and also the last chapter (especially) of the book of
Zechariah, may unhesitatingly be referred.
A word or two may perhaps be expected on Isa. xiii., xiv. and
xxxiv., xxxv. These two oracles agree in the elaborateness
of their description of the fearful fate of the enemies of Yahweh
(Babylon and Edom are merely representatives of a class), and
also in their view of the deliverance and restoration of Israel
as an epoch for the whole human race. There is also an unre-
lieved sternness, which pains us by its contrast with Isa. xl.-lxvi.
(except those passages of this portion which are probably not
homogeneous with the bulk of the prophecy). They have also
affinities with Jer. 1. 1L, a prophecy (as most now agree) of post-
exilic origin.
There is only one passage which seems in some degree to make
up for the aesthetic drawbacks of the greater part of these late
compositions. It is the ode on the fall of the king of Babylon
in chap. xiv. 4-21, which is as brilliant with the glow of lyric
enthusiasm as the stern prophecy which precedes it is, from the
same point of view, dull and uninspiring. It is in fact worthy to
be put by the side of the finest passages of chaps, xl.-lxvi. — of
those passages which irresistibly rise in the memory when we
think of " Isaiah."
V. Prophetic Contrasts in Isaiah. — From a religious point of
view there is a wide difference, not only between the acknow-
ledged and the disputed prophecies of the book of Isaiah, but also
between those of the latter which occur in chaps, i.-xxxix.,
on the one hand, and the greater and more striking part of chaps,
xl.-lxvi. on the other. We may say, upon the whole, with Duhm,
that Isaiah represents a synthesis of Amos and Hosea, though not
without important additions of his own. And if we cannot without
much hesitation admit that Isaiah was really the first preacher of
a personal Messiah whose record has come down to us, yet his
editors certainly had good reason for thinking him capable of such
a lofty height of prophecy. It is not because Isaiah could not
have conceived of a personal Messiah, but because the Messiah-
passages are not plainly Isaiah's either in style or in thought.
If Isaiah had had those bright visions, they would have affected
him more.
Perhaps the most characteristic religious peculiarities of thri
various disputed prophecies are — (i) the emphasis laid on the
uniqueness, eternity, creatorship and predictive power of
Yahweh (xl. 18, 25, xli. 4, xliv. 6, xlviii. 12, xiv. 5, 6, 18, 22, xlvi.
9, xlii. 5, xiv. 18, xli. 26, xliii. 9, xliv. 7, xiv. 21, xlviii. 14);
(2) the conception of the " Servant of Yahweh "; (3) the ironical
descriptions of idolatry (Isaiah in the acknowledged prophecies
only refers incidentally to idolatry) xl. 19, 20, xli. 7, xliv. 9-17,
xlvi. 6; (4) the personality of the Spirit of Yahweh (mentioned
no less than seven times, see especially xl. 3, xlviii. 16, Ixiii. 10,
14); (5) the influence of the angelic powers (xxiv. 21); (6)
the resurrection of the body (xxvi. 19); (7) the everlasting
punishment of the wicked (Ixvi. 24); (8) vicarious atonement
(chap. h'ii.).
We cannot here do more than chronicle the attempts of a
Jewish scholar, the late Dr Kohut, in the Z.D.M.G. for 1876 to
prove a Zoroastrian influence on chaps, xl.-lxvi. The idea is
not in itself inadmissible, at least for post-exilic portions, for
Zoroastrian ideas were in the intellectual atmosphere of Jewish
writers in the Persian age.
There is an equally striking difference among the disputed
prophecies themselves, and one of no small moment as a sub-
sidiary indication of their origin. We have already spoken of
the difference of tone between parts of the latter half of the book;
and, when we compare the disputed prophecies of the former half
with the Prophecy of Israel's Restoration, how inferior (with all
reverence be it said) do they appear! Truly " in many parts
and many manners did God speak " in this composite book of
Isaiah! To the Prophecy of Restoration we may fitly apply
the words, too gracious and too subtly chosen to be translated,
of Renan, " ce second Isai'e, dont 1'ame lumineuse semble comme
impregnee, six cent ans d'avance, de toutes les rosees, de tous
les parfums de 1'avenir " (U Antichrist, p. 464); though, indeed,
the common verdict of sympathetic readers sums up the
sentence in a single phrase — " the Evangelical Prophet." The
freedom and the inexhaustibleness of the undeserved grace of
God is a subject to which this gifted son constantly returns
with " a monotony which is never monotonous." The defect of
the disputed prophecies in the former part of the book (a defect,
as long as we regard them in isolation, and not as supplemented
by those which come after) is that they emphasize too much for
the Christian sentiment the stern, destructive side of the series
of divine interpositions in the latter days.
VI. The Cyrus Inscriptions. — Perhaps one of the most im-
portant contributions to the study of II. Isaiah has been the
discovery of two cuneiform texts relative to the fall of Babylon
and the religious policy of Cyrus. The results are not favourable
to a mechanical view of prophecy as involving absolute accuracy
of statement. Cyrus appears in the unassailably authentic
cylinder inscription " as a complete religious indifferentist,
willing to go through any amount of ceremonies to soothe the
prejudices of a susceptible population." He preserves a strange
and significant silence with regard to Ahura-mazda, the supreme
God of Zoroastrianism, and in fact can hardly have been a
Zoroastrian believer at all. On the historical and religious
bearings of these two inscriptions the reader may be referred to
the article " Cyrus " in the Encyclopaedia Biblica and the essay
on " II. Isaiah and the Inscriptions " in Cheyne's Prophecies of
Isaiah, vol. ii. It may, with all reverence, be added that our
estimate of prophecy must be brought into harmony with facts,
not facts with our preconceived theory of inspiration.
AUTHORITIES. — Lowth, Isaiah: a new translation, with a pre-
liminary dissertation and notes (1778); Gesenius, Der Proph. Jes.
(1821); Hitzig, Der Proph. Jes. (1833); Delitzsch, Der Pr. Jes. (4th
ed., 1889); Dillmann-Kittel, Isaiah (1898); Duhm (1892; 2nd cd.,
1902); Marti (1900); Cheyne, The Prophecies of Isaiah (2 vols.,
1880-1881); Introd. to Book of Isaiah (1898); "The Book of the
Prophet Isaiah," in Paul Haupt's Polychrome Bible (1898); S. R.
Driver, Isaiah, his life and times (1888); J. Skinner, " The Book of
Isaiah," in Cambridge Bible (2 vols., 1896, 1898); G. A. Smith, in
Expositor's Bible (2 vols., 1888, 1890); Condamin (Rom. Cath.)
(1905); G. H. Box (1908); Article on Isaiah in Ency. Bib. by
Cheyne; in Hastings' Diet, pf the Bible by Prof. G. A. Smith. R. H.
Kennett's Schweich Lecture (1909), The Composition of the Book of
Isaiah in thelLight of Archaeology and History, an interesting attempt
at a synthesis of results, is a brightly written but scholarly sketch
of the growth of the book of Isaiah, which went on till the'great success
of the Jews under Judas Maccabaeus. The outbursts of triumph
(e.g. Isa. ix. 2-7) are assigned to this period. The most original
statement is perhaps the view that the words of Isaiah were pre-
served orally by his disciples, and did not see the light (in a revised
form) till a considerable time after the crystallization of the reforms
of Josiah into laws. (T. K. C.)
ISAIAH, ASCENSION OF, an apocryphal book of the Old
Testament. The Ascension of Isaiah is a composite work of
very great interest. In its present form it is probably not older
than the latter half of the 2nd century of our era. Its various
constituents, however, and of these there were three—the
Martyrdom of Isaiah, the Testament of Hezekiah and the Vision
of Isaiah — circulated independently as early as the ist century.
The first of these was of Jewish origin, and is of less interest than
the other two, which were the work of Christian writers. The
Vision of Isaiah is important for the knowledge it affords us of
ISANDHLWANA— ISATIN
865
ist-century beliefs in certain circles as to the doctrines of the
Trinity, the Incarnation, the Resurrection, the Seven Heavens,
&c. The long lost Testament of Hezekiah, which is, in the opinion
of R. H. Charles, to be identified with iii. i3b-iv. 18, of our present
work, is unquestionably of great value owing to the insight it
gives us into the history of the Christian Church at the close of
the ist century. Its descriptions of the worldliness and lawless-
ness which prevailed among the elders and pastors, i.e. the bishops
and priests, of the wide-spread covetousness and vainglory as
well as the growing heresies among Christians generally, agree
with similar accounts in 2 Peter, 2 Timothy and Clement of
Rome.
Various Titles. — Origen in his commentary on Matt. xiii. 57
(Lpmmatzsch iii. 4, 9) calls it Apocryph of Isaiah — 'AvdKptxjmv 'Haalov,
Epiphanius (Haer. xl. 2) terms it the Ascension of Isaiah — rA
ava.pa.Ti.K6ii 'Haaiov, and similarly Jerome — Ascensio Isaiae. It was
also known as the Vision of Isaiah and finally as the Testament of
Hezekiah (see Charles, The Ascension of Isaiah, pp. xii.-xv.).
The Greek Original and the Versions. — The book was written in
Greek, though not improbably the middle portion, the Testament of
Hezekiah, was originally composed in Semitic. The Greek in its
original form, which we may denote by G, is lost. It has, however,
been in part preserved to us in two of its recensions, G1 and G2.
From G1 the Ethippic Version and the first Latin Version (consisting
of ii. 14-iii. 13, vii. 1-19) were translated, and of this recension the
actual Greek has survived in a multitude of phrases in the Greek
Legend. & denotes the Greek text from which the Slavonic and the
second Latin Version (consisting of vi.-xi.) were translated. Of this
recension ii. 4~iv. 2 have been discovered by Grenfell and Hunt.1
For complete details see Charles, op. cit. pp. xviii.-xxxiii. ; also
Flemming in Hennecke's NTliche Apok.
Latin Version. — The first Latin Version (L1) is fragmentary
( = ii. 14-iij. 13, vii. 1-19). It was discovered and edited by Mai in
1828 (Script, vet. nova collectio III. ii. 238), and reprinted by
Dillmann in his edition of 1877, and subsequently in a more correct
form by Charles in his edition of 1900. The second version (L2),
which consists of yi.-xi., was first printed at Venice in 1522, by
Gieseler in 1832, Dillmann in 1877 and Charles in 1900.
Ethiopic Version. — There are three MSS. This version is on the
whole a faithful reproduction of G1. These were used by Dillmann
and subsequently by Charles in their editions.
Different Elements in the Book. — The compositeness of this work
is universally recognized. Dillmann's analysis is as follows, (i.)
Martyrdom of Isaiah, of Jewish origin; ii. l-iii. 12, v. 2-14. (ii.) The
Vision of Isaiah, of Christian origin, vi. i-xi. I, 23-40. (iii.) The
above two constituents were put together by a Christian writer, who
prefixed i. I, 2, 4b-l3 and appended xi. 42, 43. (iv.) Finally a later
Christian editor incorporated the two sections iii. I3~v. I and xi. 2-22,
and added i. 3, 43, v. 15, 16, xi. 41.
This analysis has on the whole been accepted by Harnack, Schiirer,
Deane and Beer. These scholars have been influenced by Gebhardt's
statement that in the Greek Legend there is not a trace of iii. I3~v. I,
xi. 2-22, and that accordingly these sections were absent from the
text when the Greek Legend was composed. But this statement is
wrong, for at least five phrases or clauses in the Greek Legend are
derived from the sections in question. Hence R. H. Charles has
examined (op. cit. pp. xxxviii.-xlvii.) the problem de novo, and
arrived at the following conclusions. The book is highly composite,
and arbitrariness and disorder are found in every section. There are
three original documents at its base, (i.) The Martyrdom of Isaiah =
i. i, 2a, 6b-l3a, ii. 1-8, lo-;iii. 12, v. lb-14- This is but an im-
perfect survival of the original work. Part of the original work
omitted by the final editor of our book is preserved in the Opus
imperfectum, which goes back not to our text, but to the original
Martyrdom, (ii.) The Testament of Hezekiah = \u. I3b— iv. 18. This
work is mutilated and without beginning or end. (iii.) The Vision of
Isaiah = v\.-xi. 1-40. The archetype of this section existed inde-
pendently in Greek; for the second Latin and the Slavonic Versions
presuppose an independent circulation of their Greek archetype in
western and Slavonic countries. This archetype differs in many
respects from the form in which it was republished by the editor of
the entire work.
We may, in short, put this complex matter as follows: The con-
ditions of the problem are sufficiently satisfied by supposing a single
editor, who had three works at his disposal, the Martyrdom of Isaiah,
of Jewish origin, and the Testament of Hezekiah and the Vision of
Isaiah, of Christian origin. These he reduced or enlarged as it suited
his purpose, and put them together as they stand in our text. Some
of the editorial additions are obvious, as i. 2b-6a, 133, ii. 9, iii. I3a,
iv. la, I9~v. la, 15, 16, xi. 41-43.
Dates of the Various Constituents of the Ascension. — (a) The
Martyrdom is quoted by the Opus Imperfectum, Ambrose, Jerome,
1 Published by them in the Amherst Papyri, an account of the
Greek papyri in the collection of Lord Amherst (1900), and by
Charles in his edition.
| Origen, Tertullian and by Justin Martyr. It was probably known
to the writer of the Epistle to the Hebrews. Thus we are brought
back to the 1st century A.D. if the last reference is trustworthy.
And this is no doubt the right date, for works written by Jews in the
2nd century would not be likely to become current in the Christian
Church. (6) The Testament of Hezekiah was written between A.D. 88-
IOO. The grounds for this date will be found in Charles, op. cit.
pp. Ixxi.-lxxii. and 30-31. (c) The Vision of Isaiah. The later re-
cension of this Vision was used by Jerome, and a more primitive form
of the text by the Archontici according to Epiphanius. It is still
earlier attested by the Actus Petri Vercellenses. Since the Prote-
vangel of James was apparently acquainted with it, and likewise
Ignatius (ad. Ephes. xix.), the composition of the primitive form of
the Vision goes back to the close of the 1st century.
The work of combining and editing these three independent
writings may go back to early in the 3rd or even to the 2nd century.
LITERATURE. — Editions of the Ethiopic Text: Laurence, Ascensio
Isaiae vatis (1819); Dillmann, Ascensio Isaiae Aethiopice et Latine,
cum prolegomenis, adnotationibus criticis et exegeticis, additis ver-
sionum Latinarum reliquiis edita (1877); Charles, Ascension of
Isaiah, translated from the Ethiopic Version, which, together with the
new Greek Fragment, the Latin Versions and the Latin translation of
the Slavonic, is here published in full, edited with Introduction, Notes
and Indices (1900) ; Flemming, in Hennecke's NTliche Apok. 292-305 ;
NTliche Apok.-Handbuch, 323-331. This translation is made from
Charles's text, and his analysis of the text is in the main accepted by
this scholar. Translations: In addition to the translations given
in the preceding editions, Basset, Les Apocryphes ethiopiens, iii.
"L' Ascension d'Isaie" (1894); Beer, Apok. und Pseud. (1900)11.124-127.
The latter is a German rendering of ii.-iii. 1-12, v. 2-14, of Dillmann's
text. Critical Inquiries: Stokes, art. " Isaiah, Ascension of," in
Smith's Diet, of Christian Biography (1882), iii. 298-301; Robinson,
" The Ascension of Isaiah " in Hastings' Bible Diet. ii. 499-501.
For complete bibliography see Schiirer,3 Gesch. des jud. Volks,
iii. 280-285; Charles, op. cit. (R. H. C.)
ISANDHLWANA, an isolated hill in Zululand, 8 m. S.E. of
Rorke's Drift across the Tugela river, and 105 m. N. by W. of
Durban. On the 22nd of January 1879 a British force encamped
at the foot of the hill was attacked by about 10,000 Zulus,
the flower of Cetewayo's army, and destroyed. Of eight
hundred Europeans engaged about forty escaped (see ZULULAND:
History).
ISAR (identical with Isere, in Celtic " the rapid "), a river of
Bavaria. It rises in the Tirolese Alps N.E. from Innsbruck, at an
altitude of 5840 ft. It first winds in deep, narrow glens and gorges
through the Alps, and at Tolz (2100 ft.), due north from its source,
enters the Bavarian plain, which it traverses in a generally north
and north-east direction, and pours its waters into the Danube
immediately below Deggendorf after a course of 219 m. The
area of its drainage basin is 38,200 sq. m. Below Munich the
stream is 140 to 350 yards wide, and is studded with islands.
It is not navigable, except for rafts. The total fall of the river
is 4816 ft. The Isar is essentially the national stream of the
Bavarians. It has belonged from the earliest times to the
Bavarian people and traverses the finest corn land in the kingdom.
On its banks lie the cities of Munich and Landshut, and the
venerable episcopal see of Freising, and the inhabitants of the
district it waters are reckoned the core of the Bavarian race.
See C. Gruber, Die Isar nach ihrer Entwickelung und ihren hydro-
logischen Verhdltnissen (Munich, 1889); and Die Bedeutung der Isar
als Verkehrsstrasse (Munich, 1890).
ISATIN, CsH5N02, in chemistry, a derivative of indol, interest-
ing on account of its relation to indigo; it may be regarded as
the anhydride of ortho-aminobenzoylformic or isatinic acid.
It crystallizes in orange red prisms which melt at 200-201° C.
It may be prepared by oxidizing indigo with nitric or chromic
acid (O. L. Erdmann, Jour. prak. Chem., 1841, 24, p. ii); by
boiling ortho-nitrophenylpropiolic acid with alkalis (A. Baeyer,
Ber., 1880, 13, p. 2259), or by oxidizing carbostyril with alkaline
potassium permanganate (P. Friedlander and H. Ostermaier,
Ber., 1881, 14, p. 1921). P. J. Meyer (German Patent 26736
(1883)) obtains substituted isatins by condensing para-toluidine
with dichloracetic acid, oxidizing the product with air and then
hydrolysing the oxidized product with hydrochloric acid.
T. Sandmeyer (German Patents 113981 and 119831 (1899)) ob-
tained isatin-a-anilide by condensing aniline with chloral hydrate
andhydroxylamine, an intermediate product isonitrosodiphenyl-
acetamidine being obtained, which is converted into isatin-a-
anilide by sulphuric acid. This can be converted into indigo
xlv. 28
866
ISAURIA— ISCHL
by reduction with ammonium sulphide. Isatin dissolved in
concentrated sulphuric acid gives a blue coloration with
thiophene, due to the formation of indophenin (see Abst. J.C.S.,
1907). Concentrated nitric acid oxidizes it to oxalic acid, and
alkali fusion yields aniline. It dissolves in soda forming a
violet solution, which soon becomes yellow, a change due to the
transformation of sodium N-isatin into sodium isatate, the ad-
isatin salt being probably formed intermediately (Heller, Abst.
J.C.S., 1907, i. p. 442). Most metallic salts are N-derivatives
yielding N-methyl ethers; the silver salt is, however, an
O-derivative, yielding an O-methyl ether (A. v. Baeyer, 1883;
W. Peters, Abst. J.C.S., 1907, i. p. 239).
•CO [ ^>CO
\X\NCNJ
Sodium silt
CO
(OH)
Silver ult
ISAURIA, in ancient geography, a district in the interior of
Asia Minor, of very different extent at different periods. The
permanent nucleus of it was that section of the Taurus which
lies directly to south of Iconium and Lystra. Lycaonia had all
the Iconian plain; but Isauria began as soon as the foothills
were reached. Its two original towns, Isaura Nea and Isaura
Palaea, lay, one among these foothills (Dorla) and the other on the
watershed (Zengibar Kale). When the Romans first encountered
the Isaurians (early in the ist century B.C.), they regarded
Cilicia Trachea as part of Isauria, which thus extended to the sea ;
and this extension of the name continued to be in common use
for two centuries. The whole basin of the Calycadnus was
reckoned Isaurian, and the cities in the valley of its southern
branch formed what was known as the Isaurian Decapolis.
Towards the end of the 3rd century A.D., however, all Cilicia was
detached for administrative purposes from the northern slope
of Taurus, and we find a province called at first Isauria-Lycaonia,
and later Isauria alone, extending up to the limits of Galatia,
but not passing Taurus on the south. Pisidia, part of which
had hitherto been included in one province with Isauria, was also
detached, and made to include Iconium. In compensation
Isauria received the eastern part of Pamphylia. Restricted
again in the 4th century, Isauria ended as it began by being just
the wild district about Isaura Palaea and the heads of the
Calycadnus. Isaura Palaea was besieged by Perdiccas, the
Macedonian regent after Alexander's death; and to avoid
capture its citizens set the place alight and perished in the flames.
During the war of the Cilician and other pirates against Rome,
the Isaurians took so active a part that the proconsul P. Servilius
deemed it necessary to follow them into their fastnesses, and
compel the whole people to submission, an exploit for which he
received the title of Isauricus (75 B.C.). The Isaurians were
afterwards placed for a time under the rule of Amyntas, king of
Galatia; but it is evident that they continued to retain their
predatory habits and virtual independence. In the 3rd century
they sheltered the rebel emperor, Trebellianus. In the 4th
century they are still described by Ammianus Marcellinus as
the scourge of the neighbouring provinces of Asia Minor; but
they are said to have been effectually subdued in the reign
of Justinian. In common with all the eastern Taurus, Isauria
passed into the hands of Turcomans and Yuruks with the Seljuk
conquest. Many of these have now coalesced with the aboriginal
population and form a settled element: but the district is still
lawless.
This comparatively obscure people had the honour of producing
two Byzantine emperors, Zeno, whose native name was Traska-
lisseus Rousoumbladeotes, and Leo III., who ascended the
throne of Constantinople in 718, reigned till 741, and became
the founder of a dynasty of three generations. The ruins of
Isaura Palaea are mainly remarkable for their fine situation
and their fortifications and tombs. Those of Isaura Nea have
disappeared, but numerous inscriptions and many sculptured
stelae, built into the houses of Dorla, prove the site. It was the
latter, and not the former town, that Servilius reduced by
cutting off the water supply. The site was identified by W. M.
Ramsay in 1901. The only modern exploration of highland
tsauria was that made by J. S. Sterrett in 1885; but it was not
exhaustive.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — W. M. Ramsay, Historical Geography of Asia
Minor (1890), and article " Nova Isaura " in Journ. Hell. Studies
(1905); A. M. Ramsay, ibid. (1904); J. R. S. Sterrett, "Wolfe
Expedition to Asia Minor," Papers Amer. Inst. of Arch. iii. (1888);
C. Ritter, Erdkunde, xix. (1859) ; E. J. Davis, Life in As. Turkey
(1879). (D. G. H.)
ISCHIA (Gr. ILfljjKoCcra, Lat. Aenaria, in poetry Inarime), an
island off the coast of Campania, Italy, 16 m. S.W. of Naples,
to the province of which it belongs, and 7 m. S.W. of the Capo
Miseno, the nearest point of the mainland. Pop. about 20,000.
It is situated at the W. extremity of the Gulf of Naples, and is
the largest island near Naples, measuring about 19 m. in circum-
ference and 26 sq. m. in area. It belongs to the same volcanic
system as the mainland near it, and the Monte Epomeo (anc.
jrawevs, viewpoint), the highest point of the island (2588 ft.),
lies on the N. edge of the principal crater, which is surrounded
by twelve smaller cones. The island was perhaps occupied
by Greek settlers even before Cumae; its Eretrianand Chalcidian
inhabitants abandoned it about 500 B.C. owing to an eruption,
and it is said to have been deserted almost at once by the greater
part of the garrison which Hiero I. of Syracuse had placed there
about 470 B.C., owing to the same cause. Later on it came into
the possession of Naples, but passed into Roman hands in 326,
when Naples herself lost her independence. The ancient town,
traces of the fortifications of which still exist, was situated near
Lacco, at the N.W. corner of the island. Augustus gave it back
to Naples in exchange for Capri. After the fall of Rome it suffered
attacks and devastations from the successive masters of Italy,
until it was finally taken by the Neapolitans in 1299.
Several eruptions are recorded in Roman times. The last of
which we have any knowledge occurred in 1301, but the island
was visited by earthquakes in 1881 and 1883, 1700 lives being lost
in the latter year, when the town of Casamicciola on the north
side of the island was almost entirely destroyed. The hot springs
here, which still survive from the period of volcanic activity,
rise at a temperature of 147° Fahr. and are alkaline and saline;
they are much visited by bathers, especially in summer. They
were known in Roman times, and many votive altars dedicated
to Apollo and the nymphs have been found. The whole island
is mountainous, and is remarkable for its beautiful scenery and
its fertility. Wine, corn, oil and fruit are produced, especially
the former, while the mountain slopes are clothed with woods.
Tiles and pottery are made in the island. Straw-plaiting is a
considerable industry at Lacco; and a certain amount of
fishing is also done. The potter's clay of Ischia served for the
potteries of Cumae and Puteoli in ancient times, and was indeed
in considerable demand until the catastrophe at Casamicciola
in 1883.
The chief towns are Ischia on the E. coast, the capital and the
seat of a bishop (pop. in 1901, town, 2756; commune, 7012),
with a isth-century castle, to which Vittoria Colonna retired
after the death of her .husband in 1525; Casamicciola (pop.
in 1901, town, 1085; commune, 3731) on the north, and Forio
on the west coast (pop. in 1901, town, 3640; commune, 7197).
There is regular communication with Naples, both by steamer
direct, and also by steamer to Torregaveta, 2 m. W.S.W. of
Baiae and 12$ m. W.S.W. of Naples, and thence by rail.
See J. Beloch, Campanien (Breslau, 1890), 202 sqq. (T. As.)
ISCHL, a market-town and watering-place of Austria, in
Upper Austria, 55 m. S.S.W. of Linz by rail. Pop. (1900) 9646.
It is beautifully situated on the peninsula formed by the junction
of the rivers Ischl and Traun and is surrounded by high moun-
tains, presenting scenery of the finest description. To the S. is the
Siriuskogl or Hundskogl (1960 ft.), and to the W. the Schafberg
(5837 ft.), which is ascended from St Wolfgang by a rack-and-
pinion railway, built in 1893. It possesses a fine parish church,
built by Maria Theresa and renovated in 1877-1880, and the
Imperial Villa is surrounded by a magnificent park. Ischl
is one of the most fashionable spas of Europe, being the favourite
ISEO— ISFAHAN
867
summer residence of the Austrian Imperial family and of the
Austrian nobility since 1822. It has saline and sulphureous
drinking springs and numerous brine and brine-vapour baths.
The brine used at Ischl contains about 25% of salt and there are
also mud, sulphur and pine-cone baths. Ischl is situated at an
altitude of 1533 ft. above sea-level and has a very mild climate.
Its mean annual temperature is 49-4° F. and its mean summer
temperature is 63-5° F. Ischl is an important centre of the salt
industry and 4 m. to its W. is a celebrated salt mine, which has
been worked as early as the I2th century.
ISEO, LAKE OF (the Locus Sebinus of the Romans), a lake
in Lombardy, N. Italy, situated at the southern foot of the Alps,
and between the provinces of Bergamo and Brescia. It is formed
by the Oglio river, which enters the northern extremity of the
lake of Lovere, and issues from the southern end at Sarnico,
on its way to join the Po. The area of the lake is about 24 sq. m.,
it is 175 m. in length, and 3 m. wide in the broadest portion,
while the greatest depth is said to be about 984 ft. and the height
of its surface above sea-level 607 ft. It contains one large island,
that of Siviano, which culminates in the Monte Isola (1965 ft.)
that is crowned by a chapel, while to the south is the islet of San
Paolo, occupied by the buildings of a small Franciscan convent
now abandoned, and to the north the equally tiny island of
Loreto, with a ruined chapel containing frescoes. At the southern
end of the lake are the small towns of Iseo (15 m. by rail N.W. of
Brescia) and of Sarnico. From Paratico, opposite Sarnico, on
the other or left bank of the Oglio, a railway runs in 6J m. to
Palazzolo, on the main Brescia-Bergamo line. Towards the
head of the lake, the deep wide valley of the* Oglio is seen,
dominated by the glittering snows of the Adamello (11,661 ft.),
a glorious prospect. Along the east shore (the west shore is far
more rugged) a fine carriage road runs from Iseo to the consider-
able town of Pisogne (135 m.), situated at the northern end of
the lake, and nearly opposite that of Lovere, on the right bank
of the Oglio. The portion of this road some way S. of Pisogne
is cleverly engineered, and is carried through several tunnels.
The lake's charms were celebrated by Lady Mary Wortley-
Montagu, who spent ten summers (1747-1757) in a villa at Lovere,
then much frequented by reason of an iron spring. The lake
has several sardine and eel fisheries. (W. A. B. C.)
ISERE [anc. Isara], one of the chief rivers in France as well
as of those flowing down on the French side of the Alpine chain.
Its total length from its source to its junction with the Rhone is
about 180 m., during which it descends a height of about 7550 ft.
Its drainage area is about 4725 sq. m. It flows through the
departments of Savoie, Isere and Dr6me. This river rises in
the Galise glaciers in the French Graian Alps and flows, as
a mountain torrent, through a narrow valley past Tignes in
a north-westerly direction to Bourg St Maurice, at the western
foot of the Little St Bernard Pass. It now bends S.W., as far
as Moutiers, the chief town of the Tarentaise, as the upper course
of the Isere is named. Here it again turns N.W. as far as Albert-
ville, where after receiving the Arly (right) it once more takes a
south-westerly direction, and near St Pierre d'Albigny receives
its first important tributary, the Arc (left), a wild mountain
stream flowing through the Maurienne and past the foot of the
Mont Cenis Pass. A little way below, at Montmelian, it becomes
officially navigable (for about half of its course), though it is
but little used for that purpose owing to the irregular depth of
its bed and the rapidity of its current. Very probably, in ancient
days, it flowed from Montmelian N.W. and, after passing through
or forming the Lac du Bourget, joined the Rhone. But at
present it continues from Montmelian in a south-westerly
direction, flowing through the broad and fertile valley of the
Graisivaudan, though receiving but a single affluent of any
importance, the Breda (left). At Grenoble, the most important
town on its banks, it bends for a short distance again N.W.
But just below that town it receives by far its most important
affluent (left) the Drac, which itself drains the entire S. slope of
the lofty snow-clad Dauphine Alps, and which, n m. above
Grenoble, had received the Romanche "(right), a mountain
stream which drains the entire central and N. portion of the same
Alps. Hence the Drac is, at its junction with the Isere, a stream
of nearly the same volume, while these two rivers, with the
Durance, drain practically the entire French slope of the Alpine
chain, the basins of the Arve and of the Var forming the sole
exceptions. A short distance below Moirans the Isere changes its
direction for the last time and now flows S.W. past Romans before
joining the Rh6ne on the left, as its principal affluent after the
Sa6ne and the Durance, between Tournon and Valence. The
Isere is remarkable for the way in which it changes its direction,
forming three great loops of which the apex is respectively at
Bourg St Maurice, Albertville and Moirans. For some way
after its junction with the Rh&ne the grey troubled current of
the Isere can be distinguished in the broad and peaceful stream
of the Rhone. (W. A. B. C.)
ISERE, a department of S.E. France, formed in 1790 out of the
northern part of the old province of Dauphine. Pop. (1906)
562,315. It is bounded N. by the department of the Ain, E. by
that of Savoie, S. by those of the Hautes Alpes and the Drome
and W. by those of the Loire and the Rh6ne. Its area is 3179
sq. m. (surpassed only by 7 other departments), while its greatest
length is 93 m. and its greatest breadth 53 m. The river Isere
runs for nearly half its course through this department, to which
it gives its name. The southern portion of the department is
very mountainous, the loftiest summit being the Pic Lory
(13,396 ft.) in the extensive snow-clad Oisans group (drained
by the Drac and Romanche, two mighty mountain torrents),
while minor groups are those of Belledonne, of Allevard, of the
Grandes Rousses, of the Devoluy, of the Trieves, of the Royan-
nais, of the Vercors and, slightly to the north of the rest, that
of the Grande Chartreuse. The northern portion of the depart-
ment is composed of plateaux, low hills and plains, while on every
side but the south it is bounded by the course of the Rhdne. It
forms the bishopric of Grenoble (dating from the 4th century),
till 1790 in the ecclesiastical province of Vienne, and now in that
of Lyons. The department is divided into four arrondissements
(Grenoble, St Marcellin, La Tour du Pin and Vienne), 45 cantons
and 563 communes. Its capital is Grenoble, while other important
towns in it are the towns of Vienne, St Marcellin and La Tour du
Pin. It is well supplied with railways (total length 342 m.),
which give access to Gap, to Chambery, to Lyons, to St Rambert
and to Valence, while it also possesses many tramways (total
length over 200 m.). It contains silver, lead, coal and iron mines,
as well as extensive slate, stone and marble quarries, besides
several mineral springs (Allevard, Uriage and La Motte). The
forests cover much ground, while among the most flourishing
industries are those of glove making, cement, silk weaving and
paper making. The area devoted to agriculture (largely in the
fertile valley of the Graisivaudan, or Isere, N.E. of Grenoble) is
about 121 1 sq. m. (W. A. B. C.)
ISERLOHN, a town in the Prussian province of Westphalia,
on the Baar, in a bleak and hilly region, 17 m. W. of Arnsberg,
and 30 m. E.N.E. from Barmen by rail. Pop. (1900) 27,265.
Iserlohn is one of the most important manufacturing towns
in Westphalia. Both in the town and neighbourhood there are
numerous foundries and works for iron, brass, steel and bronze
goods, while other manufactures include wire, needles and
pins, fish-hooks, machinery, umbrella-frames, thimbles, bits,
furniture, chemicals, coffee-mills, and pinchbeck and britannia-
metal goods. Iserlohn is a very old town, its gild of armourers
being referred to as " ancient " in 1443.
ISFAHAN (older form Ispahan), the name of a Persian province
and town. The province is situated in the centre of the country,
and bounded S. by Fars, E. by Yezd, N. by Kashan, Natanz
and Irak, and W. by the Bakhtiari district and Arabistan. It
pays a yearly revenue of about £100,000, and its population
exceeds 500,000. It is divided into twenty-five districts, its
capital, the town of Isfahan, forming one of them. These
twenty-five districts, some very small and consisting of only a
little township and a few hamlets, are Isfahan, Jai, Barkhar,
Kahab, Kararaj, Baraan, Rudasht, Marbin, Lenjan, Kerven,
Rar, Kiar, Mizdej, Ganduman, Somairam, Jarkuyeh, Ardistan,
Kuhpayeh, Najafabad,Komisheh,Chadugan,Varzek,Tokhmaklu,
868
ISFAHAN
Gurji, Chinarud. Most of these districts are very fertile,
and produce great quantities of wheat, barley, rice, cotton,
tobacco and opium. Lenjan, west of the city of Isfahan, is
the greatest rice-producing district; the finest cotton comes
from Jarkuyeh; the best opium and tobacco from the villages
in the vicinity of the city.
The town of Isfahan or Ispahan, formerly the capital of
Persia, now the capital of the province, is situated on the
Zayendeh river in 32° 39' N. and 51° 40' E.1 at an elevation
of 5370 ft. Its population, excluding that of the Armenian
colony of Julfa on the right or south bank of the river (about
4000), is estimated at 100,000 (73,654, including 5883 Jews,
in 1882). The town is divided into thirty-seven mahallehs
(parishes) and has 210 mosques and colleges (many half ruined),
84 caravanserais, 150 public baths and 68 flour mills. The
water supply is principally from open canals led off from the
river and from several streams and canals which come down
from the hills in the north-west. The name of the Isfahan
river was originally Zendeh (Pahlavi zendek) rud, " the great
river "; it was then modernized into Zindeh-rud, "the living
river," and is now called Zayendeh rud, " the life-giving river."
Its principal source is the Jananeh rud which rises on the eastern
slope of the Zardeh Kuh about 90 to 100 m. W. of Isfahan.
After receiving the Khursang river from Feridan on the north
and the Zarin rud from Chaharmahal on the south it is called
Zendeh rud. It then waters the Lenjan and Marbin districts,
passes Isfahan as Zayendeh-rud and 70 m. farther E. ends in
the Gavkhani depression. From its entrance into Lenjan to
its end 105 canals are led off from it for purposes of irrigation
and 14 bridges cross it (5 at Isfahan). Its volume of water at
Isfahan during the spring season has been estimated at 60,000
cub. ft. per second; in autumn the quantity is reduced to one-
third, but nearly all of it being then used for feeding the irriga-
tion canals very little is left for the river bed. The town covers
about 20 sq. m., but many parts of it are in ruins. The old city
walls — a ruined mud curtain — are about 5 rn. in circumference.
Of the many fine public buildings constructed by the Sefavis
and during the reign of the present dynasty very little remains.
There are still standing in fairly good repair the two palaces
named respectively Chehel Situn, " the forty pillars," and
Hasht Behesht, " the eight paradises," the former constructed
by Shah Abbas I. (1587-1629), the latter by Shah Soliman in
1670, and restored and renovated by Path Ali Shah (1797-1834).
They are ornamented with gilding and mirrors in every possible
variety of Arabesque decoration, and large and brilliant pictures,
representing scenes of Persian history, cover the walls of their
principal apartments and have been ascribed in many instances
to Italian and Dutch artists who are known to have been in
the service of the Sefavis. Attached to these palaces were many
other buildings such as the Imaretino built by Amin ed-Dowleh
(or Addaula) for Path Ali Shah, the Imaret i Ashref built by
Ashref Khan, the Afghan usurper, the Talar Tavfleh, Guldasteh,
Sarpushldeh, &c., erected in the early part of the igth century
by wealthy courtiers for the convenience of the sovereign and
often occupied as residences of European ministers travelling
between Bushire and Teheran and by other distinguished
travellers. Perhaps the most agreeable residence of all was the
Haft Dast, " the seven courts," in the beautiful garden of
Saadetabad on the southern bank of the river, and 2 or 3
m. from the centre of the city. This palace was built by Shah
Abbas II. (1642-1667), and Path Ali Shad Kajar died there
in 1834. Close to it was the Aineh Khaneh, " hall of mirrors "
and other elegant buildings in the Hazar jerib (loooacre) garden.
AH these palaces and buildings on both sides of the river were
surrounded by extensive gardens, traversed by avenues of tall
1 These figures are approximate for the centre of the town north
of the river. The result of astronomical observations taken by the
German expedition for observing the transit of Venus in 1874 and by
Sir O. St John in 1870 on the south bank of the river near, and in
Julfa respectively was 51° 40' 3-45' E., 32° 37' 30* N. The stone
slab commemorating the work of the expedition and placed on the
spot where the observations were taken has been carried off and now
serves as a door plinth of an Armenian house.
trees, principally planes, and intersected by paved canals of
running water with tanks and fountains. Since Fath Ali Shah's
death, palaces and gardens have been neglected. In 1902 an
official was sent from Teheran to inspect the crown buildings,
to report on their condition, and repair and renovate some, &c.
The result was that all the above-mentioned buildings, excepting
the Chehel Situn and Hasht Behesht, were demolished and their
timber, bricks, stone, &c., sold to local builders. The gardens
are wildernesses. The garden of the Chehel Situn palace opens
out through the Ala Kapu (" highest gate, sublime porte ")
to the Maidan-i-Shah, which is one of the most imposing piazzas
in the world, a parallelogram of 560 yds. (N.-S.) by 174 yds.
(E.-W.) surrounded by brick buildings divided into two storeys
of recessed arches, or arcades, one above the other. In front
of these arcades grow a few stunted planes and poplars. On
the south side of the maidan is the famous Masjed i Shah (the
shah's mosque) erected by Shah Abbas I. in 1612-1613. It is
covered with glazed tiles of great brilliancy and richly decorated
with gold and silver ornaments and cost over £175,000. It is
in good repair, and plans of it were published by C. Texier
(L' Armenie, la Perse, &c., vol. i. pis. 70-72) and P. Coste {Monu-
ments de la Perse). On the eastern side of the maidan stands
the Masjed i Lutf Ullah with beautiful enamelled tiles and in
good repair. Opposite to it on the western side of the maidan
is the Ala Kapu, a lofty building in the form of an archway
overlooking the maidan and crowned in the fore part by an
immense open throne-room supported by wooden columns,
while the hinder part is elevated three storeys higher. On the
north side of the maidan is the entrance gate to the main bazaar
surmounted by the Nekkareh-Khaneh, or drumhouse, where is
blared forth the appalling music saluting the rising and setting
sun, said to have been instituted by Jamshld many thousand
years ago. West of the Chehel Situn palace and conducting
N.-S. from the centre of the city to the great bridge of Allah
Verdi Khan is the great avenue nearly a mile in length called
Chahar Bagh, " the four gardens," recalling the fact that it
was originally occupied by four vineyards which Shah Abbas I.
rented at £360 a year and converted into a splendid approach
to his capital.
It was thus described by Lord Curzon of Kedleston in 1880:
" Of all the sights of Isfahan, this in its present state is the most
pathetic in the utter and pitiless decay of its beauty. Let me indi-
cate what it was and what it is. At the upper extremity a two-
storeyed pavilion,2 connected by a corridor with the Seraglio of the
palace, so as to enable the ladies of the harem to gaze unobserved
upon the merry scene below, looked out upon the centre of the avenue.
Water, conducted in stone channels, ran down the centre, falling in
miniature cascades from terrace to terrace, and was occasionally
collected in great square or octagonal basins where cross roads cut
the avenue. On either side of the central channel was a row of
oriental planes and a paved pathway for pedestrians. Then occurred
a succession of open parterres, usually planted or sown. Next on
cither side was a second row of planes, between which and the
flanking walls was a raised causeway for horsemen. The total
breadth is now fifty-two yards. At intervals corresponding with the
successive terraces and basins, arched doorways with recessed open
chambers overhead conducted through these walls into the various
royal or noble gardens that stretched on either side, and were known
as the Gardens of the Throne, of the Nightingale, of Vines, of Mul-
berries, Dervishes, &c. Some of these pavilions were places of public
resort and were used as coffee-houses, where when the business of the
day was over, the good burghers of Isfahan assembled to sip that
beverage and inhale their kalians the while; as Fryer puts it:
' Night drawing on, all the pride of Spahaun was met in the Chaur-
baug and the Grandees were Airing themselves, prancing about with
their numerous Trains, striving to outvie each other in Pomp and
Generosity.' At the bottom, quays lined the banks of the river, and
were bordered with the mansions of the nobility."
Such was the Chahar Bagh in the plenitude of its fame. But now
what a tragical contrast! The channels are empty, their stone
borders crumbled and shattered, the terraces are broken down, the
parterres are unsightly bare patches, the trees, all lopped and
pollarded, have been chipped and hollowed out or cut down for fuel
by the soldiery of the Zil, the side pavilions are abandoned and
tumbling to pieces and the gardens are wildernesses. Two centuries
of decay could never make the Champs Elyse'es in Paris, the Unter
* This pavilion was the Persian telegraph office of Isfahan for
nearly forty years and was demolished in 1903.
ISFAHAN
869
den Linden in Berlin, or Rotten Row in London, look one half as
miserable as does the ruined avenue of Shah Abbas. It is in itself
an epitome of modern Iran."
Towards the upper end of the avenue on its eastern side
stands the medresseh (college) which Shah Hosain built in 1710.
It still has a few students, but is very much out of repair; Lord
Curzon spoke of it in 1888 as " one of the stateliest ruins that
he saw in Persia." South of this college the avenue is altogether
without trees, and the gardens on both sides have been turned
into barley fields. Among the other notable buildings of Isfahan
must be reckoned its five bridges, all fine structures, and one of
them, the bridge of Allah Verdi Kahn, 388 yds. in length with
a paved roadway of 30 ft. in breadth, is one of the stateliest
bridges in the world, and has suffered little by the march of decay.
Another striking feature of Isfahan is the line of covered
bazaars, which extends for nearly 3 m. and divides the city
from south to north. The confluence of people in these bazaars
is certainly very great, and gives an exaggerated idea of the
populousness of the city, the truth being that while the in-
habitants congregate for business in the bazaars, the rest of the
city is comparatively deserted. When surveyed from a command-
ing height within the city, or in the immediate environs, the
enormous extent of mingled garden and building, about 30 m.
in circuit, gives an impression of populousness and busy life,
but a closer scrutiny reveals that the whole scene is nothing more
than a gigantic sham. With the exception of the bazaars and
a few parishes there is really no continuous inhabited area.
Whole streets, whole quarters of the city have fallen into utter
ruin and are absolutely deserted, and the traveller who is bent on
visiting some of the remarkable sites in the northern part of
the city or in the western suburbs, such as the minarets dating
from the i2th century, the remains of the famous castle of
Tabarrak built by the Buyid Rukn addaula (d. 976), the ruins
of the old fire temple, the shaking minarets of Guladan, &c.,
has to pass through miles of crumbling mud walls and roofless
houses. It is believed indeed that not a twentieth part of the
area of the old city is at present peopled, and the million or
600,000 inhabitants of Chardin's time (middleof the I7th century)
have now dwindled to about 85,000. The Armenian suburb
of Julfa, at any rate, which contained a population of 30,000
souls in the i7th century, has now only 4000, and the Christian
churches, which numbered thirteen and were maintained with
splendour, are now reduced to half a dozen edifices with bare
walls and empty benches. Much improvement has recently
taken place in the education of the young and also in their
religious teaching, the wealthy Armenians of India and Java
having liberally contributed to the national schools, and the
Church Missionary Society of London having a church, schools
and hospitals there since 1869.
The people of Isfahan have a very poor reputation in Persia
either for courage or morals. They are regarded as a clever but
at the same time dissolute and disorderly community, whose
government requires a strong hand. The lutis (hooligans) of
Isfahan are proverbial as the most turbulent and rowdy set of
vagabonds in Persia. The priesthood of Isfahan are much
respected for their learning and high character, and the merchants
are a very respectable class. The commerce of Isfahan has
greatly fallen off from its former flourishing condition, and
it is doubtful whether the trade of former days can ever be
restored. (A. H.-S.)
History. — The natural advantages of Isfahan — a genial climate, a
fertile soil and abundance of water for irrigation — must have always
made it a place of importance. In the most ancient cuneiform docu-
ments, referring to a period between 3000 and 2000 B.C., the province
of Anshan, which certainly included Isfahan, was the limit of the
geographical knowledge of the Babylonians, typifying the extreme
east, as Syria (or Martu-ki) typified the west. The two provinces of
Anshan and Subarta, by which we must understand the country from
Isfahan to Shuster, were ruled in those remote ages by the same
king, who undoubtedly belonged to the great Turanian family;
and from this first notice of Anshan down to the 7th century B.C.
the region seems to have remained, more or less, dependent on the
paramount power of Susa. With regard to the eastern frontier of
Anshan, however, ethnic changes were probably in extensive opera-
tion during this interval of twenty centuries. The western Iranians,
for instance, after separating from their eastern brethren on the
Oxus, as early perhaps as 3000 B.C., must have followed the line
of the Elburz mountains, and then bifurcating into two branches
must have scattered, westward into Media and southward towards
Persia. The first substantial settlement of the southern branch
would seem then to have been at Isfahan, where Jem, the eponym
of the Persian race, is said to have founded a famous castle, the
remains of which were visible as late as the loth century A.D. This
castle is known in the Zoroastrian writings as Jem-gird, but its proper
name was Saru or Sariik (given in the Bundahish as Sruwa or Srobak) ,
and it was especially famous in early Mahommedan history as the
building where the ancient records and tables of the Persians were
discovered which proved of so much use to Albumazar and his con-
temporaries. A valuable tradition, proceeding from quite a different
source, has also been preserved to the effect that Jem, who invented
the original Persian character, " dwelt in Assan, a district of
Shuster" (see Fliigel's Fihrist, p. 12, 1. 21), which exactly accords
with the Assyrian notices of Assan or Anshan classed as a depend-
ency of Elymais. Now, it is well known that native legend repre-
sented the Persian race to have been held in bondage for a thousand
years, after the reign of Jem, by the foreign usurper Zohdk or
Biverasp, a period which may well represent the duration of Ely-
maean supremacy over the Aryans of Anshan. At the commence-
ment of the 7th century B.C. Persia and Ansan are still found in the
annals of Sennacherib amongst the tributaries of Elymais, Confeder-
ated against Assyria; but shortly afterwards the great Susian
monarchy, which had lasted for full 2000 years, crumbled away
under continued pressure from the west, and the Aryans of Anshan
recovered their independence, founding for the first time a national
dynasty, and establishing their seat of government at Gabae on the
site of the modern city of Isfahan.
The royal city of Gabae was known as a foundation of the Achae-
menidae as late as the time of Strabo, and the inscriptions show that
Achaemenes and his successors did actually rule at Anshan until the
great Cyrus set out on his career of western victory. Whether the
KM or Kavi of tradition, the blacksmith of Isfahan, who is said
to have headed the revolt against Zohak, took his name from the
town of Gabae may be open to question; but it is at any rate re-
markable that the national standard of the Persian race, named
after the blacksmith, and supposed to have been first unfurled at
this epoch, retained the title of Darafsh-a Kdvdni (the banner of
Kavi) to the time of the Arab conquest, and that the men of Isfahan
were, moreover, throughout this long period, always especially
charged with its protection. The provincial name of Anshan or
Assan seems to have been disused in the country after the age of
Cyrus, and to have been replaced by that of Gabene or Gabiane,
which alone appears in the Greek accounts of the wars of Alexander
and his successors, and in the geographical descriptions of Strabo.
Gabae or Gavi became gradually corrupted to Jal during the
Sassanian period, and it was thus by the latter name that the old
city of Isfahan was generally known at the time of the Arab in-
vasion. Subsequently the title of Jai became replaced by She-
heristan or Medlneh, ' the city " par excellence, while a suburb which
had been founded in the immediate vicinity, and which took the name
of Yahudieh, or the "Jews' town," from its original Jewish inhabi-
tants, gradually rose into notice and superseded the old capital.1
Sheheristan and Yahudieh are thus in the early ages of Islam
described as independent cities, the former being the eastern and
the latter the western division of the capital, each surrounded by a
separate wall; but about the middle of the loth century the famous
Buyid king, known as the Rukn-addaula (al-Dowleh), united the two
suburbs and many of the adjoining villages in one general enclosure
which was about 10 m. in circumference. The city, which had now
resumed its old name of Isfahan, continued to flourish till the time of
Timur (A.D. 1387), when in common with so many other cities of the
empire it suffered grievously at the hands of the Tatar invaders.
Timur indeed is said to have erected a Kelleh Minar or "skull
tower " of 70,000 heads at the gate of the city, as a warning to deter
other communities from resisting his arms. The place, however,
owing to its natural advantages, gradually recovered from the effects
of this terrible visitation, and when the Safavid dynasty, who suc-
ceeded to power in the l6th century, transferred their place of
residence to it from Kazvin, it rose rapidly in populousness and
wealth. It was under Shah Abbas the first, the most illustrious
sovereign of this house, that Isfahan attained its greatest prosperity.
This monarch adopted every possible expedient, by stimulating
1 The name of Yahudieh or " Jews' town " is derived by the early
Arab geographers from a colony of Jews who are said to have
migrated from Babylonia to Isfahan shortly after Nebuchadrezzar's
conquest of Jerusalem, but this is pure fable. The Jewish settle-
ment really dates from the 3rd century A.D. as is shown by a notice
in the Armenian history of Moses of Chorene, lib. iii. cap. 35. The
name Isfahan has been generally compared with the Aspadana of
Ptolemy in the extreme north of Persis, and the identification is
probably correct. At any rate the title is of great antiquity, being
found in the Bundahish, and being derived in all likelihood from the
family name of the race of Feridun, the Athviyan of romance, who
were entitled Aspiyan in Pahlavi, according to the phonetic rules of
that language.
87o
ISHIM— ISHTAR
commerce, encouraging arts and manufactures, and introducing
luxurious habits, to attract visitors to his favourite capital. He
built several magnificent palaces in the richest style of Oriental
decoration, planted gardens and avenues, and distributed amongst
them the waters of the Zendeh-rud in an endless series of reservoirs,
fountains and cascades. The baths, the mosques, the colleges, the
bazaars and the caravanserais of the city received an equal share of
his attention, and European artificers and merchants were_ largely
encouraged to settle in his capital. Ambassadors visited his court
from many of the first states of Europe, and factories were perman-
ently established for the merchants of England, France, Holland, the
Hanseatic towns, Spain, Portugal and Moscow. The celebrated
traveller Chardin, who passed a great portion of his life at Isfahan in
the latter half of the lyth century, has left a detailed and most
interesting account of the statistics of the city at that period. He
himself estimated the' population at 600,000, though in popular belief
the number exceeded a million. There were 1500 flourishing villages
in the immediate neighbourhood; the enceinte of the city and
suburbs was reckoned at 24 m., while the mud walls surrounding the
city itself, probably nearly following the lines of the Buyid en-
closure, measured 20,000 paces. In the interior were counted 162
mosques, 48 public colleges, 1802 caravanserais, 273 baths and 12
cemeteries. The adjoining suburb of Julfa was also a most flourish-
ing place. Originally founded by Shah Abbas the Great, who trans-
ported to this locality 3400 Armenian families from the town of Julfa
on the Arras, the colony increased rapidly under his fostering care,
both in wealth and in numbers, the Christian population being
estimated in 1685 at 30,000 souls. The first blow to the prosperity
of modern Isfahan was given by the Afghan invasion at the beginning
of the 1 8th century, since which date, although continuing for some
time to be the nominal head of the empire, the city has gradually
dwindled in importance, and now only ranks as a second or third rate
provincial capital. When the Kajar dynasty indeed mounted the
throne of Persia at the end of the i8th century the seat of govern-
ment was at once transferred to Teheran, with a view to the support
of the royal tribe, whose chief seat was in the neighbouring province
of Mazenderan; and, although it has often been proposed, from
considerations of state policy in reference to Russia, to re-establish
the court at Isfahan, which is the true centre of Persia, the scheme
has never commanded much attention. At the same time the
government of Isfahan, owing to the wealth of the surrounding
districts, has always been much sought after. Early in the igth
century the post was often conferred upon some powerful minister of
the court, but in later times it has been usually the apanage of a
favourite son or brother of the reigning sovereign.1 Path AH Shah,
who had a particular affection for Isfahan, died here in 1834, and it
became a time-honoured custom for the monarch on the throne to,
seek relief from the heat of Teheran by forming a summer camp at
the rich pastures of Ganduman, on the skirts of Zardeh-Kuh, to the
west of Isfahan, for the exercise of his troops and the health and
amusement of his courtiers, but in recent years the practice has been
discontinued. (H. C. R.)
ISHIM, a town of West Siberia, in the government of Tobolsk,
180 m. N.W. of Omsk, on a river of the same name, tributary,
on the left, of the Irtysh. Pop. (1897) 7161. The town, which
was founded in 1630, has tallow-melting and carries on a large
trade in rye and rye flour. The fair is one of the most important
in Siberia, its returns being estimated at £500,000 annually.
ISHMAEL (a Hebrew name meaning " God hears "), in the
Bible, the son of Abraham by his Egyptian concubine Hagar,
and the eponym of a number of (probably) nomadic tribes living
outside Palestine. Hagar in turn personifies a people found to
the east of Gilead (i Chron. v. 10) and Petra (Strabo).2 Through
the jealousy of Sarah, Abraham's wife, mother and son were
driven away, and they wandered in the district south of Beersheba
and Kadesh (Gen. xvi. J, xxi. E); see ABRAHAM. It had
been foretold to his mother before his birth that he should be
" a wild ass among men," and that he should dwell " before
the face of " (that is, to the eastward of) his brethren. It is
subsequently stated that after leaving his father's roof he
" became an archer,' and dwelt in the wilderness of Paran, and
1 Zill es Sultan, elder brother of Muzafar ed d-n Shah, became
governor-general of the Isfahan province in 1869.
J On Paul's use of the story of Hagar (Gal. iv. 24-26), see Ency.
Bib. col. 1934 ; and H. St J. Thackeray, Relation of St Paul to
contemporary Jewish Thought (London, 1900), pp. 196 sqq.; Hagar
typifies the old Sinaitic covenant, and Sarah represents the new
covenant of freedom from bondage. The treatment of the concubine
and her son in Gen. xvi. compared with ch. xxi. illustrates old
Hebrew customs, on which see further S. A. Cook, Laws of Moses, ftc.
(London, 1903), pp. 116 sqq., 140 sq.
3 The Ituraean archers were of Jetur, one of the "sons" of
Ishmael (Gen. xxv. 15), and were Roman mercenaries, perhaps even
in Great Britain (Pal. Expl. Fund, Q.S., 1909, p. 283).
his mother took him a wife out of the land of Egypt." But the
genealogical relations were rather with the Edomites, Midianites
and other peoples of North Arabia and the eastern desert than
with Egypt proper, and this is indicated by the expressions that
" they dwelt from Havilah unto Shur that is east of Egypt,
and he settled to the eastward of his brethren" (see MIZRAIM).
Like Jacob, the ancestor of the Israelites, he had twelve sons
(xxv. 12-18, P), of which only a few have historical associations
apart from the biblical records. Nebaioth and Kedar suggest
the Nabataei and Cedrei of Pliny (v. 12), the first-mentioned
of whom were an important Arab people after the time of
Alexander (see NABATAEANS). The names correspond to the
Nabaitu and Kidru of the Assyrian inscriptions occupying the
desert east of the Jordan and Dead Sea, whilst the Massa and
Tema lay probably farther south. Dumah may perhaps be
the same as the Domata of Pliny (vi. 32) and the Aoi>jue0a or
Aovfiaida of Ptolemy (v. 19, 7, viii. 22, 3) — Sennacherib
conquered a fortress of " Aribi " named Adumu, — and Jetur is
obviously the Ituraea of classical geographers.4
" Ishmael," therefore, is used in a wide sense of the wilder, roving
peoples encircling Canaan from the north-east to the south, related
to but on a lower rank than the " sons " of Isaac. It is practically
identical with the term " Arabia " as used by the Assyrians. Nothing
certain is known of the history of these mixed populations. They
are represented as warlike nomads and with a certain reputation for
wisdom (Baruch iii. 23). Not improbably they spoke a dialect (or
dialects) akin to Arabic or Aramaic.6 According to the Mahomme-
dans, Ishmael, who is recognized as their ancestor, lies buried with
his mother in the Kaaba in Mecca. See further, T. Noldeke, Ency.
Bib., s.v., and the articles EDOM, MIDIAN. (S. A. C.)
ISHPEMING, a city of Marquette county, Michigan, U.S.A.,
about 15 m. W. by S. of Marquette, in the N. part of the upper
peninsula. Pop. (1890) 11,197; (1900) 13,255, of whom 5970
were foreign-born; (1904, State census) 11,623. It is served by
the Chicago & North Western, the Duluth, South Shore &
Atlantic, and the Lake Superior and Ishpeming railways. The
city is 1400 ft. above sea-level (whence its name, from an Ojibway
Indian word, said to mean " high up "), in the centre of the
Marquette Range iron district, and has seven mines within its
limits; the mining of iron ore is its principal industry.
Ishpeming was settled about 1854, and was incorporated as
a city in 1873.
ISHTAR, or UTAR, the name of the chief goddess of Babylonia
and Assyria, the counterpart of the Phoenician Astarte (q.i>.).
The meaning of the name is not known, though it is possible
that the underlying stem is the same as that of Assur (q.v.), which
would thus make her the " leading one " or " chief." At all
events it is now generally recognized that the name is Semitic
in its origin. Where the name originated is likewise uncertain,
but the indications point to Erech where we find the worship
of a great mother-goddess independent of any association with
a male counterpart flourishing in the oldest period of Babylonian
history. She appears under various names, among which are
Nana, Innanna, Nina and Anunit. As early as the days of
Khammurabi we find these various names which represented
originally different goddesses, though all manifest as the chief
trait the life-giving power united in Ishtar. Even when the older
names are employed it is always the great mother-goddess who
is meant. Ishtar is the one goddess in the pantheon who retains
her independent position despite and throughout all changes that
the Babylonian-Assyrian religion undergoes. In a certain
sense she is the only real goddess in the pantheon, the rest being
mere reflections of the gods with whom they are associated
as consorts. Even when Ishtar is viewed as the consort of some
chief — of Marduk occasionally in the south, of Assur more
frequently in the north — the consciousness that she has a
personality of her own apart from this association is never
lost sight of.
4 With Adbeel (Gen. xxv. 13) may be identified Idibi'il (-ba'il) a
tribe employed by Tiglath-Pileser IV. (733 B.C.) to watch the
frontier of Musri (Sinaitic peninsula or N. Arabia ?).
6 This is suggested by the fact that Ashurbanipal (7th century)
mentions as the name of their deity Atar-Samain (i.e. " Ishtar of the
heavens ").
ISHTIB— ISIDORE OF SEVILLE
871
We may reasonably assume that the analogy drawn from the
process of reproduction among men and animals led to the
conception of a female deity presiding over the life of the universe.
The extension of the scope of this goddess to life in general — to
the growth of plants and trees from the fructifying seed — was a
natural outcome of a fundamental idea; and so, whether we
turn to incantations or hymns, in myths and in epics, in votive
inscriptions and in historical annals, Ishtar is celebrated and
invoked as the great mother, as the mistress of lands, as clothed
in splendour and power — one might almost say as the personifica-
tion of life itself.
But there are two aspects to this goddess of life. She brings
forth, she fertilizes the fields, she clothes nature in joy and glad-
ness, but she also withdraws her favours and when she does so
the fields wither, and men and animals cease to reproduce.
In place of life, barrenness and death ensue. She is thus also
a grim goddess, at once cruel and destructive. We can, there-
fore, understand that she was also invoked as a goddess of war
and battles and of the chase; and more particularly among the
warlike Assyrians she assumes this aspect. Before the battle she
appears to the army, clad in battle array and armed with bow and
arrow. In myths symbolizing the change of seasons she is
portrayed in this double character, as the life-giving and the
life-depriving power. The most noteworthy of these myths
describes her as passing through seven gates into the nether world.
At each gate some of her clothing and her ornaments are removed
until at the last gate she is entirely naked. While she remains in
the nether world as a prisoner — whether voluntary or involuntary
it is hard to say — all fertility ceases on earth, but the time conies
when she again returns to earth, and as she passes each gate the
watchman restores to her what she had left there until she is
again clad in her full splendour, to the joy of mankind and of all
nature. Closely allied with this myth and personifying another
view of the change of seasons is the story of Ishtar's love for
Tammuz — symbolizing the spring time — but as midsummer
approaches her husband is slain and, according to one version,
it is for the purpose of saving Tammuz from the clutches of the
goddess of the nether world that she enters upon her journey
to that region.
In all the great centres Ishtar had her temples, bearing such
names as E-anna, " heavenly house," in Erech; E-makh, " great
house," in Babylon; E-mash-mash, "house of offerings," in
Nineveh. Of the details of her cult we as yet know little, but
there is no evidence that there were obscene rites connected
with it, though there may have been certain mysteries introduced
at certain centres which might easily impress the uninitiated as
having obscene aspects. She was served by priestesses as well
as by priests, and it would appear that the votaries of Ishtar
were in all cases virgins who, as long as they remained in the
service of Ishtar, were not permitted to marry.
In the astral-theological system, Ishtar becomes the planet Venus,
and the double aspect of the goddess is made to correspond to the
strikingly different phases of Venus in the summer and winter
seasons. On monuments and seal-cylinders she appears frequently
with bow and arrow, though also simply clad in long robes with a
crown on her head and an eight-rayed star as her symbol. Statuettes
have been found in large numbers representing her as naked with her
arms folded across her breast or holding a child. The art thus
reflects the popular conceptions formed of the goddess. Together
with Sin, the moon-god, and Shamash, the sun-god, she is the third
figure in a triad personifying the three great forces of nature — moon,
sun and earth, as the life-force. The doctrine involved illustrates
the tendency of the Babylonian priests to centralize the manifesta-
tions of divine power in the universe, just as the triad Anu, Bel and
Ea (q.v.) — the heavens, the earth and the watery deep — form
another illustration of this same tendency.
Naturally, as a member of a triad, Ishtar is dissociated from any
local limitations, and similarly as the planet Venus — a conception
which is essentially a product of theological speculation — no thought
of any particular locality for her cult is present. It is because her
cult, like that of Sin (q.v.) and Shamash (q.v.), is spread over all
Babylonia and Assyria, that she becomes available for purposes of
theological speculation.
Cf. ASTARTE, ATARGATIS, GREAT MOTHER OF THE GODS, and
specially BABYLONIAN AND ASSYRIAN RELIGION. (M. JA.)
ISHTIB, or ISTIB (anc. Astibon, Slav. Shtipliye or Shtip),
a. town of Macedonia, European Turkey, in the vilayet of
Kossovo; 45 m. E.S.E. of Uskub. Pop. (1905) about 10,000.
Ishtib is built on a hill at the confluence of the small river
Ishtib with the Bregalnitza, a tributary of the Vardar. It has
a thriving agricultural trade, and possesses several fine mosques,
a number of fountains and a large bazaar. A hill on the north-
west is crowned by the ruins of an old castle.
ISIDORE OF ALEXANDRIA,1 Greek philosopher and one
of the last of the Neoplatonists, lived in Athens and Alexandria
towards the end of the 5th century A.D. He became head of the
school in Athens in succession to Marinus who followed Proclus.
His views alienated the chief members of the school and he was
compelled to resign his position to Hegias. He is known princi-
pally as the preceptor of Damascius whose testimony to him
in the Life of Isidorus presents him in a very favourable light
as a man and a thinker. It is generally admitted, however, that
he was rather an enthusiast than a thinker; reasoning with him
was subsidiary to inspiration, and he preferred the theories of
Pythagoras and Plato to the unimaginative logic and the practical
ethics of the Stoics and the Aristotelians. He seems to have
given loose rein to a sort of theosophical speculation and attached
great importance to dreams and waking visions on which he used
to expatiate in his public discourses.
Damascius' Life is preserved by Photius in the Bibliotheca, and the
fragments are printed in the Didot edition of Diogenes Laertius.
See Agathias, Hist. ii. 30; Photius, Bibliotheca, 181; and histories
of Neoplatonism.
ISIDORE OF SEVILLE, or ISIDORUS HISPALENSIS (c. 560-636),
Spanish encyclopaedist and historian, was the son of Severianus,
a distinguished native of Cartagena, who came to Seville about
the time of the birth of Isidore. Leander, bishop of Seville, was
his elder brother. Left an orphan while still young, Isidore was
educated in a monastery, and soon distinguished himself in con-
troversies with the Arians. In 599, on the death of his brother,
he was chosen archbishop of Seville, and acquired high renown
by his successful administration of the episcopal office, as well
as by his numerous theological, historical and scientific works.
He founded a school at Seville, and taught in it himself. In the
provincial and national councils he played an important part,
notably at Toledo in 610, at Seville in 619 and in 633 at Toledo,
which profoundly modified the organization of the church in
Spain. His great work, however, was in another line. Pro-
foundly versed in the Latin as well as in the Christian literature,
his indefatigable intellectual curiosity led him to condense and
reproduce in encyclopaedic form the fruit of his wide reading.
His works, which include all topics — science, canon law, history
or theology — are unsystematic and largely uncritical, merely
reproducing at second hand the substance of such sources as
were available. Yet in their inadequate way they served to
keep alive throughout the dark ages some little knowledge
of the antique culture and learning. The most elaborate of his
writings is the Originum sive etymologiarum libri XX. It was
the last of his works, written between 622 and 633, and was
corrected by his friend and disciple Braulion. It is an encyclo-
paedia of all the sciences, under the form of an explanation of
the terms proper to each of them. It was one of the capital
books of the middle ages.
On the Libri differentiarum sive de proprietate sermonum — of which
the first book is a collection of synonyms, and the second of ex-
planations of metaphysical and religious ideas — see A. Mack's
doctoral dissertation, Rennes, 1900. Mommsen has edited the
Chronica majora or Chronicon de sex aetalibus (from the creation to
A.D. 615) and the " Historia Gothorum, Wandalorum, Sueborum,"
in the Monumenta Germaniae historica, auctores antiquissimi;
Chronica minora II. The history of the Goths is a historical source
of the first order. The De scriptoribus ecclesiasticis or better De
viris illustribus, was a continuation of the work of St Jerome and of
Gennadius (cf . G. von Dzialpwski in Kirchengeschichtliche Studien, iv.
(1899). Especially interesting is the De naturaj'erum ad Sisebutum
1 With Isidore of Alexandria has been confused an Isidore of Gaza,
mentioned by Photius. Little is known of him except that he was
one of those who accompanied Damascius to the Persian court when
Justinian closed the schools in Athens in 529. Suidas, in speaking
of Isidore of Alexandria, says that Hypatia was his wife, but there
is no means of approximating the dates (see HYPATIA). Suetonius,
in his Life of Nero, refers to a Cynic philosopher named Isidore, who is
said to have jested publicly at the expense of Nero.
ISINGLASS— ISIS
regent, a treatise on astronomy and meteorology, which contained the
sum of physical philosophy during the early middle ages. The
Regula monachorum of Isidore was adopted by many of the mon-
asteries in Spain during the 7th and 8th centuries. The collection
of canons known as the Isidoriana or Hispalcnsis is not by him, and
the following, attributed to him, are of doubtful authenticity: De
ortu ac obitu patrum qui in Scriptura laudibus efferuntur; Alle-
goriae scripturae sacrae et liber numerorum; De ordine creaturarum.
The edition of all of Isidore's works by F. Orevalo (Rome, 1797-
1803, 7 vols.), reproduced in Migne, Patrologia Latina, 81-84, is
carefully edited. See also C. Canal, San Isidore, exposition de sus
obras e indicaciones a cerca de la inftuencia que han ejercido en la
civilization espanola (Seville, 1897). A list of monographs is in the
Bibliographic of Ulysse Chevalier.
ISINGLASS (probably a corruption of the Dutch huisenblas,
Ger. Hausenblase, literally " sturgeon's bladder "), a pure form
of commercial gelatin obtained from the swimming bladder or
sound of several species of fish. The sturgeon is the most valu-
able, various species of which, especially Acipenser stellalus
(the seuruga), A. ruthenus (the sterlet) and A. guldenstadtii
(the ossetr), flourish in the Volga and other Russian rivers,
in the Caspian and Black Seas, and in the Arctic Ocean, and yield
the " Russian isinglass "; a large fish, Silurus parkerii, and
probably some other fish, yield the " Brazilian isinglass "; other
less definitely characterized fish yield the " Penang " product;
while the common cod, the hake and other Gadidae also yield
a variety of isinglass. The sounds, having been removed from
the fish and cleansed, undergo no other preparation than desicca-
tion or drying, an operation needing much care; but in this
process the sounds are subjected to several different treatments.
If the sound be unopened the product appears in commerce as
"pipe," "purse" or "lump isinglass"; if opened and unfolded,
as " leaf " or " honeycomb "; if folded and dried, as " book,"
and if rolled out, as " ribbon isinglass." Russian isinglass
generally appears in commerce as leaf, book, and long and short
staple; Brazilian isinglass, from Para and Maranham, as pipe,
lump and honeycomb; the latter product, and also the isinglass
of Hudson's Bay, Penang, Manila, &c., is darker in colour and less
soluble than the Russian product.
The finest isinglass, which comes from the Russian ports of
Astrakhan and Taganrog, is prepared by steeping the sounds in
hot water in order to remove mucus, &c. ; they are then cut open
and the inner membrane exposed to the air; after drying, the
outer membrane is removed by rubbing and beating. As
imported, isinglass is usually too tough and hard to be directly
used. To increase its availability, the raw material is sorted,
soaked in water till it becomes flexible and then trimmed; the
trimmings are sold as a lower grade. The trimmed sheets are
sometimes passed between steel rollers, which reduce them to
the thickness of paper; it then appears as a transparent ribbon,
" shot " like watered silk. The ribbon is dried, and, if necessary,
cut into strips.
The principal use of isinglass is for clarifying wines, beers
and other liquids. This property is the more remarkable since
it is not possessed by ordinary gelatin; it has been ascribed to
its fibrous structure, which forms, as it were, a fine network in
the liquid in which it is disseminated, and thereby mechanically
carries down all the minute particles which occasion the turbidity.
The cheaper varieties are more commonly used; many brewers
prefer the Penang product; Russian leaf, however, is used
by some Scottish brewers; and Russian long staple is used in
the Worcestershire cider industry. Of secondary importance
is its use for culinary and confectionery purposes, for example,
in making jellies, stiffening jams, &c. Here it is often replaced
by the so-called " patent isinglass," which is a very pure gelatin,
and differs from natural isinglass by being useless for clarifying
liquids. It has few other applications in the arts. Mixed
with gum, it is employed to give a lustre to ribbons and silk;
incorporated with water, Spanish liquorice and lamp black
it forms an Indian ink; a solution, mixed with a little tincture
of benzoin, brushed over sarsenet and allowed to dry, forms
the well-known " court plaster." Another plaster is obtained
by adding acetic acid and a little otto of roses to a solution of
fine glue. It also has valuable agglutinating properties; by
dissolving in two parts of pure alcohol it forms a diamond
cement, the solution cooling to a white, opaque, hard solid;
it also dissolves in strong acetic acid to form a powerful cement,
which is especially useful for repairing glass, pottery and
like substances.
ISIS (Egyptian Ese), the most famous of the Egyptian god-
desses. She was of human form, in early times distinguished
only by the hieroglyph of her name I] upon her head. Later
she commonly wore the horns of a cow, and the cow was sacred
to her; it is doubtful, however, whether she had any animal
representation in early times, nor had she possession of any
considerable locah'ty until a late period, when Philae, Behbet
and other large temples were dedicated to her worship. Yet
she was of great importance in mythology, religion and magic,
appearing constantly in the very ancient Pyramid texts as the
devoted sister-wife of Osiris and mother of Horus. In the
divine genealogies she is daughter of Keb and Nut (earth and
sky). She was supreme in magical power, cunning and know-
ledge. A legend of the New Kingdom tells how she contrived
to learn the all-powerful hidden name of Re' which he had
confided to no one. A snake which she had fashioned for the
purpose stung the god, who sent for her as a last resort in his
unendurable agony; whereupon she represented to him that
nothing but his own mysterious name could overcome the
venom of the snake. Much Egyptian magic turns on the healing
or protection of Horus by Isis, and it is chiefly from magical
texts that the myth of Isis and Osiris as given by Plutarch can be
illustrated. The Metternich stela (XXXth Dynasty) , the finest
example of a class of prophylactic stelae generally known by
the name of " Horus on the crocodiles," is inscribed with a long
text relating the adventures of Isis and Horus in the marshes
of the Delta. With her sister Nephthys, Isis is frequently repre-
sented as watching the body of Osiris or mourning his death.
Isis was identified with Demeter by Herodotus, and described
as the goddess who was held to be the greatest by the Egyptians;
he states that she and Osiris, unlike other deities, were worshipped
throughout the land. The importance of Isis had increased
greatly since the end of the New Kingdom. The great temple of
Philae was begun under the XXXth Dynasty; that of Behbet
seems to have been built by Ptolemy II. The cult of Isis spread
into Greece with that of Serapis early in the 3rd century B.C.
In Egypt itself Isea, or shrines of Isis, swarmed. At Coptos
Isis became a leading divinity on a par with the early god Min.
About 80 B.C. Sulla founded an Isiac college in Rome, but their
altars within the city were overthrown by the consuls no less
than four times in the decade from 58 to 48 B.C., and the worship
of Isis at Rome continued to be limited or suppressed by a
succession of enactments which were enforced until the reign
of Caligula. The Isiac mysteries were a representation of the
chief events in the myth of Isis and Osiris — the murder of
Osiris, the lamentations of Isis and her wanderings, followed
by the triumph of Horus over Seth and the resurrection of the
slain god — accompanied by music and an exposition of the inner
meaning of the spectacle. These were traditional in ancient
Egypt, and in their later development were no doubt affected
by the Eleusinian mysteries of Demeter. They appealed power-
fully to the imagination and the religious sense. The initiated
went through rites of purification, and practised a degree of
asceticism; but for many the festival was believed to be an
occasion for dark orgies. Isis nursing the child Horus (Har-
pokhrates) was a very common figure in the Deltaic period,
and in these later days was still a favourite representation.
The Isis temples discovered at Pompeii and in Rome show that
ancient monuments as well as objects of small size were brought
from Egypt to Italy for dedication to her worship, but the
goddess absorbed the attributes of all female divinities; she
was goddess of the earth and its fruits, of the Nile, of the sea,
of the underworld, of love, healing and magic. From the time of
Vespasian onwards the worship of Isis, always popular with some
sections, had a great vogue throughout the western world, and
is not without traces in Britain. It proved the most successful
ISKELIB— ISLAND
873
of the pagan cults in maintaining itself against Christianity,
with which it had not a little in common, both in doctrine and
in emblems. But the destruction of the Serapeum at Alexandria
in A.D. 397 was a fatal blow to the prestige of the Graeco-Egyptian
divinities. The worship of Isis, however, survived in Italy
into the sth century. At Philae her temple was frequented by
the barbarous Nobatae and Blemmyes until the middle of the
6th century, when the last remaining shrine of Isis was finally
closed.
See G. Lafaye, art. " Isis " in Daremberg et Saglio, Dictionnaire des
antiquiies (1900); id. Hist.du culte desdivinites d'Alexandrie hors de
I'Egypte (1883); Meyer and Drexler, art. "Isis" in Roscher's
Lexicon der griech. undrom. Mythologie (1891-1892) (very elaborate) ;
E. A. W. Budge, Gods of the Egyptians, vol. ii. ch. xiii.; Ad. Rusch,
De Serapide et Iside in Graecia cultis^ (dissertation) (Berlin, 1906).
(The author especially collects the evidence from Greek inscriptions
earlier than the Roman conquest ; he contends that the mysteries of
Isis were not equated with the Eleusinian mysteries.) (F. LL. G.)
ISKELIB, the chief town of a Caza (governed by a kaimakam)
in the vilayet of Angora in Asia Minor, altitude 2460 ft., near
the left bank of the Kizil Irmak (anc. Halys), 100 m. in an
air-line N.E. of Angora and 60 S.E. of Kastamuni (to which
vilayet it belonged till 1894). Pop. 10,600 (Cuinet, La Turquie
d' Asie, 1894). It lies several miles off the road, now abandoned
by wheeled traffic, between Changra and Amasia in a picturesque
cut de sac amongst wooded hills, at the foot of a limestone rock
crowned by the ruins of an ancient fortress now filled with
houses (photograph in Anderson, Studia Pontica, p. 4). Its
ancient name is uncertain. Near the town (on S.) are saline
springs, whence salt is extracted.
ISLA, JOSE FRANCISCO DE (1703-1781), Spanish satirist,
was born at Villa vidanes (Leon) on the 24th of March 1703.
He joined the Jesuits in 1719, was banished from Spain with
his brethren in 1767, and settled at Bologna, where he died on
the 2nd of November 1781. His earliest publication, a Carta
de un residente en Roma (1725), is a panegyric of trifling interest,
and La Juventud triunfante (1727) was written in collaboration
with Luis de Lovada. Isla's gifts were first shown in his Triunfo
del amor y de la lealtad: Dia Grande de Nai'arra, a satirical
description of the ceremonies at Pamplona in honour of Ferdinand
VI. 's accession; its sly humour so far escaped the victims
that they thanked the writer for his appreciation of their local
efforts, but the true significance of the work was discovered
shortly afterwards, and the protests were so violent that Isla
was transferred by his superiors to another district. He gained
a great reputation as an effective preacher, and his posthumous
Sermones morales (1792-1793) justify his fame in this respect.
But his position in the history of Spanish literature is due to
his Historia del famoso predicador fray Gerundio de Campazas,
alias Zotes (1758), a novel which wittily caricatures the bom-
bastic eloquence of pulpit orators in Spain. Owing to the
protests of the Dominicans and other regulars, the book was
prohibited in 1760, but the second part was issued surreptitiously
in 1768. He translated Gil Bias, adopting more or less seriously
Voltaire's unfounded suggestion that Le Sage plagiarized from
Espinel's Marcos de Obregdn, and other Spanish books; the
text appeared in 1783, and in 1828 was greatly modified by
Evaristo Pefia y Martin, whose arrangement is still widely read.
See Policarpo Mingote y Tarrazona, Varones ilustres de la, pro-
vincia de Leon (Leon, 1880), pp. 185-215; Bernard Gaudeau, Les
Precheurs burlesques en Espagne au XVIII' siecle (Paris, 1891);
V. Cian, L' ' Immigrazione dei Gesuiti spagnuoli letterati in Italia (Torino,
1895). (J- F.-K.)
ISLAM, an Arabic word meaning " pious submission to the
will of God," the name of the religion of the orthodox Mahom-
medans, and hence used, generically, for the whole body of
Mahommedan peoples. Salama, from which the word is derived
appears in salaam, " peace be with you," the greeting of the East,
and in Moslem, and means to be " free " or " secure." (See
MAHOMMEDAN RELIGION, &c.)
ISLAMABAD, a town of India in the state of Kashmir, on
the north bank of the Jhelum. Pop. (1901) 9390. The town
crowns the summit of a long low ridge, extending from the
mountains eastward. It is the second town in Kashmir, and
was originally the capital of the valley, but is now decaying.
It contains an old summer palace, overshadowed by plane
trees, with numerous springs, and a fine mosque and shrine.
Below the town is a reservoir containing a spring of clear water
called the Anant Nag, slightly sulphurous, from which volumes
of gas continually arise; the water swarms with sacred fish.
There are manufactures of Kashmir shawls, also of chintzes,
cotton and woollen goods.
ISLAND (O.E. ieg =isle, +land1), in physical geography,
a term generally definable as a piece of land surrounded by
water. Islands may be divided into two main classes, continental
and oceanic. The former are such as would result from the
submergence of a coastal range, or a coastal highland, until
the mountain bases were cut off from the mainland while their
summits remained above water. The island may have been
formed by the sea cutting through the landward end of a
peninsula, or by the eating back of a bay or estuary until a portion
of the mainland is detached and becomes surrounded by water.
In all cases where the continental islands occur, they are con-
nected with the mainland by a continental shelf, and their
structure is essentially that of the mainland. The islands off
the west coast of Scotland and the Isles of Man and Wight
have this relation to Britain, while Britain and Ireland have a
similar relation to the continent of Europe. The north-east
coast of Australia furnishes similar examples, but in addition
to these in that locality there are true oceanic islands near the
mainland, formed by the growth of the Great Barrier coral reef.
Oceanic islands are due to various causes. It is a question
whether the numberless islands of the Malay Archipelago should
be regarded as continental or oceanic, but there is no doubt
that the South Sea islands scattered over a portion of the
Pacific belong to the oceanic group. The ocean floor is by no
means a level plain, but rises and falls in mounds, eminences
and basins towards the surface. When this configuration is
emphasized in any particular oceanic area, so that a peak rises
above the surface, an oceanic island is produced. Submarine
volcanic activity may also raise material above sea-level, or
the buckling of the ocean-bed by earth movements may have
a similar result. Coral islands (see ATOLL) are oceanic islands,
and are frequently clustered upon plateaux where the sea is
of no great depth, or appear singly as the crown of some isolated
peak that rises from deep water.
Island life contains many features of peculiar interest. The
sea forms a barrier to some forms of life but acts as a carrier to
other colonizing forms that frequently develop new features
in their isolated surroundings where the struggle for existence
is greater or less than before. When a sea barrier has existed
for a very long time there is a marked difference between the
fauna and flora even of adjacent islands. In Bali and Borneo,
for example, the flora and fauna are Asiatic, while in Lombok
and Celebes they are Australian, though the Bali Straits are
very narrow. In Java and Sumatra, though belonging to the
same group, there are marked developments of bird life, the
peacock being found in Java and the Argus pheasant in Sumatra,
having become too specialized to migrate. The Cocos, Keeling
Islands and Christmas Island in the Indian Ocean have been
colonized by few animal forms, chiefly sea-birds and insects,
while they are clothed with abundant vegetation, the seeds of
which have been carried by currents and by other means, but
the variety of plants is by no means so great as on the mainland.
Island life, therefore, is a sure indication of the origin of the
island, which may be one of the remnants of a shattered or
dissected continent, or may have arisen independently from the
sea and become afterwards colonized by drift.
The word ". island " is sometimes used for a piece of land cut off by
the tide or surrounded by marsh (e.g. Hayling Island).
1 The O.E. ieg, ig, still appearing in local names, e.g. Anglesey,
Battersea, is cognate with Norw. oy, Icel. ey, and the first part of
Ger. Eiland, &c.; it is referred to the original Teut. ahwia, a place
in water, ahwa, water, cf. Lat. aqua; the same word is seen in
English " eyot," " ait," an islet in a river. The spelling " island,"
accepted before 1700, is due to a false connexion with " isle," Fr.
He, Lat. insula.
xiv. 28 a
ISLAY— ISLY
ISLAY, the southernmost island of the Inner Hebrides, Argyll-
shire, Scotland, 16 m. W. of Kintyre and f m. S.W. of Jura,
from which it is separated by the Sound of Islay. Pop. (1901)
6857; area, 150,400 acres; maximum breadth 19 m. and
maximum length 25 m. The sea-lochs Gruinart and Indaal cut
into it so deeply as almost to convert the western portion into
a separate island. It is rich and productive, and has been called
the " Queen of the Hebrides." The surface generally is regular,
the highest summits being Ben Bheigeir (1609 ft.) and Sgorr
nam Faoileann (1407 ft.). There are several freshwater lakes
and streams, which provide good fishing. Islay was the ancient
seat of the " lord of the Isles," the first to adopt that title being
John Macdonald of Isle of Islay, who died about 1386; but the
Macdonalds were ultimately ousted by their rivals, the Campbells,
about 1616. Islay House, the ancient seat of the Campbells of
Islay, stands at the head of Loch Indaal. The island was formerly
occupied by small crofters and tacksmen, but since 1831 it has
been gradually developed into large sheep and arable farms and
considerable business is done in stock-raising. Dairy-farming
is largely followed, and oats, barley and various green crops are
raised. The chief difficulty in the way of reclamation is the great
area of peat (60 sq. m.), which,at its present rate of consumption,
is calculated to last 1500 years. The island contains several
whisky distilleries, producing about 400,000 gallons annually.
Slate and marble are quarried, and there is a little mining of
iron, lead and silver. At Bowmore, the chief town, there is a
considerable shipping trade. Port Ellen, the principal village,
has a quay with lighthouse, a fishery and a golf-course. Port
Askaig is the ferry station for Faolin on Jura. Regular com-
munication with the Clyde is maintained by steamers, and a
cable was laid between Lagavulin and Kintyre in 1871.
ISLES OF THE BLEST, or FORTUNATE ISLANDS (Gr.
al T&V iMKapuv vijaof. Lat., Fortunatae Insulae), in Greek
mythology a group of islands near the edge of the Western
Ocean, peopled not by the dead, but by mortals upon whom
the gods had conferred immortality. Like the islands of the
Phaeacians in Homer (Od. viii.) or the Celtic Avalon and St
Brendan's island, the Isles of the Blest are -represented as a
land of perpetual summer and abundance of all good things.
No reference is made to them by Homer, who speaks instead of
the Elysian Plain (Od. iv. and ix.), but they are mentioned by
Hesiod (Works and Days, 168) and Pindar (Ol. ii.). A very old
tradition suggests that the idea of such an earthly paradise
was a reminiscence of some unrecorded voyage to Madeira and
the Canaries, which are sometimes named Fortunatae Insulae
by medieval map-makers. (See ATLANTIS.)
ISLINGTON (in Domesday and later documents Iseldon,
Isendon and in the i6th century Hisselton), a northern metro-
politan borough of London, England, bounded E. by Stoke
Newington and Hackney, S. by Shoreditch and Finsbury, and
W. by St Pancras, and extending N. to the boundary of the
county of London. Pop.(i9Oi)334,99i. The name is commonly
applied to the southern part of the borough, which, however,
includes the districts of Holloway in the north, Highbury in
the east, part of Kingsland in the south-east, and Barnsbury
and Canonbury in the south-central portion. The districts in-
cluded preserve the names of ancient manors, and in Canonbury,
which belonged as early as the I3th century to the priory of
St Bartholomew, Smithfield, traces of the old manor house
remain. The fields and places of entertainment in Islington
were favourite places of resort for the citizens of London in the
I7th century and later; the modern Ball's Pond Road recalls
the sport of duck-hunting practised here and on other ponds
in the parish, and the popularity of the place was increased by
the discovery of chalybeate wells. At Copenhagen Fields, now
covered by the great cattle market (1855) adjoining Caledonian
Road, a great meeting of labourers was held in 1834. They were
suspected of intending to impose their views on parliament by
violence, but a display of military force held them in check.
The most noteworthy modern institutions in Islington are the
Agricultural Hall, Liverpool Road, erected in 1862, and used
for cattle and horse shows and other exhibitions; Pentonville
Prison, Caledonian Road (1842), a vast pile of buildings radiating
from a centre, and Holloway Prison. The borough has only some
40 acres of public grounds, the principal of which is Highbury
Fields. Among its institutions are the Great Northern Central
Hospital, Holloway, the London Fever Hospital, the Northern
Polytechnic, and the London School of Divinity, St John's
Hall,;Highbury. Islington is a suffragan bishopric in the diocese
of London. The parliamentary borough of Islington has north,
south, east and west divisions, each returning one member.
The borough council consists of a mayor, 10 aldermen and
60 councillors. Area, 3091-5 acres.
ISLIP, a township of Suffolk county, New York, U.S.A.,
in the central part of the S. side of Long Island. Pop. (1905,
state census) 13,721; (1910) 18,346. The township is 16 m. long
from E. to W., and 8 m. wide in its widest part. It is bounded
on the S. by the Atlantic Ocean; between the ocean and the
Great South Bay, here 5-7 m. wide, is a long narrow strip of
beach, called Fire Island, at the W. end of which is Fire Island
Inlet. The " Island " beach and the Inlet, both very dangerous
for shipping, are protected by the Fire Island Lighthouse,
the Fire Island Lightship, and a Life Saving Station near the
Lighthouse and another at Point o' Woods. Near the Light-
house there are a United States Wireless Telegraph Station and
a station of the Western Union Telegraph Company, which
announces to New York incoming steamships; and a little
farther E., on the site formerly occupied by the Surf House, a
well-known resort for hay-fever patients, is a state park. Along
the " Island " beach there is excellent surf-bathing. The
township is served by two parallel branches of the Long Island
railroad about 4 m. apart. On the main (northern) division
are the villages of Brentwood (first settled as Modern Times,
a quasi free-love community), which now has the Convent and
School of St Joseph and a large private sanitarium; Central
Islip, the seat of the Central Islip State Hospital for the Insane;
and Ronkonkoma, on the edge of a lake of the same name (with
no visible outlet or inlet and suffering remarkable changes in area) .
On the S. division of the Long Island railroad are the villages
of Bay Shore (to the W. of which is West Islip); Oakdale; West
SayvUle, originally a Dutch settlement; Sayville and Bayport.
The " South Country Road " of crushed clam or oyster shells
runs through these villages, which are famous for oyster and
clam fisheries. About one-half of the present township was
patented in 1684, 1686, 1688 and 1697 by William Nicolls
(1657-1723), the son of Matthias Nicolls, who came from Islip in
Oxfordshire, England; this large estate (on either side of the
Connetquot or Great river) was kept intact until 1786; the W.
part of Islip was mostly included in the Moubray patent of 1 708 ;
and the township was incorporated in 1710.
ISLY, the name of a small river on the Moroccan-Algerian
frontier, a sub-tributary of the Tafna, famous as the scene of
the greatest victory of the French army in the Algerian wars.
The intervention of Morocco on the side of Abd-el-Kader led
at once to the bombardment of Tangier by the French fleet under
the prince de Joinville, and the advance of the French army
of General Bugeaud (1844). The enemy, 45,000 strong, was
found to be encamped on the Isly river near Kudiat-el-Khodra.
Bugeaud disposed of some 6500 infantry and 1500 cavalry,
with a few pieces of artillery. In his own words, the formation
adopted was " a boar's head." With the army were Lamoriciere,
Pelissier and other officers destined to achieve distinction. On
the I4th of August the " boar's head " crossed the river about
9 m. to the N.W. of Kudiat and advanced upon the Moorish
camp; it was immediately attacked on all sides by great masses
of cavalry; but the volleys of the steady French infantry broke
the force of every charge, and at the right moment the French
cavalry in two bodies, each of the strength of a brigade, broke
out and charged. One brigade stormed the Moorish camp
(near Kudiat) in the face of artillery fire, the other sustained a
desperate conflict on the right wing with a large body of Moorish
horse which had not charged; and only the arrival of infantry
put an end to the resistance in this quarter. A general rally
of the Moorish forces was followed by another action in which
ISMAIL
875
they endeavoured to retake the camp. Bugeaud's forces, which
had originally faced S. when crossing the river, had now changed
direction until they faced almost W. Near Kudiat-el-Khodra the
Moors had rallied in considerable force, and prepared to retake
their camp. The French, however, continued to attack in perfect
combination, and after a stubborn resistance the Moors once
more gave way. For this great victory, which was quickly
followed by proposals of peace, Bugeaud was made due d'Isly.
ISMAIL (1830-1895), khedive of Egypt, was born at Cairo
on the 3ist of December 1830, being the second of the three sons
of Ibrahim and grandson of Mehemet Ali. After receiving a
European education at Paris, where he attended the Ecole
d'Etat-Major, he returned home, and on the death of his elder
brother became heir to his uncle, Said Mohammed, the Vali of
Egypt. Said, who apparently conceived his own safety to lie in
ridding himself as much as possible of the presence of his nephew,
employed him in the next few years on missions abroad, notably
to the pope, the emperor Napoleon III. and the sultan of Turkey.
In 1 86 1 he was despatched at the head of an army of 14,000 to
quell an insurrection in the Sudan, and this he successfully
accomplished. On the death of Said, on i8th January 1863,
Ismail was proclaimed viceroy without opposition. Being of an
Orientally extravagant disposition, he found with considerable
gratification that the Egyptian revenue was vastly increased by
the rise in the value of cotton which resulted from the American
Civil War, the Egyptian crop being worth about £25,000,000
instead of £5,000,000. Besides acquiring luxurious tastes in his
sojourns abroad, Ismail had discovered that the civilized nations
of Europe made a free use of their credit for raising loans. He
proceeded at once to apply this idea to his own country by
transferring his private debts to the state and launching out on
a grand scale of expenditure. Egypt was in his eyes the ruler's
estate which was to be exploited for his benefit and his renown.
His own position had to be strengthened, and the country
provided with institutions after European models. To- these
objects Ismail applied himself with energy and cleverness, but
without any stint of expense. During the 'sixties and 'seventies
Egypt became the happy hunting-ground of self-seeking financiers,
to whose schemes Ismail fell an easy and a willing prey. In
1866-1867 he obtained from the sultan of Turkey, in exchange
for an increase in the tribute, firmans giving him the title of
khedive, and changing the law of succession to direct descent
from father to son; and in 1873 he obtained a new firman
making him to a large extent independent. He projected vast
schemes of internal reform, remodelling the customs system
and the post office, stimulating commercial progress, creating
a sugar industry, introducing European improvements into
Cairo and Alexandria, building palaces, entertaining lavishly
and maintaining an opera and a theatre. It has been calculated
that, of the total amount of debt incurred by Ismail for his
projects, about 10% may have been sunk in works of permanent
utility — always excluding the Suez Canal. Meanwhile the
opening of the Canal had given him opportunities for asserting
himself in foreign courts. On his accession he refused to ratify
the concessions to the Canal company made by Said, and the
question was referred in 1864 to the arbitration of Napoleon III.,
who awarded £3,800,000 to the company as compensation for
the losses they would incur by the changes which Ismail insisted
upon in the original grant. Ismail then used every available
means, by his own undoubted powers of fascination and by
judicious expenditure, to bring his personality before the foreign
sovereigns and public, and he had no little success. He was made
G.C.B. in 1867, and in the same year visited Paris and London,
where he was received by Queen Victoria and welcomed by the
lord mayor; and in 1869 he again paid a visit to England.
The result was that the opening of the Canal in November 1869
enabled him to claim to rank among European sovereigns, and
to give and receive royal honours: this excited the jealousy of
the sultan, but Ismail was clever enough to pacify his overlord.
In 1876 the old system of consular jurisdiction for foreigners
was modified, and the system of mixed courts introduced, by
which European and native judges sat together to try all civil
cases without respect of nationality. In all these years Ismail
had governed with tdat and profusion, spending, borrowing,
raising the taxes on the fellahin and combining his policy of
independence with dazzling visions of Egyptian aggrandizement.
In 1874 he annexed Darfur, and was only prevented from
extending his dominion into Abyssinia by the superior fighting
power of the Abyssinians. But at length the inevitable financial
crisis came. A national debt of over one hundred millions
sterling (as opposed to three millions when he became viceroy)
had been incurred by the khedive, whose fundamental idea of
liquidating his borrowings was to borrow at increased interest.
The bond-holders became restive. Judgments were given
against the khedive in the international tribunals. When he
could raise no more loans he sold his Suez Canal shares (in 1875)
to Great Britain for £3,976,582; and this was immediately
followed by the beginning of foreign intervention. In December
1875 Mr Stephen Cave was sent out by the British government
to inquire into the finances of Egypt, and in April 1876 his report
was published, advising that in view of the waste and extrava-
gance it was necessary for foreign Powers to interfere in order to
restore credit. The result was the establishment of the Caisse
de la Dette. In October Mr (afterwards Lord) Goschen and M.
Joubert made a further investigation, which resulted in the
establishment of Anglo-French control. A further commission
of inquiry by Major Baring (afterwards Lord Cromer) and others
in 1878 culminated in Ismail making over his estates to the
nation and accepting the position of a constitutional sovereign,
with Nubar as premier, Mr (afterwards Sir Charles) Rivers
Wilson as finance minister, and M. de Blignieres as minister of
public works. Ismail professed to be quite pleased. " Egypt,"
he said, " is no longer in Africa; it is part of Europe." The new
regime, however, only lasted six months, and then Ismail dis-
missed his ministers, an occasion being deliberately prepared
by his getting Arabi (q.v.} to foment a military pronunciamiento.
England and France took the matter seriously, and insisted
(May 1879) on the reinstatement of the British and French
ministers; but the situation was no longer a possible one; the
tribunals were still giving judgments for debt against the govern-
ment, and when Germany and Austria showed signs of intending
to enforce execution, the governments of Great Britain and
France perceived that the only chance of setting matters straight
was to get rid of Ismail altogether. He was first advised to
abdicate, and a few days afterwards (26th June), as he did not
take the hint, he received a telegram from the sultan (who had
not forgotten the earlier history of Mehemet Ali's dynasty),
addressed to him as ex-khedive, and informing him that his son
Tewfik was his successor. He at once left Egypt for Naples, but
eventually was permitted by the sultan to retire to his palace
of Emirghian on the Bosporus. There he remained, more or less
a state prisoner, till his death on the 2nd of March 1895. Ismail
was a man of undoubted ability and remarkable powers. But
beneath a veneer of French manners and education he remained
throughout a thorough Oriental, though without any of the
moral earnestness which characterizes the better side of Mahom-
medanism. Some of his ambitions were not unworthy, and
though his attitude towards western civilization was essentially
cynical, he undoubtedly helped "to make the Egyptian upper
classes realize the value of European education. Moreover,
spendthrift as he was, it needed — as is pointed out in Milner's
England in Egypt — a series of unfortunate conditions to render
his personality as pernicious to his country as it actually became.
" It needed a nation of submissive slaves, not only bereft of any
vestige of liberal institutions, but devoid of the slightest spark
of the spirit of liberty. It needed a bureaucracy which it would
have been hard to equal for its combination of cowardice and
corruption. It needed the whole gang of swindlers — mostly
European — by whom Ismail was surrounded. " It was his early
encouragement of Arabi, and his introduction of swarms of
foreign concession-hunters, which precipitated the " national
movement " that led to British occupation. His greatest title to
remembrance in history must be that he made European interven-
tion in Egypt compulsory. (H. CH.)
876
ISMAIL HADJI MAULVI-MOHAMMED— ISOBAR
ISMAIL HADJI MAULVI-MOHAMMED (1781-1831), Mussul-
man reformer, was born at Pholah near Delhi. In co-operation
with Syed Ahmed he attempted to free Indian Mahommedanism
from the influence of the native early Indian faiths. The two
men travelled extensively for many years and visited Mecca.
In the Wahhabite movement they found much that was akin
to their own views, and on returning to India preached the new
doctrine of a pure Islam, and gathered many adherents. The
official Mahommedan leaders, however, regarded their propa-
ganda with disfavour, and the dispute led to the reformers
being interdicted by the British government in 1827. The little
company then moved to Punjab where, aided by an Afghan
chief, they declared war on the Sikhs and made Peshawar the
capital of the theocratic community which they wished to
establish (1829). Deserted by the Afghans they had to leave
Peshawar, and Ismail Hadji fell in battle against the Sikhs
amid the Pakhli mountains (1831). The movement survived
him, and some adherents are still found in the mountains of the
north-west frontier.
Ismail's book Taqoualyat el Iman was published in Hindustani
and translated in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, xiii. 1852.
ISMAILIA, a town of Lower Egypt, the central station on the
Suez Canal, on the N.W. shore of Lake Timsa, about 50 m.
from the Mediterranean and the Red Sea, and 93 m. N.E. of
Cairo by rail. Pop. (1907) 10,373. It was laid out in 1863,
in connexion with the construction of the canal, and is named
after the khedive Ismail. It is divided into two quarters by the
road leading from the landing-place to the railway station, and
has numerous public offices, warehouses and other buildings,
including a palace of the khedive, used as a hospital during the
British military operations in 1882, but subsequently allowed
to fall into a dilapidated condition. The broad macadamized
streets and regular squares bordered with trees give the town an
attractive appearance; and it has the advantage, a rare one
in Egypt, of being surrounded on three sides by flourishing
gardens. The Quai Mehemet Ali, which lies along the canal for
upwards of a mile, contains the chalet occupied by Ferdinand
de Lesseps during the building of the canal. At the end of
the quay are the works for supplying Port Said with water.
On the other side of the lake are the so-called Quarries of the
Hyenas, from which the building material for the town was
obtained.
ISMAY, THOMAS HENRY (1837-1899), British shipowner,
was born at Maryport, Cumberland, on the 7th of January 1837.
He received his education at Croft House School, Carlisle, and
at the age of sixteen was apprenticed to Messrs Imrie & Tomlinson,
shipowners and brokers, of Liverpool. He then travelled for
a time, visiting the ports of South America, and on returning
to Liverpool started in business for himself. In 1867 he took
over the White Star line of Australian clippers, and in 1868,
perceiving the great future which was open to steam navigation,
established, in conjunction with William Imrie, the Oceanic
Steam Navigation Company, which has since become famous
as the White Star Line. While continuing the Australian service,
the firm determined to engage in the American trade, and to
that end ordered from Messrs Harland & Wolff, of Belfast, the
first Oceanic (3807 tons), which was launched in 1870. This
vessel may fairly be said to have marked an era in North Atlantic
travel. The same is true of the successive types of steamer which
Ismay, with the co-operation of the Belfast shipbuilding firm,
subsequently provided for the American trade. To Ismay is
mainly due the credit of the arrangement by which some of the
fastest ships of the British mercantile marine are held at the
disposal of the government in case of war. The origin of this
plan dates from the Russo-Turkish war, when there seemed
a likelihood of England being involved in hostilities with Russia,
and when, therefore, Ismay offered the admiralty the use of the
White Star fleet. In 1892 he retired from partnership in the
firm of Ismay, Imrie and Co., though he retained the chairman-
ship of the White Star Company. He served on several important
committees and was a member of the royal commission in 1888
on army and navy administration. He was always most generous
in his contributions to charities for the relief of sailors, and
in 1887 he contributed £20,000 towards a pension fund for
Liverpool sailors. He died at Birkenhead on the 23rd of
November 1899.
ISMID, or ISNIKMID (anc. Nicomedia), the chief town of the
Khoja Ili sanjak of Constantinople, in Asia Minor, situated on
rising ground near the head of the gulf of Ismid. The sanjak
has an area of 4650 sq. m. and a population of 225,000 (Moslems
131,000). It is an agricultural district, producing cocoons and
tobacco, and there are large forests of oak, beech and fir. Near
Yalova there are hot mineral springs, much frequented in
summer. The town is connected by the lines of the Anatolian
railway company with Haidar Pasha, the western terminus, and
with Angora, Konia and Smyrna. It contains a fine 16th-
century mosque, built by the celebrated architect Sinan. Pop.
20,000 (Moslems 9500, Christians 8000, Jews, 2500). As the
seat of a mutessarif, a Greek metropolitan and an Armenian
archbishop, Ismid retains somewhat of its ancient dignity,
but the material condition of the town is little in keeping with
its rank. The head of the gulf of Ismid is gradually silting up.
The dockyard was closed in 1879, and the port of Ismid is
now at Darin je, 3! m. distant, where the Anatolian Railway
Company have established their workshops and have built docks
and a quay.
ISNARD,1 MAXIMIN (1758-1825), French revolutionist, was a
dealer in perfumery at Draguignan when he was elected deputy
for the department of the Var to the Legislative Assembly,
where he joined the Girondists. Attacking the court, and the
" Austrian committee " in the Tuileries, he demanded the
disbandment of the king's bodyguard, and reproached Louis
XVI. for infidelity to the constitution. But on the 2Oth of June
1792, when the crowd invaded the palace, he was one of the
deputies who went to place themselves beside the king to protect
him. After the loth of August 1792 he was sent to the army of
the North to justify the insurrection. Re-elected to the Conven-
tion, he voted the death of Louis XVI. and was a member of
the Committee of General Defence when it was organized on
the 4th of January 1793. The committee, consisting of 25
members, proved unwieldy, and on the 4th of April Isnard
presented, on behalf of the Girondist majority, the report
recommending a smaller committee of nine, which two days
later was established as the Committee of Public Safety. On
the 25th of May, Isnard was presiding at the Convention when
a deputation of the commune of Paris came to demand that
J. R. Hubert should be set at liberty, and he made the famous
reply: " If by these insurrections, continually renewed, it
should happen that the principle of national representation
should suffer, I declare to you in the name of France that soon
people will search the banks of the Seine to see if Paris has ever
existed." On the 2nd of June 1793 he offered his resignation
as representative of the people, but was not comprised in the
decree by which the Convention determined upon the arrest of
twenty-nine Girondists. On tne 3rd of October, however,
his arrest was decreed along with that of several other Girondist
deputies who had left the Convention and were fomenting civil
war in the departments. He escaped, and on the 8th of March
1795 was recalled to the Convention, where he supported all the
measures of reaction. He was elected deputy for the Var to
the Council of Five Hundred, where he played a very insignificant
r61e. In 1797 he retired to Draguignan. In 1800 he published
a pamphlet De I'immortalM de I'ame, in which he praised
Catholicism; in 1804 Reflexions relatives au senatus-consulle
du 28 flortal an XII., which is an enthusiastic apology for the
Empire. Upon the restoration he professed such royalist senti-
ments that he was not disturbed, in spite of the law of 1816
proscribing regicide ex-members of the Convention.
See F. A. Aulard, Les Orateurs de la Legislative et de la Convention
(Paris, 2nd ed., 1906).
ISOBAR (from Gr. Zeros, equal, and j3Ap05, weight), a line upon
a meteorological map or pressure chart connecting points where
the atmospheric pressure is the same at sea-level, or upon the
earth's surface. A general pressure map will indicate, by these
ISOCLINIC LINES— ISOCRATES
877
lines, the average pressure for any month or season over large
areas. The daily weather charts for more confined regions
indicate the presence of a cyclonic or anticyclonic system by
means of lines, which connect all places having the same baro-
metric pressure at the same time. It is to be noted that isobaric
lines are the intersections of inclined isobaric surfaces with the
surface of the earth.
ISOCLINIC LINES (Gr. l<ros, equal, and K\Lvfu>, to bend),
lines connecting those parts of the earth's surface where the
magnetic inclination is the same in amount. (See MAGNETISM,
TERRESTRIAL.)
ISOCRATES (436-338 B.C.), Attic orator, was the son of Theo-
dorus, an Athenian citizen of the deme of Erchia — the same in
which, about 431 B.C., Xenophon was born — who was sufficiently
wealthy to have served the state as choregus. The fact that he
possessed slaves skilled in the trade of flute-making perhaps
lends point to a passage in which his son is mentioned by the
comic poet Strattis.1 Several popular " sophists " are named
as teachers of the young Isocrates. Like other sons of prosperous
parents, he may have been trained in such grammatical subtleties
as were taught by Protagoras or Prodicus, and initiated by
Theramenes into the florid rhetoric of Gorgias, with whom at
a later time (about 390 B.C.) he was in personal intercourse.
He tells us that his father had been careful to provide for him
the best education which Athens could afford. A fact of greater
interest is disclosed by Plato's Phaedrus (278 E). " Isocrates is
still young, Phaedrus," says the Socrates of that dialogue, "but
I do not mind telling you what I prophesy of him. ... It
would not surprise me if, as years go on, he should make all his
predecessors seem like children in the kind of oratory to which
he is now addressing himself, or if — supposing this should not
content him — some divine impulse should lead him to greater
things. My dear Phaedrus, a certain philosophy is inborn in
him." This conversation is dramatically supposed to take place
about 410 B.C. It is unnecessary to discuss here the date at
which the Phaedrus was actually composed. From the passage
just cited it is at least clear that there had been a time — while
Isocrates could still be called " young " — at which Plato had
formed a high estimate of his powers.
Isocrates took no active part in the public life of Athens;
he was not fitted, as he tells us, for the contests of the popular
assembly or of the law-courts. He lacked strength of voice —
a fatal defect in the ecclesia, when an audience of many thousands
was to be addressed in the open air; he was also deficient in
" boldness." He was, in short, the physical opposite of the
successful Athenian demagogue in the generation after that of
Pericles; by temperament as well as taste he was more in
sympathy with the sedate decorum of an older school. Two
ancient biographers have, however, preserved a story which, if
true, would show that this lack of voice and nerve did not involve
any want of moral courage. During the rule of the Thirty
Tyrants, Critias denounced Theramenes, who sprang for safety
to the sacred hearth of the council chamber. Isocrates alone, it is
said, dared at that moment to plead for the life of his friend.2
Whatever may be the worth of the story, it would scarcely have
connected itself with the name of a man to whose traditional
character it was repugnant. While the Thirty were still in
power, Isocrates withdrew from Athens to Chios.3 He has
mentioned that, in the course of the Peloponnesian War —
doubtless in the troubles which attended on its close — he lost
the whole of that private fortune which had enabled his father
to serve the state, and that he then adopted the profession of a
teacher. The proscription of the " art of words " by the Thirty
would thus have given him a special motive for withdrawing
Ti, fr. i, Meineke, Poetarum comicorum Graecorum frag.
(i855). P- 292.
1 [Plut.] Vita Isocr., and the anonymous biographer. Dionysius
does not mention the story, though he makes Isocrates a pupil of
Theramenes.
3 Some would refer the sojourn of Isocrates at Chios to the years
398-395 B.C., others to 393-388 B.C. The reasons which support the
view given in the text will be found in Jebb's Attic Orators, vol. ii.
{1893), p. 6, note 2.
from Athens. He returned thither, apparently, either soon
before or soon after the restoration of the democracy in 403 B.C.
For ten years from this date he was occupied — at least
occasionally — as a writer of speeches for the Athenian law-
courts. Six of these speeches are extant. The earliest (Or.
xxi.) may be referred to 403 B.C. ; the latest (Or. xix.) to 394-
393 B.C. This was a department of his own work which Isocrates
afterwards preferred to ignore. Nowhere, indeed, does he say
that he had not written forensic speeches. But he frequently
uses a tone from which that inference might be drawn. He
loves to contrast such petty concerns as engage the forensic
writer with those larger and nobler themes which are treated
by the politician. This helps to explain how it could be asserted
— by his adopted son, Aphareus — that he had written nothing
for the law-courts. Whether the assertion was due to false
shame or merely to ignorance, Dionysius of Halicarnassus
decisively disposes of it. Aristotle had, indeed, he says, exag-
gerated the number of forensic speeches written by Isocrates;
but some of those which bore his name were unquestionably
genuine, as was attested by one of the orator's own pupils,
Cephisodorus. The real vocation of Isocrates was discovered
from the moment that he devoted himself to the work of teaching
and writing. The instruction which Isocrates undertook to
impart was based on rhetorical composition, but it was by
no means merely rhetorical. That " inborn philosophy,"
of which Plato recognized the germ, still shows itself. In
many of his works — notably in the Panegyricus — we see a
really remarkable power of grasping a complex subject, of
articulating it distinctly, of treating it, not merely with effect
but luminously, at once in its widest bearings and in its most
intricate details. Young men could learn more from Isocrates
than the graces of style; nor would his success have been
what it was if his skill had been confined to the art of expression.
It was about 392 B.C.— when he was forty-four — that he
opened his school at Athens near the Lyceum. In 339 B.C.
he describes himself as revising the Panathenaicus with some
of his pupils; he was then ninety-seven. The celebrity enjoyed
by the school of Isocrates is strikingly attested by ancient
writers. Cicero describes it as that school in which the eloquence
of all Greece was trained and perfected: its disciples were
"brilliant in pageant or in battle,"4 foremost among the
accomplished writers or powerful debaters of their time. The
phrase of Cicero is neither vague nor exaggerated. Among
the literary pupils of Isocrates might be named the historians
Ephorus and Theopompus, the Attic archaelogist Androtion,
and Isocrates of Apollonia, who succeeded his master in the
school. Among the practical orators we have, in the forensic
kind, Isaeus; in the political, Leodamas of Acharnae, Lycurgus
and Hypereides. Hermippus of Smyrna (mentioned by Athe-
naeus) wrote a monograph on the " Disciples of Isocrates."
And scanty as are now the sources for such a catalogue, a modern
scholar6 has still been able to recover forty-one names. At
the time when the school of Isocrates was in the zenith of its
fame it drew disciples, not only from the shores and islands
of the Aegean, but from the cities of Sicily and the distant
colonies of the Euxine. As became the image of its master's
spirit, it was truly Panhellenic. When Mausolus, prince of Caria,
died in 351 B.C., his widow Artemisia instituted a contest of
panegyrical eloquence in honour of his memory. Among all
the competitors there was not one — if tradition may be trusted —
who had not been the pupil of Isocrates.
Meanwhile the teacher who had won this great reputation
had also been active as a public writer. The most interesting
and most characteristic works of Isocrates are those in which
he deals with the public questions of his own day. The influence
which he thus exercised throughout Hellas might be compared
to that of an earnest political essayist gifted with a popular
and attractive style. And Isocrates had a dominant idea which
gained strength with his years, until its realization had become,
we might say, the main purpose of his life. This idea was
4 Partim in pompa, partim in acie illustres (De oral. ii. 24).
6 P. Sanneg, De schola Isocratea (Halle, 1867).
878
ISOCRATES
the invasion of Asia by the united forces of Greece. The Greek
cities were at feud with each other, and were severally torn
by intestine faction. Political morality was become a rare
and a somewhat despised distinction. Men who were notoriously
ready to sell their cities for their private gain were, as Demos-
thenes says, rather admired than otherwise.1 The social condi-
tion of Greece was becoming very unhappy. The wealth of the
country had ceased to grow; the gulf between rich and poor
was becoming wider; party strife was constantly adding to
the number of homeless paupers; and Greece was full of men
who were ready to take service with any captain of mercenaries,
or, failing that, with any leader of desperadoes. Isocrates
draws a vivid and terrible picture of these evils. The cure for
them, he firmly believed, was to unite the Greeks in a cause
which would excite a generous enthusiasm. Now was the time,
he thought, for that enterprise in which Xenophon's comrades
had virtually succeeded, when the headlong rashness of young
Cyrus threw away their reward with his own life.2 The Persian
empire was unsound to the core — witness the retreat of the
Ten Thousand: let united Greece attack it and it must go down
at the first onset. Then new wealth would flow into Greece;
and the hungry pariahs of Greek society would be drafted into
fertile homes beyond the Aegean.
A bright vision; but where was the power whose spell was
first to unite discordant Greece, and, having united it, to direct
its strength against Asia? That was the problem. The first
attempt of Isocrates to solve it is set forth in his splendid
Panegyricus (380 B.C.). Let Athens and Sparta lay aside
their jealousies. Let them assume, jointly, a leadership which
might be difficult for either, but which would be assured to
both. That eloquent pleading failed. The next hope was
to find some one man equal to the task. Jason of Pherae,
Dionysius I. of Syracuse, Archidamus III., son of Agesilaus —
each in turn rose as a possible leader of Greece before the im-
agination of the old man who was still young in his enthusiastic
hope, and one after another they failed him. But now a greater
than any of these was appearing on the Hellenic horizon, and to
this new luminary the eyes of Isocrates were turned with eager
anticipation. Who could lead united Greece against Asia so
fitly as the veritable representative of the Heracleidae, the
royal descendant of the Argive line — a king of half-barbarians
it is true, but by race, as in spirit, a pure Hellene — Philip of
Macedon? We can still read the words in which this fond faith
clothed itself; the ardent appeal of Isocrates to Philip is extant;
and another letter shows that the belief of Isocrates in Philip
lasted at any rate down to the eve of Chaeronea.* Whether
it survived that event is a doubtful point. The popular account
of the orator's death ascribed it to the mental shock which he
received from the news of Philip's victory. He was at Athens,
in the palaestra of Hippocrates, when the tidings came. He
repeated three verses in which Euripides names three foreign
conquerors of Greece — Danaus, Pelops, Cadmus — and four
days later he died of voluntary starvation. Milton (perhaps
thinking of Eli) seems to conceive the death of Isocrates as
instantaneous: —
" As that dishonest victory
At Chaeronea, fatal to liberty,
Killed with report that old man eloquent."
Now the third of the letters which bears the name of Isocrates
is addressed to Philip, and appears to congratulate him on his
victory at Chaeronea, as being an event which will enable him
to assume the leadership of Greece in a war against Persia.
Is the letter genuine? There is no evidence, external or internal,
against its authenticity, except its supposed inconsistency with
the views of Isocrates and with the tradition of his suicide. As
to his views, those who have studied them in his own writings
will be disposed to question whether he would have regarded
1 De falsa legal, p. 426 ot>x SITUS iipyl^ovro ft icoXdfeiv ^low rolit
ravra irotovtras, AXX &iriff\tirov, tJV/Xow, triiauv, HvSpas f/yowro.
2 tKtlmvs yiip 6/ioXo7«iToi . . . 4)5r; lyKpaTtls SoKovrras cleat rlav
•*pa.ynbTwv {id r^v Kiipov irpoTrtrtiav &.TV\ria<u. (Phttippus, QO; Cti.
Panegyr. 149).
1 Philippus, 346 B.C. ; Epist. ii. end of 342 B.C. (?).
Philip's victory at Chaeronea as an irreparable disaster for
Greece. Undoubtedly he would have deplored the conflict
between Philip and Athens; but he would have divided the
blame between the combatants. And, with his old belief in
Philip, he would probably have hoped, even after Chaeronea,
that the new position won by Philip would eventually prove
compatible with the independence of the Greek cities, while
it would certainly promote the project on which, as he was
profoundly convinced, the ultimate welfare of Greece depended,
— a Panhellenic expedition against Persia. As to the tradition
of his suicide, the only rational mode of reconciling it with that
letter is to suppose that Isocrates destroyed himself, not because
Philip had conquered, but because, after that event, he saw
Athens still resolved to resist. We should be rather disposed
to ask how much weight is to be given to the tradition. The
earliest authority for it — Dionysius of Halicamassus in the age
of Augustus — may have had older sources; granting, however,
that these may have remounted even to the end of the 4th century
B.C., that would not prove much. Suppose that Isocrates —
being then ninety-eight and an invalid — had happened to die
from natural causes a few days after the battle of Chaeronea.
Nothing could have originated more easily than a story that he
killed himself from intense chagrin. Every one knew that
Isocrates had believed in Philip; and most people would have
thought that Chaeronea was a crushing refutation of that belief.
Once started, the legend would have been sure to live, not merely
because it was picturesque, but also because it served to accentu-
ate the contrast between the false prophet and the true — between
Isocrates and Demosthenes; and Demosthenes was very justly
the national idol of the age which followed the loss of Greek
independence.4
Isocrates is said to have taught his Athenian pupils gratuitously,
and to have taken money only from aliens; but, as might have
been expected, the fame of his school exposed him to attacks
on the ground of his gains, which his enemies studiously ex-
aggerated. After the financial reform of 378 B.C. he was one
of those 1 200 richest citizens who constituted the twenty unions
(vvnnopiai) for the assessment of the war-tax (eio-^opd). He had
discharged several public services (Xemw/xyiai) ; in particular,
he had thrice served as trierarch. He married Plathane, the
widow of the " sophist " Hippias of Elis, and then adopted her.
son Aphareus, afterwards eminent as a rhetorician and a tragic
poet. In 355 B.C. he had his first and only lawsuit. A certain
Megaclides (introduced into the speech under the fictitious name
of Lysimachus) challenged him to undertake the trierarchy or
exchange properties. This was the lawsuit which suggested
the form of the discourse which he calls the Antidosis (" exchange
of properties" — 3 53 B.C.) — his defence of his professional life.
He was buried on a rising ground near the Cynosarges — a
temenos of Heracles, with a gymnasion, on the east side of
Athens, outside the Diomeian gate. His tomb was surmounted
by a column some 45 ft. high, crowned with the figure of a siren,
the symbol of persuasion and of death. A tablet of stone, near
the column, represented a group of which Gorgias was the centre;
his pupil Isocrates stood at his side. Aphareus erected a statue
to his adopted father near the Olympieum. Timotheus, the
illustrious son of Conon, dedicated another in the temple of
Eleusis.
It was a wonderful century which the life of one man had thus
all but spanned. Isocrates had reached early manhood when
the long struggle of the Peloponnesian War — begun in his child-
hood— ended with the overthrow of Athens. The middle period
of his career was passed under the supremacy of Sparta. His
more advanced age saw that brief ascendancy which the genius
of Epameinondas secured to Thebes. And he lived to urge on
Philip of Macedon a greater enterprise than any which the Hellenic
world could offer. His early promise had won a glowing tribute
from Plato, and the rhetoric of his maturity furnished matter
to the analysis of Aristotle; he had composed his imaginary
4 The views of several modern critics on the tradition of the
suicide are brought together in the Attic Orators, ii. (1893) p. 31,
notflki.
ISOCRATES
879
picture of that Hellenic host which should move through Asia
in a pageant of sacred triumph, just as Xenophon was publishing
his plain narrative of the retreat of the Ten Thousand; and,
in the next generation, his literary eloquence was still demonstrat-
ing the weakness of Persia when Demosthenes was striving to
make men feel the deadly peril of Greece. This long life has an
element of pathos not unlike that of Greek tragedy; a power
above man was compelling events in a direction which Isocrates
could not see; but his own agency was the ally of that power,
though in a sense which he knew not; his vision was of Greece
triumphant over Asia, while he was the unconscious prophet
of an age in which Asia should be transformed by the diffusion
of Hellenism.1
His character should be viewed in both its main aspects — the
political and the literary. i
With regard to the first, two questions have to be asked : (l) How
far were the political views of Isocrates peculiar to himself, and
different from those of the clearest minds contemporary with him?
(2) How far were those views falsified by the event?
1. The whole tone of Greek thought in that age had taken a bent
towards monarchy in some form. This tendency may be traced alike
in the practical common sense of Xenophon and in the lofty idealism
of Plato. There could be no better instance of it than a well-known
passage in the Politics of Aristotle. He is speaking of the gifts which
meet in the Greek race — a race warlike, like the Europeans, but more
subtle — keen, like the Asiatics, but braver. Here, he says, is a race
which " might rule all men, if it were brought under a single govern-
ment." * It is unnecessary to suppose a special allusion to Alexander;
but it is probable that Aristotle had in his mind a possible union
of the Greek cities under a, strong constitutional monarchy. His
advice to Alexander (as reported by Plutarch) was to treat the Greeks
in the spirit of a leader (^yejiwucus) and the barbarians in the spirit
of a master (S«riroTotws).3 Aristotle conceived the central power as
political and permanent; Isocrates conceived it as, in the first place,
military, having for its immediate aim the conduct of an ex-
pedition against Asia. The general views of Isocrates as to the
largest good possible for the Greek race were thus in accord with the
prevailing tendency of the best Greek thought in that age._
2. The vision of the Greek race " brought under one polity " was
not, indeed, fulfilled in the sense of Aristotle or of Isocrates. But the
invasion of Asia by Alexander, as captain-general of Greece, became
the event which actually opened new and larger destinies to the
Greek race. The old political life of the Greek cities was worn out ; in
the new fields which were now opened, the empire of Greek civiliza-
tion entered on a career of world-wide conquest, until Greece became
to East and West more than all that Athens had been to Greece.
Athens, Sparta, Thebes, ceased indeed to be the chief centres of
Greek life; but the mission of the Greek mind could scarcely have
been accomplisheid with such expansive and penetrating power if its
influence had not radiated over the East from Pergamum, Antioch
and Alexandria.
Panhellenic politics had the foremost interest for Isocrates. But
in two of his works — the oration On the Peace and the Areopagiticus
(both of 355 B.C.) — he deals specially with the politics of Athens.
The speech On the Peace relates chiefly to foreign affairs. It is an
eloquent appeal to his fellow-citizens to abandon the dream of
supremacy, and to treat their allies as equals, not as subjects. The
fervid orator personifies that empire, that false mistress which has
lured Athens, then Sparta, then Athens once more, to the verge of
destruction. " Is she not worthy of detestation?" Leadership
passes into empire; empire begets insolence ; insolence brings ruin.
The Areopanticus breathes a kindred spirit in regard to home policy.
Athenian life had lost its old tone. Apathy to public interests,
dissolute frivolity, tawdry display and real poverty — these are the
features on which Isocrates dwells. With this picture he contrasts
the elder democracy of Solon and Cleisthenes, and, as a first step
towards reform, would restore to the Areopagus its general censor-
ship of morals. It is here, and here alone — in his comments on
Athenian affairs at home and abroad— that we can distinctly recog-
nize the man to whom the Athens of Pericles was something more
than a tradition. We are carried back to the age in which his long
life began. We find it difficult to realize that the voice to which we
listen is the same which we hear in the letter to Philip.
Turning from the political to the literary aspect of his work,
we are at once upon ground where the question of his merits will
now provoke comparatively little controversy. Perhaps the most
serious prejudice with which his reputation has had to contend in
1 Isocrates, a loyal and genuine Hellene, can yet conceive of
Hellenic culture as shared by men not of Hellenic blood (Panegyr.
50). He is thus, as Ernst Curtius has ably shown, a forerunner of
Hellenism— analogous, in the literary province, to Epameinondasand
Timotheus in the political (History of Greece, v. 1 16, 204, tr. Ward).
2 rd TUV 'EXXiji>wi< yivos . . . &vv6.ntvov Spx«" ftmar, Itt&s
iroXireiaj (Polit. iv. [vii.] 6, 7).
3 De Alex. virt. i. 6.
modern times has been due to an accident of verbal usage. He
repeatedly describes that art which he professed to teach as his
4>iXoo-o<#>ia. His use of this word — joined to the fact that in a few
passages he appears to allude slightingly to Plato or to the Socratics
— has exposed him to a groundless imputation. It cannot be too
distinctly understood that, when Isocrates speaks of his <t>i\oa<xt>ia,
he means simply his theory or method of " culture " — to use the
only modern term which is really equivalent in latitude to the Greek
word as then current.4
The <j>i\o<ro<t>la., or practical culture, of Isocrates was not in con-
flict, because it had nothing in common, with the Socratic or Platonic
philosophy. The personal influence of Socrates may, indeed, be
traced in his work. He constantly desires to make his teaching
bear on the practical life. His maxims of homely moral wisdom
frequently recall Xenophon's Memorabilia. But there the relation
ends. Plato alludes to Isocrates in perhaps three places. The
glowing prophecy in the Phaedrus has been quoted ; in the Gorgias
a phrase of Isocrates is wittily parodied; and in the Euthydemus
Isocrates is probably meant by the person who dwells " on the
borderland between philosophy and statesmanship." ' The writings
of Isocrates contain a few more or less distinct allusions to Plato's
doctrines or works, to the general effect that they are barren of
practical result.6 But Isocrates nowhere assails Plato's philosophy
as such. When he declares "knowledge" (IJTKTT^JIM;) to be un-
attainable, he means an exact " knowledge " of the contingencies
which may arise in practical life. " Since it is impossible for human
nature to acquire any science (kiriariiii.^) by which we should know
what to do or to say, in the next resort I deem those wise who, as
a rule, can hit what is best by their opinions" (SA£as).7
Isocrates should be compared with the practical teachers of his
day. In his essay Against the Sophists, and in his speech on the
Antidosis, which belong respectively to the beginning and the close
of his professional career, he has clearly marked the points which
distinguish him from "the sophists of the herd" (d-yeXcuoi yoQurrai).
First, then, he claims, and justly, greater breadth of view. The
ordinary teacher confined himself to the narrow scope of local in-
terests — training the young citizen to plead in the Athenian law
courts, or to speak on Athenian affairs in the ecclesia. Isocrates
sought to enlarge the mental horizon of his disciples by accustoming
them to deal with subjects which were not merely Athenian, but,
in his own phrase, Hellenic. Secondly, though he did not claim to
have found a philosophical basis for morals, it has been well said of
him that "he reflects the human spirit always on its nobler side,"8
and that, in an age of corrupt and impudent selfishness, he always
strove to raise the minds of his hearers into a higher and purer air.
Thirdly, his method of teaching was thorough. Technical exposition
came first. The learner was then required to apply the rules in
actual composition, which the master revised. The ordinary
teachers of rhetoric (as Aristotle says) employed their pupils in
committing model pieces to memory, but neglected to tram the
learner's own faculty through his own efforts. Lastly, Isocrates
stands apart from most writers of that day in his steady effort
to produce results of permanent value. While rhetorical skill was
largely engaged in the intermittent journalism of political pamphlets,
Isocrates set a higher ambition before his school. His own essays
on contemporary questions received that finished form which has
preserved them to this day. The impulse to solid and lasting work,
communicated by the example of the master, was seen in such
monuments as the Atthis of Androtion, the Hellenics of Theopompus
and the Philippica of Ephorus.
In one of his letters to Atticus, Cicero says that he has used " all
the fragrant essences of Isocrates, and all the little stores of his
disciples."9 The phrase has a point of which the writer himself
was perhaps scarcely conscious: the style of Isocrates had come
to Cicero through the school of Rhodes; and the Rhodian imitators
had more of Asiatic splendour than of Attic elegance. But, with this
allowance made, the passage may serve to indicate the real place of
Isocrates in the history of literary style. The old Greek critics
consider him as representing what they call the " smooth " or
"florid" mode of composition (y\cut>vp&., MrjpA. Apiiovia) as
distinguished from the "harsh" (aferrijpA) style of Antiphon and
the perfect "mean" (jiikarj) of Demosthenes. Tried by a modern
standard, the language of Isocrates is certainly not " florid." The
only sense in which he merits the epithet is that (especially in his
4 The word ^iXoo-o^io seems to have come into Athenian use not
much before the time of Socrates; and, till long after the time of
Isocrates, it was commonly used, not in the sense of " philosophy,"
but in that of " literary taste and study — culture generally ' (see
Thompson on Phaedrus, 278 D). Aristeides, ii. 407 <£iX<«aX{a T« «aJ
5ioTpi/3iJ irepl \6yovs, not oi>x Aj vv" rpiiros o&ros, AXXi irai&tia. nowus.
And so writers of the 4th century B.C. use ^iXoffo^etv as simply
= " to study "; as e.g. an invalid " studies " the means of relief
from pain, Lys. Or. xxiv. 10; cf. Isocr. Or. iv. 6, &c.
6 Plato, Gorg. p. 463 ; Euthyd. 304-306.
• These allusions are discussed in the Attic Orators, vol. ii. ch. 13.
7 Isocr. Or. xv. 271.
8 A. Cartelier, Le Discours d'Isocrate sur lui-meme, p. Ixii. (1862).
• Totum Isocratis iivpoff^Ktov atque omnes ejus discipulorum
arculas (Ad Alt. ii. i).
88o
ISOCRATES
earlier work) he delights in elaborate antitheses. Isocrates is an
" orator " in the larger sense of the Greek word rhetor; but his real
distinction consists in the fact that he was the first Greek who gave
an artistic finish to literary rhetoric. The practical oratory of the
day had already two clearly separated branches — the forensic,
represented by Isaeus, and the deliberative, in which Callistratus
was the forerunner of Demosthenes. Meanwhile Isocrates was giving
form and rhythm to a standard literary prose. Through the influence
of his school, this normal prose style was transmitted — -with the
addition of some florid embellishments — to the first generation of
Romans who studied rhetoric in the Greek schools. The distinctive
feature in the composition of Isocrates is his structure of the periodic
sentence. This, with him, is no longer rigid or monotonous, as with
Antiphon — no longer terse and compact, as with Lysias — but ample,
luxuriant, unfolding itself (to use a Greek critic's image) like
the soft beauties of a winding river. Isocrates was the first Greek
who worked out the idea of a prose rhythm. He saw clearly both its
powers and its limit's; poetry has its strict rhythms and precise
metres; prose has its metres and rhythms, not bound by a rigid
framework, yet capable of being brought under certain general laws
which a good ear can recognize, and which a speaker or writer may
apply in the most various combinations. This fundamental idea
of prose rhythm, or number, is that which the style of Isocrates has
imparted to the style of Cicero. When Quintilian (x. I. 108) says,
somewhat hyperbolically, that Cicero has artistically reproduced
(effinxisse) " the force of Demosthenes, the wealth of Plato, the
charm of Isocrates," he means principally this smooth and har-
monious rhythm. Cicero himself expressly recognizes this original
and distinctive merit of Isocrates.1 Thus, through Rome, and
especially through Cicero, the influence of Isocrates, as the founder
of a literary prose, has passed into the literatures of modern Europe.
It is to the eloquence of the preacher that we may perhaps look for
the nearest modern analogue of that kind in which Isocrates excelled
— especially, perhaps, to that of the great French preachers. Isocrates
was one of the three Greek authors, Demosthenes and Plato being
the others, who contributed most to form the style of Bossuet.
WORKS. — The extant works of Isocrates consist of twenty-one
speeches or discourses and nine letters.2 Among these, the six
forensic speeches represent the first period of his literary life — •
belonging to the years 403-393 B.C. All six concern private causes.
They may be classed as follows: I. Action for Assault (5£*i) aidns),
Or. xx., Against Lochites, 394 B.C. 2. Claim to an Inheritance
((iri&utaaia), Or. xix., Aegineticus, end of 394 or early in 393 B.C.
3. Actions to Recover a Deposit: (i) Or. xxi., Against Euthynus,
403 B.C.; (2) Or. xvii., Trapeziticus, end of 394 or early in 393 B.C.
4. Action for Damage (&Uri /SXojSTjj), Or. xvi., Concerning tlie
Team of Horses, 397 B.C. 5. Special Plea (irapaYpewfnj), Or. xviii.,
Against Callimachus, 402 B.C. Two of these have been regarded
as spurious by G. E. Benseler, viz. Or. xxi., on account of the fre-
quent hiatus and the short compact periods, and Or. xvii., on the
first of these grounds. But we are not warranted in applying to the
early work of Isocrates those canons which his mature style observed.
The genuineness of the speech against Euthynus is recognized by
Philostratus ; while the Trapeziticus — thrice named without sus-
picion by Harpocration — is treated by Dionysius, not only as
authentic, but as the typical forensic work of its author. The speech
against Lochites — where " a man of the people " (rou irXiJflous «Ij) is
the speaker — exhibits much rhetorical skill. The speech IlepJ TOU
ffb-fow (" concerning the team of horses ") has a curious interest.
An Athenian citizen had complained that Alcibiades had robbed him
of a team of four horses, and sues the statesman's son and namesake
(who is the speaker) for their value. This is not the only place in
which Isocrates has marked his admiration for the genius of Alcibi-
ades ; it appears also in the Philippus and in the Busiris. But, among
the forensic speeches, we must, on the whole, give the palm to the
Aegineticus — a graphic picture of ordinary Greek life in the islands
of the Aegean. Here — especially in the narrative — Isocrates makes
a near approach to the best manner of Lysias.
The remaining fifteen orations or discourses do not easily lend
themselves to the ordinary classification under the heads of " deliber-
ative " and " epideictic." Both terms must be strained ; and neither
is strictly applicable to all the pieces which it is required to cover.
The work of Isocrates travelled out of the grooves in which the
rhetorical industry of the age had hitherto moved. His position
among contemporary writers was determined by ideas peculiar to
himself; and his compositions, besides having a style of their own,
are in several instances of a new kind. The only adequate principle
of classification is one which considers them in respect to their sub-
ject-matter. Thus viewed, they form two clearly separated groups
— the scholastic and the political.
Scholastic Writings. — Under this head we have, first, three letters
or essays of a hortatory character, (i) The letter to the young
Demonicus * — once a favourite subject in the schools — contains
1 Idque princeps Isocrates instituisse fertur, . . . ut inconditam
antiquorum dicendi consuetudinem . . . numeris astringeret (De or.
iii. 44, 173).
2 The dates here given differ to some extent from those in F.
Blass, Die attische Beredsamkeit (2nd ed., 1887-1898).
* Some authorities consider the Ad Demonicum spurious.
a series of precepts neither below nor much above the average
practical morality of Greece. (2) The letter to Nicocles — the young
king of the Cyprian Salamis — sets forth the duty of a monarch to
his subjects. (3) In the third piece, it is Nicocles who speaks, and
impresses on the Salaminians their duty to their king — a piece re-
markable as containing a popular plea for monarchy, composed by
a citizen of Athens. These three letters may be referred to the
years 374~372 B.C.
Next may be placed four pieces which are " displays " (kiri&tl^)
in the proper Greek sense. The Busiris (Or. xi., 390-391 B.C.)
is an attempt to show how the ill-famed king of Egypt might
be praised. The Encomium on Helen (Or. x., 370 B.C.), a piece
greatly superior to the last, contains the celebrated passage on
the power of beauty. These two compositions serve to illustrate
their author's view that " encomia " of the hackneyed type might
be elevated by combining the mythical matter with some topic
of practical interest — as, in the case of Busiris, with the institutions
of Egypt, or, in that of Helen, with the reforms of Theseus. The
Evagoras (Or. ix., 365 B.C.?), the earliest known biography, is a
laudatory epitaph on a really able man — the Greek king of the
Cyprian Salamis. A passage of singular interest describes how,
under his rule, the influences of Hellenic civilization had prevailed
over the surrounding barbarism. The Panathenaicus (Or. xii.),
intended for the great Panathenaea of 342 B.C., but not completed till
339 B.C., contains a recital of the services rendered by Athens to
Greece, but digresses into personal defence against critics; his last
work, written in extreme old age, it bears the plainest marks of
failing powers.
The third subdivision of the scholastic writings is formed by two
most interesting essays on education — that entitled Against the
Sophists (Or. xiii., 391-390 B.C.), and the Antidosis (Or. xv.,
353 B.C.). The first of these is a manifesto put forth by Isocrates at
the outset of his professional career of teaching, in which he seeks
to distinguish his aims from those of other " sophists." These
" sophists " are (i) the " eristics " (oi xepj ris SpiSos), by whom he
seems to intend the minor Socratics, especially Euclides; (2) the
teachers of practical rhetoric, who had made exaggerated claims for
the efficacy of mere instruction, independently of natural faculty or
experience; (3) the writers of "arts" of rhetoric, who virtually
devoted themselves (as Aristotle also complains) to the lowest, or
forensic, branch of their subject (see also E. Holzner, Platos Phaedrus
und die Sophistenrede des Isokrates, Prague, 1894). As this piece is
the prelude to his career, its epilogue is the speech on the "Antidosis"
— so called because it has the form of a speech made in court in answer
to a challenge to undertake the burden of the trierarchy, or else
exchange properties with the challenger. The discourse " Against
the Sophists " had stated what his art was not; this speech defines
what it is. His own account of his <t>i\otro<j>ia — " the discipline of
discourse " (17 run \6jav naibtia.) — has been embodied in the sketch
of it given above.
Political Writings. — These, again, fall into two classes — those
which concern (i) the relations of Greece with Persia, (2) the internal
affairs of Greece. The first class consist of the Panegyricus (Or. iv.,
380 B.C.) and the Philippus (Or. v., 346 B.C.). The Panegyricus
takes its name from the fact that it was given to the Greek public
at the time of the Olympic festivals — probably by means of copies
circulated there. The orator urges that Athens and Sparta should
unite in leading the Greeks against Persia. The feeling of antiquity
that this noble discourse is a masterpiece of careful work finds ex-
pression in the tradition that it had occupied its author for more
than ten years. Its excellence is not merely that of language, but
also — and perhaps even more conspicuously — that of lucid arrange-
ment. The Philippus is an appeal to the king of Macedon to assume
that initiative in the war on Persia which Isocrates had ceased to
expect from any Greek city. In the view of Demosthenes, Philip
was the representative barbarian; in that of Isocrates, he is the first
of Hellenes, and the natural champion of their cause.
Of those discourses which concern the internal affairs of Greece,
two have already been noticed, — that On the Peace (Or. viii.), and the
Areopagiticus (Or. vii.) — both of 355 B. c.— as dealing respectively
with the foreign and the home affairs of Athens. The Plataicus
(Or. xiv.) is supposed to be spoken by a Platacan before the Athenian
ecclesia in 373 B.C. In that year Plataea had for the second time
in its history been destroyed by Thebes. The oration — an appeal
to Athens to restore the unhappy town — is remarkable both for the
power with which Theban cruelty is denounced, and for the genuine
pathos of the peroration. The Archidamus (Or. vi.) is a speech pur-
porting to be delivered by Archidamus III., son of Agesilaus, in a
debate at Sparta on conditions of peace offered by Thebes in 366
B.C. It was demanded that Sparta should recognize the indepen-
dence of Messene, which had lately been restored by Epameinondas
(370 B.C.). The oration gives brilliant expression to the feeling
which such a demand was calculated to excite in Spartans who knew
the history of their own city. Xenophon witnesses that the attitude
of Sparta on this occasion was actually such as the Archidamus
assumes (Hellen. vii. 4. 8-n).
Letters. — The first letter — to Dionysius I. — is fragmentary; but
a passage in the Philippus leaves no doubt as to its object. Isocrates
was anxious that the ruler of Syracuse should undertake the com-
mand of Greece against Persia. The date is probably 368 B.C.
ISODYNAMIC LINES— ISOMERISM
881
Next in chronological order stands the letter " To the Children
of Jason " (vi.). Jason, tyrant of Pherae, had been assassinated in
370 B.C. ; and no fewer than three of his successors had shared the
same fate. Isocrates now urges Thebe, the daughter of Jason, and
her half-brothers to set up a popular government. The date is
359 B.C.1 The letter to Archidamus III. (ix.) — the same person
who is the imaginary speaker of Oration vi. — urges him to execute
the writer's favourite idea, — •" to deliver the Greeks from their
feuds, and to crush barbarian insolence." It is remarkable for a
vivid picture of the state of Greece; the date is about 356 B.C. The
letter to Timotheus (vii., 345 B.C.), ruler of Heraclea on the Euxine,
introduces an Athenian friend who is going thither, and at the same
time offers some good counsels to the benevolent despot. The letter
" to the government of Mytilene " (viii., 350 B.C.) is a petition to a
newly established oligarchy, begging them to permit the return of
a democratic exile, a distinguished musician named Agenor. The
first of the two letters to Philip of Macedon (ii.) remonstrates with
him on the personal danger to which he had recklessly exposed
himself, and alludes to his beneficent intervention in the affairs of
Thessaly; the date is probably the end of 342 B.C. The letter to
Alexander (v.), then a boy of fourteen, is a brief greeting sent along
with the last, and congratulates him on preferring " practical " to
" eristic " studies — a distinction which is explained by the sketch of
the author's <t>i.\oao<t>ia, and of his essay " Against the Sophists,"
given above. It was just at this time, probably, that Alexander
was beginning to receive the lessons of .Aristotle (342 B.C.). The
letter to Antipater (iv.) introduces a friend who wished to enter
the military service of Philip. Antipater was then acting as regent
in Macedonia during Philip's absence in Thrace (340-339 B.C.).
The later of the two letters to Philip (iii.) appears to be written
shortly after the battle of Chaeronea in 338 B.C. The questions
raised by it have already been discussed.
No lost work of Isocrates is known from a definite quotation,
except an " Art of Rhetoric," from which some scattered precepts
are cited. Quintilian, indeed, and Photius, who had seen this " Art,"
felt a doubt as to whether it was genuine. Only twenty-five dis-
courses-^-out of an ascriptive total of some sixty — were admitted as
authentic by Dionysius; Photius (circ. A.D. 850) knew only the
number now extant — twenty-one.
With the exception of defects at the end of Or. xiii., at the be-
ginning of Or. xvi., and probably at the end of Letters L, vi., ix., the
existing text is free from serious mutilations. It is also unusually
pure. The smooth and clear style of Isocrates gave few opportunities
for the mistakes of copyists. On the other hand, he was a favourite
author of the schools. Numerous glosses crept into his text through
the comments or conjectures of rhetoricians. This was already the
case before the 6th century, as is attested by the citations of Priscian
and Stobaeus. Jerome Wolf and Koraes successively accomplished
much for the text. But a more decided advance was made by
Immanuel Bekker. He used five MSS., viz. (i) Codex Urbinas III.,
F (this, the best, was his principal guide); (2) Vaticanus 936, A;
(3) Laurentianus 87, 14,6 (i3th century); (4) Vaticanus 65, A;
and (5) Marcianus 415, H. The first three, of the same family, have
Or. xv. entire; the last two are from the same original, and have
Or. xv. incomplete.
J. G. Baiter and H. Sauppe in their edition (1850) follow T " even
more constantly than Bekker." Their apparatus is enriched,
however, by a MS. to which he had not access — Ambrosianus O.
144, E, which in some cases, as they recognize, has alone preserved
the true reading. The readings of this MS. were given in full by
G. E. Benseler in his second edition (1854-1855). The distinctive
characteristic of Benseler's textual criticism was a tendency to
correct the text against even the best MS., where the MS. conflicted
with the usage of Isocrates as inferred from his recorded precepts
or from the statements of ancient writers. Thus, on the strength
of the rule ascribed to Isocrates — $uivr\tvTa. ^17 <ru/iiriirT£iv — Benseler
would remove from the text every example of hiatus (on the MSS.
of Isocrates, see H. Btirmann, Die handschriflliche Vberlieferung des
Isocrates, Berlin, 1885-1886, and E. Drerup, in Leipziger Studien,
xvii., 1895). (R. C. J.)
EDITIONS. — In Oratores Attici, ed. Imm. Bekker (1823, 1828);
W. S. Dobson (1828); J. G. Baiter and Hermann Sauppe (1850).
Separately Ausgewahlte Reden, Panegyrikos und Areopagitikos, by
Rudolf Rauchenstein, 6th ed., Karl Milnscher (1908); in Teubner's
series, by G. E. Benseler (new ed., by F. Blass, 1886-1895) and
by E. Drerup (1906- ) ; Ad Demonicum et Panegyricus, ed. J. E.
Sandys (1868); Evagoras, ed. H. Clarke (1885). Extracts from
Orations iii., iv., vi., vii., viii., ix., xiii., xiv., xv., xix., and Letters
iii., v., edited with revised text and commentary, in Selections from
the Attic Orators, by R. C. Jebb (1880); vol. i. of an English prose
translation, with introduction and notes by J. H. Freese, has been
published in Bohn's Classical Library (1894). See generally Jebb's
1 This was shown by R.C. Jebb in a paper on " The Sixth Letter
of Isocrates," Journal of Philology, v. 266 (1874). The fact that
Thebe, widow of Alexander of Pherae, was the daughter of Jason is
incidentally noticed by Plutarch in his life of Pelopidas, c. 28. It
is this fact which gives the clue to the occasion of the letter; cf.
Diod. Sic. xvi. 14.
Attic Orators (where a list of authorities is given) and F. Blass, Die
attische Beredsamkeit (2nd ed., 1887—1898), and the latter's Die
Rhythmen der attischen Kunstprosa (1901). There is a special lexicon
by S. Preuss (1904). On the philosophy of Isocrates and his relation
to the Socratic schools, see Thompson's ed. of Plato's Phaedrus,
Appendix 2.
ISODYNAMIC LINES (Gr. iao5iva.ij.os, equal in power), lines
connecting those parts of the earth's surface where the magnetic
force has the same intensity (see MAGNETISM, TERRESTRIAL).
ISOGONIC LINES (Gr. laoyiavws, equiangular), lines connect-
ing those parts of the earth's surface where the magnetic declina-
tion is the same in amount (see MAGNETISM, TERRESTRIAL).
ISOLA DEL LIRI, a town of Campania, in the province of
Caserta, Italy, 15 m. by rail N.N.W. of Roccasecca, which is
on the main line from Rome to Naples, 10 m. N.W. of Cassino.
Pop. (1901), town, 2384; commune, 8244. The town consists
of two parts, Isola Superiore and Isola Inferiore; as its name
implies it is situated between two arms of the Liri. The many
waterfalls of this river and of the Fibreno afford motive power
for several important paper-mills. Two of the falls, 80 ft. in
height, are especially fine. About i m. to the N. is the church
of San Domenico, erected in the i2th century, which probably
marks the site of the villa of Cicero (see ARPINO).
ISOMERISM, in chemistry. When Wohler, in 1825, analysed
his cyanic acid, and Liebig his quite different fulminic acid in
1824, the composition of both compounds proved to be absolutely
the same, containing each in round numbers 28% of carbon,
33% of nitrogen, 37% of oxygen and 2% of hydrogen. This
fact, inconsistent with the then dominating conception that
difference in qualities was due to difference in chemical com-
position, was soon corroborated by others of analogous nature,
and so Berzelius introduced the term isomerism (Gr. tcro^uepijs,
composed of equal parts) to denominate the existence of the
property of substances having different qualities, in chemical
behaviour as well as physical, notwithstanding identity in
chemical composition. These phenomena were quite in accord-
ance with the atomic conception of matter, since a compound
containing the same number of atoms of carbon, nitrogen,
oxygen and hydrogen as another in the same weight might
differ in internal structure by different arrangements of those
atoms. Even in the time of Berzelius the newly introduced
conception proved to include two different groups of facts. The
one group included those isomers where the identity in composi-
tion was accompanied by identity in molecular weight, i.e. the
vapour densities of the isomeis were the same, as in butylene and
isobutylene, to take the most simple case; here the molecular
conception admits that the isolated groups in which the
atoms are united, i.e. the molecules, are identical, and so the
molecule of both butylene and isobutylene is indicated by the
same chemical symbol C4H8, expressing that each molecule
contains, in both cases, four atoms of carbon (C) and eight of
hydrogen (H). This group of isomers was denominated melamers
by Berzelius, and now often " isomers " (in the restricted sense),
whereas the term polymerism (Gr. iroXiis, many) was chosen
for compounds like butylene, C^s, and ethylene, CiKt, corre-
sponding to the same composition in weight but differing
in molecular formula, and having different densities in gas
or vapour, a litre of butylene and isobutylene weighing, for
instance, under ordinary temperature and pressure, about
2-5 gr., ethylene only one-half as much, since density is pro-
portional to molecular weight.
A further distinction is necessary to a survey of the sub-
divisions of isomerism regarded in its widest sense. There are
subtle and more subtle differences causing isomerism. In the
case of metamerism we can imagine that the atoms are differently
linked, say in the case of butylene that the atoms of carbon
are joined together as a continuous chain, expressed by
-C-C-C-C-, normally as it is called, whereas in isobutylene
the fourth atom of carbon is not attached to the third but to the
Q_
second carbon atom, i.e. -C-C<^C_- Now there are cases
in which analogy of internal structure goes so far as to exclude
even that difference in linking, the only remaining possibility
882
ISOMERISM
then being the difference in relative position. This kind of
isomerism has been denominated stereoisomerism (q.v.) often
stereomerism. But there is a last group belonging here in which
identity of structure goes farthest. There are substances such
as sulphur, showing difference of modification in crystalline
state — the ordinary rhombic form in which sulphur occurs as a
mineral, while, after melting and cooling, long needles appear
which belong to the monosymmetric system. These differences,
which go .hand in hand with those] in other properties, e.g.
specific heat and specific gravity, are absolutely confined to
the crystalline state, disappearing with it when both modifica-
tions of sulphur are melted, or dissolved in carbon disulphide
or evaporated. So it is natural to admit that here we have
to deal with identical molecules, but that only the internal
arrangement differs from case to case as identical balls may be
grouped in different ways. This case of difference in properties
combined with identical composition is therefore called poly-
morphism.
To summarize, we have to deal with polymerism, metamerism,
stereoisomerism, polymorphism; whereas phenomena denom-
inated tautomerism, pseudomerism and desmotropism form
different particular features of metamerism, as well as the
phenomena of allotropy, which is merely the difference of
properties which an element may show, and can be due to poly-
merism, as in oxygen, where by the side of the ordinary form
with molecules C>2, we have the more active ozone with Os. Poly-
morphism in the case of an element is illustrated in the case of
sulphur, whereas metamerism in the case of elements has so
far as yet not been observed; and is hardly probable, as most
elements are built up, like the metals, from molecules containing
only one atom per molecule; here metamerism is absolutely
excluded, and a considerable number of the rest, having diatomic
molecules, are about in the same condition. It is only in cases
like sulphur with octatomic molecules, where a difference of
internal structure might play a part.
Before entering into detail it may be useful to consider the
nature of isomerism from a general standpoint. It is probable
that the whole phenomenon of isomerism is due to the possibility
that compounds or systems which in reality are unstable yet
persist, or so slowly change that practically one can speak of
their stability; for instance, such systems as explosives and
a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen, where the stable form is
water, and in which, according to some, a slow but until now
undetected change takes place even at ordinary temperatures.
Consequently, of each pair of isomers we may establish beforehand
which is the more stable; either in particular circumstances,
a direct change taking place, as, for instance, with maleic acid,
which when exposed to sunlight in presence of a trace of bromine,
yields the isomeric fumaric acid almost at once, or, indirectly,
one may conclude that the isomer which forms under greater
heat-development is the more stable, at least at lower tempera-
tures. Now, whether a real, though undetected, change occurs
is a question to be determined from case to case; it is certain,
however, that a substance like aragonite (a mineral form of
calcium carbonate) has sensibly persisted in geological periods,
though the polymorphous calcite is the more stable form.
Nevertheless, the theoretical possibility, and its realization in
many cases, has brought considerations to the front which have
recently become of predominant interest; consequently the
possible transformations of isomers and polymers will be con-
sidered later under the denomination of reversible or dynamical
isomerisms.
Especially prominent is the fact that polymerism and meta-
merism are mainly reserved to the domain of organic chemistry,
or the chemistry of carbon, both being discovered there; and,
more especially, the phenomenon of metamerism in organic
chemistry has largely developed our notions concerning the
structure of matter. That this particular feature belongs to
carbon compounds is due to a property of carbon which charac-
terizes the whole of organic chemistry, i.e. that atoms attached
to carbon, to express it in the atomic style, cling more intensely
to it than, for instance, when combined with oxygen. This
explains a good deal of the possible instability; and, from a
practical point of view, it coincides with the fact that such a
large amount of energy can be stored in our most intense explo-
sives such as dynamite, the explanation being that hydrogen is
attached to carbon distant from oxygen in the same molecule,
and that only the characteristic resistance of the carbon linkage
prevents the hydrogen from burning, which is the main occurrence
in the explosion of dynamite. The possession of this peculiar
property by carbon seems to be related to its high valency,
amounting to four; and, generally, when we consider the most
primitive expression of isomerism, viz. the allotropy of elements,
we meet this increasing resistance with increasing valency.
The monovalent iodine, for instance, is transformed by heating
into an allotropic form, corresponding to the formula I, whereas
ordinary iodine answers to 12. Now these modifications show
hardly any tendency to persist, the one stable at high tempera-
tures being formed at elevated temperatures, but changing in
the reverse sense on cooling. In the divalent oxygen we meet
with the modification called ozone, which, although unstable,
changes but slowly into oxygen. Similarly the trivalent phos-
phorus in the ordinary white form shows such resistance
as if it were practically stable; on the other hand the red
modification is in reality also stable, being formed, for
instance, under the influence of light. In the case of the
quadrivalent carbon, diamond seems to be the stable form at
ordinary temperatures, but one may wait long before it is
formed from graphite.
This connexion of isomerism with resistant linking, and of
this with high valency, explains, in considerable measure, why
inorganic compounds afforded, as a rule, no phenomena of this
kind until the systematic investigation of metallic compounds
by Werner brought to light many instances of isomerism in
inorganic compounds. Whereas carbon renders isomerism
possible in organic compounds, cobalt and platinum are the
determining elements in inorganic chemistry, the phenomena
being exhibited especially by complex ammoniacal derivatives.
The constitution of these inorganic isomers is still somewhat
questionable; and in addition it seems that polymerism,
metamerism and stereoisomerism play a part here, but the
general feature is that cobalt and platinum act in them with
high valency, probably exceeding four. The most simple case
is presented by the two platinum compounds PtClj(NHj)2, the
platosemidiammine chloride of Peyrone, and the platosammine
chloride of Jules Reiset, the first formed according to the equation
PtCl4K2+2NH3 = PtCl2(NH3)2+2KCl, the second according to
Pt(NH3)4Cl2 = PtCl2(NH3)2+2NH3, these compounds differing
in solubility, the one dissolving in 33, the other in 160 parts of
boiling water. With cobalt the most simple case was discovered
in 1892 by S. Jorgensen in the second dinitrotetramminecobalt
chloride, [Co(NO2)2(NH3)4]Cl, designated as flavo — whereas the
older isomer of Gibbs was distinguished as croceo-salt. An
interesting lecture on the subject was delivered by A. Werner
before the German chemical society (Ber., 1907, 40, p. 15). (See
COBALT; PLATINUM.)
Dealing with organic compounds, it is metamerism that
deserves chief attention, as it has largely developed our notions
as to molecular structure. Polymerism required no particular
explanation, since this was given by the difference in molecular
magnitude. One general remark, however, may be made here.
There are polymers which have hardly any inter-relations other
than identity in composition; on the other hand, there are
others which are related by the possibility of mutual trans-
formation; examples of this kind are cyanic acid (CNOH)
and cyanuric acid (CNOH)s, the latter being a solid which
readily transforms into the former on heating as an easily
condensable vapour; the reverse transformation may also
be realized; and the polymers methylene oxide (CH2O) and
trioxymethylene (CH2O)j. In the first group we may mention
the homologous series of hydrocarbons derived from ethylene,
given by the general formula CnH2n, and the two compounds
methylene-oxide and honey-sugar CeH^Oe. The cases of
mutual transformation are generally characterized by the fact
ISOMERISM
883
that in the compound of higher molecular weight no new links
of carbon with carbon are introduced, the trioxymethylene
being probably O<^CH^Q^>CH2, whereas honey-sugar corre-
sponds to CH2OH-CHOH-CHOH-CHOH-CHOH-CHO, each
point representing a linking of the carbon atom to the next.
This observation is closely related to the above-mentioned
resistivity of the carbon-link, and corroborates it in a special
case. As carbon tends to hold the atom attached to it, one
may presume that this property expresses itself in a pre-
dominant way where the other element is carbon also, and so
the linkage represented by — C— C— is one of the most difficult
to loosen.
The conception of metamerism, or isomerism in restricted
sense, has been of the highest value for the development of
our notions concerning molecular structure, i.e. the conception
as to the order in which the atoms composing a molecule are
linked together. In this article we shall confine ourselves to the
fatty compounds, from which the fundamental notions were
first obtained; reference may be made to the article CHEMISTRY:
Organic, for the general structural relations of organic com-
pounds, both fatty and aromatic.
A general philosophical interest is attached to the phenomena
of isomerism. By Wilhelm Ostwald especially, attempts have
been made to substitute the notion of atoms and molecular
structure by less hypothetical conceptions; these ideas may
some day receive thorough confirmation, and when this occurs
science will receive a striking impetus. The phenomenon of
isomerism will probably supply the crucial test, at least for
the chemist, and the question will be whether the Ostwaldian
conception, while substituting the Daltonian hypothesis, will
also explain isomerism. An early step accomplished by Ostwald
in this direction is to define ozone in its relation to oxygen,
considering the former as differing from the latter by an excess
of energy, measurable as heat of transformation, instead of
defining the difference as diatomic molecules in oxygen, and
triatomic in ozone. Now, in this case, the first definition
expresses much better the whole chemical behaviour of ozone,
which is that of " energetic " oxygen, while the second only
includes the fact of higher vapour-density; but in apply-
ing the first definition to organic compounds and calling
isobutylene " butylene with somewhat more energy " hardly
anything is indicated, and all the advantages of the atomic
conception — the possibility of exactly predicting how many
isomers a given formula includes and how you may get them —
are lost.
To Kekule is due the credit of taking the decisive step in
introducing the notion of tetravalent carbon in a clear way,
i.e. in the property of carbon to combine with four different
monatomic elements at once, whereas nitrogen can only hold
three (or in some cases five), oxygen two (in some cases four),
hydrogen one. This conception has rendered possible a clear
idea of the linking or internal structure of the molecule, for
example, in the most simple case, methane, CH^, is expressed by
H
i
H-C-H
l
H
It is by this conception that possible and impossible com-
pounds are at once fixed. Considering the hydrocarbons given
by the general formula dHv, the internal linkages of the carbon
atoms need at least x— i bonds, using up 2(x— i) valencies
of the 4* to be accounted for, and thus leaving no more than
2(x+i) for binding hydrogen: a compound CsH9 is therefore
impossible, and indeed has never been met. The second pre-
diction is the possibility of metamerism, and the number of
metamers, in a given case among compounds, which are realiz-
able. Considering the predicted series of compounds CnH2n+2,
which is the well-known homologous series of methane, the
first member, the possible of isomerism lies in that of a different
linking of the carbon atoms. This first presents itself when
four are present, i.e. in the difference between C — C — C— C
C-C-t
and i . With this compound C^io, named butane,
C
isomerism is actually observed, being limited to a pair, whereas
the former members ethane, CzHe, and propane, CjHs, showed
no isomerism. Similarly, pentane, CsH^, and hexane, CeHu,
may exist in three and five theoretically isomeric forms respect-
ively; confirmation of this theory is supplied by the fact that
all these compounds have been obtained, but no more. The
third most valuable indication which molecular structure gives
about these isomers is how to prepare them, for instance, that
normal hexane, represented by CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3,
may be obtained by action of sodium on propyl iodide,
CH3-CH2-CH2-I, the atoms of iodine being removed from two
molecules of propyl iodide, with the resulting fusion of the
two systems of three carbon atoms into a chain of six carbon
atoms. But it is not only the formation of different isomers
which is included in their constitution, but also the different
ways in which they will decompose or give other products.
As an example another series of organic compounds may be taken,
viz. that of the alcohols, which only differ from the hydrocarbons
by having a group OH, called hydroxyl, instead of H, hydrogen;
these compounds, when derived from the above methane series of
hydrocarbons, are expressed by the general formula CnH2n+iOH.
In this case it is readily seen that isomerism introduces itself
in the three carbon atom derivative: the propyl alcohols,
expressed by the formulae CH3-CH2-CH20HandCH3-CHOH-CH3,
are known as propyl and isopropyl alcohol respectively. Now
in oxidizing, or introducing more oxygen, for instance, by
means of a mixture of sulphuric acid and potassium bichromate,
and admitting that oxygen acts on both compounds in analogous
ways, the two alcohols may give (as they lose two atoms of
hydrogen) CH3-CH2-COH and CH3CO-CH3. The first com-
pound, containing a group COH, or more explicitly O = C— H, is
an aldehyde, having a pronounced reducing power, producing
silver from the oxide, and is therefore called propylaldehyde;
the second compound containing the group — C-CO-C— behaves
differently but just as characteristically, and is a ketone, it is
therefore denominated propylketone (also acetone or dimethyl
ketone). And so, as a rule, from isomeric alcohols, those con-
taining a group — CH2-OH, yield by oxidation aldehydes and
are distinguished by the name primary; whereas those contain-
ing CH-OH, called secondary, produce ketones. (Compare
CHEMISTRY: Organic.)
The above examples may illustrate how, in a general way,
chemical properties of isomers, their formation as well as trans-
formation, may be read in the structure formula. It is different,
however, with physical properties, density, &c.; at present
we have no fixed rules which enable us to predict quantitatively
the differences in physical properties corresponding to a given
difference in structure, the only general rule being that those
differences are not large.
Perhaps a satisfactory point of view may be here obtained by
applying the van der Waals' equation A(P+a/V2)(V — 6) =2T,
which connects volume V, pressure P and temperature T (see
CONDENSATION OF GASES). In this equation a relates to molecular
attraction; and it is not improbable that in isomeric molecules,
containing in sum the same amount of the same atoms, those mutual
attractions are approximately the same, whereas the chief difference
lies in the value of b, that is, the volume occupied by the molecule
itself. For what reason this volume may differ from case to case
lies close at hand; in connexion with the notion of negative and
positive atoms, like chlorine and hydrogen, experience tends to
show that the former, as well as the latter, have a mutual repulsive
power, but the former acts on the latter in the opposite sense;
the necessary consequence is that, when those negative and positive
groups are distributed in the molecule, its volume will be smaller
than if the negative elements are heaped together. An example
may prove this, but before quoting it, the question of determining 6
must be decided ; this results immediately from the above quotation,
b being the volume V at the absolute zero (T = 0); so the volume of
isomers ought to be compared at the absolute zero. Since this has
not been done we must adopt the approximate rule that the volume
at absolute zero is proportional to that at the boiling-point. Now
taking the isomers H3C-CC13(M, = 108) and C1HSC-CHC12(M, = 103),
we see the negative chlorine atoms heaped up in the left hand
884
ISOTHERM
formula, but distributed in the second ; the former therefore may be
presumed to occupy a larger space, the molecular volume, that is,
the volume, in cubic centimetres occupied by the molecular weight
in grams, actually being 108 in the former, and 103 in the latter
case (compare CHEMISTRY : Physical). An analogous remark applies
to the boiling-point of isomers. According to the above formula
the critical temperature is given by 8aA/54i, and as the critical
temperature is approximately proportional to the boiling-point, both
being estimated on the absolute scale of temperature, we may con-
clude that the larger value of b corresponds to the lower boiling-
point and indeed the isomer corresponding to the left-hand formula
boils at 74°, the other at 114°. Other physical properties might be
considered; as a general rule they depend upon the distribution
of negative and positive elements in the molecule.
Reversible (dynamical) Isomerism. — Certain investigations on
isomerism which have become especially prominent in recent
times bear on the possibility of the mutual transformation of
isomers. As soon as this reversibility is introduced, general
laws related to thermodynamics are applicable (see CHEMICAL
ACTION; ENERGETICS). These laws have the advantage of
being applicable to the mutual transformations of isomers,
whatever be the nature of the deeper origin, and so bring
polymerism, metamerism and polymorphism together. As
they are pursued furthest in the last case, this may be used as
an example. The study of polymorphism has been especially
pursued by Otto Lehmann, who proved that it is an almost
general property; the variety of forms which a given substance
may show is often great, ammonium nitrate, for instance, show-
ing at least four of them before melting. The general rule which
correlates this polymorphic change is that its direction changes
at a given temperature. For example, sulphur is stable in the
rhombic form till 95-4°, from then upwards it tends to change
over into the prismatic form. The phenomenon absolutely
corresponds to that of fusion and solidification, only that it
generally takes place less quickly; consequently we may have
prismatic sulphur at ordinary temperature for some time, as
well as rhombic sulphur at 100°. This may be expressed in
95'4°
the chosen case by a symbol: " rhombic sulphur _» prismatic
sulphur," indicating that there is equilibrium at the so-called
" transition-point," 95-4°, and opposite change below and above.
This comparison with fusion introduces a second notion,
that of the " triple-point," this being in the melting-phenomenon
the only temperature at which solid, liquid and vapour are in
equilibrium, in other words, where three phases of one substance
are co-existent. This temperature is somewhat different from
the ordinary melting-point, the latter corresponding to atmo-
spheric pressure, the former to the maximum vapour-pressure;
and so we come to a third relation for polymorphism. Just as
the melting-point changes with pressure, the transition-point
also changes; even the same quantitative relation holds for
both, as L. J. Reicher proved with sulphur: aT/aP = AwT/?, »
being the change in volume which accompanies the change
from rhombic to prismatic sulphur, and q the heat absorbed.
Both formula and experiment proved that an increase of pressure
of one atmosphere elevated the transition point for about 004°.
The same laws apply to cases of more complicated nature, and
one of them, which deserves to be pursued further, is the mutual
transformation of cyanuric acid, CjHsN3Oj, cyanic acid, CHNO,
and cyamelide (CHNO)*; the first corresponding to prismatic
sulphur, stable at higher temperatures, the last to rhombic,
the equilibrium-symbol being: cyamelide — > cyanuric acid;
the cyanic acid corresponds to sulphur vapour, being in equi-
librium with either cyamelide or cyanuric acid at a maximum
pressure, definite for each temperature.
A second law for these mutual transformations is that when
they take place without loss of homogeneity, for example, in
the liquid state, the definite transition point disappears and the
change is gradual. This seems to be the case with molten sulphur,
which, when heated, becomes dark-coloured and plastic; and also
in the case of metals, which obtain or lose magnetic properties
without loss of continuous structure. At the same time, however,
the transition point sometimes reappears even in the liquid
state; in such cases two layers are formed, as has been recently
observed with sulphur, and by F. M. Jager in complicated organic
compounds. Thus the introduction of heterogeneity, or the
appearance of a new phase, demands the existence of a fixed
temperature of transformation.
On the basis of the relation between physical phenomena
and thermodynamical laws, properties of the polymorphous
compounds may be predicted. The chief consideration here is
that the stable form must have the lower vapour pressure,
otherwise, by distillation, it would transform in opposite sense.
From this it follows that the stable form must have the higher
melting-point, since at the melting-point the vapour of the solid
and of the liquid have the same pressure. Thus prismatic
sulphur has a higher melting-point (120°) than the rhombic
form (116°), and it is even possible to calculate the difference
theoretically from the thermodynamic relations. A third
consequence is that the stable form must have the smaller
solubility: J. Meyer and J. N. Bronstedt found that at 25°,
10 c.c. of benzene dissolved 0-25 and 0-18 gr. of prismatic and
rhombic sulphur respectively. It can be easily seen that this
ratio, according to Henry's law, must correspond to that of
vapour-pressures, and so be independent of the solvent; in
fact, in alcohol the figures are 0-0066 and 0-0052. Recently
Hermann Walther Nernst has been able to deduce the transition-
point in the case of sulphur from the specific heat and the heat
developed in the transition only. This best studied case shows
that a number of mutual relations are to be found between the
properties of two modifications when once the phenomenon
of mutual transformation is accessible.
In ordinary isomers indications of mutual transformation
often occur; and among these the predominant fact is that
denoted as tautomerism or pseudomerism. It exhibits itself
in the peculiar behaviour of some organic compounds containing
the group -C-CO-C-, e.g. CH3CO-CHX-C02C2H6, derivatives
of acetoacetic ester. These compounds generally behave as
ketones; but at the same time they may act as alcohols, i.e.
as if containing the OH group; this leads to the formula
H3C-C(OH):CX-CO2C2H5. In reality such tautomeric com-
pounds are apparently a mixture of two isomers in equilibrium,
and indeed in some cases both forms have been isolated; then
one speaks of desmotropy (Gr. Setr/ws, a bond or link, and rpoiri?,
a turn or change). Nevertheless, the relations obtained in
reversible cases such as sulphur have not yet found applica-
tion in the highly interesting cases of ordinary irreversible
isomerism.
A further step in this direction has been effected by the intro-
duction of reversibility into a non-reversible case by means of a
catalytic agent. The substance investigated was acetaldehyde,
C«H4O, in its relation to paraldehyde, a polymeric modification.
The phenomena were first observed without mutual transforma-
tion, aldehyde melting at — 118°, paraldehyde at 13°, the only
mutual influence being a lowering of melting-point, with a
minimum at- 1 20° in the eutectic point. When a catalytic agent,
such as sulphurous acid, is added, which produces a mutual
change, the whole behaviour is different; only one melting-
point, viz. 7°, is observed for all mixtures; this has been called
the " natural melting-point." It corresponds to one of the melt-
ing-points in the series without catalytic agents, viz. in that
mixture which contains 88 % of paraldehyde and 1 2 % of acetal-
dehyde, which the catalytic agent leaves unaffected. Such an
introduction of reversibility is also possible by allowing sufficient
time to permit the transformation to be produced by itself.
By R. Rothe and Alexander Smith's interesting observations on
sulphur, results have been obtained which tend to prove that the
melting-point, as well as the appearance of two layers in the liquid
state, correspond to unstable conditions. (J. H. VAN'T H.)
ISOTHERM (Gr. Zeros, equal, and 9epw, heat), a line upon a
map connecting places where the temperature is the same at
sea-level on the earth's surface. These isothermal lines will be
found to vary from- month to month over the two hemispheres,
or over local areas, during summer and winter, and their position
is modified by continental or oceanic conditions.
ISOXAZOLES— ISSEDONES
ISOXAZOLES, monazole chemical compounds corresponding to
furfurane, in which thesCH group adjacent to the oxygen
atom is replaced by a nitrogen atom, and therefore they contain
HC = N,
the ring system I V). They may be prepared
rlC = CH'
by the elimination of water from the monoximes of j3-diketones,
/3-ketone aldehydes or oxymethylene ketones (L. Claisen, Ber.,
1891, 24, p. 3906), the general reaction proceeding according to
the equation
885
- = ^
HC = C^-R'
W. Dunstan and T. S. Dymond (Jour. Chen. Soc., 1891, 49,
p. 410) have also prepared isoxazoles by the action of alkalis
on nitroparaffins, but have not been able to obtain the parent
substance. Those isoxazoles in which the carbon atom adjacent
to nitrogen is substituted are stable compounds, but if this is
not the case, rearrangement of the molecule takes place and
nitriles are formed. The isoxazoles are feebly basic.
The isoxazolones are the keto derivatives of the as yet unknown
dihydroisoxazole, and are compounds of strongly acid nature,
decomposing the carbonates of the alkaline earth metals and forming
salts with metals and with ammonia. Their constitution is not yet
definitely fixed and they may be regarded as derived from one of
the three types
CHj-COv HC-CCK HC = C(OHK
I >0; | >0; | No-
CH = N/ HC-NH/ HC=N - /
By the action of nitrous acid on the oxime of o-aminobenzophenone
C-C6H6
as o-phenyl indoxazene, C6H4<^ t>N , is obtained ; this is a de-
O
rivative of benzisoxazole.
ISRAEL (Hebrew for " God strives " or " rules "; see Gen.
xxxii. 28; and the allusion in Hosea xii. 4), the national designa-
tion of the Jews. Israel was a name borne by their ancestor
Jacob the father of the twelve tribes. For some centuries the
term was applied to the northern kingdom, as distinct from
Judah, although the feeling of national unity extended it so as
to include both. It emphasizes more particularly the position
of the Hebrews as a religious community, bound together by
common aims and by their covenant-relation with the national
God, Yahweh.
See further JACOB, HEBREW LANGUAGE, HEBREW RELIGION,
JEWS: History and Palestine.
ISRAELI, ISAAC BEN SOLOMON (9th-ioth centuries), Jewish
physician and philosopher. A contemporary of Seadiah (q.v.),
he was born and passed his life in North Africa. He died c. 950.
At Kairawan, Israeli was court physician; he wrote several
medical works in Arabic, and these were afterwards trans-
lated into Latin. Similarly his philosophical writings were
translated, but his chief renown was in the circle of Moslem
authors.
ISRAELS, JOSEF (1824- ), Dutch painter, was born at
Groningen, of Hebrew parents, on the 27th of January 1824.
His father intended him to be a man of business, and it was only
after a determined struggle that he was allowed to enter on an
artistic career. However, the attempts he made under the guid-
ance of two second-rate painters in his native town — Buys and
van Wicheren — while still working under his father as a stock-
broker's clerk, led to his being sent to Amsterdam, where he
became a pupil of Jan Kruseman and attended the drawing
class at the academy. He then spent two years in Paris, working
inPicot's studio, and returned to Amsterdam. There he remained
till 1870, when he moved to The Hague for good. Israels is
justly regarded as one of the greatest of Dutch painters. He
has often been compared to J. F. Millet. As artists, even more
than as painters in the strict sense of the word, they both, in
fact, saw in the life of the poor and humble a motive for expressing
with peculiar intensity their wide human sympathy; but Millet
was the poet of placid rural life, while in almost all Israels'
pictures we find some piercing note of woe. Duranty said
of them that " they were painted with gloom and suffering."
He began with historical and dramatic subjects in the
romantic style of the day. By chance, after an illness, he
went to recruit his strength at the fishing-town of Zandvoort
near Haarlem, and there he was struck by the daily tragedy of
life. Thenceforth he was possessed by a new vein of artistic
expression, sincerely realistic, full of emotion and pity. Among
his more important subsequent works are " The Zandvoort
Fisherman " (in the Amsterdam gallery), " The Silent House "
(which gained a gold medal at the Brussels Salon, 1858) and
" Village Poor " (a prize at Manchester). In 1862 he achieved
great success in London with his " Shipwrecked," purchased by
Mr Young, and " The Cradle," two pictures of which the
Athenaeum spoke as " the most touching pictures of the exhibi-
tion." We may also mention among his maturer works " The
Widower " (in the Mesdag collection), " When we grow Old "
and " Alone in the World " (Amsterdam gallery), " An Interior "
(Dordrecht gallery), " A Frugal Meal " (Glasgow museum),
" Toilers of the Sea," "A Speechless Dialogue," " Between the
Fields and the Seashore," "The Bric-a-brac Seller" (which
gained medals of honour at the great Paris Exhibition of 1900).
" David Singing before Saul," one of his latest works, seems to
hint at a return on the part of the venerable artist to the
Rembrandtesque note of his youth. As a water-colour painter
and etcher he produced a vast number of works, which, like his
oil paintings, are full of deep feeling. They are generally treated
in broad masses of light and shade, which give prominence to
the principal subject without any neglect of detail.
See Jan Veth, Mannen of Beteckenis: Jozef Israels; Chesneau,
Peintres frangais et Grangers; Ph. Zilcken, Peintres hollandais
modernes (1893); Dumas, Illustrated Biographies of Modern Artists
(1882-1884); J- de Meester, in Max Rooses' Dutch Painters of the
Nineteenth Century (1898); Jozef Israels, Spain: the Story of a
Journey (1900).
ISSACHAR (a Hebrew name meaning apparently " there is
a hire," or " reward "), Jacob's ninth " son," his fifth by Leah;
also the name of a tribe of Israel. Slightly differing explanations
of the reference in the name are given in Gen. xxx. 16 (J) and
». 18 (E).1 The territory of the tribe (Joshua xix. 17-23) lay to
the south of that allotted to Zebulun, Naphtali, Asher and Dan,
and included the whole of the great plain of Esdraelon, and the
hills to the east of it, the boundary in that direction extending
from Tabor to the Jordan, apparently along the deep gorge of
Wadi el Blreh. In the rich territory of Issachar, traversed by
the great commercial highway from the Mediterranean and
Egypt to Bethshean and the Jordan, were several important
towns which remained in the hands of the Canaanites for some
time (Judges i. 27), separating the tribe from Manasseh. Although
Issachar is mentioned as having taken some part in the war
of freedom under Deborah (Judges v. 15), it is impossible to
misunderstand the reference to its tributary condition in the
blessing of Jacob (Gen. xlix. 14 seq.), or the fact that the name
of this tribe is omitted from the list given in Judges i. of those
who bestirred themselves against the earlier inhabitants of the
country. In the " blessing upon Zebulun and Issachar " in
Deut. xxxiii. 18 seq., reference is made to its agricultural life
in terms suggesting that along with its younger, but more
successful " brother," it was the guardian of a sacred mountain
(Carmel, Tabor?) visited periodically for sacrificial feasts.
ISSEDONES, an ancient people of Central Asia at the end of
e trade route leading north-east from Scythia (q.i>.), described
by Herodotus (iv. 26). The position of their country is fixed
as the Tarym basin by the more precise indications of Ptolemy,
who tells how a Syrian merchant penetrated as far as Issedon.
They had their wives in common and were accustomed to slay
±e old people, eat their flesh and make cups of their skulls.
Such usages survived among Tibetan tribes and make it
ikely that the Issedones were of Tibetan race. Some of the
Issedones seem to have invaded the country of the Massa-
getae to the west, and similar customs are assigned to a
section of these. (£. H. M.)
1 On the origin of the name, see the article by H. W. Hogg,
Ency. Bib. col. 2290; E. Meyer, Israeliten, p. 536 seq.
886
ISSERLEIN— ISTRIA
ISSERLEIN, ISRAEL (d. 1460), German Talmudist. His
fame attracted many students to Neustadt, and his profound
learning did much to revive the study of the original Rabbinic
authorities. After the publication of the Code of Joseph Qaro
(q.v.) the decisions of Isserlein in legal matters were added in
notes to that code by Moses Isserles. His chief works were
Terumath ha-Deshen (354 decisions) and Peasqim u-kethaliim
(267 decisions) largely on points of the marriage law.
ISSERLES, MOSES BEN ISRAEL (c. 1520-1572), known as
REMA, was born at Cracow and died there in 1572. He wrote
commentaries on the Zohar, the " Bible of the Kabbalists,"
but is best known as the critic and expander of the Shulhan
Aruch of Joseph Qaro (Caro) (q.v.). His chief halakhic (legal)
works were Darke Moshe and Mappah. Qaro, a Sephardic
(Spanish) Jew, in his Code neglected Ashkenazic (German)
customs. These deficiencies Isserles supplied, and the notes of
Rema are now included in all editions of Qaro's Code.
ISSOIRE, a town of central France, capital of an arrondissement
in the department of Puy-de-D6me, on the Couze, near its
junction with the Alh'er, 22 m. S.S.E. of Clermont-Ferrand on
the Paris-Lyon-Mediterranee railway to Nlmes. Pop. (1906)
5274. Issoire is situated in the fertile plain of Limagne. The
streets in the older part of the town are narrow and crooked,
but in the newer part there are several fine tree-shaded pro-
menades, while a handsome boulevard encircles the town. The
church of St Paul or St Austremoine built on the site of an older
chapel raised over the tomb of St Austremoine (Stremonius)
affords an excellent specimen of the Romanesque architecture
of Auvergne. Issoire is the seat of a sub-prefect; its public
institutions include tribunals of first instance and commerce
and a communal college. Brewing, wool-carding and the
manufacture of passementerie, candles, straw hats and woollen
goods are carried on. There is trade in lentils and other agri-
cultural products, in fruit and in wine.
Issoire (Iciodurum) is said to have been founded by the
Arverni, and in Roman times rose to some reputation for its
schools. In the 5th century the Christian community established
there by Stremonius in the 3rd century was overthrown by the
fury of the Vandals. During the religious wars of the Reforma-
tion, Issoire suffered very severely. Merle, the leader of
the Protestants, captured the town in 1574, and treated the
inhabitants with great cruelty. The Roman Catholics retook
it in 1577, and the ferocity of their retaliation may be inferred
from the inscription " Id fut Issoire " carved on a pillar which
was raised on the site of the town. In the contest between the
Leaguers and Henry IV., Issoire sustained further sieges, and
never wholly regained its early prosperity.
ISSOUDUN, a town of central France, capital of an arrondisse-
ment in the department of Indre, on the right bank of the Th6ols,
17 m. N.E. of Chateauroux by rail. Pop. (1906) 10,566. Among
the interesting buildings are the church of St Cyr, combining
various architectural styles, with a fine porch and window, and
the chapel of the H6tel Dieu of the early i6th century. Of the
fortifications with which the town was formerly surrounded,
a town-gate of the i6th century and the White Tower, a lofty
cylindrical building of the reign of Philip Augustus, survive.
Issoudun is the seat of a sub-prefecture, and has tribunals of
first instance and of commerce, a chamber of arts and manu-
factures and a communal college. The industries, of which the
most important is leather-dressing, also include malting and
brewing and the manufacture of bristles for brushes and parch-
ment. Trade is in grain, live-stock, leather and wine.
Issoudun, in Latin Exoldunum or Uxellodunum, existed in
and before Roman times. In 1 195 it was stoutly and successfully
defended by the partizans of- Richard Coeur-de-Lion against
Philip Augustus, king of France. It has suffered severely from
fires. A very destructive one in 1651 was the result of an attack
on the town in the war of Fronde; Louis XIV. rewarded its
fidelity to him during that struggle by the grant of several
privileges.
ISSYK-KUL, also called Tuz-Kui., and by the Mongols
Temurtu-nor, a lake of Central Asia, lying in a deep basin (5400 ft.
above sea-level), between the Kunghei Ala-tau and the Terskei
Ala-tau, westward continuations of the Tian-shan mountains,
and extending from 76° 10' to 78° 20' E. The length from W.S.W.
to E.N.E. is 115 m. and the breadth 38 m., the area being
estimated at 2230 sq. m. The name is Kirghiz for " warm lake,"
and, like the Chinese synonym She-hai, has reference to the
fact that the lake is never entirely frozen over. On the south
the Terskei Ala-tau do not come down so close to the shore as
the mountains on the north, but leave a strip 5 to 13 m. broad.
The margins of the lake are overgrown with reeds. The water
is brackish. Fish are remarkably abundant, the principal
species being carp.
It was by the route beside this lake that the tribes (e.g. Yue-chi)
driven from China by the Huns found their way into the Aralo-
Caspian basin in the end of the 2nd century. The Ussuns or
Uzuns settled on the lake and built the town of Chi-gu, which
still existed in the 5th century. It is to Hsiian-tsang, the Chinese
Buddhist pilgrim, that we are indebted for the first account of
Issyk-kul based on personal observation. In the beginning of
the I4th century Nestorian Christians reached the lake and
founded a monastery on the northern shore, indicated on the
Catalan map of 1374. It was not till 1856 that the Russians
made acquaintance with the district.
ISTAHBANAT, a town and district of Persia in the province
of Pars. The district, which is very fertile, extends for nearly
50 m. east and west along the southern shore of the Bakhtegan
lake and produces much grain, cotton, good tobacco and excellent
fruit, particularly pomegranates and grapes, walnuts and figs.
The town is situated in the midst of a plain 12 m. from the
eastern corner of the lake and about 100 m. S.E. of Shiraz, and
has a population of about 10,000. It occupies the site of the
ancient city of Ij, the capital of the old province of Shabankareh,
which was captured and partly destroyed by Mubariz ed-din,
thefounder of the Muzaffarid dynasty, in 1355. When rebuilt
it became known by its present name. Of the old period a ruined
mosque and two colleges remain; other mosques and colleges
are of recent construction. At the entrance of the town stands a
noble chinar (oriental plane), measuring 45 ft. in circumference
at 2 ft. from the ground.
ISTHMUS (Gr.io#ju6s, neck), a narrow neck of land connecting
two larger portions of land that are otherwise separated by the
sea.
ISTRIA (Ger. Istrieri), a margraviate and crownland of Austria,
bounded N. by the Triestine territory, Gorz and Gradisca, and
Carniola, E. by Croatia and S. and W. by the Adriatic; area
1908 sq. m. It comprises the peninsula of the same name
(area 1545 sq. m.), which stretches into the Adriatic Sea between
the Gulf of Trieste and the Gulf of Quarnero, and the islands of
Veglia, Cherso, Lussino and others. The coast line of Istria
extends for 267 m., including Trieste, and presents many good
bays and harbours. Besides the great Gulf of Trieste, the coast
is indented on the W. by the bays of Muggia, Capodistria,
Pirano, Porto Quieto and Pola, and on the E. by those of Medo-
lino, Arsa, Fianona and Volosca. A great portion of Istria
belongs to the Karst region, and is occupied by the so-called
Istrian plateau, flanked on the north and east by high mountains,
which attain in the Monte Maggiore an altitude of 4573 ft. In
the south and west the surface gradually slopes down in undulat-
ing terraces towards the Adriatic. The Quieto in the west and
the Arsa in the east, neither navigable, are the principal streams.
The climate of Istria, although it varies with the varieties of
surface, is on the whole warm and dry. The coasts are exposed
to the prevailing winds, namely the Sirocco from the south-south-
east, and the Bora from the north-east. Of the total area
33-21% is occupied by forests, 32-09% by pastures, 11-2% by
arable land, 9-5% by vineyards, 7-21% by meadows and 3-26%
by gardens. The principal agricultural products are wheat,
maize, rye, oats and fruit, namely olives, figs and melons.
Viticulture is well developed, and the best sorts of wine are
produced near Capodistria, Muggia, Isola, Parenzo and Dignano,
while well-known red wines are made near Refosco and Terrano.
The oil of Istria was already famous in Roman times. Cattle-
ISYLLUS— ITAGAKI
887
breeding is another great source of revenue, and the exploitation
of the forests gives beech and oak timber (good for shipbuilding),
gall-nuts, oak-bark and cork. Fishing, the recovery of salt from
the sea-water, and shipbuilding constitute the other principal
occupations of the population. Istria had in 1900 a population of
344,173, equivalent to 180 inhabitants per square mile. Two-
thirds of the population were Slavs and the remainder Italians,
while nearly the whole of the inhabitants (99-6%) were Roman
Catholics, under the ecclesiastical jurisdiction of three bishops.
The local Diet, which meets at Parenzo, and of which the three
bishops are members ex-qfflcio, is composed of 33 members, and
Istria sends 5 deputies to the Reichsrat at Vienna. For adminis-
trative purposes the province is divided into 6 districts and
an autonomous municipality, Rovigno (pop. 10,205). Other
important places are Pola (45,052), Capodistria (10,711), Pin-
guente (15,827), Albona (10,968), Isola (7500), Parenzo (9962),
Dignano (9684), Castua (17,988), Pirano (13,339) and Mitterburg
(16,056).
The modern Istria occupies the same position as the ancient
Istria or Histria, known to the Romans as the abode of a fierce
tribe of Illyrian pirates. It owed its name to an old belief that
the Danube (Ister, in Greek) discharged some of its water by an
arm entering the Adriatic in that region. The Istrians, protected
by the difficult navigation of their rocky coasts, were only sub-
dued by the Romans in 1 77 B.C. after two wars. Under Augustus
the greater part of the peninsula was added to Italy, and, when
the seat of empire was removed to Ravenna, Istria reaped many
benefits from the proximity of the capital. After the fall of the
Western empire it was pillaged by the Longobardi and the Goths;
it was annexed to the Frankish kingdom by Pippin in 789; and
about the middle of the loth century it fell into the hands of the
dukes of Carinthia. Fortune after that, however, led it succes-
sively through the hands of the dukes of Meran, the duke of
Bavaria and the patriarch of Aquileia, to the republic of Venice.
Under this rule it remained till the peace of Campo Formio in
1797, when Austria acquired it, and added it to the north-eastern
part which had fallen to her share so early as 1374. By the peace
of Pressburg, Austria was in 1805 compelled to cede Istria to
France, and the department of Istria was formed; but in 1813
Austria again seized it, and has retained it ever since.
See T. G. Jackson, Dalmatia, the Quarnero and Istria (Oxford,
1887).
ISYLLUS, a Greek poet, whose name was rediscovered in the
course of excavations on the site of the temple of Asclepius
at Epidaurus. An inscription was found engraved on stone,
consisting of 72 lines of verse (trochaic tetrameters, hexameters,
ionics), mainly in the Doric dialect. It is preceded by two lines
of prose stating that the author was Isyllus, an Epidaurian, and
that it was dedicated to Asclepius and Apollo of Malea. It
contains a few political remarks, showing general sympathy with
an aristocratic form of government ; a self-congratulatory notice
of the resolution, passed at the poet's instigation, to arrange a
solemn procession in honour of the two gods; a paean (no doubt
for use in the procession), chiefly occupied with the genealogical
relations of Apollo and Asclepius; a poem of thanks for the
assistance rendered to Sparta by Asclepius against Philip, when
he led an army against Sparta to put down the monarchy. The
offer of assistance was made by the god himself to the youthful
poet, who had entered the Asclepieum to pray for recovery from
illness, and communicated the good news to the Spartans. The
Philip referred to is identified with (a) Philip II. of Macedon, who
invaded Peloponnesus after the battle of Chaeronea in 338,
or (b) with Philip III., who undertook a similar campaign in 218.
Wilamowitz-Mollendorff , who characterizes Isyllus as a " poetaster
without talent and a farcical politician," has written an elaborate
treatise on him (Kiessling and Mollendorff, Philosophische Unter-
suchungen, Heft 9, 1886), containing the text with notes, and essays
on the political condition of Peloponnesus and the cult of Asclepius.
The inscription was first edited by P. Kawadias (1885), and by
J. F. Baunack in Studien auf dent Gebiete der griechischen und der
arischen Sprachen (1886).
ITACOLUMITE, the name given to a variety of porous yellow
sandstone or quartzose schist, which occurs at Itacolumi, in the
southern portion of Minas Geraes, Brazil. This rock is of interest
for two reasons; it is believed to be the source of the diamonds
which are found in great numbers in the district, and it is the
best and most widely known example of a flexible sandstone.
Itacolumite is yellow or pale-brown, and splits readily into thin
flat slabs. It is a member of a metamorphic series, being accom-
panied by clay-slate, mica schist, hornblende schist and various
types of ferriferous schists. In many places itacolumite is really a
coarse grit or fine conglomerate. Other quartzites occur in the
district, and there is some doubt whether the diamantiferous
sandstones are always itacolumites and also as to the exact
manner in which the presence of diamond in these rocks is to be
accounted for. Some authorities hold that the diamond has been
formed in certain quartz veins which traverse the itacolumite.
It is clear, however, that the diamonds are found only in those
streams which contain the detritus of this rock.
On the split faces of the slabs, scales of greenish mica are visible,
but in other respects the rock seems to be remarkably pure. If a
piece which is a foot or two long and half an inch thick be sup-
ported at its ends it will gradually bend by its own weight. If it
then be turned over it will straighten and bend in the opposite
direction. Flakes a millimetre or two thick can be bent between
the fingers and are said to give out a creaking sound. It should
be noted that specimens showing this property form only a small
part of the whole mass of the rock. Flexible rocks have also been
reported and described from North and South Carolina, Georgia,
Delhi, and from the north of England (Durham)._ They are mostly
sandstones or quartzites, but the Durham rock is a variety of the
magnesian limestone of that district.
Some discussion has taken place regarding the cause of the flexi-
bility. At one time it was ascribed -to the presence of thin scales
of mica which were believed to permit a certain amount of motion
between adjacent grains of quartz. More probably, however it is
due to the porous character of the rock together with the inter-
locking junctions between the sand grains. The porosity allows
interstitial movement, while the hinge-like joints by which the
particles are connected hold them together in spite of the displace-
ment. These features are dependent to some extent on weathering,
as the rocks contain perishable constituents which are removed and
leave open cavities in their place, while at the same time additional
silica may have been deposited on the quartz grains fitting their
irregular surfaces more perfectly together. Most of the known
flexible rocks are also fine-grained; in some cases they are said to
lose their flexibility after being dried for some time, probably
because of the hardening of some interstitial substance, but many
specimens kept in a dry atmosphere for years retain this property
in a high degree. (J. S. F.)
ITAGAKI, TAISUKE, COUNT (1837- ), Japanese statesman,
was born in Tosa in 1837. He distinguished himself originally as
one of the soldier politicians who contributed so much to the
overthrow of feudalism and the restoration of the administrative
power to the throne. After taking a prominent part in subduing
the resistance offered by a section of the shogun's feudatories to
those changes, he received cabinet rank in the newly organized
system. But in 1873 he resigned his portfolio as a protest against
the ministry's resolve to refrain from warlike action against
Korea. This incident inspired Itagaki with an apprehension
that the country was about to pass under the yoke of a bureau-
cratic government. He became thenceforth a warm advocate of
constitutional systems, though at the outset he does not seem to
have contemplated any thing likeapopular assembly in the English
sense of the term, his ideas being limited to the enfranchise-
ment of the samurai class. Failing to obtain currency for his
radical'propaganda, he retired to his native province, and there
established a school (the Risshi-sha) for teaching the principles of
government by the people, thus earning for himself the epithet
of " the Rousseau of Japan." His example found imitators.
Not only did pupils flock to Tosa from many quarters, attracted
alike by the novelty of Itagaki's doctrines, by his eloquence and
by his transparent sincerity, but also similar schools sprang up
among the former vassals of other fiefs, who saw themselves
excluded from the government. In 1875 no less than seven of
these schools sent deputies to hold a convention in Osaka, and for
a moment an appeal to force seemed possible. But the states-
men in power were not less favourable to constitutional institu-
tions than the members of the Aikoku Ko-to (public party of
patriots), as Itagaki and his followers called themselves. A con-
ference attended by Kido, Okubo, Inouye, Ito, Itagaki and others
888
ITALIAN LANGUAGE
entered into an agreement by which they pledged themselves to
the principle of a constitutional monarchy and a legislative
assembly. Itagaki now accepted office once more. Finding,
however, that his colleagues in the administration favoured a
much more leisurely rate of progress than he himself advocated,
he once more retired into private life (1876) and renewed his
liberal propagandism. It is in the nature of such movements to
develop violent phases, and the leaders of the Aikoku-sha
(patriotic association), as the agitators now called themselves,
not infrequently showed disregard for the preservation of peace
and order. Itagaki made the mistake of memorializing the
government at the moment when its very existence was im-
perilled by the Satsuma rebellion (1877), and this evident disposi-
tion to take advantage of a great public peril went far to alienate
the sympathies of the cabinet. Recourse was had to legislation
in restraint of free speech and public meeting. But repression
served only to provoke opposition. Throughout 1879 and 1880
Itagaki's followers evinced no little skill in employing the weapons
of local association, public meetings and platform tours, and in
November 1881 the first genuine political party was formed in
Japan under the name of Jiyu-to, with Itagaki for declared
leader. A year later the emperor announced that a parliamentary
system should be inaugurated iniSgi, and Itagaki's task might be
said to have been accomplished. Thenceforth he devoted himself
to consolidating his party. In the spring of 1882, he was stabbed
by a fanatic during the reception given in the public park at Gif u.
The words he addressed to his would-be assassin were: " Itagaki
may perish, but liberty will survive." Once afterwards (1898) he
held office as minister of home affairs, and in 1900 he stepped
down from the leadership of the Jiyii-ld in order that the latter
might form the nucleus of the Seiyu-kai organized by Count Ito.
Itagaki was raised to the nobility with the title of " count " in
1887. From the year 1900 he retired into private life, devoting
himself to the solution of socialistic problems. His countrymen
justly ascribe to him the fame of having been the first to organize
and lead a political party in Japan.
ITALIAN LANGUAGE.1 The Italian language is the language
of culture in the whole of the present kingdom of Italy, in some
parts of Switzerland (the canton of Ticino and part of the Grisons) ,
in some parts of the Austrian territory (the districts of Trent and
Gorz, Istria along with Trieste, and the Dalmatian coast), and
in the islands of Corsica2 and Malta. In the Ionian Islands,
likewise, in the maritime cities of the Levant, in Egypt, and
more particularly in Tunis, this literary language is extensively
maintained through the numerous Italian colonies and the ancient
traditions of trade.
The Italian language has its native seat and living source in
Middle Italy, or more precisely Tuscany and indeed Florence.
For real linguistic unity is far from existing in Italy; in some
respects the variety is less, in others more observable than in
other countries which equally boast a political and literary unity.
Thus, for example, Italy affords no linguistic contrast so violent
as that presented by Great Britain with its English dialects
alongside of the Celtic dialects of Ireland, Scotland and Wales,
or by France with the French dialects alongside of the Celtic
dialects of Brittany, not to speak of the Basque of the Pyrenees
1 The article by G. I. Ascoli in the gth edition of the Encyclopaedia
Brilannica, which has been recognized as a classic account of the
Italian language, was reproduced by him, with slight modifications,
in Arch, glott. viii. 98-128. The author proposed to revise his article
for the present edition of the Encyclopaedia, but his death on the
2lst of January 1907 prevented his carrying out this work, and the
task was undertaken by Professor C. Salvioni. In the circum-
stances it was considered best to confine the revision to bringing
Ascoli's article up to date, while preserving its form and main ideas,
together with the addition of bibliographical notes, and occasional
corrections and substitutions, in order that the results of more recent
research might be embodied. The new matter is principally in the
form of notes or insertions within square brackets.
1 [In Corsica the present position of Italian as a language of culture
is as follows. Italian is only used for preaching in the country
churches. In all the other relations of public and civil life (schools,
law courts, meetings, newspapers, correspondence, &c.), its place is
taken by French. As the elementary schools no longer teach Italian
but French, an educated Corsican nowadays knows only his own
dialect for everyday use, and French for public occasions.]
and other heterogeneous elements. The presence of not a few
Slavs stretching into the district of Udine (Friuli), of Albanian,
Greek and Slav settlers in the southern provinces, with the
Catalans of Alghero (Sardinia, v. Arch, glott. ix. 261 et seq.), a
few Germans at Monte Rosa and in some corners of Venetia,
and a remnant or two of other comparatively modern immigra-
tions is not sufficient to produce any such strong contrast in the
conditions of the national speech. But, on the other hand, the
Neo-Latin dialects which live on side by side in Italy differ from
each other much more markedly than, for example, the English
dialects or the Spanish; and it must be added that, in Upper
Italy especially, the familiar use of the dialects is tenaciously
retained even by the most cultivated classes of the population.
In the present rapid sketch of the forms of speech which occur
in modern Italy, before considering the Tuscan or Italian par
excellence, the language which has come to be the noble organ of
modern national culture, it will be convenient to discuss (A)
dialects connected in a greater or less degree with Neo-Latin
systems that are not peculiar to Italy;3 (B) dialects which are
detached from the true and proper Italian system, but form no
integral part of any foreign Neo-Latin system; and (C) dialects
which diverge more or less from the true Italian and Tuscan type,
but which at the same time can be conjoined with the Tuscan
as forming part of a special system of Neo-Latin dialects.
A. Dialects which depend in a greater or less degree on Neo-Latin
systems not peculiar to Italy.
i. Franco-Provencal and Provencal Dialects. — (a) Franco-Provencal
(see Ascoli, Arch, glott. iii. 61-120; Suchier, in Grundriss der roma-
nischen Philologie, 2nd ed., i. 755, &c. ; Nigra, Arch, glott. iii. I sqq.;
Salvioni, Rendic. istit. lomb., s. li. vol. xxxvii. 1043 sqq.; Cerlogne,
Dictionnaire du patois valdotain (Aosta, 1907). These occupy at
the present time very limited areas at the extreme north-west of
the kingdom of Italy. The system stretches from the borders of
Savoy and Valais into the upper basin of the Dora Baltea and into
the head-valleys of the Oreo, of the northern Stura, and of the Dora
Riparia. As this portion is cut off by the Alps from the rest of the
system, the type is badly preserved; in the valleys of the Stura
and the Dora Riparia, indeed, it is passing away and everywhere
yielding to the Piedmontese. The most salient characteristic of the
Franco-Provencal is the phonetic phenomenon by which the Latin
a, whether as an accented or as an unaccented final, is reduced to a
thin vowel (e, i) when it follows a sound which is or has been palatal,
but on the contrary is kept intact when it follows a sound of another
sort. The following are examples from the Italian side of these Alps :
AOSTA: travalji, Fr. travailler; zarzi, Fr. charger; enteruzi, Fr.
interroger; zevra, Fr. chfevre; zir, Fr. cher; gljdfg, Fr. glace;
vdzze, Fr. vache; alongside of sa, Fr. sel; man, Fr. main; epousa,
Fr. Spouse; erba, Fr. herbe. VAL. SOANA: taljer, Fr. tailler;
coci-sse, Fr. se coucher ; tin, Fr. chien ; tivra, Fr. cn6vre ; va66i, Fr.
vache; mdngi, Fr. manche; alongside of aldr, Fr. aller; porta^
Fr. port6 ; amdra, Fr. am&re; neva, Fr. neuve. CHIAMORIO (Val di
Lanzo) : la spranssi dla vendeta, sperantia de ilia vindicta. Viu ;
pansci, pancia. USSEGLIO: la muragli, muraille. A morphological
characteristic is the preservation of that paradigm which is legiti-
mately traced back to the Latin pluperfect indicative, although
possibly it may arise from a fusion of this pluperfect with the im-
perfect subjunctive (amaram, amarem, alongside of habueram,
haberem), having in Franco-Provencal as well as in Provengal
and in the continental Italian dialects in which it will be met with
further on (C. 3, 6; cf. B. 2) the function of the conditional. VAL
SOANA : port&ro, portdre, portdret ; portdrort ; AOSTA : dvre = Prov. agra,
haberet (see Arch. iii. 31 n). The final t in the third persons of this
paradigm in the Val Soana dialect is, or was, constant in the whole
conjugation, and becomes in its turn a particular characteristic in
this section of the Franco-Provencal. VAL SOANA : eret, Lat. erat ;
sejt, sit; portet, portdvet; porto.nl, portdvqnt; CHIAMORIO: jeret,
erat; ant dit, habent dictum; ejssount f&t, habuissent factum;
Viu: che s'minget, Ital. che si mangi: GRAVERE (Val di Susa):
at pensd, ha pensatp; avdt, habebat; GIAGLIONE (sources of the
Dora Riparia); macidvont, mangiavano. — From the valleys, where,
as has just been said, the type is disappearing, a few examples of what
is still genuine Franco-Provencal may be subjoined: Civreri (the
name of a mountain between the Stura and the Dora Riparia), which,
according to the regular course of evolution, presupposes a Latin
Capraria (cf. maneri, maniera, even in the Chiamorio dialect) ;
tarastl (ciarasti), carestia, in the Viu dialect; and fintd, cantare,
in that of Usseglio. From CHIAMORIO, li tens, \ tempi, and chejches
birbes, alcune (qualche) birbe, are worthy of mention on account of the
' [It may be asked whether we ought not to include under this
section the Vegliote dialect (Veglioto), since under this form the
Dalmatian dialect (Dalmatico) is spoken in Italy. But it should be
remembered that in the present generation the Dalmatian dialect
has only been heard as a living language at Vcglia.]
ITALIAN LANGUAGE
final s. [In this connexion should also be mentioned the Franco-
Provencal colonies of Transalpine origin, Faeto and Celle, in Apulia
(v. Morosi, Archivio glottologico, xii. 33-75), the linguistic relations of
which are clearly shown by such examples as tallj, Ital. tagliare;
banij, Ital. bagnare; side by side with tanta, Ital. cantare; lua,
Ital. levare.]
(b) Provencal (see La Lettura i. 716-717, Romanische Forschungen
xxiii. 525-539).— -Farther south, but still in the same western
extremity of Piedmont, phenomena continuous with those of the
Maritime Alps supply the means of passing from the Franco-Provencal
to the Provencal proper, precisely as the same transition takes place
beyond the Cottian Alps in Dauphine almost in the same latitude.
On the Italian side of the Cottian and the Maritime Alps the Franco-
Provencal and the Provencal are connected with each other by the
continuity of the phenomenon t (a pure explosive) from the Latin
c before a. At OULX (sources of the Dora Riparia), which seems,
however, to have a rather mixed dialect, there also occurs the
important Franco-Provencal phenomenon of the surd interdental
(English th in thief) instead of the surd sibilant (for example ithi = Fr.
ici). At the same time agu=avuto, takes us to the Provencal. [If,
in addition to the Provencal characteristic of which agii is an ex-
ample, we consider those characteristics also Provencal, such as the
o for a final unaccented, the preservation of the Latin diphthong au,
p between vowels preserved as b, we shall find that they occur,
together or separately, in all the Alpine varieties of Piedmont, from
the upper valleys of the Dora Riparia and Clusone to the Colle di
Tcnda. Thus at FENESTRELLE (upper valley of the Clusone) :
agii, vengii, Ital. venuto; pane, Lat. paucu, Ital. poco; aribd (Lat.
ripa), Ital. arrivare; trubd, Ital. trovare; ciabrin, Ital. capretto;
at OULX (source of the Dora Riparia) : agii, vengii ; iino gran famine
% veniio, Ital. una gran fame e venuta; at GIAGLIONE: auvou, Ital.
odo (Lat. audio) ; arribd, resebii, Ital. ricevuto (Lat. recipere) ; at
ONCINO (source of the Po) : agii, vengii ; era en campagno, Ital.
"era in campagna"; donavo, Ital. dava; paure, Lat. pauper,
Ital. povero; trubd, ciabri; at SANPEYRE (valley of the Varaita) :
agii, volgii, Ital. voluto; pressioso, Ital. preziosa; fasio, Ital.
faceva; trobar; at 'AccEGLio (valley of the Macra): venghess,
Ital. venisse; virro, Ital. ghiera; chesto allegrio, Ital. questa allegria;
era, Ital. era; trobd; at CASTELMAGNO (valley of the Grana): gii,
vengii; rabbio, Ital. rabbia; trubar; at VINADIO (valley of the
southern Stura); agii, beigii, Ital. bevuto; cadeno, Ital. catena;
mango, Ital. manica; tanto, Ital. canta; pau, auvl, Ital. udito;
Sabe, Ital. sapete; trobar; at VALDIERI and ROASCHIA (valley^ of the
Gesso): purgii, Ital. potuto; pjagii, Ital. piaciuto; corrogu, Ital.
corso; pau; arribd, ciabri; at LIMONE (Colle di Tenda): agii,
vengii; saber, Ital. sapere; artibd, trubava. Provengal also, though
of a character rather Transalpine (like that of Dauphine) than native,
are the dialects of the Vaudois population above Pinerolo (v. Morosi,
Arch, glott. xi. 309-416), and their colonies of Guardia in Calabria
(ib. xi. 381-393) and of Neu-Hengstett and Pinache-Serres in
Wurttemberg (ib. xi. 393-398). The Vaudois literary language, in
which is written the Nobla Leyczon, has, however, no direct con-
nexion with any of the spoken dialects; it is a literary language,
and is connected with literary Provencal, the language of the trouba-
dours; see W. Foerster, Gdttingische gelehrte Anzeigen (1888)
Nos. 20-21.]
2. Ladin Dialects (Ascoli, Arch, glott. i., iv. 342 sqq., vii. 406 sqq.;
Gartner, Rdtoromanische Grammatik (Heilbronn, 1883), and in
Grundriss der romanischen Philologie, 2nd ed., i. 608 sqq. ; Salvioni,
Arch, glott. xvi. 219 sqq.). — The purest of the Ladin dialects occur
on the northern versant of the Alps in the Grisons (Switzerland),
and they form the western section of the system. To this section
also belongs both politically and in the matter of dialect the valley
of Munster (Monastero) ; it sends its waters to the Adige, and might
indeed consequently be geographically considered Italian, but it
slopes towards the north. In the 'central section of the Ladin zone
there are two other valleys which likewise drain into tributaries of
the Adige, but are also turned towards the north, — the valleys of
the Gardena and Gadera, in which occurs the purest Ladin now
extant in the central section. The valleys of Munster, the Gardena
and the Gadera may thus be regarded as inter-Alpine, and the ques-
tion may be left open whether or not they should be included even
geographically in Italy. There remain, however, within what are
strictly Italian limits, the valleys of the Noce, the Ayisio, the Corde-
yole, and the Boite, and the upper basin of the Piave (Comelico),
in which are preserved Ladin dialects, more or less pure, belonging
to the central section of the Ladin zone or belt. To Italy belongs,
further, the whole eastern section of the zone composed of the Friulian
territories. It is by far the most populous, containing about 500,000
inhabitants. The Friulian region is bounded on the north by the
Carnic Alps, south by the Adriatic, and west by the eastern rim of the
upper basin of the Piave and the Livenza; while on the east it
stretches into the eastern versant of the basin of the Isonzo, and,
further the ancient dialect of Trieste was itself Ladin (Arch, glott.
x. 447 et seq.). The Ladin element is further found in greater or less
degree throughout an altogether Cis-Alpine " amphizone," which
begins at the western slopes of Monte Rosa, and is to be noticed
more particularly in the upper valley of the Ticino and the upper
valley of the Liro and of the Mera on the Lombardy versant, and
in the Val Fiorentina and central Cadore on the Venetian versant.
The Ladin element is clearly observable in the most ancient examples
of the dialects of the Venetian estuary (Arch. i. 448-473). The main
characteristics by which the Ladin type is determined may be
summarized as follows: (i) the guttural of the formulae c+a and
g+a passes into a palatal; (2) the / of the formulae pi, cl, &c., is
preserved; (3) the i of the ancient terminations is preserved; (4)
the accented e in position breaks into a diphthong; (5) the accented
o in position breaks into a diphthong; (6) the form of the diphthong
which comes from short accented o or from the o of position is ue
(whence tie, o) ; (7) long accented e and short accented i break into a
diphthong, the purest form of which is sounded ei; (8) the accented
a tends, within certain limits, to change into e, especially if preceded
by a palatal sound ; (9) the long accented u is represented by u.
These characteristics are all foreign to true and genuine Italian.
Cdrn, carne; spelunta, spelunca; clefs, claves; fuormas, formae;
infiern, infernu ; ordi, hordeu ; mod, modu ; plain, plenu ; pail,
pilu; quad, quale; piir, puru — may be taken as examples from the
Upper Engadine (western section of the zone). The following are
examples from the central and eastern sections on the Italian
versant : —
a. Central Section. — BASIN OF THE NOCE: examples of the dialect
of Fondo: cavel, capillu; pescador, piscatore; pluevia, pluvia
(plovia) ; pluma (dial, of Val de Rumo : plovia, plumo) ; vecla,
vetula ; cdntes, cantas. The dialects of this basin are disappearing. —
BASIN OF THE AVISIO: examples of the dialect of the Val di Fassa:
earn, carne; cezer, cadere (cad-iere) ; vdca, vacca; for6a, furca;
glezia (gezia), ecclesia; oeglje (oeje), oculi; cans, eanes; rdmes, rami;
teila, tela; neif, nive; coessa, coxa. The dialects of this basin
which are farther west than Fassa are gradually being merged in the
Veneto-Tridentine dialects. — BASIN OF THE CORDEVOLE: here the
district of Livinal-Lungo (Buchenstein) is Austrian politically, and
that of Rpcca d'Agordo and Laste is Italian. Examples of the dia-
lect of Livinal-Lungo: carie, Ital. caricare; (ante, cantatus; ogle,
oculu; cans, canes; caveis, capilli; vierm, verme; fuoc, focu; avei,
habere; nei, nive. — BASIN OF THE BOITE: here the district of
Ampezzo (Heiden) is politically Austrian, that of Oltrechiusa
Italian. Examples of the dialect of Ampezzo are casa, casa ; tandera,
candela ; forfes, furcae, pi.; sentes, sentis. It is a decadent form. —
UPPER BASIN OF THE PIAVE: dialect of the Comelico: tesa, casa;
ten (can), cane; calje, caligariu; bos, boves; noevo, novu; loego,
locu.
6. Eastern Section or Friulian Region. — Here there still exists a
flourishing " Ladinity," but at the same time it tends towards
Italian, particularly in the want both of the e from d and of the it
(and consequently of the 6). Examples of the Udine variety: carr,
carro; 6avdl, caballu; tastiel, castellu; force, furca; clar, claru;
g/af, glacie; plan, planu; colors, colores; lungs, longi, pi.; devis,
debes; vidiel, vitello; fieste, festa; puess, possum; cuett, cpctu;
udrdi, hordeu. — The most ancient specimens of the Friulian dialect
belong to the I4th century (see Arch. iv. 188 sqq.).
B. Dialects which are detached from the true and proper Italian
system, but form no integral part of any foreign Neo-Lalin system.
I. Here first of all is the extensive system of the dialects usually
called Gallo-Italian, although that designation cannot be considered
sufficiently distinctive, since it would be equally applicable to the
Franco-Provencal (A. i) and the Ladin (A. 2). The system is sub-
divided into four great groups — (a) the Ligurian, (b) the Piedmon-
tese, (c) the Lombard and (d) the Emilian — the name furnishing
on the whole sufficient indication of the localization and limits. —
These groups, considered more particularly in their more pronounced
varieties, differ greatly from each other; and, in regard to the
Ligurian, it was even denied that it belongs to this system at all
(see Arch. ii. in sqq.). — Characteristic of the Piedmontese, the
Lombard and the Emilian is the continual elision of the unaccented
final vowels except a (e.g. Turinese oj, oculu; Milanese vgc., voce;
Bolognese vid, Ital. vite), but the Ligurian does not keep them
company (e.g. Genoese oggu, oculu; vgze, voce). In the Piedmontese
and Emilian there is further a tendency to eliminate the protonic
vowels — a tendency much more pronounced in the second of these
groups than in the first (e.g. Pied, dne, danaro; vsin, vicino;fno£,
finocchio; Bolognese cpra, disperato). This phenomenon involves
in large measure that of the prothesis of a; as, e.g. in Piedmontese and
Emilian armor, rumore; Emilian alvar, levare, &c. U for the long
accented Latin u and o for the short accented Latin o (and even
within certain limits the short Latin 6 of position) are common to
the Piedmontese, the Ligurian, the Lombard and the northernmost
section of the Emilian: e.g., Turinese, Milanese and Piacentine dur,
and Genoese diiu, duro; Turinese and Genoese move, Parmigiane
mover, and Milanese mof, muovere; Piedmontese dorm, dorme;
Milanese volta, volta. Ei for the long accented Latin e and for
the short accented Latin i is common to the Piedmontese and the
Ligurian, and even extends over a large part of Emilia : e.g. Turinese
and Genoese avei, habere, Bolognese aveir; Turinese and Genoese
beive, bibere, Bolognese neiv, neve. In Emilia and part of Piedmont
ei occurs also in the formulae en, ent, emp; e.g. Bolognese and
Modenese bein, solameint. In connexion with these examples, there
is also the Bolognese fein, Ital. fine, representing the series in which
e is derived from an i followed by n, a phenomenon which occurs,
to a greater or less extent throughout the Emilian dialects ; in them
890
also is found, parallel with the ft from e, the on from 9 : Bolognese
udour, Ital. odore; famous, Ital. famoso; 16m, lupu. The system
shows a repugnance throughout to ie for the short accented Latin e
(as it occurs in Italian piede, &c.) ; in other words, this diphthong
has died out, but in various fashions; Piedmontese and Lombard
dei, dieci; Genoese deze (in some corners of Liguria, however,
occurs dieze) ; Bolognese dif , old Bolognese, diese. The greater part
of the phenomena indicated above have " Gallic " counterparts too
evident to require to be specially pointed out. One of the most
important traces of Gallic or Celtic reaction is the reduction of the
Latin accented a into e (a, &c.), of which phenomenon, however, no
certain indications have as yet been found in the Ligurian group.
On the other hand it remains, in the case of very many of the Pied-
montese dialects, in the 6 of the infinitives of the first conjugation:
porte, portare, &c. ; and numerous vestiges of it are still found in
Lombardy (e.g. in Bassa Brianza : andae, andato ; guardae, guardato ;
sae, sale; see Arch. i. 296-298, 536). Emilia also preserves it in
very extensive use: Modenese and&r, andare; ariveda, arrivata;
pef, pace; Faenzan parle, parlare and parlato; parleda, parlata;
ches, caso; &c. The phenomenon, in company with other Gallo-
Italian and more specially Emilian characteristics extends to the
valley of the Metauro, and even passes to the opposite side of the
Apennines, spreading on both banks of the head stream of the Tiber
and through the valley of the Chiane: hence the types artrovir,
ritrovare, porteto, portato, &c., of the Perugian am! Aretine dialects
(see infra C. 3, 6). In the phenomenon of a passing into e (as indeed,
the Gallo-Italic evolution of other Latin vowels) special distinctions
would require to be drawn between bases in which a (not standing
in position) precedes a non-nasal consonant (e.g. amdto), and those
which have a before a nasal: and in the latter case there would be
a non-positional subdivision (e.g. fame, pane) and a positional one
(e.g. quanta, amdndo, cdmpo) ; see Arch. i. 293 sqq. This leads us to
the nasals, a category of sounds comprising other Gallo-Italic
characteristics. There occurs more or less widely, throughout
all the sections of the system, and in different gradations, that
" velar " nasal in the end of a syllable (pan, man ; tdnta, monlY
which may be weakened into a simple nasalizing of a vowel (pa, &c.)
or even grow completely inaudible (Bergamese pa, pane; padru,
padrone; tep, tempo; met, mente; mut, monte; p&t, ponte;
puca, punta, i.e. puncta "), where Celtic and especially Irish
analogies and even the frequent use of t for nt, &c., in ancient Um-
brian orthography occur to the mind. Then we have the faucal n
by which the Ligurian and the Piedmontese (laAa luAa, &c.) are con-
nected with the group which we call Franco-Provencal (A. i). —
We pass on to the " Gallic " resolution of the nexus ct (e.g. facto,
fajto, fajtjo. fait, fat ; tecto, tejto, tejtjo, teit, tec) which invariably
occurs in the Piedmontese, the Ligurian and the Lombard: Pied./<£i*,
Lig. fajtu, faetu, Lombard fac ; Pied. Uit, Lig. tdtu, Lorn, tec ; &c.
Here it is to be observed that besides the Celtic analogy the Umbrian
also helps us (adveitu = ad-vecto ; &c.). The Piedmontese and
Ligurian come close to each other, more especially by a curious
resolution of the secondary hiatus (Gen. reize, Piedm. Tfjs = *ra-ice,
Ital. radice) by the regular dropping of the d both primary and
secondary, a phenomenon common in French (as Piedmontese and
Ligurian rie, ridere; Piedmontese pue, potare; Genoese naeghe —
naighe, natiche, &c.). The Lombard type, or more correctly the
type which has become the dominant one in Lombardy (Arch. i.
305-306, 310-311), is more sparing in this respect; and still more so
is the Emilian. In the Piedmontese and in the Alpine dialects of
Lombardy is also found that other purely Gallic resolution of the
guttural between two vowels by which we have the types brdja,
mania, over against the Ligurian brdga, tndnega, braca, manica.
Among the phonetic phenomena peculiar to the Ligurian is a con-
tinual reduction (as also in Lombardy and part of Piedmont) of /
between vowels into r and the subsequent dropping of this r at the
end of words in the modern Genoese; just as happens also with the
primary r : thus du = durur = dolore, &c. Characteristic of the
Ligurian, but not without analogies in Upper Italy even (Arch., ii.
157-158, ix. 209, 255), is the resolution of pj, bj, ft into t, g, i : tii,
piu, plus; raiga, rabbia, rabies; Hi, fiore. Finally, the sounds i
and z have a very wide range in Ligurian (Arch. ii. 158-159), but are,
however, etymologically, of different origin from the sounds $ and i
in Lombard. The reduction of j into h occurs in the Bergamo
dialects: hira, sera; groh, grosso; cahtel, castello (see also B. 2). —
A general phenomenon in Gallo-Italic phonetics which also comes
to have an inflexional importance is that by which the unaccented
final i has an influence on the accented vowel. This enters into a
series of phenomena which even extends into southern Italy; but
in the Gallo-Italic there are particular resolutions which agree well
with the general connexions of this system. [We may briefly recall
1 As a matter of fact the " velar " at the end of a word, when
preceded by an accented vowel, is found also in Venetia and Istria.
This fact, together with others (v. Krilischer Jahresbericht iiber die
Fortschritte der roman. Philol. vii. part i. 130), suggests that we
ought to assume an earlier group in which Venetian and Gallo-
Italian formed part of one and the same group. In this connexion
too should be noted the atonic pronoun ghe (Ital. «'-a lui, a lei, a
loro), which is found in Venetian, Lombard, North-Emilian and
Ligurian.
ITALIAN LANGUAGE
the following forms in the plural and 2nd person singular: old
Piedmontese drayp pi. of drap, Ital. drappo; man, meyn, Ital.
mano, -i; long, loyng, Ital. lungo, -ghi; Genoese, kdfl, ken, Ital.
cane, -i; bun, bum, Ital. buono, -i; Bolognese, far, fir, Ital. ferro,
-i; peir, ptr, Ital. pero, -i. zap, zup, Ital. zpppo, -i; louv, luv,
Ital. lupo, -i; vedd, vi, Ital. io vedo, tu vedi; vojj, vu, Ital. io
voglio, tu vuoi; Milanese quest, quist, Ital. questq, -i, and, in the
Alps of Lombardy, pal, pel, Ital. palo, -i; red, rid, Ital. rete, -i;
cor, cor, Ital. cuore, -i ; ors, tirs, Ital. orso, -i ; law, lew, Ital. io lavo,
tu lavi ; mej., mit, Ital. io metto, tu metti ; mow mow, Ital. io muovo,
tu muovi; cor, cur, Ital. io corro, tu corri. [yicentine porno, pumi,
Ital. porno, 'i; pero, pieri = *piri, Ital. pero, -i; v. Arch. i. 540-541;
ix. 235 et seq., xiv. 329-330]. — Among morphological peculiarities
the first place may be given to the Bolognese sipa (seppa), because,
thanks to Dante and others, it has acquired great literary celebrity.
It really signifies "sia" (sim, sit), and is an analogical form fashioned
on aepa, a legitimate continuation of the corresponding forms of the
other auxiliary (habeam, habeat), which is still heard in ch'me aepa
purtae, ch'lu aepa purtae, ch'io abbia portato, ch'egli abbia portato.
Next may be noted the 3rd person singular in -p of the perfect of
esse and of the first conjugation in the Forli dialect (fop, fu; man-
dep, mando; &c.). This also must be analogical, and due to a
legitimate ep, ebbe (see Arch. ii. 401; and compare fobbe, fu, in
the dialect of Camerino, in the province of Macerata, as well as the
Spanish analogy of tuve estuve formed after hube). Characteristic of
the Lombard dialect is the ending -i in the 1st person sing. pres.
indie, (mi a porti, Ital. io porto) ; and of Piedmontese, the -ejfa, as
indicating the subjunctive imperfect (portejfa, Ital. portassi) the origin
of which is to be sought in imperfects of the type staesse, faesse
reduced normally to stiff-, f&ji-. Lastly, in the domain of syntax,
may be added the tendency to repeat the pronoun (e.g. ti te c&ntet
of the Milanese, which really is tu tu cdnias-tu, equivalent merely to
" cantas "), a tendency at work in the Emilian and Lombard, but
more particularly pronounced in the Piedmontese. With this the
corresponding tendency of the Celtic languages' has been more than
once and with justice compared; here it may be added that the
Milanese nun, apparently a single form for " noi," is really a com-
pound or reduplication in the manner of the ni-ni, its exact counter-
part in the Celtic tongues. [From Lombardy, or more precisely,
from the Lombardo-Alpine region extending from the western slopes
of Monte Rosa to the St Gotthard, are derived the Gallo-Itahan
dialects, now largely, though not all to the same extent, Sicilianized,
from the Sicilian communes of Sanfratello, Piazza-Armerina,
Nicosia, Aidone, Novara and Sperlinga (v. Arch, glott. viii. 304-316,
406-422, xiv. 436-452; Romania, xxviii. 409-420; Memorie del-
I'lslituto lombardo, xxi. 255 et seq.). The dialects of Gombjtelli and
Sillano in the Tuscan Apennines are connected with Emilia (Arch,
glott. xii. 309-354). And from Liguria come those of Carloforte in
Sardinia, as also those of Monaco, and of Mons, Escragnolles and
Biot in the French departments of Var and Alpes Maritimes (Revue
de linguistique, xiii. 308)]. The literary records for this group go
back as far as the I2th century, if we are right in considering as
Piedmontese the Gallo-Italian Sermons published and annotated by
Foerster (Romanische Studien, iv. 1-92). But the documents
published by A. Gaudenzi (Dial, di Bologna, 168-172) are certainly
Piedmontese, or more precisely Canavese, and seem to belong to the
1 3th century. The Chieri texts date from 1321 (Miscellanea difilol. e
linguistica, 345-355), and to the lath century also belongs the
Grisostomo (Arch, glott. vii. 1-120), which represents the old Pied-
montese dialect of Pavia (Bollett. della Soc. pav. di Sloria Patria,
ii. 193 et seq.). The oldest Ligurian texts, if we except the " con-
trasto" in two languages of Rambaud de Vaqueiras (i2th century
v. Crescini, Manualetto provenzale, 2nd ed., 287-291), belong to the
first decades of the I4th century (Arch, glott. xiv. 22 et seq., ii.
161-312, x. 109-140, viii. 1-97). Emilia has manuscripts going back
to the first or second half of the I3th century, the Parlamenti of
Guido Fava (see Gaudenzi, op. cit. 127-160) and the Regola dei
servi published by G. Ferraro (Leghorn, 1875). An important
Emilian text, published only in part, is the Mantuan version of the
De proprietatibus rerum of Bartol. Anglico, made by Vivaldo Bclcalzer
in the early years of the I4th century (v. Cian. Giorn, star, della
letteratura ttaliana, supplement, No. 5, and cf. Rendiconti Istitulo
Lombardo, series ii. vol. xxxv. p. 957 et seq.). For Modena also
there are numerous documents, starting from 1327. For western
Lombardy the most ancient texts (l3th century, second half) are
the poetical compositions of Bonvesin de la Riva and Pietro da
Bescapfe, which have reached us only in the 14th-century
copies. For eastern Lombardy we have, preserved in Venetian
or Tuscan versions, and in MSS. of a later date, the works of Gcrardo
Patecchio, who lived at Cremona in the first half of the I3th century.
Bergamasc literature is plentiful, but not before the 14th century
(v. Studi medievali, i. 281-292; Giorn. star, della lett. ital. xlvi.
351 et seq.).
2. Sardinian Dialects? — These are three — the Logudorese or
8 [The latest authorities for the Sardinian dialects are W. Meyer-
Lttbke and M. Bartoli, in the passages quoted by Guarnerio in his
" II sardo e il c6rso in una nuova classificazione delle lingue romanzc "
(Arch, glott. xvi. 491-516). These scholars _ entirely _ dissociate
Sardinian from the Italian system, considering it as forming in itself
ITALIAN LANGUAGE
891
central, the Campidanese or southern and the Gallurese or northern.
The third certainly indicates a Sardinian basis, but is strangely
disturbed by the intrusion of other elements, among which the
Southern Corsican (Sartene) is by far the most copious. The other
two are homogeneous, and have great affinity with each other; the
Logudorese comes more particularly under consideration here. — The
pure Sardinian vocalism has this peculiarity that each accented
vowel of the Latin appears to be retained without alteration. Con-
sequently there are no diphthongs representing simple Latin
vowels; nor does the rule hold good which is true for so great a
proportion of the Romance languages, that the representatives of
the e and the I on the one hand and those of the 6 and the u on
the other are normally coincident. Hence plenu (e); deghe, decem
(e) ; binu, vino (I) ; pilu (*) ; flore (o) ; roda, rota (o) ; duru (u) ; nughe,
nuce (u). The unaccented vowels keep their ground well, as has
already been seen in the case of the finals by the examples adduced. —
The s and t of the ancient termination are preserved, though not
constantly : tres, onus, passados annos, plantas, faghes, facis, tenemus ;
mulghet, mulghent. — The formulae ce, ci, ge, gi may be represented by
che (ke), &c. ; but this appearance of special antiquity is really
illusory (see Arch. ii. 143-144). The nexus cl, &c., may be maintained
in the beginning of words (claru, plus) ; but if they are in the body
of the word they usually undergo resolutions which, closely related
though they be to those of Italian, sometimes bring about very
singular results (e.g. usare, which by the intermediate forms uscare,
usjare leads back to usclare = ustlare = ustulare). Nz is the repre-
sentative of nj (testimonzu, &c.) ; and Ij is reduced to & alone (e.g.
meius, melius; Campidanese mellus). For // a frequent substitute
is 4d: massldda, maxilla, &c. Quite characteristic is the continual
labialization of the formulae qua, gua, cu, gu, &c. ; e.g. ebba, equa;
sambene, sanguine (see Arch. ii. 143). The dropping of the primary
d (roere, rodere, &c.) but not of the secondary (finidu, sanidade,
maduru) is frequent. Characteristic also is the Logudorese prothesis
of i before the initial s followed by a consonant (iscamnu, istella,
ispada), like the prothesis of e in Spain and in France (see Arch. iii.
447 sqq.). — In the order of the present discussion it is in connexion
with this territory that we are for the first time led to consider those
phonetic changes in words of which the cause is merely syntactical
of transitory, and chiefly those passing accidents which occur to the
initial consonant through the historically legitimate or the merely
analogical action of the final sound that precedes it. The general
explanation of such phenomena reduces itself to this, that, given the
intimate syntactic relation of two words, the initial consonant of the
second retains or modifies its character as it would retain or modify
it if the two words were one. The Celtic languages are especially
distinguished by this peculiarity; and among the dialects of Upper
Italy the Bergamasc offers a clear example. This dialect is accus-
tomed to drop the v, whether primary or secondary, between vowels
in the individual vocables (cad, cavare; fda, fava, &c.), but to pre-
serve it if it is preceded by a consonant (serva, &c.). — And similarly
in syntactic combination we have, for example, de i, di vino; but
ol vi, il vino. Insular, southern and central Italy furnish a large
number of such phenomena; for Sardinia we shall simply cite a
single class, which is at once obvious and easily explained, viz.
that represented by su oe, il bove, alongside of sos boes, i. buoi (cf.
biere, bibere; erba). — The article is derived from ipse instead of
from ille: su sos, so, sas, — again a geographical anticipation of
Spain, which in the Catalan of the Balearic islands still preserves the
article from ipse. — A special connexion with Spain exists besides in
the nomine type of inflexion, which is constant among the Sardinians
(Span, nomne, &c.,whence nombre, &c.), nomen, nomene, rdmine, aera-
mine, legumene, &c. (see Arch. ii. 429 sqq.). — Especially noteworthy
in the conjugation of the verb is the paradigm cantere canteres, &c.
timere, timeres, &c., precisely in the sense of the imperfect subjunctive
(cf. A. i ; cf. C. 3 6). Next comes the analogical and almost corrupt
diffusion of the -si of the ancient strong perfects (such as posi, rosi)
a Romance language, independent of the others; a view in which
they are correct. The chief discriminating criterion is supplied by
the treatment of the Latin -s, which is preserved in Sardinian, the
Latin accusative form prevailing in the declension of the plural, as
opposed to the nominative, which prevails in the Italian system.
In this respect the Gallo-Italian dialects adhere to the latter system,
rejecting the -i and retaining the nominative form. On the other
hand, these facts form an important link between Sardinian and
the Western Romance dialects, such as the Iberian, Gallic and
Ladin ; it is not, however, to be identified with any of them, but is
distinguished from them by many strongly-marked characteristics
peculiar to itself, chief among which is the treatment of the Latin
accented vowels, for which see Ascpli in the text. As to the internal
classification of the Sardinian dialects, Guarnerio assumes four
types, the Campidanese, Logudorese, Gallurese and Sassarese. The
separate individuality of the last of these is indicated chiefly by the
treatment of the accented vowels (df&i, Ital. dieci; tela, Ital. tela;
petit, Ital. pelo; ngbu, Ital. nuovo; fiori, \ta\. fiore; nozi, Ital.
noce, as compared, e.g. with Gallurese dfd, tela, pilu, nou, figri,
nufi). Both Gallura and Sassari, however, reject the -s, and adopt
the nominative form in the plural, thus proving that they are not
entirely distinct from the Italian system.]
by which cantesi, timesi (cantavi, timui), dolfesi, dolui, are reached.
Proof of the use and even the abuse of the strong perfects is afforded,
however, by the participles and the infinitives of the category to
which belong the following examples: tennidu, tenuto; pdrfidu,
parso; bdlfidu, valso; tennere, bdlere, &c. (Arch. ii. 432-433).
The future, finally, shows the unagglutinated periphrasis: hapo a
mandigare (ho a mangiare = manger-6); as indeed the unagglutinated
forms»of the future and the conditional occur in ancient vernacular
texts of other Italian districts. [The Campidanese manuscript, in
Greek characters, published by Blancard and Wescher (Bibliotheque
de Vfccole des Charles, xxxv. 256-257), goes back as far as the last
years of the i ith century. Next come the Cagliari MSS. published by
Solmi (Le Carte volgari dell' Archivio arciyescovile di Cagliari, Florence,
1905; cf. Guarnerio in Studi romanzi, fascicolo iv. 189 et seq.),
the most ancient of which in its original form dates from 1114-1120.
For Logoduro, the Condaghe di S. Pietro di Silchi (§§ xii.-xiii.),
published by G. Bonazzi (Sassari-Cagliari, 1900; cf. Meyer-Lubke,
Zur Kenntnis des Altlogudoresischen, Vienna. 1902), is of the highest
importance.]
[3- Vegliote (Veglioto). — Perhaps we may not be considered to be
departing from Ascoli's original plan if we insert here as a third
member of the group B the neo-Latin dialect which found its last
refuge in the island of Veglia (Gulf of Quarnero), where it came
definitively to an end in 1898. The Vegliote dialect is the last remnant
of a language which some long time ago extended from thence along
the Dalmatian coast, whence it gained the name of Dalmatico, a
language which should be carefully distinguished from the Venetian
dialect spoken to this day in the towns of the Dalmatian littoral.
Its character reminds us in many ways of Rumanian, and of that
type of Romano-Balkan dialect which is represented by the Latin
elements of Albanian, but to a certain extent also, and especially
with regard to the vowel sounds, of the south-eastern dialects of
Italy, while it has also affinities with Friuli, Istria and Venetia.
These characteristics taken altogether seem to suggest that Dalmatico
differs as much as does Sardinian from the purely Italian type. It
rejects the -s, it is true, retaining instead the nominative form in
the plural; but here these facts are no longer a criterion, since in
this point Italian and Rumanian are in agreement. A tendency
which we have already noted, and shall have further cause to note
hereafter, and which connects in a striking way the Vegliote and
Abruzzo-Apulian dialects, consists in reducing the accented vowels
to diphthongs: examples of this are: spuota, Ital. spada; buarka,
Ital. barca; fiar, Ital. ferro; nuat, Ital. nQtte; kataina, Ital.
catena; paira, Ital. pero: Lat. pwu; jaura, Ital. ora; nauk,
Ital. noce; Lat. nuce; ortaika, Ital. ortica; joiva, Ital. uova.
Other vowel phenomena should also be noted, for example those
exemplified in prut, Ital. prato; dik, Ital. dieci, Lat. decent; luk,
Ital. luogo, Lat. locu; krask, Ital. crescere; cenk, Ital. cinque, Lat.
qmnque; buka, Ital. bocca, Lat. bucca. With regard to the con-
sonants, we should first notice the invariable persistence of the
explosive surds (as in Rumanian and the southern dialects) for
which several of the words just cited will serve as examples, with
the addition of kuosa, Ital. casa; praiza, Ital. presa; struota, Ital.
strada; rosuota, Ital. rugiada; latri, Ital. ladro; raipa, Ital. riva.
The c in the formula ce, whether primary or secondary, is repre-
sented by k: kaina, Ital. cena; kanaisa, Ital. cinigia; akait, Ital.
aceto; plakdr, Ital. piacere; dik, Ital. dieci; ntukna, Ital. macina;
dotko, Ital. dodici; and similarly the g in the formula ge is repre-
sented by the corresponding guttural: ghelut, Ital. gelato; jongdr,
Ital. giungere; plungre, Ital. piangere, &c. On the contrary, the
guttural of the primitive formula cu becomes 6 (col, Ital. culo) ; this
phenomenon is also noteworthy as seeming to justify the inference
that the « was pronounced ii. Ft is preserved, as in Rumanian
(sapto, Lat. septem), and often,, again as in Rumanian, ct is also
reduced to pt (guapto, Lat. octo). As to morphology, a characteristic
point is the preservation of the Lat. cantavero, Ital. avro cantato,
in the function of a simple future. Cantaverum also occurs as a
conditional. For Vegliote and Dalmatico in general, see M. G.
Bartoli's fundamental work, Das Dalmatische (2 vols., Vienna,
1906), and Zeitschrift fur roman. Philologie, xxxii. I sqq.; Merlo,
Rivista di filologia e a'istruzione class, xxxv. 472 sqq. A short
document written about 1280 in the Dalmatic dialect of Rag-
usa is to be found in Archeografo Triestino, new series, vol. i.
pp. 85-86.]
C. Dialects which diverge more or less from the genuine Italian
or Tuscan type, but which at the same time can be conjoined with
the Tuscan as forming part of a special system of Neo-Latin
dialects.
I.Venetian. — Between "Venetian" and " Venetic " several
distinctions must be drawn (Arch. i. 391 sqq.). At the present
day the population of the Venetian cities is " Venetian " in language,
but the country districts are in various ways Venetic.1 The ancient
language of Venice itself and of its estuary was not a little different
from that of the present time; and the Ladin vein was particularly
1 On this point see the chapter, " La terra ferma veneta considerata
in ispecie ne' suoi rapporti con la sezione centrale della zona ladina,"
in Arch. i. 406-447.
892
ITALIAN LANGUAGE
evident (see A. 2). A more purely Italian vein — the historical
explanation of which presents an attractive problem — has ultimately
fained the mastery and determined the " Venetian " type which
as since diffused itself so vigorously. — In the Venetian, then, we
do not find the most distinctive characteristics of the dialects of
Upper Italy comprised under the denomination Gallo-Italic (see
B. i), — neither the u nor the 6, nor the velar1 and faucal nasals,
nor the Gallic resolution of the ct, nor the frequent elision of un-
accented vowels, nor the great redundancy of pronouns. On the
contrary, the pure Italian diphthong of $ (e.g. cuor) is heard, and the
diphthong of e is in full currency (dikse, dieci, &c.). Nevertheless
the Venetian approaches the type of Northern Italy, or diverges
notably from that of Central Italy, by the following phonetic
phenomena: the ready elision of primary or secondary d (cruo,
crudo; sea, seta, &c.); the regular reduction of the surd into the
sonant guttural (e.g. cuogo, Ital. cuoco, coquus); the pure 6 in the
resolution of cl (e.g. 6ave, clave ; ore(a, auricula) ; the £ for g (soyene,
Ital. giovane); f for Jf and 6 (pe$e, Ital. pesce; f.iel, Ital. cielo).
Lj preceded by any vowel, primary or secondary, except i, gives g:
famega, familia. No Italian dialect is more averse than the Venetian
to the doubling of consonants. — In the morphology the use of the
3rd singular for the 3rd plural also, the analogical participle in esto
(tasesto, Ital. taciuto, &c. ; see Arch. iv. 393, sqq.) and se, Lat. est, are
particularly noteworthy. A curious double relic of Ladin influence
is the interrogative type represented by the example credis-tu,
credis tu, — where apart from the interrogation ti credi would be
used. For other ancient sources relating to Venice, the estuary of
Venice, Verona and Padua, see Arch. i. 448, 465, 421-422; iii.
245-247. [Closely akin to Venetian, though differing from it in
about the same degree that the various Gallo-Italian dialects differ
among one another, is the indigenous dialect of ISTRIA, now almost
entirely ousted by Venetian, and found in a few localities only
(Rovigno, Dignanp). The most salient characteristics of Istrian
can be recognized in the treatment of the accented vowels, and are
of a character which recalls, to a certain extent at least, the Vegliote
dialect. Thus we have in Istrian * for ^ (bivi, Ital. bevi, Lat. bibis;
tila, Ital. tela; viro, Ital. vero and vetro, Lat. veru, vtiru; nito,
Ital. netto, Lat. nilidu, &c.) and analogously u for Q (fiur, Ital.
fiore, Lat. flare; bus, Ital. voce, Lat. voce, &c.); ei andou from the
Lat. 1 and u respectively (ameigo, Lat. amicu, feil, Lat. fllu, &c. ;
mour, Lat. muru; noudu, Lat. nudu; frouto, Ital. frutto, Lat.
fructu, &c.); ie and uo from e and o respectively in position (piel,
Lat. pelle, mierlo, Ital. merlo, Lat. merula; kuorno, Lat. cornu;
puorta, Lat. porta), a phenomenon in which Istrian resembles not
only Vegliote but also Friulian. The resemblance with Verona, in
the reduction of final unaccented -e to o should also be noted (nuoto,
Ital. notte, &c., bivo, Ital. beve; malamentro, Ital. malamente, &c.),
and that with Belluno and Treviso in the treatment of -£ni, -dni
(barboi, -oin, Ital. barboni), though it is peculiar to Istrian that -ain
should give -en (kan, ken, Ital. cane -i). With regard to consonants,
we should point out the n for gn (lino, Ital. legno); and as to
morphology, we should note certain survivals of the inflexional
type, amita, -dnis (sing, sia, Ital. zia, pi. sianne).] The most ancient
Venetian documents take us back to the first half of the I3th century
(». E. Bertanza and V. Lazzarini, // Dialetto veneziano fino alia morte
di Dante Alighieri, Venice, 1891), and to the second half of the
same century seems to belong the Saibante MS. For Verona we
have also documents of the I3th century (v. Cipolla, in Archivio
storico italiano, 1881 and 1882); and to the end of the same century
perhaps belongs the MS. which has preserved for us the writings of
Giacominp da Verona. See also Archivio glottologico, i. 448, 465,
421-422, iii. 245-247.
2. Corsican.* — If the " Venetian," in spite of its peculiar
" Italianity," has naturally specialpoints of contact with the other
dialects of Upper Italy (B. i), the Corsican in like manner, particu-
larly in its southern varieties, has special points of contact with
Sardinian proper (B. 2). In general, it is in the southern section of
the island, which, geographically even, is farthest removed from
Tuscany, that the most characteristic forms of speech are found.
The unaccented vowels are undisturbed; but u for the Tuscan o is
common to almost all the island,— ^an insular phenomenon par
excellence which connects Corsica with Sardinia and with Sicily,
and indeed with Liguria also. So also -i for the Tuscan -e (latti,
latte; li caleni, le catene), which prevails chiefly in the southern
section, is also found in Northern and Southern Sardinian, and is
1 [There are also examples of Istrian variants, such as lanna, Ital.
lana; kadenna, Ital. catena.]
* [There have been of late years many different opinions concerning
the classification of Corsican. Meyer-Lubke dissociates it from
Italian, and connects it with Sardinian, making of the languages
of the two islands a unit independent of the Romance system. But
even he (in Grober's Grundriss, 2nd ed., vol. i. p. 698) recognized that
there were a number of characteristics, among them the participle
in -utu and the article illu, closely connecting Sassari and Corsica
with the mainland. The matter has since then been put in its true
light by Guarnerio (Arch, glott. xvi. 510 et seq.), who points out that
there are two varieties of language in Corsica, the Ultramontane
or southern, and the Cismontane, by far the most widely spread, in
the rest of the island. The former is, it is true, connected with
common to Sicily. It is needless to add that this tendency to u and
i manifests itself, more or less decidedly, also within the words.
Corsican, too, avoids the diphthongs of 2 and o (pe, eri; cori, fora) :
but, unlike Sardinian, it treats ? and u in the Italian fashion : beju,
bibo; peveru, piper; pesci; nod, nuces.3 — It is one of its character-
istics to reduce a to e in the formula ar + a consonant (cherne, berba,
&c.), which should be compared particularly with the Piedmontese
examples of the same phenomenon (Arch. ii. 133, 144-150). But
the gerund in -endu of the first conjugation (turnendu, lagrimendu,
&c.) must on the contrary be considered as a phenomenon of analogy,
as it is especially recognized in the Sardinian dialects, to all of which
it is common (see Arch. ii. 133). And the same is most probably
the case with forms of the present participle like merchente, mercante,
in spite of enzi and innenzi (anzi, innanzi), in which latter forms
there may probably be traced the effect of the Neo-Latin i which
availed to reduce the t of the Latin ante; alongside of them we find
also anzi and nantu. But . cf . also, grendi, Ital. grande. In Southern
Corsican dr for // is conspicuous — a phenomenon which also connects
Corsica with Sardinia, Sicily and a good part of Southern Italy
(see C. 2; and Arch. ii. 135, &c.), also with the northern coast of
Tuscany, since examples such as beddu belong also to Carrara and
Montignoso. In the Ultramontane variety occur besides, the
phenomena of rn changed to r ( = rr) and of nd becoming nn (furu,
Ital. forno; koru, Ital. corno; kmuinit, Ital. quando; vidennu, Ital.
vedendo). The former of these would connect Corsican with Sardinian
(corru, cornu; carre, carne, &c.); the latter more especially with
Sicily, &c. A particular connexion with the central dialects is given
by the change of Id into // (kallu, Ital. caldo). — As to phonetic pheno-
mena connected with syntax, already noticed in B. 2, space admits
the following examples only: Cors. na vella, una bella, e bella (ebbtila,
et bella); lu jallu, lo gallo, gran ghiallu; cf. Arch. ii. 136 (135, 150),
xiv. 185. As Tommaseo has already noted, -one is for the Corsicans
not less than for the Sicilians, Calabrians and the French a termina-
tion of diminution: e.g. fratedronu, fratellino. — In the first person
of the conditional the b is maintained (e.g. farebe, farei), as even at
Rome and elsewhere. Lastly, the series of Corsican verbs of the
derivative order which run alongside of the Italian series of the
original order, and may be represented by the example dissipeghja,
dissipa (Falcucci), is to be compared with the Sicilian series repre-
sented by cuadiari, riscaldare, curpidri, colpire (Arch. ii. 151).
3. Dialects of Sicily and of the Neapolitan Provinces. — Here the
territories on both sides of the Strait of Messina will first be treated
together, chiefly with the view of noting their common linguistic
peculiarities. — Characteristic then of these parts, as compared with
Upper Italy and even with Sardinia, is, generally speaking, the
tenacity of the explosive elements of the Latin bases (cf. Arch. ii.
154, &c.). Not that these consonants are constantly preserved
uninjured; their degradations, and especially the Neapolitan
degradation of the surd into the sonant, are even more frequent
than is shown by the dialect as written, but their disappearance
is comparatively rather rare; and even the degradations, whether
regard be had to the conjunctures in which they occur or to their
specific quality, are very different from those of the dialects of Upper
Italy. Thus, the t between vowels ordinarily remains intact in
Sicilian and Neapolitan (e.g. Sicil. sita, Neap, seta, seta, where in
the dialects of Upper Italy we should have seda, sea) ; and in the
Neapolitan dialects it is reduced to d when it is preceded by n or r
(e.g. viende, yento), which is precisely a collocation in which the t
would be maintained intact in Upper Italy. The d, on the other
hand, is not resolved by elision, but by its reduction to r (e.g. Sicil.
viriri, Neap, dialects vert, vedere), a phenomenon which has been
frequently compared, perhaps with too little caution, with the d
passing into rs (d) in the Umbrian inscriptions. The Neapolitan
reduction of nt into nd has its analogies in the reduction of nc (nk)
into ng, and of mp into mb, which is also a feature of the Neapolitan
dialects, and in that of ns into nz; and here and there we even find
a reduction of nf into mb (nf, mi, nb, mb), both in Sicilian and Nea-
politan (e.g. at Casteltermini in Sicily 'mbiernu, inferno, and in the
Abruzzi cumbonn' ', 'mbonn', confondere, infondere). Here we find
ourselves in a series of phenomena to which it may seem that some
special contributions were furnished by Oscan and Umbrian (nt, mp,
nc into nd, &c.), but for which more secure and general, and so to say
" isothermal," analogies are found in modern Greek and Albanian.
The Sicilian does not appear to fit in here as far as the formulae nt
Sardinian, but with that variety, precisely, which, as we have already
seen, ought to be separated from the general Sardinian type. Here
we might legitimately assume a North-Sardinian and South-Corsican
type, having practically the same relation to Italian as have the
Gallo-Italian dialects. As to the Cismontane, it has the Tuscan
accented vowel-system, docs not alter // or rn, turns Ij into ? (Ital. gli),
and shares with Tuscan the peculiar pronunciation of t between
vowels, while, together with many of the Tuscan and central dialects,
it reduces rr to a single consonant. For these reasons, Guarnerio is
right in placing the Cismontane, as Ascoli does for all the Corsican
dialects, on the same plane as Umbrian, &c.]
3 The Ultramontane variety has, however, tela, pilu, iifdu, bo6i,
gula, furu, corresponding exactly to the Gallurese tela, pilu, Ital.
pelo, i4du; Ital. ''ello," Lat. illu; bgci, Ital. voce; gula, Ital. gole.
ITALIAN LANGUAGE
893
and mp are concerned; and it may even be said to go counter to
this tendency by reducing ng and nz to nt, nz (e.g. puntiri, pungere ;
menzu, Ital. me£zo; sponza, Ital. spugna, Ven. sponia).1 Nay,
even in the passing of the sonant into the surd, the Neapolitan dia-
lects would yield special and important contributions (nor is even
the Sicilian limited to the case just specified), among which we will
only mention the change of d between vowels into t in the last
syllable of proparoxytones (e.g. ummeto, Sicil. umitu, umido), and
in the formula dr (Sicil. and Neap, quatro, Ital. quadro, &c.). From
these series of sonants changing into surds comes a peculiar feature
of the southern dialects. — A pretty common characteristic is the
regular progressive assimilation by which nd is reduced to nn, iig
to nil, mb to mm, and even nv also to mm (nv, nb, mb, mm), e.g.
Sicil. Hnniri, Neap, lennere, scendere; Sicil. chiummu, Neap.
chiummf, piombo; Sicil. and Neap, 'mmidia, invidia; Sicil. sdnnu,
sangue. As belonging to this class of phenomena the Palaeo-Italic
analogy (nd into nn, n), of which the Umbrian furnishes special
evidence, readily suggests itself. Another important common
characteristic is the reduction of secondary pj fj into kj (chianu -g,
Sicil., Neap., &c., Ital. piano), ^ (Sicil. Siimi, Neap. Summf, fiume),
of secondary bj to j (which may be strengthened to ghj) if initial
(Sicil. jancu, Neap, janchg, bianco; Sicil. agghianchiari, imbiancare),
to I if between vowels (Neap, neglia, nebbia, Sicil. nigliu, nibbio) ;
of primary pj and bj into c (Sicil. sitta, Neap, secca, seppia) or g
respectively (Sicil. ragga, Neap, arrafcga, rabbia), for which pheno-
mena see also Genoese (15. i). Further is to be noted the tendency
to the sibilation of cj, for which Sicil. jazzu, ghiaccio, may serve
as an example (Arch. ii. 149), — a tendency more particularly
betrayed in Upper Italy, but Abruzzan departs from it (cf. Abr.
jacce, ghiaccio, iiracce^ braccio, &c.). There is a common inclination
also to elide the initial unaccented palatal vowel, and to prefix a,
especially before r (this second tendency is found likewise in Southern
Sardinian, &c. ; see Arch. ii. 138); e.g. Sicil. 'ntenniri, Neap.
'ndennere, intendere; Sicil. arriccamdri, Neap, arragamare, ricamare
(see Arch. ii. 150). Throughout the whole district, and the adjacent
territories in Central Italy, a tendency also prevails towards resolving
certain combinations of consonants by the insertion of a vowel ;
thus combinations in which occur r or /, w or j (Sicil. kiruci, Ital.
croce, fildgutu, Ital. flauto, salivari, salvare, vdriva, Ital. barba;
Abr. cdlechene, Ital. ganghero, Salevestre, Silvestro, fgulfmendndf,
f ulminante, jereve, Ital. erba, &c. ; Avellinese garamegna, gramigna ;
Neap, dvotro = * dwtro, Ital. dltro, cevoza = * c&wza, Ital. gelso, ajetd
side by side with ajtd, Ital. eta, 6dejo=6djo, Ital. odip, &c. ; Abr.
'nnfofif, indiva, nebbgjg, nebbia, &c.); caUdjeve = cattdjve, cattivo,
goiiele, = * gowle, gola, &c. &c., are examples from Molfetta, where is
also normal the resolution of ik by sek (mesekere, maschera, Sekdtele,
scatola, &c.) ; cf. seddegno, sdegno, in some dialects of the province
of Avellino. In complete contrast to the tendency to get rid of
double consonants which has been particularly noted in Venetian
(C. i), we here come to the great division of Italy where the tendency
grows strong to gemination (or the doubling of consonants), especi-
ally in proparoxytones; and the Neapolitan in this respect goes
farther than the Sicilian (e.g. Sicil. soggiru, suocero, cinniri, cenere,
doppu, dopo; 'nsemmula, insieme, in-simul; Neap, dellecato,
dilicato; ummeto, umido; debbole). — As to the phonetic phenomena
connected with the syntax (see B. 2), it is sufficient to cite such
Sicilian examples as niSuna ronna, nesuna donna, alongside of c' e
donni, c' e donne; tincu jorna, cinque giorni, alongside of chili
ghiorna, piu giorni ; and the Neapolitan la vocca, la bocca, alongside
of a bocca, ad buccam, &c.
We now proceed to the special consideration, first, of the Sicilian
and, secondly, of the dialects of the mainland.
(a) Sicilian. — The Sicilian vocalism is conspicuously etymological.
Though differing in colour from the Tuscan, it is not less noble,
and between the two there are remarkable points of contact. The
dominant variety, represented in the literary dialect, ignores the
diphthongs of e and of <5, as it has been seen that they are ignored
in Sardinia (B. 2), and here also the £ and the u appear intact; but
the e and the t are fittingly represented by i and «; and with equal
symmetry unaccented e and o are reproduced by i and u. Examples :
teni, tiene; novu, nuovo; pilu, pelo; mihnitta, Ital. vendetta;
jugu, giogo; agustu, Ital. agosto; cridiri, credere; vinniri, Ital.
vendere; sira, sera; vina, vena; suli, Ital. sole; ura, ora; furma,
Ital. forma. In the evolution of the consonants it is enough to add
here the change of Ij into ghj (e.g. figghiu, Ital. figlio) and of // into
dd («•£• gaddu, Ital. gallo). As to morphology, we will confine our-
selves to pointing out the masculine plurals of neuter form (Ii
pastura, Ii marinard). For the Sicilian dialect we have a few frag-
ments going back to the 1 3th century, but the documents are
scanty until we come to the I4th century.
(6) Dialects of the Neapolitan Mainland. — The Calabrian (by which
is to be understood more particularly the vernacular group of the
two Further Calabrias) may be fairly considered as a continuation
of the Sicilian type, as is seen from the following examples: — cori,
1 [Traces are not lacking on the mainland of ng becoming nt,
not only in Calabria, where at Cosenza are found, e.g. chidncere,
Ital. piangere, manciare, but also in Sannio and Aoulia: chiance,
monce, Ital. mungere, in the province of Avellino, ptinci, Ital. (tu)
pungi, at Brindisi. In Sicily, on the other hand, can be traced
examples of nt nk nt mp becoming ni ng nd mb.}
cuore; pelra; fimmina, femina; vuce, voce; unure, onore; figghiu,
figlio; spadde, spalle; trizza, treccia. Both Sicilian and Calabrian
is the reducing of rl to rr (Sicil. parrari, Cal. parrare, parlare, &c.).
The final vowel -e is reduced to -*', but is preserved in the more
southern part, as is seen from the above examples. Even the h for
.? = fj, as in huri (Sicil. luri, fiore) , which is characteristic in Calabrian,
has its forerunners in the island (see Arch. ii. 456). And, in the
same way, though the dominant varieties of Calabria seem to cling
to the mb (it sometimes happens_ that mm takes the form of mb:
imbiscare = Sicil. 'mmiscari 'immischiare', &c.) and nd, as opposed
to the mm, nn, of the whole of Southern Italy and Sicily, we must
remember, firstly, that certain other varieties have, e.g. granne,
Ital. grande, and chiummu, Ital. piombo; and secondly, that even
in Sicily (at Milazzo, Barcelona, and as far as Messina) districts are
to be found in which nd is used. Along the coast of the extreme
south of Italy, when once we have passed the interruptions caused
by the Basilisco type (so called from the Basilicata), the Sicilian
vocalism again presents itself in the Otrantine, especially in the
seaboard of Capo di Leuca. In the Lecce variety of the Otrantine
the vocalism which has just been described as Sicilian also keeps
its ground in the main (cf. Morosi, Arch, iv.): sira, sera; leitu,
oliveto; pilu; ura, ora; dulure. Nay more, the Sicilian pheno-
menon of Ij into ghj (figghiu, figlio, &c.) is well marked in Terra
d'Otranto and also in Terra di Bari, and even extends through the
Capitanata and the Basilicata (cf. D' Oyidio, Arch. iv. 159-160).
As strongly marked in the Terra d'Otranto is the insular phenomenon
of // into dd (dr), which is also very widely distributed through the
Neapolitan territories on the eastern side of the Apennines, sending
outshoots even to the Abruzzp. But in Terra d'Otranto we are
already in the midst of the diphthongs of ? and of ft, both non-
positional and positional, the development or permanence of which
is determined by the quality of the unaccented final vowel, — as
generally happens in the dialects of the south. The diphthongs of
£ and o, determined by final -i and -u, are also characteristic of
central and northern Calabria (tiiecchiu -i, vecchio -a, vecchia -e,
vecchia -e; buonu -i, bona -e, &c. &c.). Thus there comes to be a
treatment of the vowels, peculiar to the two peninsulas of Calabria
and Salent. The diphthongal product of the o is here ue. The
following are examples from the Lecce variety of the dialect: core,
pi. cueri ; metu, mieti, mete, mieto, mieti, miete (Lat. metere) ;
sentu, sienti, sente; olu, ueli, ola, volo, voli, vola; mordu, muerdi,
morde. The ue recalls the fundamental reduction which belongs to
the Gallic (not to speak of the Spanish) regions, and stretches
through the north of the Terra di Bari, where there are other diph-
thongs curiously suggestive of the Gallic : e.g. at Bitonto alongside
of luechf, luogo, sufnng, sonno, we have the oi and the ai from i or f
of the previous phase (y$toinf, vicino), and the au from o of the
previous phase (anaurf, onore), besides a diphthongal disturbance
of the d . Here also occurs the change of a into an e more or less
pure (thus, at Cisternino, scunsulete, sconsolata; at Canosa di
Puglia, arruete, arrivata; n-ghepe, " in capa," that is, in capo); to
which may be added the continual weakening or elision of the
unaccented vowels not only at the end but in the body of the word
(thus, at Bitonto, vgndett, spranz). A similar type meets us as we
cross into Capitanata (Cerignola: graitg and grei-, creta (but also
peitf, piede, &c.), coute,, coda (but also fourg, fuori, &c.) ; vginf,
vino, and similarly p$il$, pelo (Neap, pilo), &c. ; fu$k$, fuoco;
carftatg, carita, parla, parlare, &c.) ; such forms being apparently
the outposts of the Abruzzan, which, however, is only reached
through the Molise — a district not very populous even now, and
still more thinly peopled in bygone days — whose prevailing forms
of speech in some measure interrupt the historical continuity of the
dialects of the Adriatic versant, presenting, as it were, an irruption
from the other side of the Apennines. In the head valley of the
Molise, at Agnone, the legitimate precursors of the Abruzzan
vernaculars reappear (fedfa, faya, stufedte and -uote, stufo, annojato,
fed, fare; chiezza, piazza, chiegne, piangere, cuene, cane; puole,
palo, pruote, prato, cuone, cane; veire and vaire, vero, moile, melo,
and similarly voive and veive, vivo; deune, dono, deuva, doga;
minaure, minore; cuerpe, corpo, but cuolle). The following are pure
Abruzzan examples, (i) From Bucchianico (Abruzzo Citeripre) :
veivg, vivo; rrajf, re; allaure, allora; craune, corona; cirche,
cercare; mHe,, male; grennq, grande; quenne.; but 'nsultate,
insultata; stride, strada (where again it is seen that the reduction
of the a depends on the quality of the final unaccented vowel, and
that it is not produced exclusively by i, which would give rise to a
further reduction: scillarite, scellerati; ampire, impari). (2) From
Pratola Peligna (Abruzzo Ulteriore II.); majf, mia; 'naure, onore;
'njuriete, inguriata; desperete, disperata( alongside of vennecd, vendi-
care). It almost appears that a continuity with Emilian l ought to be
established across the Marches (where another irruption of greater
1 It should, however, be noticed that there seem to be examples
of the & from d in the southern dialects on the Tyrrhenian side;
texts of Serrara d'Ischia give: mancete, mangiata, maretete, mari-
tata, manneto, mandato; also tenno = Neap, tanno, allora. As to
the diphthongs, we should not omit to mention that some of them
are obviously of comparatively recent formation. Thus, examples
from Cerignola, such as levoitf, oliveto, come from *olivitu (cf. Lecc.
leitu, &c.), that is to say, they are posterior to the phenomenon of
8 94
ITALIAN LANGUAGE
" Italianity " has taken place; a third, of more dubious origin has
been indicated for Venice, C. l); see Arch. ii. 445. A negative
characteristic for Abruzzan is the absence of the change in the
third syllable of the combinations pi, bl, fl (into kj, j-, i) and the
reason seems evident. Here the pj, bj-pnd fj themselves appear to
be modern or of recent reduction — theVancient formulae sometimes
occurring intact (as in the Bergamasc for Upper Italy), e.g. pldnje
and pranje alongside of pidnje, piagnere, branghe alongside of
bianghe, bianco (Fr. blanc), flume andfrume alongside flume, flume.
To the south of the Abruzzi begins and in the Abruzzi grows pro-
minent that contrast in regard to the formulae alt aid (resolved in
the Neapolitan and Sicilian into aut, &c., just as in the Piedmontese,
&c.), by which the types aldare, altare, and calif , caldo, are reached.2
For the rest, when the condition and connexions of the vowel system
still retained by so large a proportion of the dialects of the eastern
versant of the Neapolitan Apennines, and the difference which
exists in regard to the preservation of the unaccented vowels between
the Ligurian and the Gallo-Italic forms of speech on the other
versant of the northern Apennines, are considered, one cannot fail
to see how much justice there is in the longitudinal or Apenninian
partition of the Italian dialects indicated by Dante. — But, to con-
tinue, in the Basilicata, which drains into the Gulf of Taranto, and
may be said to lie within the Apennines, not only is the elision of
final unaccented vowels a prevailing characteristic; there are also
frequent elisions of the unaccented vowels within the word. Thus
at Matera : sintenn la femn chessa cds, sentendo la femina questa
cosa; dispr&t, disperata; at Saponara di Grumento: uomnn'
scilrati, uomini scellerati; mnetta, vendetta. — But even if we return
to the Mediterranean versant and, leaving the Sicilian type of the
Calabrias, retrace our steps till we pass into the Neapolitan pure
and simple, we find that even in Naples the unaccented final vowels
behave badly, the labial turning to f (biellf, bello) and even the a
(belUty being greatly weakened. And here occurs a Palaeo-Italic
instance which is worth mention: while Latin was accustomed to
drop the « of its nominative only in presence of r (gener from *gener-
u-s, vir from *vir-u-s; cf. the Tuscan or Italian apocopated forms
vener = v&nere,venner = vennero, &c.),Oscanand Umbnan go much
farther: Oscan, hurz = *hort-u-s, Lat. hortus; Umbr. pihaz, piatus;
emps, emptus, &c. In Umbrian inscriptions we find u alternating
with the a of the nom. sing. fern, and plur. neut. In complete
contrast with the Sicilian vocalism is the Neapolitan e for unaccented
and particularly final i of the Latin and Neo-Latin or Italian phases
(e.g. viene, vieni; cf. infra), to say nothing further of the regular
diphthongization, within certain limits, of accented e or o in position
(apiertf, aperto, fern, aperta; muortg, morto, fern, ntorta, &c.). —
In the quasi-morphological domain it is to be noted how the Siculo-
Calabrian u for the ancient 6 and u, and the Siculo-Calabrian * for
the ancient e, t, are also still found in the Neapolitan, and, in parti-
cular, that they alternate with o and e in a manner that is determined
by the difference extermination. Thus coselore, cucitore, pi. coseture
(i.e. coseturi, the -i passing into e in keeping with the Neapolitan
characteristic already mentioned); russe, Ital. rosso, -i; rossa -e,
Ital. rossa -e; note, noce, pi. nuce; credf, io credo; cride (*cridi),
tu credi ; crede, egli crede ; nigrf , but negra.
Passing now to a cursory mention of purely morphological pheno-
mena, we begin with that form which is referred to the Latin plu-
perfect (see A. i, B. 2), but which here too performs the functions of
the conditional. Examples from the living dialects of (i) Calabria
Citeriore are faceru, farei (Castrovillari) ; tu te la collerre, tu te
1'acolleresti (Cosenza); I'attettera, 1'accetterebbe (Grimaldi); and
from those of (2) the Abruzzi, vuler', vorrei (Castelli); dire, darei
(Atessa); candere, canterei. For the dialects of the Abruzzi, we
can check our observations by examples from the oldest chronicle
of Aquila, as non habera lassato, non avrebbe lasciato (str. 180)
(cf. negara, Ital. negherei, in old MS. of the Marches). There are
some interesting remains (more or less corrupted both in form and
usage) of ancient consonantal terminations which have not yet
been sufficiently studied : s' incaricaviti, s' incaricava, -abat (Basili-
cata, Senisc); ebbiti, ebbe (ib.); aviadi, aveva (Calabria, Grimaldi);
arrivaudi, arriv6 (ib.). The last example also gives the -au of
the 3rd pers. sing. perf. of the first conjugation, which still occurs in
Sicily and between the horns of the Neapolitan mainland. In the
Abruzzi (and in the Ascolan district) the 3rd person of the plural
is in process of disappearing (the -no having fallen away and the
preceding vowel being obscured), and its function is assumed by
the 3rd person singular; cf. C. i.* The explanation of the Nea-
vowel change by which the formula (-u became i-u. And, still in
the same dialect, in an example like grfttf , crcta, the ej seems perhaps
to be recent, for the reason that another e, derived from an original
e (Lat. e), is treated in the same way (pejte, piede, &c.). As to
examples from Agnone like puole, palo, there still exists a plural
pjele which points to the phase *pato.
* We should here mention that callu is also found in the Voca-
bolario Siciliano, and further occurs in Capitanata.
•This is derived in reality from the Latin termination -unt,
which is reduced phonetically to -u, a phenomenon not confined to
the Abruzzi; cf. facciu, Ital. fanno, Lat. faciunt, at Norcia; crisciu,
Ital. cresconp, Lat. crescunt, &c., at Rieti. And examples are also
to be found in ancient Tuscan.
politan forms songhe, io sono, essi sono, donghe, io do, stonghe, io sto,
as also of the enclitic of the 2nd person plural which exists, e.g.]in
the Sicil. amssivu, Neap, avisteve, aveste, has been correctly given
more than once. It may be remarked in conclusion that this Nep-
Latin region keeps company with the Rumanian in maintaining in
large use the -ora derived from the ancient neuter plurals of the
type tempora; Sicil. jocura, giuochi; Calabr. nidura, Abruzz.
nidere, nidi, Neap, ortola ( = -ra), orti, Capitanata dcure, aghi, Apulian
aceddere (Tarantine aceddiri), uccelli, &c. It is in this region, and
more particularly in Capua, that we can trace the first appearance
of what can definitely be called Italian, as shown in a Latin legal
document of the year 960 (sao co kelle terre per kelle fini qui ki contene
trenta anni le possette parte Sancti Benedicti, Ital. " so che quelle terre
per quei confini che qui contiene trent 'anni le possedette la parte
di S. Benedetto "), and belongs more precisely to Capua. The
so-called Carta Rossanese (Calabria), written in a mixture of Latin
and vulgar tongue, belongs to the first decades of the I2th century;
while a document of Fondi (Campania) in the vulgar tongue goes
back to the last decades of the same century. Neapolitan docu-
ments do not become abundant till the I4th century. The same
is true of the Abruzzi and of Apulia; in the case of the latter the
date should perhaps be put even later.
4. Dialects of Umbria, the Marches and the Province of Rome. —
The phenomena characteristic of the Gallo-Italian dialects can be
traced in the northern Marches in the dialects not only of the pro-
vinces of Pesaro and Urbino (Arch, glott. ii. 444), where we note
also the constant dropping of the final vowels, strong elisions of
accented and unaccented vowels, the suffix -ariu becoming -er, &c.,
but also as far as Ancona and beyond. As in Ancona, the double
consonants are reduced to single ones; there are strong elisions
(breta, Ital. berretta; blin, Ital. bellino; figurte, Ital. "figurati";
vermne, Ital. verme, " vermine," &c.); the -k- becomes g; the i, S.
At Jesi -/- and -k- become d and g, and the g is also found at Fabriano,
though here it is modified in the Southern fashion (spia = spiga,
Ital. spica). Examples are also found of the dropping of -d- primary
between vowels: Pesaran rdica, Ital. radica; Fabr. peo, Ital. piede,
which are noteworthy in that they indicate an isolated Gallo-
Italian phenomenon, which is further traceable in Umbria (peacchia =
ped-, Ital. orma; rdica and raice, Ital. radice; trubio, Ital. torbido;
frdcio, Ital. fracido; at Rieti also the dropping of the -d- is normal:
veo, Ital. vedo; fldtu, Ital. fidato, &c. ; and here too is found the
dropping of initial d for syntactical reasons: ente, Ital. dente, from
lu [d]ente). According to some scholars of the Marches, the e for a
also extends as far as Ancona; and it is certainly continued from
the north, though it is precisely in the territory of the Marches that
Gallo-Italian and Abruzzan come into contact. The southern
part of the Marches (the basin of the Tronto), after all, is Abruzzan
in character. But the Abruzzan or Southern phenomena in general
are widely diffused throughput the whole of the region comprising
the Marches, Umbria, Latium and Aquila (for the territory of
Aquila, belonging as it does both geographically and politically
to the Abruzzi, is also attached linguistically to this group), which
with regard to certain phenomena includes also that part of Tuscany
lying to the south of the southern Ombrone. Further, the Tuscan
dialect strictly so called sends into the Marches a few of its char-
acteristics, and thus at Arcevia we have the pronunciation of -£-
between vowels as i (fSrmesce, Ital. forbici),4 and Ancona has no
changes of tonic vowels determined by the final vowel. Again,
Umbria and the Sabine territory, and some parts of the Roman
territory, are connected with Tuscany by the phenomenon of -070 for
-ariu (molinajo, Ital. mugnaio, &c.). But, to come to the Abruzzan-
Southern phenomena, we should note that the Abruzzan U for Id
extends into the central region (Norcia: callu, caldo; Rome:
ariscalla, riscalda ; the phenomenon, however, occurs also in Corsica) ;
and the assimilation of nd into nn, and of mb into mm stretches
through Umbria, the Marches and Rome, and even crosses from
the Roman province into southern Tuscany (Rieti: quanno, quando;
Spoleto : comannava, comandaya; Assisi: piagnenno, piangendo;
Sanseverino Marches: piagnenne, 'mmece, invece (imbece); Fabri-
ano: vennecasse, vendicarsi; Osimo: monno, mondo; Rome:
fronna, fronda; piommo, piombo; Pitigliano (Tuscany): quanno,
piagnenno). It is curious to note, side by side with this phenomenon,
m the same districts, that of nd for nn, which we still find and which
was more common in the past (affando, affanno, &c., see Zeitschrift
fur roman. Philol. xxii. 510). Even the diphthongs of the e and the
o in position are largely represented. Examples are — at Norcia,
tiempi, uocchi, stuortu; Assisi and Fabriano: tiempo; Orvieto:
tiempo, tierra, le tuorte, Ii torti, and even duonna. The change of
precpnsonantal / into r, so frequent throughout this region, and
particularly characteristic of Rome, is a phenomenon common to
the Aquilan dialect. Similar facts might be adduced in abundance.
And it is to be noted that the features common to Umbro-Roman
and the Neapolitan dialects must have been more numerous in the
past, as this was the region where the Tuscan current met the
southern, and by reason of its superior culture gradually gained the
4 [This resolution of -t- by Jf, or by a sound very near to S, is, how-
ever, a Roman phenomenon, found in some parts of Apulia (Mol-
fettese lausce, luce, &c.), and also heard in parts of Sicily].
ITALIAN LANGUAGE
ascendancy.1 Typical for the whole district (except the Marches)
is the reduction to t (and later to j) of II and of / initial, when followed
by i or u (Velletri, tuna, tuce; Sora, juna, Ital. luna, jima, Ital.
lima; melica. Ital. mollica, bete, Ital. belli, bello, in vulgar Latin
bellu; but belta, bella, &c.). The phonological connexions between
the Northern Umbrian, the Aretine, and the Gallo-Italic type have
already been indicated (B. 2). In what relates to morphology, the
-qrno of the 3rd pers. plur. of the perfect of the first conjugation has
been pointed out as an essential peculiarity of the Umbro-Roman
territory; but even this it shares with the Aquila vernaculars,
which, moreover, extend it to the other conjugations (amorno,
timorono,&c.), exactly like the -6 of the 3rd person singular. Further,
this termination is found also in the Tuscan dialects.
Throughout almost the whole district should be noted the distinction
between the masculine and neuter substantive, expressed by means of
the article, the distinction being that the neuter substantive has an
abstract and indeterminate signification; e.g. at S. Ginesio, in the
Marches, lu pesce, but lo pesce, of fish in general, as food, &c. ; at Sora
te wetrg, the sheet of glass, but Ig wetr$, glass, the material, original
substance.8 As to the inflection of verbs, there is in the ancient texts
of the region a notable prevalence of perfect form in the formation
of the imperfect conjunctive; tolzesse, Ital. togliesse; sostenesse, Ital.
sostenesse; conubbessero, Ital. conoscessero, &c. In the northern
Marches, we should note the preposition so., Ital. con (sa lia, Ital. con
lei), going back to a type similar to that of the Ital. " con-esso."
In a large part of Umbria an m or t is prefixed to the sign
of the dative: t-a lu, a lui; m-al re, al re;3 which must be the
remains of the auxiliary prepositions int(us), a(m)pud, cf. Prov.
amb, am (cf. Arch. ii. 444-446). By means of the series of
Perugine texts this group of dialects may be traced back with
confidence to the J3th century; and to this region should also
belong a " Confession," half Latin half vernacular, dating from
about the nth century, edited and annotated by Flechia (Arch.
vii. 121 sqq.). The " chronicle" of Monaldeschi has been already
mentioned. The MSS. of the Marches go back to the beginning of
the 1 3th century and perhaps still further back. For Roman (see
Monaci, Rendic. dell'Accad. dei Lincei, xvi. 103 sqq.) there is a short
inscription of the nth century. To the 1 3th century belongs the
Liber historiarum Romanorum (Monaci, Archivio delta Societa rom.
di storia patria, xii.; and also, Rendic. dei Lincei, i. 94 sqq.), and
to the first half of the same century the Formole volgari of Raineri
da Perugia (Monaci, ib., xiv. 268 sqq.). There are more abundant
texts for all parts of this district in the lAth century, to which also
belongs the Cronica Aquilana of Buccio di Ranallo, republished by
De Bartholomaeis (Rome, 1907).
D. Tuscan, and the Literary Language of the Italians.
We have now only to deal with the Tuscan territory. It is
bounded on the W. by the sea. To the north it terminates with
the Apennines; for Romagna Toscana, the strip of country on
the Adriatic versant which belongs to it administratively, is
assigned to Emilia as regards dialect. In the north-west also
the Emilian presses on the Tuscan, extending as it does down the
Mediterranean slope of the Apennines in Lunigiana and Garfag-
nana. Intrusions which may be called Emilian have also been
noted to the west of the Apennines in the district where the
Arno and the Tiber take their rise (Aretine dialects) ; and it has
been seen how thence to the sea the Umbrian and Roman
dialects surround the Tuscan. Such are the narrow limits of the
" promised land " of the language which has succeeded and was
worthy to succeed Latin in the history of Italian culture and
1 There is therefore nothing surprising in the fact that, for
example, the chronicle of Monaldeschi of Orvieto (i4th century)
should indicate a form of speech of which Muratori remarks:
" Romanis tune familiaris, nimirum quae in nonnullis accedabat ad
Neapolitanam seu vocibus seu pronuntiatione." The alt into ait,
&c. (aitro, moito), which occur in the well-known Vita di Cola di
Rienzo, examples of which can also be found in some corners of the
Marches, and of which there are also a few traces in Latium, also
shows Abruzzan affinity. The phenomenon occurs also, however,
in Emilian and Tuscan.
1 A distinction between the masculine and the neuter article can
also be noticed at Naples and elsewhere in the southern region,
where it sometimes occurs that the initial consonant of the sub-
stantive is differently determined according as the substantive itself
is conceived as masculine or neuter; thus at Naples, neut. lo bero,
masc. lo vero, " il vero," &c. ;at Cerignola (Capitanata), u mmegghif,
" il meglio," side by side with u moise " il mese." The difference is
evidently to be explained by the fact that the neuter article originally
ended in a consonant (-d or -c? ; see Merlo, Zeitschrift fur roman.
Philol. xxx. 449), which was then assimilated to the initial letter
of the substantive, while the masculine article ended in a vowel.
3 This second prefix is common to the opposite valley of the
Metauro, and appears farther south in the form of me, — Camerino:
me lu pettu, nel petto, me lu Seppurgru, al Sepolcro.
I
895
civilization, — the land which comprises Florence, Siena, Lucca
and Pisa. The Tuscan type may be best described by the
negative method. There do not exist in it, on the one hand, any
of those phenomena by which the other dialectal types of Italy
mainly differ from the 'j^atin base (such as u = u; frequent
elision of unaccented vowels; ba = gua; $=jl; nn = nd, &c.),
nor, on the other hand, is there any series of alterations of the
Latin base peculiar to the Tuscan. This twofold negative
description may further serve for the Tuscan or literary Italian
as contrasted with all the other Neo-Latin languages; indeed,
even where the Tuscan has a tendency to alterations common to
other types of the family, it shows itself more sober and self-
denying — as may be seen in the reduction of the t between
vowels into d or of c (k) between vowels into g, which in Italian
affects only a small part of the lexical series, while in Provencal
or Spanish it may be said to pervade the whole (e.g. Prov. and
Span, mudar, Ital. mutare; Prov. segur, Span, seguro, Ital.
sicurd). It may consequently be affirmed without any partiality
that, in respect to historical nobility, the Italian not only holds
the first rank among Neo-Latin languages, but almost constitutes
an intermediate grade between the ancient or Latin and the
modern or Romance. What has just been said about the Tuscan,
as compared with the other dialectal types of Italy, does not,
however, preclude the fact that in the various Tuscan veins,
and especially in the plebeian forms of speech, there occur
particular instances of phonetic decay; but these must of
necessity be ignored in so brief a sketch as the present. We
shall confine ourselves to noting — what has a wide territorial
diffusion — the reduction of c (k) between vowels to a mere
breathing (e.g. judho, fuoco, but •pored), or even its complete
elision; the same phenomenon occurs also between word and
word (e.g. la hasa, but in casa), thus illustrating anew that
syntactic class of phonetic alterations, either qualitative or
quantitative, conspicuous in this region, also, which has been
already discussed for insular and southern Italy (B. 2; C. 2, 3),
and could be exemplified for the Roman region as well (C. 4).
As regards one- or two individual phenomena, it must also be
confessed that the Tuscan or literary Italian is not so well
preserved as some other Neo-Latin tongues. Thus, French
always keeps in the beginning of words the Latin formulae d,
pi, fl (clef, plaisir, fleur, in contrast with the Italian chiave,
piacere, fiore) ; but the Italian makes up for this by the greater
vigour with which it is wont to resolve the same formula within
the words, and by the greater symmetry thus produced between
the two series (in opposition to the French clef, clave, we have,
for example, the French ceil, oclo; whereas, in the Italian,
chiave and occhio correspond to each other). The Italian as
well as the Rumanian has lost the ancient sibilant at the end
(-s of the plurals, of the nominative singular, of the 2nd persons,
&c.), which throughout the rest of the Romance area has been
preserved more or less tenaciously; and consequently it stands
lower than old Provencal and old French, as far as true declension
or, more precisely, the functional distinction between the forms
of the casus rectus and the casus oUiquus is concerned. But
even in this respect the superiority of French and Provencal
has proved merely transitory, and in their modern condition
all the Neo-Latin forms of speech are generally surpassed by
Italian even as regards the pure grammatical consistency of the
noun. In conjugation Tuscan has lost that tense which for the
sake of brevity we shall continue to call the pluperfect indicative;
though it still survives outside of Italy and in other dialectal
types of Italy itself (C. 36; cf. B. 2). It has also lost thefuturum
exactum, or perfect subjunctive, which is found in Spanish and
Rumanian. But no one would on that account maintain that
the Italian conjugation is less truly Latin than the Spanish,
the Rumanian, or that of any other Neo-Latin language. It
is, on the contrary, by far the most distinctively Latin as regards
the tradition both of form and function, although many effects
of the principle of analogy are to be observed, sometimes common
to Italian with the other Neo-Latin languages and sometimes
peculiar to itself.
Those who find it hard to believe in the ethnological explana-
896
ITALIAN LANGUAGE
tion of linguistic varieties ought to be convinced by any example
so clear as that which Italy presents in the difference between
the Tuscan or purely Italian type on the one side and the Gallo-
Italic on the other. The names in this instance correspond
exactly to the facts of the case. For the Gallo-Italic on either
side of the Alps is evidently nothing else than a modification —
varying in degree, but always very great — of the vulgar Latin,
due to the reaction of the language or rather the oral tendencies
of the Celts who succumbed to the Roman civilization. In
other words, the case is one of new ethnic individualities arising
from the fusion of two national entities, one of which, numerically
more or less weak, is so far victorious that its speech is adopted,
while the other succeeds in adapting that speech to its own habits
of utterance. Genuine Italian, on the other hand, is not the
result of the combination or conflict of the vulgar Latin with other
tongues, but is the pure development of this alone. In other
words, the case is that of an ancient national fusion in which
vulgar Latin itself originated. Here that is native which in the
other case was intrusive. This greater purity of constitution
gives the language a persistency which approaches permanent
stability. There is no Old Italian to oppose to Modern Italian
in the same sense as we have an Old French to oppose to a
Modern French. It is true that in the old French writers, and
even in the writers who used the dialects of Upper Italy, there
was a tendency to bring back the popular forms to their ancient
dignity; and it is true also that the Tuscan or literary Italian
has suffered from the changes of centuries; but nevertheless it
remains undoubted that in the former cases we ha veto deal with
general transformations between old and new, while in the latter
it is evident that the language of Dante continues to be the
Italian of modern speech and literature. This character of
invariability has thus been in direct proportion to the purity of
its Latin origin, while, on the contrary, where popular Latin has
been adopted by peoples of foreign speech, the elaboration which
it has undergone along the lines of their oral tendencies becomes
always the greater the farther we get away from the point at
which the Latin reached them, — in proportion, that is, to the
time and space through which it has been transmitted in these
foreign mouths.1
As for the primitive seat of the literary language of Italy, not
only must it be regarded as confined within the limits of that
narrower Tuscany already described; strictly speaking, it must
be identified with the city of Florence alone. Leaving out of
account, therefore, a small number of words borrowed from other
Italian dialects, as a certain number have naturally been borrowed
from foreign tongues, it may be said that all that was not Tuscan
was eliminated from the literary form of speech. If we go back
to the time of Dante, we find, throughout almost all the dialects of
the mainland with the exception of Tuscan, the change of vowels
between singular and plural seen in paese, paisi; quello, quilli;
amore, amuri (see B. i; C. 3 b); but the literary language
knows nothing at all of such a phenomenon, because it was
unknown to the Tuscan region. But in Tuscan itself there were
differences between Florentine and non- Florentine; in Florentine,
e.g. it was and is usual to say unto, giunto, punlo, while the non-
Florentine had it onto, gionto, ponto, (Lat. uncttt, &c.); at
Florence they say piazza, meizo, while elsewhere (at Lucca, Pisa)
they say or used to say, piassa, meSSo. Now, it is precisely the
Florentine forms which alone have currency in the literary
language.
In the ancient compositions in the vulgar tongue, especially in
poetry, non-Tuscan authors on the one hand accommodated
their own dialect to the analogy of that which they felt to be the
purest representative of the language of ancient Roman culture,
while the Tuscan authors in their turn did not refuse to adopt
the forms which had received the rights of citizenship from the
1 A complete analogy is afforded by the history of the Aryan or
Sanskrit language in India, which in space and time shows always
more and more strongly the reaction of the oral tendencies of the
aboriginal races on whom it has been imposed. Thus the Pali pre-
sents the ancient Aryan organism in a condition analogous to that of
the oldest French, and the Prakrit of the Dramas, on the other hand,
in a condition like that of modern French.
literary celebrities of other parts of Italy. It was this state of
matters which gave rise in past times to the numerous disputes
about the true fatherland and origin of the literary language of
the Italians. But these have been deprived of all right to exis: <jy
the scientific investigation of the history of that language. If
the older Italian poetry assumed or maintained forms alien to
Tuscan speech, these forms were afterwards gradually eliminated,
and the field was left to those which were purely Tuscan and
indeed purely Florentine. And thus it remains absolutely true
that, so far as phonetics, morphology, rudimental syntax, and in
short the whole character and material of words and sentences
are concerned, there is no literary language of Europe that is
more thoroughly characterized by homogeneity and oneness, as
if it had come forth in a single cast from the furnace, than the
Italian.
But on the other hand it remains equally true that, so far as
concerns a living confidence and uniformity in the use and style
of the literary language — that is, of this Tuscan or Florentine
material called to nourish the civilization and culture of all the
Italians — the case is not a little altered, and the Italian nation
appears to enjoy less fortunate conditions than other nations of
Europe. Modern Italy had no glowing centre for the life of the
whole nation into which and out of which the collective thought
and language could be poured in ceaseless current for all and by
all. Florence has not been Paris. Territorial contiguity and the
little difference of the local dialect facilitated in the modern
Rome the elevation of the language of conversation to a level
with the literary language that came from Tuscany. A form of
speech was thus produced which, though certainly destitute of
the grace and the abundant flexibility of the Florentine, gives
a good idea of what the dialect of a city becomes when it makes
itself the language of a nation that is ripening its civilization in
many and dissimilar centres. In such a case the dialect loses its
slang and petty localisms, and at the same time also somewhat
of its freshness; but it learns to express with more conscious
sobriety and with more assured dignity the thought and the
feeling of the various peoples which are fused in one national
life. But what took place readily in Rome could not with equal
ease happen in districts whose dialects were far removed from
the Tuscan. In Piedmont, for example, or in Lombardy, the
language of conversation did not correspond with the language of
books, and the latter accordingly became artificial and laboured.
Poetry was least affected by these unfortunate conditions; for
poetry may work well with a multiform language, where the need
and the stimulus of the author's individuality assert themselves
more strongly. But prose suffered immensely, and the Italians
had good cause to envy the spontaneity and confidence of foreign
literatures — of the French more particularly. In this reasonable
envy lay the justification and the strength of the Manzoni
school, which aimed at that absolute naturalness of the
literary language, that absolute identity between the language
of conversation and that of books, which the bulk of the
Italians could reach and maintain only by naturalizing them-
selves in the living speech of modern Florence. The revolt of
Manzoni against artificiality and mannerism in language and
style was worthy of his genius, and has been largely fruitful.
But the historical difference between the case of France (with the
colloquial language of Paris) and that of Italy (with the colloquial
language of Florence) implies more than one difficulty of
principle; in the latter case there is sought to be produced by
deliberate effort of the literati what in the former has been and
remains the necessary and spontaneous product of the entire
civilization. Manzoni's theories too easily lent themselves to
deplorable exaggerations; men fell into a new artificiality, a
manner of writing which might be called vulgar and almost slangy.
The remedy for this must lie in the regulating power of the labour
of the now regenerate Italian intellect, — a labour ever growing
wider in its scope, more assiduous and more thoroughly united.
The most ancient document in the Tuscan dialect is a very
short fragment of a jongleur's song (izth century; see Monad,
Crestomazia, 9-10). After that there is nothing till the I3th
century. P. Santini has published the important and fairly
ITALIAN LITERATURE
897
numerous fragments of a book of notes of some Florentin
bankers, of the year 1211. About the middle of the century, ou
attention is arrested by the Memoriali of the Sienese Matasala c
Spinello. To 1278 belongs the MS. in which is preserved th
Pistojan version of the Trattati morali of Albertano, which wt,
owe to Sofredi del Grathia. The Riccardian Tristano, publishet
and annotated by E. G. Parodi, seems to belong to the end of th<
I3th and beginning of the i4th centuries. For other i3th
century writings see Monaci, op. cit. 31-32, 40, and Parodi
Giornale slorico della lelteratura italiana, x. 178-179. For th
question concerning language, see Ascoli, Arch, gloll. i. v. e.
seq.; D' Ovidio, Le Correzioni ai Promessi Sposi e la questions
della lingua, 4th ed. Naples, 1895.
Literature.— K. L. Fernow in the third volume of his Romischt
Studien (Zurich, 1806-1808) gave a good survey of the dialects o
Italy. The dawn of rigorously scientific methods had not then
appeared; but Fernow's view is wide and genial. Similar praise
is due to Biondelli's work Sui dialetti gallo-italici (Milan, 1853)
which, however, is still ignorant of Diez. August Fuchs, between
Fernow and Biondelli, had made himself so far acquainted with the
new methods; but his exploration (tfber die sogenannlen unregel-
massigen Zeitworter in den romanischen Sprachen, nebst Andeulungen
liber die wichligsten romanischen Mundarten, Berlin, 1840), though
certainly of utility, was not very successful. Nor can the rapic
survey of the Italian dialects given by Friedrich Diez be rankec
among the happiest portions of his great masterpiece. Among the
followers of Diez who distinguished themselves in this department
the first outside of Italy were certainly Mussafia, a cautious and clear
continuator of the master, and the singularly acute Hugo Schuchardt.
Next came the Archivio glottologico italiano (Turin, 1873 and onwards!
Up to 1897 there were published 16 vols.), the lead in which was taken
by Ascoli and G. Flechia (d. 1892), who, together with the Dalmatian
Adolf Mussafia (d. 1906), may be looked upon as the founders of
the study of Italian dialects, and who have applied to their writings
a rigidly methodical procedure and a historical and comparative
standard, which have borne the best fruit. For historical studies
dealing specially with the literary language, Nannucci, with his
good judgment and breadth of view, led the way; we need only
mention here his Analisi critica dei verbi italiani (Florence, 1844).
But the new method was to show how much more it was to and
did effect. When this movement on the part of the scholars men-
tioned above became known, other enthusiasts soon joined them,
and the Arch, glottologico developed into a school, which began to
produce many prominent works on language [among the first in
order of date and merit may be mentioned " Gh Allotropi italiani,"
by U. A. Canello (1887), Arch, glott. iii. 285-419; and Le Origini
della lingua poetica italiana, by N. Caix (d. 1882), (Florence, 1880)],
and studies on the dialects. We shall here enumerate those of
them which appear for one reason or another to have been the most
notable. But, so far as works of a more general nature are con-
cerned, we shoujd first state that there have been other theories as
to the classification of the Italian dialects (see also above the various
notes on B. I, 2 and C. 2) put forward by W. Meyer-Lubke (Ein-
fuhrung in das Studium der romanischen Sprachwissenschaft, Heidel-
berg, 1901 ; pp. 21-22), and M. Bartoli (Altitalienische Chrestomathie,
von P. Savj-Lopez und M. Bartoli, Strassburg, 1903, pp. 171 et seq.
193 et seq., and the table at the end of the volume). W. Meyer-
Liibke afterwards filled in details of the system which he had sketched
in Grober's Grundriss der romanischen Philologie, i., 2nd ed. (1904),
pp. 696 et seq. And from the same author comes that masterly
work, the Italienische Grammatik (Leipzig, 1890), where the language
and its dialects are set out in one organic whole, just as they are
placed together in the concise chapter devoted to Italian in the
above-mentioned Grundriss (pp. 637 et seq.). We will now give the
list, from which we omit, however, the works quoted incidentally
throughout the text: B. I a: Parodi, Arch, glott. xiv. I sqq.,
xv. I sqq., xvi. 105 sqq. 333 sqq.; Poesie in dial, tabbiese del sec.
X VII. ihustrate da E. G. Parodi (Spezia, 1904) ; Schadel, Die Mundart
von Ormea (Halle, 1903); Parodi, Studj romanzi, fascic. v.; b:
Giacomino, Arch, glott. xv. 403 sqq.; Toppino, ib. xvi. 517 sqq.;
Flechia, ib. xiv. Ill sqq.; Nigra, Miscell. Ascoli (Turin, 1901),
247 sqq.; Renier, // Gelindo (Turin, 1896); Salvioni, Rendiconti
Istitulo lombardo, s. ii., vol. xxxvii. 522, sqq.; c: Salvioni, Fonetica
del dialetlo di Milano (Turin, 1884); Studi di filol. romanza, viii.
I sqq.; Arch, glott. ix. 188 sqq. xiii. 355 sqq.; Rendic. 1st. lomb.
s. ii., vol. xxxv. 905 sqq.; xxxix. 477 sqq.; 505 sqq. 569 sqq.
603 sqq., xl. 719 sqq.; Bollettino storico della Svizzera italiana,
xvn. and xviii.; Michael, Der Dialekt des Poschiavotals (Halle,
!9°5) ; v. Ettmayer, Bergamaskische Alpenmundarten (Leipzig,
I9O3); Romanische Forschungen, xiii. 321 sqq.; d: Mussafia,
Darstellung der romagnolischen Mundart (Vienna, 1871); Gaudenzi,
/ Suoni ecc. della cilia di Bologna (Turin, 1889); Ungarelli, Vocab.
del dial, bologn. con una introduzione di A. Trauzzi sulla fonetica e
sulla morfologia del dialetto (Bologna, 1901); Bertoni, II Dialetlo di
Modena (Turin, 1905); Pull6, " Schizzo dei dialetti del Frignano "
in L' Apennino modenese, 673 sqq. (Rocca S. Casciano, 1895);
xiv. 29
Piagnoli, Fonetica parmigiana (Turin, 1904); Restori, Note foneliche
sui parlari dell' alia valle di Macra (Leghorn, 1892); Gorra, Zeit-
schrift fur romanische Philologie, xvi. 372 sqq.; xiv. 133 sqq.;
Nicoli, Studi di filologia romanza, viii. 197 sqq. B. 2: Hofmann,
Die logudoresische und campidanesische Mundart (Marburg, 1885) ;
.Wagner, Lautlehre der sudsardischen Mundarten (Malle a. S., 1907) ;
Campus, Fonetica del dialetto logudorese (Turin, 1901); Guarnerio,
Arch, glott. xiii. 125 sqq., xiv. 131 sqq., 385 sqq. C. i: Rossi, Le
Lettere di Messer Andrea Calmo (Turin, 1888); Wendriner, Die
paduanische Mundart bei Ruzante (Breslau, 1889); Le Rime di
Bartolomeo Cavassico notaio bellunese della prima meta del sec. xvi.
con illustraz. e note di v. dan, e con illustrazioni linguistiche e lessico
a cura di C. Salvioni (2 vols., Bologna, 1893-1894); Gartner,
Zeitschr. fur roman. Philol. xvi. 183 sqq., 306 sqq.; Salvioni. Arch,
glott. xvi. 245 sqq.; Vidossich, Studi sui dialetto triestino (Triest,
1901); Zeitschr. fur rom. Phil, xxvii. 749 sqq.; Ascoli, Arch, glott.
xlv- 325 sqq-; Schneller, Die romanischen Volksmundarten in
Sudtirol,'\. (Gera, 1870); von Slop, Die tridentinische Mundart
(Klagenfurt, 1888); Ive, / Dialetti ladino-veneti dell' Istria (Strass-
burg, 1900). C. 2: Guarnerio, Arch, glott. xiii. 125 sqq., xiv. 131
sqq-. 385 sqq. C. 3 a: Wentrup-Pitre, in Pitr6, Fiabe, novelle e
racconti popolari siciliani, vol. i., pp. cxviii. sqq.; Schneegans,
Laute und Lautentwickelung des sicil. Dialektes (Strassburg, 1888);
De Gregorio, Saggio di fonetica siciliana (Palermo, 1890) ; Pirandello,
Laute und Lautentwickelung der Mundart von Gir genii (Halle, 1891);
Cremona, Fonetica del Caltagironese (Acireale, 1895); Santangelo,
Arch, glott. xvi. 479 sqq.; La Rosa, Saggi di morfologia siciliana, i.
Sostantivi (Noto, 1901); Salvioni, Rendic. 1st. lomb. s. ii., vol. xl.
1046 sqq., 1106 sqq., 1145 sqq.; 6: Scerbo, Sui dialetto calabro
(Florence, 1886); Accattati's, Vocabolario del dial, calabrese (Cas-
trovillari, 1895); Gentili, Fonetica del dialetto cosenlino (Milan, 1897);
Wentrup, Beitrage zur Kenntniss der neapolitanischen Mundart
(Wittenberg, 1855); Subak, Die Konjugation im Neapolitanischen
(Vienna, 1897) ; Morosi, Arch, glott. iv. 117 sqq.; De Noto, Appunti
di fonetica sui dial, di Taranto (Trani, 1897); Subak, Das Zeitwort
in der Mundart von Tarent (Briinn, 1897); Panareo, Fonetica del
dial, di Maglie d' Otranto (Milan, 1903) ; Nitti di Vito, // Dial, di
Bari, part I, " Vocalismo moderno (Milan, 1896); Abbatescianni,
Fonologia del dial, barese (Avellino, 1896); Zingarelli, Arch, glott.
lung XIV. der Gesellschafl zur Forderung deutscher Wissenschaft,
Kunst und Literatur in Bohmen (Prague, 1901); De Lollis, Arch.
glott. xii. i sqq., 187 sqq.; Miscell. Ascoli, 275 sqq.; Savini, La
Grammatica e il lessico del dial, teramano (Turin, 1881). C. 4 : Merlo,
Zeitschr. f. roman. Phil., xxx. ii sqq., 438 sqq., xxxi. 157 sqq.;
E. Monaci (notes on old Roman), Rendic. dei Lincei, Feb. 2ist, 1892,
x 94 sqq.; Rossi-Cas6, Bollett. di star, patria degli Abruzzi, vi.;
Crocioni, Miscell. Monaci, pp. 429 sqq.; Ceci, Arch, glott. x. 167
sqq.; Parodi, ib. xiii. 299 sqq.; Campanelli, Fonetica del dial.
reatino (Turin, 1896); Verga, Sonetti e altre poesie di R. Torelli in
dial, perugino (Milan, 1895); Bianchi, // Dialetto e la etnografia di
Cilia di Castello (Citta di Castello, 1888); Neumann-Spallart,
Zeitschrift fur roman. Phil, xxviii. 273 sqq., 450 sqq.; Weitere
Beitrage zur Charakteristik des Dialektes der Marche (Halle a. S.,
1907): Crocioni, Studi di fil. rom., ix. 617 sqq.; Studi romanzi,
asc. 3°, 113 sqq., II Dial, di Arcevia (Rome, 1906); Lindsstrom,
Studi romanzi^ fasc. 5°, 237 sqq.; Crocioni, ib. 27 sqq. D.: Parodi,
Romania, xviii. ; Schwenke, De dialecto quae carminibus popularibus
uscanicis a Tigrio editis continetur (Leipzig, 1872); Fieri, Arch.
glott. xii. 107 sqq., 141 sqq., 161 sqq.; Miscell. Caix-Canello, 305
iqq.; Note sui dialetto aretino (Pisa, 1886); Zeitschr. fur rom.
"hilol. xxviii. 161 sqq.; Salvioni, Arch, glott. xvi. 395 sqq.; Hirsch,
Zeitschrift f. rom. Philol. ix. 513 sqq., x. 56 sqq., 411 sqq. For re-
searches on the etymology of all the Italian dialects, but chiefly of
hose of Northern Italy, the Beitrag zur Kunde der norditalienischen
Mundarten im XV. Jahrhundert of Ad. Mussafia (Vienna, 1873) and
he Pastille etimologiche of Giov. Flechia (Arch, glott. ii., iii.) are of
he greatest importance. Biondelli's book is of no small service also
or the numerous translations which it contains of the Prodigal
Son into Lombard, Piedmontese and Emilian dialects. A dialogue
ranslated into the vernaculars of all parts of Italy will be found in
Zuccagni Orlandini's Raccolta di dialetti italiani con illustrazioni
tnologiche (Florence, 1864). And every dialectal division is abund-
ntly represented in a series of versions of a short novel of Boc-
accio, which Papanti has published under the title / Parlari
taliani in Certaldo, &c. (Leghorn, 1875).
[A very valuable and rich collection of dialectal essays on the
most ancient documents for all parts of Italy is to be found in the
restomazia italiana dei primi secoli of E. Monaci (Citta di Castello,
889-1897); see also in the Altitalienische Chrestomathie of P. Savj-
and M. Bartoli (Strassburg, 1903).] (G. I. A.; C. S.*)
ITALIAN LITERATURE, i. Origins.— One characteristic fact
istinguishes the Italy of the middle ages with regard to its in-
ellectual conditions — the tenacity with which the Latin tradition
lung to life (see LATIN). At the end of the sth century the
5
ITALIAN LITERATURE
northern conquerors invaded Italy. The Roman world crumbled
to pieces. A new kingdom arose at Ravenna under Theodoric,
and there learning was not extinguished. The liberal arts
flourished, the very Gothic kings surrounded themselves with
masters of rhetoric and of grammar. The names of Cassiodorus,
of Boetius, of Symmachus, are enough to show how Latin thought
maintained its power amidst the political effacement of the
Roman empire. And this thought held its ground throughout
the subsequent ages and events. Thus, while elsewhere all
culture had died out, there still remained in Italy some schools
of laymen,1 and some really extraordinary men were educated
in them, such as Ennodius, a poet more pagan than Christian,
Arator, Fortunatus, Venantius Jovannicius, Felix the gram-
marian, Peter of Pisa, Paulinus of Aquileia and many others,
in all of whom we notice a contrast between the barbarous age
they lived in and their aspiration towards a culture that should
reunite them to the classical literature of Rome. The Italians
never had much love for theological studies, and those who were
addicted to them preferred Paris to Italy. It was something
more practical, more positive, that had attraction for the Italians,
and especially the study of Roman law. This zeal for the study
of jurisprudence furthered the establishment of the medieval
universities of Bologna, Padua, Vicenza, Naples, Salerno, Modena
and Parma; and these, in their turn, helped to spread culture,
and to prepare the ground in which the new vernacular literature
was afterwards to be developed. The tenacity of classical
traditions, the affection for the memories of Rome, the pre-
occupation with political interests, particularly shown in the
wars of the Lombard communes against the empire of the
Hohenstaufens, a spirit more naturally inclined to practice
than to theory — all this had a powerful influence on the fate of
Italian literature. Italy was wanting in that combination of
conditions from which the spontaneous life of a people springs.
This was chiefly owing to the fact that the history of the Italians
never underwent interruption, — no foreign nation having come
in to change them and make them young again. That childlike
state of mind and heart, which in other Latin races, as well as
in the Germanic, was such a deep source of poetic inspiration,
was almost utterly wanting in the Italians, who were always
much drawn to history and very little to nature; so, while
legends, tales, epic poems, satires, were appearing and spreading
on all sides, Italy was either quite a stranger to this movement
or took a peculiar part in it. We know, for example, what the
Trojan traditions were in the middle ages; and we should have
thought that in Italy — in the country of Rome, retaining the
memory of Aeneas and Virgil — they would have been specially
developed, for it was from Virgil that the medieval sympathy
for the conquered of Troy was derived. In fact, however, it
was not so. A strange book made its appearance in Europe,
no one quite knows when, the Historia de excidio Trojae, which
purported to have been written by a certain Dares the Phrygian,
an eye-witness of the Trojan war. In the middle ages this book
was the basis of many literary labours. Benoit de Sainte-More
composed an interminable French poem founded on it, which
afterwards in its turn became a source for other poets to draw
from, such as Herbert of Fritzlar and Conrad of Wiirzburg.
Now for the curious phenomenon displayed by Italy. Whilst
Benoit de Sainte-More wrote his poem in French, taking his
material from a Latin history, whilst the two German writers,
from a French source, made an almost original work in their own
language — an Italian, on the other hand, taking Benoit for
his model, composed in Latin the Historia destructions Trojae;
and this Italian was Guido delle Colonne of Messina, one of the
vernacular poets of the Sicilian school, who must accordingly
have known well how to use his own language. Guido was an
imitator of the Provencals; he understood French, and yet wrote
his own book in Latin, nay, changed the romance of the Trouba-
dour into serious history. Much the same thing occurred with
the other great legends. That of Alexander the Great (q.v.) gave
rise to many French, German and Spanish poems, — in Italy,
'See Giesebrecht, De litlerarum studiis apud Italos primis medi-
acvi saeculis (Berlin, 1845.)
only to the Latin distichs of Qualichino of Arezzo. The whole
of Europe was full of the legend of Arthur (q.v.). The Italians
contented themselves with translating and with abridging the
French romances, without adding anything of their own. The
Italian writer could neither appropriate the legend nor colour it
with his own tints. Even religious legend, so widely spread in
the middle ages, and springing up so naturally as it did from the
heart of that society, only put out a few roots in Italy. Jacopo
di Voragine, while collecting his lives of the saints, remained
only an historian, a man of learning, almost a critic who seemed
doubtful about the things he related. Italy had none of those
books in which the middle age, whether in its ascetic or its
chivalrous character, is so strangely depicted. The intellectual
life of Italy showed itself in an altogether special, positive,
almost scientific, form, in the study of Roman law, in the
chronicles of Farfa, of Marsicano and of many others, in transla-
tions from Aristotle, in the precepts of the school of Salerno, in
the travels of Marco Polo — in short, in a long series of facts
which seem to detach themselves from the surroundings of the
middle age, and to be united on the one side with classical Rome
and on the other with the Renaissance.
The necessary consequence of all this was that the Latin
language was most tenacious in Italy, and that the elaboration
of the new vulgar tongue was very slow, — being in fact
proveafaf
preceded by two periods of Italian literature in foreign an(/ Fnn
languages. That is to say, there were many Italians pnpara-
who wrote Provencal poems, such as the Marchese tofy
Alberto Malaspina (i2th century), Maestro Ferrari of Perlolls-
Ferrara, Cigala of Genoa, Zorzi of Venice, Sordello of Mantua,
Buvarello of Bologna, Nicoletto of Turin and others, who sang
of love and of war, who haunted the courts, or lived in the midst
of the people, accustoming them to new sounds and new har-
monies. At the same time there was other poetry of an epic
kind, written in a mixed language, of which French was the basis,
but in which forms and words belonging to the Italian dialects
were continually mingling. We find in it hybrid words exhibiting
a treatment of sounds according to the rules of both languages, —
French words with Italian terminations, a system of vocalization
within the words approaching the Italo-Latin usage, — in short,
something belonging at once to both tongues, as it were an
attempt at interpenetration, at fusion. Such were the Chansons
de Gesle, Macaire, the Entree en Espagne written by Niccola of
Padua, the Prise de Pampelune and some others. All this
preceded the appearance of a purely Italian literature.
In the Franco-Italian poems there was, as it were, a clashing,
a struggle between the two languages, the French, however,
gaining the upper hand. This supremacy became oialect
gradually less and less. As the struggle continued
between French and Italian, the former by degrees lost as much
as the latter gained. The hybridism recurred, but it no longer
predominated. In the Bow d' Antona and the Rainardo e
Lesengrino the Venetian dialect makes itself clearly felt, although
the language is influenced by French forms. Thus these writings,
which G. I. Ascoli has called " miste " (mixed), immediately
preceded the appearance of purely Italian works.
It is now an established historical fact that there existed no
writing in Italian before the I3th century. It was in the course
of that century, and especially from 1250 onwards, ^h
that the new literature largely unfolded and developed ,°aly
itself. This development was simultaneous in the
whole peninsula, only there was a difference in the subject-matter
of the art. In the north, the poems of Giacomino of Verona and
Bonvecino of Riva were specially religious, and were intended
to be recited to the people. They were written in a dialect
partaking of the Milanese and the Venetian; and in their style
they strongly bore the mark of the influence of French narrative
poetry. They may be considered as belonging to the popular
kind of poetry, taking the word, however, in a broad sense.
Perhaps this sort of composition was encouraged by the old
custom in the north of Italy of listening in the piazzas and on
the highways to the songs of the jongleurs. To the very same
crowds who had been delighted with the stories of romance,
ITALIAN LITERATURE
899
South
Italy.
and who had listened to the story of the wickedness of Macaire
and the misfortunes of Blanciflor, another jongleur would sing
of the terrors of the Babilonia Infernale and the blessedness of
the Gerusalemme celeste, and the singers of religious poetry vied
with those of the Chansons de Geste.
In the south of Italy, on the other hand, the love-song prevailed,
of which we have an interesting specimen in the Contrasto
attributed to Ciullo d'Alcamo, about which modern
Italian critics have much exercised themselves. This
" contrasto " (dispute) between a man and a woman
in Sicilian dialect certainly must not be considered as the most
ancient or as the only southern poem of a popular kind. It
belongs without doubt to the time of the emperor Frederick II.,
and is important as a proof that there existed a popular poetry
independent of literary poetry. The Contrasto of Ciullo d'Alcamo
is the most remarkable relic of a kind of poetry that has perished
or which perhaps was smothered by the ancient Sicilian literature.
Its distinguishing point was its possessing all the opposite
qualities to the poetry of the rhymers of what we shall call the
Sicilian school. Vigorous in the expression of feelings, it seems
to come from a real sentiment. The conceits, which are some-
times most bold and very coarse, show that it proceeded from
the lowest grades of society. Everything is original in Ciullo's
Contrasto. Conventionality has no place in it. It is marked
by the sensuality characteristic of the people of the South.
The reverse of all this happened in the Siculo-Provencal
school, at the head of which was Frederick II. Imitation was
the fundamental characteristic of this school, to which
Provencal belonged Enzio, king of Sardinia, Pier delle Vigne,
School. Inghilfredi, Guido and Odo delle Colonne, Jacopo
d'Aquino, Rugieri Pugliese, Giacomo da Lentino,
Arrigo Testa and others. These rhymers never moved a step
beyond the ideas of chivalry; they had no originality; they
did not sing of what they felt in their heart; they abhorred
the true and the real. They only aimed at copying as closely
as they could the poetry of the Provencal troubadours.1 The
art of the Siculo-Provencal school was born decrepit, and there
were many reasons for this — first, because the chivalrous spirit,
from which the poetry of the troubadours was derived, was now
old and on its death-bed; next, because the Provencal art itself,
which the Sicilians took as their model, was in its decadence.
It may seem strange, but it is true, that when the emperor
Frederick II., a philosopher, a statesman, a very original legislator,
took to writing poetry, he could only copy and amuse himself
with absolute puerilities. His art, like that of all the other poets
of his court, was wholly conventional, mechanical, afiected. It
was completely wanting in what constitutes poetry — ideality,
feeling, sentiment, inspiration. The Italians have had great
disputes among themselves about the original form of the poems
of the Sicilian school, that is to say, whether they were written
in Sicilian dialect, or in that language which Dante called
" volgare, illustre, aulico, cortigiano." But the critics of most
authority hold that the primitive form of these poems was the
Sicilian dialect, modified for literary purposes with the help of
Provencal and Latin; the theory of the " lingua illustre " has
been almost entirely rejected, since we cannot say on what rules
it could have been founded, when literature was in its infancy,
trying its feet, and lisping its first words. The Sicilian certainly,
in accordance with a tendency common to all dialects, in passing
from the spoken to the written form, must have gained in dignity;
ibut this was not enough to create the so-called " lingua illustre,"
which was upheld by Perticari and others on grounds rather
political than literary.
In the 1 3th century a mighty religious movement took place
in Italy, of which the rise of the two great orders of Saint Francis
Religious and Saint Dominic was at once the cause and the
lyric effect. Around Francis of Assisi a legend has grown
up in which naturally the imaginative element prevails.
Yet from some points in it we seem to be able to infer
that its hero had a strong feeling for nature, and a heart open
1 See Gaspary, Die sicilianische Dichterschule des ijten Jahrhun-
derts (Berlin, 1878).
to the most lively impressions. Many poems are attributed
to him. The legend relates that in the eighteenth year of his
penance, when almost rapt in ecstasy, he dictated the Cantico
del Sole. Even if this hymn be really his, it cannot be considered
as a poetical work, being written in a kind of prose simply
marked by assonances. As for the other poems, which for a long
time were believed to be by Saint Francis, their spuriousness
is now generally recognized. The true poet who represented
in all its strength and breadth the religious feeling that had
made special progress in Umbria was Jacopo dei Benedetti of
Todi, known as Jacopone. The story is that sorrow at the sudden
death of his wife had disordered his mind, and that, having sold
all he possessed and given it to the poor, he covered himself with
rags, and took pleasure in being laughed at, and followed by a
crowd of people who mocked him and called after him " Jacopone,
Jacopone." We do not know whether this be true. What we
do know is that a vehement passion must have stirred his heart
and maintained a despotic hold over him, the passion of divine
love. Under its influence Jacopone went on raving for years and
years, subjecting himself to the severest sufferings, and giving
vent to his religious intoxication in his poems. There is no art
in him, there is not the slightest indication of deliberate effort;
there is only feeling, a feeling that absorbed him, fascinated
him, penetrated him through and through. His poetry was all
inside him, and burst out, not so much in words as in sighs, in
groans, in cries that often seem really to come from a mono-
maniac. But Jacopone was a mystic, who from his hermit's
cell looked out into the world and specially watched the papacy,
scourging with his words Celestine V. and Boniface VIII. He
was put in prison and laden with chains, but his spirit lifted
itself up to God, and that was enough for him. The same feeling
that prompted him to pour out in song ecstasies of divine love,
and to despise and trample on himself, moved him to reprove
those who forsook the heavenly road, whether they were popes,
prelates or monks. In Jacopone there was a strong originality,
and in the period of the origins of Italian literature he was one
of the most characteristic writers.
The religious movement in Umbria was followed by another
literary phenomenon, that of the religious drama. In 1258 an
old hermit, Raniero Fasani, leaving the cavern in
which he had lived for many years, suddenly appeared reiiglou*
at Perugia. These were very sad times for Italy. The c*rama.
quarrels in the cities, the factions of the Ghibellines and
the Guelphs, the interdicts and excommunications issued by
the popes, the reprisals of the imperial party, the cruelty and
tyranny of the nobles, the plagues and famines, kept the people
in constant agitation, and spread abroad mysterious fears.
The commotion was increased in Perugia by Fasani, who repre-
sented himself as sent by God to disclose mysterious visions,
and to announce to the world terrible visitations. Under the
influence of fear there were formed " Compagnie di Disciplinanti,"
who, for a penance, scourged themselves till they drew blood, and
sang " Laudi " in dialogue in their confraternities. These
" Laudi," closely connected with the liturgy, were the first
example of the drama in the vulgar tongue of Italy. They
were written in the Umbrian dialect, in verses of eight syllables,
and of course they have not any artistic value. Their develop-
ment, however, was rapid. As early as the end of the same
i3th century we have the Devozioni del Giovedi e Venerdl Santo,
which have some dramatic elements in them, though they are
still connected with the liturgical office. Then we have the
representation di un Monaco che andi> al servizio di Dio (" of a
monk who entered the service of God "), in which there is already
an approach to the definite form which this kind of literary
work assumed in the following centuries.
In the i3th century Tuscany was peculiarly circumstanced
both as rega»ds its literary condition and its political life. The
Tuscans spoke a dialect which most closely resembled
the mother-tongue, Latin — one which afterwards p"efry°
became almost exclusively the language of literature,
and which was already regarded at the end of the i3th century
as surpassing the others; " Lingua Tusca magis apta est ad
goo
ITALIAN LITERATURE
literam sive literaturam ": thus writes Antonio da Tempo of
Padua, born about 1275. Being very little or not at all affected
by the Germanic invasion, Tuscany was never subjected to the
feudal system. It had fierce internal struggles, but they did
not weaken its life; on the contrary, they rather gave it fresh
vigour and strengthened it, and (especially after the final fall
of the Hohenstaufens at the battle of Benevento in 1266) made
it the first province of Italy. From 1266 onwards Florence
was in a position to begin that movement of political reform
which in 1282 resulted in the appointment of the Priori delle
Arti, and the establishment of the Arti Minori. This was after-
wards copied by Siena with the Magistrate dei Nove, by Lucca,
by Pistoia, and by other Guelph cities in Tuscany with similar
popular institutions. In this way the gilds had taken the govern-
ment into their hands', and it was a time of both social and political
prosperity. It was no wonder that literature also rose to an
unlooked-for height. In Tuscany, too, there was some popular
love poetry; there was a school of imitators of the Sicilians,
their chief being Dante of Majano; but its literary originality
took another line — that of humorous and satirical poetry.
The entirely democratic form of government created a style of
poetry which stood in the strongest antithesis to the medieval
mystic and chivalrous style. Devout invocation of God or of a
lady came from the cloister and the castle; in the streets of the
cities everything that had gone before was treated with ridicule
or biting sarcasm. Folgore of San Gimignano laughs when in
his sonnets he tells a party of Sienese youths what are the
occupations of every month in the year, or when he teaches a
party of Florentine lads the pleasures of every day in the week.
Cene della Chitarra laughs when he parodies Folgore's sonnets.
The sonnets of Rustico di Filippo are half fun and half satire;
laughing and crying, joking and satire, are all to be found in
Cecco Angiolieri of Siena, the oldest " humorist " we know, a
far-off precursor of Rabelais, of Montaigne, of Jean Paul Richter,
of Sydney Smith. But another kind of poetry also began in
Tuscany. Guittone d'Arezzo made art quit chivalrous for
national motives, Provencal forms for Latin. He attempted
political poetry, and, although his work is full of the strangest
obscurities, he prepared the way for the Bolognese school. In
the I3th century Bologna was the city of science, and philo-
sophical poetry appeared there. Guido Guinicelli was the
poet after the new fashion of the art. In him the ideas of chivalry
are changed and enlarged; he sings of love and, together with it,
of the nobility of the mind. The reigning thought in Guinicelli's
Canzoni is nothing external to his own subjectivity. His specu-
lative mind, accustomed to wandering in the field of philosophy,
transfuses its lucubrations into his art. Guinicelli's poetry
has some of the faults of the school of Guittone d'Arezzo: he
reasons too much; he is wanting in imagination; his poetry
is a product of the intellect rather than of the fancy and the
heart. Nevertheless he marks a great development in the
history of Italian art, especially because of his close connexion
with Dante's lyric poetry.
But before we come to Dante, certain other facts, not, however,
unconnected with his history, must be noticed. In the I3th
century, there were several poems in the allegorical
style. One of these is by Brunette Latini, who, it
poetry. is we'l known, was attached by ties of strong affection
to Alighieri. His Tesorello is a short poem, in seven-
syllable verses, rhyming in couplets, in which the author professes
to be lost in a wilderness and to meet with a lady, who is Nature,
from whom he receives much instruction. We see here the vision,
the allegory, the instruction with a moral object — three elements
which we shall find again in the Divina Commedia. Francesco
da Barberino, a learned lawyer who was secretary to bishops,
a judge, a notary, wrote two little allegorical poems — the
Documenli d' amore and Del reggimento e dei*coslumi delle
donne. Like the Tesorello, these poems are of no value as works
of art, but are, on the other hand, of importance in the history
of manners. A fourth allegorical work was the Intelligenza,
by some attributed to Dino Compagni, but probably not his,
and only a version of French poems.
While the production of Italian poetry in the I3th century
was abundant and varied, that of prose was scanty. The oldest
specimen dates from 1231, and consists of short
notices of entries and expenses by Mattasala di »Tl!fe'*
Spinello dei Lambertini of Siena. In 1253 and 1260 tury.
there are some commercial letters of other Sienese.
But there is no sign of literary prose. Before we come to any,
we meet with a phenomenon like that we noticed in regard to
poetry. Here again we find a period of Italian literature in
French. Halfway on in the century a certain Aldobrando or
Aldobrandino (it is not known whether he was of Florence or
of Siena) wrote a book for Beatrice of Savoy, countess of Provence,
called Le Regime du corps. In 1267 Martino da Canale wrote
in the same " langue d'oil " a chronicle of Venice. Rusticiano of
Pisa, who was for a long while at the court of Edward I. of
England, composed many chivalrous romances, derived from
the Arthurian cycle, and subsequently wrote the travels of Marco
Polo, which may perhaps have been dictated by the great
traveller himself. And finally Brunetto Latini wrote his Tesoro
in French.
Next in order to the original compositions in the langue d'oil
come the translations or adaptations from the same. There
are some moral narratives taken from religious legends; a
romance of Julius Caesar; some short histories of ancient
knights; the Tavola rotonda; translations of the Viaggi of
Marco Polo and of the Tesoro of Latini. At the same time there
appeared translations from Latin of moral and ascetic works,
of histories and of treatises on rhetoric and oratory. Up to
very recent times it was still possible to reckon as the most
ancient works in Italian prose the Cronaca of Matteo Spinello
da Giovenazzo, and the Cronaca of Ricordano Malespini. But
now both of them have been shown to be forgeries of a much
later time. Therefore the oldest prose writing is a scientific
book — the Composizione del mondo by Ristoro d' Arezzo, who
lived about the middle of the I3th century. This work is a
copious treatise on astronomy and geography. Ristoro was
superior to the other writers of the time on these subjects,
because he seems to have been a careful observer of natural
phenomena, and consequently many of the things he relates
were the result of his personal investigations. There is also
another short treatise, De regimine rectoris, by Fra Paolino,
a Minorite friar of Venice, who was probably bishop of Pozzuoli,
and who also wrote a Latin chronicle. His treatise stands in
close relation to that of Egidio Colonna, De regimine principum.
It is written in the Venetian dialect.
The 1 3th century was very rich in tales. There is a collection
called the Cento Novelle antiche, which contains stories drawn
from Oriental, Greek and Trojan traditions, from ancient and
medieval history, from the legends of Brittany, Provence and
Italy, and from the Bible, from the local tradition of Italy as
well as from histories of animals and old mythology. This book
has a distant resemblance to the Spanish collection known as
El Conde Lucanor. The peculiarity of the Italian book is that
the stories are very short, and that they seem to be mere outlines
to be filled in by the narrator as he goes along. Other prose
novels were inserted by Francesco Barberino in his work Del
reggimento e dei costumi delle donne, but they are of much less
importance than the others. On the whole the Italian novels
of the I3th century have little originality, and are only a faint
reflection of the very rich legendary literature of France. Some
attention should be paid to the Lettere of Fra Guittone d'Arezzo,
who wrote many poems and also some letters in prose, the subjects
of which are moral and religious. Love of antiquity, of the
traditions of Rome and of its language, was so strong in Guittone
that he tried to write Italian in a Latin style, and it turned out
obscure, involved and altogether barbarous. He took as his
special model Seneca, and hence his prose assumed a bombastic
style, which, according to his views, was very artistic, but which
in fact was alien to the true spirit of art, and resulted in the
extravagant and grotesque.
2. The Spontaneous Development of Italian Literature. — In the
year 1282, the year in which the new Florentine constitution
ITALIAN LITERATURE
901
New
Tuscan
School
otlyrlc
poetry.
of this
consist
OuUo
Caval-
canti.
of the " Arti minori " was completed, a period of literature
began that does not belong to the age of first begin-
nings, but to that of development. With the school
of Lapo Gianni, of -Guido Cavalcanti, of Cino da
Pistoia and Dante Alighieri, lyric poetry became ex-
clusively Tuscan. The whole novelty and poetic power
school, which really was the beginning of Italian art,
in what Dante expresses so happily —
" Quando
Amore spira, noto, ed a quel modo
Ch' ei detta dentro, vo significando" —
that is to say, in a power of expressing the feelings of the soul
in the way in which love inspires them, in an appropriate and
graceful manner, fitting form to matter, and by art fusing one
with the other. The Tuscan lyric poetry, the first true Italian
art, is pre-eminent in this artistic fusion, in the spontaneous
and at the same time deliberate action of the mind. In Lapo
Gianni the new style is not free from some admixture of the old
associations of the Siculo-Provenfal school. He wavered as it
were between two manners. The empty and involved phraseo-
logy of the Sicilians is absent, but the poet does not always rid
himself of their influence. Sometimes, however, he draws
freely from his own heart, and then the subtleties and obscurities
disappear, and his verse becomes clear, flowing and elegant.
Guido Cavalcanti was a learned man with a high conception
of his art. He felt the value of it, and adapted his learning to it.
Cavalcanti was already a good deal out of sympathy
with the medieval spirit; he reflected deeply on his
own work, and from this reflection he derived his
poetical conception. His poems may be divided into
two classes — those which portray the philosopher, " il sottilissimo
dialettico," as Lorenzo the Magnificent called him, and those
which are more directly the product of his poetic nature imbued
with mysticism and metaphysics. To the first set belongs the
famous poem Sulla natura d'amore, which in fact is a treatise
on amorous metaphysics, and was annotated later in a learned
way by the most renowned Platonic philosophers of the isth
century, such as Marsilius Ficinus and others. In other poems
of Cavalcanti's besides this we see a tendency to subtilize and
to stifle the poetic imagery under a dead weight of philosophy.
But there are many of his sonnets in which the truth of the
images and the elegance and simplicity of the style are admirable,
and make us feel that we are in quite a new period of art. This
is particularly felt in Cavalcanti's Ballate, for in them he pours
himself out ingenuously and without affectation, but with an
invariable and profound consciousness of his art. Far above all
the others for the reality of the sorrow and the love displayed,
for the melancholy longing expressed for the distant home, for
the calm and solemn yearning of his heart for the lady of his love,
for a deep subjectivity which is never troubled by metaphysical
subtleties, is the ballata composed by Cavalcanti when he was
banished from Florence with the party of the Bianchi in 1300,
and took refuge at Sarzana.
The third poet among the followers of the new school was
Cino da Pistoia, of the family of the Sinibuldi. His love poems
are so sweet, so mellow and so musical that they are
only surpassed by Dante. The pains of love are
described by him with vigorous touches; it is easy
to see that they are not feigned but real. The psychology of
love and of sorrow nearly reaches perfection.
As the author of the Vita nuova, the greatest of all Italian
poets, Dante also belongs to the same lyric school. In the lyrics
of the Vita nuova (so called bv its author to indicate
%"'/. that his first meeting with Beatrice was the beginning
1321). for him of a life entirely different from that he had
hitherto led) there is a high idealization of love. It
seems as if there were in it nothing earthly or human, and that
the poet had his eyes constantly fixed on heaven while singing
of his lady. Everything is supersensual, aerial, heavenly, and
the real Beatrice is always gradually melting more and more into
the symbolical one — passing out of her human nature and into
the divine. Several of the lyrics of the Canzoniere deal with the
xiv. 29 a
Cino da
Pistoia,
theme of the " new life "; but all the love poems do not refer
to Beatrice, while other pieces are philosophical and bridge
over to the Convilo.
The work which made Dante immortal, and raised him above
all other men of genius in Italy, was his Divina Commedia. An
allegorical meaning is hidden under the literal one of this great
epic. Dante travelling through Hell, Purgatory and Paradise,
is a symbol of mankind aiming at the double object of temporal
and eternal happiness. By the forest in which the poet loses
himself is meant the civil and religious confusion of society,
deprived of its two guides, the emperor and the pope. The
mountain illuminated by the sun is universal monarchy. The
three beasts are the three vices and the three powers which
offered the greatest obstacles to Dante's designs: envy is
Florence, light, fickle and divided by the Bianchi and Neri;
pride is the house of France; avarice is the papal court; Virgil
represents reason and the empire. Beatrice is the symbol of the
supernatural aid without which man cannot attain the supreme
end, which is God.
But the merit of the poem does not lie in the allegory, which
still connects it with medieval literature. What is new in it is
the individual art of the poet, the classic art transfused for the
first time into a Romance form. Dante is above all a great
artist. Whether he describes nature, analyses passions, curses
the vices or sings hymns to the virtues, he is always wonderful
for the grandeur and delicacy of his art. Out of the rude medieval
vision he has made the greatest work of art of modern times.
He took the materials for his poem from theology, from philo-
sophy, from history, from mythology — but more especially from
his own passions, from hatred and love; and he has breathed
the breath of genius into all these materials. Under the pen of
the poet, the dead come to life again; they become men again,
and speak the language of their time, of their passions. Farinata
degli Uberti, Boniface VIII., Count Ugolino, Manfred, Sordello,
Hugh Capet, St Thomas Aquinas, Cacciaguida, St Benedict, St
Peter, are all so many objective creations; they stand before
us in all the life of their characters, their feelings, their habits.
Yet this world of fancy in which the poet moves is not only
made living by the power of his genius, but it is changed by his
consciousness. The real chastizer of the sins, the rewarder of
the virtues, is Dante himself. The personal interest which he
brings to bear on the historical representation of the three worlds
is what most interests us and stirs us. Dante remakes history
after his own passions. Thus the Divina Commedia can fairly
be called, not only the most life-like drama of the thoughts and
feelings that moved men at that time, but also the most clear
and spontaneous reflection of the individual feelings of the poet,
from the indignation of the citizen and the exile to the faith of the
believer and the ardour of the philosopher. The Divina Com-
media fixed and clearly defined the destiny of Italian literature,
to give artistic lustre, and hence immortality, to all the forms of
literature which the middle ages had produced. Dante begins
the great era of the Renaissance.
Two facts characterize the literary life of Petrarch — classical
research and the new human feeling introduced into his lyric
poetry. Nor are these two facts separate; rather is
the one the result of the other. The Petrarch who
travelled about unearthing the works of the great
Latin writers helps us to understand the Petrarch who,
having completely detached himself from the middle ages, loved
a real lady with a human love, and celebrated her in her life
and after her death in poems full of studied elegance. Petrarch
was the first humanist, and he was at the same time the first lyric
poet of the modern school. His career was long and tempestuous.
He lived for many years at Avignon, cursing the corruption of
the papal court; he travelled through nearly the whole of
Europe; he corresponded with emperors and popes; he was
considered the first man of letters of his time; he had honours
and riches; and he always bore about within him discontent,
melancholy and incapacity for satisfaction — three characteristics
of the modern man.
His Canzoniere is divided into three parts — the first containing
S
902
ITALIAN LITERATURE
the poems written during Laura's lifetime, the second the poems
written after her death, the third the Trionfi. The one and only
subject of these poems is love; but the treatment is full of variety
in conception, in imagery and in sentiment, derived from the
most varied impressions of nature. Petrarch's love is real and
deep, and to this is due the merit of his lyric verse, which is
quite different, not only from that of the Provencal troubadours
and of the Italian poets before him, but also from the lyrics
of Dante. Petrarch is a psychological poet, who dives down
into his own soul, examines all his feelings, and knows how to
render them with an art of exquisite sweetness. The lyrics of
Petrarch are no longer transcendental like Dante's, but on the
contrary keep entirely within human limits. In struggles, in
doubts, in fears, in disappointments, in griefs, in joys, in fact in
everything, the poet finds material for his poetry. The second
part of the Canzoniere is the more passionate. The Trionfi
are inferior; it is clear that in them Petrarch tried to imitate
the Divina Commedia, but never came near it. The Canzoniere
includes also a few political poems — a canzone to Italy, one
supposed to be addressed to Cola di Rienzi and several sonnets
against the court of Avignon. These are remarkable for their
vigour of feeling, and also for showing that Petrarch had formed
the idea of Italianitd better even than Alighieri. The Italy which
he wooed was different from any conceived by the men of the
middle ages, and in this also he was a precursor of modern
times and of modern aspirations. Petrarch had no decided
political idea. He exalted Cola di Rienzi, invoked the emperor
Charles IV., praised the Visconti; in fact, his politics were affected
more by impressions than by principles; but above all this
reigned constantly the love of Italy, his ancient and glorious
country, which in his mind is reunited with Rome, the great
city of his heroes Cicero and Scipio.
Boccaccio had the same enthusiastic love of antiquity and the
same worship for the new Italian literature as Petrarch. He
was the first, with the help of a Greek born in Calabria,
to Put toSetner a Latin translation of the Iliad and
1375). the Odyssey. His vast classical learning was shown
specially in the work De genealogia deorum, in which
he enumerates the gods according to genealogical trees con-
structed on the authority of the various authors who wrote
about the pagan divinities. This work marked an era in studies
preparatory to the revival of classical learning. And at the
same time it opened the way for the modern criticism, because
Boccaccio in his researches, and in his own judgment was
always independent of the authors whom he most esteemed.
The Genealogia deorum is, as A. H. Heeren said, an encyclopaedia
of mythological knowledge; and it was the precursor of the
great humanistic movement which was developed in the isth
century. Boccaccio was also the first historian of women in
his De darts mulieribus, and the first to undertake to tell the
story of the great unfortunate in his De. casibus virorum
tiluslrium. He continued and perfected former geographical
investigations in his interesting book De montibus, silvis,
fontibus, lacubus, fluminibus, stagnis, et paludibus, el de nominibus
maris, for which he made use of Vibius Sequester, but which
contains also many new and valuable observations. Of
his Italian works his lyrics do not come anywhere near to
the perfection of Petrarch's. His sonnets, mostly about love,
are quite mediocre. His narrative poetry is better. Although
now he can no longer claim the distinction long conceded to
him of having invented the octave stanza (which afterwards
became the metre of the poems of Boiardo, of Ariosto and of
Tasso), yet he was certainly the first to use it in a work of some
length and written with artistic skill, such as is his Teseide,
the oldest Italian romantic poem. The Filostrato relates the
loves of Troiolo and Griseida (Troilus and Cressida). It may be
that Boccaccio knew the French poem of the Trojan war by
Benolt de Sainte-More; but the interest of the Italian work
lies in the analysis of the passion of love, which is treated with
a masterly hand. The Ninfale fiesolano tells the love story of
the nymph Mesola and the shepherd Africo. The Amorosa
Visione, a poem in triplets, doubtless owed its origin to the
Divina Commedia. The Ameto is a mixture of prose and poetry,
and is the first Italian pastoral romance.
The Filocopo takes the earliest place among prose romances.
In it Boccaccio tells in a laborious style, and in the most prolix
way, the loves of Florio and Biancafiore. Probably for this
work he drew materials from a popular source or from a Byzantine
romance, which Leonzio Pilato may have mentioned to him.
In the Filocopo there is a remarkable exuberance in the mytho-
logical part, which damages the romance as an artistic work,
but which contributes to the history of Boccaccio's mind. The
Fiammetta is another romance, about the loves of Boccaccio
and Maria d'Aquino, a supposed natural daughter of King
Robert, whom he always called by this name of Fiammetta.
The Italian work which principally made Boccaccio famous
was the Decamerone, a collection of a hundred novels, related by
a party of men and women, who had retired to a villa near
Florence to escape from the plague in 1348. Novel-writing,
so abundant in the preceding centuries, especially in France,
now for the first time assumed an artistic shape. The style of
Boccaccio tends to the imitation of Latin, but in him prose first
took the form of elaborated art. The rudeness of the old/abliaux
gives place to the careful and conscientious work of a mind
that has a feeling for what is beautiful, that has studied the
classic authors, and that strives to imitate them as much as
possible. Over and above this, in the Decamerone, Boccaccio is
a delineator of character and an observer of passions. In this
lies his novelty. Much has been written about the sources of
the novels of the Decamerone. Probably Boccaccio made use
both of written and of oral sources. Popular tradition must
have furnished him with the materials of many stories, as, for
example, that of Griseida.
Unlike Petrarch, who was always discontented, preoccupied,
wearied with life, disturbed by disappointments, we find
Boccaccio calm, serene, satisfied with himself and with his
surroundings. Notwithstanding these fundamental differences
in their characters, the two great authors were old and warm
friends. But their affection for Dante was not equal. Petrarch,
who says that he saw him once in his childhood, did not preserve
a pleasant recollection of him, and it would be useless to deny
that he was jealous of his renown. The Divina Commedia was
sent him by Boccaccio, when he was an old man, and he con-
fessed that he never read it. On the other hand, Boccaccio
felt for Dante something more than love — enthusiasm. He
wrote a biography of him, of which the accuracy is now unfairly
depreciated by some critics, and he gave public critical lectures
on the poem in Santa Maria del Fiore at Florence.
Fazio degli Uberti and Federigo Frezzi were imitators of the
Divina Commedia, but only in its external form. The former
wrote the Dittamondo, a long poem, in which the
author supposes that he was taken by the geographer '^'f^0"
Solinus into different parts of the world, and that his Commedia.
guide related the history of them. The legends of
the rise of the different Italian cities have some importance
historically. Frezzi, bishop of his native town Foligno, wrote
the Quadriregio, a poem of the four kingdoms — Love, Satan,
the Vices and the Virtues. This poem has many points of
resemblance with the Divina Commedia. Frezzi pictures the
condition of man who rises from a state of vice to one of virtue,
and describes hell, the limbo, purgatory and heaven. The
poet has Pallas for a companion.
Ser Giovanni Fiorentino wrote, under the title of Pecorone,
a collection of tales, which are supposed to have been related
by a monk and a nun in the parlour of the monastery Novellstt
of ForH. He closely imitated Boccaccio, and drew
on Villani's chronicle for his historical stories. Franco Sacchetti
wrote tales too, for the most part on subjects taken from
Florentine history. His book gives a life-like picture of Florentine
society at the end of the I4th century. The subjects are almost
always improper; but it is evident that Sacchetti collected all
these anecdotes in order to draw from them his own conclusions
and moral reflections, which are to be found at the end of every
story. From this point of view Sacchetti's work comes near to
ITALIAN LITERATURE
9°3
the Monalisationes of the middle ages. A third novelist was
Giovanni Sercambi of Lucca, who after 1374 wrote a book,
in imitation of Boccaccio, about a party of people who were
supposed to fly from a plague and to go travelling about in
different Italian cities, stopping here and there telling stories.
Later, but important, names are those of Massuccio Salernitano
(Tommaso Guardato), who wrote the Nowllino, and Antonio
Cornazzano whose Proverbii became extremely popular.
It has already been said that the Chronicles formerly believed
to have been of the I3th century are now regarded as forgeries
of later times. At the end of the I3th century, however,
cftro«A> we ^n<^ a chronicle by Dino Compagni, which, not-
len. withstanding the unfavourable opinion of it entertained
especially by some German writers, is in all probability
authentic. Little is known about the life of Compagni. Noble
by birth, he was democratic in feeling, and was a supporter
of the new ordinances of Giano della Bella. As prior and gon-
falonier of justice he always had the public welfare at heart.
When Charles of Valois, the nominee of Boniface VIII., was
expected in Florence, Compagni, foreseeing the evils of civil
discord, assembled a number of citizens in the church of San
Giovanni, and tried to quiet their excited spirits. His chronicle
relates the events that came under his own notice from 1280 to
1312. It bears the stamp of a strong subjectivity. The narrative
is constantly personal. It often rises to the finest dramatic
style. A strong patriotic feeling and an exalted desire for what is
right pervade the book. Compagni is more an historian than
a chronicler, because he looks for the reasons of events, and
makes profound reflections on them. According to our judgment
he is one of the most important authorities for that period of
Florentine history, notwithstanding the not insignificant mistakes
in fact which are to be found in his writings. On the contrary,
Giovanni Villani, born in 1300, was more of a chronicler than an
historian. He relates the events up to 1347. The journeys
that he made in Italy and France, and the information thus
acquired, account for the fact that his chronicle, called by him
Istoriefiorentine, comprises events that occurred all over Europe.
What specially distinguishes the work of Villani is that he speaks
at length, not only of events in politics and war, but also of the
stipends of public officials, of the sums of money used for paying
soldiers and for public festivals, and of many other things of
which the knowledge is very valuable. With such an abundance
of information it is not to be wondered at that Villani's narrative
is often encumbered with fables and errors, particularly when
he speaks of things that happened before his own time. Matteo
was the brother of Giovanni Villani, and continued the chronicle
up to 1363. It was again continued by Filippo Villani. Gino
Capponi, author of the Commentari dell' acquisto di Pisa and
of the narration of the Tumulto del ciompi, belonged to both
the i4th and the isth centuries.
The Divina Commedia is ascetic in its conception, and in a
good many points of its execution. To a large extent similar
is the genius of Petrarch; yet neither Petrarch nor
writers. Dante could be classified among the pure ascetics of
their time. But many other writers come under this
head. St Catherine of Siena's mysticism was political. She was
a really extraordinary woman, who aspired to bring back the
Church of Rome to evangelical virtue, and who has left a
collection of letters written in a high and lofty tone to all kinds
of people, including popes. She joins hands on the one side with
Jacopone of Todi, on the other with Savonarola. Hers is the
strongest, clearest, most exalted religious utterance that made
itself heard in Italy in the I4th century. It is not to be thought
that precise ideas of reformation entered into her head, but the
want of a great moral reform was felt in her heart. And she
spoke indeed ex abundantia cordis. Anyhow the daughter of
Jacopo Benincasa must take her place among those who from
afar off prepared the way for the religious movement which took
effect, especially in Germany and England, in the i6th century.
Another Sienese, Giovanni Colombini, founder of the order
of Jesuati, preached poverty by precept and example, going
back to the religious idea of St Francis of Assisi. His letters
are among the most remarkable in the category of ascetic works
in the I4th century. Passavanti, in his Specchio della vera
penitenza, attached instruction to narrative. Cavalca translated
from the Latin the Vile dei santi padri. Rivalta left behind
him many sermons, and Franco Sacchetti (the famous novelist)
many discourses. On the whole, there is no doubt that one of
the most important productions of the Italian spirit of the I4th
century was the religious literature.
In direct antithesis with this is a kind of literature which has
a strong popular element. Humorous poetry, the poetry of
laughter and jest, which as we saw was largely developed Comlc
in the i3th century, was carried on in the I4th by poetry.
Bindo Bonichi, Arrigo di Castruccio, Cecco Nuccoli,
Andrea Orgagna, Filippo de' Bardi, Adriano de' Rossi, Antonio
Pucci and other lesser writers. Orgagna was specially comic;
Bonichi was comic with a satirical and moral purpose. Antonio
Pucci was superior to all of them for the variety of his production.
He put into triplets the chronicle of Giovanni Villani (Cenliloquio) ,
and wrote many historical poems called Serventesi, many comic
poems, and not a few epico-popular compositions on various
subjects. A little poem of his in seven cantos treats of the war
between the Florentines and the Pisans from 1362 to 1365.
Other poems drawn from a legendary source celebrate the Reina
d' Oriente, Apollonio di Tiro, the Bel Gherardino, &c. These
poems, meant to be recited to the people, are the remote ancestors
of the romantic epic, which was developed in the i6th century,
and the first representatives of which were Boiardo and Ariosto.
Many poets of the i4th century have left us political works.
Of these Fazio degli Uberti, the author of Dittamondo, who
wrote a Serventese to the lords and people of Italy, a Political
poem on Rome, a fierce invective against Charles IV. mad
of Luxemburg, deserves notice, and Francesco di amatory
Vannozzo, Frate Stoppa and Matteo Frescobaldi. It f°etrr-
may be said in general that following the example of Petrarch
many writers devoted themselves to patriotic poetry. From
this period also dates that literary phenomenon known under
the name of Petrarchism. The Petrarchists, or those who sang
of love, imitating Petrarch's manner, were found already in the
i4th century. But others treated the same subject with more
originality, in a manner that might be called semi-popular.
Such were the Ballale of Ser Giovanni Fiorentino, of Franco
Sacchetti, of Niccolo Soldanieri, of Guido and Bindo Donati.
Ballate were poems sung to dancing, and we have w/s<oriej
very many songs for music of the i4th century. We /n verw.
have already stated that Antonio Pucci versified
Villani's Chronicle. This instance of versified history is not
unique, and it is evidently connected with the precisely similar
phenomenon offered by the " vulgar Latin " literature. It is
enough to notice a chronicle of Arezzo in terza rima by Gorello
de' Sinigardi, and the history, also in terza rima, of the journey
of Pope Alexander III. to Venice by Pier de' Natali. Besides
this, every kind of subject, whether history, tragedy or hus-
bandry, was treated in verse. Neri di Landocio wrote a life of
St Catherine; Jacopo Gradenigo put the gospels into triplets;
Paganino Bonafede in the Tesoro dei rustici gave many precepts
in agriculture, beginning that kind of Georgic poetry which was
fully developed later by Alamanni in his Coltiiiazione, by Girolamo
Baruffaldi in the Canapajo, by Rucellai in the Api, by Barto-
lommeo Lorenzi in the Coltivazione dei monti, by Giambattista
Spolverini in the Colliiiazione del riso, &c.
There cannot have been an entire absence of dramatic litera-
ture in Italy in the I4th century, but traces of it are wanting, '
although we find them again in great abundance in the Drama
1 5th century. The I4th century had, however, one
drama unique of its kind. In the sixty years (1250 to 1310) which
ran from the death of the emperor Frederick II. to the expedition
of Henry VII., no emperor had come into Italy. In the north of
Italy, Ezzelino da Romano, with the title of imperial vicar, had
taken possession of almost the whole of the March of Treviso,
and threatened Lombardy. The popes proclaimed a crusade
against him, and, crushed by it, the Ezzelini fell. Padua then
began to breathe again, and took to extending its dominion.
9°4
ITALIAN LITERATURE
There was living at Padua Albertino Mussato, born in 1261, a
year after the catastrophe of the Ezzelini; he grew up among the
survivors of a generation that hated the name of the tyrant.
After having written in Latin a history of Henry VII. he devoted
himself to a dramatic work on Ezzelino, and wrote it also in
Latin. The Eccerinus, which was probably never represented
on the stage, has been by some critics compared to the great
tragic works of Greece. It would probably be nearer the truth
to say that it has nothing in common with the works of Aeschylus;
but certainly the dramatic strength, the delineation of certain
situations, and the narration of certain events are very original.
Mussato's work stands alone in the history of Italian dramatic
literature. Perhaps this would not have been the case if he had
written it in Italian.
In the last years of the I4th century we find the struggle that
was soon to break out between the indigenous literary tradition
and the reviving classicism already alive in spirit. As repre-
sentatives of this struggle, of this antagonism, we may consider
Luigi Marsilio and Coluccio Salutati, both learned men who
spoke and wrote Latin, who aspired to be humanists, but who
meanwhile also loved Dante, Petrarch and Boccaccio, and felt
and celebrated in their writings the beauty of Italian literature.
3. The Renaissance. — A great intellectual movement, which
had been gathering for a long time, made itself felt in Italy in
the isth century. A number of men arose, all learned,
Or««o- laborious, indefatigable, and all intent on one great
ic'araiag, work. Such were Niccolo Niccoli, Giannozzo Manet ti,
Palla Strozzi, Leonardo Bruni, Francesco Filelfo,
Poggio Bracciolini, Carlo d'Arezzo, Lorenzo Valla. Manetti
buried himself in his books, slept only for a few hours in the
night, never went out of doors, and spent his time in translating
from Greek, studying Hebrew, and commenting on Aristotle.
Palla Strozzi sent into Greece at his own expense to search for
ancient books, and had Plutarch and Plato brought for him.
Poggio Bracciolini went to the Council of Constance, and found
in a monastery in the dust-hole Cicero's Orations. He copied
Quintilian with his own hand, discovered Lucretius, Plautus,
Pliny and many other Latin authors. Guarino went through the
East in search of codices. Giovanni Aurispa returned to Venice
with many hundreds of manuscripts. What was the passion that
excited all these men ? What did they search after ? What did
they look to? These Italians were but handing on the solemn
tradition which, although partly latent, was the informing
principle of Italian medieval history, and now at length came
out triumphant. This tradition was that same tenacious and
sacred memory of Rome, that same worship of its language and
institutions, which at one time had retarded the development of
Italian literature, and now grafted the old Latin branch of
ancient classicism on the flourishing stock of Italian literature.
All this is but the continuation of a phenomenon that has existed
for ages. It is the thought of Rome that always dominates
Italians, the thought that keeps appearing from Boetius to
Dante Alighieri, from Arnold of Brescia to Cola di Rienzi, which
gathers strength with Petrarch and Boccaccio, and finally be-
comes triumphant in literature and life — in life, because the
modern spirit is fed on the works of the ancients. Men come
to have a more just idea of nature: the world is no longer
cursed or despised; truth and beauty join hands; man is born
again; and human reason resumes its rights. Everything, the
individual and society, are changed under the influence of new
facts.
First of all there was formed a human individuality, which was
wanting in the middle ages. As J. Burckhardt has said, the man
was changed into the individual. He began to feel and
assert his own personality, which was constantly
condition*, attaining a fuller realization. As a consequence of
this, the idea of fame and the desire for it arose. A
really cultured class was formed, in the modern meaning of the
word, and the conception was arrived at (completely unknown
in former times) that the worth of a man did not depend at all on
his birth but on his personal qualities. Poggio in his dialogue
De nobilitate declares that he entirely agreed with his inter-
New
social
locutors Niccolo Niccoli and Lorenzo de' Medici in the opinion
that there is no other nobility but that of personal merit. External
life was growing more refined in all particulars; the man of society
was created; rules for civilized life were made; there was an
increasing desire for sumptuous and artistic entertainments.
The medieval idea of existence was turned upside down; men
who had hitherto turned their thoughts exclusively to heavenly
things, and believed exclusively in the divine right, now began
to think of beautifying their earthly existence, of making it
happy and gay, and returned to a belief in their human rights.
This was a great advance, but one which carried with it the
seeds of many dangers. The conception of morality became
gradually weaker. The " fay ce que vouldras " of Rabelais
became the first principle of life. Religious feeling was blunted,
was weakened, was changed, became pagan again. Finally
the Italian of the Renaissance, in his qualities and his passions,
became the most remarkable representative of the heights and
depths, of the virtues and faults, of humanity. Corruption was
associated with all that is most ideal in life; a profound scepticism
took hold of people's minds; indifference to good and evil
reached its highest point.
Besides this, a great literary danger was hanging over Italy.
Humanism threatened to submerge its youthful national litera-
ture. There were authors who laboriously tried to Literary
give Italian Latin forms, to do again, after Dante's dangers
time, what Guittone d'Arezzo had so unhappily done oiLatia-
in the I3th century. Provincial dialects tried to lsm'
reassert themselves in literature. The great authors of the i4th
century, Dante, Petrarch, Boccaccio, were by many people
forgotten or despised.
It was Florence that saved literature by reconciling the
classical models to modern feeling, Florence that succeeded in
assimilating classical forms to the " vulgar " art.
Still gathering vigour and elegance from classicism,
still drawing from the ancient fountains all that they
could supply of good and useful, it was able to preserve
its real life, to keep its national traditions, and to guide literature
along the way that had been opened to it by the writers of the
preceding century. At Florence the most celebrated humanists
wrote also in the vulgar tongue, and commented on Dante and
Petrarch, and defended them from their enemies. Leone Battista
Alberti, the learned Greek and Latin scholar, wrote in the
vernacular, and Vespasiano da Bisticci, whilst he was constantly
absorbed in Greek and Latin manuscripts, wrote the Vile di
uomini illustri, valuable for their historical contents, and
rivalling the best works of the i4th century in their candour and
simplicity. Andrea da Barberino wrote the beautiful prose of
the Reali di Francia, giving a colouring of " romanita " to the
chivalrous romances. Belcari and Benivieni carry us back to
the mystic idealism of earlier times.
But it is in Lorenzo de' Medici that the influence of Florence
on the Renaissance is particularly seen. His mind was formed
by the ancients: he attended the class of the Greek
Argyropulos, sat at Platonic banquets, took pains to ae, Medici.
collect codices, sculptures, vases, pictures, gems and
drawings to ornament the gardens of San Marco and to form the
library afterwards called by his name. In the saloons of his
Florentine palace, in his villas at Careggi, Fiesole and Ambra,
stood the wonderful chests painted by Dello with stories from
Ovid, the Hercules of Pollajuolo, the Pallas of Botticelli, the
works of Filippino and Verrocchio. Lorenzo de' Medici lived
entirely in the classical world; and yet if we read his poems
we only see the man of his time, the admirer of Dante and of the
old Tuscan poets, who takes inspiration from the popular muse,
and who succeeds in giving to his poetry the colours of the most
pronounced realism as well as of the loftiest idealism, who
passes from the Platonic sonnet to the impassioned triplets of
the Amori di Venere, from the grandiosity of the Salve to Nencia
and to Beoni, from the Canto carnascialesco to the Lauda. The
feeling of nature is strong in him — at one time sweet and melan-
choly, at another vigorous and deep, as if an echo of the feelings,
the sorrows, the ambitions of that deeply agitated life. He
ITALIAN LITERATURE
9°5
liked to look into his own heart with a severe eye, but he was
also able to pour himself out with tumultuous fulness. He
described with the art of a sculptor; he satirized, laughed,
prayed, sighed, always elegant, always a Florentine, but a
Florentine who read Anacreon, Ovid and Tibullus, who wished
to enjoy life, but also to taste of the refinements of art.
Next to Lorenzo comes Poliziano, who also united, and with
greater art, the ancient and the modern, the popular and the
Poliziano. classical style. In his Rispetti and in his Bollale the
freshness of imagery and the plasticity of form are
inimitable. He, a great Greek scholar, wrote Italian verses with
dazzling colours; the purest elegance of the Greek sources
pervaded his art in all its varieties, in the Orfeo as well as the
Stanze per la giostra.
As a consequence of the intellectual movement towards the
Renaissance, there arose in Italy in the isth century three
Thf academies, those of Florence, of Naples and of Rome.
demies?' The Florentine academy was founded by Cosmo I.
de' Medici. Having heard the praises of Platonic
philosophy sung by Gemistus Pletho, who in 1439 was at the
council of Florence, he took such a liking for those opinions that
he soon made a plan for a literary congress which was especially
to discuss them. Marsilius Ficinus has described the occupations
and the entertainments of these academicians. Here, he said,
the young men learnt, by way of pastime, precepts of conduct
and the practice of eloquence; here grown-up men studied the
government of the republic and the family; here the aged
consoled themselves with the belief in a future world. The
academy was divided into three classes: that of patrons, who
were members of the Medici family; that of hearers, among
whom sat the most famous men of that age, such as Pico della
Mirandola, Angelo Poliziano, Leon Bat list a Alberti; that of
disciples, who were youths anxious to distinguish themselves in
philosophical pursuits. It is known that the Platonic academy
endeavoured to promote, with regard to art, a second and a
more exalted revival of antiquity. The Roman academy was
founded by Giulio Pomponio Leto, with the object of promoting
the discovery and the investigation of ancient monuments and
books. It was a sort of religion of classicism, mixed with
learning and philosophy. Platina, the celebrated author of the
lives of the first hundred popes, belonged to it. At Naples, the
academy known as the Pontaniana was instituted. The founder
of it was Antonio Beccadelli, surnamed II Panormita, and after
his death the head was II Pontano, who gave his name to it,
and whose mind animated it.
Romantic poems were the product of the moral scepticism
and the artistic taste of the isth century. Italy never had any
true epic poetry in its period of literary birth. Still
jesg
any in the Renaissance. It had,
Remaatis
however, many poems called Cantari, because they
contained stories that were sung to the people; and besides there
were romantic poems, such as the Buovo d'Antona, the Regina
Ancroja and others. But the first to introduce elegance and a
new life into this style was Luigi Pulci, who grew up in the house
of the Medici, and who wrote the Morgante Maggiore at the
request of Lucrezia Tornabuoni, mother of Lorenzo the Magnifi-
cent. The material of the Morgante is almost completely taken
from an obscure chivalrous poem of the isth century recently
discovered by Professor Pio Rajna. On this foundation Pulci
erected a structure of his own, often turning the subject into
ridicule, burlesquing the characters, introducing many digres-
sions, now capricious, now scientific, now theological. Pulci's
merit consists in having been the first to raise the romantic epic
which had been for two centuries in the hands of story-teUers
into a work of art, and in having united the serious and the
comic, thus happily depicting the manners and feelings of the
time. With a more serious intention Matteo Boiardo, count of
Scandiano, wrote his Orlando innamorato, in which he seems to
have aspired to embrace the whole range of Carlovingian legends;
but he did not complete his task. We find here too a large vein
of humour and burlesque. Still the Ferrarese poet is drawn to
the world of romance by a profound sympathy for chivalrous
manners and feelings — that is to say, for love, courtesy, valour
and generosity. A third romantic poem of the isth century was
the Mambriano by Francesco Bello (Cieco of Ferrara). He drew
from the Carlovingian cycle, from the romances of the Round
Table, from classical antiquity. He was a poet of no common
genius, and of ready imagination. He showed the influence of
Boiardo, especially in something of the fantastic which he
introduced into his work.
The development of the drama in the isth century was very
great. This kind of semi-popular literature was born in Florence,
and attached itself to certain popular festivities that Drama.
were usually held in honour of St John the Baptist,
patron saint of the city. The Sacra Rappresentazione is in
substance nothing more than the development of the medieval
Mistero (" mystery-play "). Although it belonged to popular
poetry, some of its authors were literary men of much renown.
It is enough to notice Lorenzo de' Medici, who wrote San Gio-
vanni e Paolo, and Feo Belcari, author of the San Panunzio, the
Abramo ed I sac, &c. From the isth century, some element of
the comic-profane found its way into the Sacra Rappresentazione.
From its Biblical and legendary conventionalism Poliziano
emancipated himself in his Orfeo, which, although in its exterior
form belonging to the sacred representations, yet substantially
detaches itself from them in its contents and in the artistic
element introduced.
From Petrarch onwards the eclogue was a kind of literature
that much pleased the Italians. In it, however, the pastoral
element is only apparent, for there is nothing really Ptstonl
rural in it. Such is the Arcadia of Jacopo Sannazzaro poetry.
of Naples, author of a wearisome Latin poem De Partu
Virginis, and of some piscatorial eclogues. The Arcadia is
divided into ten eclogues, in which the festivities, the games,
the sacrifices, the manners of a colony of shepherds are described.
They are written in elegant verses, but it would be vain to look
in them for the remotest feeling of country life. On the other
hand, even in this style, Lorenzo de' Medici was superior. His
Nencia da Barberino, as a modern writer says, is as it were the
new and clear reproduction of the popular songs of the environs
of Florence, melted into one majestic wave of octave stanzas.
Lorenzo threw himself into the spirit of the bare realism of
country life. There is a marked contrast between this work and
the conventional bucolic of Sannazzaro and other writers. A
rival of the Medici in this style, but always inferior to him, was
Luigi Pulci in his Beca da Dicomano.
The lyric love poetry of this century was unimportant. In
its stead we see a completely new style arise, the Canto carna-
scialesco. These were a kind of choral songs, which
were accompanied with symbolical masquerades,
common in Florence at the carnival. They were
written in a metre like that of the ballate; and for the most
part they were put into the mouth of a party of workmen and
tradesmen, who, with not very chaste allusions, sang the praises
of their art. These triumphs and masquerades were directed
by Lorenzo himself. At eventide there set out into the city
large companies on horseback, playing and singing these songs.
There are some by Lorenzo himself, which surpass all the others
in their mastery of art. That entitled Bacco ed Arianna is the
most famous.
Girolamo Savonarola, who came to Florence in 1489, arose
to fight against the literary and social movement of the Renais-
sance. Some have tried to make out that Savonarola Religious
was an apostle of liberty, others that he was a precursor reaction.
of the Reformation. In truth, however, he was neither ^£n"
the one nor the other. In his struggle with Lorenzo
de' Medici, he directed his attack against the promoter of classical
studies, the patron of pagan literature, rather than against the
political tyrant. Animated by mystic zeal, he took the line of a
prophet, preaching against reading voluptuous authors, against
the tyranny of the Medici, and calling for popular government.
This, however, was not done from a desire for civil liberty, but
because Savonarola saw in Lorenzo and his court the greatest
obstacle to that return to Catholic doctrine which was his heart's
xrv. 29 a
ITALIAN LITERATURE
desire; while he thought this return would be easily accom-
plished if, on the fall of the Medici, the Florentine republic should
come into the hands of his supporters. There may be more
justice in looking on Savonarola as the forerunner of the Reforma-
tion. If he was so, it was more than he intended. The friar of
Ferrara never thought of attacking the papal dogma, and always
maintained that he wished to remain within the church of Rome.
He had none of the great aspirations of Luther. He only
repeated the complaints and the exhortations of St Catherine
of Siena; he desired a reform of manners, entirely of manners,
not of doctrine. He prepared the ground for the German and
English religious movement of the i6th century, but uncon-
sciously. In the history of Italian civilization he represents
retrogression, that is to say, the cancelling of the great fact of
the Renaissance, and return to medieval ideas. His attempt
to put himself in opposition to his time, to arrest the course of
events, to bring the people back to the faith of the past, the
belief that all the social evils came from a Medici and a Borgia,
his not seeing the historical reality, as it was, his aspiring to found
a republic with Jesus Christ for its king — all these things show
that Savonarola was more of a fanatic than a thinker. Nor has
he any great merit as a writer. He wrote Italian sermons,
hymns (laudi), ascetic and political treatises, but they are
roughly executed, and only important as throwing light on the
history of his ideas. The religious poems of Girolamo Benivieni
are better than his, and are drawn from the same inspirations.
In these lyrics, sometimes sweet, always warm with religious
feeling, Benivieni and with him Feo Belcari cany us back to the
literature of the I4th century.
History had neither many nor very good students in the
1 5th century. Its revival belonged to the following age. It
was mostly written in Latin. Leonardo Bruni of
Arezzo wrote the history of Florence, Gioviano
Pontano that of Naples, in Latin. Bernardino Corio
wrote the history of Milan in Italian, but in a rude way.
Leonardo da Vinci wrote a treatise on painting, Leon Battista
Alberti one on sculpture and architecture. But the names of
these two men are important, not so much as authors of these
treatises, but as being embodiments of another characteristic
of the age of the Renaissance — versatility of genius, power of
application along many and varied lines, and of being excellent
in all. Leonardo was an architect, a poet, a painter, an hydraulic
engineer and a distinguished mathematician. Alberti was a
musician, studied jurisprudence, was an architect and a draughts-
man, and had great fame in literature. He had a deep feeling
for nature, an almost unique faculty of assimilating all that
he saw and heard. Leonardo and Alberti are representatives
and almost a compendium in themselves of all that intellectual
vigour of the Renaissance age, which in the i6th century took
to developing itself in its individual parts, making way for what
has by some been called the golden age of Italian literature.
4. Development of the Renaissance. — The fundamental char-
acteristic of the literary epoch following that of the Renaissance
is that it perfected itself in every kind of art, in particular
uniting the essentially Italian character of its language with
classicism of style. This period lasted from about 1494 to about
1560; and, strange to say, this very period of greater fruitfulness
and literary greatness began from the year 1494, which with
Charles VIII. 's descent into Italy marked the beginning of its
political decadence and of foreign domination over it. But this
is not hard to explain. All the most famous men of the first
half of the i6th had been educated in the preceding century.
Pietro Pomponazzi was born in 1462, Marcello Virgilio Adriani
in 1464, Castiglione in 1468, Machiavelli in 1469, Bembo in 1470,
Michelangelo Buonarroti and Ariosto in 1474, Nardi in 1476,
Trissino in 1478, Guicciardini in 1482. Thus it is easy to under-
stand how the literary activity which showed itself from the end
of the isth centuiy to the middle of the following one was the
product of the political and social conditions of the age in which
these minds were formed, not of that in which their powers were
displayed.
Niccold Machiavelli and Francesco Guicciardini were the chief
originators of the science of history. Machiavelli's principal
works are the Istorie fiorenline, the Discorsi sulla prima deca
di TiloLivio, the Arte delta guerra and the Principe. His
merit consists in having been the creator of the experi-
mental science of poli tics — in having observed facts, studied histor-
ies and drawn consequences from them. His history is sometimes
inexact in facts; it is rather a political than an historical work.
The peculiarity of Machiavelli's genius lay, as has been said,
in his artistic feeling for the treatment and discussion of politics
in and for themselves, without regard to an immediate end —
in his power of abstracting himself from the partial appearances
of the transitory present, in order more thoroughly to possess
himself of the eternal and inborn kingdom, and to bring it into
subjection to himself.
Next to Machiavelli both as an historian and a statesman
comes Francesco Guicciardini. Guicciardini was very observant,
and endeavoured to reduce his observations to a science. His
Storia d'ltalia, which extends from the death of Lorenzo
de' Medici to 1534, is full of political wisdom, is skilfully
arranged in its parts, gives a lively picture of the character
of the persons it treats of, and is written .in a grand
style. He shows a profound knowledge of the human heart,
and depicts with truth the temperaments, the capabilities and
the habits of the different European nations. Going back to
the causes of events, he looked for the explanation of the divergent
interests of princes and of their reciprocal jealousies. The fact
of his having witnessed many of the events he related, and
having taken part in them, adds authority to his words. The
political reflections are always deep; in the Pensieri, as G.
Capponi * says, he seems to aim at extracting through self-
examination a quintessence, as it were, of the things observed
and done by him — thus endeavouring to form a political
doctrine as adequate as possible in all its parts. Machiavelli
and Guicciardini may be considered, not only as distinguished
historians, but as originators of the science of history founded
on observation.
Inferior to them, but still always worthy of note, were Jacopo
Nardi (a just and faithful historian and a virtuous man, who
defended the rights of Florence against the Medici before
Charles V.), Benedetto Varchi, Giambattista Adriani, Bernardo
Segni; and, outside Tuscany, Camillo Porzio, who related the
Congiura de' baroni and the history of Italy from 1547 to
1552, Angelo] di Costanza, Pietro Bembo, Paolo Paruta and
others.
Ariosto's Orlando furioso was a continuation of Boiardo's
Innamoralo. His characteristic is that he assimilated the romance
of chivalry to the style and models of classicism. Romantic
Ariosto was an artist only for the love of his art; his epic.
sole aim was to make a romance that should please Ariosto
the generation in which he lived. His Orlando has (/<7**
no grave and serious purpose; on the contrary it
creates a fantastic world, in which the poet rambles, indulging
his caprice, and sometimes smiling at his own work. His great
desire is to depict everything with the greatest possible perfection ;
the cultivation of style is what occupies him most. In his hands
the style becomes wonderfully plastic to every conception,
whether high or low, serious or sportive. The octave stanza
reached in him the highest perfection of grace, variety and
harmony.
Meanwhile, side by side with the romantic, there was an
attempt at the historical epic. Gian Giorgio Trissino of Vicenza
composed a'poem called Italia liberate dai Goti. Full Heroic
of learning and of the rules of the ancients, he formed epic.
himself on the latter, in order to sing of the campaigns
of Belisarius; he said that he had forced himself to observe all
the rules of Aristotle, and that he had imitated Homer. In
this again, we see one of the products of the Renaissance; and,
although Trissino's work is poor in invention and without any
original poetical colouring, yet it helps one to understand
better what were the conditions of mind in the i6th century.
Lyric poetry was certainly not one of the kinds that rose to
1 Storia della repubblica di Firenze (Florence, 1876).
ITALIAN LITERATURE
907
Lyric
poetry,
any great height in the i6th century. Originality was entirely
wanting, since it seemed in that century as if nothing better
could be done than to copy Petrarch. Still, even
in this style there were some vigorous poets. Monsignore
Giovanni Guidiccioni of Lucca (1500-1541) showed
that he had a generous heart. In fine sonnets he gave expression
to his grief for the sad state to which his country was reduced.
Francesco Molza of Modena (1480-1544), learned in Greek,
Latin and Hebrew, wrote in a graceful style and with spirit.
Giovanni della Casa (1503-1556) and Pietro Bembo (1470-1547),
although Petrarchists, were elegant. Even Michelangelo
Buonarroti was at times a Petrarchist, but his poems bear the
stamp of his extraordinary and original genius. And a good
many ladies are to be placed near these poets, such as Vittoria
Colonna (loved by Michelangelo), Veronica Gambara, Tullia
d'Aragona, Giulia Gonzaga, poetesses of great delicacy, and
superior in genius to many literary men of their time.
The 1 6th century had not a few tragedies, but they are all
weak. The cause of this was the moral and religious indifference
Tra ed °^ '^e Italians, the lack of strong passions and vigorous
characters. The first to occupy the tragic stage was
Trissino with his Sofonisba, following the rules of the art most
scrupulously, but written in sickly verses, and without warmth
of feeling. The Oresle and the Rosmunda of Giovanni Rucellai
were no better, nor Luigi Alamanni's Antigone. Sperone
Speroni in his Canace and Giraldi Cintio in his Orbecche tried
to become innovators in tragic literature, but they only succeeded
in making it grotesque. Decidedly superior to these was the
Torrismondo of Torquato Tasso, specially remarkable for the
choruses, which sometimes remind one of the chorus of the
Greek tragedies.
The Italian comedy of the i6th century was almost entirely
modelled on the Latin comedy. They were almost always
Comedy alike in the plot, in the characters of the old man,
of the servant, of the waiting-maid; and the argument
was often the same. Thus the Lucidi of Agnolo Firenzuola,
and the Vecchio amoroso of Donato Giannotti were modelled
on comedies by Plautus, as were the Sporta by Gelli, the Marito
by Dolce, and others. There appear to be only three writers
who should be distinguished among the many who wrote
comedies — Macbiavelli, Ariosto and Giovan Maria Cecchi.
In his Mandragora Machiavelli, unlike all the others, composed
a comedy of character, creating types which seem living even
now, because they were copied from reality seen with a finely
observant eye. Ariosto, on the other hand, was distinguished
for his picture of the habits of his time, and especially of those
of the Ferrarese nobles, rather than for the objective delineation
of character. Lastly, Cecchi left in his comedies a treasure of
spoken language, which nowadays enables us in a wonderful
way to make ourselves acquainted with that age. The. notorious
Pietro Aretino might also be included in the list of the best
writers of comedy.
The isth century was not without humorous poetry; Antonio
Cammelli, surnamed the Pistoian, is specially deserving of
notice, because of his " pungent bonhomie," as Sainte-
fesaiie Beuve called it. But it was Francesco Berni who
and satin, carried this kind of literature to perfection in the
1 6th century. From him the style has been called
" bernesque " poetry. In the " Berneschi " we find nearly
the same phenomenon that we already noticed with regard to
Orlando furioso. It was art for art's sake that inspired and
moved Berni to write, as well as Anton Francesco Grazzini, called
II Lasca, and other lesser writers. It may be said that there
is nothing in their poetry; and it is true that they specially
delight in praising low and disgusting things and in jeering at
what is noble and serious. Bernesque poetry is the clearest
reflection of that religious and moral scepticism which was one
of the characteristics of Italian social life in the i6th century,
and which showed itself more or less in all the works of that
period, that scepticism which stopped the religious Reformation in
Italy, and which in its turn was an effect of historical conditions.
The Berneschi, and especially Berni himself, sometimes assumed
Fiction.
a satirical tone. But theirs could not be called true satire.
Pure satirists, on the other hand, were Antonio Vinciguerra, a
Venetian, Lodovico Alamanni and Ariosto, the last superior
to the others for the Attic elegance of his style, and for a certain
frankness, passing into malice, which is particularly interesting
when the poet talks of himself.
In the i6th century there were not a few didactic works. In
his poem of the Api Giovanni Rucellai approaches to the perfec-
tion of Virgil. His style is clear and light, and he adds
interest to his book by frequent allusions to the events
of the time. But of the didactic works that which
surpasses all the others in importance is Baldassare Castiglione's
Cortigiano, in which he imagines a discussion in the palace of
the dukes of Urbino between knights and ladies as to what
are the gifts required in a perfect courtier. This book is valuable
as an illustration of the intellectual and moral state of the
highest Italian society in the first half of the i6th century.
Of the novelists of the i6th century, the two most important
were Anton Francesco Grazzini .and Matteo Bandello — the
former as playful and bizarre as the latter is grave and
solemn. As part of the history of the times, we must
not forget that Bandello was a Dominican friar and a bishop,
but that notwithstanding his novels were very loose in subject,
and that he often holds up the ecclesiastics of his time to ridicule.
At a time when admiration for qualities of style, the desire
for classical elegance, was so strong as in the i6th century, much
attention was naturally paid to translating Latin and
Greek authors. Among the very numerous translations tioas.
of the time those of the Aeneid and of the Pastorals of
Longus the Sophist by Annibal Caro are still famous; as are also
the translations of Ovid's Metamorphoses by Giovanni Andrea
dell' Anguillare, of Apuleius's Golden Ass by Firenzuola, and of
Plutarch's Lives and M or alia by Marcello Adriani.
The historians of Italian literature are in doubt whether Tasso
should be placed in the period of the highest development of
the Renaissance, or whether he should form a period
by himself, intermediate between that and the one
following. Certainly he was profoundly out of harmony isfs<.
with the century in which he lived. His religious faith,
the seriousness of his character, the deep melancholy settled in
his heart, his continued aspiration after an ideal perfection, all
place him as it were outside the literary epoch represented by
Machiavelli, by Ariosto, by Berni. As Carducci has well said,
Tasso " is the legitimate heir of Dante Alighieri: he believes,
and reasons on his faith by philosophy; he loves, and comments
on his love in a learned style; he is an artist, and writes dialogues
of scholastic speculation that would fain be Platonic." He
was only eighteen years old when, in 1562, he tried his hand at
epic poetry, and wrote Rinaldo, in which he said that he had
tried to reconcile the Aristotelian rules with the variety of
Ariosto. He afterwards wrote the Aminta, a pastoral drama of
exquisite grace. But the work to which he had long turned his
thoughts was an heroic poem, and that absorbed all his powers.
He himself explains what his intention was in the three Discorsi
written whilst he was composing the Gerusalemme: he would
choose a great and wonderful subject, not so ancient as to have
lost all interest, nor so recent as to prevent the poet from em-
bellishing it with invented circumstances; he meant to treat it
rigorously according to the rules of the unity of action observed
in Greek and Latin poems, but with a far greater variety and
splendour of episodes, so that in this point it should not fall
short of the romantic poem; and finally, he would write it in a
lofty and ornate style. This is what Tasso has done in the
Gerusalemme liberata, the subject of which is the liberation of
the sepulchre of Jesus Christ in the nth century by Godfrey of
Bouillon. The poet does not follow faithfully all the historical
facts, but sets before us the principal causes of them, bringing
in the supernatural agency of God and Satan. The Gerusalemme
is the best heroic poem that Italy can show. It approaches to
classical perfection. Its episodes above all are most beautiful.
There is profound feeling in it, and everything reflects the
melancholy soul of the poet. As regards the style, however,
908
ITALIAN LITERATURE
although Tasso studiously endeavoured to keep close to the
classical models, one cannot help noticing that he makes excessive
use of metaphor, of antithesis, of far-fetched conceits; and it is
specially from this point of view that some historians have
placed Tasso in the literary period generally known under the
name of " Secentismo," and that others, more moderate in their
criticism, have said that he prepared the way for it.
5. Period of Decadence. — From about 1559 began a period of
decadence in Italian literature. The Spanish rule oppressed and
corrupted the peninsula. The minds of men were day by day
gradually losing their force; every high aspiration was quenched.
No love of country could any longer be felt when the country
was enslaved to a stranger. The suspicious rulers fettered all
freedom of thought and word; they tortured Campanella,
burned Bruno, made every effort to extinguish all high sentiment,
all desire for good. Cesare Balbo says, " if the happiness of the
masses consists in peace without industry, if the nobility's con-
sists in titles without power, if princes are satisfied by acquies-
cence in their rule without real independence, without sovereignty,
if literary men and artists are content to write, paint and build
with the approbation of their contemporaries, but to the con-
tempt of posterity, if a whole nation is happy in ease without
dignity and the tranquil progress of corruption, — then no period
ever was so happy for Italy as the hundred and forty years
from the treaty of Cateau Cambresis to the war of the
itatlsmo. Spanish succession." This period is known in the
history of Italian literature as the Secentismo. Its
writers, devoid of sentiment, of passion, of thoughts, resorted to
exaggeration; they tried to produce effect with every kind of
affectation, with bombast, with the strangest metaphors, in fact,
with what in art is called mannerism, "barocchism." The utter
poverty of the matter tried to cloak itself under exuberance of
forms. It seemed as if the writers vied with one another as to
who could best burden his art with useless metaphors, with
phrases, with big-sounding words, with affectations, with hyper-
bole, with oddities, with everything that could fix attention on the
outer form and draw it off from the substantial element of thought.
At the head of the school of the " Secentisti " comes Giovan
Battista Marini of Naples, born in 1569, especially known by a
Maria l. poem called L'Adone. His aim was to excite wonder
by novelties; hence the most extravagant metaphors,
the most forced antitheses, the most far-fetched conceits, are to
be found hi his book. It was especially by antitheses that he
thought he could produce the greatest effect. Sometimes he
strings them together one after the other, so that they fill up
whole stanzas without a break. Achillini of Bologna followed in
Marini's steps. He had less genius, however, and hence his
peculiarities were more extravagant, becoming indeed absolutely
ridiculous. In general, we may say that all the poets of the
1 7th century were more or less infected with " Marinism."
Thus Alessandro Guidi, although he does not attain to the
exaggeration of his master, is emptily bombastic, inflated,
turgid, while Fulvio Testi is artificial and affected. Yet Guidi
as well as Testi felt the influence of another poet, Gabriello
Chiabrera, bornatSavona in 1552. In him the Secentismo took
another character. Enamoured as he said he was of the Greeks,
he made new metres, especially in imitation of Pindar, treating
of religious, moral, historical and amatory subjects. It is easy
to understand that a Pindaric style of poetry in the iyth century
in Italy could not but end in being altogether artificial, without
anything of those qualities which constitute the greatness of the
Greek poet. Chiabrera, though elegant enough in form, proves
empty of matter, and, in his vain attempt to hide this vacuity,
has recourse to poetical ornaments of every kind. These again,
in their turn, become in him a fresh defect. Nevertheless,
Chiabrera 's school, in the decadence of the 1 7th century, marks
an improvement; and sometimes he showed that he had lyrical
capacities, which in better literary surroundings would have
brought forth excellent fruit. When he sings, for example, of the
victories of the Tuscan galleys against the Turks and the pirates
of the Mediterranean, he rises to grand imagery, and seems quite
another poet.
Filicaja the Florentine has a certain lyric elan, particularly in
the songs about Vienna besieged by the Turks, which seems to
raise him more than the others above the vices of the time; but
even in him we see clearly the rhetorical artifice and the falseness
of the conceits. And in general all the lyric poetry of the i7th
century may be said to have had the same defects, but in different
degrees — defects which may be summed up as absence of feeling
and exaggeration of form. There was no faith; there was no
love; and thus art became an exercise, a pastime, a luxury, for
a servile and corrupt people.
The belief then arose that it would be sufficient to change the
form in order to restore literature, in forgetfulness that every
reform must be the effect of a change in social and
moral conditions. Weary of the bombastic style of the
1 7th century, full of conceits and antithesis, men said —
let us follow an entirely different line, let us fight the turgid
style with simplicity. In 1690 the " Academy of Arcadia "
was instituted. Its founders were Giovan Maria Crescimbeni
and Gian Vincenzo Gravina. The Arcadia was so called because
its chief aim and intention were to imitate in literature the
simplicity of the ancient shepherds, who were fabulously supposed
to have lived in Arcadia in the golden age. As the " Secentisti "
erred by an overweening desire for novelty, which made them
always go beyond the truth, so the Arcadians proposed to them-
selves to return to the fields of truth, always singing of subjects
of pastoral simplicity. This was obviously nothing else than the
substitution of a new artifice for the old one; and they fell from
bombast into effeminacy, from the hyperbolical into the petty,
from the turgid into the over-refined. The Arcadia was a re-
action against Secentismo, but a reaction which, reversing the
movement of that earlier epoch, only succeeded in impoverishing
still further and completely withering up the literature. The
poems of the " Arcadians " fill many volumes, and are made up
of sonnets, madrigals, canzonets and blank verse. The one who
most distinguished himself among the sonneteers was Felice
Zappi, Among the authors of songs Paolo Rolli was illustrious.
Innocenzo Frugoni was more famous than all the others, a man
of fruitful imagination but of shallow intellect, whose wordy
verses nobody now reads.
Whilst the political and social conditions in Italy in the I7th
century were such as to make it appear that every light of
intelligence, all spirit of liberty, was extinguished, Symptoms
there appeared in the peninsula, by that law of reaction of revival.
which in great part governs human events, some strong Scletttltlc
and independent thinkers, such as Bernardino Telesio, pn
Giordano Bruno, Tommaso Campanella, Lucih'o Vanini, who
turned philosophical inquiry into fresh channels, and opened the
way for the scientific conquests of Galileo Galilei, the great
contemporary of Descartes in France and of Bacon in England.
Galileo w.as not only a great man of science, but also occupied a
conspicuous place in the history of letters. A devoted student
of Ariosto, he seemed to transfuse into his prose the qualities
of that great poet — a clear and frank freedom of expression, a
wonderful art of knowing how to say everything with precision
and ease, and at the same time with elegance. Galileo's prose
is in perfect antithesis to the poetry of his time. Perhaps it is
the best prose that Italy has ever had; it is clear, goes straight to
the point, is without rhetorical ornaments and without vulgar
slips, artistic without appearing to be so.
Another symptom of revival, a sign of rebellion against the
vileness of Italian social life, is given us in satire and in particular
in that of Salvator Rosa and Alessandro Tassoni. Salvator Rosa,
born in 1615, near Naples, was a painter, a musician and a poet.
As a poet he showed that he felt the sad condition of his country,
showed that he mourned over it, and gave vent to his feeling (as
another satire-writer, Giuseppe Giusti, said) in generosi rabbuffi.
His exhortation to Italian poets to turn their thoughts to the
miseries of their country as a subject for their song — their country
languishing under the tyrant's hands — certain passages where he
deplores the effeminacy of Italian habits, a strong apostrophe
against Rome, make Salvator Rosa a precursor of the patriotic
literature which inaugurated the revival of the i8th century.
ITALIAN LITERATURE
909
New
tloas.
Tassoni, a man really quite exceptional in this century, was
superior to Rosa. He showed independent judgment in the
midst of universal servility, and his Secchia Rapita proved that
he was an eminent writer. This is an heroic comic poem, which
is at the same time an epic and a personal satire. He was bold
enough to attack the Spaniards in his Filippiche, in which he
urged Duke Carlo Emanuele of Savoy to persist in the war
against them.
6. The Revival in the i8lh Century. — Having for the most part
freed itself from the Spanish dominion in the i8th century, the
political condition of Italy began to improve. Pro-
moters of this improvement, which was shown in many
civil reforms, were Joseph II., Leopold I. and Charles I.
rpjje wor]t Of these princes was copied from the philo-
sophers, who in their turn felt the influence of a general move-
ment of ideas, which was quietly working in many parts of
Europe, and which came to a head in the French encyclopedists.
Giambattista Vico was a token of the awakening of historical
consciousness in Italy. In his Scienza nuova he applied himself
Hist H I to tne investteat'on °f the laws governing the progress
works?" °f tne human race, and according to which events are
developed. From the psychological study of man he
endeavoured to infer the " comune natura delle nazioni," i.e.
the universal laws of history, or the laws by which civilizations
rise, flourish and fall.
From the same scientific spirit which animated the philo-
sophical investigation of Vico, there was born a different kind of
investigation, that of the sources of Italian civil and literary
history. Lodovico Antonio Muratori, after having collected in
one entire body (Rerum Italicarum scriptores) the chronicles,
the biographies, the letters and the diaries of Italian history
from 500 to 1500, after having discussed the most obscure
historical questions in the Antiquilales Italicae medii aevi, wrote
the Annali d' Italia, minutely narrating facts derived from
authentic sources. Muratori's associates in his historical re-
searches were Scipione Maffei of Verona and Apostolo Zeno of
Venice. In his Verona illustrata the former left, not only a
t»easure of learning, but an excellent specimen of historical
monograph. The latter added much to the erudition of literary
history, both in his Dissertazioni Vossiane and in his notes to the
Biblioteca dell' eloquenza italiana of Monsignore Giusto Fontanini.
Girolamo Tiraboschi and Count Giovanni Maria Mazzuchelli
of Brescia devoted themselves to literary history.
While the new spirit of the times led men to the investigation
of historical sources, it also led them to inquire into the mechan-
ism of economical and social laws. Francesco Galiani
Science wrote on currency; Gaetano Filangieri wrote a
Scienza della legislazione. Cesare Beccaria, in his
treatise Dei delitti e delle pene, made a contribution to the
reform of the penal system and promoted the abolition of torture.
The man in whom above all others the literary revival of the
1 8th century was most conspicuously embodied was Giuseppe
Parini. He was born in a Lombard village in 1729, was
mostly educated at Milan, and as a youth was known among
the Arcadian poets by the name of Darisbo Elidonio. Even as
an Arcadian, however, Parini showed signs of departing
from the common type. In a collection of poems that
he published at twenty-three years of age, under the
name of Ripano Eupilino, there are some pastoral sonnets in
which the poet shows that he had the faculty of taking his
scenes from real life, and also some satirical pieces in which he
exhibits a spirit of somewhat rude opposition to his own times.
These poems are perhaps based on reminiscences of Berni, but
at any rate they indicate a resolute determination to assail
boldly all the literary conventionalities that surrounded the
author. This, however, was only the beginning of the battle.
Parini lived in times of great social prostration. The nobles
and the rich, all given up to ease and to silly gallantry, consumed
their lives in ridiculous trifles or in shameless self-indulgence,
wasting themselves on immoral " Cicisbeismo," and offering the
most miserable spectacle of feebleness of mind and character.
It was against this social condition that Parini's muse was
Satire:
Parini.
directed. Already, improving on the poems of his youth, he had
proved himself an innovator in his lyrics, rejecting at once
Petrarchism, Secentismo and Arcadia, the three maladies that
had weakened Italian art in the centuries preceding his own,
and choosing subjects taken from real life, such as might help in
the instruction of his contemporaries. In the Odi the satirical
note is already heard. But it came out more strongly in the
poem Del giorno, in which he imagines himself to be teaching a
young Milanese patrician all the habits and ways of gallant
life; he shows up all its ridiculous frivoh'ties, and with delicate
irony unmasks the futilities of aristocratic habits. Dividing
the day into four parts, the Mattino, the Mezzogiorno, the
Vespero, the Notte, by means of each of these he describes the
trifles of which they were made up, and the book thus assumes
a social and historical value of the highest importance. Parini,
satirizing his time, fell back upon truth, and finally made art
serve the purpose of civil morality. As an artist, going straight
back to classical forms, aspiring to imitate Virgil and Dante,
he opened the way to the fine school that we shall soon see rise,
that of Alfieri, Foscolo and Monti. As a work of art, the Giorno
is wonderful for the Socratic skill with which that delicate irony
is constantly kept up by which he seems to praise what he
effectually blames. The verse has new harmonies; sometimes
it is a little hard and broken, not by accident, but as a protest
against the Arcadian monotony. Generally it flows majestically,
but without that Frugonian droning that deafens the ears and
leaves the heart cold.
Gasparo Gozzi's satire was less elevated, but directed towards
the same end as Parini's. In his Osservatore, something like
Addison's Spectator, in his Gazzetta veneta, in the o<wi/.
Hondo morale, by means of allegories and novelties Bantti.
he hit the vices with a delicate touch, and inculcated a
practical moral with much good sense. Gozzi's satire has some
slight resemblance in style to Lucian's. It is smooth and light,
but withal it does not go less straight to its aim, which is to point
out the defects of society and to correct them. Gozzi's prose is
very graceful and lively. It only errs by its overweening affecta-
tion of imitating the writers of the I4th century. Another
satirical writer of the first half of the i8th century was Giuseppe
Baretti of Turin. In a journal called the. Frusta letleraria he
took to lashing without mercy the works which were then being
published in Italy. He had learnt much by travelling; and
especially his long stay in England had contributed to give an
independent character to his mind, and made him judge of
men and things with much good sense. It is true that his
judgments are not always right, but the Frusta letleraria was the
first book of independent criticism directed particularly against
the Arcadians and the pedants.
Everything tended to improvement, and the character of the
reform was to throw off the conventional, the false, the artificial,
and to return to truth. The drama felt this influence of the
times. Apostolo Zeno and Metastasio (the Arcadian name for
Pietro Trapassi, a native of Rome) had endeavoured to make
" melodrama and reason compatible." The latter in particular
succeeded in giving fresh expression to the affections, a natural
turn to the dialogue and some interest to the plot;
and if he had not fallen into constant unnatural over-
refinement and unseasonable mawkishness, and into
frequent anachronisms, he might have been considered as the
first dramatic reformer of the i8th century. That honour
belongs to Carlo Goldoni, a Venetian. He found comedy either
entirely devoted to classical imitation or given up to extrava-
gance, to coups de thf.Alre, to the most boisterous succession of
unlikely situations, or else treated by comic actors who recited
impromptu on a given subject, of which they followed the outline.
In this old popular form of comedy, with the masks of pantaloon,
of the doctor, of harlequin, of Brighella, &c., Goldoni found the
strongest obstacles to his reform. But at last he conquered,
creating the comedy of character. No doubt Moliere's example
helped him in this. Goldoni's characters are always true, but
often a little superficial. He studied nature, but he did not
plunge into psychological depths. In most of his creations, the
Dramatic
reform.
ITALIAN LITERATURE
external rather than the internal part is depicted. In this
respect he is much inferior to Moliere. But on the other hand
he surpasses him in the liveliness of the dialogue, and in the
facility with which he finds his dramatic situations. Goldoni
wrote much, in fact too much (more than one hundred and
fifty comedies), and had no time to correct, to polish, to perfect
his works, which are all rough cast. But for a comedy of cha-
racter we must go straight from Machiavelli's Mandragora to
him. Goldoni's dramatic aptitude is curiously illustrated by
the fact that he took nearly all his types from Venetian society,
and yet managed to give them an inexhaustible variety. A good
many of his comedies were written in Venetian dialect, and these
are perhaps the best.
The ideas that were making their way in French society in
the 1 8th century, and afterwards brought about the Revolution
Patriotic of 1789, gave a special direction to Italian literature
lit ens tun of the second half of the i8th century. Love of ideal
and liberty, desire for equality, hatred of tyranny, created
jn Italy a literature which aimed at national objects,
seeking to improve the condition of the country by
freeing it from the double yoke of political and religious
despotism. But all this was associated with another tendency.
The Italians who aspired to a political redemption believed
that it was inseparable from an intellectual revival, and it
seemed to them that this could only be effected by a reunion
with ancient classicism — in other words, by putting themselves
in more direct communication with ancient Greek and Latin
writers. This was a repetition of what had occurred in the first
half of the isth century. The I7th century might in fact be
considered as a new Italian Middle Age without the hardness
of that iron time, but corrupted, enervated, overrun by Spaniards
and French, an age in which previous civilization was cancelled.
A reaction was necessary against that period of history, and a
construction on its ruins of a new country and a new civilization.
There had already been forerunners of this movement; at the
head of them the revered Parini. Now the work must be
completed, and the necessary force must once more be sought
for in the ancient literature of the two classic nations.
Patriotism and classicism then were the two principles that
inspired the literature which began with Alfieri. He worshipped
the Greek and Roman idea of popular liberty in arms
against the tyrant. He took the subjects of his
tragedies almost invariably from the history of these
nations, made continual apostrophes against the
despots, made his ancient characters talk like revolutionists of
his time; he did not trouble himself with, nor think about,
the truth of the characters; it was enough for him that his hero
was Roman in name, that there was a tyrant to be killed, that
liberty should triumph in the end. But even this did not satisfy
Alfieri. Before his time and all about him there was the Arcadian
school, with its foolish verbosity, its empty abundance of
epithets, its nauseous pastoralizing on subjects of no civil import-
ance. It was necessary to arm the patriotic muse also against all
this. If the Arcadians, not excluding the hated Metastasio,
diluted their poetry with languishing tenderness, if they poured
themselves out in so many words, if they made such set phrases,
it behoved the others to do just the contrary — to be brief, concise,
strong, bitter, to aim at the sublime as opposed to the lowly and
pastoral. Having said this, we have told the good and evil of
Alfieri. He desired a political reform by means of letters; he
saved literature from Arcadian vacuities, leading it towards a
national end; he armed himself with patriotism and classicism
in order to drive the profaners out of the temple of art. But in
substance he was rather a patriot than an artist. In any case
the results of the new literary movement were copious.
Ugo Foscolo was an eager patriot, who carried into life the heat
of the most unbridled passion, and into his art a rather rhetorical
Fotcoio. manner, but always one inspired by classical models.
The Letlere di Jacopo Orlis, inspired by Goethe's
Werther, are a love story with a mixture of patriotism; they
contain a violent protest against the treaty of Campo Formio,
and an outburst from Foscolo's own heart about an unhappy
A/Ofrt
(1T49-
1803).
love-affair of his. His passions were sudden and violent; they
came to an end as abruptly as they began ; they were whirlwinds
that were over in a quarter of an hour. To one of these passions
Orlis owed its origin, and it is perhaps the best, the most sincere,
of all his writings. Even in it he is sometimes pompous and
rhetorical, but much less so than he is, for example, in the
lectures Dell' origine e dell' ufficio della letleratura. On the
whole, Foscolo's prose is turgid and affected, and reflects the
character of the man who always tried to pose, even before
himself, in dramatic attitudes. This was indeed the defect of
the Napoleonic epoch; there was a horror of anything common,
simple, natural; everything must be after the model of the hero
who made all the world gaze with wonder at him; everything
must assume some heroic shape. In Foscolo this tendency was
excessive; and it not seldom happened that, in wishing to play
the hero, the exceptional man, the little Napoleon of ladies'
drawing-rooms, he became false and bad, false in his art, bad in'
his life. The Sepolcri, which is his best poem, was prompted by
high feeling, and the mastery of versification shows wonderful
art. Perhaps it is to this mastery more than to anything else
that the admiration the Sepolcri excites is due. There are most
obscure passages in it, as to the meaning of which it would seem
as if even the author himself had not formed a clear idea. He
left incomplete three hymns to the Graces, in which he sang of
beauty as the source of courtesy, of all high qualities and of
happiness. Here again what most excites our admiration is the
harmonious and easy versification. Among his prose works a
high place belongs to his translation of the Sentimental Journey
of Sterne, a writer by whom one can easily understand how
Foscolo should have been deeply affected. He went as an exile
to England, and died there. He wrote for English readers some
Essays on Petrarch and on the texts of the Decamerone and of
Dante, which are remarkable for the time at which they were
written, and which may be said to have initiated a new kind of
literary criticism in Italy. Foscolo is still greatly admired, and
not without reason. His writings stimulate the love of father-
land, and the men that made the revolution of 1848 were largely
brought up on them.
If in Foscolo patriotism and classicism were united, and
formed almost one passion, so much cannot be said of Vincenzo
Monti, hi whom the artist was absolutely predominant.
Yet Monti was a patriot too, but in Tiis own way.
He had no one deep feeling that ruled him, or rather the mobility
of his feelings is his characteristic; but each of these was a new
form of patriotism, that took the place of an old one. He saw
danger to his country in the French Revolution, and wrote the
Pellegrino apostolico, the Bassvilliana and the Feroniade;
Napoleon's victories caused him to write the Prometeo and the
Musagonia; in his Fanatismo and his Superstizione he attacked
the papacy; afterwards he sang the praises of the Austrians.
Thus every great event made him change his mind, with a readi-
ness which might seem incredible, but is yet most easily explained.
Monti was above everything an artist; art was his real, his only
passion; everything else in him was liable to change, that alone
was persistent. Fancy was his tyrant, and under its rule he had
no time to reason and to see the miserable aspect of his political
tergiversation. It was an overbearing deity that moved him,
and at its dictation he wrote. Pius VI., Napoleon, Francis II.,
were to him but passing shadows, to which he hardly gives the
attention of an hour; that which endures, which is eternal to
him, is art alone It were unjust to accuse Monti of baseness.
If we say that nature in giving him one only faculty had made
the poet rich and the man poor, we shall speak the truth. But
the poet was indeed rich. Knowing little Greek, he succeeded in
making a translation of the Iliad which is remarkable for its
Homeric feeling, and in his Bassvilliana he is on a level with
Dante. In fine, in him classical poetry seemed to revive in all
its florid grandeur.
Monti was born in 1754, Foscolo in 1778; four years later still
was born another poet of the same school, Giambattista jyt™,™ /
Niccolini. In literature he was a classicist; in politics
he was a Ghibelline, a rare exception in Guelph Florence, his
Monti.
ITALIAN LITERATURE
911
birthplace. In translating or, if the expression is preferred,
imitating Aeschylus, as well as in writing the Discorsi sulla
tragedia greca, and on the Sublime e Michelangelo, Niccolini
displayed his passionate devotion to ancient literature. In his
tragedies he set himself free from the excessive rigidity of Alfieri,
and partly approached the English and German tragic authors.
He nearly always chose political subjects, striving to keep alive
in his compatriots the love of liberty. Such are Nabucco, Antonio
Foscarini, Giovanni da Procida, Lodovico il Moro, &c. He assailed
papal Rome in Arnaldo da Brescia, a long tragic piece, not suited
for acting, and epic rather than dramatic. Niccolini's tragedies
show a rich lyric vein rather than dramatic genius. At any rate
he has the merit of having vindicated liberal ideas, and of having
opened a new path to Italian tragedy.
The literary period we are dealing with had three writers who
are examples of the direction taken by historical study. It seems
Historians stran§e tnat> after the learned school begun by Mura-
tori, there should have been a backward movement
here, but it is clear that this retrogression was due to the
influence of classicism and patriotism, which, if they revived
poetry, could not but spoil history. Carlo Botta, born in 1766,
was a spectator of French spoliation in Italy and of the over-
bearing rule of Napoleon. Hence, excited by indignation, he
wrote a History of Italy from 1789 to 1814; and later on he
continued Guicciardini's History up to 1 789. He wrote after the
manner of the Latin authors, trying to imitate Livy, putting
together long and sonorous periods in a style that aimed at being
like Boccaccio's, caring little about that which constitutes the
critical material of history, only intent on declaiming his academic
prose for his country's benefit. Botta wanted to be classical
in a style that could no longer be so, and hence he failed com-
pletely to attain his literary goal. His fame is only that of a man
of a noble and patriotic heart. Not so bad as the two histories
of Italy is that of the Guerra dell' indipendenza americana.
Close to Botta comes Pietro Colletta, a Neapolitan born nine
years after him. He also in his Storia del reame di Napoli dal
1734 al 1825 had the idea of defending the independence and
liberty of Italy in a style borrowed from Tacitus; and he suc-
ceeded rather better than Botta. He has a rapid, brief, nervous
style, which makes his book attractive reading. But it is said
that Pietro Giordani and Gino Capponi corrected it for him.
Lazzaro Papi of Lucca, author of the Commentari della riwluzione
francese dal 1789 al 1814, was not altogether unlike Botta and
Colletta. He also was an historian in the classical style, and
treats his subject with patriotic feeling; but as an artist he
perhaps excels the other two.
At first sight it seems unnatural that, whilst the most burning
political passions were raging, and whilst the most brilliant men
of genius in the new classical and patriotic school were
at the height of their influence, a question should
have arisen about " purism " of language. Yet the
phenomenon can be easily accounted for. Purism is another
form of classicism and patriotism. In the second half of the
1 8th century the Italian language was specially full of French
expressions. There was great indifference about fitness, still more
about elegance of style. Prose then was to be restored for the
sake of national dignity, and it was believed that this could not
be done except by going back to the writers of the I4th century,
to the " aurei trecentisti," as they were called, or else to the
classics of Italian literature. One of the promoters of the new
school was Antonio Cesari of Verona, who republished ancient
authors, and brought out a new edition, with additions, of the
Vocabolario della Crusca. He wrote a dissertation Sopra lo
stato presente della lingua italiana, and endeavoured to establish
the supremacy of Tuscan and of the three great writers Dante,
Petrarch, Boccaccio. And in accordance with that principle
he wrote several books, taking pains to copy the " trecentisti "
as closely as possible. But patriotism in Italy has always had
something municipal in it; so to this Tuscan supremacy, pro-
claimed and upheld by Cesari, there was opposed a Lombard
school, which would know nothing of Tuscan, and with Dante's
De vulgari eloquio returned to the idea of the " lingua illustre."
The
Purists.
This was an old question, largely and bitterly argued in the
Cinquecento (i6th century) by Varchi, Muzio, Castelvetro,
Speroni and others. Now the question came up again quite
fresh, as if no one had ever discussed it before. At the head
of the Lombard school were Monti and his son-in-law Count
Giulio Perticari. This gave Monti an occasion to write Proposla
di alcune correzioni ed aggiunte al wcabolario della Crusca,
in which he attacked the Tuscanism of the Crusca, but in a
graceful and easy style, such in fact as to form a prose that is
one of the most beautiful in Italian literature. Perticari on
the other hand, with a very inferior intellect, narrowed and
exasperated the question in two treatises, Degli scrillori del
Trecento and Dell' amor patrio di Dante, in which, often disguising
or altering the facfs, he only makes confusion where there was
none. Meantime, however, the impulse was given. The dispute
about language took its place beside literary and political disputes,
and all Italy took part in it — Basilio Puoti at Naples, Paolo
Costa in the Romagna, Marc' Antonio Parenti at Modena,
Salvatore Betti at Rome, Giovanni Gherardini in Lombardy,
Luigi Fornaciari at Lucca, Vincenzo Nannucci at Florence.
A patriot, a classicist and a purist all at once was Pietro
Giordani, born in 1774; he was almost a compendium of the
literary movement of the time. His whole life was OtorrfMi
a battle fought for liberty. Most learned in Greek
and Latin authors, and in the Italian trecentisti, he only left
a few writings behind him, but they were carefully elaborated in
point of style, and his prose was in his time considered wonder-
ful. Now it is looked on as too majestic, too much laboured in
phrases and conceits, too far from nature, too artificial. Giordani
closes the literary epoch of the classicists.
7. Nineteenth Century and After. — At this point the contem-
porary period of literature begins. It has been said that the
first impulse was given to it by the romantic school,
which had as its organ the Conciliatore established in
1818 at Milan, and on the staff of which were Silvio Pellico,
Lodovico di Breme, Giovile Scalvini, Tommaso Grossi, Giovanni
Berchet, Samuele Biava and lastly Alessandro Manzoni. It
need not be denied that all these men were influenced by
the ideas that, especially in Germany, at the beginning of the
1 9th century constituted the movement called Romanticism.
Nevertheless, in Italy the course of literary reform took another
direction. There is no doubt that the real head of the reform,
or at least its most distinguished man, was Alessandro Manzoni.
He formulated in a letter of his the objects of the new school,
saying that it aspired to try and discover and express " il vero
storico " and " il vero morale," not only as an end, but as the
widest and eternal source of the beautiful. And it is precisely
realism in art that characterizes Italian literature from Manzoni
onwards. The Promessi Sposi is the one of his works that has
made him immortal. No doubt the idea of the historical novel
came to him from Sir Walter Scott, but he succeeded in some-
thing more than an historical novel in the narrow meaning of
that word; he created an eminently realistic work of art. The
romance disappears; no one cares for the plot, which moreover
is of very little consequence. The attention is entirely fixed on
the powerful objective creation of the characters. From the
greatest to the least they have a wonderful verisimilitude;
they are living persons standing before us, not with the qualities
of one time more than another, but with the human qualities of
all time. Manzoni is able to unfold a character in all particulars,
to display it in all its aspects, to follow it through its different
phases. He is able also to seize one moment, and from that
moment to make us guess all the rest. Don Abbondio and
Renzo are as perfect as Azzeccagarbugli and II Sarto. Manzoni
dives down into the innermost recesses of the human heart,
and draws thence the most subtle psychological reality. In
this his greatness lies, which was recognized first by his com-
panion in genius, Goethe. As a poet too he had gleams of genius,
especially in the Napoleonic ode, // Cinque Maggio, and where
he describes human affections, as in some stanzas of the Inni
and in the chorus of the Adelchi. But it is on the Promessi
Sposi alone that his fame now rests.
912
ITALIAN WARS
The great poet of the age was Leopardi, born thirteen years
after Manzoni at Recanati, of a patrician family, bigoted and
avaricious. He became so familiar with Greek authors
Leopardi. t^^ ng uge(j af terwar(js to say that the Greek mode of
thought was more clear and living to his mind than the Latin
or even the Italian. Solitude, sickness, domestic tyranny,
prepared him for profound melancholy. From this he passed
into complete religious scepticism, from which he sought rest
in art. Everything is terrible and grand in his poems, which
are the most agonizing cry in modern literature, uttered with a
solemn quietness that at once elevates and terrifies us. But
besides being the greatest poet of nature and of sorrow, he was
also an admirable prose writer. In his Operette morali — dialogues
and discourses marked by a cold and bitter smile at human
destinies which freezes the reader — the clearness of style, the
simplicity of language and the depth of conception are such that
perhaps he is not only the greatest lyrical poet since Dante, but
also one of the most perfect writers of prose that Italian literature
has had.
As realism in art gained ground, the positive method in
criticism kept pace with it. From the manner of Botta and
Colletta history returned to its spirit of learned re-
Hteratun searc'1, as is shown in such works as the Archivio
storico italiano, established at Florence by Giampietro
Vieusseux, the Storia d' Italia nel media evo by Carlo
Troya, a remarkable -treatise by Manzoni himself, Sopra alcuni
punti della sloria Jongobardica in Italia, and the very fine
history of the Vespri siciliani by Michele Amari. But alongside
of the great artists Leopardi and Manzoni, alongside of the
learned scholars, there was also in the first half of the igth
century a patriotic literature. To a close observer it will appear
that historical learning itself was inspired by the love of Italy.
Giampietro Vieusseux had a distinct political object when in
1820 he established the monthly review Antologia. And it is
equally well known that his Archivio storico italiano (1842) was,
under a different form, a continuation of the Antologia, which
was suppressed in 1833 owing to the action of the Russian
government. Florence was in those days the asylum of all the
Italian exiles, and these exiles met and shook hands in Vieus-
seux's rooms, where there was more literary than political talk,
but where one thought and one only animated all minds, the
thought of Italy.
The literary movement which preceded and was contemporary
with the political revolution of 1848 may be said to be repre-
sented by four writers — Giuseppe Giusti, Francesco Domenico
Guerrazzi, Vincenzo Gioberti and Cesare Balbo. Giusti wrote
epigrammatic satires in popular language. In incisive phrase
he scourged the enemies of Italy; his manner seemed very
original, but it really was partly imitated from Beranger. He
was a telling political writer, but a mediocre poet. Guerrazzi
had a great reputation and great influence, but his historical
novels, though read wfth ferverish avidity before 1848, are now
almost forgotten. Gioberti, a powerful polemical writer, had
a noble heart and a great mind; his philosophical works are
now as good as dead, but the Primato morale e civile degli Italiani
will last as an important document of the times, and the Gesuita
moderno will live as the most tremendous indictment ever written
against the Jesuits. Balbo was an earnest student of history,
and made history useful for politics. Like Gioberti in his first
period, Balbo was zealous for the civil papacy, and for a federa-
tion of the Italian states presided over by it. His Sommario
della sloria d' Italia is an excellent epitome. (A. BA.)
After the year 1850 political literature becomes less important,
one of the last poets distinguished in this genre being Francesco
dall' Ongaro, with his stornelli politici. For details as
to the works °* recent writers, reference may be made
Httntun. to the separate biographical articles, and here a
summary must suffice. Giovanni Prati and Aleardo
Aleardi continue romantic traditions. The dominating figure
of this later period, however, is Giosufe Carducci, the opponent
of the Romantics and restorer of the ancient metres and spirit,
who, great as a poet, was scarcely less distinguished as a literary
critic and historian. Other classical poets are Giuseppe Chiarini,
Domenico Guoli, Arturo Graf, Guide Mazzoni and Giovanni
Marradi, of whom the two last named may perhaps be regarded
as special disciples of Carducci, while another, Giovanni Pascoli,
best known by his Myricae and Poemetti, only began as such.
Enrico Panzacchi (b. 1842) was at heart still a romantic. Olindo
Guerrini (who wrote under the pseudonym of Lorenzo Stecchetti)
is the chief representative of veriomo in poetry, and, though his
early works obtained a succes de scandale, he is the author of
many lyrics of intrinsic value. Alfredo Baccelli and Mario
Rapisardi are epic poets of distinction. Felice Cavallotti is
the author of the stirring Marcia de Leonida. Among dialect
writers, the great Roman poet Giuseppe Gioachino Belli has
found numerous successors, such as Renato Fucini (Pisa), Berto
Barbarini (Verona) and Cesare Pascarella (Rome). Among the
women poets, Ada Negri, with her socialistic Fatalita and
Tempesle, has achieved a great reputation ; and others, such as
Vittoria Aganoor, A. Brunacci-Brunamonti and Annie Vivanti,
are highly esteemed in Italy.
Among the dramatists, Pietro Cossa in tragedy, Gherardi del
Testa, Ferdinando Martini and Paolo Ferrari in comedy,
represent the older schools. More modern methods were adopted
by Giuseppe Giacosa and Gerolamo Rovetta.
In fiction, the historical romance has fallen into disfavour,
though Emilio de Marchi has written some good examples in
this genre. The novel of intrigue was cultivated by Anton
Giulio Barrili and Salvatore Farina, the psychological novel by
Enrico Annibale Butti, the realistic local tale by Giovanni Verga,
the mystic philosophical novel by Antonio Fogazzaro. Edmondo
de Amicis, perhaps the most widely read of all modern Italians,
has written acceptable fiction, though his moral works and
travels are more generally known. Of the women novelists,
Matilde Serao and Grazia Deledda have become deservedly
popular.
Gabriele d' Annunzio has produced original work in poetry,
drama and fiction, of extraordinary quality. He began with
some lyrics which were distinguished no less by their exquisite
beauty of form than by their licence, and these characteristics
reappeared in a long series of poems, plays and novels.
D'Annunzio's position as a man of the widest literary and
artistic culture is undeniable, and even his sternest critics admit
his mastery of the Italian tongue, based on a thorough knowledge
of Italian literature from the earliest times. But with all his
genius, his thought is unhealthy and his pessimism depressing;
the beauty of his work is the beauty of decadence.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Among the more aesthetic accounts of Italian
literature, those of Emiliano Giudici (Florence, 1855) and Francesco
de S.i net is (Naples, 1870) are still the best. Two histories of real
scientific value were interrupted by the death of the authors: that
of Adolfo Bartoli (Florence, 1879-1899) breaking off in the I4th
century, and that of Gaspary (Berlin, 1884-1889; English version,
so far only down to the death of Dante, London, 1901) breaking off
before Tasso (a completion being undertaken by Wendriner).
Bartoli's article in the 9th edition of this encyclopaedia has been
reproduced, with some slight revision, above. Among the many
recent Italian works, the most important is the elaborate series of
volumes contributing the Storia lett. d' Italia scritta da una societa
di professori (1900 sqq.): Giussani, Lett, romana; Novati, Origini
delta lingua; Zingarelli, Dante; Volpi, // Trecento; Rossi, //
Quattrocento; Flamini, // Cinquecento ; Belli mi, // Seicento;
Concari, // Seltecento; Mazzoni, L' Ottocento. Each volume has
a full bibliography. Important German works, besides Gaspary,
are those of Wilse and Percopo (illustrated; Leipzig, 1899), and of
Casini (in Grober's Grundr. der rSm. Phil. , Strassburg, 1896-1899).
English students are referred to Symonds's Renaissance in Italy
(especially, but not exclusively, vols. iv. and v. ; new ed., London,
1902), and to R. Garnett's History of Italian Literature (London,
1898). (H. O.)
ITALIAN WARS (1848-1870), a generic name for the series of
wars for Italian unity which began with the Milan insurrection of
the 1 8th of March 1848 and closed with the capture of Rome by
the Italians on the 2oth of September 1870. For their Italian
political interest see ITALY: History. The present article deals
with certain campaigns of distinctively military importance, viz.
1848-49, 1839; and 1866, in the first and third of which the centre
of gravity of the nationalist movement was the Piedmontese
ITALIAN WARS
9*3
regular army, and in the second the French army commanded
by Napoleon III. On the other side the Austrian army was
throughout the basis of the established order of things, settled
at the Congress of Vienna on the theory that Italy was " a
geographical expression." Side by side with these regular
armies, each of which was a special type, there fought national
levies of widely varying kinds, and thus practically every known
form of military service, except the fully organized " nation in
arms " (then peculiar to Prussia) made its appearance in the
field. Further, these wars constitute the greater part of European
military history between Waterloo and Koniggratz — a bridge —
if a broken one — between Napoleon and Moltke. They there-
fore present a considerable technical interest, wholly apart from
their historical importance and romantic interest.
AUSTRO-SARDINIAN WAR OF 1848-1849
From about 1846 the spirit of revolt against foreign domina-
tion had gathered force, and two years later, when Europe was
on the verge of a revolutionary outburst, the struggle for Italian
unity was initiated by the insurrection at Milan. At this moment
the Austrian army in Lombardy, practically a highly-trained
force of long-service professional soldiers, was commanded by
Radetzky, one of the greatest generals in Austrian history.
Being, however, virtually an army of occupation, it was broken
up into many garrisons, and in all was not more than 70,000
strong, so that after five days' fighting in the streets of Milan,
Radetzky did as Wellington had proposed to do in 1817 when
his army of occupation in France was threatened by a national
rising, and withdrew to a concentration area to await reinforce-
ments. This area was the famous Quadrilateral, marked by the
fortresses of Mantua, Verona, Peschiera and Legnago, and
there, in the early days of April, the scattered fractions of the
Austrians assembled. Lombardy and Venetia had followed the
example of Milan, and King Charles Albert of Sardinia, mobiliz-
ing the Piedmontese army in good time, crossed the frontier, with
45,000 regulars two days after the Austrians had withdrawn from
Milan. Had the insurrectionary movements and the advance
of the Piedmontese been properly co-ordinated, there can be
little doubt that some, at any rate, of the Austrian detachments
would have been destroyed or injured in their retreat, but as it was
they escaped without material losses. The blow given to Austrian
prestige by the revolt of the great cities was, however, so severe
that the whole peninsula rallied to Charles Albert. Venice,
reserving a garrison for her own protection, set on foot an
improvised army 11,000 strong on the mainland; some 5000
Lombards and 9000 insurgents from the smaller duchies gathered
on both sides of the Po; 15,000 Papal troops under Durando and
13,000 Neapolitans under the old patriot general Pepe moved up
to Ferrara and Bologna respectively, and Charles Albert with the
Piedmontese advanced to the Mincio at the beginning of April.
His motley command totalled 96,000 men, of whom, however,
only half were thoroughly trained and disciplined troops. The
reinforcements available in Austria were about 25,000 disciplined
troops not greatly inferior in quality to Radetzky's own veterans.
Charles Albert could call up 45,000 levies at a few weeks' notice,
and eventually all the resources of the patriot party.
The regular war began in the second week of April on the Mincio,
the passages of which river were forced and the Austrian advanced
troops driven back on the 8th (action of Goito) and gth. Radetzky
maintained a careful defensive, and the king's attempts to sur-
prise Peschiera (l4th) and Mantua (igth) were unsuccessful. But
Peschiera was closely invested, though it was not forced to capitulate
until the end of May. Meantime the Piedmontese army advanced
towards Verona, and, finding Radetzky with a portion of his army
on their left flank near Pastrengo, swung northward and drove him
over the Adige above Verona, but on turning towards Verona they
were checked (action of Pastrengo 28th-3Oth April and battle of
Santa Lucia di Verona, 6th May).
Meantime the Austrian reinforcements assembled in Carniola
under an Irish-born general, Count Nugent von Westmeath (1777-
1862) and entered Friuli. Their junction with the field marshal
was in the last degree precarious, every step of their march was
contested by the levies and the townsmen of Venetia. The days of
rifled artillery were not yet come, and a physical obstacle to the
combined movements of trained regulars and a well-marked line of
defence were all that was necessary to convert even medieval
walled towns into centres of effective resistance. When the spirit
of resistance was lacking, as it had been for example in 1799 (see
FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS), the importance of the walled
towns corresponded simply to their material strength, which was
practically negligible. But throughout the campaign of 1848-
1849, the essential moral conditions of defence being present, the
Austrians were hampered by an endless series of minor sieges, in
which the effort expended was out of all proportion to the success
achieved.
Nugent, however, pressed on, though every day weakened by small
detachments, and, turning rather than overpowering each obstacle
as it was encountered, made his way slowly by Befluno
to Vicenza and Treviso and joined Radetzky at Verona ««*«*>'
on the 251)1 of May. The latter then for a moment took ™ '*f
the offensive, passing around the right flank of the loyal
army by way of Mantua (actions of Curtatone, 2gth May, "tfraL
and Goito, 3Oth May), but, failing of the success he expected he
turned swiftly round and with 30,000 men attacked the 20,000
Italians (Papal troops, volunteers, Neapolitans) under Durando,
who had established themselves across his line of communication
at Vicenza, drove them away and reoccupied Vicenza (9th June),
where a second body of reinforcements from Trent, clearing the
Brenta valley (Val Sugana) as they advanced, joined him, the king
meanwhile being held in check by the rest of Radetzky's army.
After beating down resistance in the valleys of the Brenta and
Piave, the field marshal returned to Verona. Charles Albert had
now some 75,000 men actually in hand on the line of high ground,
S. Giustina-Somma Campagna, and made the mistake of extending
inordinately so as to cover his proposed siege of Mantua. Napoleon,
fifty years before on the same ground (see FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY
WARS), had only with great difficulty solved this same problem by
the economical grouping and resolute handling of his forces, and
Charles Albert, setting out his forces en cordon, was weak at all
points of his long front of 45 m. Thus Radetzky, gathering his
forces opposite the king's centre (Spna, Somma Campagna), was
able to break it (23rd July). The Piedmontese, however, fell back
steadily, and 25,000 of them collected at Villafranca, whence on the
24th they counter-attacked and regained the heights at Custozza
and Somma Campagna that they had lost. Radetzky, however,
took the offensive again next morning and having succeeded in
massing half of his army opposite to one quarter of the Piedmontese,
was completely victorious (first battle of Custozza, 24th-25th July).
Pursuing vigorously, the Austrians drove the king over the Mincio
(action of Volta, 26th-27th), the Chiese, the Adda and the Ticino
into his own dominions, Milan being reoccupied without fighting.
The smaller bands of patriots were one after the other driven over
the borders or destroyed. Venice alone held out to the end. Be-
sieged by land and water, and bombarded as well, she prolonged
her resistance until October 1849, long after the war had everywhere
else come to an end.
The first campaign for unity had ended in complete failure,
thanks to the genius of Radetzky and the thorough training,
mobility and handiness of his soldiers. During the winter of
1848-1849 — for, to avoid unnecessary waste of his precious
veterans, Radetzky let the Piedmontese army retire unmolested
over the Ticino — Charles Albert took energetic measures to
reorganize, refit and augment his army. But his previous
career had not fitted him to meet the crisis. With aspirations
for unity he sympathized, and to that ideal he was soon to sacrifice
his throne, but he had nothing in common with the distinctively
revolutionary party, with whom circumstances had allied him.
Radicalism, however, was a more obvious if a less real force
than nationalism, and Charles Albert made it a fatal concession
in appointing the Polish general Albert Chrzanowski (1788-1861)
his principal adviser and commander-in-chief — an appointment
that alienated the generals and the army, while scarcely modifying
the sentiments of distrust with which the Liberal party regarded
the king.1
In March the two main armies were grouped in the densely
intersected district between Milan, Vercelli and Pavia (see sketch
map below), separated by the Ticino, of which the out-
posts of either side watched the passages. Charles
Albert had immediately in hand 65,000 men, some 25,000 °
more being scattered in various detachments to right and Novara-
left. Radetzky disposed of 70,000 men for fiejd operations, besides
garrisons. The recovery of Milan, the great city that had been the
first to revolt, seemed to the Italians the first objective of the
campaign. It was easier indeed to raise the whole country in arms
than to crush the field-marshal's regulars, and it was hoped that
Radetzky would, on losing Milan, either retire to Lodi and perhaps
1 Several of the French generals — Lamoriciere, Bedeau, Chan-
garnier and others — who had been prominent in Algeria and in the
1848 revolution in France had been invited to take the command,
but had declined it.
914
ITALIAN WARS
to Mantua (as in 1848), or gather his forces for battle before Milan.
Radetzky himself openly announced that he would take the offensive,
and the king's plans were framed to meet this case also. Two-thirds
of the army, 4 divisions, were grouped in great depth between
Novara, Galliate and Castelnuovo. A little to the right, at Vespplate
and Vigevano, was one division under Durando, and the remaining
division under Ramorino was grouped opposite Pavia with orders
to take that place if possible, but if Radetzky advanced thence, to
fall back fighting either on Mortara or Lomello,1 while the main
body descended on the Austrian flank. The grouping both of
Ramorino and of the main body — as events proved in the case of
the latter — cannot be seriously criticized, and indeed one is almost
tempted to assume that Chrzanowski considered the case of
Radetzky's advance on Mortara more carefully than that of his own
advance on Milan. But the seething spirit of revolt did not allow
the army that was Italy's hope to stand still at a foreign and un-
tried general's dictation and await Radetzky's coming. On the igth
of March orders were issued to the main body for the advance on
Milan and on the 2Oth one division, led by the king himself, crossed
the Ticino at San Martino.
But no Austrians were encountered, and such information as
was available indicated that Radetzky was concentrating to his
left on the Pavia-Lodi road. Chrzanowski thereupon, abandoning
(if indeed he ever entertained) the idea of Radetzky's retirement
and his own triumphal march on Milan, suspended the advance.
His fears were justified, for that evening he heard that Ramorino
had abandoned his post and taken his division across the Po. After
the war this general was shot for disobedience, and deservedly,
for the covering division, the fighting flank-guard on which
Chrzanowski's defensive-offensive depended, was thus withdrawn
at the moment when Radetzky's whole army was crossing the
Ticino at Pavia and heading for Mortara.2
The four Austrian corps began to file across the Ticino at noon on
the 2Oth, and by nightfall the heads of Radetzky's columns were at
Zerbplo, Gambolo and La Cava, the reserve at Pavia, a flank-guard
holding the Cava-Casatisma road over the Po against the contingency
of Ramorino's return, and the two brigades that had furnished the
outposts along the Ticino closing on Bereguardo.
Chrzanowski, however, having now to deal with a foreseen case,
gave his orders promptly. To replace Ramorino, the 1st division
was ordered from Vespolate through Mortara to Trumello ;
the 2nd division from Cerano to push south on Vigevano ;
ortara. tne reserve from Novara to Mortara; the remainder to
follow the 2nd division. Had the 1st division been placed at Mortara
instead of Vespolate in the first instance the story of the campaign
might have been very different, but here again, though to a far
less culpable degree, a subordinate general's default imperilled the
army. Durando (2ist March), instead of pushing on as ordered to
Trumello to take contact with the enemy, halted at Mortara. The
reserve also halted there and deployed west of Mortara to guard
against a possible attack from San Giorgio. The Sardinian ad-
vanced guard on the other road reached Borgo San Siro, but there
met and was driven back by Radetzky's II. corps under Lieut.
Field Marshal d'Aspre (1789-1850), which was supported by the
brigades that now crossed at Bereguardo. But the Italians were
also supported, the Austrians made little progress, and by nightfall
the Sardinian II., III. and IV. divisions had closed up around
Vigevano. Radetzky indeed intended his troops on the Vigevano
road to act simply as a defensive flank-guard and had ordered the
rest of his army by the three roads, Zerbolo-Gambolo, Gropello-
Trumello and Lomello-San Giorgio, to converge on Mortara. The
rearmost of the two corps on the Gambolo road (the I.) was to serve
at need as a support to the flank-guard, and, justly confident in his
troops, Radetzky did not hesitate to send a whole corps by the
eccentric route of Lomello. And before nightfall an important
success had justified him, for the II. corps from Gambolo, meeting
Durando outside Mortara had defeated him before the Sardinian
reserve, prematurely deployed on the other side of the town, could
come to his assistance. The remaining corps of Radetzky's army
were still short of Mortara when night came, but this could hardly
be well known at the royal headquarters, and, giving up the slight
chances of success that a counterstroke from Vigevano on Mortara
offered, Chrzanowski ordered a general concentration on Novara.
This was effected on the 22nd, on which day Radetzky, pushing out
the II. corps towards Vespolate, concentrated the rest at Mortara.
That the Italians had retired was clear, but it was not known whither,
and, precisely as Napoleon had done before Marengo (see FRENCH
REVOLUTIONARY WARS), he sent one corps to seize the king's
potential line of retreat, Novara- Vercelli, kept one back at Mortara —
1 Students of Napoleonic strategy will find it interesting to
replace Ramorino by, say, Lannes, and to post Durando at Mortara-
Vigevano instead of Vespolate- Vigevano, and from these conditions
to work out the probable course ofevents.
1 Ramorino's defence was that he had received information that
the Austrians were advancing on Alessandria by the south bank of
the Po. But Alessandria was a fortress, and could be expected to
hold out for forty-eight hours; moreover, it could easily have been
succoured by way of Valenza if necessary.
ready, it may be presumed, to grapple an enemy coming from
Vigevano — and engaged the other three in a single long column,
widely spaced out, on the Novara road. Thus it came about that
on the 23rd d'Aspre's II. corps encountered Charles Albert's whole
army long before the III. and Reserve could join it. The battle
of Novara was, nevertheless, as great an event in the history of the
Imperial- Royal Army as Marengo in that of the French.
First the II. corps, and then the II. and III. together attacked
with the utmost resolution, and as the hours went by more and
more of the whitecoats came on the field until at last the ...
IV. corps, swinging inward from Robbio, came on to the
flank of the defence. This was no mere strategical triumph;
the Austrians, regiment for regiment, were more than a match for
the Italians and the result was decisive. Charles Albert abdicated,
and the young Victor Emmanuel II., his successor, had to make a
hasty armistice.
After Novara, the first great struggle for Italian unity was no
more than a spasmodic, if often desperate, struggle of small
bodies of patriots and citizens of walled towns to avert the
inevitable. The principal incidents in the last phase were the
siege of Venice, the sack of Brescia by the merciless Haynau and
the capture of Rome by a French expeditionary corps under
General Oudinot.
THE ITALIAN WAR OF 1859
The campaign of Magenta and Solferino took place ten years
later. Napoleon III., himself an ex-carbonaro, and the apostle
of the theory of " nationalities," had had his attention and his
ambitions drawn towards the Italian problem by the attempt
upon his life by Orsini. The general political horizon was by
no means clear at the end of 1858, and on the ist of January
1859 the emperor of the French publicly expressed to the
Austrian ambassador his regret that " our relations are not so
good as heretofore." This was regarded by all concerned as a
prelude to war, and within a short time a treaty and a marriage-
contract allied Sardinia with the leading European power. In
the smaller Italian states, as before, the governments were on
the side of Austria and the " settlement of 1815, " and the peoples
on that of United Italy. The French still maintained a garrison
in Rome to support the pope. The thorny question of the
temporal power versus the national movement was not yet
in the foreground, and though Napoleon's support of the
former was later to prove his undoing, in 1859 the main enemy
was Austria and the paramount factor was the assistance of
200,000 French regulars in solving the immediate problem.
The Sardinian army, reconstituted by La Marmora with the
definite object of a war for union and rehabilitated by its conduct
in the Crimea, was eager and willing. The French army, proud
of its reputation as the premier army in the world, and composed,
three-fourths of it, of professional soldiers whose gospel was
the " Legend," welcomed a return to the first Napoleon's
battle-grounds, while the emperor's ambitions coincided with his
sentiments. Austria, on the other hand, did not desire war.
Her only motive of resistance was that it was impossible to cede
her Italian possessions in face of a mere threat. To her, even
more than to France and infinitely more than to Italy, the war was
a political war, a " war with a limited aim " or " stronger form
of diplomatic note "; it entirely lacked the national and personal
spirit of resistance which makes even a passive defence so
powerful.
Events during the period of tension that preceded the actual
declaration of war were practically governed by these moral
conditions. Such advantages as Austria possessed at the outset
could only be turned to account, as will presently appear, by
prompt action. But her army system was a combination of
conscription and the " nation in arms," which for the diplomatic
war on hand proved to be quite inadequate. Whereas the
French army was permanently on a two-thirds war footing
(400,000 peace, 600,000 war) , that of Austria required to be more
than doubled on mobilization by calling in reservists. Now,
the value of reservists is always conditioned by the temper of
the population from which they come, and it is more than
probable that the indecision of the Austrian government between
January and April 1859 was due not only to its desire on
general grounds to avoid war, but also, and perhaps still more,
ITALIAN WARS
9*5
Mobillza-
to its hopes of averting it by firmness, without having recourse
to the possibly dangerous expedient of a real mobilization. A
few years before the method of " bluffing " had been completely
successful against Prussia. But the Prussian reservist of 1850
did not want to fight, whereas the French soldier of 1859 desired
nothing more ardently.
In these conditions the Austrian preparations were made
sparingly, b"ut with ostentation. The three corps constituting
the Army of Italy (commanded since Radetzky's death in 1858
by Feldzeugmeister Count Franz Gyulai (1798-1863)), were
maintained at war efficiency, but not at war strength (corps
averaging 15,000). Instead, however, of mobilizing them, the
Vienna government sent an army corps (III.) from Vienna at
peace strength in January. This was followed by the II. corps,
also at peace strength, in February, and the available field
force, from that point, could have invaded Piedmont at once.1
The initial military situation was indeed all in favour of Austria.
Her mobilization was calculated to take ten weeks, it is true,
but her concentration by rail could be much more speedily
effected than that of the French, who had either to cross the
Alps on foot or to proceed to Genoa by sea and thence by one
line of railway to the interior. Further, the demands of Algeria,
Rome and other garrisons, the complicated political situation
and the consequent necessity of protecting the French coasts
against an English attack,2 and still more the Rhine frontier
against Prussia and other German states (a task to which the
greatest general in the French army, Pelissier, was assigned),
materially reduced the size of the army to be sent to Italy. But
the Austrian government held its hand, and the Austrian com-
'mander, apparently nonplussed by the alternation of quiescence
and boldness at Vienna, asked for full mobilization
and turned his thoughts to the Quadrilateral that
had served Radetzky so well in gaining time for the
reserves to come up. March passed away without an advance,
and it was not until the sth of April that the long-deferred order
was issued from Vienna to the reservists to join the II., III.,
V., VII. and VIII. corps in Italy. And, after all, Gyulai took
the field, at the end of April, with most of his units at three-
quarters of their war strength.3 On the side of the allies the
Sardinians mobilized 5 infantry andT cavalry divisions, totalling
64,000, by the third week in April. A few days later Austria
sent an ultimatum to Turin. This was rejected' on the 26th,
war being thereupon declared. As for the French, the emperor's
policy was considerably in advance of his war minister's prepara-
tions. The total of about 130,000 men (all that could be
spared out of 500,000) for the Italian army was not reached
until operations were in progress; and the first troops only
entered Savoy or disembarked in Genoa on the 25th and 26th
of April.
Thus, long as the opening had been delayed, there was still
a period after both sides had resolved on and prepared for war,
during which the Austrians were free to take the
Austrian offensive. Had the Austrians crossed the frontier
instead of writing an ultimatum on the i9th of April,
they would have had from a week to a fortnight to
deal with the Sardinians. But even the three or four days that
elapsed between the declaration and the arrival of the first French
soldiers were wasted. Vienna ordered Gyulai to take the
offensive on the zyth, but it was not until the 3Oth that the
Austrian general crossed the Ticino. His movements were
unopposed, the whole of the Sardinian army having concentrated
(by arrangement between La Marmora and Marshal Canrobert)
in a flank position between Casale and Alessandria, where it
covered Turin indirectly and Genoa, the French disembarkation
1 The Sardinians, at peace strength, had some 50,000 men, and
during January and February the government busied itself chiefly
with preparations of supplies and armament. Here the delay in
calling out the reserves was due not to their possible ill-will, but
to the necessity of waiting on the political situation.
2 The Volunteer movement in England was the result of this
crisis in the relations of England and France.
'As far as possible Italian conscripts had been sent elsewhere
and replaced by Austrians.
move-
meats.
port, directly. Gyulai's left was on the 2nd of May opposite the
allied centre, and his right stretched as far as Vercelli.4 On the
3rd he planned a concentric attack on King Victor Emmanuel's
position, and parts of his scheme were actually put into execution,
but he suspended it owing to news of the approach of the French
from Genoa, supply difficulties (Radetzky, the inheritor of the
18th-century traditions, had laid it down that the soldier must
be well fed and that the civilian must not be plundered, conditions
which were unfavourable to mobility) and the heavy weather
and the dangerous state of the rivers.
Gyulai then turned his attention to the Sardinian capital.
Three more days were spent in a careful flank march to the right,
and on the Sth of May the army (III., V. and VII.) was grouped
about Vercelli, with outposts 10-14 m- beyond the Sesia towards
Turin, reserves (II. and VIII.) round Mortara, and a flank-guard
detached from Benedek's VIII. corps watching the Po. The
extreme right of the main body skirmished with Garibaldi's
volunteers on the edge of the Alpine country. The Turin scheme
was, however, soon given up. Bivouacs, cancelled orders and
crossings of marching columns all contributed to exhaust the
troops needlessly. On the gth one corps (the V.) had its direction
and disposition altered four times, without any change
in the general situation to justify this. In fact, the
Austrian headquarters were full of able soldiers, each
of whom had his own views on the measures to be taken
and a certain measure of support from Vienna — Gyulai, Colonel
Kuhn his chief of staff, and Feldzeugmeister Hess, who had
formerly played Gneisenau to Radetzky's Blucher. But what
emerges most clearly from the movements of these days is that
Gyulai himself distrusted the offensive projects he had been
ordered to execute, and catching apparently at some expression
of approval given by the emperor, had determined to imitate
Radetzky in " a defensive based on the Quadrilateral." His
immediate intention, on abandoning the advance on Turin was
to group his army around Mortara and to strike out as opportunity
offered against the heads of the allied columns wherever they
appeared. Meantime, the IX. corps had been sent to Italy,
and the I. and XI. were mobilizing. These were to form the
I. Army, Gyulai's the II. The latter was by the I3th of May
grouped in the Lomellina, one third (chiefly VII. corps) spread
4 The movements of the division employed in policing Lombardy
(Urban's) are not included here, unless specially mentioned.
916
ITALIAN WARS
te/to'e"
by brigades fanwise from Vercelli along the Sesia and Po to
Vaccarizza, two thirds massed in a central position about
Mortara. There was still no information of the enemy's distribu-
tion, except what was forwarded from Vienna or gathered by
the indefatigable Urban's division, which moved from Milan
to Biella, thence to Brescia and Parma, and back to Lombardy
in search of revolutionary bands, and the latter's doings in the
nature of things could not afford any certain inferences as to
the enemy's regular armies.
On the side of the allies, the Piedmontese were grouped on
the ist of May in the fortified positions selected for them by
Canrobert about Valenza-Casale- Alessandria. The French III.
corps arrived on the and and 3rd and the IV. corps on the 7th
at Alessandria from Genoa. Unhampered by Gyulai's offensive,
though at times and places disquieted by his minor reconnais-
sances, the allies assembled until on the i6th the French were
stationed as follows: I. corps, Voghera and Pontecurone, II.,
Sale and Bassignana, III., Tortona, IV., Valenza, Guard,
Alessandria, and the king's army between Valenza and Casale.
The V. French corps under Prince Napoleon had a political
mission in the duchies of middle Italy; one division of this corps,
however, followed the main army. On the eve of the first collision
the emperor Napoleon, commanding in chief, had in hand about
100,000 French and about 60,000 Sardinian troops (not including
Garibaldi's enlisted volunteers or the national guard). Gyulai's
II. Army was nominally of nearly equal force to that of the
allies, but in reality it was only about 106,000 strong in com-
batants.
The first battle had no relation to the strategy contemplated
by the emperor, and was still less a part of the defence scheme
framed by Gyulai. The latter, still pivoting on Mortara,
had between the I4th and igth drawn his army some-
what to the left, in proportion as more and more of
the French came up from Genoa. He had further ordered a
reconnaissance in force in the direction of Voghera by a mixed
corps drawn from the V., Urban's division and the IX. (the last
belonging to the I. Army). The saying that " he who does not
know what he wants, yet feels that he must do something,
appeases his conscience by a reconnaissance in force," applies
to no episode more forcibly than to the action of Monte-
bello (20th May) where Count Stadion, the commander of
the V. corps, not knowing what to reconnoitre, engaged dis-
connected fractions of his available 24,000 against the French
division of Forey (I. corps), 8000 strong, and was boldly
attacked and beaten, with a loss of 1400 men against Forey's
700.
Montebello had, however, one singular result: both sides
fell back and took defensive measures. The French head-
quarters were already meditating, if they had not
Flank actually resolved upon, a transfer of all their forces
The^Aiihet. ^rom r'f?ht to left, to be followed by a march on Milan
(a scheme inspired by Jomini). But the opening of
the movement was suspended until it became quite certain
that Stadion's advance meant nothing, while Gyulai (impressed
by Forey's aggressive tactics) continued to stand fast, and thus
it was not until the 28th that the French offensive really began.1
The infantry of the French III. corps was sent by rail from Ponte-
curone to Casale, followed by the rest of the army, which marched
by road. To cover the movement D'Autemarre's division of
Prince Napoleon's corps (V.) was posted at Voghera and one
division of the king's army remained at Valenza. The rest of
the Piedmontese were pushed northward to join Cialdini's
division which was already at Vercelli. The emperor's orders
were for Victor Emmanuel to push across the Sesia and to take
1 The advantages and dangers of the flank march are well sum-
marized in Colonel H. C. Wylly's Magenta, and Solferino, p. 65,
where the doctrinaire objections of Hamley and Rlistow are set in
parallel with the common-sense views of a much-neglected English
writer (Major Adams, Great Campaigns) and with the clear and
simple doctrine of Moltke, that rested on the principle that strategy
does not exist to avoid but to give effect to tactics. The waste of
time in execution, rather than the scheme, is condemned by General
Silvestre.
post at Palestro on the 3Oth to cover the crossing of the French
at Vercelli. This the king carried out, driving back outlying
bodies of the enemy in spite of a stubborn resistance and the
close and difficult character of the country. Hearing of the
fighting, Gyulai ordered the recapture of Palestro by the II.
corps, but the Sardinians during the night strengthened their
positions and the attack (3ist) was repulsed with heavy loss.
These two initial successes of the allies, the failures in Austrian
tactics and leadership which they revealed, and the fatigues and
privation to which indifferent staff work had exposed his troops,
combined to confirm Gyulai in his now openly expressed intention
of " basing his defensive on the Quadrilateral." And indeed his
only alternatives were now to fall back or to concentrate on the
heads of the French columns as soon as they had passed the
Sesia about Vercelli. Faithful to his view of the situation he
adopted the former course (ist June). The retreat began on
the 2nd, while the French were still busied in closing up. Equally
with the Austrians, the French were the victims of a system of
marching and camping that, by requiring the tail of the columns
to close up on the head every evening, reduced the day's net
progress to 6 or 7 m., although the troops were often under
arms for fourteen or fifteen hours. The difference between the
supreme commands of the rival armies lay not in the superior
generalship of one or the other, but in the fact that Napoleon
III. as sovereign knew what he wanted and as general pursued
this object with much energy, whereas Gyulai neither knew how
far his government would go nor was entire " master in his
own house."
The latter became very evident in his retreat. Kuhn, the
chief of staff, who was understood to represent the views of the
general staff in Vienna, had already protested against
Gyulai's retrograde movement, and on the 3rd Hess
appeared from Vienna as the emperor's direct repre-
sentative and stopped the movement. It was destined to be
resumed after a short interval, but meanwhile the troops suffered
from the orders and counter-orders that had marked every stage
in the Austrian movements and were now intensified instead of
being removed by higher intervention. Meanwhile (June 1-2)
the allies had regrouped themselves east of the Sesia for the
movement on Milan. The IV. corps, driving out an Austrian
detachment at Novara, established itself there, and was joined
by the II. and Guard. The king's army, supported by the I.
and III. corps, was about Vercelli, with cavalry far out to the
front towards Vespolate. From Novara, the emperor, who
desired to give his troops a rest-day on the 2nd, pushed out first
a mixed reconnaissance and then in the afternoon two divisions
to seize the crossing of the Ticino, Camou's of the pnaci,
Guard on Turbigo, Espinasse's of the II. corps on advance
San Martino. Further the whole of the Vercelli '° '*•
group was ordered to advance on the 3rd to Novara Tlciao-
and Galliate, where Napoleon would on the 4th have all his
forces, except one division, beyond Gyulai's right and in hand-
ier the move on Milan. The division sent to Turbigo bridged
the river and crossed in the night of the 2nd/3rd, that at San
Martino (on the main road) occupied the bridge-head and also
the river bridge itself, though the latter was damaged.
Espinasse's division here was during the night replaced by a
Guard division and went to join a growing assembly of troops
under General MacMahon, which established itself at Turbigo
and Robecchetto on the morning of the 3rd. Lastly, in order
to make sure that no attack was impending from the direction
of Mortara, Napoleon sent General Niel with a mixed recon-
noitring force thither, which returned without meeting any
Austrian force — fortunately for itself, if the fate of the " recon-
naissance in force " at Montebello proves anything.
The centre of gravity was now at Buffalora, a village on the main
Milan road at the point where it crosses the Naviglio Grande. Here,
on the night of the ist, Count Clam-Gallas, commanding the
Austrian I. corps (which had just arrived in Italy and was to form
part of the future I. Army) had posted a division, with a view to
occupying the bridge-head of San Martino. On inspecting the
latter Clam-Gallas concluded that it was indefensible, and, ordering
the San Martino road and railway bridges to be destroyed (an order
ITALIAN WARS
917
which was only partially executed), he called on Gyulai for support,
sent out detachments to the right against the French troops re-
ported at Turbigo, and prepared to hold his ground at Buffalora.
On receipt of Clam-Gallas's report at the Austrian headquarters,
Hess ordered the resumption of the retreat that he had counter-
manded, but it was already late and many of the troops did not
halt for the night till midnight, June 3rd/4th. Gyulai promised
them the 4th as a rest-day, but fortune ordered it otherwise. This
much at least was in favour of the Austrians, that when the troops
at last reached their assigned positions four-fifths of them were
within 12 m. of the battlefield. But, as before, the greater part of
the army was destined to be chained to " supporting positions "
well back from the battlefield.
When day broke on the 4th, the emperor of the French was still
uncertain as to Gyulai's whereabouts, and his intention was there-
Battle ot ^ore no mo.re than to secure the passage of the Ticino and
Magenta to P'ace his army on both sides of the river, in sufficient
strength to make head against Gyulai, whether the latter
advanced from Mortara and Vigevano or from Abbiategrasso. He
therefore kept back part of the French army and the whole of the
Sardinian. But during the morning it became known that Gyulai
had passed the Ticino on the evening of the 3rd; and Napoleon
then ordered up all his forces to San Martino and Turbigo.
The battlefield of Magenta is easily described. It consists of two
level plateaux, wholly covered with vineyards, and between them
the broad and low-lying valley of the Ticino. This, sharply defined
by the bluffs of the adjoining plateaux, is made up of backwaters,
channels, water meadows and swampy woods. At Turbigo the band
of low ground is ij m. wide, at Buffalora a|. Along the foot of the
eastern or Austrian bluffs between Turbigo and Buffalora runs the
Grand Canal (Naviglio Grande) ; this, however, cuts into the plateau
itself at the latter place and trending gradually inwards leaves a
tongue of high ground separate from the main plateau. The Novara-
Milan road and railway, crossing the Ticino by the bridge of San
Martino, pass the second obstacle presented by the canal by the
New Bridges of Magenta, the Old Bridge being 1000 yards south of
• these. The canal is bridged at several points between Turbigo and
Buffalora, and also at Robecco, ij m. to the (Austrian) left of the
Old Bridge. Clam-Gallas's main line of defence was the canal
between Turbigo and the Old Bridge, skirmishers being posted on
the tongue of high ground in front of the New Bridges, which were
kept open for their retreat. He had been joined by the II. corps
and disposed of 40,000 men, 27,000 more being at Abbiategrasso
(2j m. S. of Robecco). Of his immediate command, he disposed
about 12,000 for the defence of the New Bridges, 12,000 for that of
Buffalora, 8000 at Magenta and 8000 at Robecco; all bridges,
except the New Bridges, were broken. Cavalry played no part
whatever, and artillery was only used in small force to fire along
roads and paths.
Napoleon, as has been mentioned, spent the morning of the 4th
in ascertaining that Gyulai had repassed the Ticino. Being desirous
merely of securing the passage and having only a small force avail-
able for the moment at San Martino, he kept this back in the hope
that MacMahon's advance from Turbigo on Magenta and Buffalora
would dislodge the Austrians. MacMahon advanced in two
columns, 2 divisions through Cuggiono and I through Inveruno.
The former drove back the Austrian outposts with ease, but on
approaching Buffalora found so serious a resistance that MacMahon
broke off the fight in order to close up and deploy his full force.
Meantime, however, on hearing the cannonade Napoleon had ordered
forward Mellinet's division of the Guard on the New Bridges and
Buffalora. The bold advance of this corps d'&ite carried both points
at once, but the masses of the allies who had been retained to meet
a possible attack from Mortara and Vigevano were still far distant
and Mellinet was practically unsupported. Thus the French, turning
towards the Old Bridge, found themselves (3.30 P.M.) involved in a
close fight with some 18,000 Austrians, and meantime Gyulai had
begun to bring up his III. and VII. corps towards Robecco and
(with Hess) had arrived on the field himself. The VII. corps, on its
arrival, drove Mellinet back to and over the New Bridges, but the
French, now broken up into dense swarms of individual fighters,
held on to the tongue of high ground and prevented the Austrians
from destroying the bridges, while the occupants of Buffalora
similarly held their own, and beyond them MacMahon, advancing
through orchards and vineyards in a line of battle 2 m. long, slowly
gained ground towards Magenta. The III. Austrian corps, mean-
while, arriving at Robecco spread out on both sides of the canal
and advanced to take the defenders of the New Bridges in rear, but
were checked by fresh French troops which arrived from San Martinc
(4 P.M.). The struggle for the New and Old Bridges continued till
6 P.M., more and more troops being drawn into the vortex, but at
last the Austrians, stubbornly defending each vineyard, fell back
on Magenta. But while nearly all the Austrian reinforcements
from the lower Ticino had successively been directed on the bridges,
MacMahon had only had to deal with the 8000 men who had
originally formed the garrison of Magenta. The small part of the
reinforcing troops that had been directed thither by Gyulai before
he was aware of the situation, had in consequence no active r61e
defined in their orders and (initiative being then regarded as a vice)
they stood fast while their comrades were beaten. But it was not
until after sunset that the thronging French troops at last broke
into Magenta and the victory was won. The splendid Austrian
cavalry (always at a disadvantage in Italy) found no opportunity
to redress the balance, and their slow-moving and over-loaded
infantry, in spite of its devotion, was no match in broken country for
the swift and eager French. The forces engaged were 54,000 French
(one-third of the allied army) to 58,000 Austrians (about half of
Gyulai's total force). Thus the fears of Napoleon as regards an
Austrian attack from Mortara- Vigevano neutralized the Dad dis-
tribution of his opponent's force, and Magenta was a fair contest of
equal numbers. The victory of the French was palpably the conse-
quence not of luck or generalship but of specific superiority in the
soldier. The great result of the battle was therefore a conviction,
shared by both sides, that in future encounters nothing but ex-
ceptional good fortune or skilful generalship could give the Austrians
victory. The respective losses were : French 4000 killed and wounded
and 600 missing, Austrians 5700 killed and wounded, 4500 missing.
While the fighting was prolonged to nightfall, the various
corps of the Austrian army had approached, and it was Gyulai's
intention to resume the battle next day with 100,000 men. But
Clam-Gallas reported that the I. and II. corps were fought out,
and thereupon Gyulai resolved to retreat on Cremona and Mantua,
leaving the great road Milan-Brescia unused, for the townsmen's
patriotism was sharpened by the remembrance of Haynau,
the Hyena of Brescia." Milan and Pavia were evacuated on
the 5th, Hess departed to meet the emperor Francis Joseph
(who was coming to take command of the united I. and II.
Armies), and although Kuhn was still in favour of the offensive
Gyulai decided that the best service he could render was to
deliver up the army intact to his sovereign on the Mincio. On
the 8th of June Napoleon and Victor Emmanuel made their
triumphal entry into Milan, while their corps followed up rather
than pursued the retreating enemy along the Lodi and Cremona
roads. On the same day, the 8th of June, the I. and II. French
corps, under the general command of Marshal Baraguay d'Hilliers,
attacked an Austrian rearguard (part of VIII. corps, Benedek)
at the village of Melegnano. MacMahon with the
II. corps was to turn the right flank, the IV. the left
of the defenders, while Baraguay attacked in front.
But MacMahon, as at Magenta, deployed into a formal line
of battle before closing on the village, and his progress through
the vineyards was correspondingly slow. The IV. corps was
similarly involved in intricate country, but Baraguay, whose
corps had not been present at Magenta, was burning to attack,
and being a man aussi dur d ses soldats qu'd, lui-m£me, he
delivered the frontal attack about 6 P.M. without waiting for the
others. This attack, as straightforward, as brusque, and as
destitute of tactical refinements as that of the Swiss on that very
ground in 1515 (Marignan), was carried out, without " prepara-
tion," by Bazaine's division d la baionnette. Benedek was
dislodged, but retreated safely, having inflicted a loss of over
1000 men on the French, as against 360 in his own command.
After Melegnano, as after Magenta, contact with the retiring
enemy was lost, and for a fortnight the story of the war is simply
that of a triumphal advance of the allies and a quiet retirement
and reorganization of the Austrians. Up to Magenta Napoleon
had a well-defined scheme and executed it with vigour. But
the fierceness of the battle itself had not a little effect on his
strange dreamy character, and although it was proved beyond
doubt that under reasonable conditions the French must win in
every encounter, their emperor turned his attention to dis-
lodging rather than to destroying the enemy. War clouds were
gathering elsewhere — on the Rhine above all. The simple brave
promise to free Italy " from the Alps to the Adriatic " became
complicated by many minor issues, and the emperor was well
content to let his enemy retire and to accelerate that retirement
by manoeuvre as far as might be necessary. He therefore kept
on the left of his adversary's routes as before, and about the
2oth of June the whole allied army (less Cialdini's Sardinian
division, detached to operate on the fringe of the mountain
country) was closely grouped around Montechiaro on the Chiese.
It now consisted of 107,000 French and 48,000 Sardinians
(combatants only).
The Austrians had disappeared into the Quadrilateral, where
918
ITALIAN WARS
the emperor Francis Joseph assumed personal command, with
Hess as his chief of staff. Gyulai had resigned the
command of the II. Army to Count Schlick, a cavalry
general of 70 years of age. The I. Army was under
Count Wimpffen. But this partition produced nothing
but evil. The imperial headquarters still issued voluminous
detailed orders for each corps, and the intervening army staff
was a cause not of initiative or of simplification, but of un-
necessary delay. The direction of several armies, in fact, is
only feasible when general directions (directives as they are
technically called) take the place of orders. All the necessary
conditions for working such a system — uniformity of training,
methods and doctrine in the recipients, abstention from inter-
ference in details by the supreme command — were wanting in
the Austrian army of 1859. The I. Army consisted of the III.,
IX. and XI. corps with one cavalry division and details, 67,000
in all; the II. Army of the I., V., VII. and VIII. corps, one
cavalry division and details or 90,000 combatants — total 160,000,
or practically the same force as the allies. The emperor had
made several salutary changes in the administration, notably
an order to the infantry to send their heavy equipment and
parade full-dress into the fortresses, which enormously lightened
the hitherto overburdened infantryman. At this moment the
political omens were favourable, and gathering the impression
from his outpost reports that the French were in two halves,
separated by the river Chiese, the young emperor at last accepted
Hess's advice to resume the offensive, in view of which Gyulai had
left strong outposts west of the Mincio, when the main armies
retired over that river, and had maintained and supplemented
the available bridges.
The possibility of such a finale to the campaign had been
considered but dismissed at the allied headquarters, where it
was thought that if the Austrians took the offensive it would be
on their own side, not the enemy's, of the Mincio and in the
midst of the Quadrilateral. Thus the advance of the French
army on the 24th was simply to be a general move to the line of
the Mincio, preparatory to forcing the crossings, coupled with the
destruction of the strong outpost bodies that had been left by
the Austrians at Solferino, Guidizzolo, &c. The Austrians, who
advanced over the Mincio on the 23rd, also thought that the
decisive battle would take place on the third or fourth day of
their advance. Thus, although both armies rfoved with all
precautions as if a battle was the immediate object, neither
expected a collision, and Solferino was consequently a pure
encounter-battle.
Speaking generally, the battlefield falls into two distinct halves,
the hilly undulating country, of which the edge (almost everywhere
cliff -like) is defined by Lonato, Castiglione, Cavriana and „ M.
Volta, and the plain of Medole and Guidizzolo. The , .
village of Solferino is within the elevated ground, but *
close to the edge. Almost in the centre of the plateau is
Pozzolengo, and from Solferino and Pozzolengo roads lead to cross-
ing places of the Mincio above Volta (Monzambano-Salionze and
Valeggio). These routes were assigned to the Piedmontese (44,000)
and the French left wing (I., II. and Guard, 57,000), the plain to
the III. and IV. corps and 2 cavalry divisions (50,000). On the other
side the Austrians, trusting to the defensive facilities of the plateau,
had directed the II. Army and part of the I. (86,000) into the plain,
2 corps of the I. Army (V. and I.) on Solferino-Cavriana (40,000),
and only the VIII. corps (Benedek), 25,000 strong, into the heart of
the undulating ground. One division was sent from Mantua towards
Marcaria. Thus both armies, though disposed in parallel lines, were
grouped in very unequal density at different points in these lines.
The French orders for the 2Ath were — Sardinian army on Pozzo-
lengo, I. corps Esenta to Solferino, II. Castiglione to Cavriana,
IV. with two cavalry divisions, Carpenedolo to Guidizzolo, III.
Mezzane to Medole by Castel Goffredo; Imperial Guard in reserve
at Castiglione. On the other side the Vlll. corps from Monzambano
was to reach Lonato, the remainder of the II. Army from Cavriana,
Solferino and Guidizzolo to Esenta and Castiglione, and the I.
Army from Medole, Robecco and Castel Grimaldo towards Car-
penedolo. At 8 A.M. the head of the French I. corps encountered
several brigades of the I. Army in advance of Solferino. The fighting
was severe, but the French made no progress. MacMahon ad-
vancing on Guidizzolo came upon a force of the Austrians at Casa
Morino and (as on former occasions) immediately set about deploying
his whole corps in line of battle. Meanwhile masses of Austrian
infantry became visible on the edg^e of the heights near Cavriana
and the firing in the hills grew in intensity. Marshal MacMahon
therefore called upon General Niel on his right rear to hasten his
march. The latter had already expelled a small body of the Austrians
from Medole and had moved forward to Robecco, but there more
Austrian masses were found, and Niel, like MacMahon, held his
hand until Canrobert (III. corps) should come up on his right. But
the latter, after seizing Castel Goffredo, judged it prudent to collect
his corps there before actively intervening. Meantime, however,
MacMahon had completed his preparations, and capturing Casa
Morino with ease, he drove forward to a large open field called the
Campo di Medole; this, aided by a heavy cross fire from his artillery
and part of Kiel's, he carried without great loss, Niel meantime
attacking Casa Nuova and Robecco. But the Austrians had not
yet developed their full strength, and the initial successes of the
French, won against isolated brigades and battalions, were a mere
prelude to the real struggle. Meanwhile the stern Baraguay d'Hil-
liers had made ceaseless attacks on the V. corps at Solferino, where,
on a steep hill surmounted by a tower, the Austrian guns fired with
great effect on the attacking masses. It was not until after mid-
day, and then only because it attacked at the moment when, in
accordance with an often fatal practice of those days, the Austrian
V. corps was being relieved and replaced by the I., that Forey's
division of the I. corps, assisted by part of the Imperial Guard,
succeeded in reaching the hill, whereupon Baraguay stormed the
village and cemetery of Solferino with the masses of infantry that
had gradually gathered opposite this point. By 2 P.M. Solferino
was definitively lost to the Austrians.
During this time MacMahon had taken, as ordered, the direction
of Cavriana, and was by degrees drawn into the fighting on the
heights. Pending the arrival of Canrobert — who had been alarmed
by the reported movement of an Austrian force on his rear (the
division from Mantua above mentioned) and having given up his
cavalry to Niel was unable to explore for himself — Niel alone was
left to face the I. Army. But Count Wimpffen, having been ordered
at 1 1 to chanjje direction towards Castiglione, employed the morning
in redistributing his intact troops in various " mutually supporting
positions," and thus the forces opposing Niel at Robecco never
outnumbered him by more than 3 to 2. Niel, therefore, attacking
again and again and from time to time supported by a brigade or
a regiment sent by Canrobert, not only held his own but actually
captured Robecco. About the same time MacMahon gained a
foothold on the heights between Solferino and Cavriana, and as
above mentioned, Baraguay had stormed Solferino and the tower
hill. The greater part of the II. Austrian Army was beaten and
in retreat on Valeggio before 3 P.M. But the Austrian emperor
had not lost hope, and it was only a despairing message from Wimp-
ffen, who had suffered least in the battle, that finally induced him
to order the retreat over the Mincio. On the extreme right Benedek
and the VIII. corps had fought successfully all day against the
Sardinians, this engagement being often known by the separate
name of the battle of San Martino. On the left Wimpffen, after
sending his despondent message, plucked up heart afresh and, for
a moment, took the offensive against Niel, who at last, supported
by the most part of Canroberl's corps, had reached Guidizzolo.
ITALIAN WARS
919
In the centre the Austrian rearguard held out for two hours in
several successive positions against the attacks of MacMahon and
the Guard. But the battle was decided. A violent storm, the
exhaustion of the assailants, and the firm countenance of Benedek,
who, retiring from San Martino, covered the retreat of the rest of
the II. Army over the Mincio, precluded an effective pursuit.
The losses on either side had been: Allies, 14,415 killed and
wounded and 2776 missing, total 17,191; Austrians, 13,317 killed
and wounded, 9220 missing, total 22,537. The heaviest losses in
the French army were in Kiel's corps (IV.), which lost 4483, and in
Baraguay d'Hilliers' (I.), which lost 4431. Of the total of 17,191,
5521 was the share of the Sardinian army, which in the battle of
San Martino had had as resolute an enemy, and as formidable a
position to attack, as had Baraguay at Solferino. On the Austrian
side the IX. corps, which bore the brunt of the fighting on the plain,
lost 4349 and the V. corps, that had defended Solferino, 4442.
Solferino, in the first instance an encounter-battle in which each
corps fought whatever enemy it found in its path, became after a
time a decisive trial of strength. In the true sense of the word, it
was a soldier's battle, and the now doubly-proved superiority of
the French soldier being reinforced by the conviction that the
Austrian leaders were incapable of neutralizing it by superior
strategy, the war ended without further fighting. The peace of
Villafranca was signed on the nth of July.
THE CAMPAIGN OF 1866
In the seven years that elapsed between Solferino and the
second battle of Custozza the political unification of Italy had
proceeded rapidly, although the price of the union of Italy had
been the cession of Savoy and Nice to Napoleon III. Garibaldi's
irregulars had in 1860 overrun Sicily, and regular battles,
inspired by the same great leader, had destroyed the kingdom
of Naples on the mainland (Volturno, ist-2nd October 1860).
At Castelfidardo near Ancona on the i8th of September in the
same year Cialdini won another victory over the Papal troops
commanded by Lamoriciere. In 1866, then, Italy was no longer
a " geographical expression," but a recognized kingdom. Only
Rome and Venetia remained of the numerous, disunited and
reactionary states set up by the congress of Vienna. The former,
still held by a French garrison, was for the moment an unattain-
able aim of the liberators, but the moment for reclaiming Venetia,
the last relic of the Austrian dominions in Italy, came when
Austria and Prussia in the spring of 1866 prepared to fight for
the hegemony of the future united Germany (see SEVEN WEEKS'
WAR).
The new Italian army, formed on the nucleus of the Sardinian
army and led by veterans of Novara and Solferino, was as strong
as the whole allied army of 1859, but in absorbing so many
recruits it had temporarily lost much of its efficiency. It was
organized in four corps, of which one, under Cialdini, was detached
from the main body. Garibaldi, as before, commanded a semi-
regular corps in the Alpine valleys, but being steadily and
skilfully opposed by Kuhn, Gyulai's former chief of staff, he
made little or no progress during the brief campaign, on which
indeed his operations had no influence. The main Austrian
army, still the best-trained part of the emperor's forces, had been,
up to the verge of the war, commanded by Benedek, but Benedek
was induced to give up his place to the archduke Albert, and to
take up the far harder task of commanding against the Prussians
in Bohemia. It was in fact a practically foregone conclusion that
in Italy the Austrians would win, whereas in Bohemia it was
more than feared that the Prussians would carry all before them.
But Prussia and Italy were allied, and whatever the result of a
battle in Venetia, that province would have to be ceded in the
negotiations for peace with g. victorious Prussia. Thus on the
Austrian side the war of 1866 in Italy was, even more than the
former war, simply an armed protest against the march of events.
The part of Hess in the campaign of Solferino was played with
more success in that of Custozza by Major-General Franz,
Freiherr von John (1815-1876). On this officer's
Second advice the Austrian t army, instead of remaining
Custozza. behind the Adige, crossed that river on the 23rd of
Battle of
June and took up a position on the hills around
Pastrengo on the flank of the presumed advance of Victor
Emmanuel's army. The latter, crossing the Mincio the same
day, headed by Villafranca for Verona, part of it in the hills
about Custozza, Somma-Campagna and Castelnuovo, partly
on the plain. The object of the king and of La Marmora, who
was his adviser, was by advancing on Verona to occupy the
Austrian army (which was only about 80,000 strong as against
the king's 120,000), while Cialdini's corps from the Ferrara
region crossed the lower Po and operated against the Austrian
rear. The archduke's staff, believing that the enemy was
making for the lower Adige in order to co-operate directly with
Cialdini's detachment, issued orders for the advance on the 24th
so as to reach the southern edge of the hilly country, preparatory
to descending upon the flank of the Italians next day. However,
the latter were nearer than was supposed, and an encounter-
battle promptly began for the possession of Somma-Campagna
and Custozza. The king's army was unable to use its superior
numbers and, brigade for brigade, was much inferior to its
opponents. The columns on the right, attempting in succession
to debouch from Villafranca in the direction of Verona, were
checked by two improvised cavalry brigades under Colonel
Pulz, which charged repeatedly, with the old-fashioned cavalry
spirit that Europe had almost forgotten, and broke up one
battalion after another. In . the centre the leading brigades
fought in vain for the possession of Custozza and the edge of
the plateau, and on the left the divisions that had turned north-
ward from Valeggio into the hills were also met and defeated.
About 5 P.M. the Italians, checked and in great disorder, retreated
over the Mincio. The losses were — Austrians, 4600 killed and
wounded and 1000 missing; Italians, 3800 killed and wounded
and 4300 missing. The archduke was too weak in numbers
to pursue, his losses had been considerable, and a resolute
offensive, in the existing political conditions, would have been
a mere waste of force. The battle necessary to save the honour
of Austria had been handsomely won. Ere long the bulk of the
army that had fought at Custozza was transported by rail to take
part in defending Vienna itself against the victorious Prussians.
One month later Cialdini with* the re-organized Italian army,
140,000 strong, took the field again, and the 30,000 Austrians
left in Venetia retreated to the Isonzo without engaging.
In spite of Custozza and of the great defeat sustained by the
Italian navy at the hands of Tegetthof near Lissa on the 2oth of
July, Venetia was now liberated and incorporated in the kingdom
of Italy, and the struggle for unity, that had been for seventeen
years a passionate and absorbing drama, and had had amongst
its incidents Novara, Magenta, Solferino and the Garibaldian
conquest of the Two Sicilies, ended in an anti-climax.
Three years later the cards were shuffled, and Austria, France
and Italy were projecting an offensive alliance against Prussia.
This scheme came to' grief on the Roman question, and the
French chassep6t was used for the first time in battle against
Garibaldi at Mentana, but in 1870 France was compelled to
withdraw her Roman garrison, and with the assent of their late
enemy Austria, the Italians under Cialdini fought their way into
Rome and there established the capital of united Italy.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The war of 1848-49 has been somewhat neglected
by modern military historians, but the following are useful: Der
Feldzug der osterr. Armee in Ilalien 1848-49 (Vienna, 1852) ; Gavenda,
Sammlung oiler Armeebefehle u.s.w. mit Bezug auf die Hauptmomente
des Krieges 1848-49; Major H. Kunz, Feldziige des F. M. Radetzki
in Oberitalien (Berlin, 1900), and Major Adams, Great Campaigns.
Both the French and the Austrian governments issued official
accounts (Campagne de Napoleon III en Italic 1859, Der Krieg in
Italien 1859) of the war of 1859. The standard critical work is Der
italienische Feldzug 1859 by the German general staff (practically
dictated by Moltke). Prince Kraft zu Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen, who
had many friends in the Austrian army, deals with the Magenta
campaign in vol. i. of his Letters on Strategy. General Silvestre's
£tude sur la campagne de 1859 was published in 1909. In English,
Col. H. C. Wylly, Magenta and Solferino (1906), and in German
General Cammerer, Magenta, and Major Kunz, Von Montebello bis
Solferino should be consulted.
For the Italian campaign of 1866 see the Austrian official history,
Osterreichs Kdtnpfe 1866 (French translation), and the Italian
official account. La Campagna del 1866, of which the volume dealing
with Custozza was published in 1909. A short account is given in
Sir H. Hozier's Seven Weeks' War, and tactical studies in v. Verdy's
Custozza (tr. Henderson), and Sir Evelyn Wood, Achievements of
Cavalry. (C. F. A.)
920
ITALIC
ITALIC, i.e. Italian, in Roman archaeology, history and law,
a term used, as distinct from Roman, of that which belongs to
the races, languages, &c., of the non-Roman parts of Italy (see
ITALY, Ancient Languages and Peoples). In architecture the
Italic order is another name for the Composite order (see ORDER).
The term was applied to the Pythagorean school of philosophy
in Magna Graecia, and to an early Latin version of the Bible,
known also as /to/a, which was superseded by the Vulgate, but
its special technical use is of a particular form of type, in which
the letters slope to the right. This is used, in present-day
printing, chiefly to emphasize words or phrases, to indicate
words or sentences in a foreign language, or to mark the titles
of books, &c. It was introduced by the Aldine Press (see
MANUTIUS and TYPOGRAPHY).
END Or FOURTEENTH VOLUME
REFERENCE
UBRARY
•T.PAUL
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